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THE QUARTERLY

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

CONDUCTED BY

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VOLUME VI.

dith Allustrations on Stone and Wood.

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THE QUARTERLY

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

JANUARY, 1869.

I. THE ETHEREAL HYPOTHESIS OF LIGHT.
By James Samvuexson, Editor.

Tue thirst for knowledge in the human mind is as insatiable as the
wants of an immortal soul are necessarily unlimited. There are
indeed myriads, content to go their daily rounds and confine their
inquiries to the price of corn, cotton, consols, or whatever staple
may serve to provide them with the necessaries and luxuries of life ;
but there are nobler men than those, who would rather be the
discoverers of a secret in nature that yields wealth to thousands,
than one of the ignorant thousands who reap the fruits of their
researches ; and of such men none have shown themselves more
disinterestedly devoted to their intellectual calling than the students
of physical and chemical science. Indeed it is almost to be regretted
that they are not a little more worldly, for in that case their scientific
theories and speculations would probably rest upon a more material
basis than they sometimes do at present. Amongst the numerous
subjects which are now engaging the attention of physical philoso-
phers, there is none, perhaps, of deeper interest either to scientific
men or to the lovers of the mysterious in nature, than that which
relates to the illimitable space, wherein the universe of suns and
planets moves incessantly, which serves as the medium to convey
intelligence from sphere to sphere, and to communicate life from
the great centres to the surrounding orbs. But it is rather as
a curious inquirer, than with any pretensions to original research ;
rather in the hope that my observations and criticisms may sti-
mulate discussion and cause further investigation, than with an
expectation that they will throw fresh light upon so difficult and
obscure a cosmical inquiry, that I propose its consideration in the
present article.

There are in the present day two distinct theories in relation to
light, arising not from any difference of opinion as to the action of

VOL. VI. ; B

2 The Ethereal Hypothesis of Light. [Jan.,

that force, inasmuch as the undulatory theory is now pretty generally
accepted, but from opposing views as to the medium upon and through
which it operates. It is needless for me to dwell long upon the undu-
latory theory, but, for the government of those who have not devoted
much attention to the subject, it may be as well to mention that
formerly light was not regarded as a force acting upon matter, but
was supposed to consist of particles or atoms emitted by the luminous
body, whilst electricity was considered an imponderable fluid which
travelled through the substances electrified. Now, strangely enough,
the views of the more advanced physical philosophers are to some
extent reversed. Mr. Grove considers the electrical spark, at least,
to consist generally of projected particles of the electrified substance,*
and he gives apparently satisfactory reasons for so doing, whilst
Professor Tyndall thinks that electricity may be a force acting upon ,
“ condensed ether which surrounds the atoms” of matter.f And on
the other hand, as we shall presently find, the latter entirely dis-
cards the notion of any known substance as the vehicle of light,
whilst Grove considers it to be a force acting upon gross but highly
attenuated matter. But as I have already said, all are agreed upon
the dynamical theory of light, first propounded by Huyghens in
Newton’s time, and afterwards supported and established in this
country by Dr. Young ; and this theory attributes to light a simi-
lar, though not exactly the same property, as sound, regarding it
as a force which causes undulations of marvellous rapidity in the
medium through which it travels. In the case of sound, the passage
of the force is admitted on all hands to be through known matter,
and it is well known that a vacuum is incapable of transmitting
sound ; but in that of light, which passes from sphere to sphere in
the universe, and traverses a vacuum with apparently greater
facility than air, it is obviously necessary either to discover or to
suppose a medium for its transmission. That there is such a
medium in interplanetary space is most probable, for light occupies
time in its passage, corresponding with the distances between the
luminous bodies from which it emanates and the spheres it illumi-
nates, and therefore (in the case of our sun and earth for example)
it cannot be the atmosphere alone which offers resistance to its
passage. There is most likely matter of some kind, however at-
tenuated, in space; and this is shown, not alone by the impeded
passage of light, but by the retarded motions of the comets.
But what is that interplanetary matter ?

* “The electric spark, the brush, and similar phenomena, the old theories
regarded as actual emanations of the matter or fluid Llectricity, I venture to
regard them as produced by an emission of the material itself from whence they
issue, and a molecular action of the gas, or intermedium, through or across which
they are transmitted.”—‘ Correlation of Physical Forees and Continuity,’ p. 112.
oth edition. Longmans: see also p. 181.

+ ‘Heat as a Mode of Motion,’ p. 216, note. 2nd edition. Longmans.

1869.] The Ethereal Hypothesis of Light. 3

Ts it, as Professor Tyndall supposes, a specific “ether,” which
serves as the vehicle for light and electricity? Does it enter, as he
believes it does, into the constitution of material bodies? or is it
excluded beyond the limits of our atmosphere? Or again, is it, as
Mr. Grove believes, an attenuated gas or mixture of gases, given
off from the atmospheres of the revolving worlds ?

Let us first endeavour to understand the conceptions of these
opposite thinkers, and then to test their respective hypotheses by
the best means at our command. Professor Tyndall’s conception
of a “luminiferous ether ” is that it is “a substance almost infinitely
elastic,” filling all space as with “jelly.”* It fills up the interstices
between molecules of all kinds of matter, “suffering no rupture of
continuity at the surface of the eye, the intermolecular spaces of the
various humours being filled with it.”t He believes it to form
the infinite ocean in which worlds move, and to be the medium for
the transmission of light there, as well as in the intermolecular spaces
of material substances—in short he regards it as the medium for
the transmission of light—(and probably of electricity) everywhere.

Mr. Grove objects to this idea of a specific ether, both for the
transmission of lght and electricity.t His views concerning the
latter force we have given generally,§ and his ground for refusing
to accept the doctrine in regard to light is, that “the more porous
bodies, or those most permeable by ether, should be the best con-
ductors,” || and that “an objection immediately occurs in the opacity
of porous, and transparency of certain dense bodies.{1 He believes
in the universality of ordinary matter, however attenuated, and
considers his hypothesis “ the least gratuitous.” **

There are other writers, who, seeking to reconcile these opposite
views, suppose that the ether does noé penetrate our atmosphere,
being “ non-miscible ” with it, and that therefore it does not permeate
terrestrial matter.tt

This hypothesis may be at once dismissed, for if the supposed
ether is not miscible with our atmosphere, then the latter should
itself be the medium upon which light operates; therefore the first
stroke of the piston of an air-pump should cause the receiver to
darken, and an object in an exhausted receiver should be invisible,
just as the sound of a bell striking therein is inaudible. In the
present state of the discussion and of our knowledge, therefore, we
are left to consider the respective merits of the two hypotheses,

* ‘Heat asa Mode of Motion,’ p. 254.

+ ‘On Radiation, p. 9. Longmans.

t ‘Correlation and Continuity,’ p. 183-4.

§ They wilt be found detailed im the chapter on ‘‘ Electricity ” in his work on
the ‘ Correlation of the Physical Forces,’

|| ‘ Correlation,’ p. 148. ¥ Ibid., p. 168. ** Thid., p. 186.

++ Brooke’s edition of Golding Bird’s ‘ Natural Philosophy. Sixth edition,
p. 576. Churchill.

B 2

4 The Ethereal Hypothesis of Light. | Jan.,

which for convenience I shall call those of Grove and Tyndall ; *
and in order to guide the students of various branches of physical
science in their investigations, I propose, first, to select a few pheno-
mena for the consideration of the micro-zoologist, chemical and
physical experimenter, and mineralogist, and then to point out what
appears, in my humble judgment, to be the inference deducible from
those phenomena, leaving it to each class of observers to consider
the value and accuracy of my inyestigations, and of the conclusion
to which I have been led by them.+

First, then, it is familiar to all who have any knowledge of natural
history that the brilliant hues of the Lepidoptera, or Butterflies,
are due to innumerable minute scales, regularly disposed upon their
wings, just as the feathers of birds impart the bright colours to those
races. In certain butterflies the wings have an iridescent, or metallic
lustre (Lycaena Adonis, the Clifton Blue) ; in others it is dead and
velvety (Vanessa Io, the Common Peacock) ; whilst in others again,
both appearances are intermingled (Polyommatos Phileas, the small
copper). Now let us inquire to what cause this phenomenon is
attributable.

We will take a specimen of Lyccena Adonis, the Clifton Blue,
of which the blue is quite metallic, or satiny, if I may be allowed to
coin the word, and on placing a few of the scales of this insect
under the microscope and examining them by transmitted sunlight,
that is, by light reflected from the mirror and transmitted through
the scales to the eye, we shall find certain of them quite crystalline
and transparent (see Plate, Fig.1); others bright orange-red (Fig. 2) ;
and others again dusky brown, almost approaching to black.

Now let us close off the light reflected from the mirror and
examine the same scales by incident light, that is, by light concen-
trated upon them with the aid of the bull’s-eye lens, and we shall
find those which by transmitted light appeared translucent and
colourless (Fig. 1) to be greenish brown or grey, studded with
bright spots (Fig. la); those which were orange-red by transmitted
light (Fig. 2) now appear of a brilliant violet-blue (Fig. 2a), the
characteristic blue of the wings themselves ; whilst the dull brown

* T call the “ ethereal” theory Professor Tyndall’s, inasmuch as he has sought
to develop it; but those who are interested in its origin and history may refer to
that author’s work, ‘Heat as a Mode of Motion.’ Professor Faraday appears
to have given a cautious, or perhaps I should say partial, adhesion to the theory ;
and he refers to it once or twice in passing, in the Bakerian Lecture of 1851,
which I shall quote freely in this article. See also Tyndall’s ‘Faraday as a
Discoverer,’ p. 129, Longmans.

+ Mr. Clerk Maxwell, it may be mentioned, considers “light” as a mode of
electro-magnetic motion, He says, it ‘ consists of alternate and opposite rapidly
recurring transverse magnetic disturbances, accompanied with electric displacements,
the direction of the electric displacement being at right angles to the magnetic
disturbance, and both at right angles to the direction of the ray.” (Proceedings of
the Royal Society, 1864.)

1869. | The Ethereal Hypothesis of Light. 5

scales (Fig. 3) are the least changed of any, being rather lighter
(Fig. 3a) and presenting a steel-like surface.

The cause of these changes is quite obvious.

In the scale which was translucent and colourless by trans-
mitted, but brownish-grey under incident light, a portion of the ray
(as I shall for the present call it) is reflected back to the eye in the
latter condition ; that is to say, whilst it passes unimpeded through
the scale in the first instance, it is arrested in the second, being
partly absorbed and partly reflected. In the scale which appeared
differently coloured under both aspects, namely, red by transmitted,
and blue under incident light, the ray was arrested im both in-
stances, the same part, namely, the orange-red passing through, and
the other (the blue) being reflected. In the first instance, we saw
the ray which had passed ; in the second, that which was unable to
pass, but which was reflected. (It must always be borne in mind
that for the present I speak popularly, for we shall presently con-
sider what “ray” and “portion of ray” really mean.) In the
third example (8 and 38a) there is secreted in the scale itself a sub-
stance which has the power of arresting certain rays when the light
enters from above (incident) less than when it strikes upwards from
below (transmitted). Because, in the first instance, the scale surface
arrests and reflects a portion of the light before even it enters the scale,
as exemplified also in Fig. 2a, or perhaps more characteristically still
in another species, Lycaena Alewis, where the scale is pale brown (also
caused by pigment) by transmitted, and pearly opal (Fig. 5) under
incident light. In the “ Admiral” (Vanessa Atalanta) the effect is
as nearly as possible the same under both conditions, the colour
being due to pigment, Fig. 4.*

Deferring for a time the consideration of the bearing of these
phenomena upon the ethereal hypothesis, I will now direct the
reader’s attention to the results of afew of the elaborate and inte-
resting experiments of the late Professor Faraday, connected with
“the relations of gold and other metals to light.” These were
fully recorded in his Bakerian Lecture, 1857, and printed in the
‘Philosophical Transactions’ for that year; and a careful perusal
of his observations, and if possible a repetition of his experiments,
will well repay the student for his labour. He found that gold-leaf

* In order to ensure accuracy as to the cause of the colour in these scales, I
enlisted the aid of my friend Dr. Frankland, to whom I sent portions of the wings
and scales corresponding with those which I had submitted to microscopical inves-
tigation. He bleached, or tried to bleach them with Peroxide of Hydrogen, and
with Chlorine water, and the result was generally, as I had anticipated. The
brown scales bleached easily and completely ; the blue ones only turned pale
green. After describing to me the different reactions, Dr. Frankland said :—
“ Judging from these experiments as well as from the appearance of the wings, I
should say that the blue scales owe their colour in every case to interference, whilst
all the rest are tinted with pigments,”

6 The Ethereal Hypothesis of Light. [Jan.,

by transmitted light is green; by incident light, yellow, and of a
metallic lustre.

“When gold-leaf is laid upon glass, and its temperature raised
considerably without disturbance, either by the blow-pipe or an
ordinary argand-burner, it seems to disappear, ¢. e. the lustre passes
away, the light transmitted is abundant and nearly white;’* but
“when gold, rendered colourless by annealing, is subjected to pres-
sure, it again becomes a green colour,” .... and “the green colour
can be again taken away by heat to appear again by renewed pres-
sure.”t Again, gold in a minutely divided condition caused by
deflagration, transmitted violet, green, or ruby rays; but by re-
flected light “it is golden and metallic.”{ “It is evident that all
the colours described are produced by one and the same substance,
namely, gold, the only apparent difference being the state of division
and different degrees of the application of heat;”§ ... “and I think
T am justified by my experiments in stating that fine gold particles
so loosely deposited that they wipe off by a light touch of the
finger, and possessing one conjoint structure, can in one state
transmit light of a blue-grey colour, or can by heat be made to
transmit light of a ruby colour, or can by pressure from either of
these former states transmit light of a green colour, all these modi-
fications being due to gold as gold.”|| That it is the disposition of
the particles which causes the modifications of colour is further
shown by the author, when he says{| that thin films of gold pre-
pared by phosphorus give “a feeble grey-violet” by transmitted
light ; if the films are a little thicker they give “a violet;” but
“ superposition of several grey-violet films does not produce a green
tint, but only a diminution of light without change of colour.”
Yet it will be remembered that a sheet of gold-leaf gives a bright

een.

Another result of Faraday’s observations is that vapours and
gases will pass through these films ;** and their appearance with a
power of 700 linear is reported to be “slightly granular.” tt}

* ‘Phil. Trans., 1857,’ p. 148.

+ Ibid., p. 149. It may be as well to mention here what Faraday thought in
relation to the cause of the change. At p. 149 he says:—* As to the essential cause
of this change of colour, more investigation is required to decide what that may be.
As already mentioned, it might be thought that the gold-leaf had run up into
separate particles. . . . On the whole I incline to this opinion.” Let me add in
reference to these ‘remarks of Faraday, that on examining with a microscope some
“ gold bronze,’’ which I know consisted of very fine particles of gold, I found that
by transmitted light they gave in the massa yellowish-red colour, and each particle
precisely resembled minute flakes of crumpled gold-leaf; but when I subjected the
dust to pressure between two sides, not alone each particle, but the whole aggre-
gation of them assumed the characteristic green hue—the change being, however,
more apparent in the individual particles.

t Ibid., p. 152. § Ibid., p. 153. GE. Los. q Pp. 155-6.

** “ Experimentally, also, I find that vapours and gases can pass through
them,” p. 156,

th bs hove

1869. ] The Ethereal Hypothesis of Light. 7

After reading the account of Faraday’s beautiful and exhaustive
experiments,* of which I have only referred to one series, I should
have despaired of being able to add any information that would
elucidate our inquiry had not nature herself prepared a beautiful
microscopical object, which, in common with many friends, I have
examined with undiminished pleasure and admiration for nearly
twelve years.

It is called the “ Sonnenstein,” or Sun Stone, from its peculiar
brilliancy, and ig found in Arendal in Norway. Its brightness is
due to innumerable minute metallic crystals imbedded in a matrix
of a translucent substance of a spar-like nature. Examined with a
low power by transmitted light, it resembles a colourless transparent
fragment of glass or spar, containing irregularly-shaped pale,
orange, and red translucent crystals (Fig. 6); where these are
superposed one above another, they assume a brighter hue; but
when viewed by incident light an almost miraculous transformation
takes place, some of the crystals appearing bright blue, others pre-
senting every colour of the spectrum, and if the object be turned
slowly round the same crystals reflect different huesas they revolve.t
The transparency of the matrix is due to its extreme tenuity (the
object having been cut with the aid of a mechanical contrivance, by
the late Dr. Oschatz of Berlin), and viewed with a higher power
under incident light in one position, the light is reflected from its

* T have also considered those of Professor Tyndall, just published in the
‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ and fully reported in our Chronicle of Physics ;
but although they are very interesting, I do not at present see anything in them to
throw fresh light on our inquiry.

+ My correspondent, Mr. T. Rudler, of the Museum of Practical Geology, gives
me the following account of the “ Sonnenstein.”

‘‘The mineral called by the Germans ‘ Sonnenstein,’ by the French ‘ Pierre de
Soleil,’ and by the English ‘ Sun-stone,’ is a variety of Oligoclase-felspar, originally
discovered at Archangel, but now found chiefly in Norway. It exhibits a beautiful
spangled appearance, somewhat resembling that of Aventurine, and hence it has
been called Aventurine-felspar. This appearance is apparently due to the reflection
ef light from the walls of minute fissures traversing the stone, and also to the
presence of small six-sided plates which are usually disseminated through the
mineral. What they really are, is difficult to say. Scheerer regarded them as
crystals of specular Iron Ore (anhydrous Peroxide of Iron), and Oschatz confirmed
this observation, but Kenngott will have it that they are magnetic pyrites (Pyr-
rhotine). Some, I believe, regard them as titaniferous iron ore, whilst others refer
them to the species Géthite. Formerly they were thought to be little scales of Mica.

“T ought, perhaps, to say there is some little confusion in the use of the word
‘ Sun-stone,’ as a few writers have applied it to an opalescent potash-felspar, or
Adularia. The beautiful colours exhibited under the microscope by the embedded
erystals are due, I should think, rather to their extreme thinness than to any
colour inherent in the crystals.”

To this account of Mr. Rudler, I would add that from the analogy between them
and the iridescent butterfly scales (Figs. 2and 2a in my Plate) which are red by trans-
mitted, and blue by incident light, I have no doubt that their brilliant colours are due
to reflexion from their surface. In my specimen there are scales which are opaque
by transmitted light and which more nearly resemble a crumpled fragment of
metallic tinsel than a fiat geometrical crystal ; indeed the crystals are very irregu-
lar and not often six-sided.

8 The Ethereal Hypothesis of Light. [Jan.,

surface, which is then opaline (Fig. 6a), and the imbedded metallic
crystals are invisible. As to the dimensions of my little preparation,
it is difficult to form a correct idea of them. In the Plate (Fig. 6
and 6a) the whole object is magnified about 5 diameters, or about
25 times in superficial area: but from the mode in which it is
mounted between sheets of glass above and below (the former being
a combination of two slips, flint and crown, I believe), it is impos-
sible to form an accurate estimate of its thickness. In conjunction
with a friend, an experienced microscopical observer, I haye, how-
ever, tried to form an approximate idea, and with a magnifying
power of 56 diameters, it appears about .', of an inch thick, there-
fore in reality it may be from >, to +45 of an inch. This isa
very rude mode of arriving at its thickness, but it would be quite
useless even to guess at the degree of tenuity of the contained
crystals or plates. They are embedded at various depths in this
thin shaving of mineral, showing no indications of an edge, and are
sometimes at such relative distances below each other, that the focus
requires to be considerably changed to bring one after the other
into full view. Occasionally they are superposed one above
another with a space intervening. I have examined some of the
individual crystals with powers of 200, 270, 540, 900, and about
1300 diameters, and notwithstanding their extreme tenuity, I have
not been able to detect the least appearance of structure, or breach
of continuity in the uniformly flat orange-yellow surface which they
present to the eye by transmitted light. Where a crystal happens
to be imperfect, its broken edge examined with a high power, re-
sembles torn paper, but has no indication of geometrical symmetry.
As already stated, these crystals, which by transmitted light are
a uniform orange, by incident light veflect all the colours of the
spectrum, each crystal reflecting usually one colour, but often the
same is variously tinted. In Fig. 7 I have attempted to represent a
few of them, but no idea can be formed of their brilliancy unless they
are seen under a good bright light in nature. Sometimes (as in the
three upper crystals in the figure) the same crystal reflects a metallic
lustre in one position, and exhibits the orange transparency in
another. Sometimes again, a sharp line divides a crystal in two; and
if it be moved round, each division will, by turns, present the trans-
parent orange and the reflected light. This is doubtless owing to the
light being reflected from some neighbouring crystal or from one of
the fissures of the felspar, and passing upwards through the whole
or part of the crystal, as in the case where transmitted light is used.
The matrix of felspar partially depolarizes polarized light, but
the latter has not the least effect upon the imbedded crystals.
Before considering the bearing of these phenomena upon our
inquiry, let us briefly refer to another, in which the experimenter
calls into action the force of which he at the same time observes the

1869. | The Ethereal Hypothesis of Light. 9

effect upon matter. It will be found described in Professor Tyn-
dall’s ‘ Radiation,* already quoted, and is one for which we are
indebted to the researches of Dr. Draper. By means of a current
of electricity, a platinum wire is gradually raised to a state of in-
candescence, and after the luminous rays emitted by the wire have
passed through a prism, the prismatic colours appear one by one as
the light becomes more intense, beginning at the red, and ending
at the violet end of the spectrum, until from a white light in the
wire the whole of the spectrum is obtained upon the screen.

And now, before we endeavour to glean from these phenomena
what information we are able concerning the action of hght, let us
try to define what “light” means. Of course, according to the
“ethereal hypothesis,” it is the vibrations of the atoms of the
hypothetical “ether ;” but if we adopted this definition we should
be admitting the hypothesis of which we desire to test the accuracy,
and should be reasoning from the unknown to the known: this we
must of course avoid.

All observers will agree in regarding light as a force operating
upon and causing a motion of matter. It proceeds in a right line
and passes freely, and probably unchanged except in degree of
intensity, through air, through what we call a vacuum, and, when
it falls upon them at certain angles, through other forms of matter
which are known as transparent; but it is also a force, capable
when it reaches some forms of matter, (by what means we cannot
say), of resolving itself into three or more distinct modes of action,
differing in their nature and operation. Sometimes one of these
modifications of the force is incapable of producing any perceptible
effect upon a particular form of matter, and then it reflects back
upon and through the same unknown medium until it reaches
the retina, where it produces the effect known as colour. At
other times some portion of the force is inoperative when it reaches
the surface of the material object, and then its reaction or reflexion
causes a combination of colours. In other cases again, chiefly when
the force reaches certain forms of matter at a particular angle, no
portion of the force is able to affect it, and then we have what is
called the reflexion of ordinary light, but there are cases where the
whole force is capable of acting upon and through the same form of
matter, but whereas 1t entered it as one whole force, it issues from
it as three or more distinct forces or phases of force, and those forces,
when they again reach certain forms of matter, reflect upon the
retina as a complete “ spectrum.”

Of all these effects of the force “light” we have had examples
in the phenomena already referred to, and in some of them, as for
example in the sunstone, we had, in the same object, illustrations of
nearly all the modifications to which the original force is subject,

* « Radiation,’ pp. 2, 3.

10 The Ethereal Hypothesis of Light. | Jan.,

and of its resolution as above stated. And now let us inquire
whether and in what manner light differs in its operation from
the other known forces, or “ modes of motion.” First, as regards
its penetrability. If we do not assume that the medium which
serves as its vehicle until it reaches a solid object enters into the
constitution of that object, but that it is arrested at its surface,
then we shall find that the dmpact produces the same effects in
the case of light as in other forces, and, moreover, we shall avoid a
grave difficulty attending the assumption that the hypothetical
“ether” serves as the vehicle of light in and through the solid
body, namely, that porous substances through which the “ether ”
should pass most freely are opaque, whilst dense forms of the iden-
tical substance are transparent.

If we place a number of billiard-balls in a row thus (Fig. 1),

and drive a ball or other object against the terminal ball A, the
force traverses the whole closely-packed series instantaneously, and
the ball Z starts forward at once ;* but if the balls are disposed
as at Fig. 2, and A be struck with the same force, Z will only moye
slightly forward, and not so instantaneously as before ; and if they
be disposed as at Fig. 3, not touching each other, then if A be
struck, Z will not move at all, but some of the intervening balls will
fly off laterally at different angles. Now the first position (Fig. 1)
may be assumed to be that of the particles of matter in a dense,
and the other two in porous bodies, and if we regard light as a
“mode of motion,” there is nothing abnormal in its passing more
rapidly through, or, to speak correctly, in its traversing the particles
of a dense than a porous body, merely on account of the density,
and provided the particles be conveniently disposed. Again, air
is the medium of sound, as ether is supposed to be that of light;
but when sound, or rather the agitated air, impinges upon the

* Professor Tyndall employs this illustration to exhibit the effect of sound.

+ Perhaps it would be more correct to say that sound is the vibration of the
sensible, as heat and light are the vibrations of tle insensible parts of an object.
The latter definition is Locke’s.

1869. | The Ethereal Hypothesis of Light. li

sonorous object, the air does not enter into the object, but the force
is transferred to the material particles of the object itself. Blow
into the air and you have no sound (except that caused by the com-
pression of the air between the lips). The air is transparent or
nearly so, to sound. Blow upon a tumbler, and you have a “ note.”
There is a reflection or reaction of part of the force upon the
air, and an absorption of the other into the sonorous substance ;
and, precisely as in the case of light, the effect produced is varied
according to the nature of the object upon which the force impinges.
Professor Tyndall has shown the close analogies between sound
and light in his beautiful work on the former force;* but I
cannot help thinking that if he had considered the nature of the
“chromatic” scale in both cases, conjointly with the other resem-
blances between the two forces, his views regarding a hypothetical
ether circulating within bodies, would have become modified. He
attributes the velocity of sound in its passage through substances,
to a direct action upon the matter itself; but why not suppose
some attenuated gas to be the medium, as sonorous “ether?” Such
a supposition is at once negatived by the fact that whilst the
velocity of sound through the rarest of gases is only 4164 feet in
a second,t it traverses steel wire at the rate of 16,023 feet per
second. The density of a substance does not therefore necessarily
impede the passage of sound (any more than that of mechanical
motion), and when the field of operation of the force is changed,
and it leaves a rarer form of matter to act upon a denser one, its
effect in the new direction is intensified and its result upon the
senses changed.

So far, then, as the analogies between light and sound, as well
as the mere density of bodies, are concerned, we are at least as cor-
rect in leaving the “ether” (whatever that may be) at the outside,
as in admitting its presence within solid bodies; and now let us
inquire how various substances behave under the influence of light
as compared with other forces, which are supposed by the etherealists
to have the ether for their vehicle everywhere, within as well as
without solid objects.

The following are the conducting or transmitting powers of
certain well-known types of matter :—

Heat. Light. Electricity.
Wetalsiima ee COOdm nies IDAGN i ee ood.
Wharcoallece se Malte ken eee bads 5) © coy ood:
NCOMNC Iams Enon OOC- emer eS OOdu os ss) alr,
Poreelainye) 6) oa ee be tat, “Ls © 63) bed.
Glass eee em batlen eeaeieee O0G. 25. = sei Wad:
Rock Salt ba) Ady we wees) OO 4,)-, (3.4 bad:

Now, when we consider these phenomena along with those referred
* «On Sound,’ p. 44. Longmans. + Ibid., p. 37.

12 The Ethereal Hypothesis of Light. [Jan.,

to in our illustrations, we must be struck with the insufficiency of
the “ ethereal” hypothesis to afford an explanation of them. On
the contrary, I fear the remark of Dr. Frankland,* which I appre-
hend he meant to be applied to this hypothesis, holds good, that
“it hinders rather than expedites the advance of the experimenter.”
Suppose we were to assume that the “ether suffers no rupture of
continuity ” at the surface of glass, for instance ;f how is it that the
force, “ light,” acting upon that “ ether,” passes through the glass
freely, whilst one of its resolved forces or phases, heat, notwith-
standing that it operates solely upon the same hypothetical medium,
is unable to pass? It cannot be merely because “ light” proper
acts upon the ether with greater intensity, causing it to vibrate more
rapidly than heat; for, according to Professor Tyndall, that would
result in the mere phenomena of light and darkness. ‘“ Darkness,”
he says, “may be defined as ether at rest; lght as ether in
motion:” t and although the same author says the ether never is
at rest, and that when light-waves are not passing through it, heat-
waves are; yet I do not see how the two forces can be severed, and
more especially how one can be reflected (or, more strictly speaking,
can reflect) back, whilst the other proceeds onwards, as we found it
to do in our insect scales and in the other cases described, unless
the medium which yields to one phase of the force, and resists the
passage of the other, is different from that which serves as the
vehicle of the reflected force, or is invested with the attributes of
various kinds of gross matter; and, indeed, it appears to me that
there must be either a distinct form of “ ether” for each force, or
one phase of the force must act directly wpon the constituent particles
of the object which is transparent to it, and the other react upon
the medium which served as its vehicle until it reached the surface
of the solid object. Nor can we suppose “ ether” to be invested with
attributes which cause it to change the character of the force with
the direction of its passage through it ; for although the velocity of
heat travelling through certain crystals is greater in one direction
than in another,§ and along the fibre of wood greater than across
it; || yet it always remains “ heat,” a force which is supposed by the
etherealists to consist, like light, of the “ vibration of ether”
everywhere, so in whichever way we try to use the “ ether,” we
always find that it is the particles of matter which, after all, modify
the force.

There is another circumstance which I should like to submit
for the consideration of those who are desirous of forming accurate

* Proceedings of Royal Institution,’ June 12, 1868.

+ I have taken glass as a familiar example, but rock-salt is a better one.
t ‘ Radiation,’ p. 9.

§ ‘Heat as a Mode of Motion,’ p. 221.

| Ibid., p, 223.

1869.] The Ethereal Hypothesis of Light. ils

conclusions on this interesting subject. There is no reason why
the form of matter. which is believed to serve as the vehicle of
light should be so extremely attenuated as the “ether” is sup-
posed to be, except the necessity which seems to exist in the
minds of the etherealists of its permeating all other matter; but
when we look at the known attenuated forms of matter, we find
that even the most highly rarefied are unable to penetrate certain
dense substances, and pass through porous ones slowly. Pro-
fessor Faraday found that the materials upon which he operated
were pervious to the passage of gases and vapours, but what must
be the nature of that “ether,” through which the light waves are
supposed to speed, undergoing transformations in their passage,
and which must be continuous in its presence through the various
dense substances composing “Sonnenstein.” First, it must pass
through a thickness of glass and through felspar, in both of which
it must serve as the vehicle of colourless light; then it must
be agitated within an embedded crystal, or if there be two super-
posed, then through both and the intervening felspar, and in all
three it must serve as the medium for the force which subsequently
becomes apparent to the sense as orange light ; then another layer of
felspar intervenes ; next, flint and crown glass; and then it passes
through air, a form of matter in which the hypothetical ether may
be supposed to agitate freely. But here its course is not ended ;
lens after lens of the microscope, each with its particles closely
packed, and humour after humour of the eye must all be filled with
this attenuated “ether,” and must afford space for and be accom-
modated to instantaneous changes im its varied vibrations.

I have no wish to dogmatize upon this difficult theme, my
purpose being, as stated at the outset, to present a few phenomena
for the consideration of the reader, and to suggest such mquiries as
seem to me calculated to throw light on the subject. From the
foregoing remarks, however, it will be clear that I lean to Grove’s
view of the purely material character of the substances which serve
as the vehicles of light, and that, notwithetanding the need which
appears to exist for some special medium, either elementary or
compound, to provide for its passage across a “vacuum,” yet I
cannot admit either the possibility or necessity for a specific “ ether ”
which permeates all matter. For although the chain of hypotheses
which must be employed to support the one hypothesis of a homo-
geneous specific “ether,” filling all space and “ fitted mechanically
for the transmission of the vibrations of light and heat,”* and per-
meating all kinds of gross matter, may seem necessary and justifiable
in the minds of those who are more accustomed than I am to con-
sider these phenomena, yet it seems to me that before the hypo-

* Tyndall’s ‘ Radiation,’ p. 8.

14 The Ethereal Hypothesis of Light. [ Jan.,

thesis becomes a theory it will be necessary to invest the “ ether”
with the properties of a variety of forms of known matter, in ad-
dition to some abnormal attributes which it is already supposed
to possess, and such a proceeding appears less philosophical than
to seek in the phenomena connected with known forms of matter, a
revelation of the nature and modus operandi of “light” and its
constituent forces; or failing that, to wait patiently for the dis-
covery of new material conditions that may render the problem less
difficult of solution. *

DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATE.

Fic. 1.—Battledore scale of Lycena Adonis (Clifton Blue Butterfly), viewed by
transmitted light, magnified 250 diameters.
la.—The same, viewed by incident light, magnified 250 diameters.
2.—Another scale of Lycena Adonis, viewed by transmitted light, mag-
nified 150 diameters.
2a.—The same, viewed by incident light, magnified 150 diameters. Colour
probably due to structural arrangement of particles.
8.—Another scale of the same, viewed by transmitted light, magnified 150
; diameters.
3a.—Scale of the same, viewed by incident light, magnified 150 diameters.
Colour due to pigment.
Fic. 4.—Scale of Vanessa Atalanta (The Admiral), magnified 150 diameters.
Colour due to pigment.
5.—Scale of Lycena Alexis (the Common Blue), magnified 150 diameters.
6.—“ Sonnenstein,” by transmitted light, magnified 5 diameters,
6a.—The same, by incident light, magnified 5 diameters.
7.—Crystals embedded in “ Sonnenstein,” viewed by incident light, mag-
nified 75 diameters. (The three upper objects in Fig. 7 are the same
Toke) in different positions, but always illuminated by incident
ight.

II. THE ALKALINE LAKES OF CALIFORNIA.
By J. Arruvur Puimures.

AtKauine and thermal springs abound over an area constituting a
large proportion of the State of California ; whilst in some extensive
districts, and particularly in the vicinity of the great Colorado
desert, the ground during the dry season is whitened by an incrust-
ation principally consisting of various salts of soda.

In many parts of the country also, although alkaline springs
are readily found, potable water is exceedingly scarce, being usually
met with but once or twice only in the course of a day’s journey.

* It is only fair to Professor Tyndall, that after availing myself so largely of
his writings, I should mention that his views and speculations on the subject of
the “ether,” which I need hardly say are well deserving of consideiation, will
be found in the work just quoted, as well as in his ‘ Faraday as a Discoverer.’

1869. | The Alkaline Lakes of California. 15

The most remarkable accumulations of alkaline waters are, however,
those of Mono Lake and Owen’s Lake; and of these, together with
the celebrated Borax Lake, I propose giving a short description.

Mono Lake.—Mono Lake is about fourteen miles long from
east to west, and, in its broadest portion, nine miles wide from north
to south ; it was, however, formerly much larger than it now is, its
ancient shore-lines being very conspicuously indicated by a succession
of parallel terraces.

On its south-eastern side a ravine has been eroded through the
sandy desert which surrounds it, to a depth of from sixty to a hundred
feet ; and in this cafion five well-defined terraces may be distinctly
seen. The level of the lake was once certainly at least 600 feet
higher than it now is; and it is not improbable that it then com-
municated with the valleys both of the Carson and Humboldt, thus
forming a most important feature in the ancient geography of the
country.

The waters of this lake, which have a high specific gravity, are
intensely alkaline and saline, removing grease readily, and bemg
far more detergent in their properties than ordinary soap-suds.

They contain, in addition to common salt, large quantities of
carbonate and sulphate of soda, and apparently also a certain pro-
portion of lime, since large quantities of calcareous tufa have been
deposited along the lake-shore, and on the terraces far above the
present level of its waters. Near its northern shore are numerous
springs holding much lime in solution ; these have caused the form-
ation of extensive deposits of tufa, some of which rise above the
surface of the lake, resembling gigantic fungi of from six to ten feet
in height.

In Mono Lake there are several islands, two of which are of
considerable size,—the larger being two-and-half miles in length,
whilst the smaller is about half-a-mile long. ‘To the north of this
lies a group of volcanic islets of inconsiderable dimensions. On the
south-eastern corner of the larger island are numerous hot springs
accompanied by jets of steam, covering some thirty acres of land,
and extending into the lake itself, thus perceptibly raismmg its tempe-
rature for a considerable distance.

The steam and heated gases thus escaping at the same time
from hundreds of fumeroles, are often attended with considerable
noise, and deposit around the orifices of many of the apertures a
red incrustation, probably of chloride of iron: there is, however, no
smell of sulphur, nor any deposit of that substance. On the north
side of the island are two well-defined craters in the midst of hard
basaltic rock, but both are now filled with water.

The smaller island is entirely composed of hard, dark basalt ;
and has at its western extremity a somewhat elevated volcanic cone
of black basalt capped by cinders.

16 The Alkaline Lakes of California. [Jan.,

Myriads of aquatic birds resort during the breeding season to
this lake ; but its waters are, with the exception of the larva of a fly,
destitute of life. These larvee, which are small white worms, occur
in such immense quantities, that they are collected by the Indians,
under the name of “ Koo-chah-bee,” as an important article of food.
For this purpose they are first dried in the sun; the hard cuticle is
then crushed by rubbing between the hands, and afterwards sepa-
rated by winnowing in large shallow baskets. Before being eaten,
the prepared grubs are kneaded into a kind of dough, and baked
in the embers.

Stretching south from Mono Lake is a chain of extinct volcanoes :
obsidian and pumice are abundant throughout the whole region,
the soil being so intensely dry and pulverulent, that the traveller
sinks over his ankles at every step, and experiences no small dif- -
ficulty in obtaining even a scanty supply of fresh water.

Owen’s Lake-—This lake is: situated about a hundred miles to
the south-east of the foregoing, in lat. 36° 20'S., long. 118° W.
from Greenwich, and is twenty-two miles in length, and about eight
in width. Owen’s River rises in the Sierra Nevada, not far from
the head of the San Joaquin, and near the southern extremity of
the valley flows into Owen’s Lake, which has no visible outlet, and
whose shores are thickly coated by an alkaline incrustation. No
fish of any description are found in its waters, but they produce
large quantities of koo-chah-bee, which is plentifully collected by
the various tribes of Indians inhabiting its shores, and dried for
winter consumption.

The water of this lake has a specific gravity of 1-076, and con-
tains 7128°24 ers. of solid matter to the imperial gallon; of this,
2942 ers. are chloride of sodium, 956 grs. sulphate of soda, and
2914 gers. carbonate of soda. The remainder consists of sulphate
and phosphate of potash, silica, and traces of organic matter. Iodine
is also present in very minute proportions.

The incrustations which at certain seasons of the year are depo-
sited on its shores to the extent of many hundreds of tons, consist
of a yellowish-white efflorescence. A specimen of this substance
subjected to analysis afforded the following results :— wl

Whlonde.gfSodium.. 5; .«: ~», jsa gen, werd
Solphsteousoga., 28 +. Si fos ioc) pom
UE DOHELO Ms) yee as +s) op) eel Sap EOD
Sills’, Aa Same toe Me | N27.
PO SHWE hE) dec hs. ca, Ges. oie ee UGER
Water with traces of organic matter «» wO7 ae

100°00

The carbonic acid and soda in this case exist in such propor-
tions as to form a monocarbonate of that base; but fragments

1869. | The Alkaline Lakes of California. tt)

collected from various other localities along the lake-shore showed a
distinct excess of carbonic acid.

Twenty miles south of Owen’s Lake is Little Lake, a pond
evidently occupying the crater of an extinct volcano, and in the
vicinity of which are some remarkable boiling springs. The country
between Little Lake and Owen’s Lake is a barren sandy plain, in
which the only vegetation consists of a few cactuses, together with
some stunted wild-sage bushes and grease-wood ; whilst the surface
of the ground is everywhere thickly strewn with fragments of
obsidian, pumice, and tufa. These, with numerous extinct craters
seen in the distance, sufficiently indicate the volcanic nature of the
whole region.

Borax Lake.—This sheet of water, the Lake “ Kaysa” of the
Indians, is situated in Lake County, 110 miles from San Francisco,
and lies a little east of Clear Lake, about half-way between Cache
Creek and Hawkin’s Arm.

This lake, which is separated from Clear Lake by a low range
of hills belonging to the cretaceous period, has, under ordinary
circumstances, a length of about a mile and an average width of
half-a-mile. Its extent, however, varies considerably at different
periods of the year, since its waters cover a larger area in spring
than during the autumnal months. No stream of any kind flows
into the basin, which derives its supply of water from the drainage
of the surrounding hills, as well as, m all probability, from subter-
raneous springs discharging themselves into the bottom of the
lake. In ordinary seasons the depth thus varies from 5 feet in
the month of April, to 2 feet at the end of October.

Borax oceurs in the form of crystals of various dimensions
embedded in the mud of the bottom, which is of an exceedingly
unctuous character, and is found to be most productive to a depth
of about 34 feet, although a bore-hole, which was sunk near its
centre to a depth of 60 feet, afforded a certain proportion of that
salt throughout its whole extent.

The crystals thus occurring are most abundant near the centre
of the lake, and this rich portion extends over an area equivalent
to about one-third of its surface. They are, however, also met
with in smaller quantities in the muddy deposit of the other
portions of the basin, some of them being, in the richest part
before alluded to, over a pound in weight. ‘The largest crystals
are generally enclosed in a stiff blue clay, at a depth of between
3 and 4 feet, and a short distance above them is a nearly pure
stratum of smaller ones, some 24 inches in thickness, in addition
to which crystals of various sizes are disseminated throughout the
muddy deposit of which the bottom consists.

Besides the borax thus found in a crystalline form, the mud is
itself highly charged with that salt, and according to Oxland, when

VOL. VI. O

18 The Alkaline Lakes of California. | Jan.,

dried, affords (including the enclosed crystals) 17°73 per cent.
Another sample, analyzed by Mr. Moore of San Francisco, afforded
him 18°86 per cent. of crystallized borax.

In addition to this the deposit at the bottom of the other
portions of the basin, although less productive, still contains a large
amount of borax, and it has been ascertained by sinking numerous
pits on the lake shore, that clay containing a certain proportion of
this salt exists in all the low ground around it.

The borax at present manufactured is exclusively prepared
from the native crystals of crude salt, whilst the mud in which
they are found is returned to the lake, after the mechanical separa-
tion of the crystals by washing. ‘The extraction of mud from the
bottom is effected by the aid of sheet-iron coffer-dams, and dredging-
machines worked by manual power, the whole of the labourers
being Chinese. Until 1866 the only apparatus employed con-
sisted of a raft covered by a shingled rvof, with an aperture in
its centre, about 15 feet square, and above which were hung, by
suitable tackle, four iron coffer-dams each 6 feet square and 9 feet
in depth. This raft or barge was moved in parallel lines across
the surface of the lake, and at each station the four dams were sunk
simultaneously by their own weight into the mud forming the
bottom. When they had thus become well embedded, the water
was baled out, and the mud removed in buckets to large rectangular
washing-vats, into which a continuous stream of water was intro-
duced from the lake by means of Chinese pumps, the contents of the
cisterns being at the same time constantly agitated by rakes.

At the present time dredging-machines are employed for
bringing up the mud and crystals from the bottom of the lake, and
these are introduced into cisterns and washed as above described.
In this way the turbid water continually flows off, and a certain
amount of crystallized borax is finally collected in the bottom of
each tank. This is subsequently re-crystallized, but from the density
acquired by the washing water, of which some hundred thousand
gallons are daily employed, it is evident that less than one-half the
borax existing in the form of crystals is thus obtained, whilst that
present in the mud itself is again returned to the lake.

In 1866, when I visited this locality, the crystals of crude
borax daily obtained amounted to about 3000 Ibs., and after bemg
carefully washed, they were dissolved in boiling water and re-crys-
tallized in large lead-lined vessels, from which the crystallized borax
was removed into boxes each containing a lhundred-weight.

The amount of refined salt daily obtained varied from 2500 to
2600 Ibs., which was produced, as nearly as I could calculate, at a
cost of about 182. per ton.

It is evident from the foregoing description that the system of
working employed is exceedingly crude, and by no means calculated

1869. | The Alkaline Lakes of California. 19

for obtaining the best results, and that in order to do so, it would
be necessary to adopt some efficient process for the lixiviation of
the mud after its removal from the bottom of the lake, and the re-
erystallization of the borax thus obtained.

The total extent of the muddy deposit considerably exceeds 300
acres, and if we assume that of this area 100 acres, or that portion
only now worked for borax crystals, would be sufficiently rich to
pay the expenses of treatment by the process at present employed,
we shall arrive at the following figures :—

One hundred acres are equivalent to 484,000 square yards, and
if the mud were worked only to a depth of 34 feet, this would
represent about 565,000 cubic yards, or, allowing a cubic yard to
weigh a ton, which isa very low estimate, the total weight of 100 acres
of mud, in its wet state, will be approximately 565,000 tons. If the
mud, as extracted from the lake, be now assumed to contain sixty
per cent. of water, there will remain 226,000 tons of dry mud,
containing, according to the mean of the analyses of Messrs. Oxland
and Moore, 18°29 per cent. of borax, but if in practice only twelve
per cent. of borax were obtained, this area alone would afford 27,120
tons of crystallized salt.

According to Mr. 8. M‘Adam, of Edinburgh, to whom a specimen
was forwarded for analysis, the crude borax from Borax Lake has
the following composition :—

Biborate of Soda, dry otc aa ee OLSD
Water of Crystallization .. .. .. .. 40°44
Imsolubletmatiberiscs: vce aise iace) misen ersten linac
Sulphate OsSodadtyencicn ee yen ee OZ06
Chloride of Sodium, dry .. .. .. .. 0°08
Phosphateiof Seda; drys 3. oJ... dels

100-00

Mr. Moore, of San Francisco, gives the following as the com-
position of the water of Borax Lake, which has a mean specific
gravity of 1:0274:—

In an Imperial Gallon.

Chloride of Sodium .. .. .. .. «. 1198°66
5 IROWPRSTONI Eo Go om ge D792:
Todide of Magnesium Boe ey oon 22,
Bromide e sor oe: ook CE trace
Bicarbonate of Magnesia.. .. -- «. -
A Soda pe om tee os” LSSEZS
Be ZNTAIMONIBe sy sel) set ee trace
Carbonate of Soda .. .. .. «.. «+. 978°65
Biborate Mort A issn cs. - POLES
Phosphate of alumina .. .. .. =: 3°52
Sulphate ofimes <3) ss 2 - Bee trace
Silicie acids es) eee fe ek ae 2°37
Matters volatile at ared heat.. .. .. 238°66
2501-76

Q
bo

20 The Alkaline Lakes of California. [Jan.,

In the foregoing analysis all the salts have been calculated as
being anhydrous; but crystallized borax contains about 47 per
cent. of water, and hence the 281°48 grains found will correspond
to 535° 08 grains of crystallized salt. Besides the amount of biborate
of soda contained in the mud of the lake, its waters are therefore
capable of affording at least 6000 additional tons.

The borax, being the least soluble salt present in any consider-

able quantity, has evidently been deposited in the form of crystals
in the mud at the bottom; and that the process is still rapidly
going on is shown by the coating of crystals formed upon sticks or
other substances immersed for a short time in the waters of the
lake. A consideration of the phenomena attending the production
of borax further leads to the beef that its formation is effected by
the decomposition of carbonate of soda by boracic acid emitted from
sources beneath its bed, and large quantities of carbonic acid con-
stantly escape from the surface of the water. Should this be the
case, 1t is more than probable that any moderate extraction of
borax will be fully compensated for by the formation of that salt
constantly taking place.
* The waters of another lake situated in a little valley a few
miles north-east of Clear Lake, and surrounded by a thick forest
of oak and pine, are also known to contain borax. The bottom of
this lake, which covers an area of about twenty acres, consists of a
clay similar to that found in the larger one; but although it con-
tains large quantities of borax im solution, no crystals of that salt
have as yet been found in the mud. In addition to the localities
already mentioned, there are numerous springs in the vicinity of
the lakes, the waters of which are more or less impregnated with
borax.

To the north-east of Borax Lake, and about a mile from it on
the borders of Clear Lake, is a large depcsit of sulphur where
solfatara action is still apparent. The volcanic rocks have here
been extensively fissured and decomposed, and from the various
orifices steam and sulphurous vapours are constantly issuing. The
amount of sulphur which has been deposited in this place is very
large, covering an area of several acres, but the depth to which it
may extend can only be ascertained by the further development of
the excavations now in progress.

From six to eight tons of this sulphur are refined daily by dis-
tillation in large iron retorts, after which it is used for the manu-
facture of sulphuric acid, and in gunpowder, match, and other
factories. The most interesting fact in connection with this deposit
is the association of cinnabar with the sulphur sometimes distinctly
separated from it, in quartz, evidently of recent origin and deposited
from solution, but more frequently thoroughly intermixed with the
mass.

1869.] Experimental Researches on the Properties of Steel. 21

Another large deposit of sulphur, about two miles distant, occurs
in what is known as Chalk Mountain, so called on account of its
peculiar white appearance, caused by the decomposition of the
volcanic rock ; and still another at Sulphur Springs, farther east on
the road to Colusa: but in neither of these localities is the sulphur
discoloured by the presence of cinnabar. The rocks at Chalk
Mountain are extensively fissured and much decomposed by the
action of steam and acid vapours, and springs yielding water highly
charged with carbonic acid are numerous throughout the district.
In fact, volcanic materials and hot springs occur in a line from
Clear Lake eastward toward the Sacramento valley, and, as Pro-
fessor Whitney remarks, there is evidence of a transverse fissure
extending from the Geysers across the volcanic belt, of which
Mount St. Helena is the culminating point, to the Sacramento
valley.

III. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES ON THE MECHA-
NICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL.

By Wm. Farrparen, LL.D., F.RS., &e.

Tue present may be justly considered the age of iron, as in every
branch of industry where force, form, and motion are required,
iron enters largely into construction, and its powers of application
have supplanted almost every other material. It presents wonderful
facilities in its adaptation to every description of art, whether of the
useful or decorative style; and its improved tenacity, elasticity, and
ductility have enlarged its field of usefulness in the construction of
buildings, ships, steam-engines, bridges, and machinery of all sorts
where strength combined with lightness is required. ‘To this
powerful and valuable material we are indebted for railways, loco-
motives, and rolling stock; and there is no branch of manufacture
in which it does not form a whole or a prominent part. Possessed
of such a material in its cheapest and best forms, we should be de-
ficient in duty if we left it in the rude state in which it was found
in the days of Cort, and his immediate successors. That great
improvements have been effected of late years does not admit of
doubt, and there is probably no material that has undergone greater
changes in its manufacture than iron; and judging from the attempts
that are now making, and have been made, to improve its quality
and to enlarge its sphere of application, we may reasonably conclude
that it is destined to attain still greater advances in its chemical and
mechanical properties. The earliest improvements in the process
of the manufacture of iron may be attributed to Cort, who intro-

22 Experimental Researches | Jan.,

duced the process of boiling and puddling in the reverberatory
furnace, and those of more recent date to Bessemer, who first used
a separate vessel for the reduction of the metals, and thus effected
more important changes in the manufacture of iron and steel than
had been introduced at any former period in metallurgic history.
To the latter system we owe most of the improvements that have
taken place ; for by the comparatively new and interesting process
of burning out the carbon ina separate vessel, almost every descrip-
tion of steel and refined iron may be produced. The same results
may be obtained by the puddling-furnace, but not to the same extent,
since the artificial blast of the Bessemer principle acts with much
greater force in depriving the metal of its carbon, and in reducing
it to the state of refined iron. By this new process increased
facilities are afforded for attaining new combinations, by the intro-
duction of measured quantities of carbon into the conyerting vessel,
and this may be so regulated as to form steel or iron of the homo-
geneous state, of any known quality.

The production of iron and steel in the homogeneous state is
one of the most important improvements that have taken place since
the process of rolling direct from the reverberatory furnace. The
former process was first to melt the iron as it came from the
smelting-furnace in the shape of pigs, to puddle it or to stir it
about until the mass took the form of a ball deprived of its carbon ;
it was then placed under the hammer, and formed into slabs or
ingots. ‘The next process was to roll it into bars, which being cut
into short pieces, were again heated and rolled either into plates or
bars as required.

Now the great defect of this process was the unsound state of
the iron, as the least rust or scoriz on the surface of the piled bars
prevented the welding or fusion of the metals, and hence followed
what are called blistered plates, or laminated bars of unsound
construction.

The new process it will be observed obviates all these difficulties,
as in the Bessemer process the melted iron is deprived of its carbon
by the action of an artificial blast—the same as formerly prevailed
on the hearth of the refinery—and thence it is cast into ingots of the
weight required, either for the hammer or the rolls. From this it
will be seen that the risk of piling and welding is entirely dispensed
with, and the article produced, whether of iron or steel, is perfect in
its homogeneity. It may be of good or inferior quality, hard or soft,
but by this process it is free from the risk of being unsound in its
homogeneous state.

As regards the steel, of which we have to submit the results, as
produced by the principal manufacturers of this country, it will be
observed that in making steel from the puddling-furnace, similar
combinations may be produced, but with less certainty as regards

1869. | on the Mechanical Properties of Steel. 23

quality, as everything depends on the skill of the operator in closing
the furnace at the precise moment of time, before the mass is
deprived of its carbon. This precaution is necessary in order to
retain the exact quantity of carbon in the puddled bulb, so as to
produce by combination the requisite quality of steel. It will be
observed that in the Bessemer process this uncertainty does not
exist, as the whole of the carbon is volatilized or burnt out in the
first instance; and by pouring into the vessel a certain quantity
of crude metal containing carbon, any percentage of that element
may be obtained in combination with the iron, possessing qualities
best adapted to the varied forms of construction to which it may
be applied. Thus the Bessemer process is not only more perfect
in itself, but admits of a greater degree of certainty in the results
than could possibly be attained by the mere employment of the
eyes and hands of the most experienced puddler. Thus it appears
that the Bessemer process enables us to manufacture steel with
any given proportion of carbon, or other eligible element, and
thus to describe the compound metal in terms of its chemical
constituents.

Important changes have been made since Mr. Bessemer first
announced his new principle of conversion, and the results obtained
from various quarters bid fair to establish a new epoch in metallurgic
manipulation, by the production of a material of much greater
general value than that which was produced by the old process,
and in most cases of double the strength of iron.

These improvements are not exclusively confined to the Bessemer
process, for a great variety of processes are now in operation pro-
ducing the same results, and hence we have now in the market
homogeneous and every other description of iron, inclusive of steel,
of such density, ductility, &c.,as to meet ali the requirements of the
varied forms of construction.

The chemical properties of these different kinds of steel have
been satisfactorily established ; but we have no reliable knowledge
of the mechanical properties of the different descriptions of homo-
geneous iron and steel that are now being produced. To supply this
desideratum, I have endeavoured, by a series of elaborate experiments,
to determine the comparative values of the different kinds of steel,
as regards their powers of resistance to transverse, tensile, and
compressive strain.

These experiments have been instituted not only for those
engaged in the constructive arts, but also to enable the engineer to
make selections of the material as will best suit his purpose in any
work proposed. In order to arrive at correct results I have
applied to the first houses for the specimens experimented upon, and
judging from the results of these experiments, I venture to hope
that new and important data have been obtained, which may safely

24 Experimental Researches | Jan.,

be relied upon in the selection of the material for the different
forms of construction.

For several years past, attempts have been made to substitute
steel for iron, on account of its superior tenacity in the construction
of ships, boilers, bridges, &c.; and there can be no doubt as to the
desirability of employing a material of the same weight and of double
the strength, provided it can at all times be relied upon. Some
difficulties, however, exist, and until they are removed it would not
be safe to make the transfer from iron to steel. These difficulties
may be summed up in a few words, vz. the want of uniformity in
the manufacture, in cases of rolled plates and other articles; which
require perfect resemblance in character, and the uncertainty which
pervades its production. Time and a close observation of facts in
connection with the different processes will, however, surmount these
difficulties, and will enable the manufacturer to produce steel in: all
its varieties with the same certainty as he formerly attained in the
manufacture of iron.

In the selection of the different specimens of steel, I have
endeavoured to obtain such information about the ores, fuel, and
process of manufacture as the parties supplying the specimens were
disposed to furnish. To a series of questions, answers were, in
most cases, cheerfully given, the particulars of which will be found
in the experimental Tables, published in the Transactions of the
British Association for 1867.

I have intimated that the specimens have been submitted to
transverse, tensile, and compressive strain, and the summaries of
results will indicate the uses to which the different specimens may
be applied. ‘Table I. gives for each specimen the modulus of elas-
ticity, and the modulus of resistance to impact, together with the
deflection for unity of pressure; from these experimental data the
engineer and architect may select the steel possessing the actual
quality required for any particular structure. This will be found
especially requisite in the construction of boilers, ships, bridges, and
other structures subjected to severe strains, where safety, strength,
and economy should be kept in view.

In the case of transverse strain some difficulties presented them-
selves in the course of the experiments, arising from the ductile
nature of some part of the material, and from its tendency to bend
or deflect to a considerable depth without fracture.

But this is always the case with tough bars, whether of iren
or steel, and hence the necessity of fixing upon some unit of measure
of the deflections, in order to compare the flexibility of the bars
with one another, and, from the mean value of this unit of deflection,
to obtain a mean value of the modulus of elasticity (EK) for the
different bars. This unit or measure of flexibility given in the Table,
is the mean value of all the deflections corresponding to unity of

1869. | on the Mechanical Properties of Steel. 25

pressure and section. In order to determine the resistance of the
bars to a force analagous to that of impact, the work in deflecting
each bar up to its limit of elasticity has been calculated. These
results differ considerably from each other, showing the different
degrees of hardness, ductility, &c., of the material of which the bars
are composed. ‘The transverse strength of the different bars up
to their limit of elasticity is shown by the amount of the modulus
of strength or the unit of strength calculated for each bar.

Table II., on Tensile Stram, gives the breaking-strain of each
bar per square inch of section, and the corresponding elongation of
the bar per unit of length, together with the ultimate resistance
of each bar to a force analogous to that of impact.

Table III., on Compression, gives the force per square inch of
section requisite to crush short columns of the different specimens,
with the corresponding compression of the column per unit of
length, together with the work expended in producing this com-
pression.

It will be observed from the following Tables that the results of
the experiments show that the deflections produced by a transverse
strain are in proportion to the pressures within the limits of elas-
ticity.

In Table [., as in the other two on tension and compression,
the value of the work done on each specimen has been determined,
and the results recorded in the last column indicate the comparative
strength of each particular bar; and the mean value of the deflec-
tions corresponding to unity of pressure and section will be found
in column 3. These may be taken as the measure of flexibility,
elasticity, and ductility of the different bars, and the uses to which
the material may be applied.

The mean value of E, the modulus of elasticity taken for thirty
of the best specimens, is about 31,000,000, which exceeds that of
wrought iron by more than the thirtieth part. Steel having a much
greater flexibility than malleable iron, accounts for the approxima-
tion of their respective values in D,. This arises from the fact that
the bars of the greatest flexibility—other things being the same—
have the least value for the modulus of elasticity.

On tensile strain the mean result derived from thirty of the
best specimens is 47°7 tons, or nearly 48 tons per square inch;
and in this, as in the previous Table, the measure of ductility and
strength is given in the last column, which indicates the utility of
the material and the purposes for which it may be selected.

Comparing the best quality of steel with the best wrought
iron at 24 tons as the breaking-weight per square inch, we find
that we have a material of double the strength with the same
weight, or what is the same thing, of only half the weight with the
same strength, or as 47°7 to 24. In the art of construction these

26 Hxperimental Researches [Jan.,

CompaRIson of STEEL MANUFACTURED after the BessEMER Process, with that
MANUFACTURED by other PRocESsSEs.

TABLE I—TRANSVERSE STRAIN on inch-square bars, and 4 ft. 6 in. between the supports.

Mean | | Mean
| value, D,, | work Mean
Bye. da of the de- | Mean value | of de- | value of
MANUFACTURER. Dessipon flection for of the flection, | C, ia REMARES,
Steel unity of | modulus of | uw, for | unit of
; pressure | elasticity E. | unity | working
and of strength.
section. | section.
tons. lbs.
Mean
Messrs. J. Brown & Co. { sear “0012739 30,730, 000, 52-721] 5-918 bk 00
weight
Messrs. C. Cammell & Co. a 0013518 29, 166,000 59°897| 5-921 Do. 950
Messrs. H. Bessemer & Co. ges *0016684 29, 813,000.49-°489) 5-659 | Do. 975

The Hxmatite Steel and
Tron Company ..
|

se 0014590 27, 153 ,000 26°463) 3°914 | Soft steel.
Westnet ng 6 0014382 29,215,000 47-142) 9° 283

Sy al aa lag Peers 0013007 30,278,000 65-049, 6-548

| Mean
Messrs. S. Osborn & Co. a -0014296 27 , 48200052 574) 5 een 1250
weight
Messrs. C. Sanderson &\! | _|..9018209129,973,000/47-411| 5-521 | Do. 1250
Messrs. T. Turton & Sons *001312030,294,00052°680) 5°886 | Do. 1200

The Titanic Steel and\ Mushet’s
Iron Company .. | steel

*0012350 31,901,000 63°542) 6°455

‘0013196 30,042,000 56°251 6-002

Mean

TasiE IJ.—TeEnsILE STRAIN on bars ¢ inch diameter. Elongations taken on 8 in. length.

M e
aia Mean breaking Mean

nt . a train per square 1 A

Description | Specific | laidon | SY ed elonga

MANUFACTURER. of Steel. Gravity. | inIbs, | i™¢h of section. | tion, per |
producing | ~ Ea Fe
rupture. S, s, | length,

Mean
value of wu,
or work

Mesere. J. Brown & Co. (ea) 33,603 | 90,379 40-35] -0460
Messrs. Cammell & Co. BH iS, 34,085 | 101,132 45-14) +0595
Messrs. Bessemer & Co. iter ay 38,189 | 89,955 | 40°15| *0753
The Hematite Steel and 33,321 | 72,195 32°22) +0942

Iron Company ..

Bloan: hs u.2: ee “7a 34,299 | 88,415 | 39-46] -0682

Messrs. Naylor, oe Melted in ( 39,449 108,099 48° 5| 0372

& Co. .» «evs J [the crucible
Messrs. S. Osborn & Co. a3 ee 44,131 103,214 | 46° “0341
Messrs. OC. Sanderson & -75683 | 39,592 | 95,553 | 49° 09229

UByOUnenB tas. Weert Se am
Messrs. T. Turton & Sons ah : | 39,295 | 93,380/41°61| °0165
The Titanic Steel and\ Mushet’s \'| 37.179 | 93,616 | 41° “0551

Iron Company .. steel ‘

_ SS a RR TIEROSIT ee Tree en ene or ee ne
Mean .. ad Semha : 39,923 | 98,772 | 44-07

1869. | on the Mechanical Properties of Steel. 27

CoMPARISON of STEEL — continued.

TABLE IT].— Compressive STRAIN on specimens ? in. diameter and 1 in. in length.

Mean
Greatest weight | Mean | \alue of
D ‘oti Mean laid on per square inch of | Com- U, OF
: wae fre :
Sa escription | weight section, pression) voc ex.
of Steel, | laid on in per endedh
lbs. ‘unit of Pe hi D
length crushing
Ibs. Tons. *| the bar.

Messrs. J. Brown & Cot Poser e*\! 91,840 225,568 | 100-700 | +347 | 39,101
Messrs. C. Cammell & Co. 91,840 | 225,568 | 100°700 | -339 | 38,232
Messrs. H, Bessemer & Co. sn 91,840 | 225,568 | 100°700 | -379 | 42,720

The Hematite Steel and / BY Boilies
ina enn \ AS 91,840 | 225,568 | 100:700 445 | 50,207

—_—___

Mean .. ¢ ao) ce 91,840 | 225,568 | 100-700 | -377 | 42,981

ae 91,840 | 225,568 | 100°700 | -267 | 30,014
A) 91,840 | 225,568 | 100-700 | -328 | 36,906

Messrs. S. Osborn & Co.
Messrs. C. Sanderson &
IBIRQUMGRS “ne Bp i
Messrs. T. Turton & Sons | ies
The Titanie Steel and\\Mushet’s
Iron Company.. ..J) steel \

Tia ie en | G |
es aylor, Vicker 9M te bef 91,840 | 225,568 | 100-700 | -286 | 32,300
; 91,840 | 2:

225,568 | 100°700 | +398 | 29,254
| 91,840 | 225

oy)
,968 | 100°700 | *315 | 35,551

|

Mean .. ..| .. .. | 91,840 | 225,568 | 100-700 | -318 | 32,805

are considerations of great importance; and in every case where
steel can be depended upon, it is entitled, on the score of economy
and lightness, to the judgment and practical knowledge of the
architect and engineer.

In Table III., on compression, each of the specimens were
reduced, when cut from the bars previously experimented upon, to
small columns of # mch diameter and 1 inch in height. They
were each loaded with weights equal to 100 tons per square inch,
without undergoing any sensible appearance of fracture. On con-
suliing the Table it will besefound that with the above weight of
100 tons per square inch they were compressed, on the average,
to two-thirds their original length; and from these facts we were
enabled to find the value of w, recorded in the last column, as
the value of work done by the load which produced the change of
form in each of the specimens submitted to pressure. This, it will
be observed, was the true test of the powers of resistance of the
respective specimens to a compressive strain, and the conditions
under which materials of similar properties may be safely applied in
constructive art.

On comparing the mean tensile resistance to rupture at 47-7
tons per square inch, it will be seen that the resistance to com-

28 The Treasures of Siluria. [Jan.,

pression is more than double the resistance to extension, or as
100-7 to 47:7, being in the ratio of near 2:1. Hence it follows
that the most economic form of a steel bar undergoing a transverse
strain would be a bar with double flanges, haying the area of the
top flange about one-half that of the bottom.

This conclusion is borne out by the results of experiments on
transverse strain, where §,, the strain per square inch of the material
at the elastic limit, = 6C = 6 x 6°83 tons = 40°98, or 41 tons
nearly ; but the mean breaking-strain per square inch by extension
= 47°7 tons, clearly indicates that the compressive resistance in
the former case was considerably in excess of the tensile resistance.

It is important in every experiment on the strength of materials,
which enters so largely into constructive art, that we should be
thoroughly acquainted with the properties of the material of which
the structure is composed, and that its resistance in all the different
forms of strain should be clearly and distinctly ascertained. In the
foregoing experiments we have determined the resisting powers of
the different specimens to bending, tension, and compression ; but
we have omitted that of torsion, or twisting, until we have an
opportunity of doing so upon the same identical bars. These I
hope to accomplish at some future period, and also to give some
further results upon an enlarged scale, calculated to confirm what
has already been done, and to ascertain some additional facts in
regard to the changes now in progress in the manufacture of Iron
and Steel.

IV. THE TREASURES OF SILURIA.

Thesaurus Siluricus: The Flora and Fauna of the Silurian
Period. With Addenda (from recent acquisitions). By Joun
J. Biaspy, M.D., F.G.8. London: Van Voorst. 1868. 4to,
pp. 268.

Tue “ Treasures of Siluria” consist of a vast assemblage of those
“ Medals of Creation” with which the late Dr. Mantell, years ago,
made the intelligent reader familiar. These medals are coins of
various denominations, each of which had an unnumbered cireu-
lation. But the region over which they severally passed current,
and the relative value which belongs to them, are questions which,
amongst others, we shall discuss in this article.

At the head of our review we haye placed the title of but one
book,—not because it gives us every possible information about the
«Treasures ” whose value we wish to estimate, but because it is a
synopsis of everything that has hitherto been published on the
subject, and of not a little that is even now in the hands of the

1869. | The Treasures of Siluria. 29

printer. Especially let us mention that M. Barrande’s ‘Systtme
Silurien du Centre de la Bohéme—-Recherches Paléontologiques,
Professor James Hall’s ‘Paleontology of New York, Mr. David-
son’s ‘ British Silurian Brachiopoda,’ Mr. Salter’s numerous works
on Silurian fossils, and the Reports of the Canadian Geological
Survey, are the great storehouses from which Dr. Bigsby has
collected most of his material, while innumerable memoirs by an
army of English, Continental, and American authors have yielded
to his search an almost equal number of species.

Dr. Bigsby has, indeed, spent a vast deal of time in groping
about amongst the archives of a host of ancient cemeteries of all
dates and of all climes. He has found records of the burial of
numerous groups of individuals, each ‘group being known by a
distinct name. Some of these are represented in countries far
apart, and during successive periods of lengthened duration ; but
the majority of them have remained true to their native country,
and have not survived the vicissitudes of climate and conditions to
which all regions are more or less subject. In other words, as we
shall have occasion to point out again, those individuals and com-
munities which emigrated to distant regions flourished and multi-
plied, after the manner of more modern emigrants, under the more
favourable conditions of their new habitation; while those which
remained true to their birthplace succumbed during a strugele for
existence with either their own progeny or new colonists, aggra-
vated by a decrease in the means of subsistence and a more
rigorous condition of external circumstances.

The ‘ Thesaurus’ contains the names, dates, and habitations of
nearly nine thousand species, so far as they are at present known.
These species are classified zoologically into their respective orders,
the genera of each order and the species of each genus being then
given alphabetically. At the end of the list of members of each
order is given a “ geographical summary,” showing at a glance the
distribution of the genera and their species over the surface of the
globe. Finally, at the end of the book is a very complete list of
works on Silurian Palzontology, which will necessarily be of great
assistance to future students of the subject.

The untiring and long-sustained industry necessary to the
successful compilation of a work-of this kind is a quality possessed
by comparatively few men of science; and while we rejoice that
the Royal Society has recognized and rewarded the perseverance of
the author by a grant of 1002. im aid of the publication of hig
book, we sincerely hope that the scientific public will follow so
distinguished an example, and will preserve the author from
pecuniary loss by purchasing a work of reference unique in its
aim, and without which every geological library must be regarded
as incomplete.

30 The Treasures of Silwria. [Jan.,

Preceding the lists of species which form the main body of the
work, Dr. Bigsby records a number of “ Facts and Observations”
as the result of his analysis of them. These general conclusions
bear even stronger testimony to the author’s industry, and much
more powerful witness to the vigour of his intellect, than the lists
of species themselves. Indeed, if the ‘Thesaurus’ had been
placed in the hands of a dozen Palzontologists, we doubt whether
any one of them would have drawn a more original series of
inferences than these same “ Facts and Observations;” and we are
quite confident that a more suggestive series it would be impossible
to bring together.

While it would be both tedious and difficult to scrutinize lists
of species, it is infinitely easier to criticize conclusions than it is to
arrive at them. The reviewer comes to their examination rather
inclined to object to them, while the author, on the other hand,
having been for weeks, for months, perhaps for years, accumulating
and selecting materials which have suggested to him certain in-
ferences, finds it extremely difficult fully to appreciate such hostile
facts as would require very serious modifications of his previous
results.

Having thus confessed our bias, we will endeavour to guide our
readers fairly through some of the paths trodden by our author,
and will commence with that very intricate formation known as the
“ Primordial Zone.”

Although the commencement of what is still included in the
“Silurian System” may not be of the greatest importance to the
registrar of the births and deaths of Palaeozoic fossils, there is no
doubt whatever that it possesses the highest interest for the scientific
theorist. The “ Primordial Zone” must, in fact, be still looked
upon as practically the natal epoch of organic life, for the in-
habitants of the vastly more ancient Laurentian period are still too
little known to enable the Paleontological genealogist to deal with
them.

Dr. Bigsby devotes three or four pages to a brief sketch of the
salient facts connected with his census of the inhabitants of the
Primordial Period, but owing to his apparent desire to extend its
limits, he is obliged to commence with the following sentence :—
“‘ Waiting for the results of the investigations now taking place in
Canada as to the exact relations of the Quebec Group with the
Primordial Stage, it will be better not to dwell long on this part of
the Silurian Epoch, especially as the present ideas on these relations
do not give entire content.” He further remarks that “it is
indissolubly Silurian by almost every possible tie—by facies,
materials, stratigraphy, and organic contents,’—but in this latter
conclusion he will not be supported, we think, by our working
Welsh geologists.

1869. | The Treasures of Siluria. | 81

Dr. Bigsby gives us an imposing summary of the fauna of the
Primordial Zone in Europe and America, namely, 375 species in the
former, and 597 species in the latter region; but his definition of
the formation is so extremely wide that it is difficult, from his
figures, to arrive at the real value of the fauna of the period in its
more restricted meaning. ‘To prevent any misunderstanding, we
give the followmg comparative statements of what is usually
included in this formation, and of what the author includes within
its definition :—

BRITAIN.
Braspy. Morcuison, Beir, Satrrr, &e.
Lower Llandeilo | Lower Silurian of

<iddaw Sla
Skiddaw Slates other authors.

Arenig Group
Stiper Stones \

ae eatiog Slate Tremadoc Group.

nes ae Ffestiniog Group (Sedgwick).
Lingula Flags .. eevee as { Meenevian Group (Salter).
Harlech Guiisi os. yi ss eee) en) elarlech Group:

Llanberis Slates .. .. « .. .. Lilanberis Slates.

CANADA AND UNITED STATES.
BIasBy. MURCHISON.

Chazy Limestone (part).
Quebee Group 4 Calciferous Sandstone,
Point-Lévis Rocks.
Lower Calciferous Group.

Ae Upper Potsdam Group.
Potsdam Sandstone... 2. -. 1 os jeneees Potsdam Group.

St. John’s Group.

It is thus seen that Dr. Bigsby adds to what is usually termed
“Primordial” in Britain, the Lower Llandeilo of Murchison (the
Arenig Group and the Skiddaw slates being also of that age),
while his classification of the American rocks is still more compli-
cated. According to Sir R. I. Murchison the Lower Calciferous
Group is succeeded by (1) the Upper Calciferous Group, and (2) the
Quebee Group (including the Lévis, Lauzon, and Sillery rocks),
both being regarded by him as of Llandeilo age; and these are
again surmounted by the Chazy Limestone, which Sir Roderick
refers to the base of the Caradoc formation, but part of which
Dr. Bigsby (as we have seen) also includes in the Primordial Zone!

With respect to Bohemia there can be no difficulty, as there, of
course, the Primordial Zone is simply the Primordial Zone, the
“First ‘Fauna,’ the C.c.l of M. Barrande. The question is,
What are its equivalents in Britain and America? Or, to bring
the matter to a closer issue, Is Dr. Bigsby right in his extension
of the definition for Britain and America? We cannot decide this
question ; but we are obliged by every rule of classification and of

32 The Treasures of Siluria. | Jan.,

argument to assume that the old ideas are correct, until they have
been proved to be erroneous. The onus probandi lies with Dr.
Bigsby, and he has not advanced a single argument in support of
his noyel classification.

We can allow ourselves to notice but one other conclusion of
our author in connection with the Primordial Zone, and that only in
relation to the general question of the origin of life. Dr. Bigsby
remarks, “The Primordial stage did not start forth, Pallas-like, at
once, in full maturity.”* This is quite true. In the Llanberis
or Bangor slates no fossils have hitherto been discovered, while in
the Harlech Grits above, the number of species, and of represented
genera, though certainly small, is somewhat uncertain, from the
bad state of preservation of many of them; but in the still higher
Menevian group we meet with a tolerably rich and varied fauna.
Dr. Bigsby’s idea is, that “the quantity, variety, and high rank
of its fauna shut us up from any other conclusion than that it is
only part, and a rich part, of an already established flora and fauna
lying undetected at present.”t No doubt this inference is very
just, and it is certainly one in which we cordially agree ; but we
feel some difficulty in reconciling it with our author’s dictum of the
necessity of “ Radiata, Mollusca, Annelida, Articulata, all showing
themselves simultaneously, or nearly so.” t :

The first appearance of species, however, the author discusses
very briefly. It is, in truth, a subject on which very few facts can
at present be quoted. His proposition that “life started into
being, necessarily, in societies both composite and simple,’ § besides
appearing to contradict one of his inferences respecting the Prim-
ordial fauna, will probably not meet with general acceptance,
although the exact meaning to be ascribed to it seems to us a little
doubtful.

Leaving this speculative subject, we will examine some of the
many curious facts which illustrate the dwration of species, which
is a matter of very high interest. For instance, M. Barrande has
shown || that 32 species of Bohemian Orthoceratites began and
ended their existence in one subdivision of the Silurian rocks
(E.e.1), while 38 more passed up into the next stage (H.e.2),
and there perished. In this latter formation no less than 199
species of the same genus make their appearance, not one of which
passes up into the overlying stratum.

In connection with this subject it will be useful to draw
attention to Dr. Bigsby’s census of the species which are known
from only one place,{[ as compared with that of the total number
of Silurian species, viz.:—

Rk ake + Ibid. TP, XK Vals § Tbid.
|| See ‘Thesaurus,’ p. xxxviii. 4 Pp. vii. and xxxvi.

1869. | The Treasures of Stluria. 33

Species of ona

Groups. Total Species. Locality.
Plants We hit ee hese Soe oe see 47
FATHOLDNOZOR aaah eiseios | WSO) Pte on wer | OZ
Moramimiferay 4; 2205 a DR sabato nae 0
Ccelenterata cae Math ans (DOME ace ort 20
Bechinodermatnie. 2 64, OOO. a. 2s Goo
Amnelidais sept) Meee kee TOL MEAS Heyes 88
Cirtipedes# cs sp ga Sie edhe aes 6
FErilobitaeetsy i ss. kee ciel eel Oli od een GOS
PNCOMOStELACH a Geli ee OL Om canna me OS
iolyzoavw ay see ty Ml ade eee) 260
Brachiopodagy cules: ees LODON V2.0 eee) ep O99
Mionomyaria, | ays) eeu set COnMr.mtron met Od
Dimyaliageess ecce oe eos One eo eae ST
Pieropodauee ect aay ec OSes se eZ
Gasteropoday Be. <a) way lee0m --) Be Goa 404
Wephalopodans ose a-cr pan aod ty oe SOS
Pisces Stab Soakie ae Sy Meany haan Se 26
Incerts sedis .. .. «- DR Bie Os bh 10

S897 se nos, an 4020

_

The total result is thus seen to be that more than half of
the known Silurian species have hitherto been found in only one
locality. This fact alone is sufficient to remind us (what Dr.
Bigsby quotes) that so thoughtful a naturalist as the late Professor
Edward Forbes asserted that a large proportion of all known
species of fossils are founded on single specimens.

It is a very remarkable fact that the species which are thus
restricted to a small geographical area are also those which attain
a small vertical range. Thus, in Bohemia, in two small and adjoin-
ing parishes near Prague, we find huddled together no less than
112 species of Cyrtoceras, 27 of Trochoceras, and 30 of Orthoceras,
with many other fossils, all of which are confined to one stratum,
and none of which have hitherto been found elsewhere.

At the present day large assemblages of species (though their
value as such is doubtful), of one class of animals exist in certain
regions. Tor instance, the rivers of North America have yielded
countless forms of Unionidee, and those of Brazil (according to
Professor Agassiz) no less than 2000 species of fish. ‘These “com-
munities,” as Dr. Bigsby calls such populations, had their parallel
in Silurian times in Bohemia; for there, in the wonderful deposit
H.e.2, which we have already mentioned, no less than 921 species
have been discovered in a bed about 150 feet thick, extending over
an area not more than 15 miles long by 7 broad. Of this
large number, 590 species belong to the order Cephalopoda,
and of them no less than 220 species are peculiar to one parish
(Lochkov), and 102 to another (Kozorz), while 75 others are
common to the two. These 590 species represent only 9 genera,
Orthoceras including 252 species, Cyrtoceras 199, Gomphoceras

VOL. VI. D

b4 The Treasures of Silwria. | Jan.,

59, Trochoceras 36, Phragmoceras 25, and 4 others the remain-
ing 19. .

What Dr. Bigsby calls “ universality” illustrates the other
side of the question in an equally forcible manner. His defi-
nition is that “a formation may be considered to be universal
when it occupies large and small areas in very many parts of the
earth, often remote from, and even antipodal to, each other,
when it is always of like stratigraphical relations, is composed of
like materials, and contains numerous genera of existences in
common, together with some representative, and some identical
species.” Of course this definition makes the Silurian a universal
formation ; and if its spirit be truly applicable to a formation,
it must be equally so to a genus or a species. Our author has
therefore constructed a table, showing that 210 species are com-
mon to Europe and America, of which 35 travelled from the Old
to the New World (that is, appear in more recent deposits in the
latter); 30 from America to Europe; while 145 are what he calls
“Tsozonals ;” that is to say, occur on the same horizon in both
hemispheres. At first sight it seems as if Dr. Bigsby were of
opinion that the last-named species did not migrate at all, but
were sown broadcast over the whole area at the time of their
creation. We presume, however, that this is not really his
meaning.

Some Silurian species occur almost everywhere where Silurian
rocks occur. And it is noteworthy that most of these “ universal ”
species possess also the greatest vertical range, and the greatest
variability recognized as such. ‘Take, for instance, the well-known
Calymene Blumenbachit. This species, though not so variable as
some others which might be named, occurs in England in all
divisions of the Silurian system, from the Llandeilo to the Wenlock
inclusive. And many other instances of a like nature might be
quoted. Indeed, our author is well acquainted with them.

As to geographical range, this same Calymene Blumenbachii,
so well known in the United Kingdom, is found abundantly in
the Upper Silurian rocks of Northern Europe, in both the Lower
and Upper divisions of the French Silurian strata, and in_ the
Lower, Middle, and Upper divisions in those regions of North
America where they respectively occur.

It certainly does surprise us that Dr. Bigsby, in dealing with
a topic of such great interest as that of the duration of species,
should not once allude to the law originally laid down by De
Verneuil and D’Archiac, advocated by Forbes, Rogers, and others,
and adopted by almost every subsequent writer. This law may
be enunciated thus :—Species which are most extended in geogra-
phical space are generally those which have the greatest vertical
range. It refers specially to organisms of the same rank, and

1869. | The Treasures of Siluria. 35

must not therefore be confounded with the law which ascribes
the greatest range to the most lowly organized animals.

The general law of the range of species in space and time may
therefore be broadly and roughly stated as follows :—long life
and great range; short life and restricted range. Now, without
at all doubting the fact that the lives of species, like those of
individuals, may vary in length to a great extent, we think that
naturalists who ‘count heads” should satisfy themselves whether
a species which has spread over three-fourths of the globe, and
enjoyed an existence extending through several divisions of the
Silurian period, is precisely equivalent in Natural History value
to a species of the same genus which, with scores of others, was
both created and destroyed within the hmits of one minor sub-
division of the same period, and which never extended beyond an
area of a few square miles. To put this question in a concrete
form, let us ask whether Orthoceras annulatum is of an equi-
valent value to, say, O. intermiatum? The former is a species
which ranges from the Caradoc to the Ludlow rocks inclusive, and
from New York, through Northern Europe and Great Britain, to
Bohemia, while the latter occurs in only one subdivision (H.e.2)
of the Silurian system, and in but one small district in Bohemia.

Taking into consideration the whole of the facts, illustrated as
they are by the few which we have described, we feel inclined to
believe that whereas some species had strong constitutions, and
could sustain changes in conditions and the wear and tear of travel
with comparative impunity,—in other words, that they possessed
great vitality (Dr. Bigsby calls it viability),—others presented
more feeble resistance to such untoward circumstances. These
latter either died out altogether or became so far altered as to merit
new names at the hands of Palaontologists,—who unfortnately are
generally (and frequently of necessity) guided only by the laws of
convenience and the rule of thumb.

If we are correct in our estimate of the relative value of species,
the very awkward question will arise, What inferences can legiti-
mately be drawn from Dr. Bigsby’s synoptical tables? In other
words, What is the use of “counting heads?” Echo answers,
What? And we believe that we may strengthen our position with-
out violating the truth by ascribing this phrase “counting heads,”
as well as the first denunciation of the practice, to an eminent geo-
logist who at one time evinced considerable skill in its exercise.

We have now discussed at some length the first appearance and
the duration of species, and our space compels us to pass on to a
hasty review of the causes which have led to and accompanied their
extinction. Dr. Bigsby’s statements on this subject are not a httle
confusing, as some of them include the idea of the action of purely
local, and chiefly geographical causes, while others are equally dis-

D 2

36 The Treasures of Siluria. [Jan.;

tinct statements of the cosmical (7.e. universal) theory of creations.
and extinctions. For instance, “all beings are subject to external
conditions, favourable and unfavourable, which assist in the produc-
tion of an average longevity.” “Extinction of life is commonly
slow, continuous, individual, and sometimes is more rapid than
replacement from without, or than by acts of creation. Sudden
acts of extermination are exceptional, brief in time, and limited im
space.” Again, the author divides the causes of extinction into two
classes, (1) mechanical and (2) physiological. The former includes
oscillation of level, climate, &c.; and the latter, such matters as
supply of food, overcrowding, epidemics, &c.

With all this most students of the modern school will agree ;
but we imagine that our readers will be as surprised as ourselves to
find amidst so much of the “uniformity” philosophy the following
sentence: — The causes of extinction are in universal operation.
They are cosmical. Silurian life was discontinued everywhere at
the same time, proximately.” Surely, if this statement includes the
actual fact, mechanical and physiological causes of extinction may
as well be neglected, for their operation must have been too re-
stricted to leave any impress on the geological record.

As a corollary of his cosmical theory, Dr. Bigsby states that
“There is no example, as far as I know, of a Silurian community
rising, by migration or otherwise, into Devonian or Carboniferous
strata; but single species do, and somewhat largely, just as we see
in every epoch up to the present.” Our knowledge is not yet
sufficiently advanced to enable us to make many definite state-
ments on this subject; but we may remind Dr. Bigsby that his
favourite (and deservedly great) authority, M. Barrande, has shown
that the two highest members of his Third Fauna (stages G@ and H)
present less” strong connections with the Devonian system than do
the still older deposits E and F. Again, the author himself admits
that “whole communities have been known to return together to
the country they had long abandoned,” and he quotes Mr. Godwin-
Austen’s description of “this kind of repossession in the Palaeozoic
rocks near Boulogne.”

From these considerations the author passes naturally to the
question of recurrence, which he defines to be “the reappearance
of a plant or animal jn a zone of rocks higher than that in which it
was first observed. It implies progress upwards, either on the
same spot or on another by migration.” Used in this sense, it is
remarkable how many species may be termed recurrent,—what
a large number occur on more than one horizon.

In illustration of the subject, Dr. Bigsby has constructed a
table showing a synoptical view of Silurian life in this relation
as far as was known in 1865. This table shows us that out of the
5968 Silurian species (exclusive of the Primordial) whose places are

-1869.] The Treasures of Siluria. 37

well known), 784, or 13 per cent., are recurrents, leaving 5184
faithful to one horizon. But this statement does not describe the
scope and value of the table, which may be epitomized as follows :—
In the Lower Silurian rocks 354 species occur on two horizons—98
on three, 44 on four, and 5 on five. In the Middle Silurian 95
species occur on two horizons—29 on three, and 5 on four. In
the Upper Silurian 138 species occur in two divisions, 15 in
three, and 3 in four.

There are many curious facts connected with recurrence, several
of which are not yet properly understood. In one region a species
may be restricted to one horizon, being there truly typical, while in
another region the same species may pass through nearly the whole
of the subdivisions of the Silurian series. Speaking generally,
recurrence is common in Sweden and Canada, and still more so in
Wales. It is rare both in Russia and Bohemia. In the last-named
country we have seen that species of short duration and belonging
to a small number of genera are extremely abundant. Surely this
contrast is another fact in favour of the views we have already
advocated.

After reading through the “Facts and Observations,” we at
first felt somewhat uncertain as to the author's views on the
important subject of Contemporaneity of Strata. He does not say
much about it; and, with the exception of the first and. last
sentences which we quote below, his statements do not help us
very powerfully to a conclusion.

(1.) “ We already have materials from almost all parts of the
Silurian scale of rocks to show, with some force (M, Barrande), that
life began earlier and more abundantly in the valleys of the St.
Lawrence and Mississippi than in Europe.” *

(2.) “It would appear that the Silurian system of rocks. is
universal in extent, and that its component parts were laid down
at a proximate time, and in like manner ceased to. be. laid down,
statements approved by M. Barrande.” +

(3.) “It is a very striking fact that the great majority of the
Silurian fauna made their first appearance on the same horizon—
that is, everywhere on, proximately, the same stage or subdivision
of the epoch.” t

(4.) “Silurian life was discontinued everywhere at the same
time, proximately.” §

(5.) “The Upper Silurian fossils which people the Prague
colonies in fauna D.d, except as they come from another area, are
not recurrents, are not the posterity of Bohemian mollusks. They
are the precursors of an identical and larger coming fauna. Signs
are not wanting that they come from a country where the Silurian

eR aexd 7 P. xxxiii. ¢ P. xxxvil. ae Eta. b

38 National Institutions for [ Jan.,

epoch was more advanced than in Bohemia ;* and they become of
great value by indicating local inequality of progress in the act
of deposition during this epoch—suggesting, moreover, that any of
the Silurian stages may be in process of formation about the same
time with another in different parts of the world.” +

Now there can be no doubt that our quotations No. 1 and
No. 5 show that the author’s mind is fairly imbued with the
theory of homotaxis in a legitimate and moderate degree; but the
only word in the remaining quotations which can possibly receive a
‘ homotaxeous ” construction is proximate or proximately ; and it is
extremely remarkable that this qualification of otherwise rigorous
statements occurs in each of the three remaining sentences (Nos. 2,
8, and 4). In a postscript Dr. Bigsby gives a list of “ additional
subjects,’ and amongst them we find the following: “The greater
or less synchronism of strata far apart; measured, where possible.
Was America inhabited before Europe, &c. ?—as seems probable.
On the whole, therefore, we must regard our author, veteran though
he be, as a geologist of the advanced modern school, and possessing
an elasticity of mind not at all common amongst scientific men of
his generation.

V. ON NATIONAL INSTITUTIONS FOR PRACTICAL
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH.

By Lieutenant-Colonel Srranex, F.R.S., Government Inspector of
Scientific Instruments, India Department, and Dr. Many,
F.RAS., F.R.G.S., &., Superintendent of Education, and
Special Commissioner of the Government of Natal. t

At the recent Meeting of the British Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, held in the city of Norwich in the month of
August last (1868), the Inspector of Scientifie Instruments for the
India Department brought a subject before the Mathematical and
Physical Section of the Congress which had obviously been engaging
his attention and thoughts very seriously for some considerable time.
In a somewhat lengthened experience in one special department of
hard scientific work, Colonel Strange has been led to the important
conclusion that unquestionable and vast as has been the service pure
and practical science has received from the hands of British contri-
butors, this service has not been commensurate with the proud and

* These and the following italics are ours.

+ P. xlvii.

{ The authors are the Chairman and Secretary of a Committee appointed by
the British Association for the Advancement of Science, at its Session in Norwich,
August, 1868, for the investigation of this subject.

1869. | Practical Scientific Research. 39

deserved position Great Britain has taken wp among the advanced
nations of the world on other grounds, and that there is one very
clear and obvious reason for this undesirable fact which cannot be
too soon looked fairly in the face by the best friends and advocates
of scientific movement. The Colonel pointed emphatically to the
official declaration, that “The objects of the British Association are
to give a stronger impulse and more systematic direction to scientific
inquiry, and to remove any disadvantages of a public kind which
impede its progress,” and upon that manifesto based an argument
that there is now an imperative call and claim upon the enlightened
Association of British Philosophers to take action upon this avowed
principle, and use its powerful influence to lead the public mind to
a recognition of one great need from which the highest interests of
the general community are suffering at the present day. In this
appeal Colonel Strange urged the Association to bear well in mind
the importance of pressing upon public attention the comparatively
backward condition of scientific research in the British Islands and
dependencies at the present time, and of insisting upon the inex-
pressible and unassessible value of the mighty engine of human
advancement that is thus allowed to remain in relative idleness
and disuse, while so many other engines are worked at their utmost
speed, and often with a reckless profusion of expenditure, that only
makes the contrast so much the more startling and humiliating for
a people aiming at a forward position and high excellence. If the
views entertained by the originator of this movement be substan-
tiated by facts, there can be no doubt that an association of philo-
sophers which professes to engage itself with “giving a stronger
impulse and a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry, and
with removing disadvantages that impede its progress,” will be
bound by its own profession to do all that may be done to indicate
how “ the intellectual glories and material riches which a bountiful
Providence has created for man’s use may be best placed, promptly
and systematically, at man’s disposal.”

The plea which was offered at the Norwich Meeting of the
British Association by Colonel Strange was at any rate so far ad-
mitted by the court before which he elected to urge the appeal that
a committee, comprising the names of Thomson, Tyndall, Frankland,
Williamson, Stokes, Fleeming Jenkin, Hirst, Huxley, Balfour
Stewart, Stenhouse, Glaisher, and Huggins, besides those of the
chairman and secretary, was appointed to consider and report upon
the general questions, whether there exist in the United Kingdom
of Great Britain and Ireland sufficient provision for the vigorous
prosecution of physical research, and whether, if it be held that suffi-
cient provision does not exist, it can be shown what further provision
is needed, and what measures can be taken to supply the want.

It will be observed that in this proceeding the action of the

40 National Institutions for [Jan.,

British Association has been purposely and carefully limited to
the altogether unexceptionable object of inquiring whether suffi-
cient facilities for the prosecution of scientific research, properly so
called, do exist in the kingdom of Great Britain; and of suggest-
ing in what direction it seems most advisable to seek increased
facilities, if such are deemed to be required. Whatever scientific
men may think of other branches and bearings of this subject, there
can be no doubt that there will be at any rate an unanimous con-
sent to enter fairly and fully upon the underlying question of need,
and to face, in the most open and unreserved way, the first count of
Colonel Strange’s indictment. It will be apparent, from the mere
title of the paper which was read at the Meeting of the Association
by Colonel Strange, namely, “‘On the necessity for State Interven-
tion to secure the Progress of Physical Science,” that he has quite
made up his own mind that it will be abundantly apparent there is
the need, and that there is but one way in which that need can be
promptly and efficiently supplied. But from the discussion which
followed upon the reading of the paper, it was obvious there are
men of high purpose and clear thought in the ranks of British
Philosophy who are conscious of the need, but who do not now feel
that there is but one way in which the defect can be remedied, and
the deficiency supplied. It is therefore imperative that in the first
instance the investigation shall be entered upon in the broadest and
most cosmopolitan spirit, and that the evidence sought shall be of
the freest and most exhaustive character.

In the face of the course that has been determined upon by the
Committee of the Mathematical and Physical Section, and by
the Council of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science, it would be both presumptuous and premature to venture
any decided opinion as to either of the questions that are to be
made the subject of consideration. But there are certain views of
the matter that rise to the surface, out of the arguments that have
been already advanced in the preliminary handling of the question,
which it will be found advantageous at once to fix as clearly and
definitely as possible in the public mind, in order that there may
be no unnecessary confusion and misapprehension in regard to the
main issue. :

In the first instance it must be distinctly understood that even
in the extremest form and scope of Colonel Strange’s plea there
is really nothing that is “revolutionary,” or even fundamentally
new. In practice, mankind has been already constrained to admit
that there is absolute need for “state intervention” in carrying
forward the work of scientific investigation. It is out of this ab-
solute need, and of mankind’s all but universal recognition of it,
that have arisen state observatories for astronomical research. All
such astronomical investigations as require sustained and continuous

1869.] Practical Scientific Research. 41

systematic observation, as for instance, the construction of planetary
tables, the perfection of the lunar theory, and even the cataloguing
of the stars, have been carried on through the intervention of state
establishments. No one, even for a passing moment, doubts that
in these particulars the mode of carrying on the work has been an
advantageous one. Indeed it is not possible for even the most
ardent imagination to conceive that the results which have been
arrived at in these especial departments could have been secured
in any other way. It would certainly be worth while to ascertain
the opinion of the Astronomer Royal as to what, in all human
probability, those results would have been if all labour of this class
had been left to private ardour and enterprise ; if such things as
tables of the moon had been exclusively contributed by some few
dozens of private observers, each following his own notion of the
best way of observing and the most convenient way of reducing.
? But state intervention has not been confined even to this high
branch of scientific labour. It has been in reality found that there
are various other departments of intellectual investigation that can -
only be carried on by the same operation. All the great measures
of the earth have been “interventions” of the state, and not con-
tributions of private enterprise. To the state is due all that has
been done for preserving in uncontaminated integrity the national
standards of length, weight, and capacity. What private or simply
co-operative agency could have secured the result which has been
already attained at Bloomsbury and South Kensington? To say
nothing of the obvious future of the magnificent collections that are
gathered in the national museums located there. The influence for
good, of the School of Mines in Jermyn Street is now widely recog-
nized and accepted, and that certainly is an establishment that could
not have been organized and supported otherwise than by the state.
The Kew Observatory, although not a state institution, is a very
noteworthy instance on the same side of the argument. It proves,
in the first place, the excellent result of substituting organization for
desultory individual effort. Before its creation efficient instruments
for delicate meteorological and magnetic investigation were scarcely
to be procured. It is now the generally recognized authority for
the verification of such instruments, and in addition to this main
work, other very refined and important investigations are carried
on there, which certainly would not be undertaken by individual
enterprise ; as, for instance, researches relating to the freezing-pomt
of mercury, the rotation of discs in vacuo, and the record by pho-
tographic agency of important features presented in the sun’s face.
Now, this year it has only been found possible to devote the paltry
sum of 600/. to the support of this useful institution. Who would
hesitate to say that in this case usefulness is limited by income, and
that under the. enjoyment of a more adequate provision from the

42 National Institutions for | Jan.,

state, the services rendered to the community at large by this ob-
servatory would be very largely increased ?

It may thus then be taken for granted that the abstract
question, whether scientific investigation shall be aided, and even
carried on, by the state in Great Britain, has been already settled
by the irresistible verdict of circumstances. It has been found that
certain most valuable and important results can only be secured by
this agency, and so soon as the nation has been educated to the
point of perceiving that those results are wanted for its service, the
agency is set to work. All that remains now to be determined is,
whether as much has been done in this direction as the best interests
of the nation require, when a keen competition has been established
between the foremost nations of the world in this particular ;
whether there is any special and definite line by which an influence,
so grandly beneficial in its results where it has been tried, shall be
limited in its application.

But in approaching this portion of the consideration, there is one
very curious point that has risen into some prominence, as a direct
consequence of the discussion having been opened out at the
Meeting of the British Association at Norwich ; the difficulty, namely,
which there seems to be of getting men generally to understand
that the want now urged is not a portion of that larger want of a
provision of scientific education for the masses as a portion of
general instruction. Almost every person who spoke at the
Meeting of the British Association fell into this confusion, and
argued one way or the other upon the educational ground, although
the originator of the discussion had most clearly and definitely
limited his meaning and object in this particular by the statement
that “there should be established a system of national institutions
for the sole purpose of advancing science by practical research,
quite apart from teaching it.” It seems as if, in consequence of
the popular agitation that has recently arisen for the introduction
of scientific subjects into general education, men at once jump to
the conclusion, when anything at all is said about advancing science,
that this ig the thing that must be meant. It cannot, however, be
too clearly comprehended that these two matters, the “teaching”
and the “advancing” science, are entirely distinct. They are
allies in the great work of human improvement, and touch upon
each other's limits at certain points, in a friendly way, but they are
intrinsically and essentially distinct both in their objects and methods.
A student in science has to be taught the leading elements, or it
may even be all the elements known at the time of the teaching.
It would be inexpedient, even if it were practicable, to tell him of
researches still in progress. The necessity of the case requires that
his attention shall be strictly confined to what is held to be
certain and known. The teacher of science, on this account, has to

1869. | Practical Scientific Research. 43

go year after year through the same course of instruction, scarcely
varied or touched by the action of current discovery, and the
appliances which his especial work requires are comparatively
limited, because they are unvarying, and have to be used over and
over again. It is even questionable whether the mind of the formal
teacher does not to some extent take the mould of his labours, and
become a little stationary and disinclined to forward movement.
The cultivator of science, on the other hand, commences his action
at the point where the student leaves off. He is, in fact, the
student emancipated from the trammels and leading-strings of the
teacher. He has ceased to ask, “ Howis such a thing known?” and
in the place of the question adopts the declaration, “ Such and such
things are not known, and must be ascertained.” From copying,
and repeating, and verifying, he turns to creating. The two pro-
cesses, the teaching and the extending of science, cannot really be
advantageously carried out by the same persons or by the same
means. That the two things are practically recognized as distinct,
is sufficiently proved by the fact that up to the present time we
have had no scientific education in England, although we have
had great scientific activity, and have effected great, although
insufficient scientific progress.

It is obvious that the extensive, or general adoption of science
as one of the branches of formal education for the people, will tend
to increase the number of persons who will subsequently incline to
enter upon the labours of investigation, and that, in this way,
scientific education does indirectly favour scientific research. Some
competent authorities, indeed, hold that teaching is a direct aid to
the cultivator of science, because it keeps him well up in elementary
knowledge and stimulates him to the discovery of new proofs and
illustrations, and because it brings him into frequent contact with
fresh and vigorous, though partially cultivated minds. If this be
so, it is clear that the teaching of the cultivator of science would
not be the teaching that is contemplated in the routine of scientific
education, properly so called. It must be applied in advanced
classes only, organized and arranged to ensure the special advan-
tage without profuse and wasteful expenditure of energy, worthy of
higher and better employment.

The way in which increased facilties for extending the bounds
of human science must influence scientific teaching is too manifest
to need that more than a passing word should be devoted to its
consideration. Every great fact drawn by the investigator from
the unfathomed immensity of the unknown, is a contribution made
to scientific teaching through all lands, and for all time. But
besides this the augmentation of facilities for prosecuting scientific
research will naturally render the student of science more earnest
and more willing in placing himself, through the advantages of

44 National Institutions for [Jan.,

formal education, in the position from which independent research
may be advantageously entered upon. Indeed, it may be roundly
said, that a very considerable portion of the efforts of scientific edu-
cation will have been made wastefully and uselessly, unless the best
men who have been inclined to scientfic investigation by their
teaching, are enabled to follow out the bent of their inclination
through some door especially opened on their behalf.

It has been shown that the influence of the state has been
recognized in Great Britain as a legitimate and wise means of
securing to the community the advantage of certain scientific opera-
tions that could not be carried on with effect by any other instru-
mentality in the existing state of society. The argument built
upon this fact is very largely strengthened when it is remarked,
that the same necessity is not only recognized and acted upon by
other civilized and enlightened states, but that for the most part
such other states much exceed Great Britain in the liberality and
even munificence with which they furnish organizations and material
means for the prosecution of scientific research. It is matter of
the most familiar remark and comment in what a princely way
observatories of all kinds are equipped and supported in Russia.
But perhaps the most telling instance that could be adduced in this
particular, would be the magnificent Chemical Laboratory just com-
pleted at Berlin, from Professor Hoffmann’s designs. The building
has been erected by the Government, at a cost of about 50,0002.
It is an ornamental red brick structure, enriched with terra-cotta
decorations, and medallions presenting the features of men who
have played distinguished parts in the science of chemistry. The
building consists of two quadrangles, so arranged as to secure most
efficient lighting everywhere. The lecture theatre is sufficiently
capacious to accommodate between 300 and 400 persons; but it is
at the same time a completely equipped laboratory in itself. There
are other laboratories within the structure for ordinary and for
advanced students ; and several laboratories for men pursuing
specific branches of investigation. One very large and complete
laboratory is reserved for the Professor’s own use. The weighing
rooms are distinct chambers, efficiently cut off from the fumes of
the laboratories by intervening spaces. The galvanic batteries are
held in glass cases, provided with flues to carry off the corrosive
vapours. Powerful air-pumps exhaust a large series of receivers
arranged along the wall. The most complete spaciousness prevails
everywhere, and great care has been taken to secure the possibility
of extension as necessity arises. The primary object of this splendid
institution is to afford not only facilities for the students of the
university, but the offering ready opportunity for original research is
distinctly recognized in the design. It would be well worth while
to institute a comparison between this princely building deemed

1869.| Practical Scientifie Research. 45

necessary by our enlightened German neighbours for the encou-
ragement of chemical research, and the sole attempts that have been
made by ourselves in the same direction, namely, the Laboratory of
the School of Mines in Jermyn Street, and perhaps the Royal
College of Chemistry, which is almost a national establishment.

It is pretty generally understood that our colonial dependencies
for the most part consider that they are yet too young to have
much to do with the cares of providing means for the encourage-
ment or prosecution of science. There is a constant tendency in
their free-and-easy life to scatter and spread rather than to coucen-
trate. So long as there are millions of acres of unoccupied wastes
just beyond the outposts of the last appropriated settlements, asking
men to come and possess them, our colonists hold that it is not
necessary for them to trouble themselves about the progress of
science. ‘This is so much the case, that the great leviathan proto-
type of colonization, the Transatlantic Republic, even now distinctly
avows that its own proper functions are to diffuse, rather than to
create; to send the wave of civilization onward into the wilder-
ness, rather than to increase its depth or force. If this be go, it is
a correlative consequence of the position that lands otherwise
circumstanced, as is the case with the British Isles, where there
is a rapidly increasing population but a rigidly limited territory
and no room for overflow, must especially take to themselves the
work of creation, and aim at standing in the van in that particular
mode of developing and applying power to which small islands are
adapted by the actual exigencies of their existence. For this rea-
son alone “Great Britain,” of all the nations of the earth, ought
to be the most munificent and cordial patron of science in any and
in every form, as the one beneficent genius to whom it has owed so
much of its “greatness,” and to whom alone it can look for the
preservation of its greatness on its sea-girt throne in time to come.
Yet in the face of this obvious consideration there arises the re-
markable circumstance, that at the present time Great Britain has
not a single first-class telescope at work with adequate optical power
for the refined investigations that are now pressing upon the notice
of the astronomer, while one of her colonial dependencies in the
opposite hemisphere has just completed an instrument of this class
at large public outlay. In all probability results will be secured in
the spectroscopic analysis of the light of faint stars that fail to show
spectral signs to smaller instruments, through this enlightened act
of the Melbourne Government, which will give further point to the
argument now on hand.

It is an important peculiarity of science, viewed as a branch
of human pursuit and industry, that there is literally no limit to
either the objects of investigation or the necessity for continuous
inquiry. Phenomena of apparently the most trivial character

46 National Institutions for | Jan.,

commonly prove to be the first steps to deductions and discoveries
that revolutionize the conditions of civilized society. Every point
that occurs as involving some insufficiently examined element,
must be viewed as a herald that promises to increase and compact
man’s knowledge of law and his power over material nature. No
one who had chanced to observe the Bologna Professor of Ana-
tomy’s pretty and apparently somewhat puerile dealing with the
contractions of dead frogs, could ever have conceived that there was
in those experiments the first step towards the utilization of a power
which was waiting the bidding of human intelligence to cover the
earth with a network of instantaneous communication, and to en-
able men to converse and consult together with safety and ease,
while boisterous oceans of thousands of miles’ span were heaving
between them. If the lead of Galvani’s experiment had not been
tracked out as it was, electric telegraphy would most probably _
still have been an art of the future. But if there had been in
Galvani’s days more adequate provision for seizing and following
out that lead, it is equally probable that the Atlantic would have
been bridged by the electric cable at a still earlier date in human
history, and that men would have been now gathering harvest from
the discovery that is not yet attainable. No one who watched the
philosophers of Newton’s day, amusing themselves with the pro-
duction of the rainbow spectrum from coloured light, could have
conceived that the little prism of glass was an instrument capable,
in the hands of more modern philosophy and more advanced intel-
ligence, of actually sounding the material conditions of the worlds
and suns of space, severed from man’s theatre of action by such
awful voids that the mind of the investigator yet fails altogether to
realize the extent of the span through which the investigation is
conducted. No one who then looked at the little prism could have
imagined that by it the secrets of the sun’s fires were to be revealed
—that by it the red flames of the total Solar Eclipse, then only
observable during about six minutes at rare intervals, would be
turned into objects of daily and continuous study and record,—that
by it the proper motion of the remote fixed star, which was rushing
directly away from the observer, would be detected and measured.
Yet all this has now been accomplished by the application of the
prism to the Spectroscope, and it is manifest to every thoughtful
mind that this wonderful instrument is only yet on the threshold of
a mighty career.

But it should be at once understood that, whilst every point of
suggestion and possible investigation should be eagerly seized and
surely tracked, a natural division of the labour is fixed by cireum-
stance. There are investigations quite sure to be provided for by
individual taste and enterprise; while there are others that neces-
sarily require forethought and organization, and that will never be

1869. | Practical Scientific Research. 47

carried out unless they are insured in some way by the action
and at the cost of the general community. ‘The exact line of this
practical distinction will, in all probability, be found to be settled by
the need for expensive appliances, permanently appropriated build-
ings, and continuous action steadily sustained through long periods.
These are the conditions which private enterprise cannot and,
excepting in the rarest instances, will not provide, and which will
not be furnished unless they are supplied on the urgent call of an
enlightened community sensible of their need. To take as one
prominent instance of the field that has to be occupied by system
and organization: How numerous are the sustamed investigations
that are required into the properties of the various materials em-
ployed in the useful arts! Who can yet explain the thousand
‘forms which are assumed by iron, and the thousand changes the
metal undergoes under the slightest variety of handling? all of
which have direct bearings upon the economies, and, in these recent
days of multiplied marvels, even upon the safety of human life. The
ordinary alloys of the mechanic—brass, gun-metal, bell-metal, and
their congeners,—are all universally cast by the rule of thumb.
Upon a recent occasion, when it was found to be highly desirable
to introduce large castings of aluminium bronze into the frames of
the large theodolites prepared to bear the strain of central stations
of observation in the Indian Geodetical Survey, this was done to a
considerable degree with the most promising effect, but it was found
to be absolutely impracticable to carry the principle out to the
desired extent, on account of the want of all apphances for dealing
with such masses of a new alloy. In yet higher branches of the
application of science, man is still more in the dark. The most
intelligent mechanics at this moment know literally nothing as
to what is the best material for the construction of the linear
measures, on the truthfulness of which all the value of geodetical
measures depends; neither can they say whether any material that
can be employed for this purpose will retain its dimensions and
co-efficient of expansion unaltered through long intervals of time.
This one investigation alone requires a special building devoted to
the task, and long years of close, continuous, and systematic obser-
vation. If there were such a thing as a building properly devised
and prepared for investigating generally the properties of the
metals, fresh work and useful results would never fail it, so long as
metals are used by man. The course that has been taken by the
Prussians in forming the Hoffmann Laboratory at Berlin is cer-
tainly one which may be accepted as an example of one way in
which the forward movement of science may be quickened without
entailing any risk of doing harm as well as good. If buildings
designed for special work were placed not in, but accessibly near,
to the largest and most important towns of the kingdom, combining

48 National Institutions for [Jan.,

in their construction the four prime essentials of rigid stability,
free command of light, provision for the maintenance of any re-
quired temperature, and quietude, so that they could be used by all
who could show that they had really work to do in them, the cost
of their establishment would most certainly very soon be returned
manifold to the community.

For the thinkers and social philosophers of England should
never lose sight of one great fact that underlies this question, and
certainly will continue so to do under all circumstances and events;
—namely, that scientific work richly pays the community, but does
not pay the man. Upon the whole it may be said that the chief
discoveries in human knowledge are made by individuals who labour
hard at some daily drudgery for a livelihood, and then spend their
savings and, as innumerable dark pages of human history show, too
often something beyond their savings, to benefit their kind, carry-
ing, as their own reward for the work, privation and impoverishment
to the brink of early graves. It certainly is no very rash or bold
step to assume that something is wanting in social arrangements
where this has to be said of a nation that is at the present time
adding millions of pounds sterling every year to its accumulated
wealth, in the main drawn from improvements in science.

The large world of scientific men, properly so called, are upon
the whole ripe for the recognition of the need for some kind of
increased facility for carrying on severe research. ‘This is at once
apparent whenever the topic is introduced in general conversation.
The main point of difficulty, so far as scientific men are concerned,
is the question of the best means of doing what is admitted to be
so imperatively called for. Many in the ranks of science believe
that the work would be most surely and most satisfactorily per-
formed by the Government, and that it even could be efficiently
performed by no other agency. Others, on the contrary, conceive
that scientific men can manage their own affairs best, without any
extraneous interference, and that any meddling of the state would
tend to cripple and lethargize, rather than to quicken and strengthen.
There is obviously much to be said on both sides in this particular
bearing ; and it is therefore well that the issue should be fairly
jomed, and that much should be said, as now certainly will be the
case.

The objection of scientific men to state action seems, however,
principally to rest on a threefold ground. ‘There seems to be a sort
of general notion that statesmen do not know much about science.
Added to this there is the strong fear that if the state subsidized
and directed scientific investigation, science would work in leading-
strings, instead of in the absolute freedom which is the first condition
of her own being, the very breath of her life. And then again
there is the notion that where the state has a finger there will be

1869. ] Practical Scientific Research. 49

patronage, and preference of inferior agents, who have the support
of friendly recommendations, to superior agents who are standing
alone.

In regard to this point of view it will not be necessary to say
more at present, than that these objections are all properly apph-
cable to state “maladministration,” rather than to state action.
The notion that the government of an enlightened community
should concern itself with facilitating and quickening the know-
ledge and intelligence of the people, of course presumes that the
government is to be one that 1s im every sense worthy of the
important trust. There can be no doubt that if a government is
not worthy of this great trust, and is not capable of carrying out
this important object, it is not worthy of being held to be a govern-
ment at all. A writer in a recent number of the ‘Student’ has
very tersely and admirably touched upon this aspect of the matter,
and has given pointed expression to the true principle that has to
be looked to in regard to it. He says, “ As civilization advances,
and political liberty extends, hostile distinctions between govern-
ments and people pass away, and nations tend to organize themselves
as great co-operative societies, turning the central power in any
direction consistent with individual rights, and likely to be pro-
ductive of general good. There ought to be no fear of investing
properly constituted governments with too much power of being
useful, though there may be great necessity for constituting efficient
safeguards and checks against abuse. Human progress is not likely
to diminish the sphere of state action, but, on the contrary, to
increase it.” It is surely true that in few branches of state action
have the evils alluded to less to be feared than in relation to the
adoption of formal measures for the extension of science. So far
as the experiment has been tried, there has been ample guarantee
that where science is concerned, distinction and acknowledged
ability do outweigh all other influences and considerations of what-
ever kind, and to an extent certainly not encountered in other
departments of the public service. It is enough in illustration of
this to point to the names that are found at the head of four impor-
tant departments where circumstances have compelled a considerable
amount of state action. An Airey directs the National Observatory.
An Owen looks after the Natural History Collections of Bloomsbury.
A Hooker, after years of tried and arduous labour among’ the
Himalayas, is the presiding spirit of the treasures and glories of
Kew; and in the young Mineralogical School in Jermyn Street are
encountered such names as Murchison, Warrington Smyth, and
Huxley.

It should also most certainly be remembered that in one particular
sense science-extension enjoys a remarkable immunity from danger
of noxious contamination, issuing from state contact, even over its

VOL. VI. BE

50 | The Great Solar Eclipse [Jan.,

near relative, science-education. It is fairly within the scope of an
ardent and timid imagination to conceive that a state might
attempt to indoctrinate the national mind with a certain foregone
and foredetermined scheme, adapted to work towards some set
purpose ; but it certainly is not possible to imagine the utter
absurdity of a state influencing the direction of discovery, or
shaping the perceptions of new truth. .

On the whole, then, the investigation which will now be formally
entered upon, and which will be pressed upon public attention, will
be pretty much compressed into a nutshell, and will take one clear
practical issue. At a time when the surface deposits and surface
leads of the great mine of theoretical and practical science are
almost exhausted by individual pickers, are deep diggings to be
opened out by the aid of a small driblet of the capital that has
been created from the past yieldings of the property ? Are civilized
nations, and especially is England, where there is such isolation
and concentration of life and mind-energy, to remain content to
benefit by small accidental waifs and strays of discovery that fail
in from time to time; or is a clear, powerful, and organized effort to
be made to use the present accumulation of human intelligence as
a means of quickening the acquisition of that thorough knowledge
of the properties and workings of material nature, which is the
essence of civilization, and the instrument by which the well-being,
the high dignity, and the happiness of the human race are worked
out ?

VI. THE GREAT SOLAR ECLIPSE OF AUGUST 18, 1868.
By Wit11am Crooxss, F.R.S., &e., Editor.

Tae phenomena attending a total eclipse of the sun have always
been of a most impressive character, but only within a comparatively
recent period have they been observed systematically, and_ still
more recently looked forward to as an opportunity for solving
many important problems in solar physics. Previous to 1860, our
knowledge of the physical constitution of the sun was based almost
exclusively on theoretical grounds. In that year, however, a some-
what important eclipse of the sun occurred, the line of totality
passing over Spain, and expeditions from different countries were
organized to observe it. The most important of these was that
taken from England by Dr. Warren De la Rue, who especially
devoted himself to securing photographic records of the progress
of the eclipse. The point on which information was principally
sought was the physical constitution of the red protuberances, for

Fs

ae. bb ele

: THE PRINCIPAL FIXED LINES OF THE SOLAR SPECTRUM

HYDROCEN SPECTRUM

|
|
|
} i

SPECTRUM OF PROTUBERANCES AS SEEN BY M RAYET.
SPECTRUM OF PROTUBERANCES AS SEEN BY LIEUT HERSCHEL.
SPECTRUM OF PROTUBERANCES AS SEEN BY MAJOR TENNANT.

leer:
SPECTRUM OF PROTUBERANCES AS SEEN BY MR LOCKYER.
{

NEW C. LINE & REMARKABLE WIDENING OUT OF LINE F. OBSERVED BY M® LOCKYER

1869.] of August 18, 1868. 51

hitherto opinions had been divided as to whether they belonged to
the sun, the moon, or were the results of refraction, &c., in our
own atmosphere. The highly successful photographs taken by
Dr. De la Rue solved this point, and proved conclusively that the
prominences belonged to the sun. But these photographs, whilst
they solved one point, raised other problems even more perplexing.
Assuming that the prominences belonged to the sun, it had been
taken for granted that they were of the nature of mountains pro-
jecting from the solar disc, but the photograph showed us enormous
masses of matter, well defined and sharp in their outline, but of a
size and shape perfectly incompatible with solidity, and hanging
suspended several thousand miles above the surface of the sun.
Instead of being settled by the 1860 eclipse, the problem was in
reality only started, and astronomers, chemists, and physicists, have .
been looking forward eagerly to the opportunities offered last
August to advance some steps nearer its solution.

It seems as if a combination of interesting researches in several
branches of science culminated in this one eclipse. Simultaneously
with the definite statement of the problem by the photographs, the
attention of the scientific world was forcibly directed to a new
instrument of physical research—the spectroscope—which was
destined to afford a complete answer to the main question. The
admirable researches of Bunsen and Kirchhoff* led to the general
prosecution of spectroscopic research, and paved the way for the dis-
coveries of Kirchhoff, Foucault, Plucker, Miller, Huggins, and others.
The researches, especially of the latter philosopher, on the spectra
of the stars, nebulze, and comets, showed what a powerful instrument
the spectroscope would be im researches on solar physics, and espe-
cially in the examination of those rare phenomena only to be seen
during a total eclipse.

It was accordingly agreed tacitly that spectrum observations were
those likely to bear most fruit, and in most of the expeditions which
were sent out this year the spectroscope was intended to play an
important part.

This great eclipse stands alone in the annals of astronomy. In
time of duration (nearly seven minutes at the maximum) it exceeds
all recorded eclipses, and more than thirty generations of astro-
nomers will come and go before an equal length of totality will be
witnessed. ‘The eclipse observed in Spain only gave the observers
34 minutes as the longest time in which to concentrate their
observations, and it is therefore not surprising that so much anxiety
was shown amongst scientific men of all countries to make the most
of this grand opportunity.

No single astronomical event has ever before excited such

* Phil. Mag., August, 1860.
E 2

52 The Great Solar Eclipse [Jan.

interest. Expeditions were sent half-way across the globe, from
England, France, and Germany, and, fitted with all the necessary
apparatus, were stationed at different points along the line of totality,
from Aden, on the Red Sea, to Wah-Tonne, in the Malay peninsula.
Two expeditions were sent from England, one under the auspices
of the Royal Society, under Lieut. Herschel, who was to devote
himself principally to spectrum observations of the corona and red
prominences; the other, from the Royal Astronomical Society,
under the charge of Major Tennant. The Royal Society spent
nearly 3002. for instruments for the expedition; and in case bad
weather should interfere with the observations at the principal
stations, four hand-spectrum telescopes, similar to those devised by
Mr. Huggins for observations of meteors, were also sent out to be
distributed to other observers along the central line of the eclipse.
The French also sent out two expeditions, one under the charge of .
M. Janssen, and the other under M. Stephan. ‘Two Prussian
expeditions were sent out, and it was also expected that Mr. Pogson,
of the Madras Observatory, would also start with a party of
observers to some spot along the central line.

Major Tennant, some considerable time beforehand, computed
for the whole breadth of the Indian peninsula the central line and
the limits of totahty. The shadow 1s about 143 miles broad, and
the line of totality would pass over Kolapoor, Belgaum, Kurnoul,
Sikunderabad, Ongole, Guntoor, Masulipatam, Rajah Mandri, the
whole course of the Kistna, its Delta, and that of the Godaveri, and
parts of the valleys of the Bhuna and Toongabruda. Leaving
India proper, the shadow would cross the Bay of Bengal, the north
Andaman island, and then pass through the Mergui Archipelago
and the province of Tenasserim, across the Malay peninsula to the
island of Borneo, which it would reach between our colony of
Labuan and the Sarawak country. “Of this course,” Major Tennant
considered “the west coast of India would be experiencing the
south-west monsoon. The same state of things exists at the
Andaman Islands, and on the British side of the Malay peninsula.
The other side is not easily attainable, and I am not aware that
there would be any inducement to go to Borneo. The Eastern
part of the track through India affords, I believe, every chance of
fine weather, and I think observers would do well to select that

art.”
In accordance with these suggestions, the North German
Expedition stationed themselves at Aden; Lieut. Herschel went to
Belgaum ; another English party, under Captain Haig, who had
been supplied with one of the hand-spectroscopes, was stationed
at Beejapoor ; whilst the other English expedition under Major
Tennant went to Guntoor, at which station the French observers
under M. Janssen, who represented the Académie des Sciences

1869. | of August, 1868.

53

and the Bureau des Longitudes, also located themselves ; lastly,
another French observer, M. Stephan, and party, took their post

of observation at Wah-Tonne, on the Pe-
ninsula of Malacca. Another German expe-
dition stationed at Moolwar, eighteen mules
south of Beejapoor, were unfortunately pre-
vented by clouds from making any observa-
tions.

Fig. 1. shows the path of the eclipse, the
black band covering all places within the line of
totality. The different stations are named and
left white. Thus the North German observers
would secure their results at half-past six in the
morning, soon after sunrise, whilst those situ-
ated at the more easterly stations would not
commence work until several hours later. Most
of the expeditions were supplied with photo-
graphic apparatus, and it was hoped that by
thus securing photographs of the totality, taken
at intervals of several hours, it could be ascer-
tained whether the form of the protuberances
underwent any perceptible change of shape.
The German expedition at Aden and that under
Major Tennant at Guntoor were more or less
successful in securing photographs, but suf-
ficient time has not yet elapsed to enable any
comparative examinations to be made of these.

The principal phenomena which had to be
observed (besides the general aspect of the
country, the variations in the intensity of light,
&e.) were :—

1. Photographic delineations of the pheno-
mena of totality.

2. The position, heights, and general con-

figuration of the red protuberances.

3. The appearance of the corona and its
state of polarization.

4, Spectrum observations on the corona and
prominences.

These by no means exhaust the list of what
was to be observed, but writing after the event,
they form convenient headings under which to
range the various discoveries. For the sake of
convenience, the results of the various expedi-
tions will be collated and described under these
several headings.

Fig. 1.

C (‘ll

=

Hal

The Path of the Eclipse—
August 18.

54 The Great Solar Eclipse [Jan.,

1. PHorocrarnic REsvuts.

Judging from the accounts which have come to England, there
appears little doubt that the German expedition to Aden was the
most successful in this respect. Dr. Vogel, one of the most eminent
of the German photographers, had been selected to take charge
of this department. His arrangements were admirable in their
systematic precision. Possible cases of failure were anticipated,
and carefully provided against, and for some time previously all the
staff had been engaged in rehearsing the various operations which
would have to be gone through during the eventful 2” 55” of
totality ; in short, everything was so well rehearsed, and every one
so carefully told off to his duty, that failure from preventible causes
was scarcely possible. Aden had been selected as the most likely spot
in the zone of totality to be free from clouds; the evening before ,
the eclipse was, however, very cloudy, and occasioned great anxiety,
and on the morning of the 18th the sun rose behind thick banks of
purple gray cloud ; before totality commenced the clouds separated,
and enabled four successful photographs to be taken. The apparatus
employed was a telescope having an achromatic lens six inches
diameter and six feet focus, specially ground by Steinheil, so as to
get the photographic image in focus. This afforded a solar image
of ths of an inch in diameter, and was mounted equatorially and
moved by clockwork, adjusted so as to counteract the motion of the
earth, and to keep the telescope rigidly fixed on the image during
the ten or fifteen seconds required to receive the impression. To
the end of the telescope was fixed a small photographic camera,
provided with dark slides, each of which would hold a sensitive
plate large enough to take two images. The following is the
description given by Dr. Vogel of his operations :—

“The totality of the eclipse at Aden was about three minutes
long (in India five minutes) ; nevertheless, we had chosen Aden for
our station because there were already photographic observers in
India, and because the totality appeared at Aden about an hour
earlier than in India. Therefore a comparison of the different
results would enable us to decide the question if the protuberances
appearing at a total eclipse of the sun were changing in the course
of time or not.

“Our task was to get, within these three minutes, as many
views of the phenomenon as possible. For this purpose we had
previously exercised ourselves in the employment of the photo-
graphic telescope, like artillerymen with their guns. Dr. Fritsche
prepared the plates in the first tent, Dr. Zenker put the dark slides
into the telescope, Dr. Thiell exposed, and I myself developed in the
second tent. We ascertained that it was possible in this way to get
six images (three plates of two images) during three minutes.

1869. | of August 18, 1868. 5d

“When the decisive moment was fast advancing, the sky,
hitherto covered with clouds, showed some openings, through
which the sun, already covered partially by the moon, was to
be seen.

“The sun crescent became smaller and smaller, and the opening
in the clouds seemed to increase.

“The last minutes before the totality (which began at twenty
minutes past six o'clock) went rapidly away. Dr. Fritsche and
myself crept into the tents, where we remained, consequently we
have seen nothing of the totality. Our work began; we exposed
the first plate five and ten seconds, in order to know what was thie
proper time.

“ Muhammed, our black servant, brought the first attempt into
my tent. I poured the iron developer over the plate, eager to
know what was to come. At this moment my light was ex-
tinguished. I called for light, but nobody heard me, as all were
about their task. I stretched my right hand out of the tent,
holding the dark slide in the left, and happily caught a small oil
lamp, which I had previously prepared. And now I saw the
image of the sun appearing on the plate. The dark margin of
the sun was surrounded by a series of peculiar elevations—the
other side showed a strange hook ; the phenomenon being exactly
the same in both views. My joy was great; but there was no
time for enjoyment. I
soon received the second,
and, after another minute,
the third plate. ‘The sun
is coming forth!’ ex-
claimed Dr. Zenker. The
totality was over. All
seemed to have been done
in a moment.

“ When I developed the
second plate I perceived
only very weak traces of
an image. The clouds had
veiled the sun at the very
moment of the exposure.
The third plate gave two
brilliant views, with pro-
tuberances at the lower
margin. Glad to have secured s» much, we washed, fixed, and var-
nished the plates, and immediately took some copies on glass, which
were to be dispatched to Europe separately,”

Fig. 2 is copied from these photographs.

The protuberances a, b, and ¢ were given on the first plates, and

Byen2t

56 The Great Solar Eclipse | Jan.,

the protuberances d, e were shown on the third plate. The great
horn eé is in height about +},th of the sun’s diameter, and it would
therefore in reality be 12,000 miles high.

Major Tennant, writing from Guntoor, on the day of the
eclipse, says :—

“This morning was very promising, and if it had followed the
course of its predecessor we should have had a magnificent clear
sky, but if clouded over the east with thin cumulostrati, which,
while hardly stopping vision, interfere very much with the photo-
graphic energy ; and the result was that every negative was under-
exposed, and we have little more than very dense marks showing
the protuberances. The six plates arranged for were duly exposed,
but the heat so concentrated the nitrate of silver solution that,
besides showing but faint traces of any corona, they are all
covered with spots. Still, we may make something of them, and
will try.”

This appears very unsatisfactory; but from a second letter,
written five days after, he says that they have since been enlarging
the photographs, and he is very well satisfied.

“The clouds reduced the actinism very much and very un-
equally, but that has shown new things to me. Ist. There is very
little corona. 2nd. The cloudy structure of prominences is very
marked, But the most remarkable thing is a great horn, which
seems to haye been 3’ 20” nearly high. I have, as I told Mr.
Airy, clearly seen in its spectrum, o, D, and b, and I believe I saw
F, but did not identify it. Now this shows both in Nos. 1 and 3
(photographs) as a ribbon of light, coiled spirally round a semi-
transparent centre. It is very beautiful, and marked in 3, which
was taken two minutes after the (commencement of ) totality, and I
am doing my best to keep this feature (to retain this feature) in the
copies. No, 1 was taken apparently before the last of the sun went.
Phillips (one of his assistants) says it was; and there is a spot of
fog such as would be the result. ‘There is a fine line of light seen
through all this fog much brighter than the corona. This, too, I
am keeping on enlarging. We have got six enlarged positives
about 24 inches in diameter from each negative. Every one of
these shows the same remarkable spiral structure in the great horn.
I find there are traces in a drawing which Dr. Janssen got made of
that prominence (mentioned in the first part of his letters as
invisible to the eye) of which I spoke. The positive copies I will
enlarge to 9 inches.”

In a subsequent letter Major Tennant says that the great horn
was 90,000 English miles ‘or more in height.

The editor of the ‘Photographic News’ has commented in
very severe terms on these results. He says:—“ Our first impulse,
on reading such a statement as the result of such an expedition on

1869.] of August 18, 1868. 57

such an occasion, was to repeat the famous sentence of Ruskin,
‘This is not failure, but disaster!’ Compared with the results
obtained by Mr. Warren De la Rue in Spain, in 1860, compared
with those secured by the German Expedition, such an issue as the
above is most humiliating. The plates were under-exposed, and
covered with spots, we are told, as though the possibility of guard-
ing against such contingencies was a thing undreamt of. This
expedition was sent out by the Royal Society, aided by Government,
and we fear very much that it is to the aid of the latter much of
the failure may be attributed. It is probable, in fact, that it is due
to red tape. A staff of men provided by Government might or
might not be fitted in all respects for the work; but if the men
‘told off’ for the duty knew nothing of photography, it would be
against all precedent to import a photographer from another de-
partment. If the men were selected from the Engineers, and they
were not familiar with photographic operations, it would be quite
inadmissible to introduce amongst them men from (say) the Artil-
lery, who were skilled photographers. It is probable, from what
we can learn, that to a cause of this kind the failure in result was
due. Be this as it may, however, it appears tolerably clear that no
experienced photographer formed part of the expedition staff, or we
should not have heard of such puerile difficulties as spots from con-
centrations of the silver solution. We have in this country several
photographers of high repute and great practical skill, who have
had experience in Eastern photography, and who have succeeded
amid the gravest difficulties. We refer to such men as Bedford, and
Frith, and Goode. Surely it would have been possible to have
secured the services of some of these or other experienced photogra-
phers to whom the purely photographic operations should have
been confided, and who would have certainly secured immunity
from the disasters attending concentrated silver solutions, and pro-
bably also from the risk of under-exposure.”

2. THe GENERAL CoNFIGURATION OF THE RED PrRoTupERANCES.

On this subject an immense amount of information has been
accumulated, At Aden Dr. Weiss says that three protuberances
were visible during the eclipse, without counting the red border
which at the commencement and at the end of the totality encircled
wide portions of the lunar limb, and which towards the end ap-
peared surrounded by a deep blue aureola shading off into the sky.
The first protuberance appeared very near the point where the last
ray of the sun disappeared. Its appearance was that of an agelo-
meration of protuberances very complicated in its details. The
second, the most interesting of all, was located at the eastern

58 The Great Solar Eclipse [Jan.,

border of the lunar disc, rising to a considerable height almost
perpendicularly. Its appearance was nearly that of a finger bent
in the middle. The third only appeared towards the end of totality
in the form of a small conical elevation almost diametrically oppo-
site the first. All these protuberances were of a clear carmine tint
and sharply defined.

Dr. T. Oppolzer, one of the observers at Aden, reports that
the prominences appeared as if detached from the sun. At the
final moment of totality, there was noticed at the spot where the
sun was about to reappear, a red border, separated at the last
moment from the lunar disc by an intensely luminous space, which
formed, as it were, a bridge between the disc and the red border.

Captain Tanner, R.E., who in conjunction with Captain Haig
and Mr. Kero Laxuman, observed the eclipse at Beejapoor, has given
the following account of his observations. This gentleman is an
expert delineator, and occupied himself in making rapid sketches of
what he saw. The accompanying drawing (Fig. 3) is copied from
Captain Tanner’s sketch,
who gives the following
description of it:—“I at
first saw three promi-
nences—one long, curved,
pointed tongue, and two
close together, straight but
flat-topped, about tw: -
thirds the height of the
former. They were of a
; rose-madder colour, and
were decidedly more like
flames than anything else,
not only in their general
appearance and colour,
but by their being com-
posed of smaller tongues
of flame parallel (or nearly
so) to the general axis of the flame, so that they had a streaky
appearance and a ragged edge. At the first glance, when the
sun was somewhat obscured by clouds, I thought they were
homogeneous and had hard edges; but this idea was at once dis-
pelled when the clouds cleared off. The two protuberances,
which were close together, were not, as far as I could see, joined
by any smaller shots of flame. I afterwards observed one small
protuberance, and marked the position of it in my sketch. I
did not observe that it was streaky, as the others were—perhaps
on account of its being so small, and perhaps because I had not
sufficient time to examine it properly. As regards the corona

Fic. 3.

1869.] of August, 18, 1868. 59

when we first began to see the eclipse throuch the clouds, I was
under the impression that the eclipse, instead of being total, was
only annular, so bright was the corona near the moon’s limb. I
could not detect any irregularities in the structure of the corona,
but the light appeared to be gradually shaded off all round.”

Dr. Janssen, who was at Guntoor, was principally occupied with
spectrum observations, but he gives a very graphic account of the
appearance of the long horn, which he says was more than three
minutes high, and shone with a splendour difficult to imagine. It
recalled the flame of a forge issuing with violence from openings in
the fuel, and driven by the force of the blast. The protuberance on
the right (the eastern edge) presented the appearance of a collection
of snowy mountains, whose base rested on the limb of the moon,
and which were illuminated by a setting sun.

The ordinary observations at Wah-Tonne on the protuberances
were made by M. Stephan. He examined the phenomena of totality
in a large telescope, and describes the protuberances as appearing
with marvellous sharpness: they were in four groups, arranged as
shown in Fig, 4; their
colour was described as
rose coral, slightly tinged
with violet; they all
seemed attached by a
perfectly distinct base,
and not to float at a cer-
tain distance above the
sun, as drawn by some ob-
servers in recent eclipses.
The longest protuberance
had a length which was
not less than the tenth
part of the lunar dia-
meter.

During this eclipse it
was noticed by more than
one observer that the red
flames were not extinguished immediately after the totality had
passed over. Thus Dr. Weiss, at Aden, said that the large
horn remained visible for a minute after the sun had reappeared,
being only then lost in the clouds; and Dr. Oppolzer, who was
also at Aden, says that this same protuberance could be dis-
tinguished for thirty-seven seconds after the last moment of
totality. At Beejapoor, Mr. Kero Laxuman describes the great
protuberance as like a red flaming torch, streaked by several
dark red lines. He says it was visible “for about two minutes
after the end of totality, and had there been no clouds I think it

Fia. 4.

60 The Great Solar Eclipse [ Jan.,

could have been seen longer. At Wah-Tonne, M. Stephan records
that one of the protuberances remained visible for several seconds
after the third contact (the reappearance of the sun). This per-
sistence may seem extraordinary, since the long protuberance did
not appear till the second contact ; this, however, may be attributed
to the fact, that at the third contact the eye was in a state of
repose owing to the darkness of totality.”

Another curious phenomenon has been recorded by some ob-
servers, from which it would appear that close to the surface of
the sun there is a highly luminous atmosphere. This is most
strikingly described by M. Stephan. He says that the second con-
tact was not followed by a sudden disappearance of all bright light;
after the disappearance of the edge of the sun the moon still
appeared to M. ‘Tisseraud and himself as if it were surrounded with
a narrow luminous border, about a quarter of a minute in thick-
ness, of a brilliancy almost comparable to that of the sun: “this
ring is so brilliant that it might lead to an error in the estima-
tion of contact. This luminous ring reappeared some seconds
before the third contact. Thus, the actual globe of the sun would
appear to be surrounded with a thin diaphanous shell, extremely
brilliant.”

The captain and officers of the ‘ Rangoon,’ steamship, belonging
to the Peninsular and Oriental Steamship Company, which hap-
pened to be almost on the central line of totality, have given a very
full description, with drawings, of the phenomena observed.

ie 5 Fig. 5 shows the ap-
Ters cera pearance presented to
them soon after the com-
mencement of totality.
The long flame was 5’
high, and very brilliant ;
in the upper portion was
another shorter and wider
prominence. One of the
officers on board says that
the long horn became
suddenly visible about a
minute after the com-
mencement of totality.

Fig. 6 shows the po-
sition of the prominences
at the reappearance of the
sun. The upper promi-
nence disappeared suddenly, but the inferior one remained visible
about ten seconds longer, with its dimensions reduced one-

alf.

1869. | of August 18, 1868. 61

The colour of the prominences is described as different by each
observer.

Major Tennant de-
seribes them as white;
Captain Branfill, as co-
loured ; Captain Haig
speaks of them as “red
flames ;” Captain Tanner,
as rose madder; Mr.
Kero Laxuman, as a red
flaming torch, and as red
streaked by several dark-
ened lines. Governor
Hennessy compares one
of them to a tower of rose-
coloured clouds, “ more
beautiful than any rose-
colour I ever saw ;” ano-
ther he describes as a
bright blue, ike a bril-
liant sapphire with light thrown upon it; next to that was the
so-called rose-colour, and at the right corner a sparkling ruby tint.

Fic. 6.

8. THe PHENOMENA OF THE CORONA.

The state of polarization of the light of the corona was the
principal phenomenon which was to be observed, and the results
are very concordant.

Lieut. W. M. Campbell, who was stationed at Belgaum with
Lieut. Herschel, determined satisfactorily that the light of the
corona was polarized in planes passing through the sun’s centre.
Captain Branfill, who was at Guntoor, made the same observation,
and this fact has been further confirmed by the observations made
by the French observers.

The accounts received as to the luminosity of the corona vary.
Captains Haig and Tanner say that on the first glimpse of the
eclipse the corona appeared so bright that it gave them the
momentary impression of its being an annular eclipse ; and Captain
Haig further remarks that the light of the red flames was to
the naked eye so feeble as to be outshone to extinction by that of
the corona. Governor Hennessy, in the Island of Borneo, speaks
of the corona as a luminous ring, composed of a multitude of
rays quite irregular in length and in direction ; from the upper and
lower parts they extended in bands to a distance more than twice
the diameter of the sun. Other bands appeared to fall towards
one side ; but in this there was no regularity, for bands near them

62 The Great Solar Eclipse [Jan.,

fell away apparently towards the other side; they resembled masses
of luminous hair in complete disorder; and Lieut. Ray compared
them to horses’ tails.

Very few spectrum observations were made of the corona, but
it apparently gave either no spectrum at all or a very faint con-
tinuous spectrum; no bright lines were seen. What few observa-
tions appear of value will be found under the next section, as the
observations of the corona and the red prominences cannot easily
be separated.

It is teresting to observe how the darkness appeared to vary
in different places during totality. Captain Haig, near Beejapoor,
says that they were surprised to find it so far from total: they could
easily write, read writing, and read the seconds of their watches,
without the aid of artificial light; im the town, on the contrary,
the darkness was so great that it was not possible to see one’s own
hand; and at Moolwar a gentleman dropped part of an eye-piece of
a telescope, and it was not possible to find it, even by placing the
eye close to the ground, until after the end of totality. In Borneo,
under a cloudless sky, the darkness came on as if a thunderstorm
was just about to break: the birds, dragonflies, and butterflies
disappeared, and the crickets and cicade began to sound; and
immediately before the total obscuration the horizon could not be
seen; the sky was of a dark leaden blue, and the trees looked
almost black; the faces of the observers looked dark, but not
pallid or unnatural. The moment of maximum darkness seemed
to be immediately before the total obscuration, and for a few
seconds nothing could be seen except objects quite close to the ob-
servers. Major Tennant says that the darkness was very slight,
and the colour not half so gloomy as in the eclipse of 1857, which
was partial at Delhi, where he was then.

Venus shone out very brilliantly, and Sirius and several other
of the brighter stars were seen, but no mention is made by anyone
of Mercury or the supposed intra-mercurial planet Vulcan.

4. Spectrum OBSERVATIONS ON THE CORONA AND ReEpD
PROMINENCES.

Most fortunately, these observations, which were likely to be of
the greatest importance, have been the most uniformly successful.
The least satisfactory observation is that of M. J. Rziha, one of
the North-German party at Aden; but from the description of the
apparatus it was not well fitted for the examination of any special
part, and would only give a general spectrum of the whole light
received on it. He says that his object was to concentrate on the
spectrum the light emanating from the corona during the totality
The black lines of the solar spectrum remained perfectly distinct

1869.] of August 18, 1868. 63

till the commencement of totality, when they disappeared imme-
diately, leaving only a dull spectrum, still always perceptible and
continuous. A reversal of the spectrum, that is to say, an appear-
ance of luminous lines in the places occupied by the black lines did
not take place. When towards the end of totality, light clouds
covered the corona in such a manner as only to allow the light from
the red border and that from the protuberances to pass, the spectrum
underwent a remarkable change, all the colours of greater refrangi-
bility than the green disappeared, and the red extremity only
remained under the form of a spectrum interrupted by wide bands.
The first ray of the sun after totality instantly occasioned the
reappearance of Fratinhofer’s lines.

Amongst the English observers Lieut. Herschel took the most
accurate observations. In a letter to Mr. Huggins, dated from
Belgaum, he gives the following vivid account of his discovery of
the constitution of the red flames :—

“About a quarter of a minute before totality a thick cloud
obscured the sun. I had placed the slit of the spectroscope so as
to cross the crescent at about the vanishing point of the limb, and
was watching the narrow solar spectrum grow rapidly narrower.
You may conceive the state of nervous tension at this moment.
Whatever the corona was competent to show must in a few seconds
have been revealed—unless indeed it should so happen that a
prominence should be situated at that precise spot, in which case
the double spectrum would be presented. But the solar spectrum
faded out while it had still appreciable width, and I knew a cloud
was the cause. I went to the finder, removed the dark glass, and
waited—in that fever of philosophical impatience which recognizes
the futility of irritation, even while it chafes under the knowledge
of fleeting seconds—how long I cannot say, perhaps half-a-minute.
I can well recall the kind of frenzied temptation to turn screws and
look somewhere else, checked by the calm ticking of the clock
telling of a firm hold of the right place, cloud or no cloud. Soon
the cloud hurried over, following the moon’s direction, and therefore
revealing first the upper limb, with its radiating and, as I fancied,
scintillating corona, and then the lower limb. Instantly I marked
a prominence near the needle point in the finder. A rapid turn of
the tangent screw covered it with the point of the needle. Those
few seconds of unveiling were practically all that I saw of the
eclipse as a spectator. The instant the prominence was under
the needle point I returned to the spectroscope. A single glance
solved the problem in great measure. Three vivid lines—red,
orange, blue! No others, no trace of a continuous spectrum. I
think I was a little excited about this time, for I shouted quite
unnecessarily to my recorder, ‘Red, green, yellow,’ quite conscious of
the fact that I meant orange and blue. I lost no time in applying

64 The Great Solar Eclipse [Jan.,

myself to measurement. And here I hesitate; I have no idea how
those five minutes passed so quickly. Clouds were evidently passing
continually, for the lines were only visible occasionally. The red
must have been less vivid than the orange, for after a short attempt
to measure it I passed on to secure the orange, and succeeding to
my satisfaction, tried for the blue line. Here I was less successful.
The glimpses of light were rarer and feebler, the line itself growing
shorter and farther from the cross. I did, however, place the cross
very near the true position, and got a reading just as the re-
illumination of the field of view informed me that the sun had
reappeared on the other limb. I consider there can be no question
that the orange line was identical with p (sodium), so far, at least,
as the instrument is competent to establish an identity. I also
consider that the identity of the blue line with F (hydrogen) is not
established ; on the contrary, I believe the former is less refracted »
than F, but not much. With respect to the red line, I hesitate
much in assigning an approximate place. It might have been
near ¢ (hydrogen). I doubt its being so far as B, but there would
be its limits. The corona may have projected a spectrum of some
kind, but I saw none.”

The observations made by Captain Haig were of less value
than those of Lieut. Herschel, being taken with a hand-spectro-
scope which he had fitted to a small telescope. He reports that he
observed the spectra of two red flames close to each other, and in
their spectra two broad bright bands quite sharply defined, one
rose-madder and the other light golden. Just before emergence,
these spectra were soon lost in the spectrum of the moon's edge,
which had also two well-defined bright bands (one green and one
indigo) about a quarter of the width of the bands in the spectra of
the flames, this spectrum being again soon lost in the bright sun-
light.

e Major Tennant, at Guntoor, was more successful, owing doubt-
less to his apparatus being more perfect. He reports a continuous
spectrum from the corona, and one of bright lines from the pro-
minences examined. He says:—“I am, I believe, safe in saying
that three of the lines in the spectrum of the protuberances cor-
respond to ¢, p, and b. I saw a line in the green near F, but I had
lost so much time in finding the protuberance (owing to the finder
having changed its adjustment since last night), that I lost it in the
sunlight before measuring it, and I believe I saw traces of a line in
the blue near a, but to see them very clearly involves a very large
change in the focus of the telescope, which was out of the question
then. “I conclude that my result is that the atmosphere of the sun
is mainly of non-luminous (or faintly luminous) gas at a short dis-
tance from the limb of the sun. It may have had faintly luminous
lines, but I had to open the jaws a good deal to get what I could

1869. | of August 18, 1868. 65

see at first, and consequently the lines would be diffused some-
what; still I think I should have seen them. The prominence I
examined was a very high narrow one, almost, to my eye, like a bit
of the sun through a chink in brightness and colour ({ could see
no tinge of colour), and somewhat zigzagged, like a flash of light-
ning. It must have been three minutes high, for it was on the
preceding side of the sun near the vertex, and was a marked object,
both in the last photo-plate just before the sun reappeared, and to
the eye.”

The French observers seem to have been very successful. M.
Janssen, who was furnished with spectrum apparatus of a perfect
description, describes the phenomena in the following manner :—
“Soon the dise of the sun appeared reduced to a thin luminous
crescent. Our attention was redoubled. The jaws of the spectrum
apparatus attached to the six-inch telescope were rigorously kept
in contact with that portion of the lunar limb which was about to
extinguish the last rays of the sun, so that the slit would be led by
the moon herself into the lowest regions of the solar atmosphere
when the two discs were tangent. The light disappeared all at
once, and the spectral phenomena changed at the same time in a
very remarkable manner. Two spectra, formed of five or six very
brilliant lines, red, yellow, green, blue, violet, occupied the field of
view, replacing the solar spectrum which had just disappeared.
These spectra, about a minute in height, corresponded ray for ray,
and were separated by a black interval, in which I could distinguish
no appearance of a brilliant line. The finder showed that these
two spectra were due to two magnificent protuberances which
shone out to the right and to the left of the line of contact where
extinction had just taken place. The preceding observation shows
directly :—

“I. The gaseous nature of the protuberances (brilliant spectral
rays).
“2. The general similitude of their chemical composition (the
spectra corresponding ray for ray).

“3. Their chemical nature (the red and blue rays of their
spectra were decidedly c and F of the solar spectrum, characteristic
as 1s known of hydrogen gas).”

The observing party at Wah-Tonne appeared to have been even
more successful than M. Janssen, if we may judge from the number
of lines seen and identified. M. Rayet had charge of the spectrum
apparatus, which consisted of a telescope with a silvered glass mirror
20 centimetres in diameter, mounted equatorially for the latitude
of the station, and of a direct vision spectroscope. The latter instru-

VOL. VI. ry

66 The Great Solar Eclipse [Jan..

ment, formed of three very dispersing prisms, was arranged of short
length, and to give much light.

The slit of the spectroscope having been arranged so as to cut
at right angles the image of the narrow lumimous are which would
remain some seconds before total obscurity, the light from the
extremity of the horns was first examined. On the ground of a
spectrum with very sharp black lines formed by the diffused atmo-
spherical light was seen a much more luminous band, which was the
spectrum of the light emitted by the extremity of the horn. What-
ever was the width of this part, nothing particular could be noticed
in it; the rays had an appearance in respect to width and intensity
identical with those of the ordinary solar spectrum.

The observation of the horns was interrupted some seconds before
totality, in order to remove the diaphragms from the telescope, to
slightly open the slit of the spectroscope, and thus be prepared to
examine the protuberances.

At the instant of total obscurity, the slit of the spectroscope
having been brought on to the image of the long protuberance,
which became visible on the eastern edge of the sun, M. Rayet im-
mediately saw a series of nine brilliant lines, which, by their arrange-
ment in the field, their relative distance, their colour, and their
general effect as a whole, appeared to be related to the principal
lines of the solar spectrum—-x, D, 5, 6, an unknown line, Fr, and two
lines of the group, G. These lines possessed great brilliancy, and
appeared strongly relieved from the ashy grey very pale ground.

During these observations, the slit of the spectroscope was
parallel to the principal length of the protuberance. Thus the
luminous lines were seen in the apparatus of a length in proportion
to the height of the protuberance; the slit having been turned 90°
round, the rays appeared reduced to the appearance of brilliant
points corresponding to the slight width of the luminous horn ; no
error of observation is therefore possible, and the brilliant lines
actually represent the spectrum of the light of the protuber-
ances.

The spectroscope being in the first position (the slit parallel to
the length of the protuberance) the very brilliant lines correspond-
ing to D, B, and F, were seen to be prolonged beyond the mean
length, by a very feeble luminous tract, the spectrum presenting
the appearance given in the coloured diagram. A certain portion
of the incandescent gaseous light which forms the protuberances
therefore spreads into the solar atmosphere beyond the limits which
the eye in general assigns to these expansions.

The examination of this first protuberance being finished, the
slit was directed to the large luminous region at the west of the
sun. This time, also, the spectrum was seen to consist of brilliant
lines arranged as in the first case, with the exception of there being

1869. ] of August 8, 1868. 67

only one violet line. Therefore all the protuberances do not appear
to emit identical light.

It was remarked that the light at the corona was very faint in
comparison with that of the protuberances ; for whilst the light of
the latter gave a very vivid spectrum, the corona, in spite of the
rather large opening of the slit, did not give any appreciably coloured
spectrum.

In the coloured lithograph which accompanied this article, the
artist has endeavoured to reproduce as closely as possible the various
spectra observed at the different stations. The upper plain one
gives the positions of the principal fixed lines in the solar spectrum,
the second spectrum consisting of three coloured lines on a black
ground, represents the spectrum of incandescent hydrogen. Below
that will be seen the lines observed by M. Rayet, with the faint
prolongations of u, r, and @ spoken of above. The one below that
represents the spectrum seen by Lieut. Herschel, and that observed
by Major Tennant follows. When this plate was prepared, no
detailed description of Janssen’s spectrum had been received, except
that the lines seen were principally those of hydrogen. The two
lower spectra will be referred to immediately.

We come now to a very remarkable double discovery which
inaugurates a field of investigation, destined to produce a rich
harvest of discovery in solar physics. Two years ago, Mr. Norman
Lockyer communicated to the Royal Society a paper, in which he
showed how the spectroscope could be employed to decide the
claims of two theories as to the cause of sun-spots; and in the con-
cludmg paragraph he remarked :*—“May not the spectroscope
afford us evidence of the existeuce of the red flames which total
eclipses have revealed to us in the sun’s atmosphere; although they
escape all other methods of observation at other times? And if go,
may we not learn something from this of the recent outburst of
the star in Corona?” ‘This was not a chance suggestion, for Mr.
Lockyer had been engaged in sweeping round the sun’s edge and
over its dise with his spectrum apparatus, in the hopes of detecting
such a spectrum revelation, but owing to imperfect apparatus no
result was for a long time obtained. Another observer, Mr. Stone,
met with no better success ; and Mr. Hugeins, as late as May, 1868,
had unsuccessfully put the same idea to the test of experiment.
The train of reasoning is sufficiently obvious: the spectroscope
alters the relative brilliancy of two spectra, one of which consists
of a few isolated luminous rays, the other being continuous from
red to violet. The light of the continuous spectrum may be fanned
out by a system of prisms, so as to weaken the rays to any

* «Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ Oct., 11, 1866, vol. xv., p. 256,
Fr 2

68 The Great Solar Eclipse | Jan.,

desired extent by distribution over a large area, whereas the same
amount of dispersion merely places the luminous bands of the
former spectrum farther apart, without weakening them to any
extent. If therefore the red flames gave a spectrum of bright
Ines, they would become visible by examination under sufficient
dispersive power. Mr. Lockyer, satisfied that his want of success
was owing to deficient power or want of adjustment in his instru-
ment, applied himself to construct a more powerful spectroscope,
which was completed in October last. With this he was soon
rewarded by the sight of a prominence spectrum, an account of
which was forwarded to the Royal Society, on October 20th, in
the following words:—“I have this morning perfectly succeeded
in obtaining and observing part of the spectrum of a solar pro-
minence. As a result I have established the existence of three
bright lines in the following positions :—

I. Absolutely coincident with o.
II. Nearly coincident with r.
III. Near p.

“The third line (the one near D) is more refrangible than the
more refrangible of the two darkest lines, by eight or nine degrees
of Kirchhoft’s scale.”

In a subsequent communication to Dr. De la Rue, Mr. Lockyer
says that he has been able to recognize that the protuberances are
simply local accumulations of a gaseous envelope, which completely
surrounds the sun, for in all parts of the circumference he perceives
the characteristic spectrum of the protuberances. The thickness of
this new envelope is said to be nearly 5000 miles, and it is mar-
velously regular in its contour, at the pole as at the equator. A
prominence gives a spectrum consisting of a few long bright lines,
but on directing the instrument to the extreme edge of the sun,
and with the slit perpendicular to its tangent, a narrow belt of the
true solar spectrum is seen, fringed with that of the new enyelope,
consisting of a few very short bright lines projected on a very
faint continuous spectrum of diffused daylight. The bright lines
being superposed on or forming a prolongation of the solar
spectrum, it 1s easy to ascertain with great accuracy whether they
coincide with any of Fratinhofer’s lines; the dark line sometimes
being obliterated and at other times being prolonged by the bright
one. If the instrument adjusted in this manner to the extreme
edge of the sun be now gradually swept round the circle, when a
prominence is reached the narrow spectrum of the chromosphere, as
Mr. Lockyer has termed his new solar envelope, begins to lengthen,
and by measuring the length of the luminous lines in different
parts of the circle, it is easy to map out the shape and position of

1869. | of August 18, 1868. 69

the red flames almost as accurately as if the observer had the benefit
of a perpetual eclipse.

In this manner Mr. Lockyer has sketched the protuberance
shown in the following figure :—

Fig. 7.

When the slit is adjusted so as to fall on a, the brilliant rays
are seen entirely separated from the solar spectrum.

We come now to the curious duplex nature of this discovery.
In describing his spectrum observations of the eclipse prominences
of the 18th August last, M. Janssen said :—

“The most important result of these observations is the dis-
covery of a method of which the principle was conceived during
the eclipse itself, and which will allow of the study of protuberances
and of the regions surrounding the sun at all times, without its
being necessary to have recourse to the interposition of an opaque
body before the sun’s disc. This method is founded upon the
spectral properties of the light of the protuberances—lght which
resolves itself into a small number of very luminous pencils, cor-
responding to the obscure rays of the solar spectrum.”

M. Janssen describes his discovery in the following words :—
“Tt struck me immediately that it would be possible to see the
rays without an eclipse. During the night the method and means
of execution were clearly arranged in my mind, The next morning,
the 19th, the sun rose very brightly. By means of the finder
attached to the large telescope, I placed the shit of the spectroscope
in part on the solar disc, and part beyond ; the sht therefore gave
two spectra, that of the sun, and that of the region of the protu-
berances. The brilliancy of the solar spectrum was a great diffi-
culty, I therefore turned the apparatus so as to remove from the
field the red, green, and blue, the most brilliant portions of the
solar spectrum. All my attention was directed to the line ¢ which
was dark in the sun’s spectrum, but brilliant in that of the protu-
berance. Suddenly I perceived a small brilliant red ray, one or
two minutes in height, forming a rigorous prolongation of the black
line G of the solar spectrum. Upon moving the slit of the spec-
troscope in such a manner as to sweep methodically the region that
I was examining, this line was persistent, but it became modified
in length and in the brilliancy of its various parts, thus showing

70 The Great Solar Eclipse [Jan.,

great variations in the height and luminous power of the different
regions of the protuberance. Shortly afterwards I perceived that
the brilliant ray r was visible as well as a. In the afternoon I
returned to the region examined in the morning; the brilliant
lines showed that great changes had taken place in the distribution
of the matter of the protuberances ; the lines were sometimes broken
into isolated parts which were not united with the principal line in
spite of the movements of the exploring slit. This fact mdicated
the existence of isolated clouds which had been formed during the
morning.”

The conclusion of M. Jansgen’s report contains two interesting
facts, the first is that the lines of the protuberances penetrate into
the black lines of the solar spectrum, thus demonstrating the pro-
longation of the protuberances on to the globe of the sun. The
second is that the protuberances become altered in shape and dis-
placed with extreme rapidity. On the 4th of September a remark-
able observation is recorded, showing that a mass of matter many
hundred times larger than the earth is in a few moments displaced
and completely altered in form.

This discovery of M. Janssen’s was strangely enough com-
municated to the French Academy only a few minutes after
Dr. De la Rue had communicated Mr. Lockyer’s discovery to the
same body; it had before been communicated to the Royal Society.
As Mr. Balfour Stewart remarks:—“ Although the priority of
observation isdue to M. Janssen, yet the possibility of the discovery
was suggested by Mr. Lockyer more than two years ago, and to my
knowledge he has been working at it since that time; whereas M.
Janssen frankly acknowledges that the idea only occurred to him
during the eclipse itself. This fact was very nobly referred to by
M. Faye, at the discussion which followed the announcement of the
discovery at the Academy of Sciences.”

It would appear as if these luminous lines were somewhat
variable in their appearance, some being present in one protuber-
ance and not in others. The temperature and intensity of action
going on over the sun’s surface have also much to do with their
appearance; thus Mr. Lockyer has occasionally detected a new ©
line, a little less refrangible than © by the distance apart of the two
D lines, apparently caused by an ejection of extraneous matter. A
curious phenomenon has also occasionally been observed with the F
line, it sometimes exhibits a widening at the base or in some other
portion of its length, suggesting the explanation that with great
merease of temperature the ray of light of this refrangibility
becomes nebulous and capable of spreading sideways, in the same
way as the yellow sodium lines will do. No other line has been
observed to do this.

In the coloured illustration the lowest spectrum shows Mr.

1869. | of August 18, 1868, a

Lockyer’s new c line and the abnormal appearance of r. The one
above it shows the general appearance of his prominence spectra.

This discovery is being actively followed up, and the Rey.
Father Secchi has already communicated to the French Academy
two papers on the subject in which Mr. Lockyer’s discoveries are in
every respect confirmed.

In the absence of detailed official statements from the principal
observers, it is difficult to sum up accurately the results of these
spectrum observations, although there is no doubt that the scientific
gains have been immense. All except Captain Haig directed their
spectroscopes to the long horn which forms so prominent an object
in all the diagrams given, and which appears to have been con-
nected with one of the solar spots. Major Tennant speaks of it as
a vast flame of incandescent hydrogen, magnesium, and sodium
vapour, and considering that all the lines of these elements were
seen by one or other of the observers during the eclipse, and that
Mr. Lockyer and Father Secchi have since proved the presence of
the hydrogen lines, there is little doubt that these three elements—
hydrogen, sodium, and magnesium—actually do exist in a gaseous
and incandescent state in the circumsolar atmosphere.

Since the discovery that the red flames (as we are entitled to
call them now) can be examined at any time the sun is visible, the
extreme interest with which physicists have hitherto looked forward
to a total eclipse will be somewhat abated. It may, however, be
worth recording that, on the 7th August next, there will be a
total eclipse of the sun visible in North America. The path of
totality, about one hundred miles in width, will pass through
Alaska, lat. 60° 46-9’ north, long. 68° 4-6’ west of Washington,
on Saturday noon; crossing British America, it will again enter
the United States territory near the head of Milk River, long. 30°
W., pass through the south-west corner of Minnesota, crossing the
Mississippi river near Burlington, Iowa, the state of Illinois just
north of Springfield, and the Ohio river near Louisville. From
thence it will run, in a south-easterly direction, through the states
of Kentucky and North Carolina, and reach the Atlantic Ocean
near Beaufort, North Carolina, at about sunset. North and south
of this line the eclipse will be partial throughout the United States.

The American photographers are already organizing arrange-
ments to bring every available telescope into use on that occasion
for photographic purposes, and intend securing photographs along
as many points of the path as possible.

The writer, who has already had some experience in photo-
graphing the phenomena of eclipses, the moon and sun, would
venture to make three suggestions in this respect. Firstly, that
attention should not exclusively be confined to the wet collodion
process, but that the daguerreotype and dry albumen process should

72 The Scientific Year. [Jan.

also be used. Pictures by these processes possess more sharpness,
and are capable of giving more microscopic detail, than ordinary
wet collodion; moreover, the plates may be prepared the night
before and developed after the eclipse is over, thus leaving the
operator’s whole attention free to devote to the exposure of as
many plates as possible.

Secondly, some telescopes should have a system of lenses beyond
the principal focus of the object-glass, so as to project a magnified
image of the phenomena on to the sensitive plate. ‘The necessary
amplification to four or five inches will be far more accurately
done when effected in this manner at one operation than when the
small negatives are copied afterwards in the enlarging camera,
which will magnify all the defects as well as that which is wished
to be recorded.

Thirdly, the most experienced photographer who can be ob-
tained should have charge of the photographic operations. It is
a mistake to suppose that astronomers, physicists, and photogra-
phers can be manufactured for the occasion. To look at the
records of the English expeditions, it would appear as if the
highest scientific talent possessed by the country were an exclu-
sive attribute of our army and navy. Amongst so many captaims
and lieutenants it is a relief to find a plain Mr. The French and
German expeditions were managed differently—and contrast their
results with ours !

VII. THE SCIENTIFIC YEAR.

Ir we examine with thoughtful attention the progress of human
knowledge, as it is preserved to us in the history of civilization, or
in the records of the victories achieved by mind over matter, we
cannot fail to observe that it has ever been by slow, and often
intermittent steps. The energies of the individual mind, even in
the most healthful state, cannot be maintained continuously at the
same elevation; the powers of thought cannot be kept long at the
same state of tension. There must be a lowering down, there must
be a relaxation. As it is with the powers of the individual, so is it
with the aggregated forces of the mind of mankind. The law of
undulations, which is so beautifully manifested in all its subtleties
of motion, in the phenomena of light, and the other physical powers
in motion, is shadowed forth in the movements of intellectual
power with so defined an outline, that we cannot but regard it as a
truth, obscure at present through the many difficulties by which all
psychological phenomena are surrounded, through the imperfections
of our senses, and through the almost entire absence amongst men,

1869. | The Scientific Year. 73

of that cultivation which the inquiry demands. If, however, we
will be at the trouble of carefully investigating the history of any
discovery, it will be found that, from the first thought,—usually as
obscure as the remotest gleanings of nebulous matter,—there have
been advances, as if by throbs; periods of action, and seasons of
repose, something of brightness being gained by each manifestation
of power, until, eventually, the cloudy thoughts gather into rings
of brightness, and the disconnected members coalesce into a perfect
truth, an ever-abiding and a perfect star.

Electricity is an example of this. We have now the most subtile
of the physical powers completely under our control, and we compel
it to melt and mould our metals, to blast our rocks, and fire our
cannon, to illuminate the ocean around our dangerous shores, and
to travel earth and ocean as our Mercury—with fleeter wings than
he who was the messenger to the gods. Many men, boasting of
the march-of-intellect-age,—of the achievements of science,—regard
this as the work of to-day—and with much vanity, and but little
truth, refer all this to the efforts of the ving race—forgetting that
three thousand years have been expended in developing the laws of
this power, which is now our familiar slave. Hlectron (amber) ; the
powers of attraction and repulsion possessed by it, and also by
the Iron-stone of Magnesia, were known to the Greeks; but
Electricity and Magnetism were for ages mysteries, unfolding, as it
were, by spasms until in the fulness of time the great truth shone.
forth.

Heat and Light exhibit similar phases, and show like periods of
brightness and of eclipse. Through the dream-land of Alchymy,
Chemistry slowly struggled into being, and Astrology, after ages of
error, which often presented features of an almost sublime grandeur
in its robes of superstition, brought forth the most perfect of the
sciences—Astronomy. ‘These facts have been referred to only as
showing how small must be the record of real advance within any
single year, seeing that so large a period of time is necessary for
the development of one simple truth.

The year 1868 cannot be regarded, in any way, as an excep-
tional one. Indeed, it appears upon a careful examination of the
“Chronicles” of progress to fall rather below the average of the
past twenty years. There has been a considerable display of
industry, and the result of that industry is shown by the accu-
mulation of facts. The perceptive powers have been active, and,
of material phenomena new to our consciousness, there have
certainly been some notable discoveries, but the evidence is wanting
which should show that man’s reflecting powers have been largely
exercised in the philosophic task of generalization. ‘The materials
have been gathered together from the right hand and from the left,
they have been carefully named, and placed in order for use, but

14 The Scientific Year. [Jan.,

the master-mind, to whom is reserved the privilege, to whom is
given the power, to construct from those fragmentary truths a
systematic whole, is still wanting. .

The year may be regarded as one peculiarly inductive. There
has been great earnestness amongst the disciples who are devoted
to the watching of the lamps which burn in the many shrines
within the temple of truth, and many varieties of the constituent
parts of the fuel, by which the flames are fed, have been collected
by them ; but the generalizing mind,—the deductive philosopher,—
by whom alone those fragmentary facts can be concreted into a
complete whole, has not appeared. The evidences, however, of
this will be far more satisfactory to the thoughtful reader than any
expression of opinion by the writer of this notice. We shall,
therefore, endeavour very briefly to sketch out the more striking
facts which have been gained during the year, and indicate, where °
we can, the paths along which advances may be expected to be
made.

Nothing within the range of the sciences of observation can be
more satisfactory than the records of Astronomy, especially as it
respects the extended observations on the flights of meteors, the
spectroscopic analysis of the nebul and of the stars, and the inves-
tigation of the luminous excrescences observed during the period of
total obscuration upon the edge of the eclipsed sun. ‘The shooting
star, “a moment bright, then gone for ever,’ has long been
regarded as an interesting phenomenon; but who amongst even
the wisest, in past years, dreamed of the remarkable truths which
are now opening upon us? By the careful record of all the
facts which could be gathered together respecting the appearance,
and the characters of those meteors, we have advanced our know-
ledge in a remarkable manner, and there appears to be no reason
for doubting the conclusions at which our observers have arrived,
that many belts of meteors are moving with planetary regularity
within the limits of the solar system. The most remarkable of
those belts is made known to us by the “ November flight.” The
beautiful—almost sublime—meteoric showers, which have been
seen about the 14th of that month, have a duration of about five
hours. The earth traverses the meteor stratum in space at the
rate of 18,000 miles an hour; consequently, this gives us an ex-
panse of 90,000 miles, more or less densely filled with those
mysterious bodies. The maximum of intensity of the meteoric
bursts lasts but about an hour; within that period these “shoot-
ing stars” have been counted by hundreds. How thickly, there-
fore, must that—probably the central line—of the bed be
strewn with them. The part traversed by the earth varies by
millions of miles from year to year; therefore, as each November
brings again a recurrence of the phenomena, we have the proof

1869.] The Scientific Year. 75

that the meteor zone must be continuous, but that it varies in
density. ‘The vastness of these accumulations, the clearly proved
periodicity of these star showers, leading to the conclusion, that a
considerable number of meteor belts are regularly crossed by the
earth in her annual rotation, are amongst the most exalting
exercises for the human mind to linger on. ‘The meteor zone is
now regarded as an enormous oval hoop in space, extending far
out beyond the orbit of Uranus, and this zone, like an elastic belt,
has been shown to be disturbed by vast vibrations, probably the
result of planetary attractions. By one of these great undulations
the meteors have been brought unexpectedly into view this year,
when their return was not expected. Of the part played by those
small masses of matter in the phenomena of the universe, we know
nothing; and we can only hope to establish firmly the hypothesis
of that seeming stratification, to which reference has been made, by
close observations extended over many years. The supposed re-
lation, too, of these meteoric belts to the orbits of certain comets,
opens out a vast field for speculation, and demands the most
cautious observations. The fine hypothesis, or rather philosophic
speculation of Hock, on the phenomena of swarms of meteor
corpuscules, crowding from space into the solir system is, only
named to show how much we require to be guided by the severest
laws of induction in considering this tempting subject.

The delicacy of Spectroscopic analysis can never fail to excite
a large share of attention. During the year the examination of
the nebule with the spectroscope has given strength to the
reasons for supposing that the hght by which we discover the
gaseous nebulze is emitted from nitrogen and hydrogen. This
beautiful instrument has told us other truths. By it we are enabled
to measure the rate at which the earth passes through the waves of
light reaching it from any source; and we have discovered, with
high probability, that the nebule are not moving towards or
receding from us, but that the bright star Sirius is approaching the
solar system at the rate of nearly 29} miles in every second of time.
Of all the discoveries of the year, however, no one is more remark-
able than that addition to Solar Science, (which is certainly pecu-
larly the science of our own age,) so recently made by Mr. Lockyer
and M. Janssen, which informs us that the red prominences which
have been observed during several total eclipses of the sun are
luminous gaseous matter, giving in the spectroscope the lines which
belong to burning hydrogen, with an indication of some other sub-
stance, probably new to us, although there are suspicions that it
may be carbon. It is nearly thirty years since several experi-
mental photographers drew attention to the fact that the solar
spectra obtained by them gave evidence of some peculiar protecting
influence existing around the edge of the sun—that is, that light of

76 The Scientifie Year. | Jan.,

a different character emanated from the edge of the solar orb,
from that which was radiated from the centre of the disc. Beyond
the mere fact, nothing could be satisfactorily made out of this; but
now we have in all probability a key to the solution of the problem.

Mr. Stone’s discussion of the observations made in 1769 on the
transit of Venus, leading to a correction of the sun’s distance from us,
which he determines to be 91,000,000 instead of 95,000,000 miles,
shows the degree of exactness which is now attainable in astronomical
calculations. ‘The most remarkable feature of the astronomy of the
day is the intense desire to test by the utmost severities of analy-
tical science the correctness of observed facts. We have shown how
valuable the spectroscope has been to the astronomer. As an instru-
ment of research in the hands of the chemist, it has not of late
proved strikingly profitable. There are many observers who, by
determining with all possible exactness the character and positions °
of the dark lines of the solar spectrum, and the bright lines of flame
spectra, are doing most valuable work for future use; but, with
the few new metals discovered by its aid, there has been a repose
which is not easy of explanation. Chemistry has indeed put aside,
as it were, for a season its analytical labours, and the science now
dwells with delight amidst its synthetical achievements, which, it
must be admitted, are beautiful, curious, and seductive. It is to
be feared that the beauty of the laws which regulate the composi-
tion of compound bodies, and the pleasure of producing either new
organic substances or of forming well-known ones by the discovery
of novel methods for effecting the intercombination of elements,
may lead men away from the more valuable analytical investigation
of Nature’s own productions. The changes which may be rung
upon a peal of bells are absolutely insignificant in comparison to the
number of bodies which might be produced by the mtercombina-
tion of the known elements. An alechymist—one of the last of his
race—after contemplating the multitude of created things, and the
discoveries of his still imperfect science—-said, “I marvel not that
God has created so many things, but rather that He did not, from
the material at His command, create an infinitely greater number.”
The present phase of chemical science will no doubt give place
eventually to one of more exact investigation than heretofore, and
enlarged generalizations. ‘That industry and mental skill which is
now given to nomenclature and notation, will be employed in the
higher labours of working out those problems upon the solution
of which depends our knowledge of natural phenomena, and our
power of applying such knowledge to the useful purposes of life.
Chemistry is the handmaid to all the natural sciences ; hence, as
to astronomy, so to geology does she lend her valuable aid.

The discussion “On Chemical Geology,” which has excited
much attention, and which has been carried on with great skill by

1869. | The Scientifie Year. 77

two well-trained experimentalists and philosophers, leaves us at the

end exactly where we were at the beginning. “ Going back to the
earliest forms of created matter” is launching a frail bark at once
into all the doubts and difficulties of the nebular hypotheses and
cosmical fancies ;—it is plunging into a dark dreamland, in which
there is ample room and verge enough for the play of the most
volant and erratic imagination, but from which we are not likely to
gather any guiding truths. As exercises for well-trained minds,
who desire something, as the phrase goes, “to break upon,’ such
speculations are all very well. But if the same mental labour—the
same chemical skill—had been bestowed on the things of to-day,
instead of on the speculative conditions of the beginning, which
can never be determined, the world would have reaped an ad-
vantage which is now exceedingly problematical. From Chemical
Geology it is but a step to Geology itself. The year has not
produced any discovery of great novelty, but it has given evidence
of the industry of our geologists. The discovery of Kozoon in the
Laurentian rocks of Canada was of great interest. One of the most
important discoveries recently made in Paleontological Science is
analagous with it. It is the detection of what appears to be the
remains of a terrestrial flora, in certain Swedish rocks of Lower
Cambrian age—the supposed equivalents of our Longmynd rocks.
A peculiar interest attaches to this discovery, inasmuch as it carries
back the appearance of terrestrial vegetation upon the earth’s
surface through a vast interval of time, no land plants having
previously been known older than the Upper Ludlow beds. The
Swedish fossils now discovered appear to be the stems and long
parallel-veined leaves of monocotyledonous plants, somewhat allied
to the grasses and rushes of the present day. These plants
apparently grew on the margin of shallow waters, and were buried
in sand and silt. Although it is probable that several species and
even genera may occur in the sandstone blocks which have been
examined, they are provisionally included in a single species, to
which the name of Hophyton Linneawm has been given. Eophyton,
therefore, stands by the side of Hozoon—the one being, in the
present state of our knowledge, the earliest land plant, as the other
is the earliest animal organism. Our Chronicles will give the
details of this interesting discovery, which cannot find a place
in a sketch of yearly progress. Reference to these important
records —notes for the future historian of the progress of
scientific knowledge—will show that many questions of consider-
able importance to the future of geological science are being
discussed with much earnestness. In most cases a decision can
only be arrived at after the most cautious examination of extensive
districts of country. It is to be regretted that in some of the
discussions which have during the year excited attention, there has

78 The Scientifie Year. [Jan.,

been more evidence of a desire for victory than for the elimination
of truth.

Physical Science has its numerous workers, who, devoting them-
selves to its various branches, are opening out roads to future
discoveries which will possibly be of considerable importance.
The examination of the radiant powers is being followed up with
much zeal, and many trained minds, peculiarly fitted by nature for
the work, are eagerly seeking for the solution of many problems
which still remain unsolved in relation to heat and light radiations
and electrical manifestations. Without for a moment venturing to
question the truth of the undulatory theory (the weight of talent
and testimony brought to bear on it is too overpowering to admit of
that), we cannot but express a fear that the interpretation of some
of the phenomena of solar radiations has been retarded, by refusing
to see any explanation save that which belongs to wave-motion.
To this circumstance may be referred the almost entire absence of
research on the chemical powers of sunshine. Many important
facts, as they now stand, do not appear to come within the law of
undulations (they may possibly be shown to do so), and hence they
have been put aside. Thus one of the most fertile fields of inquiry
—the chemical activity of the solar radiations (Actrin1sm)—rich with
the promise of discoveries of high value, is entirely neglected by the
experimentalists of the present day. This is, it must be admitted,
partly due to another circumstance. As soon as the chemical action
of the sun’s rays had been rendered so familiar to the most un-
trained operator that he could, from the sensibility and simplicity
of the processes given to him, scarcely fail to produce a photo-
graphic picture of much excellence, and the science became an art,
the scientific investigator drew aside, as though he disliked to admit
that he was seeking after truth for its money value. Here is,
however, a vast inquiry bearing in a direct and remarkable manner
on organic growth and on inorganic combination, which lies
fallow.

The investigations on the Osmose forces advance certainly
towards a solution of the mysteries of molecular attraction, and
particularly of the phenomena of the action of surfaces. The
indications of an uncontrollable power, dissimilar to any of the
physical forces already named, are unmistakable. A power—a
foree—which can overcome the gigantic attraction of the earth’s
gravitation, and which can break up, by mere mechanical effort,
the strongest chemical affinities, must be amongst the most
potential of the physical agencies. At present it appears to us
that the full value has not been given to the discoveries made by
Graham, Deville, and others in this direction. A remarkable
series of facts has been accumulated; they have been investigated
with the most perfect appliances of induction; and the results

1869. | The Scientific Year. 79

cannot be gainsayed. Many years cannot roll away before the
power of deduction must be brought to bear in all its strength
upon this gathering ; and the generalization of the true philosopher
must evoke a new and mighty spirit from the charmed circle, and
bind it to do man’s bidding

The physical sciences have been sought to aid the investigations
of the physiological student, and some striking facts have been
recorded, showing how necessary it is to examine the phenomena
of organization in relation with the operation of the physical
agencies, Light, Heat, and Electricity, and the laws which regulate
chemical affinity.

Zoology and Botany, Mineralogy and Crystallography, have,
during the year, been worked, as it were, in obedience to the same
law which has regulated the progress of the other branches of
science. Inductive inquiry has been the rule, deductive generaliza-
tion the exception. Archeology, Ethnology, and Philology have
been progressing—we hope with a greatly improved system of
inquiry. The poetry of the past is gradually disappearing before
a rigid spirit of inquiry, and the history of man, as preserved to us
in his works and in his words, is beng won from the grave, from
mounds, from the caverns, and the lake-dwellings of buried ages.

In this brief sketch it has been our object to show that valuable
facts have been gathered during the past year, and that much intel-
ligence and industry has been expended in carefully labelling those
treasures and arranging them for future use. The study of names
has been cultivated, to the injury, we believe, of the more enlarged
culture of ideas. Still, arguing from the past, through the present,
to the future, we are convinced that the time is not far distant
when the accumulated materials will be, by the efforts of some
philosophic mind, converted—probably by one gigantic effort—
into a structure beautiful in its truth and holiness.

We are advancing steadily towards a realization of the fact that
mind, and mind only, is the ultimate source of power. No me-
chanical, no physical energy can be available for good to man
without the concurrence of mind. Every practical application of
science is a sermon on this text—Mind is the master of Matter.
We live under the “Reign of Law;” but every fact discovered,
every speculation of any value uttered, carries forward the never-
to-be-controverted truth that Law cannot be without a Law-Giver—
consequently, that all the laws which the mind of man is steadily
evoking from the arcana of space and time, are the material mani-
festations of the energies of one Almighty mind.

R. H.

f- s60: 3) | Jan.,

CHRONICLES OF SCIENCE,

Including the Proceedings of earned Societies at Home and Abroad ;
and Zlotices of Recent Scientific Piterature.

1. AGRICULTURE,
And Recent Agricultural Interature.

A Goop example of the serviceableness of the chemist, rather as
the critic and commentator than as the guide of the agriculturist,
occurs in the recently published volume of the ‘ English Agri-
cultural Society’s Journal.’ The clover plant removes from the
soil large quantities of those substances on which its fertility is
generally supposed to depend. It takes, indeed, according to
Dr. Voelcker, mm the paper to which we refer, more potash, phos-
phoric acid, lime, and other mineral matters which enter into
the composition of our cultivated plants, than any other crop
usually grown in this country. How obviously, then, must it
be for the interest of the wheat crop, that the clover which pre-
cedes it on the land should be consumed where it grows, grazed and
depastured by sheep or other animals, so that the substance of the
crop may be returned to the soil from which it came, instead of
being cut for forage and taken green to the feeding-house or stable,
or mown for hay, or harvested when its seed has ripened—being in
all these cases altogether taken from the land. The ash con-
stituents of the plant would thus be ready for the crop succeeding
it, instead of merely enriching the general dung-heap of the farm,
to be applied elsewhere. It is, however, the fact, not only that
the clover plant, which takes so much nutriment from the land, is the
best possible preparation for wheat, but that the wheat crop is
better after a clover crop cut and carried off the land than after
clover fed upon the field where it has grown. This, of course,
was not at all to have been expected, but Dr. Voelcker, modestly
taking his facts from the actual experience of the farmer, instead of
enforcing a necessarily imperfect theory as the corrective of mis-
taken practice, finds on investigation a suflicient explanation of
them in the following circumstances, by which, of course, the
theory of the subject must for the future be limited and modified.
During the growth of clover a large amount of nitrogenous
matter accumulates in the soil. This is due partly to the decaying

Sa er J a-*

1869. | Agriculture. 81

leaves, dropped during the growth of the crop, and partly to an
abundance of roots, which are stronger and more numerous when
clover is grown for seed than when it is mown for hay, and also
when it is mown for hay than when it is fed off by sheep. The
nitrogenous matters in the clover-remains are, on their gradual
decay, finally transformed into nitrates, thus affording a continuous
source of food on which cereal crops especially delight to grow.
That the clover plant which robs the soil is, nevertheless, a fer-
tilizer of it, is illustrated in every example of a failing clover crop.
We remember seeing on the wheat field of a farm “near Oxford
deficient strips stretching parallel across the land, which were
explained by the fact that the clover seed-barrow had here and
there missed; so that, whereas elsewhere the contents both of
subsoil and of atmosphere had, by a vigorous plant of clover,
been accumulated within the surface soil for the benefit of next
year’s wheat crop, here the subsoil and the air, robbed by no clover
plant, had contributed nothing of their abundance, and the surface
soil was proportionally the worse. The same truth tells to some
extent on the comparison of a clover crop fed off with one allowed
to ripen; for the development of roots, being checked when the
produce in a green state 1s fed off by sheep, in all probability then
leaves less nitrogenous matter in the soil than when clover is
allowed to get riper, and is mown for hay. And this, no doubt,
accounts for the observation made by practical men that, notwith-
standing the return of the produce in the sheep excrements, when
the clover is fed off green by sheep, wheat is generally stronger,
and yields better after clover mown for hay. We are quoting
Dr. Voelcker’s words as well as his conclusions; and the whole
research appears to us a notable example of the way in which
the scientific man can most serviceably discuss farm practice for the
benefit of the farmer.

Among the other papers in the current number of the ‘ English
Agricultural Society’s Journal’ is one by Messrs. Lawes and
Gilbert, on the “Home Produce, Imports, and Consumption of
Wheat,” to which attention should be directed. It shows that
the average produce of small experimental plots of wheat upon the
Rothamsted Farm, under the three several circumstances of “ no
manure,” “continuous dressings of farmyard dung,” and “ continued
dressings of various artificial manures,” is a perfectly trustworthy
guide to the character of the crops generally throughout the
kingdom. It illustrates the fact that the growth of wheat has
of late years gradually diminished in this country, having fallen in
England from 3,400,000 acres in 1850 to 3,140,000 acres in 1867,
aud in Scotland from 210,000 acres in 1854-57 to 110,000 in
1866-67. The average produce of this crop per acre is the

VOL. VI. G

82 Chronicles of Science. | Jan.,

subject of detailed discussion, and the following are the figures
arrived at as true of the last sixteen years :—

AVERAGE ACREABLE PRopUCE OF WHEAT.

England and Wales... .. .. .. 28% bushels per acre.
Scotland raat Us ace eee aot Med am en Ee
Great Britain, \ samc. Ales teen LOS ss a
Ligeia eae sg) nal de ca “Sa ZRH SE +
(ited ine dors e0 tcc ees) eres 5

Among ‘the other facts to which this elaborate paper leads we
may quote the following :—That the average annual consumption
of wheat per head of the population is about 63 bushels in
England and Wales, scarcely 4} bushels in Scotland, and only
about 32 bushels in Ireland; or for the whole of Great Britain
about 6 bushels, and for the whole of the United Kingdom about
54 bushels per head. Taking the population of the United
Kingdom to be about 30,800,000, and the average consumption
of wheat to be 54 bushels per head, this gives a present require-
ment of rather more than 21,000,000 quarters annually. And with
a reasonable theory both of the increase in population and of the
gradual increase of consumption per head, the requirements of
the country may be no less than 23,000,000 quarters annually five
years hence. Unless, then, the home produce of the country shall
largely increase, there will be required over the next five years an
average importation of between nine and ten million quarters of
wheat per annum.

We may mention as illustrative of that change of cropping to
which Mr. Lawes in his discussion of this subject had adverted, that
the practice of taking barley in immediate succession to wheat upon
the land is gradually increasing ; being justified, first, of course, by
the fact that good crops are thus obtainable, but also, as compared
with what was thought good practice years ago, by the increased
facilities both of efficient tillage and liberal manuring which English
farmers now possess. By the aid of steam cultivation, thorough
autumn tillage is now of easy accomplishment ; whilst, though the
wheat crop taken after beans, and still more after clover, which
itself succeeds a grain crop, very often leaves a stubble foul and
needing fallowing, yet in ordinary seasons there is ample oppor-
tunity for a thorough cleansing of the land before the winter ; and
as regards manuring, our guanos and superphosphates enable the
farmer to keep the land stocked with fertilizing substances, however
it be cropped. Thus Mr. C. 8. Read, M.P., at the Norwich
Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science, declared:—“I have this year, with a dressing of 1 cwt.
of guano and 2 cwt. of superphosphate per acre, grown on a wheat
stubble that had been dug 12 inches deep with the steam-cul-

1869. ] Agriculture. 83

tivator in the autumn the best crop of barley I ever produced,
the land being now perfectly clean, and in the best possible
condition for next year’s root crop. And I see no reason why this
extra white straw crop need frighten any land agent, provided
always the farm be in a high state of cultivation.” During the
coming year there will, no doubt, be a good deal of what is thus
called cross-cropping ; owing to the need of keeping clovers for
another year, for the young clovers have very generally failed,
owing to the drought of 1868. But we may say with Mr. Read
that there is no need of any fear that the fertility of the land must
suffer on their account. In fact, it is now well understood that a
farmer may crop the land very nearly as he pleases without injuring
the owner of it, provided he uses the means of tillage and manuring
which he now possesses, and which his own best interests would
lead him to employ.

The cheapening of the superphosphate manufacture, owing to the
abundance of mineral phosphate in England, Spain, and Germany,
and other countries, is one of the most important facts in the recent
history of English agriculture. That which a few years ago cost
62. or 7/7. a ton, containing only 15 to 18 per cent. of soluble
phosphate of lime, is now sold at a price which is virtually one-half
less. And it quite deserves a record in an Agricultural Chronicle
that the chairman of the South Lincolnshire Tillage Association was
able the other day to inform the members that he had completed a
contract for the delivery of 1000 tons, containing 26 per cent. of
soluble phosphate, at 47. 2s. 6d. per ton, to be delivered free in
bags at any of the Great Northern Railway stations within 80
miles of Lincoln. It must, however, be added on the other side,
that in consequence of the large exports of sulphate of ammonia to
the sugar-growing districts of Germany and the colonies, all ammo-
niacal manures are rising in price, guano is commanding its full
market value, and sulphate of ammonia in particular has advanced
from 12/. to 172. 10s. per ton.

To turn now to another subject :—The condition of the labourer
—a question which we have several times had to name during the
past year, as having been urgently pressed upon the public attention
by the labours of the Rey. Canon Girdlestone, Mr. Baily Denton,
and others, is again brought vividly before the public mind by the
recent report of Her Majesty's Commissioners appointed to inquire
into the employment of women and children in agriculture. The
points in which it seems from their report that the Commis-
sioners expect the best result to follow any active interference on
bebalf of agricultural labourers, are the provision at a fair rent of
allotments of land for cultivation by cottagers, and the cheapening
and improvement of the cottages. ‘To the subject of benefit societies,
savings banks, &c., they propose referring in a further publication.

Ga 2

84 Chronicles of Science. [Jan.,

It is, of course, impossible to state in a single page the substance of
so full a description of the condition of the English agricultural
labourer as is given in this blue book, and we must be satisfied there-
fore with commending it to the careful study of our readers, who
will find on its perusal not only how much need there is in the
facts of the case for earnest effort everywhere on the part of bene-
volent men, but also how many benevolent men in all classes of
society are earnestly desirous and laborious in the effort that is
already everywhere being made.

No account of the agricultural proceedings of the past quarter
is at all complete which omits to mention the efforts of local agri-
cultural societies, and the many instructive lectures, papers, and
discussions which are thus published, first locally, and then through
the agricultural papers generally. Among those of the past few
months, we may specify a capital account by Mr. Scott Skirving;
before the East Lothian Agricultural Society, of the natural his-
tory of the farm, so far as the birds, which are at once the friends
and enemies of the farmer, are concerned; also a good report, by
Mr. Henderson, of Stirling, before a farmers’ club in that neigh-
bourhood, of the relations of the sciences of Geology, Botany, and
Chemistry to the practice of the farm. To Mr. C. 5. Read, M.P.,
we owe an excellent report on the improvements of late years in
the agriculture of Norfolk, read before the British Association at
their last meeting; to Mr. Harding, of Somersetshire, a useful
lecture before a Cheshire farmers’ club on the cheese manufacture ;
to Mr. Everett, of Newbury, a paper on the social as well as the
directly practical results of small farms and long leases; to Mr.
Saunders, of Watercombe, in Dorsetshire, a good paper on roots as
food for stock ; to Professor Coleman, before the Chamber of Agri-
culture for the North Riding of Yorkshire, a lecture on artificial
manures ; to Mr. E. Scrutton, of Borobridge, a report on the imple-
ments of the farm; to Mr. Hallett, of Brighton, a history of his
own experiments in maintaining the pedigree of cultivated wheat
and barley ; to Mr. Startin, before the Midland Counties Farmers’
Club, a discussion of the incidence of the poor’s rate as affecting
the character of cottage property; to Mr. Mechi, a discursive and
suggestive lecture on the undeveloped character of British agricul-
ture; and to Mr. J. K. Fowler, of Aylesbury, a very excellent
history of the influences which railways have exerted in the pro-
motion of agricultural improvement. The two last-named lectures
were given before the London Farmers’ Club. We have not enu-
merated a quarter of the subjects which have thus all over the
country been made the occasion of vigorous discussion at farmers’
meetings, and which agricultural readers find reported at more or
less length in the agricultural weekly papers. Certainly, however,
the Agricultural Chronicle of the quarter would be altogether imper-

1869. | Archeology. 85

fect if it had not thus referred to that constant and formal discussion
before local societies in every county, of points in the theory and
practice of the profession which is almost a distinctive feature of
English agriculture, as compared with the other occupations in
which Englishmen engage.

A last word may be given to one among the wilder theories
which have thus engaged attention, as it has only recently once
more presented itself to readers—the so-called “transmutation of
grain.” Eyery now and then a farmer relates in perfect good faith
that he has sown oats and cut them down repeatedly until, a year,
or perhaps a second year thereafter, on permitting them to grow
and seed, they have turned out wheat. The recent occurrence of
disqualifications at Birmingham and Islington of pigs which had
been entered for exhibition—on the ground that an inspection of their
teeth showed that they were not all of one family, as the condition
of the competition required them to be—enabled the ‘ Agricultural
Gazette’ the other day thus to expose the folly of this “ transmuta-
tion” theory: “ Here, in the animal world, where the womb carries
but one family at a time, where the birth is notorious, and every-
thing in the whole history of the produce is a matter capable of
record and claiming observation, no certainty seems possible; for the
young are taken for exhibition, and it is protested by experts that
they are of different origin. But the impossibility of any confidence
about parentage, which even in our shows of live-stock occasionally
occurs, is necessarily multiplied a thousandfold where the mother
is the soil, carrying in her fertile womb at once the germs of myriads
of families, where the period of gestation is indefinite, and where the
facility of new seeds, new germs, beimg accidentally deposited, is
excessive. In the face of risks like these, the occasional stories of
Oats bemg sown, and Wheat being ultimately reaped, go for
absolutely nothing. The antecedent improbability of there being
any real connection in such a case between the sowing and the
reaping is so enormous, that no scientific man would think it worth
his while to make an experiment to test it. And certainly the risks
of the experiment are so great, that no other than a scientific man
is competent to conduct it.”

2. ARCHALOLOGY (Pre-Hisrortc),
And Notices of Recent Archxological Works.

Pre-nistoric Archxology received a new impetus when Dr. Hooker,
in August last, recalled attention to the semi-savage populations of
India which are still erecting megalithic monuments. The im-
portance of the investigations of these cromlechs and dolmens

86 Chronicles of Science. [Jan.,

seems, however, to have already aroused attention in India; and
in the April number of the ‘Proceedings of the Asiatic Society
of Bengal’ is an interesting paper by Mr. Mulheran, “On the
Crosses and Cromlechs which are found in great abundance on
both banks of the Godavery, at Katapur, and elsewhere.” The
cromlechs, in which the remains of either one or two bodies
appear to have been interred, usually consist of a number of
upright stones sunk in the ground in the form of a square, covered
by one or two large slabs of sandstone. They are considered by
the author to be of Buddhist origin.

The crosses are of the Latin form, and are made of one piece of
stone 10 or 11 feet high, of which about 7 feet are exposed above the
ground. They do not appear to have had any connection with the
cromlechs, and were probably erected as memorials of the faith of
Christians buried in their vicinity. ;

In a subsequent number of the Proceedings of the same Society,
Lieut. J. §. F. Mackenzie reports the discovery of a great number
of cromlechs in the vicinity of the town of Veerajpett, in South
Coorg. The cromlechs were found covered by large mounds of
earth, evidently artificial. One of them consisted of six large
stones, surmounted by a huge flat slab, the whole being divided
into two compartments by a large centre-stone. The two front
slabs had each, at the top and immediately below the super-
incumbent stone, peculiar apertures of a segmental form, about
2 feet by 1 foot 8 inches. Many other cromlechs were discovered,
possessing similar openings, which the natives consider proof of
these structures having been the abodes of the pigmy race
described in their legends, the apertures having supplied them with
the means of ingress and egress. Lieut. Mackenzie, however,
considers that these openings were simply used for the purpose
of introducing cinerary urns and the bones of the members of
the family, as they died one after the other. In these sepultures
several antique-shaped urns and pots were discovered, composed of
thick red and black highly glazed pottery. Some of the vessels
were tripods, while others were supported on four feet. No bones
were found in them, either calcined or in their natural condition ;
but iron weapons were tolerably abundant, and included a spear,
some large javelins and arrows, and the hilts of daggers. It is
satisfactory to find that upon the discoveries of these remains being
made known to the Indian Government, sums of money were
granted to carry on the investigations.

During Dr. Erdmann’s survey of the Quaternary formations
of Sweden,* he has been able to throw considerable light upon the
nature and position of the most ancient monuments of that

* “Exposé des formations Quaternaives de la Suede,’ par A. Evdmann.

1869. | Archxology. 87

kingdom, which are described as tumuli, runic stones, circles, forti-
fied enclosures, inscriptions traced upon the rocks, dolmens, and
sepulchral chambers. The ancient fortified enclosures (borglem-
ningar), ordinarily situated on the summit of an eminence, are
often several miles inland, and are composed of one or more con-,
centric walls, constructed of great blocks of stone, some of which
are 10 cubic feet in dimension. Within the walls of the enclosure
are found traces of habitation; and from time to time, deeply sunk
in the mud, at the base of the eminence upon which these hill-
forts are situated, the remains of ancient boats have been dis-
covered. Iron rings are also reported to have been found at the
bottom of the rock, to which they may have served to moor the
boats. There can be little doubt that we have here evidence of
the gradual recession of the sea, and that these ancient enclosures,
now high and dry, were constructed upon points more or less
surrounded by water.

Two more instalments of the ‘ Reliquie Aquitanice’ have
been issued during the quarter. They are almost entirely occupied
by a description of the celebrated cave of Cro-Magnon, situated in
the valley of the Vezere, between the village of Les Eyzies and
the railway station of that place. The cave, which is 15 metres
above the river, and 73:25 metres above the sea-level, is formed by
a projecting bed of Cretaceous limestone, the débris of which forms
the lowest bed of the floor. This bed is succeeded by three layers
of ashes, separated from one another by thin beds of calcareous
débris. ‘The uppermost of these is overlain by red earth with
bones, which underlies the thickest layer of ashes, bones, &c. The
ash-bed is surmounted by a yellowish earth with bones and flints,
and that by another bed of hearth-stuff, the rest of the cave being
filled up by calcareous débrés and the rubbish of the talus. From
the yellowish earth at the back of the cave the remains of five
human skeletons were obtained, of which four have been recognized
as belonging to adults (three male and one female), and the other to
an immature infant. Associated with these remains were multi-
tudes of perforated marine shells, principally belonging to the common
Atlantic species Littorina littorea, a worked amulet of ivory pierced
with two holes, carved antlers of reindeer, chipped flints, &e. The
fauna found associated with the sepulture m this case, and in the
layers of hearth-stuff, comprised fourteen or fifteen species of mam-
mals and one bird, and consisted of the remains of an enormous
bear, the mammoth, the great cave-lion, the reindeer, the sper-
mophile, &¢.,—the bird being possibly referable to the Crane genus.
The cave itself, as proved by the occurrence at all levels of flint
scrapers, seems to have served at different times as the habitation
of the same race of nomadic hunters, who, when the accumulated
refuse and débris had raised the floor of the cave to an inconvenient

88 Chronicles of Science. [Jan.,

height, returned to it only as a place wherein to bury their dead.
The skeletons undoubtedly belong to people of the age of the
reindeer, and M. Pruner-Bey refers them to his Mongoloid group,
and to the Esthonian type. The human remains, both with regard
to their condition and to their proportions, exhibit several pecu-
hiarities, which space will not permit us to notice.

In the ‘Anthropological Review’ for October is an article
by Professor P. Broca, “On the Ancient Cave-Men of Périgord;”
but as the article is only an abridgment of a memoir, which will
appear in the ‘ Reliquiz Aquitanice,’ we defer our notice of it
until it shall appear in its proper place, stating here, however,
that the author considers that we have in the Les Eyzies’ skeletons
evidence of a tribe, “entirely different from any other race, ancient
or modern, that we have ever seen, or heard of.”

In the annual report of the Smithsonian Institution for the»
year 1866 is a paper, by Dr. D. G. Brinton, “On the Artificial
Shell-Mounds and Deposits,” which occur in great numbers along
the south coast of the United States, especially in Georgia and
Florida. These mounds consist of the detached valves of Ostrea
Virginica, Venus mercenaria, and Unio Virginiana, and contain
flint arrow-heads, fragments of pottery, and charcoal. Some of
them attain enormous dimensions—one at the mouth of the Alta-
maha river, covering ten acres of ground, and containing about
80,000 cubic yards. Another, about four miles from the mouth
of Crystal river, in the form of a truncated cone, 30 feet in
diameter and 40 feet in height, is exclusively composed of oyster-
shells and vegetable mould; with forest trees, some of them 4 feet
in diameter, growing upon its surface.

The gigantic scale of the mounds serves easily to distinguish
them from the Kjokkenméddings of Denmark, which seidom attain
to a height of more than 10 feet. Dr. Brinton considers them to
be the work of known tribes of Indians; but, even if it be so, what
length of time is required for the gradual accretion of such im-
mense accumulations, and to what purposes were they applied?

In the same report, Mr. C. Ray describes the discovery, on the
left bank of the Cahokia creek, at the northern extremity of Illinois
town, opposite St. Louis, of a place where the manufacture of
earthenware had been carried on by Indians. The pieces of pottery
were discovered near an old fosse, and varied from {th to 3ths of an
inch in thickness, according to the size of the vessels. They were
made of ‘clay, mixed either with coarsely pulverized Unio shells or
siliceous sand, and were coated generally on the exterior, but some-
times on both sides, with a thick layer of paint. The aboriginal
potters usually formed their vessels by hand, but in some instances
appear to have modelled them in baskets woven of rushes and
willows, so as to produce a rough ornamentation, ‘The fragments

1869. | Archeology. 89

are decorated with lines, or combinations of lines and dots, and in
the majority of cases the edge of the vessel is turned over so as to
form a rim, the bottom being rounded or convex. Of the antiquity
of this pottery the author is not prepared to give an estimate,
although there is little doubt that the manufacturers of it were the
Cahokia Indians, who were dwellers on the creek until a com-
paratively recent period.

The discovery of two “crannoges” in the lake of Ballyhoe,
Co. Monaghan, is described by Mr. G. Morant in the ‘ Proceedings
of the Kilkenny Archeological Society’ for January, 1867. The
drainage of the Glyde river, which runs through the lake, has
permanently reduced the level of the water by several feet, leaving
exposed upon the shore flint-flakes, knives, scrapers, celts, and
arrow and spear heads. Ashes were generally found near the flint
implements; and, in one instance, a dark-coloured glass bead, and
in another, a leaden bullet were discovered associated with flint-
flakes. The greater part of the implements were included in the
peat, but some were found lying on its surface, and others on its
rocky subsoil. On the great “crannoge” was a mound principally
composed of ashes, containing sharpening stones, implements of iron,
and leaden bullets ; on its shore, a bronze pin, and a flint spear-head
were found, and from the edge of the lake, close by, were obtained
flint arrow-heads, hatchets, &c. Some of the flint implements
were highly finished, but others were as rude as those of the Amiens
pattern; and Mr. Morant argues from the intermixture of these two
types with instruments of bronze and iron, that most of them were
used at one and the same time by the same race of men,—the ruder
weapons being the implements of the common people, while the
more highly-finished arrow-heads and bronze pins were the weapons
and ornaments which adorned the persons of the chiefs. The occur-
rence of leaden bullets certainly points to the comparatively recent
occupation of the “ crannoge,” but archeologists will require a
much more careful examination of this lake-island before they will
feel convinced that the generally accepted and well-defined ages of
stone, bronze, and iron, are confusedly mixed together in the
manner described by the author.

Colonel A. Lane Fox has published a very interesting descrip-
tion of “ Roovesmore Fort, and Stones inscribed with Oghams, in the
parish of Aglish, County Cork.” This fort, or “ Rath,” is in
the form of an irregular circle, about 150 feet in diameter, mea-
sured from the crest of the innermost parapet; beyond this is a
ditch about 17 feet in breadth, and beyond the ditch another para-
pet of 10 feet base and 3 feet high, the ditch being between the two
parapets. This structure was probably a fort, as it is well situated
for defence, on the top of a gentle rise, and is nowhere commanded
from the outside.

90 Chronicles of Science. [Jan.,

Nearly in the centre of the interior space is the entrance
(though probably not the original one) to the crypt, of which every
Rath possesses one or more. ‘This crypt appears to have been ori-
ginally of a quadrangular form. Six upright slabs had been placed
as jambs, longitudinally, in two lines, at about two feet from the
sides of the chamber. Upon the tops of these, heavy slabs of un-
hewn stone were laid transversely, as lintels, and upon these again
rested other longitudinal slabs of the same kind, placed side by side,
the edges nearly touching, so as to form the roof.

The chief interest of Colonel Lane Fox’s paper is centred in
these last-mentioned slabs, for on examining them from beneath by
the light of a candle, he found that two of them which lay conti-
guous to one another had their edges scored with Oghams. Our
space will not allow us to follow the author's interesting description
of these marks, nor his arguments in support of the conclusion that
they are of greater antiquity than the building of which they formed
part. We shall have performed our duty as chroniclers by direct-
ing attention to the pamphlet, and to the fact that the slabs them-
selves may now be examined in the British Museum.

Before concluding our Chronicle, we should notice the publica-
tion of a second edition of M. le Hon’s popular work* on Fossil
Man. Besides the addition of the new facts which have been
brought to light since the first appearance of the book, consider-
able space is devoted in this edition to the investigation of the
cosmical laws which have brought about the Quaternary and Gla-
cial periods; and to a résumé, by Professor G. Omboni, of Darwin’s
theory, of which he is a warm supporter.

3. ASTRONOMY.
(Including Proceedings of the Astronomical Society.)

Srxce our last Chronicle appeared further intelligence has been re-
ceived respecting the operations of those who went or were sent to
view the great eclipse of August 18 ; but we have little to add.to what
we then wrote. We now know that the photographic operations of
Major Tennant’s party were not so successful as the telegram first
received had led us to hope. ‘The negatives arranged for were duly
exposed, notwithstanding the unfavourable condition of the sky,
light cirrus clouds interfering seriously with the photographic
energy of the sun. As might be anticipated, the negatives were
under-exposed. Owing also to concentration of the nitrate-of-silver
solution, resulting from the heat of the climate, the negatives,

* ¢T,Homme Fossile en Europe.’

1869. | Astronomy. of

besides showing but faint traces of the corona, were all covered
with spots.

The chief fruit of the expeditions has been the discovery that the
rose-coloured prominences are gaseous. This discovery has already
led to one of the most interesting applications of spectroscopic
analysis ever yet made by astronomers.

We must premise that two years ago, in a paper addressed to
the Royal Society, Mr. J. Norman Lockyer called attention to the
possibility that spectroscopic analysis might avail to exhibit indi-
cations of the existence of the coloured prominences. He said,
“May not the spectroscope afford an evidence of the existence of
the red flames which total eclipses have revealed to us in the sun’s
atmosphere, although they escape all other methods of observation
at other times?” Not content with pointing out this method, Mr.
Lockyer applied it to the search for prominences, making use of a
spectroscope with which he had already been able to analyze the
light of the solar spots. He failed, however, in detecting any traces
of the prominences with this instrument; and, indeed, he was led
to the conclusion that the prominences are not gaseous. “ A dihgent
spectroscopic analysis,” he wrote last July, “ has not revealed any
bright lines. This is strong negative evidence that they are not
masses of incandescent vapour or gas.”

So soon, however, as the news from the eclipse expeditions
showed that he had come to this conclusion too hastily, he prepared
to renew the search with an instrument which was (at the time)
being constructed for him by Mr. Browning, the optician; and on
the 20th of October he succeeded in detecting the bright line spec-
trum of a prominence.

But in the meantime, unfortunately for Mr. Lockyer’s claim to
priority, M. Janssen, who had been one of the first to detect the
true nature of the prominences, was led to conceive the notion that
their spectra may possibly become visible when the sun is shining
with full splendour. He did not lose any time in putting his ideas
into practice ; for the day after the occurrence of the eclipse he suc-
ceeded in observing the spectrum of a prominence. ‘Thus, two
months before Mr. Lockyer, he had solved the important problem of
“orasping and measuring by spectral analysis phenomena before
invisible.”

Had M. Janssen sent home intelligence of his success by the
same means as“he had employed in the matter of his eclipse ob-
servations, his claim to the merit of the discovery would have been
indisputable. This, however, he did not do. He sent a letter con-
taining an account of his researches, and it happened, singularly
enough, that this letter reached the President of the French Academy
of Sciences a few minutes after Mr. De la Rue had read before
the Academy a detailed account of Mr. Lockyer’s researches,

92 Chronicles of Science. [Jan.,

Who is to have the merit of the discovery? As M. Fare
remarks, “the priority of the idea belongs to Mr. Lockyer, but that
of its fruitful application rests with M. Janssen.” He suggests
that the honour of the discovery should be accorded equally to both
observers.

By means of the new method it will be possible to chart the
prominences from day to day and from hour to hour. Already we
have learned two important facts respecting them. In the first
place, we now know that they are continually changing in figure
and arrangement, as was indeed to be expected from their flame-like
character. Secondly, we now know that sodium is not an element
in the structure of the protuberances. The spectrum of the sun
being brought into direct contact with that of a prominence by
the new method of observation, no measure is required for the
determination of the position of the bright lines forming the pro-
minence spectrum. The orange line which had been supposed by
Lieut. Herschel and others to be the double line of the metal
sodium, is now found not to agree in position with the dark line D
of the solar spectrum, which is known to be due to absorption by
sodium-vapour in the sun’s atmosphere. Thus the vapour to which
the bright orange line in the prominence spectrum is due cannot
possibly be that of sodium. It seems clear, however, that the red
and green lines are due to burning hydrogen.

We mentioned that, according to received views respecting the
meteoric zone to which the November shooting-stars are due, there
was but little prospect of the display being seen in England this
year. Our views were subsequently confirmed by a letter addressed
to ‘The Times’ by Mr. Hind, the superintendent of the ‘ Nautical
Almanac,’ in which he stated that the probable hour of the earth’s
passage through the zone would be six o’clock in the afternoon of
November 15th, at which hour England would be on the sheltered
side of the earth. However, the anticipations of astronomers were
not fulfilled by the result. The display was well seen in several
parts of England and Europe on the morning of the 14th of No-
vember. The only explanation of this peculiarity which seems at
first sight available is that the meteoric zone had been swayed from
its mean position (as respects this part of its length) by the attrac-
tions of the planets, and that thus the earth passed through it
several hours later than had been expected. The news that the
display has been seen well in America points also to the widening
out of the zone.

The planet Mars will be in opposition on February 13th next,
and for several weeks before and after that date he will be very
favourably situated for observation. He will not, indeed, be so near
to the earth as at many oppositions ; in fact, he will be so close to
his aphelion that he will be almost as unfavourably situated, as

1869.| Astronomy. 93

respects distance, as he possibly can be when in opposition. But
on this very account he should be studied all the more carefully, as
the portion of his globe which will be turned towards the earth is
that which has been least studied, owing to the fact that it is never
presented towards us except when Mars is in or near aphelion.

In Figs. 1 and 2 the presentation of Mars at the approaching
opposition is exhibited. The features are those presented in Proctor’s

Fic. 1.

(|
SEE

N

charts, which are derived from a series of drawings by the late Mr.
Dawes. Many of the features of the northern hemisphere require,
however, to be carefully re-observed, since Mr. Dawes made his
observations on this hemisphere with an instrument considerably
inferior in power to that which he made use of in observing the
southern hemisphere; and (as we have noticed) the northern hemi-
sphere is only turned towards us when Mars is in aphelion. We
must also remark that it is not merely the question of presentation
which has to be considered. When Mars is presented towards us
as shown in Figs. 1 and 2, he is also presented in almost exactly
the same way towards the sun. Hence it follows that the northern
hemisphere 1s enjoying the martial summer; and accordingly the
martial skies are clearer over that hemisphere, and its features are
proportionately more distinct. This is no mere speculation respecting
the condition of the martial globe, but corresponds exactly with the

94 Chronicles of Science. [Jan.,

peculiarities which have been observed by all our leading tele-
scopists.

Fig. 2.

ba Ax
~

en s,

{
(Fiabe S487
a a L

Mars will have a high northern declination during the next four
months, and therefore his definition will be good, in ordinary
observing weather, when he is on or near the meridian.

Many observers have been successful in obtaining good views of
the recent transit of Mercury. Amongst the observations, the most
important are those which were made at Greenwich under the
superintendence of the Astronomer Royal. He was enabled to
employ no less than six telescopes, including the great equatorial,
in observing the transit. In every instance the planet was observed
either to assume a balloon shape, or to throw out a ligament, as it
approached the edge of the sun’s dise. Mr. Airy remarks that he
had always been disposed to refer the peculiarities seen during the
transits of Venus in 1761 and 1769 to the imperfections of the
telescopes employed, but having now seen what has happened with
telescopes unimpeachable in character, he thinks differently. He
ascribes the peculiarities to the effects of irradiation. With the
great equatorial, Mr. Stone could see no trace of any spot upon the
disc of Mereury. He could see a ring of light round the planet.

Mr. Huggins observed the transit with his 8-inch equatorial,
using the full aperture. The weather was on the whole favourable,

1869. | Astronomy. 95

as the bright granules over the sun’s surface could be well seen.
The planet appeared as a round, evenly-defined spot, with an annulus
of light one-third of its apparent diameter, having a well-defined
boundary, and appearing rather brighter than the sun’s disc. Nearly
in the centre of the planet’s disc there was a spot of light. As the
ring was seen when the darkest part of the neutral tint sliding
wedge was made use of, and in fact rather better then than when the
shade employed was lighter, Mr. Huggins considers that the ring
cannot be looked upon as a mere optical effect of contrast. An
atmosphere round Mercury hardly seems to be a sufficient explana-
tion of the ring of light. As for the point of light on the dise, that
is an old difficulty. Probably the fact that Stone could see no such
point with the great Greenwich equatorial, will lead to the opinion
that the appearance is connected in some way with the quality of
the telescope employed.

At a recent meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society, the
Astronomer Royal stated that he had obtained from Dr. Miller, of
Cambridge, evidence confirmatory of the connection which has been
supposed to exist between comets and meteors. It will be remem-
bered that Mr. Huggins’s analysis of Comet IT., 1868, showed that
that object consisted of carbon in the state of mcandescent gas. It
appears that there are four meteoric stones, at least, which contain
carbon. Of these, one fell in the south of France, one at the Cape
of Good Hope, one at Debreczin, in Hungary, and the fourth at
Orgeuil, in France.

The number of discovered asteroids has now reached 106.

There will be an eclipse of the moon, visible in England, on the
morning of January 28th. First contact with the penumbra will
take place (at Greenwich) at 11 h. 18-2 m. pw, January 27 ; first
contact with the shadow at 0h. 29°2 m.am., January 28; the
middle of the eclipse at 1 h. 88°2 m.; and last contact with the
penumbra at 15 h. 58-2 m. Somewhat less than one half (more
exactly 0°450) of the moon’s diameter will be eclipsed. The first
contact with the shadow will occur at 50° from the northernmost
poimt of the moon’s limb towards the east; last contact at 31°
towards the west.

PRocEEDINGS oF THE Roya Astronomical Society.

Dr. O. Pihl has laid before the Astronomical Society the results
of a micrometric examination of the stellar cluster in Perseus. He
has been prosecuting this examination since the year 1860, with a
view to obtain, within comparatively small probable errors, a men-
suration of all the more conspicuous stars, sufliciently exact to serve
as a basis for investigating at some remote date the mechanism of
the system. The instrument which he has made use of in these re-

96 Chronicles of Science. [Jan.,

searches is a refractor, 8} inches in aperture, equatorially mounted,
by Lohmeyer, of Hamburg. We have not space to describe in full
the various arrangements adopted by Dr. Pibl to secure accuracy.
Our readers will probably be more interested in learning that, as far
as the researches have yet gone, there would seem to be indica-
tions of movements having taken place since the epoch of Bessel’s
measurements. The mean declination of seven stars examined by
Bessel is 4” 27 south of the mean declination as now observed.
“Ts it probable,” says Dr. Pihl, “that this difference is owing to
errors in observation or reduction, and to no physical change ?”
This is a question which cannot be answered until the course of
time enables astronomers to obtain some satisfactory evidence re-
specting any process of change which may be going on.

A remarkably interesting paper is supphed by Mr. Stone, on the
subject of the observations made upon the transit of Venus which
took place in 1769. Our readers are doubtless aware that the
estimate of the sun’s distance, which has so long found a place in
our treatises of astronomy, was founded upon those observations.
When other methods of determining the sun’s distance had led to
results differing by three or four millions of miles from the value
hitherto received, astronomers were somewhat at a loss to understand
how it was that so faulty a value should have resulted from a series
of observations so elaborate, and apparently so successful, as those
which were made upon the transit of 1769. It will be remembered,
that the calculation of the sun’s distance had been managed by Encke,
and there seemed every reason for supposing that he had spared no
pains to treat the observations which came under his hands in the
most careful and satisfactory manner. An attempt was made by
Powalky to show that the observations of the transit could be made
to agree with modern determinations of the sun’s distance. But,
according to the opinion of the best mathematicians, Powallky
allowed himself far too great freedom in selecting the materials he
made use of. Professor Newcombe, of America, had been more
successful in representing the observations of 1769. Still, however,
there was considerable discordance.

It appeared to Mr. Stone that a new discussion of the observa-
tions of 1769, if made with due care, would necessarily lead to a
clearer view of the sources of systematic error, or wrong interpreta-
tion which might be feared and ought to be guarded against, in
the observations proposed to be made of the transits of 1874 and
1882. In the course of his investigations he was led to the detec-
tion of several grave and fundamental errors, which had previously
been made in the discussion of the observations of 1769, and to a
value of the solar parallax, entitled to be received with confidence.

The great difficulty lies in the fact that at the moment of true
internal contact Venus does not present the appearance of a circular

1869. | Astronomy. 97

disc, but is apparently pear-shaped. This phenomenon is due to
the effects of irradiation, by which the sun’s apparent diameter is
increased, while that of the planet is diminished. But the great
difficulty in judging of the observations made in 1769 has lain in the
necessity of following some law or other as to the choice of what
shall be held to be the true moment of internal contact. The error
which Stone has discovered in Professor Encke’s mode of treatment
consists in the fact that the latter did not apply a uniform law to
the observations which came under his notice; that, in fact, in one
or two instances, he misinterpreted the words of the observers. ‘I
consider,” says Mr. Stone, “that by simply interpreting strictly the
language employed by the observers, I have been led to a solution
which satisfies the whole of the ten observations, and gives, at the
same time, from the equations of condition, a satisfactory result for
the difference between the time of internal contact and the breaking
of the black drop.” The value of the solar parallax deduced from the
new treatment of the observations is 8" 91, a value which agrees
in the most satisfactory manner with that which had been obtained
as the mean of other methods of estimating the parallax.

We must remark, however, that Professor Newcombe considers
Mr. Stone’s interpretation of the observations made in 1769 as un-
tenable.

Mr. J. Tebbutt, jun., supplies a series of observations made by
him upon the star 7 Argtis. He compared this singular variable
with neighbouring stars. It appears from these observations, that
y Argts has not exceeded the sixth magnitude during the past two
years. Thus we are compelled to reject the theory of Professor
Wolf, who assigned a law of variation according to which the epoch
of mimimum brilliancy should have occurred in 1861, and the mag-
nitude of the star should have been 3-6. Certainly 7 Argus is the
most remarkable star in the whole heavens. A quarter of a century
ago, it outshone the brilliant Canopus, and rivalled Sirius itself in
splendour ; now it can only just be detected with the naked eye on
a very clear night.

Two biennial meetings have been held of the Astronomische
Gesellschaft, under the presidency of Professor Argelander, and the
heads of the subjects discussed appear among the notices of the
Astronomical Society. Amongst these, we may notice the follow-
ing:—It has been suggested that the older observations of the
Periodic Comets should be re-examined. Four points have been
specified—the new determination of the places of the stars of com-
parison, the calculation of the auxiliary quantities with the now-
received values of the constants for the times of the appearance of
the comets, the calculation of solar ephemerides for these times,
and lastly, the publication of the originals of the older comet
observations. It appears that the calculations for the comets of

VOL. VI. H

98 Chronicles of Science. | [Jan.,

Encke, Faye, Brorsen, D’Arrest, and Tuttle, are being proceeded
with ; but a list of thirty-one comets, from 1830 to 1867, remains
for further discussion. A wish was expressed that astronomers who
are occuping themselves with any particular comets, would put
themselves in communication with the Society. A programme was
received for the observation of all stars, down to the ninth magni-
tude, between circles of declination 2° 8. and 80° N. The observa-
tories which had offered to take part in the work were Berlin,
Bonn, Helsingfors, Leipzig, Mannheim, and Leyden.

4, BOTANY, VEGETABLE MORPHOLOGY, AND
PHYSIOLOGY.

The Fertilization of the Scarlet-runner and Blue Lobelia.—Mv.
T. H. Farrer, a gentleman previously unknown to fame, but evi-
dently a careful observer of nature, set himself to work upon the
question as to whether other plants besides those described by Mr.
Darwin (Orchids, Primula, Linum, and Lythrum), might not
have a structure whieh provided for the fertilization of one’s ovary
by the pollen of another flower. As Mr. Farrer observes :—“'To
an amateur, dismayed by the difficulties of botanical classification,
perplexed by his own incapacity for microscopical dissection, and
disgusted by the mere cataloguing of species, Mr. Darwin’s sugges-
tion that the true account of the structure and functions of flowers
is frequently to be found in their capacity for cross-fertilization with
the pollen of other flowers, is a ray of light which opens out an
endless field of interesting observation.” We wish there were more
such amateurs. We cannot give Mr. Farrer’s observations, which
are very detailed, and published in the ‘Annals of Natural History’
for October. He shows that there is such an arrangement of the
parts of the flower of the Scarlet-runner, that a bee, alighting and
searching for honey, necessarily shakes any pollen off his proboscis
on to the stigma, whilst, by another device, his proboscis gets
covered with the pollen of this flower as he withdraws it, and is
ready to fertilize another. In Lobelia, Mr. Farrer describes a very
remarkable disposition of parts, which act so that when a bee visits
a Lobelia flower, pollen is ejected, in small quantities at a time, on
the exact spot on his back on which it should be placed in order
that it may be carried to the stigma of another flower, the stigma
in these flowers also being so arranged that, at the very next flower
visited by the bee, the stigma sweeps off the previously acquired
ollen.
r The Double Cocoa-nut.—Dr. E. Perceval Wright, Professor of
Zoology in Trinity College, Dublin, visited, in 1867, the Seychelles

1869. | Botany and Vegetable Physiology. 99

Islands: he stayed there some time, making valuable observations
on botanical and zoological subjects. One matter which very
greatly occupied his attention was the condition and growth of the
forests of Lodoicea—the celebrated Double Cocoa-nut of these
islands. Before the Seychelles were discovered, the nuts used to
be picked up floating on the seas, and were considered rarities of
extraordinary value: at length their home was discovered, and now
their whole history is known, excepting how or whence they came
to the Seychelles. ‘There is no palm like them, that can be possibly
pointed to as an ally, or as a possible descendant from a common an-
cestor, unless we pitch the date of that ancestor far back in time.
And this is what we must do; we must suppose that for ages the
Lodoicea has grown on the Seychelles, and has become so modi-
fied in that great space of time, that it is now quite unlike any
other palms in many important particulars. It was feared, some
time since, that the Double Cocoa-nut was about to become extinct,
like most other living things formed in the microcosm of an ocean-
island, when exposed suddenly, through man’s agency, to the influ-
ence, more or less, of the macrocosm; but this fear was set at rest,
and Dr. Wright tells of several large forests containing thousands
of these trees, many from 100 to 150 feet in height. Dr. Wright
finds that the growth of the stem depends very much on the soil in
which it grows. Of a number planted in 1812 on Silhouette, some
flowered and bore fruit in 1851, being then 26 feet high and 4 feet
in diameter at the base; whilst others which, though close by, were
in very poor soil indeed, had no stems at all, and have borne neither
fruit nor flowers to this day. It is unsafe, Dr. Wright thinks, to
judge of the rate of growth of trees by planted specimens.

The “ Haofash” of Cochin China.—The ‘Moniteur’ gives an
interesting account of a tree called Haofash, which grows on the
mountains of Baria, in French Cochin China. It grows wild in
the forests, hidden among Lianas and other creepers, which render
the wooded mountains of that country almost impervious to the
traveller. Nor do the inhabitants, generally speaking, know the
botanical or medicinal properties of this plant, so that it remains a
secret in the hands of the bonzes and physicians. MM. Condamine
and Blanchard, two French travellers, have at length succeeded, after
much fruitless search, in finding this tree—having bribed a bonze
to disclose it to them. The bark is stripped from the tree in its
third year, when it is about 24 feet in height. 'The operation is
performed in June, when the tree has neither blossoms nor fruit ;
it is hewn down, and then denuded of its bark methodically in
slices about 2 feet long and 3 or 4 inches broad. The bark of the
Haofash is outwardly of an ash-gray colour, and inwardly brown ;
it has a strong aromatic smell and a slightly bitter taste. When
chewed it reddens the saliva; it is a powerful styptic ; as is ad-

H

100 Chronicles of Sctence. [Jan.,

ministered by the physicians of the country in cases of colic,
diarrhoea, and dysentery.

The Ordeal Poison-nut of Madagascar—Dr. Bennett, of
Sydney, writes an account of this tree in the ‘Journal of Botany.’
Specimens of it have been naturalized in New South Wales, and in
the Botanical Gardens at Sydney there is a very fine tree of it,
which somehow or other obtains a mysterious sort of respect from
the visitors to the gardens, who, although they do not hesitate
to gather from other flowers and shrubs, stand in awe of the Ordeal-
tree. The flowers are very fragrant, of a crimson colour, and
appear in November and December. The plant belongs to the
natural order Apocynacee and its native name is Tanghin—whence
Tanghinia. The fruit is of the size of a hen’s egg, containing
a hard stone or nut, the kernel of which is white, of a bitter taste,
and has remarkable poisonous properties. The poison of the ordeal-
nut acts directly upon the heart and muscles. When used by the
natives as a detector of crime, the kernel is pounded and adminis-
tered to the supposed criminal. Frequently sickness is caused, and
the accused then escapes. If not, the poison is rapidly absorbed,
and death ensues. A difference of colour is said to exist between
those kernels which produce only vomiting and those which
produce death ; and the friends of an accused person will stand by
and object to certain nuts being used, ‘The officers are said to
administer these two varieties in a partial way, but it is not very
certain that they can really discriminate between the virulent and
less active kernels. Dr. Bennett suggests that there may be two
species of Tanghinia existing in Madagascar, differmg in the in-
tensity of their poisonous power. The milky juice of the 7. Manghas
is said to be used as a purgative, and according to Rumphius the
natives boil and eat the leaves mixed with other pot-herbs, which
thus act as a gentle laxative. The bark is also used in Java and
Amboyna as a familiar cathartic, the action of which is said to
be very similar to that of senna. Manghas is the name given to
the tree in its native country.

New British Plant—Potentilla Norvegica has been dis-
covered by Mr. G. 8. Gibson, in Wicken Fen, near Upware, in
Cambridgeshire. It was found growing on the side of one of the
marsh ditches, and was carefully identified by comparison with the
specimens in the herbarium of Linné and in that at Kew. The plant
is inconspicuous, and likely to be passed over, except when in flower.
Its geographical distribution renders it unlikely to be found native
in the southern parts of England, and Mr. Gibson cannot account
for its introduction in so rough a spot, and it is not a plant that he
has ever seen in cultivation. We would suggest the possibility of
the barges passing on the Cam, which is little better than a canal,
as the means of introducing the plant. There are superphosphate

1869. | Botany and Vegetable Physiology. 101

works at Cambridge, and possibly certain boat-loads of foreign
phosphate may have been brought by Upware thither.

New British Seaweed.— Mrs. Alfred Gatty has found in
Cardigan Bay, and Dr. J. E. Gray has described in the Ann. and
Mag. Nat. Hist. Hlachista stellaris——There are eight other British
species of Hlachista, which Dr. Gray arranges in three groups.
Mrs. Gatty also found Gigartina pistillata in fruit in Blackpool
Bay. The late Dr. Harvey saw the specimen, and recorded it in
the herbarium of Trinity College, Dublin.

Palu.—Some time ago a very small quantity of a fine silky
substance was brought to England from California under the above
name, and it was used as an object for the microscope, on account of
its beautiful structure. Mr. Bingham, in his very interesting
paper “On the Volcanic Phenomena of the Hawaiian Islands,” says,—
“ Palw is the silky covering of the opening fronds of several species
of tree-ferns, and is exported in large quantities to California, for
beds,* &c.” ‘The trade is so extensive that “ corduroy roads” are
made to the station where it is collected, and whole districts are
leased for the “ Palu business,” and: there is a large number of
“Palu pickers.” The Palwu is collected at Kelanéa, which is the
most tropical region in Hawaii. The tree-ferns have stems 15 feet
high to the base of the frond, and 8 or 12 inches in diameter.

Plants without Roots.—The French Academy has received a paper
from M. Duchartre on certain plants which vegetate without roots.
In South America people will suspend such plants from a balcony
by a thread, without their beg in contact with anything else, and
yet they will grow and blossom in this strange position. In our
hothouses we see them, simply stuck upon a piece of wood or cork,
thrive beautifully without any roots. The question therefore is,
How do they live? M. Duchartre, to discover the secret, has in-
stituted a series of experiments on a plant of this family—the
Tillandsia dianthoidea, ‘Two tolerably equal sprigs of it, without
a vestige of roots, were tied separately to two slices of dry cork
from the same piece. They were then freely suspended in the air,
and weighed from time to time. One of these plants, A, never got
any water at all; the cork of the other, B, on the contrary, was
moistened every second or third day. After the experiment had
been continued 103 days, A had lost one-third of its weight, but
had nevertheless produced blossoms and a small root; B, on the
other hand, was extremely vigorous, and had increased one-eighth in
weight. M. Duchartre thence concludes that these plants require
water, but do not absorb the moisture of the atmosphere.

Reproduction of the Diatomacex.—In the last number of the
‘Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science’ Count Castracane

ee AG.

102 Chronicles of Science. | Jan.,

describes some important observations, which lead him to believe
that Diatomaceze reproduce by means of germs. He describes what
he considers as zoospores having cilia and containing diatoms. The
young germs do not present the brown endo-chrome, but are of a
bluish-green colour. Count Castracane’s observations are given in
detail and are of great importance, since we may hope that they will
lead to further observations in this country and elsewhere. It is
strange that whilst there are hundreds of Diatomaniacs, the
questions of the physiology and anatomy of these organisms re-
main so long doubtful. Max Schultze has settled the locomotive
question, but there remain others unanswered. We believe that
most Diatom-men would scorn to look at a frustule that had not
been boiled in nitric acid, and hence the incompatibility between the
number of students (s¢e!) and the great ignorance prevailing as to
Diatomacez.

Fungological Gastronomy.—The Woolhope Naturalists’ Field
Club recently devoted a day to investigating the Fungi of their
district. The party met at Hereford, and under the direction of
Mr. Edwin Lees, F.LS., and of Mr. W. G. Smith, they proceeded to
collect a vast variety of both poisonous and edible mushrcoms, from
Holme Lacy Park and the neighbouring hills. It was to the edible
forms, however, that the members turned their attention principally,
as they were to be cooked and eaten at dinner after the excursion.
With the fish and the soup came the first novelty in the form of
“ Oreades ketchup.” It was good with either, and was pronounced
by all present a brilliant success. A dish of beefsteak, animal and
vegetable, was served, deliciously mingled to the advantage of both,
and at the same time a dish of the Fistulina hepatica, the “ Liver
fungus,” or “vegetable beefsteak,’ by itself was handed round.
The slices were cut from a large specimen, gathered in the morning.
The next Agaric to appear was Hydnum repandum, the “spiked
mushroom,” from Haywood forest. It was stewed and broiled, and
those members of the Club who had resolved themselves into a com-
mittee of critical taste, and to whom therefore all dishes were im-
mediately brought fresh and hot, quickly separated the Agarics from
their gravy, and found them excellent, and particularly the broiled
ones, not at all unlike oysters, to which they haye been compared.
Then followed the Parasol Agaric (Agaricus procerus), and after
this, the Fairy-ring Champignon (Marasmius oreades), broiled on
toast, after the admirable receipt of Soyer. A dish of Agaricus
prunulus, or Oreella, was also served, simply stewed, and was
declared to be “ delicious.” After dinner our convivial fungologists
listened to four instructive communications on various matters re-
lating to Fungi: their spores—those that are British, why they
ought not to be eaten, and those belonging to Fairy-rings.

Flora of Middlesew.—The work having this title, by Dr. Henry

1869. | Chemistry. 103

Trimen, of St. Mary’s Hospital, London, and by Professor Thiselton

Dyer, of Cirencester College, will be speedily sent to press, and
may be expected to be published by Mr. Hardwicke early this
year. The work will not be a mere record of the occurrence of
species, but much pains has been given to tracing out the origin
of the Flora as far as possible, and (what is interesting from an
antiquarian point of view) the former extension of species over parts
of Middlesex now become London. This sort of observation has,
too, a great value in connection with the causes of the extinction of
species.

7 Flora of Bucks.—A second ‘ List of Buckinghamshire Plants,’
including the additions which have been made to the known Flora
of the county during the past year, will shortly be published. It
is requested that anyone possessing information on the subject in
his possession will forward the same to James Britten, High
Wycombe.

Chair of Botany at Dublin.—Professor Dickson haying ac-
cepted the Chair of Botany at Glasgow University, the lectureship
in the College of Science and the professorship in Trinity College,
Dublin, became vacant. Dr. Perceval Wright, Professor of Zoolog
in Trinity College, was the natural successor of his late colleague to
the more valuable post. Dr. Wright is well known as a teacher of
botany, and an original explorer in botanical science as in zoology.
For some reason, however, Dr. Wyville Thompson, of the Queen’s
College, Belfast, is selected for the Government appoimtment, and
therefore for the University chair also.

University of Vienna.—The celebrated botanist, Dr. Karsten,
of Berlin, has been elected to the Chair of Vegetable Physiology at
Vienna, vacated by the retirement from office of Dr. F. Unger.

5. CHEMISTRY.
(Including the Proceedings of the Chemical Society.)

THE preparation of oxygen has already been alluded to in these
Chronicles on more than one occasion,‘and several processes have
been described by which this gas may be obtained indirectly from
the atmosphere. Closely allied to the preparation of oxygen on a
large scale is that of chlorine, and it has recently been announced
that a Belgian chemist has devised a new process for generating
this gas. He first forms sulphate of sesquioxide of iron, by the
direct combination of this oxide with sulphuric acid, and then mixes
the sulphate obtained with three equivalents of chloride of sodium
or other convenient chloride. Upon heating the mixture in dry
air, the chloride of sodium is said to yield all its chlorine.

104 Chronicles of Science. [Jan.,

Mr. Mallet has continued his experiments on the production of
oxygen, and has now modified his process in such a manner that he
can also obtain chlorine on a large scale. As certain novel or but
slightly known reactions have brought this process into some note,
a few explanations are necessary. The fixation of atmospheric oxygen
upon protochloride of copper allows two results to ensue ; either the
disengagement of oxygen, supposing the desired end be to collect
that gas, or the decomposition of chlorhydric acid and liberation of
chlorine, should the production of that body be desired. The
absorption of oxygen by protochloride of copper is spontaneous, and
takes place at the ordinary temperature in a few hours, provided
the air be sufficiently moist, and especially if the surfaces be renewed.
If the temperature be raised the absorption is more rapid, and this
is the most important part of the question, for by raising the tem-
perature to between 100° and 200° C., or even higher, in the presence
of steam, absorption may be regarded as almost instantaneous.

If upon protochloride of copper, heated to 100° or 200°, com-
mercial chlorhydric acid be slowly dropped, steam alone will be
disengaged, and supposing the addition of acid to be slow enough,
and the access of air and renewal of surface sufficient, the odour of
chlorhydric acid will be scarcely perceptible, and the whole proto-
chloride will transform into anhydrous bichloride, which, when
heated in a close vessel, instantly disengages chlorine. The simul-
taneous absorption of oxygen and chlorhydric acid is an important
and interesting fact, because the extraction of the chlorine from the
acid takes place in this case by means of the atmospheric air, and in
an absolutely direct manner. With gaseous chlorhydric acid the
action is the same, in fact better, provided the acid gas contain, as is
always the case, a certain quantity of steam, and that the accession
of air be sufficient. The presence of water is necessary to the
absorption of oxygen by protochloride of copper. Oxidation and
chlorination take place very quickly at high temperatures, but the
great advantage is that they yield dry products, which is very con-
venient, inasmuch as steam is frequently a source of inconvenience
and alteration of apparatus. From a manufacturing point of view,
it may be considered that 100 kilogrammes of protochloride of
copper, mingled with sufficient inert matter to facilitate manipula-
tion, will produce practically from three to three-and-a-half cubic
metres of oxygen, or from six to seven cubic metres of chlorine.
As four or five operations at least may be performed in twenty-four
hours, it is plain that 100 kilogrammes of substance will produce
from fifteen to eighteen cubic metres of oxygen, or from 200 to 300
kalogrammes of chloride of lime, in twenty-four hours.

The price of the raw material does not exceed one frane the
kilogramme, and the loss is ascertained by experience to be always

1869. | Chemistry. 105

very small; this is easily understood, as the substance does not
leave the retort, but undergoes all the processes within it.

Professor Stas gives the following as the best method of pre-
paring sulphurous acid, a gas which is largely used as a reducing
agent and disinfectant. A current of sulphurous acid is obtained
by attacking, by means of copper, pure sulphuric acid, diluted with
from one-half to two-fifths its volume of water. To make sure of
the purity of the sulphurous acid, pass the current, at first through
water contained in a large washing flask, then through two Woulfe’s
bottles completely filled with pumice-stone broken into small frag-
ments and moistened. The moistened pumice-stone, previous to
its introduction into the bottles, is twice calcined with sulphuric
acid, so as to free it from the chlorides and fluorides which it often
contains.

Professor Wohler, to whom we owe the first published account
of aluminium and magnesium, has lately published the following
facts concerning the metal cerium. The colour of the metal is
intermediate between the colour of iron and that of lead. The
metal is lustrous when polished; it is malleable. Its density is
about 5°5 at 12°. Exposed to the air it loses its lustre, and
becomes slightly blue. It feebly decomposes water at 100°.
Hydrochloric acid dissolves it with energy; concentrated nitric
acid conyerts it into clear brown oxide; the dilute acid dissolves
it. By evaporation, a white salt is obtained, which leaves, after
calcination, a brown oxide, insoluble in nitric acid and in dilute
sulphuric acid. Concentrated sulphuric acid slowly dissolves this
oxide, forming a yellow solution which shows the reactions of ceric
salts. Hydrochloric acid dissolves this oxide with disengagement of
chlorine, forming a colourless solution. When a globule of cerium
is heated by the blow-pipe to dull redness, the metal inflames and
burns vividly, forming brown oxide; but upon submitting a globule
suddenly to a very high temperature, it burns with explosion,
ere out bluish sparks. Cerium powder can inflame below

The rapid and accurate estimation of the amount of sulphur
contained in pyrites is a matter of importance to that very large
section of industrial chemists who are interested in the manufacture
of vitriol. Professor Wohler has discovered that hypochlorous acid
may be used to transform the sulphur of pyrites into sulphuric
acid, which is then estimated by baryta. He directs to finely
pulverize the mineral and suspend it in water, through which a
current of gaseous hypochlorous acid, or better still hypochloric
acid, is passed ; this entirely dissolves the pyrites. Hypochlorous
acid is prepared by heating a milk of carbonate of lime, through
which a current of chlorine is passed to saturation. Hypochloric

106 Chronicles of Science. | Jan.,

acid is obtained by heating in a water-bath a tube supplied with a
cork and delivery tube, and containing a mixture of 9 eqs. of oxalic
acid and 1 eq. of chlorate of potash.

Professor Wohler has also published a good method of separating
phosphoric acid from bases. It consists in dissolving the substance
to be analyzed in a small quantity of nitric acid, and adding to the
solution, first nitrate of silver, then carbonate of silver, and well
shaking. All the phosphoric acid then combines with the oxide of
silver and is precipitated, whilst the bases remain in solution and
may be freed from the excess of silver by means of hydrochloric
acid.

The element phosphorus has been applied by W. Schmid as a
re-agent for metals. When a solution of crystallized phosphorus
in bisulphide of carbon is shaken with water, a perfectly white pre-
cipitate is formed. The presence of traces of metals causes the
precipitate to assume various colours. Thus solutions of copper
are precipitated brown; those of silver, black ; of mercury (oxide),
yellowish brown ; of gold, violet. The filtrates contain generally
sub-oxides.

In an examination into the action of iodine on the hydrogen
compounds of antimony and arsenic, M. Husson has discovered a
reaction which may furnish a useful application in toxicological
researches. He finds that antimoniuretted hydrogen and arseni-
uretted hydrogen form iodide of antimony and iodide of arsenic
when the two gases are made to pass over iodine. A tube con-
taining a small piece of iodine being joined to the Marsh’s apparatus,
gentle heat is applied to volatilize the iodine, which, wpon condensa-
tion, lines the tube. Then, while the tube is still shightly warm, the
gas is allowed to pass. If this contains arseniuretted hydrogen,
the iodine will be bordered by a yellow line formed of little straw-
like masses, having much analogy with iodoform ; the iodine disap-

ears completely. With antimoniuretted hydrogen the reaction 1s
is manifest ; all the iodine collects, forming a deep ring, orange-
tinted on the one side, and brown on the other. But the action of
heat enables these two iodides to be distinguished thus :—The yellow
iodide of arsenic is transformed, one part into red iodide with dis-
engagement of iodine, the other volatilizes in the state of yellow
vapours, which are received on unsized paper ; the same phenomenon
is produced under the influence of an excess of arseniuretted hydro-
gen, whence M. Husson is inclined to conclude that a periodide of
arsenic is first produced. Iodide of antimony, on the other hand,
evolves red vapours, and leaves a little reduced antimony.

Dr. T. Werner recommends the following process to detect the
presence of atmospheric air in coal gas:—Ten parts by weight of

1869. | Chemistry. 107

anhydrous sulphate of protoxide of manganese are put into a two-
necked bottle, and then dissolved in twenty parts of warm water.
To this mixture is immediately added a solution of ten parts by
weight of tartrate of potash and soda (Rochelle salt), dissolved im
sixty parts of water ; the thorough mixing of the fluids is promoted
by well shaking the bottle; after this there is added a quantity of
a solution of caustic potash sufficient to render the fluid quite clear ;
immediately after this the corks, perforated and fitted with very
tightly fitting glass tubes, are placed in the necks of the bottle,
which should be entirely filled with the mixed fluid just alluded to.
One of the glass tubes—the inlet tube for the gas to be tested—
should just dip a little under the upper level of the fiuid ; the outlet
tube, on the other hand, should only reach halfway through the per-
foration of the cork. A very slow current of gas is now made to pass
through the fluid, and kept going for at least 15 minutes, and at most
one full hour. In case the gas is quite free from atmospheric air,
the fluid in the bottle will remain quite clear; if even traces of air
are present, a faint coloration of the liquid will soon become appa-
rent; with a larger proportion of air present in the gas the fluid
will soon be rendered, first light brown coloured, and afterwards
intensely black. Since these changes of colour are due to the oxida-
tion of the salt of manganese, it is evident that every care must be
taken to avoid the presence or access of accidental air; the fluid
in the bottle should reach the cork. It is best to cool the bottle
during the experiment with ice, if at hand, otherwise with very cold
water ; the current of gas must be slow.

M. Monnier has discovered a process for refining sugar, which
is likely to prove of considerable commercial value. When a
current of anhydrous sulphurous acid is passed into a chamber
containing coarse sugar, a bleaching action ensues, and three-fourths
of the colouring matter of the sugar is destroyed, while no alteration
whatever is suffered by the sugar itself. After this treatment, the
sugar is strongly impregnated with sulphurous acid, but the pre-
sence of this body does not interfere with subsequent operations.
About four parts of sulphur are required for every 1000 of sugar,
but when the process is in regular operation, the amount of sulphur
can be sensibly diminished. The sulphurous acid gas ig obtained
by burning sulphur in a small furnace adjoming the chamber.
When the operation is terminated, the sugar is dissolved in water,
and the sulphurous acid neutralized by lime previously converted
into sucrate of lime. M. Monnier feared that, in practice, the
anhydrous sulphurous acid might modify the sugar, and convert a
portion into grape sugar. He has, however, convinced himself that
no action of this kind takes place; the proportion of uncrystallizable
sugar, found by analysis, after treatment by the process, bemg
always exactly equal to the original amount. In all the experiments

108 Chronicles of Science. | Jan.,

the sugar remained exposed to the bleaching action for forty-eight
hours. This process gives excellent results with the strongly
coloured West Indian sugars ; with samples less coloured the action
is not so marked. In the first case, two-thirds or three-fourths of
the colouring matter is completely removed.

M. Dumesnil has devised a new process for preserving wine,
which is of considerable interest. The cask of wine, uncorked,
is placed under an iron bell and the air exhausted; two hours’ work
is necessary before the noise occasioned by the exit of the air ceases.
A vacuum being created, the gases contained in the wine are
released from atmospheric pressure and expand sufficiently to break
the cells of vegetable fibrin enclosing them, and escape. The
withdrawal of 30 or 40 litres of gas occasions no sensible decrease
of liquid. M. Dumesnil gives an example of the practical value of
his process. He allowed the wines of 1865 to ferment till March,
1866, so as to allow of the conversion of all the sugar and extractive
matter into alcohol. At this period he substituted for the usual
operations the treatment by the vacuum; fermentation ceased
entirely. The wines thus treated arrived at their destination in
good condition ; with other samples treated in the usual way the
result was very different. Notwithstanding four rackings, and
possibly four clarifications, the wines have continued to ferment
during the whole of the year 1866 and also the commencement of
1867, and they probably still contain gases which will affect them
more slowly. M. Dumesnil mentions that his wines of 1867,
treated in last March by the vacuum, yielded twice as much gas as
those of 1865.

A memoir presented to the Academy comprises the first portion
of the results of M. Kolbe on the bleaching of flax. The research
has led to the establishment of the following facts:—The gummy
substance which adheres to the fibres of flax is nothing else than
pectose. The soaking or steeping of the fibre appears to have for
its object the determination of the pectic fermentation, and the
pectic acid which results remains fixed on the flax, either mechani-
cally or, in part, in the form of pectate of ammonia. The caustic
alkalies in the cold form gelatinous pectates, which preserve the
fibre from being completely attacked. Pectic acid being weak,
the alkaline carbonates have in the cold only a feeble action upon
the fibre. Ebullition, on the contrary, transforms pectic acid into
an energetic acid—metapectic acid ; the carbonates are then strongly
attacked, and their employment becomes as efficacious as that of
caustic alkalies. The carbonate of soda, even in large quantity,
is not a cause of the weakening of the fibre, which loses more
strength from the employment of caustic soda, especially when the
lye is concentrated. The employment of lime, even in the cold,
weakens the fibre considerably, but the chief cause of the destruction

1869. | Chemistry. 109

of the solidity of the fibre is too prolonged digestion, particularly
with caustic soda. M. Kolbe says, that after having proved the
existence of pectose in the unsteeped flax, and of pectic acid in
the same flax after steeping, it is to be hoped that the attention of
chemists will be drawn to the pectic fermentation, well known,
doubtless, as a scientific fact, but of which no one suspected an
industrial application of so high importance.

The value of carbolic acid as a cure for the bites of venomous
snakes has been made public by Dr. J. W. Hood, B.Sc., of Mel-
bourne. He writes: “I have long entertained the opinion that
carbolic acid, taken internally and used as a caustic to the wound,
would be found to be beneficial, and, perhaps, a specific cure. That
T am right, to a certain extent, is proved by the fact that a friend
of mine, a medical man living at Warrnambool, Dr. Boyd, success-
fully treated two cases of snake-bite with carbolic acid. I am not
aware of more particulars than that the first case was a young lad
bitten by a tiger-snake, the most venomous these colonies produce,
and Dr. Boyd—six hours after the boy was bitten—administered
ten drops of pure acid in brandy and water, every few minutes.
The effect was magical—from a pallid countenance, slow pulse, and
semi-comatose condition, the patient rallied to a bright expression,
ruddy glow, and quick pulse, and the recovery, though slow, was
continuous and certain.”

In a short communication to the ‘ Centralblatt,’ Drs. Bergmann
and Schmiedeberg describe a crystalline substance, to which they
have applied the name “sulphate of sepsin,” obtained from putre-
fying materials, and which they believe represents the proper poison
of organic substances undergoing this kind of fermentation. It is
obtained by diffusion through parchment paper, precipitation with
corrosive sublimate from an alkaline solution, remoyal of the mer-
cury by silver, of silver by sulphuretted hydrogen, evaporation,
and purification of the residue. Large, well-defined, acicular
needles are thus obtained, which are deliquescent in the air, and
when exposed to heat, melt and carbonize. They possess a power-
fully poisonous action. A solution containing scarcely more than
one-hundredth of a gramme was injected into the veins of two dogs.
Vomiting was immediately induced, and after a short time diarrhcea,
which in the course of an hour became bloody. After nine hours
the animals were killed, and on examination their stomachs and
large intestines were found ecchymosed and the small intestine
congested. Frogs could be killed in the same manner.

There has been only one meeting of the Chemical Society
(Noy. 5, 1868), and the space occupied by other matter compels us
to defer an account of the proceedings until our next number,

110 Chronicles of Science. | Jan.,

6. ENGINEERING—CIVIL AND MECHANICAL,
And Notices of Recent Engineering Werks.

Ons test of the vitality of the Engineering profession at the close of
any year may be found in the list of plans deposited at the Private
Bill Office for the ensuing session of Parliament. ‘This year we are
glad to find a marked improvement in this respect upon its prede-
cessor, but still the list is not a very full one, and does not give
promise of more than a very partial revival from the recent state
of depression. The published list contains altogether one hundred
and thirty plans, of which sixty are for railways, six for tramways,
twenty-four for waterworks, twelve for gas, and the remainder for
miscellaneous works of improvement. Amongst the railway schemes,
the principal are proposed extensions of the present Metropolitan —
lines in and about London; a new line, to be constructed with un-
usual regard to economy in first outlay and in subsequent cost of
working, between Brighton and London; and the constantly recur-
ring proposal for a line under the Mersey, between Birkenhead and
Liverpool.

The above are, however, works of the future, and such as may be
carried out will receive their notice in these columns in due course.
We must now turn our attention to giving a brief account of the
principal works which have been completed, or in course of progress
during the past quarter.

Docks, Harbours, &e.—The works of the Royal Docks at Cork
Harbour are progressing very satisfactorily. It is expected that the
foundation stone will be laid early in the spring of 1869. There
are upwards of 400 convicts employed in various duties, as stone
cutters, carpenters, and labourers; and there are in addition 100
men employed by the contractors,

The new Docks at Leith are fast approaching completion, water
having already been admitted into them. The excayation of the
outer basin is finished, and the quay walls are completed.

The Clyde trustees have decided on at once proceeding with the
new Graving Dock at Salter’s Croft, Govan, for which Parliamentary
pelig were obtained last session; and Messrs. Bell and Miller, C.E.,

ave been instructed to take the necessary steps in preparing contract
plans for the undertaking. The new dock will be one of the most
extensive in the kingdom, capable of accommodating ironclads of the
largest dimensions.

The harbour of Irvine, which has been gradually silting up for
years, is now in course of improvement, and very extensive works
are under construction for that purpose. Those under the first
contract, which, however, comprise only a small section of those con-

1869. | Engineering—Civil and Mechanical. 111

templated in the scheme of improvements and extensions, are nearly
completed.

Leven harbour has long been acknowledged to be quite unsuited
for the amount of shipping frequenting it, and as long as twenty
years ago extensive improvements were contemplated. Nothing,
however, has been done till quite recently ; but workmen have at
last commenced driving piles at the east end for the purpose of
further extending it, and this will, no doubt, be followed by still
greater improvements.

On 8rd September, a large floating-dock for Bermuda was suc-
cessfully launched from the yard of Messrs. Campbell, Johnstone,
and Co., of North Woolwich. It is 381 feet long, 124 feet wide,
and 72 feet deep, weighing altogether nearly 9000 tons.

Railways—The St. Pancras Terminal Station of the Midland
Railway in London was opened on 380th September last. <A
description of this huge edifice was given in the last number of this
Journal.

The new Railway between Glasgow and Coatbridge, in connec-
tion with the North British system, was commenced on the 28th
September last. This line is to run direct west from Coatbridge,
through the village of Bailliestown, and will be about eight miles in
length. The entire line is to be completed by the year 1870.

The Duke of Sutherland has resolved to extend the Sutherland-
shire Railway to Helmsdale. The necessary surveys have already
been made, and works will be carried on in anticipation of the pass-
ing of an act early in the present session.

One of the contracts for the Greenock and Ayrshire Railway is
expected to be completed before the end of the year, and the other
early in the spring. The line will probably be ready for regular
traffic in March or April next.

The East Kilbride Extension of the Caledonian Railway was
formally opened to the public on 1st September last. The total
length, from Glasgow to Kilbride, is ten miles.

The extension line of the South Yorkshire Railway, from
Tinsley to Rotherham, was opened for traffic on the 1st September.

The New York Elevated Railway is expected to prove a great
success. The section already completed was to have been opened
on the lst November; surveys have been completed for the remainder
of the line, and the company will now proceed to raise money as fast
as possible for its construction.

A railway to the summit of Mount Washington, New Hamp-
shire, is now under construction. The station at the starting-point
is 2700 feet above the level of the sea, and the road, when com-
pleted, will be 2 miles 260 rods long, rising in that distance 3000
feet to the Tip-top-house, with a gradient in some parts as steep as
1 foot in every 3.

112 Chronicles of Science. [ Jan.,

The new line of railway between Suez and Alexandria, wd
Azazieh, was opened on 8th September. Passengers by the Indian
mail will now proceed by that route, which will occupy only ten
hours in transit, including stoppages.

Bridges—The Quincy Railroad Bridge across the Mississippi,
connecting the Chicago, Burlington, Quincy, and the Hannibal and
St. Joseph Railroads, was opened for general traffic on the 7th
November last. This bridge has been built to supersede the ferry,
formerly the means of communication between the two lines which
are now joined, and an unbroken route is obtained to the Missouri
river, and westward to such lines as are constructed in Nebraska
and Kansas.

An iron railway bridge is under construction between Louisville,
Kentucky, and Jetfersonville, Indiana, which will be just one mile
in length. It will have 24 spans, two of 370 feet, and six of 245°5 .
feet each. It is expected that this bridge will be completed by
September 1st, 1869.

Water-supply, Drainage, &c.—During the last excessively dry
summer several towns, including Liverpool, Manchester, and
Edinburgh, were at one time apprehensive lest there should be a
failure of their water-supplies, and this became more particularly
felt in the two latter towns. We shall therefore probably soon hear
of works being undertaken with the view of rendering available fresh
sources of supply.

The works for giving an additional supply of water to the town
of Preston were set in operation during the last week of August.
The water is taken from the river Hodder, on the borders of Lan-
cashire and Yorkshire, at a point thirteen miles from Preston. The
total additional supply thus obtained amounts to 2,200,000 gallons

ay.

The Kirkaldy and Dysart Waterworks are progressing favourably.
It was expected that the whole of the works at Ballo would be
finished by the 1st January, after which a commencement would be
made in laying the pipes for the town.

A company recently formed for the utilization of the sewage
of Liverpool has made considerable progress with the necessary
works. Pipes have already been laid down to the extent of four
miles, and it is expected they will shortly be carried out as far as
Nice Blundell, where the distribution of sewage will first commence;
the pipes will then be carried on to Southport. The deposit well
at Sandhills has been sunk, and the pumping station immediately
above it will soon be completed.

Miscellaneous.—Tenders have recently been invited for putting
in the foundations of the New Fort to be erected on the middle
ground-shoal in the Bombay Harbour. The fort is semicircular in
plan, of a radius of 100 feet, the circular face fronting the mouth

1869. | Engineering—Civil and Mechanical. 113

of the harbour. This will form part of a system of defensive works
for the protection of Bombay Harbour, which was determined on
some years back. Several of the minor works, comprehended in the
defensive system, have already been completed.

A firm of gas engineers and contractors in New York have
recently undertaken the erection of gas works at Canton, in China.
The main building for retorts, &., will be 184 feet long, made of
iron, and manufactured after the most approved plans. The works
will have a capacity to make 500,000 cubic feet per twenty-four
hours. All the materials for the buildings, gasholder, and works
will be made, fitted, and shipped complete, ready to be put up im-
mediately on their arrival at their destination.

On 24th November the new Smithfield Meat Market in London
was opened to the public with some ceremony, by the Lord Mayor
and Civic Corporation. The market is a parallelogram, 631 feet in
length by 246 feet in width, and covers 34 acres. The general
height of the external wall is 82 feet. There are 162 shops in the
market, each about 56 feet by 15 feet; and behind every shop is an
enclosed counting-house, with domestic apartments overhead. The
lower part is filled in with broad glass louvres, so placed that while
air is admitted freely the direct rays of the sun are kept out.

Mechanical.—Peet’s stop-valve, which forms an admirable substi-
tute for all other taps, stop-cocks, or stop-valves, is now being largely
manufactured by Messrs. Joseph Whitley and Co., of the Railway
Brass Works, Leeds. ‘This valve has the advantage of giving an
unobstructed line of communication when open, and when shut it
comprises two steam-tight surfaces. The opposite internal sides of
the valve are parallel, and instead of a smgle wedge-block, two
separate discs are employed, which go down loosely to their bearing,
when they are forced apart and driven close home by a conical end
to the spindle. Thus,im the event of any obstruction preventing
the proper closing of one of the discs, it in no way interferes with
the other disc taking a perfect bearing.

A new method of applying steam to the propulsion of canal
boats has been tested on the Erie canal. The driving-wheel is
placed in the middle of the boat,-and rolls on the bottom of the
canal, being so arranged as to rise and fall with the irregularities of
the bottom. The speed thus obtained is from two to two-and-a-half
miles per hour.

A very useful invention has recently been patented by Mr. An-
drew Murray, of H.M.’s Portsmouth Dockyard, designed for the
purpose of hauling stranded vessels into deep water, in attempting
to do which ordinary steam-tugs generally fail completely. The
invention consists in fitting one or more powerful capstans on board
a vessel which is to be placed between the stranded ship and one or
more heavy anchors, laid out in the direction in which it is desired

VOL. VI. I

-

114 Chronicles of Science. [Jan.,

to move it. The capstans are fitted on the same bed-plate, and can
haul upon both chains at once in opposite directions, thus bringing
a very considerable pull upon the stranded ship.

A neat arrangement of cut-off gear, for enabling the degree of
expansion in a steam-engine to be regulated by the governor, has
recently been introduced by Messrs. Shelmerdine, Walker, and
Holt, of the Albion Ironworks, Miles Platting, Manchester. In
this arrangement the cut-off valve is placed at the back of the main
slide-valve, and is moved by the latter by friction, the stroke of the
cut-off valve being limited by a link coming into contact with
springs on the stops. When the expansion-valve is stopped in this
way the main slide travels on without it, and thus effects the cut-off
of the steam ; and the point in the stroke at which this stoppage of
the cut-off valve takes place is regulated by raising or lowering the
point of suspension of the link.

A new arrangement of stop-block for railway sidings, &c., is
now being introduced by Messrs. E. 8. Yardiey and Co., of Man-
chester. The block, which is of cast iron, has bolted to it a pair of
clips, which partially embrace two journals. ‘The upper surface of
the rail forms a portion of the bearings when the block is raised,
but is left quite clear when the block is down. The block is raised
and lowered by means of a sliding handle; this handle, when the
block is raised, being locked by merely turning it one-fourth round.
When the handle is thus turned a disc is exhibited, which indicates
that the block is on the rails.

Mr. V. de Michele has lately introduced the simplest and most
practical method of combining a screw motion with the ordinary
reversing handle for a steam-engine that has yet been suggested.
In this the handle works altogether independently of the screw,
using its threads as notches. The screw arrangement is placed
close below the frame of the engine on the centre of motion of the
lever, leaving the handle as clear for ordinary rapid action as mm
the case of the simple lever.

Engineering Works.—The Chief Constructor of the Navy, Mr.
E. J. Reed, C. B., has recently published a work on the subject of
shipbuilding, entitled ‘Shipbuilding in Iron and Steel, * which
professes to be “‘a practical treatise, giving full details of construc-
tion, processes of manufacture, and building arrangements ; with
results of experiments on iron and steel, and on the strength and
water-tightness of riveted work.” Unlike many previous publica-
tions of a kindred nature, this work deals with the question of
shipbuilding from a purely practical point of view, and appears
fully to carry out the author's intention of furnishing fuller inform-
ation on the subject than has yet been published. The volume

* London: John Murray, Albemarle Street. 1869.

1869. | Engineering—Civil and Mechanical. 115

before us is divided into twenty-one chapters, of which fourteen are
deyoted to descriptions and illustrations of the details of iron and
steel ships. One of the remaining chapters gives a description of
the mode of work practised in building at the several private and
the royal dockyards, and another relates to operations connected
with armour-plating; whilst the remainder are filled up with
matter of a purely practical character. It would be vain to
attempt a perfect review of such a work as this within the space
allotted to us, and we can therefore do little more here than notice
its appearance. There are, however, one or two points of interest
which should not be omitted. In this book, for the first time, we
have a detailed account of the changes made in the construction
of ironclads, from the ‘Warrior’ downwards. The arrangements
adopted in most of the principal private establishments with respect
to the various parts of iron ships are fully described ; and separate
accounts are given of the methods of iron shipbuilding adopted at
the principal yards on the Mersey, the Thames, the Clyde, and the
‘Tyne, as well as a full account of the system practised in the Royal
Dockyards in building ironclads. The style in which this work is
compiled seems well calculated to fulfil the author’s expressed
desire that it should be the means of affording information not only
to shipbuilders in general, but more especially to the officers and
workmen employed in the Royal Dockyards. By order of the
Board of Admiralty it will form the principal text-book for exa-
mination in iron shipbuilding of candidates for promotion in the
dockyards.

Although not exclusively an Engineering work, it may not be
inappropriate to notice here an interesting French work, entitled
‘ Annales et Archives de Industrie au 19me Siécle.’* This work
is one of the numerous publications that have arisen out of the
Industrial Exhibition in Paris of last year. M. Eugéne Lacroix
is the well-known publisher of scientific works in Paris, and at
the opening of the Exhibition he announced his intention of
publishing a report on the Paris Exhibition, independent of all Go-
vernment or other official authority and interference, much in the
same manner as ‘Tomlinson’s Encyclopedia of Arts and Sciences’
arose out of the first London Exhibition of 1851. The work at
present under notice consists of a series of volumes, purporting to
comprise a technology of arts, manufactures, agriculture, and min-
ing, compiled from essays and reports upon the different classes of
the Paris Exhibition of 1867, and forming a review of the present
state and development of the various branches of industry and
applied sciences and arts. ‘The six volumes of which this publica-
tion consists certainly form one of the best records of the late Paris

* HBugene Lacroix, éditeur. Paris: Quai Malaquais. 1868.
3 ’ {

Tee

116 Chronicles of Science. [Jan.,

Exhibition printed in the French language, and it may very fairly
be doubted whether there exists anywhere a more useful compila-
tion of treatises on the present state of various branches of art and
industry.

It would be impossible to do justice to M. Eugéne Lacroix’s
‘Annales et Archives de l’Industrie’ within the space allotted for
the purpose; it may therefore suffice briefly to refer to the several
subjects therein treated, which belong more particularly to Engi-
neering Science.

A very interesting essay on the study of the influence which
the fine arts exercise upon the progress and development of
industries and manufactures should perhaps be noticed here, as it
unquestionably bears intimately upon the question raised at the
late Exhibition on the subject of technical education, having refer-
ence particularly to the comparative positions of different countries
represented there. A most important subject treated in the
various essays is one on Mining and Iron Smelting, by MM. Joulié
and Dufrené. M. Michel Rous, Captain of Artillery, and M.
Schwachlé have contributed a series of articles on the construction
of firearms’ ammunition, heavy ordnance, and other war materials,
which are carefully illustrated with the most important designs
exhibited at Paris. The articles on wood-working machinery, by
MM. Raux and Nigreux, are accompanied by cuts of the most
modern types of machines made in England, France, America, and
Germany. Sugar manufacture and the different processes of
brewing and distilling are treated by M. A. Basset and M. J.
Grandvoinnet. The report on locomotives by M. Gaudry is °
illustrated with a series of drawings, showing the different types
of engines exhibited, drawn all to the same scale; and a similar
arrangement has been made in the case of portable engines. And
finally we may refer to a well-compiled and carefully illustrated
article on Naval Architecture, by M. G. de Berthein.

It is most important that foreign scientific publications should
be carefully studied in this country as well as those by our own
countrymen, and the fact that several of our continental neighbours
are running us very close in competition for engineering works
—albeit their best designs are but too often copies of English
patterns—should make our engineers all the more anxious to
borrow whatever of useful novelty may be found in their manufac-
tures; and with this view we are glad to hail any addition to
foreign engineering science.

A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Portland Cement,
by Henry Reid, C.E.; to which is added a translation of M. A.
Lipowitz’s work, describing a new Method adopted in Germany of
Manufacturing that Cement, by W. F. Reid.* The gradual

* EK. & F. N. Spon: London, 1868.

1869. } Geology and Palxontology. ews

increase of confidence in, and appreciation of, Portland cement as a
building material, and the consequent additional demand for it, has,
it appears, hitherto led to an insufficient care in its preparation,
calculated to bring its properties into distrust. The object of the
present work is primarily to remedy this evil, by instructing the
manufacturers in the best practice of the process in all its details,
and introducing into English manufactories the method at present
adopted in Germany in that branch of industry. Considering how
important a position good cement holds in almost all large Engi-
neering works, any additional information calculated to lead to an
improvement in its manufacture cannot but be accepted as a real
boon. It will, of course, always be advisable that Engineers should
sample, and carefully test, every delivery of cement employed upon
their works; and it is only by such means, scrupulously carried out,
that its manufacture is likely to be kept up to a desirable state of
efficiency. Increased demand for a manufactured article too often
leads to carelessness in its manufacture ; and, as we have already
said, it is only by persistent testings that a high standard is likely
to be efficiently maintained. The present work shows how the
manufacture of Portland cement may thus be successfully con-
ducted.

7. GEOLOGY AND PALAZONTOLOGY.

(Including the Proceedings of the Geological Society, and Notices
of Recent Geological Works.)

Iw last quarter’s Chronicle we briefly noticed the publication in the
‘Philosophical Magazine ’ of two instalments of Mr. J. Croll’s paper
on Geological Time. Its completion in the November number of
that magazine enables us to give a résumé of the arguments, and
the principal conclusions at which the author has arrived.

The question, How far the variation of the eccentricity of the
earth’s orbit may have brought about the great changes of climate
indicated by geological phenomena, has been often discussed, more
especially as regards the cause and date of glacial epochs. During
the past three millions of years, there have been three periods when
the eccentricity attained a high value. The first of these began
about 2,630,000 years ago, and terminated about 2,460,000 years
ago. The second began about 980,000 years ago, and terminated
about 720,000 years ago. The third began about 240,000 years
ago, and terminated about 80,000 years ago. The third period, Mr.
Croll considers, was the date of the Glacial epoch; the second was
that of the Upper Miocene period; while the third corresponded to
the Glacial epoch of the Middle Eocene period. Few geologists

118 Chronicles of Science. [Jan.,

believe that during the two latter periods our country passed through
conditions of glaciation as severe as it has done during the Post-
Pliocene period. Mr. Croll, however, argues that subaérial denuda-
tion, by destroying the whole of the land surfaces, has effectually
removed all direct proof, although the indirect evidence is very much
in favour of their occurrence. From calculations based upon the
amount of sediment brought down by the Ganges, Mississippi, and
other rivers, it would follow that from the close of the Miocene and
Eocene Glacial periods to the present day, supposing the rate of
deposition to be constant, 120 feet and 410 feet respectively have
been removed and carried down to the sea in the form of sediment.
The cosmical theory of climate also requires that if glacial condi-
tions obtained at these periods, warm and equable climates must
have prevailed immediately before or after them, and the author
maintains that this is just what has happened. In the Turin
Miocene, conglomerates considered glacial by Sir ©. Lyell are
overlain and underlain conformably by strata indicating a sub-
tropical condition of climate. The same phenomena are also observed
in Switzerland in rocks of the Middle Eocene period, where we find
“flysch” closely associated with nummulitic strata, which contain
genera characteristic of a warm climate. The Cretaceous and
Permian periods afford similar evidence, and in the Post-Phocene
glacial period we have undoubted proof of a warmer climate during
part of its duration, as evidenced by the occurrence of animals and
shells existing in latitudes where they could not otherwise have
lived in consequence of the cold. Space will not permit us to follow
Mr. Croll any farther, but we would refer those of our readers who
are interested in the subject to the paper itself, which will well repay
a careful perusal. is

The Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club is fortunate in having for
its head-quarters a typical district in British geology, and it has, so
far, taken advantage of its position as to publish in the new volume
for the year 1867 two papers by the Rey. R. Dixon,—one on the
“Geology of the Woolhope District,” and the other on “ Upper
Silurian Fossils.’ The Woolhope district presents, according to
Murchison, one of the best examples of a valley of elevation in the
British Islands, and has even been referred to by Humboldt as an
instance of the result of what he calls “ Vulcanicity.” By a continued
volcanic action, the Upper Llandovery Sandstone has been upheayed
some 9000 feet from its original position, into a dome-shaped mass,
exposing on its flanks the superjacent rocks, which underlie the Old
Red Sandstone. Fossils from the various beds are very numerous,
and it was from the Woolhope Limestone of this district that the
new Orthoceratite (Actinoceras baccatum), described by Mr. H. Wood-
ward in a recent number of the ‘ Geological Magazine,’ was obtained.
The paper is accompanied by a list of the chief localities where the

1869. | Geology and Palwontology. 119

rocks are exposed, and by suggestions for routes which cannot fail
to be of great service to future explorers of the district.

Vesuvius has acquired another historian, in the person of Mr.
J. Logan Lobley, who has published a descriptive and geological
account of that volcano. No new facts are adduced with which
the previous writings of more eminent geologists have not already
made us acquainted, but the appearance of the book is especially
opportune, when Vesuvius, by another eruption, is again drawing
to itself the attention of scientific men.

Palzontologists will be glad to hear of the appearance of the
first part of the ‘Ostéographie des Cétacés vivants et fossiles,’ by
MM. Van Beneden and Paul Gervais. We shall, however, defer
our notice of the authors’ conclusions until the completion of this,
as it promises to be, important monograph.

In accordance with the recommendations of a Royal Commission,
the Swedish Diet of 1856-57 voted, for a term of three years,
a sum of money for a geological exploration of Sweden, and the
publication of maps relative to it. Since 1858, owing to grants
by future Diets, the work has gone on uninterruptedly, and during
the ten years from 1858 to 1867 about 226 square miles have been
explored and mapped. One of the results of this survey has been
the publication, by Dr. Erdmann, of his investigation upon the
Quaternary Formations of Sweden.* He considers that at the
close of the first phase of the Glacial period, when the continental
glaciers had attained their maximum development, and extended
over the greater part of the country, the level of the sea was much
lower than it now is, causing the region occupied by the Baltic and
the Gulf of Bothnia to be part of the dry land. This was
succeeded by an inverse movement,—the sea commenced to rise,
and continued to encroach upon the land, until it reached, at the
epoch of the transition between the Glacial and Post-Glacial period,
a much higher level in some regions than its present limits. The
waters then once again commenced to recede, and continued this
movement until they had reached, little by little, their present
level.

The Scientific Society to which Dr. Reynés intended to com-
municate the results of his investigations upon the geology and
paleontology of the Department of Aveyron having been dissolved,
he has published them at his own expense, and we now have before
us his exhaustive treatise. Two-thirds of the department are
occupied by igneous rocks, but in the arrondissements of St.
Affrique and Milhau, the sedimentary rocks are represented by
Upper Silurian, the Coal Measures, Permian, Trias (Bunter,
Muschelkalk, aud Keuper), Infralias, Lower Lias (Middle and

* <Hxposé des formations Quaternaires de la Suede,’ par A. Erdmann.

120 Chronicles of Science. | Jan.,

Upper), and Lower Oolite. Coal is found in the west of the
department, immediately underlying the Permian rocks, and the
thickness of the deposits makes the supply practically inex-
haustible. Dr. Reynés believes that other localities only want
working to yield coal, and that in St. Affrique especially the
sandstone is so easy to mine that there would be great probability
of remunerative success. Under the name of Lias, the author
comprises the whole of the series of marls and limestones which
extend from the top of the Trias to the Oolitic limestone. The
Lower Lias (White and Blue Lias) is subdivided into six fossili-
ferous zones—(1) Avicula contorla zone (bone bed), (2) Zone of
Ammonites planorbis, (3) Zone of A. angulatus, (4) Zone of
A. Bucklandi (Arieten Kalk), (5) Zone of A. obtusus, (6) Zone of
A. oxynotus and raricostatus, and A. armatus; the Middle Lias
(Marlstone) comprises—(7) Zone of A. fimbriatus, and (8) Zone »
of A. margaritatus ; and the Upper Lias (Upper Marls, Alum
Shales, Possidonia Schists) consists of (9) Zone of A. Serpentinus
(Possidonien Schiefer), (10) Zone of A. bifrons, (11) Zone of
A. gurensis, and (12) Zone of A. opalinus. Several new species
are described from these zones, principally from the zones of A.
margaritatus and A. bifrons.

The attention of our paleontological readers is called to the
publication of a work by Dr. Gustay L. Mayr, on ‘ Flies in Baltic
Amber. * We do not give a résumé of its contents, as the subject
has only recently{ been treated at some length in this Journal, in
Dr. G. Zaddach’s paper “ On the Origin and History of Amber.”

In the ‘ Annals and Magazine of Natural History ’ for November
is a paper by Dr. H. A. Nicholson, “On the Distribution in Time
of the Graptolitide.” A careful examination shows that this order
may still be considered characteristic of and confined to the Silurian
period, notwithstanding the discoveries of the aberrant genus
Dicdyonema in the Middle Old Red of America, and in the Tremadoe
slates of this country. The genera, and often the species of this
order, are so constant in range and distribution, that they afford
reliable data by which to correlate deposits in different parts of the
world.

Another large group—the Brachiopods—has been treated in a
similar manner by Mr. J. L. Lobley, in the ‘Geological Magazine ’
for November. ‘The vast range in time of this class, its persistence
through varied conditions, and its apparent extinction during whole
formations, such as the Trias, only to reappear when more favour-
able conditions obtained, would point to its study as being especially
valuable in determining the truth and correctness of any develop-
ment theory.

* ‘Die Ameisen des baltischen Bernsteins.’
t ‘Quart. Journ, Science,’ vol. v., p. 167.

1869.] Geology and Paleontology. 121

In the same number is an article by Mr. H. Woodward, “On a
newly discovered Long-eyed Calymene, from the Wenlock Limestone,
at Dudley.” The eye-stalks of the new Trilobite are of remarkable
leneth, and Mr. Woodward has given it the name of Calymene
ceratophthalma.

Those who are specially interested in the subject, will find in the
October number of the same magazine, a reprint of Mr. J. Evans's
paper “On the Cavities in the Gravel of the Valley of the Little
Ouse, in Norfolk,” read before the British Association at Norwich,
in which the supposed artificial cavities in or near which flint
implements were found are referred to sand pipes.

The concluding portion of Mr. J. A. Phillips’s “ Notes on the
Chemical Geology of the Gold-fields of California” is published in
the December number of the ‘ Philosophical Magazine.’ A careful
examination of these gold regions has led him to arrive at the
following principal conclusions. Quartz veins have been produced
by slow deposition from aqueous solutions of silica on the walls
of the enclosing fissures. The formation of these veins is often due
to hydrothermal agencies, and it may be inferred that they are the
result of an intermittent action, the fissures having been sometimes
traversed by currents of hot water, and at other times having given
off aqueous or gaseous exhalations. It would appear that gold
may be deposited from the same solution which gave rise to the
formation of the enclosing quartz, and the constant presence in
auriferous veins of iron pyrites, which always contain a certain
amount of gold, suggests the close connection of this sulphide with
the solvent which holds the gold in solution.

In conclusion, we would call attention to the appearance of
Dr. J. J. Bigsby’s ‘Thesaurus Siluricus—the Fauna and Flora of
the Silurian Period, a notice of which, in greater detail, will be
found in another part of this Journal.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SoctEty.

The memoirs published in the last number of the Society’s
Journal are unusually numerous and interesting.

In the secondary changes which have modified the chemical
constitution of stratified rocks subsequent to their deposition,
and produced the various forms of mottling and variegation,
perhaps no agent has played so conspicuous a part as Iron. Mr.
Maw, in an elaborately iulustrated paper “ On the Disposition of
Tron in variegated Strata,” has by a series of careful analyses deter-
mined many of the appearances connected with ferruginous rocks.

The state of combination in which iron is usually disseminated
is the anhydrous sesquioxide, but it also occurs in small amounts

122 : Chronicles of Science. [Jan., -

as hydrous sesquioxide, carbonate of protoxide, and as silicates.
Mr. Maw inclines to the opinion that the red sesquioxide was the
primary condition of iron in red beds, rejecting Dr. Dawson’s
hypothesis that the sesquioxide was derived from the oxidation of
bisulphide of iron under the influence of heat and moisture.

The bleaching of red beds and the pale blotches which so
frequently occur in the midst of the primordial colour are invari-
ably due to the abstraction of the colouring oxide, and in most
cases appear to be entirely independent of any predisposing cause.
The majority of examples of variegation in which there are neither
mechanical nor segregated nuclei present, exhibit no differences in
the light and dark parts, merely as regards the proportion of iron
present, neither is there any change in the composition of the
matrix, nor any alteration in the state of combination, except the

invariable conversion of the red anhydrous into the hydrous sesqui- .

oxide. Of variegation in connection with joints or cracks, there are
two distinct forms: one connected with surface infiltration, in
which, along the line of jomt, beds containing carbonate of pro-
toxide of iron have become charged with the apparently insoluble
sesquioxide ; and the other, in which rocks coloured by the red
sesquioxide have become bleached by its conversion inte the pro-
toxide,

The generally accepted theory, suggested by De la Beche, of
fhe bleaching power of fossil carbonaceous matter by its reducing
action upon the colouring oxide is not considered sufficient by Mr.
Maw. Analyses lead to the conclusion that in these cases variega-
tion results from a rearrangement of the iron, and not from its loss
in a soluble condition, and that this rearrangement sometimes takes
place centripetally and at others centrifugally.

The cause which has produced the banding of yellow sand-
stone seems to have been that instead of the hydrous peroxide of
iron accumulating in spherical nuclei, the segregation has taken
place in lines which have gradually advanced, gathering up the
peroxide in their progress, and leaving behind them the bleached
sandstone deprived of its iron.

The conclusions at which the author has arrived are that a very
small proportion of the forms of variegation can be accounted for
by the mere altered state of combination of iron, im situ, the altera-
tions of the red anhydrous sesquioxide into hydrous sesquioxide,
the reduction of sesquioxide to protoxide of iron, and occasionally the
change of colour due to the decomposition of bisulphide of iron,
completing the list of colour alterations due to a merely chemical
change. Neither will the presence of organic matter account for
the changes; and the author concludes that the transference of the
colouring matter has taken place by the simple mechanical agency
of segregation, principally, and also by infiltration and dissolution.

‘nie St ae

1869.] Geology and Palzontology. 123

A paper by Dr. Leith Adams announces the discovery of the
Asiatic elephant in a fossil state. The tooth, upon which the deter-
mination is based, was found by Dr. Duggan, at a distance of over
forty miles from the sea-shore, between Kanagawa and Jeddo,
in Japan, and at the base of a surface coal-bed. Mr. Busk, to
whom Dr. Adams sent a plaster-cast of the specimen, considers it
to be the antepenultimate upper left molar of what, if met with in
the recent condition, he should undoubtedly refer to Hlephas Indicus.
The principal points of difference between the specimen in question
and the similar recent molar, are its considerable curvature, its
somewhat greater proportionate breadth, and the greater thick-
ness of the plates. These differences, however, are unimportant,
and there is every reason to believe that the Japanese fossil tooth
belongs to a form of Hlephas Indicus, with teeth somewhat larger
than the average of the existing one.

In a paper by Dr. F. Stoliczka, “On Jurassic Deposits in
the North-west Himalaya,” the author combats the statement of
Mr. Tate that he has failed to establish a true correlation between
the Jurassic stages of the rocks of the Spiti valley and their
European equivalents, which are all distinguishable by the charac-
teristic fossils of their European analogues. Dr. Stoliczka has
distinguished the following formations :—

hanes a. Lower Tagling Limestone.
i b. Upper Tagling Limestone.

: ce. Jurassic slates (not specified).
2. Dogger .. { d, Spiti shales.
oy WUE) oe) ac e. Gieumal sandstone.

The Lower Tagling limestone generally rests unconformably on
the Lower or Upper Triassic limestone, while the Gieumal sand-
stone is overlain by Cretaceous rocks. Supposing the determi-
nation of the species to be correct, and Dr. Stoliczka is too good a
paleontologist to make the matter doubtful, there can be no doubt
that he has succeeded in proving that the Himalayan Jurassic
rocks can be separated into determinate stages.

In a paper “On the Distribution of Stone Implements in
Southern India,” Mr. R. Bruce Foote describes the occurrence
and position of the quartzite implements which are found in the
laterite deposits of the eastern coast. These deposits, which are
considered to be of marine origin, occupy the position of a belt,
eight to ten miles in width, running parallel with the general coast
line, and broken through by the different rivers running into the
Bay of Bengal. This belt has been examined only from Ongole
to Tanjore, a distance of 300 miles; but Mr. Foote states that it
extends southward from the latter place, nearly down to Cape
Cormorin, and on the north will probably be found to join the
laterite of Orissa. The depth below its present level, to which

124 Chronicles of Science. [Jan.,

the land was depressed, at the time of the formation of the lateritic
deposits, would appear to have been very great. Laterite, con-
taining implements, occurs at a measured height of 370 ft. above
mean sea-level; and the author has found in the Alicoor hills
several implements at a height of what could not have been less
than 500 or 600 feet above the level of the sea.

Other implements have been discovered lying on the surface
of the country, but at such great elevations (1400 feet) as to
preclude the idea that they came from beds of marine origin.
Mr. Foote considers that these were once enveloped in freshwater
deposits, which have been removed by denudation. ‘The quartzite
pebbles, from which the implement makers drew their supplies to
chip the various tools, came from the Jurassic conglomerates, which
form the adjacent hills. These hills were probably islands standing
up in the midst of the laterite sea, and were the homes of the
manufacturers of the weapons and tools. The absence of any
organic remains in the laterite precludes, however, the possibility
of arriving at a satisfactory conclusion as to its age.

Dr. Holl, in a paper “On the Older Rocks of South Devon
and East Cornwall,” describes in great detail the extension and
stratigraphical relationship of the different beds which he to the
south of the Carbonaceous rocks of Central Devon, and the adja-
cent parts of Cornwall. Neither the highest nor the lowest part
of the Devonian system as seen in North Devon occurs on the
south side of the Culm Measures, between which and the under-
lying Devonian there is a complete unconformity. The author
divides the rocks of the district into three groups: Lower, Middie,
and Upper South Devon groups. Of these the lower group
extends from Dartmoor, by Hingston Down, to the Brown Willey
granite, and may possibly be correlated with the base of the
Ilfracombe group of North Devon. ‘The discontinuous calcareous
range of the Looe River, St. Germans, Brickfortleigh, Ashburton,
and Bickerton, with the overlying slates, which separate it from
the Plymouth and Torbay range, constitute the middle group. The
upper group comprises the argillaceous slates, micaceous schists,
and grits of Blagdon Cross and Kingsbridge promontory, and
probably corresponds to the upper and Morthoe portions of the
Ilfracombe series of North Devon.

8. METEOROLOGY.

‘Tur importance of the science of Meteorology is daily becoming
more and more recognized; and its value to ourselves especially, as
a maritime nation, 1s so great that we purpose henceforward to

1869. | _ Meteorology. : 125

include it among our Chronicles. We shall commence by giving
a brief account of the work which has been completed, both at
home and abroad, during the past year, and of that which is now
in progress.

Our own Meteorological Office, under the management of the
Committee of the Royal Society, is now fairly afloat, and its first
Annual Report was presented to Parliament in July last. The
Report consists of two parts, of which one gives an account of
the work of the office in London, under Mr. Scott, assisted by
Capt. H. Toynbee as Marine Superintendent ; while the other is
a full description, with plates, of the self-recording instruments far-
nished by the Committee to their newly-established observatories.
These latter are seven in number, vz. Aberdeen, Armagh, Fal-
mouth, Glasgow, Stonyhurst, and Valencia, with the observatory
of the British Association at Kew, under the management of Dr.
Stewart, as the central and normal one.

The price of this Report is so extremely low (1s.) that we must
refer our readers to its pages, and shall only notice it very briefly.

The work of the office is divided into three heads, viz. Ocean
Meteorology, Telegraphic Weather Intelligence, and the Land
Meteorology of the British Islands.

As to the first, the Committee have resolved to complete the
discussion of the materials left in an unfinished state by Admiral
FitzRoy and Mr. Babington, and, as a commencement of new work,
to employ the energies of the office on the investigation of the
meteorological conditions of the district lying between the trade-
winds in the Atlantic Ocean.

From this inquiry, which will necessarily be a tedious one, owing
to the immense arrear of observations to be worked up, it is hoped,
as General Sabine, the chairman of the committee, states in his last
presidential address to the Royal Society, to ascertain the “condi-
tions of atmospherical pressure, temperature, and vapour tension,
the direction and force of wind, the character of weather, and the
sea-surface temperature,” for each month and for each square
degree over the area under discussion. Meanwhile, the co-operation
of several of our leading ocean steamship companies has been
obtained, and thereby a staff of observers of a very high class has
been secured.

“Telegraphic Weather Intelligence” is the term applied by the
committee to the system adopted in lieu of the old storm warn-
ings. In June, 1867, they proposed, in answer to the request of
the Board of Trade, to organize a system of teleeraphy. of facts,
instead of prophecies or forecasts, and thereby to revert, for the
present, to what had been originally contemplated when “storm
warnings” were first instituted. At the end of the year, when
the whole of the reporting stations had been visited, the arrange-

126 Chronicles of Science. [Jan.,

ments were completed and the system was set in action. At
present, General Sabine, in the address above quoted, informs us
that the drum signal is hoisted at ninety-seven British stations, as
well as at Hamburg and Cuxhayven; while telegraphic information
of storms is also sent to Holland, and to the Ministry of Marine
in France.

The first of the new observatories only commenced operations
at the beginning of the present year, and we hope that ere long
some results from these magnificent instruments may be com-
‘municated to the public.

The only other result of the work of the office which has as
yet appeared has been a report by Mr. Scott, “On the Connection
between Strong Winds and Barometrical Differences,” which has
been printed.

The inquiry was undertaken with a view of testing, by inde-
pendent investigation of the weather reports published in ‘The Times’
for the period of nine months, the truth of the rule for foretelling
the direction of the wind proposed by Professor Buijs Ballot. The
rule has been very constantly brought before the public of late. It
may be thus stated :—

Stand with your back to the wind, and the barometer will be
lower on your lefi-hand side than on your right.

Accordingly if on any day the reading at Valencia is lower than
that at London, we may expect southerly winds.

The report shows that strong winds are foretold correctly as to
direction nine times out of ten, and as to both direction and foree
six times out of ten. It is shown that in the case of our great
storms 90 per cent. of them gave unmistakable signs of their ap-
proach (in accordance with the rule) at least a few hours previous
to their commencement. Serious storms never blow unless there
be a considerable difference of atmospherical pressure within a
limited area.

The results of the inquiry are fairly satisfactory, as a steady,
though slight, advance in the direction of placing the study of
weather on a firm scientific basis.

A notice of the pilot charts for the Atlantic, which have just
been published by the Hydrographic Office of the Admiralty, is
_ necessarily postponed.

In France, the magnificent series of charts—‘ Atlas des Mouve-
ments Généraux de l’Atmosphére,’ 1864, June to December, which
has been issued by M. Le Verrier, next claims our notice. This
consists of daily synoptic charts of the Atlantic Ocean from the
equator to lat. 70° N., including, in addition, Europe and a few
stations on the south and east coasts of the Mediterranean, and on
the Atlantic seaboard of North America. The charts are con-
structed on the type of those which appear in the daily ‘ Bulletin

1869. ] Meteoroiogy. 127

International’ issued by the Observatoire Impérial; and they give
for 8 a.m. every day the conditions of pressure, wind, sea-disturb-
ance, and character of the sky, which have been obtained from
ships’ logs and land observations. The materials have been partly
procured by the system of international co-operation ; our own Me-
teorological Department and the Army Medical Department having
contributed copies of observations furnished to them.

The value of a work like this for precise inquiries depends on
the accuracy of the data furnished on the charts; and in this
important particular we regret to say that the present Atlas leaves
something to be desired.

It is naturally quite impossible to ensure absolute synchronism
in the observations themselves, when the observers are scattered over
so extended an area. Recourse must therefore be had to methods
of interpclation, so as to reduce the results to what they would
have been at 8 a.m. Paris time. This necessarily introduces a very
serious amount of uncertainty. As regards the graphical repre-
sentations, the isobaric lines have been drawn with a very free hand.
In the preface M. Le Verrier says: “In the determination of iso-
baric curves the consideration of the winds is most important.
They indicate to us the modifications which the curves undergo
in the process of bringing themselves into harmony with each
other, and explain to us sinuosities and irregularities which seem at
first sight to have no apparent cause.” Such an admission as the
foregoing does away with the scientific value of these curves alto-
gether. How is it possible to deduce any relation between wind
and barometrical pressure, when the wind itself has been already
taken as an important element in the determination of the course of
those curves? This is arguing in a very limited circle indeed.
However, the observations themselves appear to have been entered
on the charts with all possible care, considering the difficulty of the
preliminary calculations. ‘The preface contains a most interesting
account of the gradual development of the various meteorological
undertakings carried on by the Observatoire Impérial.

In addition to this Atlas, two other volumes have appeared
under similar auspices, the ‘Atlas des Orages, 1865, and the ‘ Atlas
Météorologique, 1866. These. have reference almost exclusively
to the distribution of thunderstorms and of hail over France during
the years to which they respectively refer. The entire series of
charts is most beautifully lithographed, and the whole is a valu-
able contribution to science.

Holland may take the next place, where the Royal Meteorological
Institute at Utrecht, under the superintendence of Professor Buijs
Ballot, assisted by Lieut. Cornelissen for the Marie branch, con-
tinues to work steadily, especially in the department of Ocean
Meteorology. Owing to these publications being in Dutch, their

128 Chronicles of Science. [Jan.,

various contents are not as available as might be wished to most
British readers. Accordingly we hail with great pleasure the
announcement contained in the Report of the Meteorological Com-
mittee, that it is intended to publish shortly an English edition of
the temperature charts for the South Atlantic Ocean which appeared
in the work entitled ‘Ondersoekingen met den Zee-Thermometer,
Utrecht, 1861 (Researches with the Sea Thermometer). This
year the attention of M. Cornelissen has been directed in a special
way to the sea-surface temperature round the south point of Africa,
where the alternations of cold and warm water are so frequently
noticed—the domain of the dangerous gales of those seas. We are
elad to say that this work has been published in English. It con-
tains charts giving the temperature for each square degree during
the different seasons, which are of great interest and value.

With regard to the land-work of the Institute, the Jaarboek,
(Year-book) has now reached its nineteenth annual volume.

In Prussia Professor Dove has brought out during the last two
years the results of the monthly means of the meteorological elements
for thefour years 1864—67, with the five-day means of temperature,
obtained by the discussion of the observations furnished by the
Meteorological Institute, and also the first portion, relating to tem-
perature, of a research into the climatology of North Germany for
the last twenty years. The preface to this work contains much
interesting information: we learn from it that the number of stations
in connection with the Institute has now reached 160, and as the
instruments have all been repeatedly verified, the data derived from
them are to be thoroughly trusted. It is, however, very satisfactory
to hear from Professor Dove, the highest living authority on the
subject, that having compared carefully the results furnished by
the present system with those obtained in previous years, before the
Institute was in existence and consequently before the regular
verification of the instruments had commenced, he finds that the
conclusions yielded by the older materials are very slightly different
from those now in process of deduction. The works in question,
like the former ones of the Institute, have appeared as a portion
of the publications of the Royal Statistical Bureau, and compose
Nos. 12, 14, and 15 of that series.

North Germany is also commencing the work of Ocean Meteor-
ology, and an office, entitled the Nord-deutsche Seewarte, has been
established at Hamburg, under the superintendence of Herr W. yon
Freeden, formerly Rector of the Navigation School at Elsfleth, near
Bremen. In fact the entire organization is to a great extent due
to the energy of the Director, whose long experience of similar
investigations leads us to cherish the best hopes for the success of
the new undertaking.

In Norway Professor H. Mohn has recently furnished a number

1869. | Meteorology. 129

of stations, principally lighthouses, lying along the extended coast-
line of that country, with instruments. Six of these possess tele-
graphic communication with Christiania. The organization of this
system was commenced with the year 1867, and it is in connection
with the Meteorological Institute of Norway, which, in itself, is
affiliated to the University of Christiania. In addition to land
observations, the Norwegian Marine has been solicited to take part
in the work, and many of the sea-going captains have most cordially
agreed to keep Meteorological Registers.

In Russia, and indeed in the world at large, Meteorology has
sustained a most serious loss in the death of Professor Ludwig
Kaemtz at the end of the year 1867. He had been only for two
years Director of the Central Physical Observatory, having been
appointed to that post on the death of Kupffer. The vacant position
has since been filled by the appoimtment of Professor H. Wild,
formerly at the head of the Observatory at Berne.

In Austria the K: K: Anstalt fiir Meteorologie und Erdmag-
netismus has published the third volume of the new series of its
Jahrbuch, being the results for 1866. Dr. Carl Jelinek, the
Director of the Institution, tells us that the number of stations in
connection with it has increased to 141. The volume is enriched
by a most valuable paper by Professor Karlinski on the mean tem-
perature of Cracow as deduced from forty years’ observations.

Austria is also lending a hand to the work of Marine Meteoro-
logy, and has invited the co-operation of its own Navy and Merchant
service.

In Italy the death of Matteucci has been a most unfortunate
check to the development of meteorological organization, for
although Secchi and others continue to issue their several publica-
tions, individually of great importance, there is as yet no central body
under whose auspices these separate labours might be combined into
a harmonious whole. This most desirable consummation seems
sufficiently distant, but we may venture to express the hope that it
will sooner or later be realized.

The result just alluded to was brought about in Switzerland
in the year 1863, by means of a Meteorological Committee
appointed by the Swiss Natural History Society. The system now
comprises eighty-two stations, within a small area, but varying in
their elevation above the sea, between 700 and 7600 feet. The
Meteorology of Switzerland, and more particularly the question of
the origin of the “ Fohn,” or south wind, whose action often causes
such serious damage by floods, has been of late the theme of a warm
controversy, and it may be hoped that the efforts now bemg made
will help to elucidate this problem.

Our space will not allow of more than a passing reference to
other countries, but we hear of meteorological organization in Den-

VOL. VI. K

130 Chronicles of Science. [Jan.,

mark and also in Turkey, while the veteran Quetelet at Brussels,
Aguilar at Madrid, and Capello at Lisbon, continue to publish the
results of their respective observations.

Leaving Europe, we are glad to see that the United States are
resuming the work suspended during the war, so that we may hope
ere long to receive from the other side of the Atlantic valuable con-
tributions in continuation of the work so energetically carried on in
former days by Maury.

In our colonies the subject is generally attracting attention.
The Government of Bengal has established a Meteorological office at
Calcutta, of which Mr. H. F. Blanford has undertaken the super-
intendence, and has announced his intention of working at the me-
teorology of the Bay of Bengal. A system of storm warnings has
also been set on foot.

The palm, however, of all work in those regions belongs to the -
Meteorological Society of the Mauritius, whose secretary, Mr.
Charles Meldrum, is now in England, and engaged in the prepara-
tion of synoptic weather-charts for the Indian Ocean. Mr. Meldrum
has read several valuable papers before various societies since his
arrival in Europe, a notice of which must unavoidably be post-

oned.
We regret also to be unable on the present occasion to refer to
the proceedings of the Meteorological Societies both in this country
and in France, and can only hope hereafter to revert to the
valuable researches contained in their journals.

9. .MINERALOGY.
(With Notices of Recent Mineralogical and Petrological Works.)

To trace the progress of Mineralogy, quarter by quarter, would in
truth be a cheerless task if the chronicler were restricted to the
work that is carried forward in our own country. So little energy
is brought to bear upon. the study of British mineralogy, that many
a month may pass without the publication of a single memoir
worthy of bemg placed on record. Happily this state of lethargy
has not extended to the Continent. There indeed scientific activity,
not less in this department than in others, remains as rife as ever.
In the periodical literature of continental science, Mineralogy occu-
pies a position to which it is fairly entitled by its importance, but
from which it is sadly degraded in this country. Hence it is, that
the records regularly published in this Journal often contain so
much about mineralogy abroad, but so little about mineralogy at
home. As an introduction to the notes which we are about to offer
in the present number, such an apology seems especially needful.

1869. ] Mineralogy. 131

In a paper “On the Distribution of Microscopic Nepheline,” *
Dr. Zirkel shows that this mineral, which a few years ago was re-
garded as peculiar to an exceedingly limited number of rocks,
really enjoys a very wide-spread distribution, but that its crystals
are in general so minute as to escape detection without microscopic
aid. Nepheline usually occurs in six-sided prisms, and therefore
its sections will appear as hexagonal or as rectangular plates,
according as the crystals are cut transversely or longitudinally ;
whilst the rectangular sections will be either oblong or square, ac-
cording to the height of the prism. When pure, nepheline is clear
and colourless, but the larger crystals are usually more or less
tinted by the presence of numerous grayish particles exceedingly
minute, and variously disposed within the substance of the mineral:
such particles are often accumulated in the centre of the crystal, and
surrounded by a pellucid zone. When cut parallel to the principal
axis of the prism, the sections often exhibit long lines of particles
running in a longitudinal direction; and many of the crystals are
also penetrated by tiny needle-like prisms of green augite. In
microscopic examination, the observer must beware of mistaking
crystals of apatite for those of nepheline, since the two minerals
assume somewhat similar forms.

Having thus established the characters of microscopic nepheline,
Zirkel proceeds to trace its distribution. Among the principal
rocks in which he has detected it, may be mentioned the hornblende-
andesite of the Wolkenberg and other hills of the Siebengebirge on
the Rhine; the sanidine and oligoclase trachyte which forms the
well-known “castled crag of Drachenfels”; the similar trachytes of
the Cantal in Central France; the famous domite of the Puy-de-
Dome; and many of the trachytes and andesites which form so
marked a feature in the geology of Hungary and Transylvania. It
has long been supposed that certain basalts may contain nepheline,
but Zirkel converts this supposition into a certainty: its presence
in such rocks is however difficult to determine, and the sections need
to be carefully prepared. Our Scotch geologists may not be aware
that the greenstone of Arthur’s Seat is remarkably rich in well-
formed crystals of nepheline. Nor must it be supposed that the
presence of this mineral is confined to rocks of any particular geo-
logical epoch, since it is found equally in the youngest eruptive
rocks and in the oldest melaphyres.

Two new Silesian minerals have recently been described by Dr.
Websky, of Breslau.t One of these is named, from its locality,
Kochelite, whilst the other is to be called Sarcopside, in allusion to

* ¢Ueber die Verbreitung mikroscopischer Nepheline.’ Leonhard und Geinitz’s
‘Neues Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie,’ u.s.w. 1868. Heft VI., p. 697.
+ ‘Ueber Sarkopsid und Kochelit, zwei neue Minerale aus Schlesien.’ Zeit-
schrift d. Deutsch. Geolog. Gesellschaft. 1868. Heft IL, p. 245. 3
K

132 Chronicles of Science. [Jan., °

its resemblance to muscular tissue. Kochelite occurs as a brownish-
yellow incrustation, with a columnar structure, investing titanic
iron-ore and fergusonite. Its analysis, which is extremely complex,
points to its chemical relations with yttrotantalite. The second
mineral, Sarcopside, occurs in ellipsoidal masses invested with
vivianite and embedded in granite. Internally these nodules
exhibit a complicated structure, being made up of a reticulated
arrangement of thread-like crystals, varying in colour from
lavender to flesh-red. It is essentially a phosphate of iron and
manganese, its analysis leading to the following unattractive
formula :—

3 PO, (2 FeO, Mn O) + PO, (2 Mn O, Ca O) + Fe Fl + Fe, O,, HO.

For some years past extensive deposits of potash-salts have been
worked in connection with the rock-salt of Stassfurt, in Prussian ~
Saxony. Among these potash-salts—so valued by the agriculturist
as fertilizing agents—the chloride of potassium in a compact state
has long been found, and has passed under the various names of
Leopoldite, Schitzellite, and Hévelite. Sylvine is, however, the
mineralogical name by which the pure chloride is best distinguished.
Of this mineral some splendid crystals have lately been found lining
large drusy cavities in the Stassfurt deposits. The crystals—of
which some of the faces measure a couple of inches across—are
combinations of the cube and octohedron, and exhibit a perfect
cubic cleavage. In appearance they strongly resemble rock-salt,
but are distinguished by a somewhat sharper taste. Although
usually colourless, they are sometimes tinged red, either by
mechanical enclosure of oxide of iron, or by the presence of a
gaseous substance, probably marsh-gas. The crystals are almost
pure potassium chloride, containing only a small percentage of the
chlorides of sodium and magnesium, with traces of the sulphates of
soda and magnesia. A notice of the mineral has been laid before
the German Geological Society by Herr Huyssen.*

Availing himself of these crystals of sylvine—unparalleled as
they are for size and transparency—Professor Magnus has been
enabled to examine the effect of chloride of potassium on radiant
heat.t He finds its behaviour to be precisely similar to that of
the analogous sodium compound; both minerals being highly
diathermanous, irrespective of the temperature of the source of heat.
Sylvine is thus entitled to share the appellation hitherto enjoyed
solely by rock-salt—that of “the glass of radiant heat.”

Mr. J. R. Gregory has just returned from a mineralogical tour
in South Africa, having been commissioned by Mr. Harry Emanuel,

* Zeitschr. d. deutsch. geolog. Gesellsch. 1862. Heft IT., p. 460.

a Comptes Rendus,’ Ist Sem., No. 26, p. 1802; ‘Phil. Mag,,’ Oct. 1868,
p. ‘

1869.] Mineralogy. 153

the well-known jeweller, to examine the reputed diamond districts
of that country.* As the rocks which he traversed were for the
most part amygdaloidal traps, it is highly improbable that they
would ever yield diamonds or other gems; and hence he concludes
that the alleged discoveries are purely deceptive, all the stones
exhibited as Cape diamonds having been previously imported from
other countries. Mr. Gregory also hints that the African EZ Dorado
is equally visionary. That gold exists in South-eastern Africa,
every traveller admits; but that it exists in quantity sufficient
to render its working remunerative, Mr. Gregory is evidently
inclined to doubt. It is only just to add that an attempt has
been made to refute these statements, tending, as they so inevitably
do, to the prejudice of the colony.t

Although Mr.Gregory brings home neither diamonds nor gold-
dust, some of his South African specimens are not without interest.
One of these is a meteorite, weighing 2 lbs. 5 oz., which fell on the
20th March, 1868, at Daniel’s Kuil, Griqua territory. Its fall was
witnessed by a native Griqua, who picked it up whilst still warm.
In composition it is a meteoric stone, through which much free
iron is disseminated, in association with troilite, schreibersite, &e.
As but few African meteorites are known, we give Professor Church’s
analysis of this stone.{

Nickel-iron .. Se we = on 29°72
Troilite He ae 2, we i 6:02
Schreibersite Ae <e Be a 1:59
Silica and Silicates ao nO 6 61°53
Oxygen, other substances, and loss Me 114

100-00

A new mass of meteoric zvon from South Africa is also noticed
by Mr. Gregory. It fell in 1862 at Victoria West, and is now
exhibited in the Museum at Cape Town.

Some interesting questions are suggested by Kenngott’s study
of a Swiss spectmen of limestone, which exhibits a drusy cavity
containing gypsum and anhydrite. As it can hardly be supposed
that these two minerals—the one hydrous and the other anhydrous
—were of contemporaneous formation, it becomes a point of interest
to determine which of the two was the earlier formed. Kenngott,
after a lengthy discussion, concludes that the cavity was first filled
with anhydrite, from which the gypsum has been derived by hy-
dration.§

Under the euphonious name of Aquacreptite, Professor Shepard
describes a massive mineral found at West Chester, Pennsylvania. |

* See ‘Quart. Journ. of Science,’ Jan., 1868, p. 107.
+ ‘Journal of the Soc. of Arts,’ Nov. 13th and 20th, 1868,

t ‘ Geolog. Mag.,’ Noy., 1868, p. 532.

§ ‘Neues Jahrbuch.’ 1868. Heft V., p. 577.

| ‘Silliman’s American Journal,’ Sept., 1868, p. 256,

134 Chronicles of Science. [Jan.,

In external characters it resembles the Tuscan miemite, but in
composition it is a hydrous silicate of magnesia, iron, and alumina.
Its name is suggested by the decrepitating sound which the mineral
emits when thrown into water, especially if the liquid be warm.

The Professor also calls attention to a new meteorite which has
been ploughed up on a farm near Losttown, Cherokee County,
Georgia.* It weighs 6 lbs. 10 0z., contains abundance of nickel,
and when etched exhibits the “ Widmannstattian figures.”

Perhaps the chemist, rather than the mineralogist, will be inte-
rested in a paper by Mr. J. E. Reynolds,+ in which he attempts to
introduce a new mode of expressing symbolically the chemical
constitution of the mineral silicates,—a mode which he conceives
to be free from the objections which may fairly be urged against
the notations recently introduced by Odling, Frankland, Dana, and
others.

Signor Bombicci describes, among other Italian minerals, a new
calcareous serpentine to be called Barettite, after its diseoverer
Baretti; and an impure allophane remarkable for containing lead,
and hence named Plumboallophane.t

Many analyses of the triclinic felspars, labradorite, and oligo-
clase, have been published by Herr Konig, of Freiberg} The
chemical examination of some Italian augites will be found in a
recent memoir by Vom Rath.||

Rammelsberg has published a paper on the composition of
apophyllite and okenite,f’ and another on the phonolite of Mont
Dore.** Finally, wemay mention that Dr. Sandberger announces
the discovery of tridymite in the trachyte of the Drachenfels.{{

New Works on Mineralogy.—It has been well said that over
the portals of Mineralogy might fitly be inscribed the famous
motto placed by Pythagoras at the entrance to his school of
philosophy, “Let no one enter here who is ignorant of Geometry.”
Indeed, to master the difficulties of crystallographic science, which
early beset the path of the mineralogical student, a fair acquaint-
ance with solid geometry is imperatively demanded; whilst the
study of some of the more refined systems would be undertaken
in yain without the assistance of spherical trigonometry. Every
one, however, does not fall in love with

“The hard-grained Muses of the Cube and Sphere ;”
and hence it can hardly be expected that crystallography will

* ‘Silliman’s Journal,’ Sept., 1868, p. 257.

+ ‘Phil. Mag,’ Oct., 1868, p. 274.

+ ‘ Atti della societa ital. di scienze nat.,’ XT.

§ Zeitsch. d. deut. Geol. Gesell. 1868, p, 365. || Ibid., p. 265.
q Ibid., p. 441. ** Thid., p. 258. tt ‘Neues Jahrbuch,’ 1868, p. 723.

1869. | Mineralogy. 135

ever become a popular study. Nevertheless, its value in the
diagnosis of mineral species—a value recognized even by those
who are least inclined to revert to the school of Mohs—should
be sufficient to call for its assiduous cultivation on the part
of all who are interested in mineralogical science. Crystallo-
graphy is indeed nothmg but the morphology of the mineral
world; and the one is every whit as needful to the mineralogist as
the other is to the biologist. To those, however, who take up the
study of mineralogy, not for its own sake, but merely as an aid to
the science of geology or to the art of mining, a very moderate
knowledge of rudimentary crystallography is all that can be ex-
pected, or is indeed necessary. Such a knowledge may well be
gained from the little “Guide to Descriptive Crystallography,’ recently
written by Hochstetter and Bisching for special use in the study
of mineralogy.* Issued without a preface, the work speaks for
itself as an able and concise introduction to the science, which,
though limited in its scope, is nevertheless sound and trustworthy.
After a discussion of the general ideas which le at the root of the
science, the work deals in succession with each of the six “sys-
tems,’ or groups of related forms into which all crystals are
capable of division, and treats of both the holohedral and hemi-
hedral forms, together with the more important of their combina-
tions. The system of notation employed throughout the work is
that of Naumann, which still holds its ground as a favourite with
most beginners; but as the book is published in Vienna, where
Grailich’s translation of ‘Miller’ is extensively read, it is not
surprising that Miller’s symbols are also given. The work is
illustrated by a profusion of woodcuts, and indeed without ample
illustration such a subject would be well nigh unintelligible.
Perhaps no mineralogical treatise enjoys a more extensive
circulation as a text-book than Naumann’s ‘Elements. The
seventh edition of this work, enlarged and improved, now lies
before us.t Of a book so well known little need be said. The
first section contains an outline of crystallography, which is cer-
tainly not the least valuable part of the work. This is followed
by a description of the physical properties of minerals, and an
introduction to their chemical characters. The second part—
which forms by far the larger portion of the book—is devoted to
systematic mineralogy, and after some preliminary ideas on the
principles of classification, proceeds with the physiography of
species. As descriptive mineralogy advances, this part of the work

* «Leitfaden der beschreibenden Krystallographie. Zum Gebrauche bei dem
Studium der Mineralogie. Von Dr. I. Hochstetter und A. Bisching. S8yo.
Vienna, 1868, pp. 85.

+ ‘Elemente der Mineralogie.’ Von Dr, Carl Friedrich Naumann, Siebente,
vermehrte und verbesserte Auflage. 8vo. Leipzig, 1868, pp. 566.

136 Chronicles of Science. [Jan.,

necessarily increases in its proportions, and a glance at the index is
sufficient to show that among the many new species—or reputed
species—constantly being brought to light, there are but few that
escape the notice of the great crystallographer of Leipzig.

A laborious compilation, by Dr. Websky, of Breslau, claims a
passing notice as the first of a series of mineralogical monographs.*
This is little else than a bald list of all the known mineral species,
classified in groups according to their specific gravities, commencing
with Pyropissite, which has a density as low as 0°493, and ending
with Iridosmium, with a density as high as 21:2. The specific
gravity is usually accompanied by the hardness, and sometimes by
the chemical composition of the mineral. It is supposed by the
author that the few characters here given will be sufficient to guide
the student in the determination of species.

New Works on Petrology.—Probably it would be difficult to
point to any branch of natural science which at the present time
occupies a more unsatisfactory position in this country than that
science which, according as it is pursued in the field or in the cabinet,
has been variously designated Petrology or Lithology; m other
words, the study of vocks as distinguished from that of minerals.
Whilst we have pursued stratigraphical geology in a spirit worthy of
the countrymen of Wiliam Smith, and have prosecuted the study of
fossils with such vigour, and consequently with such success, that
British paleontologists and their writings enjoy a world-wide repu-
tation, it is strange that the complementary seience of petrology
should have fallen into unmerited neglect, and that in this depart-
ment our best geologists should be found sadly wanting when
weighed against their brethren of the hammer in other lands.
Place, for example, the Journal of our own Geological Society by
the side of the Zeztschrift of the corresponding German Society,
and our shortcomings on this point are all too plainly seen. The
geologist, therefore, who would describe with accuracy the rocks
that are forced upon his observation in the course of his daily work,
must needs betake him to the fields of continental literature, where
the fertility that has been evoked by many a painstaking labourer
strikingly contrasts with the sterility at home. Especially in the
rich literature of Germany does he find no lack of treatises which
exhibit that happy combination of chemical, mineralogical, and
geological knowledge, without which the study of petrology would
be next to impossible. Not to mention a host of minor writings, it
is sufficient to point, in support of our assertion, to the admirable
works of Senft and Zirkel. As a fit introduction to these compre-

* ‘Die Mineral-Species, nach den fiir das specifische Gewicht derselben
angenommen und gefunden Werthen. Ein Hiilfsbuch zur bestimmenden Mine-
ralogie.’ Von Dr. Martin Websky. 4to. Breslau, 1868, pp. 170.

1869. | Mineralogy. 137

hensive treatises, it is our duty to call attention to a useful little
work recently written by Dr. Kenngott, of Zurich.*

Those who are unable to wade through the larger volumes will
here find an excellent outline of modern petrography. In the early
chapters the author gives as much elementary mineralogy as he
considers needful as an introduction to petrology. When we re-
member that it is to the want of mineralogical training on the part
of most geologists that the backward state of petrology must mainly
be referred, the propriety of such an introduction is at once evident.
A chapter then follows on the general relations of rocks, in which
are discussed their mineralogical constitution, physical structure,
and probable mode of original formation and subsequent alteration.
The writer then proceeds with the systematic description of the
different species of rocks, and, without any pretence to originality,
goes over much the same ground as is usually covered by the larger
treatises. It should be remarked that in expressing symbolically
the chemical constitution of rock-forming minerals, he introduces
the new atomic weights, whilst he retains the old method of rational
formule, ‘The propriety of this seems questionable. Good geo-
logists are, as a rule, bad chemists ; and much confusion may there-
fore arise on comparing Kenngott’s formule with those given in
other mineralogical works. In dismissing the book, it is only neces-
sary to notice its unusually full index—an index which in some
measure plays the part of a supplement, inasmuch as it contains
short descriptions of unimportant rocks which find no place in the
body of the work.

Whilst Germany, without doubt, takes the lead in petrological
science, France occupies a position far from discreditable, as amply
testified by the writings of such men as Daubrée, Durocher, Coquand,
and Delesse. Among her most ardent students must be numbered
the late M. Cordier, who for more than a quarter of a century
devoted himself to the study of rocks. At once an accomplished
mineralogist and an experienced traveller, Cordier was well fitted to
examine his specimens by the most minute and exact methods, while
he was kept from those narrow generalizations in which the mere
worker in the cabinet is too prone to indulge. His collection of rocks,
now deposited in the Geological Gallery of the Museum of Natural
History in Paris, numbers no fewer than ten thousand specimens,
each said to represent a distinct variety! To classify this myriad of
specimens with scientific accuracy was the great end of Cordier’s life.
Although mineralogical composition was the leading feature of his
system, he was far from relying solely on any single characteristic—
whether chemical, physical, mineralogical, geological, or genetic—

* ‘BHlemente der Petrographie, zum Gebrauche bei Vorlesungen und zum
Selbststudium, bearbeitet von Dr. Adolf Kenngott.’ S8yvo. Leipzig, 1868., pp. 274.

138 Chronicles of Science. [Jan.,

but looking at the ensemble of these characters, he sought to estab-
lish a “natural” method of classification, following in the wake of
Jussieu, and doing for petrology what has already been so.ably done
for botany. A description of his system has recently been pub-
lished as a posthumous work, edited by his colleague, M. Charles
D’Orbigny.*

The work is divided into three parts, in the first of which we
learn the characters of rocks in general, the principles on which
their species and varieties are founded, and the method followed in
their classification. In connection with this section attention may
be called to a chapter on the determination of compact volcanic
rocks, which is the reproduction of an essay published as far back as
1815. The second part gives a systematic and detailed description
of all the known rocks that compose the solid crust of the earth.
Tn this section many new species are described, and one meets for .
the first time with such names as Harmophanite, Syenilite, Cristulite,
Leucostite, Mimotalcite, Cecilite, &e. The third part contains some
general considerations on the constitution of the earth’s crust, and
a description and classification of the crystalline rocks. Possibly
the value of the book would not have been much diminished if this
portion had been omitted, or at least considerably modified. As a
testimony, however, to the practical value of Cordier’s system of
classification, the editor tells us that he has found by long experience
that from fifteen to twenty lessons on this method are always
sufficient to enable a student to determine a rock at sight, even
when he commenced the study ignorant of the first principles of
Mineralogy.

10. MINING AND METALLURGY.
Mining.

Tne shortness of the average duration of a minet’s life has often
been the subject of the most serious consideration. The Royal
Commission, of which Lord Kinnaird was the chairman, made this
portion of their inquiry a most searching one. It is clear, from the
evidence given by medical men and others, that the metalliferous
miner suffers in health from climbing on the perpendicular ladders
from great depths, from working in air deficient in oxygen, and from
the severe labour of boring holes for blasting in confined levels.
The constrained position of the man in “beating the borer,” and the
muscular effort necessary to deliver the heavy blow, acts mju-
riously upon the heart and lungs. The miner has been relieved to

* ‘Description des Roches composant l’écorce terrestre et des terrains cristal-

lins constituant le sol primitif.’ Ouvrage du feu P. L. A. Cordier, par Charles
D’Orbigny. 8yvo. Paris, 1868, pp. 553.

1869. Mining. 139

some extent from the effects of climbing by the introduction of the
“man-engine” (a movable rod with platforms fixed upon it, by
which the miner is gradually lifted—without fatigue to himself—
from any depth to the surface). The ventilation of the mines
generally has been improved, but it is only within the present year
‘that any actual experiment has been made in the mines on the use
of machines for boring holes, worked by compressed air or steam.
We have been favoured, upon application, with the following report.
We are glad to place this on record, as the commencement of an
appleation of machinery to a most important purpose. We have
no doubt that in a short time boring-machines will be generally
adopted in our metal mines.

“ Deering’s rock-borng engine has been worked on the 185
fathom level in Tincroft Mine, conjointly with another, from the
6th January up to the present time, and has driven sixteen fathoms
in hard Tin Capel, which Captain Teague considers would cost 204.
per fathom if driven by hand-labour.

“During the greater part of this time, in consequence of the air-
pumps getting constantly out of repair, the machine was only
worked by one (shift) corps of two men; and continuous working
with three corps, comprising five men and one boy, only commenced
on the 6th July.

“Since this date nearly nine fathoms of ground have been
driven, at a cost of 17/7. 16s. 2d. per fathom.

“The following is the cost of working the machine during the
last month :— £

Five miners and one boy

One boy to remove rubbish ..
Two enginemen at surface
One smith and boy...

Oil, waste, and candles .,
Gun-cotton for blasting

Fuse ..

Sundries ..

Coals

Repairs

bo

NADOOKRWODN e
: =
ocoownouuncooo”?

Q\joooncoocoos

£53 14

__ “Tn the above estimate the sum of 217. 5s. is for expenses at
the surface, which would be but slightly increased if three ends
were driven instead of one—say about 27. 15s. This would reduce
the average cost per fathom to 131. 9s. 10d., instead of 177. 18s. 2d.
“During these last three months one corps has been worked by
one man and a boy, and the result has shown that they will drive
as much ground with the machine as two men could do in the same
time. (Signed) F. B. Darra.”

We find, during a recent visit to the Cornish mines, that the
patentee is offering to contract for sinking shafts and driving levels

140 : Chronicles of Science. [Jan.,

upon such terms as will, without doubt, induce many mine adven-
turers at once to close engagements with him.

General Haupt’s machine for boring is about to be introduced
into the lead mines of Swaledale, in Yorkshire; and Mr. Lowe's
machine is in use in several large railway cuttings and tunnels.

The severe depression which has for the last two years pressed
so heavily on copper and tin mines in this country is happily
passing away. The prices of metals have improved, and hence the
increased value of the ores. ‘The demands for tin and copper are
becoming more active. The imports of these metals have declined ;
hence the improved demand for British minerals. It should not be
forgotten, however, that this state of things is not likely to last.
South American copper-ores will soon flow into our markets, the
countries producing them—Chili and Peru—bhaving recovered
from the disturbances which have of late interrupted every .
industry and impeded commerce. The East Indian tin will be
imported in large quantities from Banca and Billaton as soon as
the improved prices will yield to the Dutch adventurers a profit.

Our miners must, therefore, direct their attention towards the
application of machinery, so as to economize in every direction—
not merely in the subterranean mining, but in all the surface
operations.

Necessity —the mother of invention—has already done much
in this way; but there is yet ample room for very considerable
improvement in the modes of working our mines, and in the
methods of dressing the ores for the market.

In connection with this subject we may name—as we do with
satisfaction—the increased desire on the part of the Cornish miners
to avail themselves of the many advantages offered to them by the
Science Classes of the Mryers’ AssocrATIon OF CORNWALL AND
DervonsuirE. We learn that four classes are now in operation
in the mining districts around Helston, in which sixty working
miners are proving themselves apt students of Chemistry, Mine-
ralogy, Geology, and Mechanics. One class of nearly thirty is no
less actively engaged at Redruth, another in the mining parish of
Gwennap, while a seventh has recently been formed in the northern
portion of the important mineral district of St. Just. ‘The ad-
vantages which must result from these classes will, ere long, be
felt in the improvement of mining and in the elevation of the
miners.

A report on the Mineral Statistics of Victoria has been recently
published. From this report we glean the following particulars :—
In 1859 there were 125,764 miners employed on the gold-fields ;
in 1867 there were only 63,053 so employed. The average earn-
ings of the miners per man per annum have increased from

791. 9s. 8d. in 1860 to 877. 1s. 7d. in 1867. The mean of eight

1869. | Mining. 141

years is about 767. 1s. per man. Yet the “thirst for gold” leads
men from all parts of the world to endure all the privations and
the hardships of a gold-miner’s life for this miserable reward. The
value of the metals and minerals raised in the colony of Victoria
since the discovery of the gold-field has been estimated as
follows :—

£

Gold, 33,910,0522 oz... .. .. . «. 135,643,811
Silver, 12,591 oz. 18 dwts. hua ah 3,460
Tin Eyl Jol) b= WoOek HUN gone tac. an 195,045
Qojoyaehe Sockitoa” Meda oy “Goer Noe | OG. adc 4,673
PNAUTITOWN, we og. Yds “oo 4 GoM Abo wee 30,426
Coal, 1933 tons, at 17. 10s. per ton .. .. 2,899
Lignite, 235 tons, at 17s. 6d. per ton... 205
Kaslin, 1757 tons, at 4l.perton .. .. 7,028
Taare | Gas an 60 go ed ype 18,663
ROLE TER Eee abt sie SHCiNENtiC MeO IROMr bbc 908
Magnesite, 64 tons, at 27.perton .. .. 12
Diamonds, about 80 carats sey Goer te 80
Sey OWUIRES | Bae Go ead OY OO) HOC 150

Total value .. .. £135,906,960

The quantity of gold exported in 1867 was 1,433,687 oz., ot
which 560,527 oz. were obtained from quartz veins, and 873,160 oz.
from alluvial workings.

The explosions of fire-damp in some of the coal mines of
France has naturally drawn attention to the subject of ventilation.
M. Galy-Cazalat, who has brought the matter before the Académie
des Sciences, proposes the construction of vertical air-pits, the
purpose of which would be to draw off the carburetted hydrogen
as rapidly as it is formed, and thus prevent its mixing with the air
of the mine. These “ cheminées d'aspiration,” as he calls them,
will scarcely require very special description, the whole plan really
resolving itself into a greatly increased number of shafts, by which
the air in every part of the mine may be rapidly changed. There
can be little doubt that great advantages would arise from such a
system; but in the large and deep collieries of this country there
are many serious difficulties standing in the way of its introduction.

M. Delaurier has brought before the Academy of Sciences a
plan for destroying fire-damp in coal-mines. He proposes to place
copper conductors of considerable thickness im the galleries; these
are to be broken at intervals, and united by means of very thin
gold wire, which is to be covered with sulphur. By passing a
strong current of electricity through those conductors, the sulphur
is ignited, and if any fire-damp be present it will be fired. ‘This
idea is by no means new. ‘The Academy is said to have spoken
approvingly of the proposed plan; but all coincided in the opinion
that regular and powerful means of ventilation could in no case be
dispensed with. The combustion of the jive-damp would produce

142 Chronicles of Science. [Jan.,

choke-damp, which it would be necessary to remove. This plan,
like many others which are from time to time brought forward,
evidently originated with one who was but imperfectly acquainted
with the conditions under which fire-damp is formed in a colliery.

The Pitch Lake of Trinidad ever and anon claims the attention
of the public. At one time it is introduced as the source from
which all the varieties of mineral oil, paraffine, and asphaltum can
be obtained. At another period it is to be employed to give greater
illuminating power to our coal-gas, and some experiments of the
Hon. Captain Cochrane, made at Woolwich, were highly favourable.
Now we have the pitch of Trinidad coming before us as an ingre-
dient in artificial fuel for steamers. ‘The bitumen is mixed with a
certain quantity of charcoal; it is ground, and then made into
bricks. Experiments made on board H.M.S. ‘Gannet,’ Commander
Chimmo, appeared to show that it possessed many valuable pro- »
perties, but the amount of ash, arising from the earthy matter mixed
with the petroleum, was somewhat objectionable. This can, how-
ever, in all probability, be obviated by greater attention in the pro-
cess of manufacture.

The Sicilian sulphur mines have been long known. More than
600 mines have been at work, and at least 200 worked out and
abandoned. The mining is of the most primitive character, the
use of machinery being extremely limited. Not less than 22,000
people are occupied in working those mines, and the result is the
production of sulphur to the value of not less than 17,600,000 franes
per annum, The sulphur ores of Spain are now largely imported
into this country, and during the year not less than 500 tons of
copper have been separated from sulphur-ash, after the sulphur
has been expelled by burning, although the pyrites does not contain
more than from 1 to 2 per cent. of that metal.

MerraLLurGy.

There is but little worthy of notice in the Metallurgy of the
quarter, beyond the cheerful intelligence that in every branch there
are evidences of a very decided improvement.

One process—that of Mr. Heaton—for the conversion of iron
into steel, has been attracting considerable attention. Experiments
have been in progress at Langley Mills, and the results are certainly
of great promise. The process is conducted as follows :—Cast iron
of any quality is first melted in a common iron-foundry cupola with
coke fucl. A known quantity of the liquid iron—usually about a
ton—is tapped out into an ordinary crane ladle, which is swung
round to the side of the converter. This latter is a tall cylinder of
boiler-plate, open at the bottom, between which and the floor a
space is left. ‘The converter has a fire -brick lining, and terminates
in a conical covering, out of which an iron funnel opens to the

1869.| Metallurgy. 143

atmosphere. In the bottom of the converter a number of short
cylindrical pots, lmed with brick and fire-clay, are adjusted. Into
these pots a given weight of crude nitrate of soda of commerce is
put. ‘The surface of the powder is levelled, and covered by a thick
circular plate of cast iron. One of these pots thus prepared having
been adjusted to the bottom of the cylinder, the converter is now
ready for use. At one side of the cylinder is a hopper, covered by
a loosely hinged flap of boiler-plate. This plate is raised, and the
ladle full of liquid cast iron is poured into the converter, and descends
upon the top of the cold cast-iron plate. The plate does not float
up nor become displaced, nor does any action become apparent
for some minutes, while the plate is rapidly acquiring heat from
the fluid iron above it, and the nitrate getting heated by contact
with it.

Professor Miller, of King’s College, thus describes the process :—
“Tn about two minutes a reaction commenced ; at first a moderate
quantity of brown nitrous fumes escaped; these were followed by
copious blackish, then grey, then whitish fumes, produced by the
escape of steam, carrying with it, in suspension, a portion of the
flux. After the lapse of five or six minutes deflagration occurred,
attended with a roaring noise and a burst of a brilliant yellow flame
from the top of the chimney. This lasted for about a minute and a
half, and then subsided as rapidly as it commenced. When all had
became tranquil, the converter was detached from the chimney, and
its contents were emptied upon the iron pavement of the foundry.
These consisted of crude steel and of slag. The crude steel was in
a pasty state, and the slag fluid; the cast iron plate had become
melted up and incorporated with the charge of molten metal. The
slag had a glassy blebby appearance, and a black or dark green
colour in mass.”

Professor Miller’s report gives the following results of analysis
of three samples of metal produced at the Langley Mills under his
own observation :—

Cupola. Crude. Steel
Pig (4). Steel (7). Tron (8).
Carbon Ege oS agsee foe, eles 2°830 1°800 0°993
Silicon, with a little titanium .. 2°950 0° 266 0°149
Sulphur op BO oF 0-113 0-018 traces
Phosphorus 1°455 0-298 0-292
Arsenic 0:041 0°039 0°024
Manganese .. 0°318 0°090 0:088
Calcium a6 0°319 0°310
Sodium Es iets 5a 0°144 traces
Tron (by difference) .. 92°293 97° 026 98-144
| 100:000 | 100°000 | 100-000

144 Chronicles of Science. | Jan.,

“Tt will be obvious, from a comparison of these results, that the
reaction with the nitrate of soda has removed a large proportion of
the carbon, silicon, and phosphorus, as well as most of the sulphur.
The quantity of phosphorus (0°298 per cent.) retained by the
sample of crude steel from the converter which I analyzed is
obviously not such as to injure the quality. The steel iron was
subjected to many severe tests. It was bent and hammered sharply
round, without cracking. It was forged and subjected to a similar
trial, both at a cherry-red heat and at a clear yellow heat, without
cracking ; it also welded satisfactorily.” The Professor concludes
his report by stating that Heaton’s process is based upon correct
chemical principles, and that the mode of attaining the result is
both simple and rapid.

Mr. Robert Mallet and Mr. David Kirkaldy have both made
reports of the most favourable character upon this process and its:
results.

11. PHYSICS.

Licut.—All the researches on this subject which have been pub-
lished for some time past, have been thrown in the shade by some
researches on a new series of chemical reactions produced by light,
which have just been communicated to the Royal Society by Dr.
Tyndall. He has investigated the action of a concentrated beam of
light on vapours of volatile liquids, and has obtamed some very
striking phenomena of decomposition. A glass tube 2°8 feet long
and of 2-5 inches internal diameter was supported horizontally. At
one end of it was placed an electric lamp, the height and position of
both being so arranged that the axis of the glass tube and of the
parallel beam issuing from the lamp were coincident. The tube
was closed by plates of glass; it was connected with an air-pump
and also with a series of drying and other tubes used for the purifi-
cation of the air. The experimental tube being exhausted and the
cock which cuts off the supply of purified air being cautiously
turned on, the air entered the tube bubbling through a liquid whose
vapour was to be examined. The power of the electric beam to
reveal the existence of anything within the experimental tube, or
the impurities of the tube itself, is extraordinary. When the expe-
riment is made ina darkened room, a tube which in ordinary daylight
appears absolutely clean is often shown by the present mode of
examination to be exceedingly filthy. The first experiment was
tried with nitrite of amyl. ‘The tube being exhausted, a mixture
of air and vapour of nitrite were allowed to enter it in the dark, the
slightly convergent beam of the electric light was then sent through

1869. | Physies. 145

the tube from end to end. For a moment the tube was optically
empty, nothing whatever was seen within it; but before a second
had elapsed, a shower of liquid spherules was precipitated on the
beam, thus generating a cloud within the tubes. This cloud became
denser as the light continued to act, showing at some places a
vivid iridescence. The effect was the same when the air and vapour
were allowed to enter the tube in diffused daylight. The cloud,
however, which shone with such extraordinary radiance in the
electric beam, was invisible in the ordinary light of the laboratory.

When dry oxygen was employed to carry in the vapour, the
effect was the same as that obtained with air. When dry hydrogen
was used as a vehicle the action was also the same. ‘The effect,
therefore, is not due to any interaction between the vapour of the
nitrite and its vehicle. ‘This was further demonstrated by the
deportment of the vapour itself. When it was permitted to enter
the experimental tube unmixed with air or any other gas, the effect
was substantially the same. Hence the seat of the observed actton
is the vapour itself. With reference to the air and the glass of the
experimental tube, the beam employed in these experiments was
perfectly cold. It had been sifted by passing it through a solution
of alum, and through the thick double-convex lens of the lamp.
When the unsifted beam of the lamp was employed the effect was
still the same; the obscure calorific rays did not appear to interfere
with the result. When, previous to entering the experimental
tube, the beam was caused to pass through a red glass, the effect
was greatly weakened, but not extinguished. This was also the
ease with various samples of yellow glass. A blue glass being
introduced before the removal of the yellow or the red, on taking the
latter away augmented precipitation occurred along the track of
the blue beam. Hence, in this case, the more refrangible rays
are the most chemically active.

When the quantity of nitrite vapour is considerable and the
light intense, the chemical action is exceedingly rapid, the particles
precipitated being so large as to whiten the luminous beam. Not
so, however, when a well-mixed and highly-attenuated vapour fills
the experimental tube. The effect now to be described was obtained
in the greatest perfection when the vapour of the nitrite was
derived from a residue of the moisture of its liquid, which had been
accidentally introduced into the passage through which the dry
air flowed into the experimental tube. In this case the electric
beam traversed the tube for several seconds before any action was
visible ; decomposition then visibly commenced, and advanced slowly.
The particles first precipitated were too small to be distinguished
by a hand lens; and, when the light was very strong, the cloud
appeared of a milky blue. When, on the contrary, the intensity
was moderate, the blue was pure and deep. In Briicke’s important

VOL. VI. L

146 Chronicles of Science. [Jan.,

experiments on the blue of the sky and the morning and evening
red, pure mastic is dissolved in alcohol, and then dropped into
water well stirred. When the proportion of mastic to alcohol is
correct, the resin is precipitated so finely as to elude the highest
microscopic power. By reflected light such a medium appears
- bluish, by transmitted ight yellowish ; which latter colour, by aug-
menting the quantity of the precipitate, can be caused to pass into
orange or red; but the development of colour in the attenuated
nitrite-of-amyl vapour, though admitting of the same explanation,
is doubtless more similar to what takes place in our atmosphere.
The blue, moreover, is purer and more sky-like than that obtained
from Bricke’s turbid medium.

Space will not admit of our referring to the experiments made
on iodide of allyl, iodide of isopropyl, hydrobromic acid, or hydro-
chloric acid ; but the results obtained with hydriodic acid are of so-
startling and unprecedented a character that we consider it im-
portant to give them in Professor Tyndall’s own words, as follows:
“T have seen nothing so astonishing as the effect obtained on the
28th of October with hydriodic acid. The cloud extended for
about 18 inches along the tube, and gradually shifted its position
from the end nearest the lamp to the most distant end. The
portion quitted by the cloud proper was filled by an amorphous
haze, the decomposition which was progressing lower down being
here apparently complete. A spectral cone turned its apex towards
the distant end of the tube, and from its circular base filmy
drapery seemed to fall. Placed on the base of the cone was an
exquisite vase, from the interior of which sprang another vase of
similar shape; over the edges of these vases fell the faintest clouds,
resembling spectral sheets of liquid. From the centre of the upper
vase a straight cord of cloud passed for some distance along the axis
of the experimental tube, and at each side of this cord two inyolyed
and highly iridescent vortices were generated. The frontal portion
of the cloud, which the cord penetrated, assumed in succession the
forms of roses, tulips, and sunflowers. It also passed through
the appearance of a series of beautifully shaped bottles placed one
within the other. Once it presented the shape of a fish, with eyes,
gills, and feelers. ‘The light was suspended for several minutes, and
the tube and its cloud permitted to remain undisturbed in darkness.
On reigniting the lamp, the cloud was seen apparently motionless
within the tube ; much of its colour had gone, but its beauty of form
was unimpaired. Many of its parts were calculated to remind one
of Gassiot’s discharges; but in complexity and, indeed, in beauty,
the discharges would not bear comparison with these arrangements
of cloud. <A friend to whom I showed the cloud, likened it to one
of those jelly-like marine organisms, which a film barely capable of
reflecting the light renders visible. Indeed no other comparison is

ue

1869. ] Physics. 147

so suitable ; and not only did the perfect symmetry of the exterior
suggest this idea, but the exquisite casing and folding of film within
film suggested the internal economy of a highly complex organism.
The twoness of the animal form was displayed throughout, and no
coil, disk, or speck existed on one side of the axis of the tube that
had not its exact counterpart at an equal distance on the other. I
looked in wonder at this extraordinary production for nearly two
hours.”

It will be remembered that six or seven years ago Dr. Frank-
land communicated to the Royal Society some researches on the
effect of a diminution of pressure on some of the phenomena of
combustion, and deduced therefrom the law that the diminution in
illuminating power is directly proportional to the diminution in
atmospheric pressure. Further experiments on the nature of the
luminous agent in a coal-gas flame have led him to doubt the cor-
rectness of the commonly received theory first propounded by Sir
Humphry Davy, that the light of a gas flame and of luminous
flames in general, is due to the presence of solid particles. It has
been found that there are many flames possessing a high degree of
luminosity, which cannot possibly contain solid particles, such as
the flame of metallic arsenic burning in oxygen, which emits a
remarkably intense white light ; bisulphide of carbon in oxygen ;
and especially phosphorus in oxygen.

For these reasons, and for others which the author had stated
in a course of lectures on “ Coal-gas,” delivered in March, 1867, he
considered that incandescent particles of carbon are not the source
of light in gas and candle flames, but that the luminosity of these
flames is due to radiations from dense but transparent hydrocarbon
vapours. As a further generalization from the above-mentioned
experiments, he was led to the conclusion that dense gases and
vapours become luminous at much lower temperatures than aériform
fluids of comparatively low specific gravity ; and that this result is
to a great extent, if not altogether, independent of the nature of the
gas or vapour, inasmuch as he found that gases of low density,
which are not luminous at a given temperature when burnt under
common atmospheric pressure, become so when they are simul-
taneously compressed. Thus mixtures of hydrogen and carbonic
oxide with oxygen emit but little light when they are burnt or
exploded in free air, but exhibit intense luminosity when exploded
in closed glass vessels, so as to prevent their expansion at the
moment of combustion.

In a communication to the Royal Society, Dr. Frankland has
described the extension of these experiments to the combustion of
jets of hydrogen and carbonic oxide in oxygen under a pressure
gradually increasing to twenty atmospheres. These experiments

L 2

148 _ Chronicles of Science. | Jan.,

were made in a strong wrought-iron vessel furnished with a thick
glass plate of sufficient size to permit of the optical examination of
the flame. The appearance of a jet of hydrogen burning in oxygen
under the ordinary atmospheric pressure is well known. On in-
creasing the pressure to two atmospheres, the previously feeble
luminosity is very markedly augmented, whilst at ten atmospheres’
pressure, the light emitted by a jet about one inch long is amply
sufficient to enable the observer to read a newspaper at a distance
of two feet from the flame, and this without any reflecting surface
behind the flame. Examined by the spectroscope, the spectrum of
this flame is bright and perfectly continuous from red to violet.

With a higher initial luminosity, the flame of carbonic oxide in
oxygen becomes much more luminous at a pressure of ten atmo-
spheres than a flame of hydrogen of the same size and burning
under the same pressure. ‘The spectrum of carbonic oxide burning.
in oxygen under a pressure of fourteen atmospheres 1s very brilliant
and perfectly continuous.

If it be true that dense gases emit more light than rare ones
when ignited, the passage of the electric spark through different
gases ought to produce an amount of light varying with the density
of the gas; and Dr. Frankland has shown that electric sparks
passed, as nearly as possible under similar conditions, through
hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine, and. sulphurous anhydride, emit light,
the intensity of which is very slight in the case of hydrogen, con-
siderable in that of oxygen, and very great in the case of chlorine
and sulphurous anhydride. On passing a stream of induction
sparks through the gas standing over liquefied sulphurous anhy-
dried in a strong tube at the ordinary temperature, when a pressure
of about three atmospheres was exerted by the gas, a very brilliant
light was obtained. A stream of induction sparks was passed
through air confined in a glass tube connected with a condensing
syringe, and the pressure of the air being then augmented to two
or three atmospheres, a very marked increase in the luminosity of
the sparks was observed, whilst on allowing the condensed air to
escape, the phenomena were reversed.

Mr. Huggins, F.R.S., has submitted the light of Comet II., 1868,
to spectroscopic examination, and has found it, when examined with
a spectroscope furnished with two prisms of 60°, to be resolved into
three broad bright bands.

The brightest band commences at about b, and extends nearly
to Fr. Another band begins at a distance beyond F, rather greater
than half the interval between b and r. The third band occurs
about midway between p and ©. In the two more refrangible of
these bands, the light was brightest at the less refrangible end, and
gradually diminished towards the other limit of the bands. The
least refrangible of the three bands did not exhibit a similar grada-

1869.] Physics. 149

tion of brightness. These bands could not be resolved into lines,
nor was any light seen beyond the bands towards the violet and
the red.

The author found this cometic spectrum to agree exactly with a
form of the spectrum of carbon which he had observed and measured
in 1864. When an induction spark, with Leyden jars intercalated,
is taken in a current of olefiant gas, the highly heated vapour of
carbon exhibits a spectrum which is somewhat modified from that
which may be regarded as typical of carbon. The light is of the
same refrangibilities, but the separate strong lines are not to be
distinguished. The shading, composed of numerous fine lines,
which accompanies the lines appears as an unresolved nebulous
light. ,

"On comparing the spectrum of the comet directly in the spec-
troscope with the spectrum of the induction spark taken in a current
of olefiant gas, the three bands of the comet appeared to coincide
with the corresponding bands of the spectrum of carbon. In
addition to an apparent identity of position, the bands in the two
spectra were very similar in their general characters and in their
relative brightness. ‘lhe remarkably close resemblance of the spec-
trum of the comet to that of the spectrum of carbon necessarily
suggests the identity of the substances by which in both cases the
light was emitted.

Herar.—The intense heat of the voltaic are has been. applied
by F. P. Le Roux in a most ingenious manner to heighten the
brilliancy of the light, and at the same time to increase its. steadi-
ness. In applying electric light, the method generally proposed is
to direct it into a more or less limited region of space; all which
escapes into the opposite region would be lost if it were not, col-
lected by reflectors more or less appropriate to the purpose. On
the other hand, experience has proved that the voltaic are is prone
to irregular displacements, consequent upon inequalities in the co-
hesion of the charcoal, impurities contained in it, and above all, the
slightest agitation of the air. The most luminous portions of the
charcoal electrodes being the surfaces between which the are arises,
these surfaces are inclined sometimes in one direction and sometimes
in another, by reason of the displacement which the are undergoes,
the result bemg a considerable variation in the effect of light pro-
duced by the latter in any determinate region. M. Le Roux argued,
in the course of his investigation, that if there could be placed on
the opposite side to that towards which the light was to be directed,
and in proximity to the are, some body capable of reflecting back
in a luminous form the enormous number of radiations thrown
upon it by the electrodes and the arc itself, these radiations would
be more profitably utilized than by any other method, the are being

150 Chronicles of Science. [Jan.,

at the same time protected by a sort of screen, annulling in an
almost hemispheric region all the above-mentioned disturbing causes.

The substance chosen for such a purpose should be at the same
time a bad conductor of heat, and possessed of great powers of radia-
tion, conditions fulfilled to a great extent by lime, magnesia, and earthy
oxides in general. The experiment was first effected with cylinders
of magnesia compressed according to the process of M. Caron, and
manutactured for purposes of oxyhydric illumination. By placing
the base of one of these cylinders, whose diameter is about 8 milli-
metres, at a short distance from the charcoal points of an electric
lamp, in such a way that the magnesia may be, as it were, licked up
by the voltaic are, 1t will assume an incandescence equal to that of
the most luminous portion of the charcoal. At the same time the
light acquires remarkable constancy from the fixity of the are,
which may be drawn to greater length than in ordinary cages,
because as the magnesia forms a screen and maintains the elevation
of the temperature, the chances of the arc being broken are greatly
diminished,

The magnesia may thus be kept in contact with the voltaic are
for more than an hour without sufficient consumption to cause any
apparent change in the conditions of the experiment; its surface
becomes hollow during the first few moments, but if the bar of this
substance is kept fixed, the power of the are abating at a very slight
distance, it will no longer be consumed. Another kind of alteration
will, however, ensue. ‘The magnesia will imbibe the silicious vapours
emitted by the voltaic arc, and combine with them in a sort of glass,
which, when cold, is of a pale greenish hue, and extremely hard.
This fact is disadvantageous, inasmuch as it greatly diminishes the
irradiating power of the magnesia, and renders the production of a
commercial pure carbon in an appropriate condition for the purpose
of electric illumination still more desirable. The arrangement of a
brilliant voltaic are between two pencils of charcoal, and in the
presence of magnesia or any other earthy oxide, would constitute
one of the most beautiful sources of ight possible to realize.

M. Kindt has made known the nature of the phosphorescence
developed by heat in the three minerals, chlorophane, Estremadura
phosphorite, and the green fluor spar. He has analyzed the light
emitted: the first is a simple green ; the second is a yellow-tinted
light, composed of green, yellow, and red; and the third gives two
black rays, the one in the green, and the other near the orange.

M. Becquerel has invented an electric pyrometer for the mea-
surement of high temperatures. Metallurgists will probably find
this application very advantageous. To solve the problem of the
commercial application of a thermo-electric current as a pyrometer,
it was necessary to make a thermo-electric couple with two unalterable

1869. ] Physies. 151

metals, resisting the highest temperatures, and then to establish a
graduated table. As to the practical introduction of the pyro-
electric couple, it is easily made. A table of sines has been specially
constructed for these observations.

Execrricrry.—A new arrangement for furnishing currents of
electricity has been made known by M. Ney. It is composed as
follows :—1. A vessel filled with solution of chloride of ammonium,
containing a plate of amalgamated zine. 2. A porous cylinder
filled with carbonate of copper, into which a plate of copper
plunges. ‘To maintain the battery in action, it 1s only necessary
to add solid chloride of ammonium from time to time. In military
telegraphy, where the pile should be capable of transport, the outer
vessel might be filled with sand saturated with a solution of chloride
of ammonium in the place of the solution. This arrangement
recommends itself on the score of cheapness, for native carbonate
of copper answers sufficiently well, and it likewise only requires
attention while in actual use. Carbonate of copper is insoluble in
a solution of chloride of ammonium, but upon closing the current,
the chloride is decomposed into hydrochloric acid and ammonia ;
the hydrochloric acid collects at the zinc pole, the ammonia at the
copper. The carbonate of copper becomes soluble, and its reduc-
tion elves rise toa secondary current having the power of a Daniells
element. This form of battery is perfectly constant.

At a meeting of the French Academy some time ago, M. Sidot
showed several samples of iron pyrites possessing magnetic polarity,
obtamed by passing a current of hydrosulphuric acid over the mag-
netic oxide. At that time he stated that the direction of the polar
axis appeared to be in relation to the position of matters at the
moment of their formation with reference to the magnetic axis of
the globe. M. Sidot has now tested his supposition further by
examining the behaviour of the magnetic oxide of iron, to ascertain
whether it suffered the same physical modifications, when placed in
the same conditions, as magnetic pyrites, and whether the polarity
was produced by the earth by removing all causes foreign to terres-
trial action. When a tube of refractory clay is placed parallel to
the magnetic needle, in a furnace free from iron, and in the tube a
platinum boat filled with colcothar, which is heated to bright
redness in a current of air for an hour, the result, after cooling, is a
strongly agglomerated grey oxide, possessed of magnetic polarity.
The extremity of the oxide turned towards the north is a south
pole ; it energetically repulses the pole of a magnetic needle pointing
to the north of the earth. A magnetic oxide is likewise obtained by
calcining coleothar in a platinum crucible. The upper extremity
of the mass presents a pole opposed to the south pole of the globe,
and the lower extremity an opposite pole. To obtaim masses pos-
sessed of greater magnetic polarity a different disposition was made.

152 Chronicles of Science. [Jan.,

A piece of iron plate in the form of a tube, was suspended in a clay
tube placed vertically in a furnace traversed by a very rapid current
of air, and heated to bright redness for the time necessary for the
complete oxidation of the iron. Tubes of oxide were thus obtained
possessed of magnetic polarity, and strongly repelling the poles of
the magnetic needle. The polarity is always dependent upon the
position of the iron plate. The magnet produced in this way was
replaced in the furnace, reversed, and heated in the same conditions
of temperature as before for one hour; after cooling, the poles
were found to be reversed ; that pole which is formed at the upper
extremity is always similar to the north pole of the earth.

12. ZOOLOGY—ANIMAL MORPHOLOGY °
AND PHYSIOLOGY.

(Notices of Works recently published and Transactions of
Societies. )

The alleged Failure of Natwral Selection in the case of Man.—A
writer in a recent number of ‘Fraser's Magazine’ endeayours to
point out that although there is a struggle for existence of a more
or less intense kind, between different races and nations of men,
yet that between man and man in a civilized condition there is no
such struggle—the weak being protected, and the feeble inheriting
wealth which they have not won. ‘Thus, the fittest do not survive
contends this writer, and the law of selection is so far interfered
with as to fail, and indeed we may expect degeneracy rather than
improvement in civilized men. The ‘Spectator, in one of its clever
articles—written, however, in this case with a hasty and mistaken
idea of the question at issue—accepts the view propounded by the
writer in ‘Fraser’ in part, but, making use of the mysterious term
“supernatural selection,” asserts that a new source of benefit is opened
up to man by the cultivation of his moral nature, which counter-
balances any attendant evils. ‘he error in this view of the case
arises from a neglect of the fact that ¢ivilized man is a social animal,
in a truly zoological sense. There is no struggle for existence be-
tween the various bees of a hive, nor among polyps of a polypidom:
the struggle is between hive and hive, and polypidom and polypidom.
So with the communities of civilized men—the struggle is between
one society and another, whatever may be the bond uniting such
society: and in the far distant future we can see no end to the possi-
ble combinations or societies which may arise amongst men, and by
their emulation tend to his development. Moral qualities, amongst

1869. | Zoology. 153

the others thus developed in the individual necessarily arise in
societies of men, and are naturally selected, being a source of strength
to the community which has them most developed: and there is no
excuse for speaking of a failure of Darwin’s law or of “supernatural”
selection. | We must remember what Alfred Wallace has insisted
upon most rightly—that in man, development does not affect so
much the bodily as the mental characteristics ; the brain in him has
become much more sensitive to the operation of selection than the
body, and hence is almost its sole subject. At the same time it is
clear that the struggle between man and man is going on to a much
larger extent than the writer in ‘Fraser’ allowed. The rich fool
dissipates his fortune and becomes poor; the large-brained artizan
does frequently rise to wealth and position ; and it is a well-known
law that the poor do not succeed in rearing so large a contribution
to the new generation as do the richer. Hence we have a perpetual
survival of the fittest. In the most barbarous conditions of man-
kind, the strugele is almost entirely between individuals: in pro-
portion as civilization has increased among men, it is easy to trace
the transference of a great part of the struggle little by little from
individuals to tribes, nations; leagues, guilds, corporations, societies,
and other such combinations, and accompanying this transference
has been undeniably the development of the moral qualities and of
social virtues.

MorpHonoGy.

The Early Stages of Development in Vertebrates—Dr. Wilhelm
His, professor at Basel, and a worthy pupil of the great pioneers of
embryology, Rathke and Von Bar, has recently published a valua-
able work on the above subject, illustrated with twelve plates. The
principal point upon which Dr. His insists is the presence of two
germinal elements—the principal or primary germ, and the sub-
ordinate or secondary germ. From the first proceed the most
essential tissues, vz. the nervous, muscular, and epithelial, whilst
from the second arise the skeletal and nutrient structures, vzz. con-
nective tissues, cartilage, bone, and the vascular system. Dr. His
traces out fully the development of each of these two portions, which
he distinguishes in the early embryo, and describes how they grow
the one into the other, eventually producing a most complex inter-
lacement of parts. He also points out that the development of the
secondary germ is very much affected by mechanical conditions, and
endeavours to show how the form and relation of parts is thus
brought about in the embryo. The perivascular lymph-spaces of
the brain discovered by Dr. His are shown'to arise from the intru-
sion of blood-vessels formed by the secondary germ into spaces

154 Chronicles of Science. [Jan.,

excavated in the primary germ. <A comparison of the two extremi-
ties of the developing vertebrate is also made, and some curious
similarities in opposite parts alluded to. Professor His is so distin-
guished an observer, that this volume cannot fail to command great
attention both in this country and abroad.

New Species of Tasmanian Wolf—Of all mammals there is
perhaps not one existing which is so truly mteresting, so deeply
significant of the history of the development and geographical
distribution of mammals, as the marsupial dog. Mr. Gerard Krefft,
of the Australian Museum at Sydney, has lately obtained from his
assistant, Mr. Masters, no less than twenty-six skulls of this rare
animal, which is found only in Tasmania. Two of these skulls
belong to a new species, distinguished by its shorter muzzle and
other characters, for which Mr. Krefit proposes the name Thylacinus
breviceps. The existence of a second Thylacine has been known to
old residents in Tasmania for years past, as they were in the habit
of distinguishing the two kinds by the names of greyhound- and
bulldog-tiger. A fuller account of the collection of skulls is
promised for a future number of the Annals of Natural History.

Transporting Fish alive-—Mr. Moore, the curator of the
Liverpool Free Museum, has succeeded in importing some living
fish from the River Plate, the first live fish that he has received from
south of the Equator. Some English fish sent out by the same
captain arrived safely, and he left Liverpool on the 10th of October
with another series of fish. They were sent out and imported in a
common fish-globe, suspended like a cabin-lamp in gimbals. There
are now exhibited in the Liverpool Museum, two Catfish, three
species of Pomotis, two of Cyprinus, four Axolotls, and a Proteus, that
were imported from New York by the same method. Dr. Perceval
Wright, on his return journey from the Seychelles last autumn,
succeeded in bringing a small Cyprinoid, Haplochilus, as far north
as Paris. He found that the motion in the railways was by far the
hardest thing to contend with, and indeed his fish were absolutely
jolted to death, the churning of the water preventing respiration.

Occurrence of the Ground-Fluke in England.—A sott dingily-
coloured little creature, not an inch long and very much like a small
slug, has lately excited a little attention by its discovery in England.
Sir John Lubbock found specimens of it in his garden in Kent, and
mentioned the fact to the Linnean Society in September last, and
Mr. Houghton has seen it in Shropshire. Originally it was dis-
covered by Miiller in Denmark, and named by him ; it has since
been observed by Dugés in France, and by Fritz Miller, and Moll
in Germany. In 1867, Mr. Ray Lankester drew attention to it in
the ‘ Popular Science Review, and expressed a belief that it would
be found in England; shortly after this he received four living

1869. | Zoology. 155

specimens from Mr. Edward Parfitt, of Exeter. It appears that
its occurrence in England had been recorded some years since by
the Rey. Leonard Jenyns. Sir John Lubbock and Mr. Houghton
say that this ground-fluke is a true Planarvia. Those, however,
who have studied the Turbellarian worms will know that the genus
Planaria must have a very much more restricted character, and
cannot be made conveniently to include this form, for which the
genus Geoplana is usually adopted. In South America and Ceylon
there are other forms of land-flukes of larger size and very brillant
colour. The English species differs considerably from these, but its
anatomical details are not known. It is almost impossible to dis-
sect specimens, and they are not sufficiently transparent for the
microscope. The ground-flukes, however, undoubtedly belong to
that section of the short aproctous Turbellaria, in which the in-
testine is arborescent.

American Polyzoa—Mr. Alpheus Hyatt has published, in the
Proceedings of the ‘ Essex Institute’ of Salem, Mass., a very detailed
and yaluable account of the fresh-water Polyzoa (Phylactolemata) of
that part of the North American continent. A large portion of the
work is occupied with anatomical descriptions, which are illustrated
in plates executed on a black ground ; a style which appears to be
a favourite one in the States, but which we think is very inferior
to a well-shaded drawing of the ordinary description. Here is a
statement which we assuredly cannot accept, “It therefore becomes
necessary to alter the commonly received nomenclature, and to
denominate the attached end of a Polyzoén the anterior, the free
end the posterior, the anal side the dorsal, and the opposite or so-
called hemal side the ventral.” It is not at all “necessary” to
use the objectionable terms “ anterior,” “ dorsal,” and their converse,
and they certainly can have no strict meaning, but only a conven-
tional one. ‘The term “ Saccata” is proposed for the Mollusca, and
has been endorsed by Mr. KE. §. Morse in a paper on the classifi-
cation of those animals. Saccata is not by any means an appro-
priate term; for the Infusoria, the Coelenterata, and many worms
are quite as distinctly sack-like as the mollusca, in fact, all animals
are sacks. The following genera are described : Fredericella with
three species, Pluinatella with four species, Pectinatella with one
species, Cristatella with one species. Many details of interest and
importance are given in the anatomical descriptions of the genera ;
and the whole work is executed with very great care and methodical
treatment.

The Glass-rope Sponge.—This interesting organism has, we
think, at last come to the climax of its celebrity, and will soon sink
into more or less of obscurity, for its secret has been discovered.
Professor Lovén was right in supposing, from the study of a sponge

156 Chronicles of Science. [Jan.,

which he called Hyalonema boreale—but which should not be put
in the genus Hyalonema—that the long tuft of glassy fibres con-
stituting the so-called axis of Hyalonema is the pedicle by which
it is fixed in the sea-bottom, and that the sponge grows on the top
of this. Professor Perceval Wright, of Dublin, went last October to
Lisbon for the purpose of dredging the European Glass-rope, dis-
covered some two years since by Professor Barboza de Bocage, and
he has succeeded in bringing it up from the deep sea-valley in
which it grows in such a condition as to leave no doubt in his
mind that it lives with the axis inserted in mud, as a sort of stalk.
Dr. Carpenter and Professor Wyville Thompson too, on a recent
dredging expedition off the west of Ireland, have brought up
Hyalonema m the same way. Dr. Wright has no doubt that
Max Schultze is right about the parasitic nature of the coral,
which sometimes encrusts the axis of Hylomena, which is a true
sponge. Dr. Gray, however, retains his opinion that the axis is the
work of the coral, and that the sponge on the end of it is parasitic.
In a recent article on a form of sponge allied to Euplectella (the
beautiful erab’s-nest sponge), which is really a close ally of Hyalo-
nema, Dr. Gray points out that the long spicules in that form
may possibly have been inserted in the mud as a support—as in
Hyalonema, yet he still regards the one as sponge, the other as
coral.

PHysroLocy.
Intellectual Work and the Temperature of the Head.—Dr. J,

S. Lombard, by means of an exceedingly delicate thermo-electric
apparatus, has made some highly interesting experiments on the
influence of cerebral activity on the temperature of the head. He
finds: Ist. That in the state of cerebral repose (during night) the
temperature of the head varies very rapidly and frequently. 2nd.
The changes are very small, scarcely reaching the hundredth of a
degree centigrade. 3rd. In proportion as the activity of the brain
increases, the temperature is found to rise. 4th. Any cause attract-
ing the attention (a sound, the sight of an object or a person)
produces an elevation of temperature. 5th. Very active intellectual
work produces a much more marked elevation of temperature than
in the preceding cases. It does not, however, exceed a twentieth
of a degree centigrade. 6th. An emotion, or reading aloud of any-
thing of great interest, causes an elevation of temperature. It is
not the movement of the heart or of the muscles which under
these circumstances causes a rise in the temperature of the head.
7th. During very arduous intellectual work, the temperature of the
limbs falls even as much as a quarter or half a degree centigrade ; in

1869. ] Zoology. 157

part, no doubt (but only in part), owing to the immobility of the
body. 8th. It is in the region of the occipital protuberance that
the elevation of temperature had its chief seat in the preceding ex-
periments.

It will be interesting to consider the bearing of these phenomena
on the Conservation of Force. It is apparently clear that intellec-
tual activity —thought—is a force totally distinct from, although
associated with, the mode of motion known as “ heat,” for both, it
appears, increase in activity simultaneously. More than this it
were not prudent to say at present, but it appears that here we
have the first approach to a better understanding between the rela-
tions of “mind and matter,” a subject wpon which so much has
been said speculatively, and so little done experimentally.

Effects of Rowing upon the Circulation.—Dr. Fraser, of
Edinburgh, has been carefully examining the effects of rowing on
the pulse, by means of the sphygmograph. Dr. Fraser had the
opportunity of recording the “sphygmograms ” of a crew of healthy
men on several occasions, before leaving the boat-house and im-
mediately after return. The tracings show clearly that an extremely
large quantity of blood is being circulated with great rapidity —a
condition of the circulation which would be considered essential on
other grounds for the continuance of prolonged and severe muscular
exertion. It is obvious that in the great majority of functional and
organic diseases of the vascular system such a condition could not
possibly be maintained. The subjects of these diseases are therefore
completely incapacitated from violent rowing exercise, and cannot
be in a position to beinjured by it. It is possible that the presence
of incipient forms of disease of the vascular system may not alto-
gether prevent such exercise from being undertaken; but Dr.
Fraser believes that all such diseases may be detected by the use of
the sphygmograph in time to prevent further mischief, the exami-
nation being made immediately before the boat is entered, and a
few minutes after a moderate pull has been indulged in. The
effects produced by rowing on the circulation do not differ from
those of many other forms of muscular exercise.

The Physiological Kffect of Snake-bite—Dr. Joseph Jones, of
New York, has made some interesting observations on the effects of
snake-bite. He used the American snake called the Copperhead,
and subjected several dogs, at various times, to its bite. In some
cases the dogs died; in others they recovered. In all cages Dr.
Jones observed carefully the microscopical condition of the blood,
and in cases of death made post-mortem examinations. Dr. Jones
observes, in one case, “The blood from the swollen infiltrated
cellular structures of the head and nose where the snake inflicted
the severest bite presented a peculiar appearance: thousands of

158 Chronicles of Science. [Jan.,

small acicular crystals were mingled with the altered blood-corpuscles,
and as the bloody serum and effused blood dried, the blood-cor-
puscles seemed to be transformed into crystalline masses, shooting
out into crystals of hematin (hemato-crystallin ?) in all directions.
The blood-vessels of the brain were filled with gelatinous coagulable
blood, which presented altered blood-corpuscles and acicular crystals.”
Dr. Halford, about two years since, figured and described in the
‘Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, the microscopic ap-
pearance of the blood of a dog killed by snake-bite. He particularly
drew attention to the enormous increase in the number of white
corpuscles in the blood. Dr. Joseph Jones concludes that the
special toxic effect of the poison of the snake is due to its destruc-
tive effects on the red blood-corpuscle. Myr. Frank Buckland, in a
recent note on this subject, in his highly interesting journal, ‘ Land
and Water, says that the snake’s poison seems to “curdle” the
blood. It may very well be questioned how far it is right to
attribute this condition of the blood to the direct action of the snake’s
poison. Should we attribute the buffy coat of the blood of a fever-
patient to the direct action of the fever-poison ? or the increase of
Blue corpuscles after blood-letting to some specific poison in the
ancet ?

New Books.

The Record of Zoological Literature of 1867.-—This, the fourth
volume of the ‘ Record,’ is issued in three parts, in accordance with
a suggestion of Dr. Albert Giinther, the editor, so that naturalists
can purchase what is most interesting to them without being en-
cumbered by other matter. The Vertebrates form one part; the
Insects, Myriopods, and Arachnids another; and the third contains
the Mollusca, Crustacea, Rotifera, Annelida, Scolecida, Echinoder-
mata, Coelenterata, and Protozoa. Dr. Giinther, Professor Newton,
Mr. W. 8. Dallas, Dr. von Martens, and Professor EK. P. Wright
are the Recorders, and have performed their task im the same satis-
factory manner as heretofore. A grant of 1007. was given by the
British Association at Dundee and at Norwich to assist in the yearly
publication of the ‘ Record,’ and it is hoped thatall working naturalists
and also the patrons of science will procure this work and make
good use of it. It is well known that Mr. Van Voorst the publisher
is continuing this work, not for profit, which he will probably never
realize, though his successors may, but we congratulate him more
heartily upon the laurels which he will reap as a lover and patron
of Zoological Science, than we should do if we thought he was about
to benefit materially by his work.

1869. | Zoology. 159

Bristol Naturalist’s Society——This excellent and flourishing
Society publishes its proceedings from time to time, and at the end
of the year they form a neat little volume, which we now have
before us. Mr. Lant Carpenter has for some time edited the reports
of the Society, but we regret to see he has now been obliged to
retire on account of the occupation of his time. In glancing
through the pages of the reports, we came upon a paper by Mr.
Groom-Napier on the Dodo, in which it is stated that there is
an original picture of that obese bird in the Ashmolean Museum.
This is we believe an error. In the University Museum there is
the celebrated head, and recently a skeleton has been set up by the
talented curator of the anatomical collection—Mr. Charles Robertson
—from bones lately obtained in the Mauritius. It is rather
amusing to read of Mr. Groom-Napier and some of his fellow-
naturalists maintaining that the Dodo cannot be rightly associated
with the pigeons. A careful study of its osteology would or ought
to bring them round to the opinion of the chief zoologists of the
day.

"The Anatomy and Physiology of Vertebrates, Vol. III.*—Pro-
fessor Owen has now completed his great work, but it reaches us
too late to do it justice in the present number.

The Royal Medals of the Royal Society.—One of these medals
has this year been awarded to Alfred R. Wallace, the distinguished
traveller and philosophical zoologist, who is not unknown to the
readers of this Journal.} It was particularly in view of his researches
on the distribution of animals which led him to frame the theory
of the origin of species by modification and descent, placed before
the world simultaneously with Mr. Darwin’s, that Mr. Wallace has
received this high but well-earned recognition of his merits. The
other Royal Medal was given to Dr. Salmon, of Trinity College,
Dublin.

* Longmans.
+ See his papers on “Ice-marks in North Wales,’ “Creation by Law,” and
“On the Migrations of the Polynesians,” all published in vol. vi. of the Journal.

( 160 ) [Jan.,

THE ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

We have received two circulars relative to a change which is
about to be made in the mode of publishing the Transactions of
the above Society. It appears that in future they are no longer
to be published under the auspices of the Society in the well-known
‘Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,’ edited by Dr. Lankester
and his son, but in anew monthly journal to be issued by Mr. Hard-
wicke and edited by Dr. Lawson. We shall be glad to see both
these journals thrive. Of the continued success of the old journal
we have no doubt, more especially as the wholesome competition
about to be created will stimulate editors and publishers. Of the
new one we can of course say nothing at present. Our object in
referring to this circumstance is, however, not so much to direct the
attention of microscopical observers to it, as to express the opinion
that a Society which has been at the trouble and expense of obtaining
a Royal Charter of incorporation, and which has changed its members
into “ Fellows,” should publish its own transactions independently
of any periodical, however respectable and useful it may be.
Whilst the Society was content to pursue its labours unostentatiously,
and when all the members were charged the moderate annual
subscription of a guinea, the publication of its transactions in some
periodical was justifiable, but after the changes which have been
made (whether they were proper or not is a matter of taste), we
think it hardly consistent that the transactions should serve as a
shuttlecock for rival publishers. If our anticipations should not
be fulfilled, and it should be found that the circle of microscopical
readers 1s not sufficiently extended to support a second journal, then
the members will have to be referred back to the old journal, or to
some new literary protégé of the council, and any one desirous of
binding the Proceedings continuously, and placing them for reference
upon his shelves, must take with them whatever may appear in the
journal in which they have been published. But there is even a
more serious objection than this. Recent events elsewhere have
shown that connections of this kind are not conducive to good feel-
ing amongst the members of the council of a learned society, and
we should indeed be sorry to see dissatisfaction arise in this one,
which might necessitate a “ Committee of Inquiry,” accompanied
as such proceedings usually are, by all the amenities of a scientific
controversy. We have no desire to place any obstruction in the
way of the council, but it is obviously our duty to mention these
matters before the trouble has arisen. It appears to us that they
have made more than one mistake. The charter of incorporation
and change of names has in no wise elevated the Society, or its

1869. | The Royal Microscopical Society. 161

members; but has entailed an expenditure which has not alone
necessitated an increased subscription to new members (a double
tariff in fact), but has so reduced the funds as to render it a matter
of difficulty to pay the postage on the Transactions. The publication
of those in the old journal a day longer than was necessary was
another mistake ; the transference to a rival, a third. The Council
should charge all members alike, publish their own Transactions,
and limit their moral responsibility to the record of what passes at
their meetings. If these hints pass unheeded now, the time will
come when they will be remembered.

WOT Vale M

( 162 ) [Jan.,

Quarterly List of Publications receibed for Rebieto.

. On the Anatomy of Vertebrates. Vol. III. Mammals. By
Richard Owen, F.R.S., &. 614 Woodcuts. Longmans & Co.

2. A Practical Treatise on Metallurgy, adapted from the last German
Edition of Professor Kerl’s Metallurgy. By Wm. Crookes,
F.R.S., and E. Rohrig, Ph.D. 207 Woodcuts. Longmans & Oo.

Essays on Physiological Subjects. By Gilbert W. Child, M.D.,
F.L.S., &e. Longmans & Co.

—

O>

4 Notes on the Metals. Being a Second Series of Chemical Notes
for the Lecture Room. By Thomas Wood, Ph.D., F.C.S.
Longmans & Co.

5, Fownes’s Manual of Elementary Chemistry. Edited by Henry
Bence Jones and Henry Watts. Tenth Edition. 193 Engravings.
Churchill & Sons.

6. The Elements of Heat and of Non-Metallic Chemistry. 74 Wood-
cuts. By Frederick Guthrie, B.A. Lond., &e. John Van Voorst.

7. Appendix to the Manual of Mollusca of 8S. P. Woodward, A.L.S.,
containing such Recent and Fossil Shells as are not mentioned
in the Second Edition of that Work. By Ralph Tate, A.L.S.,
F.GS. Virtue & Co.

8. Travels in the East Indian Archipelago. By Albert S. Bickmore,
M.A., F.R.GS., &e. Copiously Illustrated. John Murray.

9, A Treatise on the Action of Vis Inertiz in the Ocean. By W. L.
Jordan, F.R.G.S. Longmans & Co.

PAMPHLETS AND PERIODICALS.

On the Regenerative Gas Furnace, as applied to the Manufacture of
Cast Steel. By C. W. Siemens, F.R.S. London: Harrison & Sons.

On Puddling Iron. Same Author. London: Newbery & Alexander.

On Geological Time, and the Probable Date of the Glacial and Upper
Miocene Period. By James Croll.

Notes on the Chemical Geology of the Gold Fields of California. By
J. Arthur Phillips.

1869. | List of Publications received for Review. 163

The Liverpool Medical and Surgical Reports.
London: Churchill. Liverpool: Holden.

New Pages of Natural History. Meteors and Meteorites. Caves and
their Contents. Fossil Fish. By H. P. Malet. T. C. Newby.

Publications of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington :—
Observations on the Polyzoa. 9 Plates. By A. Hyatt.
Observations on the Metamorphosis of Siredon into Amblystoma.

By O. C. Marsh, Yale College.

Results of Meteorological Observations made at Marietta, Ohio,
between 1826 and 1859 inclusive. By 8S. P. Hildreth.
Reduced and discussed by C. A. Schott.

Physical Observations on the Arctic Seas. By Isaac J. Hayes,
M.D. Reduced and discussed by C. A. Schott.

Francis Peabody.

Smithsonian Report for 1866.

A Guide to the Study of Insects, and a Treatise on those Injurious
and Beneficial to Crops. By A.S. Packard, jun., M.D.

On the Source of Light in Luminous Flames. Dr. Frankland, F.R.S.

The Rainfall in Devonshire during 1866-1867. By W. Pengelly,
F.RS., &e.

On the Condition of Some of the Bones found in Kent’s Cavern, near
Torquay, Devonshire. Same Author.

The Literature of Kent’s Cavern, Torquay, prior to 1859. Same
Author.

The History of the Discovery of Fossil Fish in the Devonian Rocks
of Devon and Cornwall. Same Author.

The Submerged Forest and Pebble Ridge of Barnstaple Bay. Same
Author.

Third Report of the Committee for Exploring Kent’s Cavern. (W.
Pengelly, Reporter.)

The Science of Man: a Bird’s-eye View of the Wide and Fertile
Field of Anthrology. By Charles Bray. Longmans & Co.

Twenty-second Annual Report of the Board of Trustees of the Public
Schools of the City of Washington.

Notes on Books. Being an Analysis of the Works published during
each Quarter by Longmans & Co.

164 List of Publications received for Review. [Jan., 1869.

The Geological Magazine.

The London Student.

The Popular Science Review.

The Westminster Review.

The American Naturalist, Salem, Massachusetts.
The Public Health.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES, &c.

Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria.

Proceedings of the Bristol Naturalist’s Society. Edited by W. L.
Carpenter, B.A., B.Sc.

Journal of the Historical and Archzological Association of Ireland.
Dublin: McGlashan.

Proceedings and Papers of the Kilkenny and South-East of Ireland
Archeological Society. Dublin: McGlashan.

Journal of the Transactions of the Victoria Institute.
Transactions of the Clinical Society of London.*

Proceedings of the Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society.
Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain.

» » Royal Society.

x » Royal Astronomical Society.
fe »» Royal Geographical Society.
» » Geological Society.

” » Zoological Society.

* Founded January 10,1868. President, Sir Thomas Watson, Bart., F.R.S.
Honorary Secretaries, Dr. Burdon Sanderson, F.R.S,; and G, W. Callender, Pub-
lishers of the Transactions, Spottiswoode & Co.

THE QUARTERLY

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

APRIL, 1869.

, OTHING affords greater
a relief to the hard-worked
« scientific littérateur, who is
compelled day by day and
week by week to pore over
the labours and investigations
of experimentalists, or to sift
the theories of speculative
.' philosophers, until his brain
becomes confused with the
long lists of new genera and
species which are introduced
into every province of nature’s
realm, or with the hypotheses,
more or less plausible, pro-
pounded by each new thinker,
than to cast aside such dry
and often uninteresting tech-
nicalities, and to follow, though
it be but in imagination, one
of those free lances of science,
the Naturalist Traveller. It is pleasant, indeed, to wander with
him through distant regions of the globe, little known to Europeans

* 1. ‘The Malay Archipelago : The Land of the Orang-Utan and the Bird of
Paradise. A Narrative of Travel, with Studies of Man and Nature.’ By Alfred
Russel Wallace, author of ‘ Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro,’ &. 2 vols,
Svo, with 51 Illustrations and 9 Maps. London: Maemillan & Co. 1869,

2. ‘Travels in the East Indian Archipelago.’ By Albert 8. Bickmore, M.A.,
Professor of Natural History in Madison University, Hamilton, N.Y. 1 vol. 8yvo,
with 36 Illustrations and 2 Maps. London: John Murray. 1868.

VOL, VI. N

166 The Malay Archipelago. [ April,

even by name, to laugh with him at the mute astonishment of his
savage acquaintances as he follows his scientific pursuits, or at him
as he practises a little of that literary archery in which all travellers
are supposed to excel.

The life of such a man in many senses resembles our own, but
he experiences greater extremes of physical enjoyment and priva-
tion, of mental suffering and delight; and one of his chief advantages
over us is the lasting pleasure which must remain when he returns
to civilized life and subsides into the useful member of a family, the
occupant of a cherished home. ‘Then the remembrance of his exciting
dangers abroad must afford him as much satisfaction as that of his
most enjoyable hours. As he walks through the market, and his
glance falls upon a tropical fruit, his mind must wander back to the
virgin forest where he plucked it fresh and luscious from the tree ;
or as he inspects the treasures of some modest museum, and a rare
creature, of which nothing but the skin is a reality, meets his eye,
he starts for an instant, as he remembers with what surprise he first
saw that form, here inanimate and perhaps disfigured by the dust of
years, spring past him instinct with life as he wandered along the
forest path, and disappear in the jungle before he had time even to
raise his fowling-piece or rifle. Under the shade full of birds
standing on the chimneypiece of some labourer’s cottage, he espies
in every little bright-winged creature a reminiscence of some new
locality which he visited in times gone by; and whilst we should
associate such objects with the auction mart, and estimate how many
shillings the collection may have cost, he sees, perhaps, in one of the
little feathered forms alone, the type of one which necessitated a
whole day’s pursuit and an unusual expenditure of his limited
means. How thankful should we be to those enterprising and
adventurous traders who bring into our parlours, boudoirs, and
cottages the rarest and loveliest productions of tropical climes, and
enable us to possess them for an outlay in some cases less than is
requisite to obtain them where they are produced by nature.*

Nor must it be supposed that the roving naturalist passes
through one continued series of privations all the year round, or
lives in clover only when his gun supplies him with a superabund-
ance of game; where he wanders, civilized men are often few and
far between, and wherever the traveller appears, he brings to the
colonist, what is more precious than gold or jewels, the sound of a
cultivated voice, the recollection of home and friends far away ; and
no wonder that he is now and then a little petted and spoiled.

Mr. Wallace thus describes his life in Celebes : T—

* Mr. Wallace tells us (vol. i., p. 473) that “numbers of the handsome but very
common cones, cowries, and olives” (shells) “sold in the streets of London for a
penny each” are natives of Amboyna, “ where they cannot be bought so cheaply.”

t+ Wallace, vol. i., pp. 362-3.

1869. | The Malay Archipelago. 167

“My host Mr. M. enjoyed a thoroughly country life, depending
almost entirely on his gun and dogs to supply his table. Wild pigs
of large size were very plentiful, and he generally got one or two
a-week, besides deer occasionally, and abundance of jungle-fowl, horn-
bills, and great fruit pigeons. His buffaloes supplied plenty of milk,
from which he made his own butter; he grew his own rice and coftee,
and had ducks, fowls, and their eggs in profusion. His palm-trees
supplied him all the year round with ‘sagueir,’ which takes the place
of beer; and the sugar made from them is an excellent sweetmeat.
All the fine tropical vegetables and fruits were abundant in their
season, and his cigars were made from tobacco of his own raising. He
kindly sent me a bamboo of buffalo-milk every morning; it was as
thick as cream, and required diluting with water to keep it fluid during
the day. It mixes very well with tea and coffee, although it has a
slight peculiar flavour, which after a time is not disagreeable. I also
got as much sweet ‘sagueir’ as I liked to drink, and Mr. M. always
sent me a piece of each pig he killed, which with fowls, eggs, and the
birds we shot ourselves, and buffalo beef about once a fortnight, kept
my larder sufficiently well supplied.”

So much for the creature comforts, and now as regards the
intellectual enjoyment which they accompanied. Our readers will
not be surprised to hear that under the circumstances the author’s
pursuits as a naturalist were equally pleasant.

“JT have rarely enjoyed myself more than during my residence
here. As I sat taking my coffee at six in the morning, rare birds
would often be seen on some tree close by, when I would hastily sally
out in my slippers, and perhaps secure a prize I had been seeking
after for weeks. The great hornbills of Celebes (Buceros cassidiz)
would often come with loud-flapping wings, and perch upon a lofty
tree just in front of me; and the black baboon monkeys (Cynopithecus
nigrescens) often stared down in astonishment at such an intrusion into
their domains; while at night, herds of wild pigs roamed about the
house, devouring refuse, and obliging us to put away everything eatable
or breakable from our little cooking-house. A few minutes’ search on
the fallen trees around my house at sunrise and sunset would often
produce me more beetles than I would meet with in a day’s collecting,
and odd moments could be made valuable which when living in villages
or at a distance from the forest are inevitably wasted. Where the
sugar-palms were dripping with sap, flies congregated in immense
numbers, and it was by spending half-an-hour at these when I had
the time to spare that I obtained the finest and most remarkable
collection of this group of insects that I have ever made.

“Then what delightful hours I passed wandering up and down the
dry river-courses, full of water-holes and rocks and fallen trees, and
overshadowed by magnificent vegetation! I soon got to know every
hole and rock and stump, and came up to each with cautious step and
bated breath to see what treasures it would produce.” *

* Wallace, vol. i., pp. 364-5.
N 2

168 The Malay Archipelago. [April,

But the path of the naturalist traveller is not always so smooth:
sometimes he is obliged to drag his weary body through marsh and
morass, harassed by all kinds of tropical pests and encompassed by
hidden dangers.

“ When I reached Suban again,” says Mr Bickmore,* “I felt a
peculiar smarting and itching sensation at the ankles, and found my
stockings red with blood. ‘Turning them down I found both ankles
perfectly fringed with blood-suckers, some of which had filled them-
selves until they seemed ready to burst. One had even crawled down
to my foot and made an incision which allowed the blood to pour out
through my canvas shoe. All this day we have suffered from these
disgusting pests, our horses became quite striped with their own blood,
and a dog that followed us looked as if he had run through a pool of
clotted gore before we reached the highway again. Of all the pests I
have experienced in the Tropics, or in any land, whether mosquitoes,
blackflies, ants, snakes, or viler vermin, these are most annoying and
disgusting.”

And Mr. Wallace tells us+ how, when the rains began at Celebes,
“numbers of huge millipedes, as thick as one’s finger and eight or
ten inches long, crawled about everywhere, in the paths, on trees,
about the houses ;” and how he found, on rising one morning, that
he had had one of them for a bedfellow !

In regard to trials and dangers, both trayellers have their stories
to narrate. Mr. Wallace tells his in modest and unaffected language
and without any pretensions to heroism, whilst, Mr. Bickmore uses
such incidents for book-making purposes ; and according to his own
account, the Professor of Natural History at Madison University
must have been as courageous as he was gallant, for whilst the
terrible monsters of the animal kingdom fell beneath the blows of
his axe, and his coolness was the admiration of the native men, we
have the blushing confession that he was singled out by the dark
beauties as the favoured object of their “ osculatory salutes.” But it
is quite obvious to any one who has read the two works with care
that the author who lays claim to the greatest coolness and courage,
in reality experienced less opportunities for the exercise of either
faculty : as to the osculatory business, we doubt not that the dark
beauties did exhibit their good taste, and for the reason assigned by
Mr. Bickmore, namely, as “they might never again haye the
privilege of kissing a gentleman with a white face.”{ The contrast
between the style of the two writers is best seen in the description
given by each of them, of an adventure he had with a python. Mr.
Wallace discovered his snake in the roof within a yard of his head.

“ He was compactly coiled up in a kind of knot ; and I could detect
his head and his bright eyes in the very centre of the folds. The

* Bickmore, pp. 492-3. t Wallace, vol. i., p. 376.
t Bickmore, p. 193.

1869. | The Malay Archipelago. 169

noise of the evening before was now explained. A python had
climbed up one of the posts of the house, and had made his way
under the thatch within a yard of my head, taking up a comfortable
position in the roof—and I had slept soundly all night directly
under him. .

“TI called to my two boys who were skinning birds below, and
said, ‘ Here’s a big snake in the roof;’ but as soon as I had shown it
to them they rushed out of the house and begged me to come out
directly. Finding they were too much afraid to do anything, we
called some of the labourers in the plantation, and soon had half-a-
dozen men in consultation outside. One of these, a native of Bouru,
where there are a great many snakes, said he would get him out, and
proceeded to work in a business-like manner. He made a strong
noose of rattan, and with a long pole in the other hand poked at the
snake, which then began slowly to uncoil itself. He then managed
to slip the noose over its head, and getting it well on to the body
dragged the animal down. There was a great scuffle as the snake
coiled round the chairs and posts to resist his enemy, but at length
the man caught hold of its tail, rushed out of the house (running so
quick that the creature seemed quite confounded), and tried to strike
its head against a tree. He missed however, and let go, and the snake
got close under a dead trunk. It was again poked out, and again the
Bouru man caught hold of its tail, and running away quickly dashed
its head with a swing against a tree, and it was then easily killed with
a hatchet. It was about twelve feet long and very thick, capable of
doing much mischief and of swallowing a dog or a child.” *

Mr. Bickmore’s python story is reserved as the crowning
sensation, the bonne-bouche, of his work. This snake did not come
upon him unawares; he had it presented to him in a cage, from
which it escaped, and on searching for it, he found it coiled up in
the ship’s boat, on the deck of the vessel in which he was sailing.
According to his account, all about him were cowards, he alone a
hero; and the story of the death-struggle, though intended to be
thrilling, is amusing in the extreme. It is illustrated by a plate,
in which the hero is figured, apparently in his night costume (but
that is explained), wielding an axe, and the fierce monster, with
extended jaws, is about to dart upon him, whilst nine sailors and
officers are looking on as unconcernedly as though they were wit-
nessing a game of billiards. To add to the horror of the tale,
“the first mate armed himself with a revolver,’ and every moment
the hero expected to hear a report, and find himself shot by some
of the braves behind him! “TI felt the blood chill in my veins as
for an instant we glanced at each other's eyes, and both instinctively
realized that one of us two must die on the spot.” T

Strange biological phenomenon! Here we have the sudden
chilling of the sanguineous fluid of a warm-blooded animal, bring-

* Wallace, vol. i., p. 466. + Bickmore, p. 541,

170 The Malay Archipelago. [ April,

ing him into sympathy with a cold-blooded reptile, and enabling the
two for an instant to appreciate each other's instinctive sensations.

However, we must not harrow the feelings of our readers, and
therefore conclude by stating that the hero was victorious, and not
only survived to tell his own tale, but went on to China, ‘“‘and passed
through more continued dangers and yet greater hardships than in
the East Indian Archipelago.” We should be harsh critics if we
concluded Mr. Bickmore’s work in his own words, for it might
leave an impression on the reader’s mind that it has nothing to
recommend it except his sensational adventures. For the sake
of science, as well as his own, we would advise the author, if he
publishes another work, to keep such matter distinct from the more
sober details of his experience. The fact is, that he spent a year
very comfortably in the Dutch settlements of the Archipelago,
possessing ample means for the attainment of his object, which was
to make a collection of shells. He carried letters of introduction
from his Government to the leading authorities, and usually travelled
with an armed escort. He appears to have been no sportsman,
although there are one or two passages in his work which would
lead his readers to think the contrary, and almost always secured
his game with a silver bullet. The headings of his pages are
often sensational, as—“ Among the Cannibals ;’* “ Riding along the
Edge of a Precipice;”{ “Among Tigers;”} “We come upon an
Elephant ;”§ “ The Head-hunters of Ceram;”|| All these horrors
(excepting the “precipice,” which resembles one of those winding
roads round a marine cliff which our readers have, no doubt,
frequently met with nearer home than Java, and the “ Head-
hunters,” of whom “the Resident kindly” sent to invite a few
to dance before him, as we see Kaffirs dance at Wombwell’s mena-
gerie) were only heard of by the author,{{ and it would have been
better to reserve them for a Christmas story for boys, as an emi-
nent African traveller has recently done, and in which they would
have shone to more advantage than in a scientific work, the value of
which depends upon its trustworthiness.

But whilst we feel bound, in the interests of science, to censure Mr.
Bickmore’s sensational statements of facts, and in that of literature,
to draw attention to his Yankee phraseology, as when he speaks of
what he saw “back of the village,” and tells us that children “ help
support their parents ;” or that he stood “half querying ;’ in con-
sequence of which imperfections his book is not “quite all a
European palate could desire,” we still tender to him our thanks

* Bickmore, p.125. + P.419. +¢P.515. § P.513, || P. 203,

4] A “head-hunter,” along with one of the beautiful palms, the “ Penang, or
Betel-nut Palm,” which illustrate Mr. Bickmore’s work, have been introduced by
our artist into his vignette. Mr. Wallace, we may here observe, slept in a Dyak-
hut in Borneo, “very comfortably with half-a-dozen smoke-dried human skulls
suspended over his head,”

1869. | The Malay Archipelago. 171

for his valuable contribution to our hitherto imperfect knowledge
of the Malay Archipelago, and to the publisher, for the admirable
illustrations, many of them from photographs, with which the
work is enriched.

His account of some of the natural productions of the Archi-
pelago is interesting ; indeed, so far as those are concerned whose
intrinsic value in civilized life is the greatest, such as sugar, with
its manufacturing processes,* nutmeg and mace,t camphor,t his
information is full and valuable. His description of the various
fruits and trees is also exceedingly interesting; and the reader is
enabled to appreciate the beauty of the latter through the well-
executed plates already referred to. A comparison of his account
of the curious fruit of the Durian (Durio Zibethinus) § with that
of Mr. Wallace || illustrates in an amusing manner the diversity
of human tastes; and, as the fruit has scarcely ever been mentioned
in England, it may be briefly noticed here. The “Durian” is a
large spherical fruit, covered with sharply-pointed tubercles and
a hard shell. Within, it is divided into several parts, and (accord-
ing to Bickmore) it contains “a pale yellow substance of the
consistency of thick cream, and having an odour of putrid animal
matter, so strong that a single fruit is enough to infect the air of
a whole house.” The taste is described as similar to “fresh cream
and filberts,” but the odour was such as to repel the American
traveller. Our own countryman describes the fruit in similar
terms, and says “it smells like rotten onions;” but then bursting
into a song in praise of its taste, which, he says, “resembles custard
highly flavoured with almonds,” but “intermingled with wafts of
flavour that call to mind cream cheese, onion sauce, brown sherry,
and other incongruities” (!) he tells us that he was a confirmed
Durian eater, and, although Europeans cannot bear the fruit, and
Mr. Wallace possessed his taste only in common with the savages
amongst whom he lived so long, he considers it would be “ worth
a voyage to the East to experience the new sensation of eating it.”
Verily there is no accounting for tastes, and we should not be
surprised if our author, or some one endowed with similar pro-
clivities, were to tell us that he considers it worth while enduring
all the hardships of a Russian winter to taste fresh caviare in
Astrachan !

But Mr. Wallace has also some peculiar metaphysical theories
concerning this strange fruit, for it furnishes him with evidence
against the argument from design.

“The Durian is, however, sometimes dangerous. When the fruit
begins to ripen it falls daily and almost hourly, and accidents not

* Bickmore, pp. 68 to 70. + Pp. 222-3. t P. 433. SP ok
|| Wallace, vol. i., p. 118.

172 The Malay Archipelago. | April,

unfrequently happen to persons walking or working under the trees.
When a Durian strikes a man in its fall it produces a dreadful wound,
the strong spines tearing open the flesh, while the blow itself is very
heavy; but from this very circumstance death rarely ensues, the
copious effusion of blood preventing the inflammation which might
otherwise take place. A Dyak chief informed me that he had been
struck down by a Durian falling on his head, which he thought would
certainly have caused his death, yet he recovered in a very short
time.

“ Poets and moralists, judging from our English trees and fruits,
have thought that small fruits always grew on lofty trees, so that
their fall should be harmless to man, while the large ones trailed
on the ground. Two of the largest and heaviest fruits known, how-
ever, the Brazil-nut fruit (Bertholletia) and Durian, grow on lofty
forest trees, from which they fall as soon as they are ripe, and often

pwound or kill the native inhabitants. From this we may learn two

things: first, not to draw general conclusions from a very partial
view of nature; and secondly, that trees and fruits, no less than
the varied productions of the animal kingdom, do not appear to
be organized with exclusive reference to the use and convenience
of man.” *

With the first sentence in the author's closing remarks, namely,
that we should not draw general conclusions from a very partial
view of nature, we heartily concur; and this is precisely the error
into which he and similar argumentators fall; but we should like
to know who has ever been so foolish as to state that “trees and
fruits, no less than the varied productions of the animal kingdom,
are organized with eaclusive reference to the use and convenience
of man.” We certainly do not remember ever having seen such
a doctrine propounded, either by poet or moralist; but if we found
such a position assumed, we should certainly not adduce the author's
illustration as evidence against its validity. As well might he say
that because fowling-pieces sometimes kill sportsmen who are foolish
enough to get into the way when they are going off, therefore
fowling-pieces were not designed for the exclusive use of Man!

But, on the other hand, if we wish for a mass of evidence in
favour of design, before which Paley pales, we need only read the
author’s account of the Bamboo and its uses, which follows imme-
diately upon that of the Durian. He shows that it is indispensable
to the natives. Looking at their mental condition, they could not
haye existed without it, or some similar boon of Providence, Page
after page of the work is occupied with an account of its uses.
Every fraction of it is utilized. It enters into the constitution of
their dwellings, serves as the raw material from which they make
hen-coops, cages, fish-traps, bridges, aqueducts, water-buckets,

* Wallace, vol. i., pp. 119-20.

1869. | The Malay Archipelago. 173

cooking utensils, preserve jars, dagger-sheaths, pipes, cords, &c. ;
and yet he says:* “It is probable that my limited means of ob-
servation did not make me acquainted with one half the ways in
which it is serviceable to the Dyaks of Sarawak.”

But upon what principle is this wonderful adaptation of means
to ends explicable? ‘The author gives us no clue to the mystery,
his philosophy being merely negative. Does pure Darwinism
account for it? Is it the survival of the fittest by means of natural
selection? That is to say, has nature selected the fittest plant for
Man’s use, and allowed it to survive? No, that is not Mr. Darwin’s
theory. According to his view, which is no doubt correct as far
as it goes, those forms of life survive which are the best able to
resist adverse conditions of existence; and therefore, although the
presence of the Bamboo in Borneo may help us to understand why
Man has survived there, superseding perhaps some Simian form of
life, yet it throws no light upon the adaptability of the vegetable
to the wants of an animal (Man) not yet formed, whilst it was
struggling with the surrounding conditions of existence.

Shall we gain a clue to the mystery by calling in the aid of the
Huxleyan doctrine of “ Matter and Law?” Wiser brains than ours
may be able to apply that misty-physical philosophy, as recently
enunciated by its author in a contemporary ; + but we are constrained
to admit that we do not yet clearly comprehend it, and are therefore
unable to apply it in the case under consideration. “ Matter,” no
doubt, there is—that is quite clear ; and “ Law,” no one can ignore;
but our difficulty is to ascertain whether in the case under con-
sideration it is matter that legislates, or the law that is material ;
and we confess we have given it up in despair, for, after all, the
whole phenomenon may be but “the unknown and hypothetical cause
of states of our own consciousness ;” and then of course it would be
best to follow Professor Huxley’s “wise advice,” and “not trouble
ourselves about matters of which, however important they may be,
we know nothing, and can know nothing.”

Well, then, as Darwinism fails to explain the phenomenon, and
Huxleyism declines to come to our aid, we must, at the risk of being
ranked amongst the superstitious, appeal to a very old-fashioned
doctrine to account for the wonderful adaptability of every part of
this beautiful tropical plant to the necessities and luxuries of what
would otherwise be helpless human beings; and perhaps we may be
permitted to cling for a little while longer to the delusion that a
beneficent Deity, to whom there is no past nor future, does exist,

* Wallace, p. 126. é ? :

+ The ‘Fortnightly,’ edited by John Morley, No. xxvi., Feb., 1861, in which
the curious will find the latest exposition of the Materialistic doctrine, by one of
its ablest professors,

174 The Malay Archipelago. [ April,

and that it is He who, in ages long past, provided thus bountifully
for the wants of His chidren still uncreated! We hope, notwith-
standing the author's remark which has led to these reflections, that
we have his assent to our views and inference.

ET not our readers, however, for an
instant suppose that because we have
grouped the two works before us under
one heading, we therefore consider them
E to possess equal merit or scientific value.
wi It happens that they have appeared
‘ about the same time, and treat of the
same region of which little is known in
civilized Europe; but Mr. Bickmore,
who is an American Professor of Na-
i; tural History, spent only twelve months

in the Malay Archipelago, confining his
visits and observations to the Dutch possessions there, and occupied
himself chiefly in purchasing valuable shells from the natives;
whilst our own countrymen, to whose work we now propose
to direct special attention, resided in the Archipelago about eight
years, during which period he visited and studied the physical
geography and natural history of all the most important islands,
including Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Celebes, the
Moluccas, New Guinea, with the surrounding islands, and the Malay
Peninsula. Indeed, Mr. Wallace’s book, which has long been
expected by naturalists, is likely to be the standard work on those
regions. The author, as most people are aware, is, so to speak,
the originator of that view which Mr. Darwin (to whom his book is
dedicated) has developed into a well-defined theory—the theory of
Natural Selection; and although, in his published works, Mr.
Darwin has traversed a wider range of Physical Science, and deals
with more extended areas of the earth’s surface than the author, yet
we believe that the present work will be found to exercise a more
potent influence, in the promulgation of the advanced theory, than
the well-known treatises which have been published from time to
time by the able writer whose name it bears.

For Mr. Wallace himself observed the phenomena which sug-
gested to his mind the theory of natural selection; and although he
seldom refers to that theory, and then only as though he were a
modest disciple of Mr. Darwin, he brings those phenomena vividly
before his readers; and the previous works of the last-named
author having borne down prejudices and remoyed obstructions, the
readers of the present treatise will be better prepared to accept the

1869. | The Malay Archipelago. 175

conclusions to which its numerous and well-recorded facts unques-
tionably point. The author’s theory (one that has been floating in
the public mind for some time) is that the continent of Asia at one
period extended much farther eastward, and that of Australia farther
west, than at present, until they almost joined, and that the two
continents were probably separated by the Lombok Strait, which
divides an island of that name supposed to have formed part of
Australia from Bali, another existing island which is believed to
have constituted, along with Java and Sumatra, a portion of the old
Asiatic continent. This hypothesis is kept before the reader through-
out the work, and is supported by all the data which can be furnished
by physical geography, zoology, botany, and the heterogeneous
nature of the inhabitants of the Archipelago, A shallow sea sur-
rounds the Indo-Malayan region, as the author calls it, embracing the
Malay peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and Bali: another shallow
sea encloses the Papuan region, whilst a deep one embraces the islands
of Celebes, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Timor, and the Moluecas—
all of which together constitute the Austro-Malayan region. hese
conditions are well shown in the map which accompanies the work.

The fauna of Australia seems to have crept as far as Lombok;
that of Asia to Bali; and in the passage from one island to the
other, or rather by the contrast between the natural productions of
the two islands, the author seems to have been led to adopt the
theory which is so ably expounded in his work. When he first
visited Lombok, the most westerly of the Austro-Malayan Islands,
he says :—

“ Birds were plentiful and very interesting, and I now saw for the
first time many Australian forms that are quite absent from the islands
westward. Small white cockatoos were abundant, and their loud
screams, conspicuous white colour, and pretty yellow crests, rendered
them a very important feature in the landscape. This is the most
westerly point on the globe where any of the family are to be found.
Some small honeysuckers of the genus Piilotis, and the strange mound-
maker (Megapodius gouldit), are also here first met with on the travel-
ler’s journey eastward.”

Subsequently he shows in detail how the Flora and Fauna of
the Timor group—namely, Lombok, Flores, and Timor—represent
the transition from the Asiatic to the Australian types. Thus

there are—
In Lombok. In Flores. In Timor.*
Javan binds sue. een ese ee 33 23 11
Australian birds” “7 ".. 4 By 10

these islands being all separated from each other by a deep sea;
and as the same rule applies in a greater or lesser degree to
mamials, insects, and plants, the natural inference is, that the

* Wallace, vol. i., p. 320.

176 . The Malay Archipelago. | April,

islands must at some time have been connected together; and,
although he does not believe that Timor was actually connected
with Australia in recent geological epochs, he considers that they
were in much closer proximity than at present.

The human inhabitants of the Polynesian Archipelago, the
author thinks, did not penetrate so far east as Lombok, and he
draws the line between the Malayan and Polynesian races through
the Sapy strait between the islands of Sumbawa and Flores, and
northward through the Moluccas. This line of demarcation is
shown upon another of the numerous maps which accompany the
work.

To treat the subject with anything like particularity in this
_ place would, however, be impossible, and for a full exposition of
the author’s views and theories we must refer our readers to the
work itself, where they will find page after page of evidence to
support them.*

And now what shall we say of the book, as the production of a
naturalist and traveller? We think few will disagree with us when
we pronounce it to be one of the most attractive and, at the same
time, the most learned work on foreign travel, “with studies of man
and nature,” that has appeared in our language. It surpasses in
scientific interest Mr. Darwin’s Naturalist’s Voyage in the ‘ Beagle’
(and that is saying a great deal), because its author has been a
more industrious observer and collector, and has been able to render
it more attractive by the employment of modern methods of illus-
tration; for these latter carry us into the heart of the remote and
little-known regions which he visited, and enable us to form a
good idea of their varied inhabitants of all kinds.t His collection
“comprised nearly 3000 birds’ skins of about 1000 species, and
at least 20,000 beetles and butterflies of about 7000 species, besides
some quadrupeds and land shells.” t

* The following is an extract from the ‘Proceedings of the Royal Society,’
No. evi., Nov., 1868 :—‘‘ A Royal Medal has been awarded to Mr. Alfred Russell
Wallace, in recognition of the value of his many contributions to theoretical and
practical zoology, among which his discussion of the conditions which have
determined the distribution of animals in the Malay Archipelago (in a paper on
the zoological geography of that region, published in the ‘ Proceedings of the
Linnean Society’ for 1859) occupies a prominent place.

“Ihe case may be briefly stated thus :—The strait separating the islands of
Baly and Lombok is only 15 miles wide; nevertheless the animal inhabitants of the
islands are widely different, the fauna of the western island being substantially
Indian, that of the eastern as distinctly Australian.

“Mr. Wallace has described, in a far more definite and complete manner than
any previous observer, the physical and biological characters of the two regions
which come into contact in the Malay Archipelago; he has given an exceedingly
ingenious and probable solution of the difficulties of the problem, while his
method of discussing it may serve as a model to future workers in the same field.”

+ In the second vignette, our artist has copied a portion of one of Mr. Wallace’s
plates, exhibiting the mode in which the natives shoot the Great Bird of Paradise.

t Wallace: Preface.

1869. | The Malay Archipelago. 177

Nothing seems to have escaped his observation. The peculiar
ways of the Chinese trader of Singapore amused him exceedingly.

“The shopkeeper is very good-natured ; he will show you every-
thing he has, and does not seem to mind if you buy nothing. He
bates a little, but not so much as the Klings, who almost always ask
twice what they are willing to take. If you buy a few things of him,
he will speak to you afterwards every time you pass his shop, asking
you to walk in and sit down, or take a cup of tea, and you wonder
how he can get a living where so many sell the same trifling
articles.” *

We have met with something like this spirit in small continental
towns. ‘Then come the habits of the animal next below man in
anatomical structure which he captured—the Orang-Utan. For
that creature, by the way, he showed less sympathy than might
have been expected in a Darwinian, for he appears to us to have
shot it somewhat wantonly. The Dyak music made a great im-
pression upon him, but we cannot say that we admire his taste
in that respect. The association of art with savage life struck
him as being sometimes very remarkable. At Dorey, in New
Guinea, he found the worst savages whom he anywhere met with,
and after describing their habits, he says: “If these people are
not savages, where shall we find any? Yet they have all a decided
love for the fine arts, and spend their leisure time in executing
works whose good taste and elegance would be admired in our
Schools of Design!” { This is the first step towards human culture,
and it carries our minds back involuntarily to those periods in
human history when rude outlines of animals, now extinct, were
carved on knife and axe handles; but there are in those wonderful
eastern islands traces of a civilization far different from this. In
Java there exist vast piles of ruined temples, covering miles of
ground ; and in one spot “traces of nearly 400 temples have been
found,” t whilst “the ruins of forts, palaces, baths, aqueducts, and
temples can be everywhere traced.”

The numerous and beautiful tropical plants, with their luscious
fruits and varied uses, and all the denizens of the animal kingdom,
come under the author’s notice, as we have already seen ; especially
interesting is the account of the exquisite birds of Paradise, to obtain
which he sacrificed health, strength, and almost life itself. Nor
are the grander phenomena of nature, such as earthquakes and
volcanoes, overlooked in the naturalist’s zeal. Of those he speaks
without exaggeration, whilst he seeks at the same time to convey to
the reader’s mind the stupendous changes which the occult forces of
nature have brought about upon the earth’s surface; and to them
he largely attributes the physical configuration of the land, and the

* Wallace, vol. i., p. 33. fe Vole iiss p: 320. t Vol.i., p. 166.

178 The Malay Archipelago. [ April,

past and present geographical relations of the various islands which
he visited. Political and social economy, good and evil government
are discussed; and although the author is not likely to find many
disciples in his advocacy of monopoly abroad and protection at home,
yet the facts noted by him even on these subjects are well worthy
of the consideration of practical minds. The great charm of the
work is its obvious truthfulness and simplicity, and if the author
sometimes misses opportunities (of which travellers usually avail
themselves with such eagerness) of appealing to the sense of wonder
in his readers, he inspires, on the other hand,-the most implicit
confidence in all he says, and often affords us some consolation for
having to read about, rather than participate in his adventures.
After describing some of the beautiful scenery of Mount Ophir,
in the Malay Peninsula, he concludes his account of it by saying :—
“The top is a small rocky platform covered with Rhododendrons
and other shrubs. ‘he afternoon was clear and the view fine in its
way—ranges of hill and valley everywhere covered with interminable
forest, with glistening rivers winding among them. In a distant
view a forest country is very monotonous, and no mountain I have
ever ascended in the tropics presents a panorama equal to that
from Snowdon, while the views in Switzerland are immeasurably
superior.”* Some satisfaction, this, to the tourist at home, whose
means or opportunities will not allow him to visit the tropics.
Again, let us recommend the romantic enthusiast who longs to
visit the court of an Eastern Rajah, and catch a glimpse of the
beauties who inhabit the Harem, to pause and ascertain the author's
experience in that way. He had an interview with a “ Rajah,” the
Queen and her daughters, and concerning the latter he says :—
“And here I might (if I followed the example of most travellers)
launch out into a glowing description of the charms of these damsels,
the elegant costumes they wore, and the gold and silver ornaments
with which they were adorned. The jacket, or body of purple gauze,
would figure well in such a description, allowing the heaving bosom
to be seen beneath it, while ‘sparkling eyes,’ and ‘jetty tresses,’ and
‘tiny feet, might be thrown in profusely. But, alas! regard for
truth will not permit me to expatiate too admiringly on such topics,
determined as I am to give as far as I can a true picture of the people
and places I visit. The princesses were, it is true, sufficiently good-
looking, yet neither their persons nor their garments had that appear-
ance of freshness and cleanliness without which no other charms can
be contemplated with pleasure. Everything had a dingy and faded
appearance, very disagreeable and unroyal to a European eye.” f

And, finally, it will be pleasing to our countrymen to hear that
if the gigantic vegetation of the tropics has so long formed the
theme of the traveller’s admiration, we have in our English scenery

* Wallace, vol., i. p. 50. Tt Pp. 343-4,

1869.] The Malay Archipelago. 179

a feature largely wanting in the tropical world, which more than
compensates for the absence of Palms, Tree Ferns, and gigantic
Fig-trees, namely, the masses of flowers which adorn our landscapes.
After describing such scenery as can only be met with where nature
has been most lavish of her tropical gifts, Mr. Wallace says :*—

“'The reader who is familiar with tropical nature only through the
medium of books and botanical gardens, will picture to himself in
such a spot many other natural beauties. He will think that I have
unaccountably forgotten to mention the brilliant flowers, which, in
gorgeous masses of crimson, gold, or azure, must spangle these ver-
dant precipices, hang over the cascade, and adorn the margin of the
mountain stream. But what is the reality? In vain did I gaze over
these vast walls of verdure, among the pendant creepers and bushy
shrubs, all around the cascade, on the river’s bank, or in the deep
caverns and gloomy fissures,—not one single spot of bright colour
could be seen, not one single tree or bush or creeper bore a flower
sufficiently conspicuous to form an object in the landscape.”

This peculiarity he explains by stating that it is the custom of
travellers to have their attention drawn to the few rare and magni-
ficent flowers which are here and there met with in hot climates,
and are gathered together and fostered with so much care in our
conservatories at home; but he adds, “ During twelve years spent
amid the grandest tropical vegetation, I have seen nothing com-
parable to the effect produced in our landscapes by gorse, broom,
heather, wild hyacinths, hawthorn, purple orchises, and buttercups.”

And now, in conclusion, let us express the hope that in thus
seeking to treat Mr. Wallace’s work with impartiality, and to show
how unprejudiced he usually is in his judgments, we may not have
detracted from his merits as a literary man, nor yet from his work
as an interesting record of a traveller’s experiences. We might have
selected far more “telling” passages for extracts than we have done,
and perhaps thus have enabled the publishers to sell a few more
copies of the work at the outset. But that is quite unnecessary.
It will bear its own recommendation in its pages, and we have felt
it our duty to place upon it, as far as we are able, the stamp of
scientific authority, where there are so many scientific novels running
their ephemeral course, so that every intelligent man who thinks fit
to give it a permanent place upon his shelves may feel assured that
he is depositing there for the benefit of posterity a highly valuable
contribution to the scientific literature of our age.

* Pp. 371-2. ft Wallace, vol. i., pp. 373.

( 180 ) [ April,

II. THE PROJECTED MERSEY TUNNEL AND
RAILWAY.

(From Liverpool to Birkenhead.)
By Sir Cuarues Fox.

As a means of intercommunication between Liverpool and Birken-
head, a tunnel beneath the Mersey has been under consideration by
leading men on both sides of the river for upwards of thirty-eight .
years ; and when the inconvenience and loss both of time and money
which the want of such a means of transit has ever occasioned are
considered, it is, in these days of increased facilities, a matter of
surprise that, while works of real difficulty have been carried to
completion on every side, this obvious want should not have been
satisfied.

There is but one opinion as to the importance of intercom-
munication between Liverpool and Birkenhead, and it being
admitted that the great obstacle in the way of its realization is
the doubt existing in the public mind as to the cost at which it can
be attained, it has been felt that this doubt can never be overcome
unless the nature of the river-bed is conclusively proved.

When this has been done, I am sure that the construction of a
tunnel through the red sandstone rock under the Mersey will be
found an easy and inexpensive operation, as, judging from the
many similar works which have been executed in this rock during
the last forty years (those most analogous having been tunnels of
various dimensions carried on at considerable depth below the level
of the bottom of the river, with a view of obtaining a more copious
supply of water for the town of Liverpool), it has been ascertained
that in no material can such works be effected at so small a cost as
through the very strata now well known to exist in this locality,
the amorphous nature of the rock rendering it peculiarly advan-
tageous for tunnelling operations.

Tunnels have been made at a low price through chalk, as that
material is readily excavated; but from its general looseness and
its consequent tendency to fall, it is deemed necessary, for the
purpose of ensuring safety, to put in brick or stone lining, and
this, as compared with red sandstone, which generally requires
no such lining, considerably augments the cost; and it must not
be forgotten that the sandstone, when excavated from a tunnel in
or near a town, is saleable for use as building material; while
chalk, taken from a tunnel, being of no value, is more generally
run to spoil.

It would appear that one of the most formidable hindrances in
the way of getting capitalists to embark their money in making
tunnels under rivers, of which very many are urgently needed,

1869. ] The Projected Mersey Tunnel and Railway. 181

arises from the disposition which undoubtedly exists to form an
unfair comparison between such works and the Thames Tunnel,
which, as every one conversant with the circumstances connected
with it will know, cost a very large sum, although passing under
a river of no considerable breadth. This, however, is no fair
criterion upon which to judge of any other case. This tunnel
was constructed some forty years since, when the science of tunnel-
making was but little understood, and when it had to be applied
upon a very limited scale, without the advantages arising from
many later improvements, and without the extensive experience
derived during the last forty years from works of this nature,
required in the development of the railway system all over the
world.

This makes a comparison deceptive, to say nothing of the
Thames Tunnel having to be constructed under all the difficulties
of passing, not through London clay, which it would have done had
it been placed a few feet deeper, but through the treacherous and
loose silt and gravel of the bed of the river Thames, while the
tunnel which forms the subject of this paper will pass through
solid rock.

To attempt to draw a comparison between this project and the
Thames Tunnel is but to show an entire want of acquaintance with
the relative circumstances of the two cases, for it must be borne in
mind that the Act authorizing the construction of the latter received
the Royal Assent on June 24th, 1824, more than forty-four years
since, and that the tunnel was not opened for passenger traffic till
March 25th, 1848, having occupied a period of eighteen years and
three-quarters in arriving at completion.

Were this work now taken in hand by an Engineer possessing
the experience obtained in constructing tunnels since the period
above referred to, taking care to place his work deep enough to let
it pierce only the London clay (to have done which the present
tunnel ought to be fifteen feet deeper than it is), no doubt the
entire work could be completed for little more than a tithe of the
cost (which was 454,700/.), and need not certainly occupy a longer
period than two years, as is proved by the following facts :—

The excavation for the Thames Tunnel commenced in December,
1825, and all went on satisfactorily until 12th May, 1827, when,
the upper portion of the works protruding above the London clay
into the gravel and silt of the bed of the river, the first irruption
of water took place, there being then a length of 545 feet of the
tunnel constructed, which had been done in a period of seventeen
months; so that, had no casualty occurred, and assuming that the
rate of progress was not, as it no doubt would have been, augmented
by the natural increase which always follows a better knowledge of
any work, the whole 1200 feet would have been completed within

VOL. VI. 0

182 The Projected Mersey Tunnel and Railway. _ [April,

three years and two months; and this, be it remembered, would
have been the result if made wholly from one end; whereas, with
the present increased facilities and knowledge of the operation, it
would have been carried on from both sides simultaneously, when,
even at the then slow rate of progress, the time would be reduced
to one year and seven months; so that there can be no doubt that,
with present appliances, the work of the tunnel could, with perfect
_ ease, be completed in one year and a quarter; and taking for the
shafts and other matters, say, half a year more, the whole could
with convenience be accomplished in one year and three-quarters.

In order to clear up every doubt, I propose, at an estimated
cost of 20,000/., to drive a heading under the Mersey from shore
to shore, a distance of 1300 yards, and thus not only to prove the
practicable nature of the larger and more complete undertaking,
but also the future cost, whilst at the same time providing the
necessary drainage and ventilation for the permanent works.

The first operation will be to sink a shaft on either side of the
river, on land belonging to the Mersey Docks Board, to a depth
of about 120 feet below the surface (see Plate, lower figure). The
shaft on the Liverpool side will, for a depth of say 40 feet, pass
through made ground, and will then enter, and for the remainder
of its length be entirely through, the solid rock. That on the
Birkenhead side will be in solid rock throughout. These shafts
will be about 10 feet in diameter, and will terminate in large
sumps for pumping purposes. At each will be erected permanent
pumping engines and pumps of sufficient power to deal with the
largest quantity of water that is likely to be met with, and which
pumps will not only be used during the construction of the works,
but be adapted for keeping the main tunnels permanently free from
water. Winding engines will also be erected of sufficient power,
not only to deal with the material excavated from the heading, but
also with that from the tunnel itself.

The shafts having been sunk to the full depth, and the machinery
fixed, the heading will be commenced from either end, and driven
much in the same way as an ordinary mining water-level. It will
have a very slight rise towards the middle of the river, so as to
drain both ways into the shafts. Judging from experience, I expect
that, at least, 4 yards lineal a day will be driven at either end, giving
a total of 160 working days, or thereabouts, for the completion of
the heading after the shafts are sunk. I have taken much pains to
collect evidence as to the nature of the rock through which the
heading will pass, and have found everyone conversant with the
subject unanimous upon the point. The general result of my
inquiries and observations cannot be more forcibly explained than
by the following summary of evidence given before the Referees of
the House of Commons in 1865.

1869. | The Projected Mersey Tunnel and Railway. 183

The late Mr. Thomas Duncan, then Engineer to the Liverpool
Waterworks, stated that he knew well the nature of the rock, which
is not very porous. He did not think the quantity of water pro-
duced from the rock at Birkenhead and Liverpool would make the
tunnel a difficult work of construction, and he did not believe there
would be any difficulty in carrying it through so far as water is
concerned. He considered that the “faults” existing in the sand-
stone rock, and shown on the geological map, were advantageous,
as he had cut through many of them (having excavated in the red
sandstone at various points over sixty square miles) and had nearly
always found them filled up with a species of concrete, which was
perfectly water-tight. In a few instances, however, he had found
them filled with laminated rock, having a saccharine appearance, and
evidently having been subjected to a great heat, and yet water-tight.

Mr. James Abernethy, C.E., stated that, having been Engineer
to the Birkenhead Docks, he had large experience of the sandstone
rock, and that the rock under the river is good hard red sandstone
rock, of the same character as the rock excavated from the Birken-
head Docks, which is a close, compact, strong stone, suitable for
building purposes.

Mr. John Fowler, C.E., stated that in framing his estimates he
had well considered the question of possible faults in the rock, and,
on the whole, preferred to have faults of the character known to
exist in the red sandstone at Liverpool and Birkenhead, as they,
being impervious to water, back up and limit in area the water
contained in the interstices of the rock. The faults are filled either
with clay or with some vitreous material. Mr. Fowler further
stated that he considered red sandstone at all times the best
material to construct tunnels through.

Besides the above testimony, there is the further fact that Mr.
John Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S., proposes to construct a tunnel under
the Mersey, near its mouth, where the river is very wide and the
character of the rock less certain; and it is therefore evident that
Engineers of eminence are agreed in considering the work of making
a tunnel thoroughly practicable, and that at a moderate cost.

As much doubt has been expressed as to the possibility of
driving the heading for any such sum as 20,0002., I would remark
that the Trustees have before them a tender from a responsible
contractor, who is prepared to undertake to complete the work
considerably within that amount, finding all necessary plant and
machinery, and giving approved security to the extent of 50007.

Again, the chief item in the cost of this work is that of excava-
tion, and the Engineers already mentioned, and who gave evidence
before the Referees, were agreed in considering 9s. a cubic yard an
ample price for this work in the tunnel, including all possible con-
tingencies, being, in fact, three times the cost of similar work under

0 2

184 The Projected Mersey Tunnel and Railway. | April,

ordinary circumstances. I have, however, taken 20s. per cubic
yard for the excavation in the heading, which I believe to be far
more than it can cost.

That a tunnel, or as it is called, a subway, can in the estima-
tion of those competent to form an opinion, be carried under the
river Thames at a very small cost, is, I think, proved by the fact
that Parliament, last session, passed an Act for the “Tower Sub-
way,” proposed by Mr. P. W. Barlow, F.R.S., C.E., son of the
highly-talented Professor of mechanics of that name, the capital
for which is but 12,0002., with power to borrow 40000.

This work is now in course of construction, and is to consist of
an excavation through the London clay 440 yards in length, lined
with cast-iron cylinders 2" thick, with strengthened flanges, whose
external diameter will be 7° 13", or 7 feet inside.

At each end there will be a vertical shaft between 50 and 60 -
feet deep, fitted with lifts for the purpose of raising or lowering
passengers from and to a saloon carriage, which will at very fre-
quent intervals pass through the heading for the conveyance of
passengers.

From each end the subway will fall towards the centre of the
river at an inclination of about 1 in 40 to a level under the river,
where the rails will be at a depth of 61’ 6” below Trinity high-
water mark.

With regard to the above, it may no doubt be said that it is as
yet only a matter of estimate; and though given by an Engineer of
standing and approved by Parliamentary committees—one of whose
special duties it is to investigate the estimates for the purpose of
testifying to their sufficiency,—yet the estimate might prove falla-
cious. I now, therefore, proceed to give the cost of an important
work at Chicago, completed some time since, and in many respects
analogous to the one of which I am treating, but beset with some
difficulty not to be encountered in passing under the Mersey, arising”
in great measure from the more uncertain material through which
the heading had to be driven; that at Chicago being clay, and that
at Liverpool red sandstone—the one being driven for two miles, or
3520 yards, under Lake Michigan, the other only 1800 yards under
the river Mersey.

The Chicago tunnel was made by Mr. Chesbrough, C.E.,
Engineer to the municipality of Chicago, for the purpose of ob-
taining a more ample supply of pure water for the inhabitants of
that important city from a point beyond the reach of sewage con-
tamination ; hence its great length.

This work, embracing as it does two miles of heading carried
through clay, lined with two rings of brickwork, including a sum
of $120,000 expended on the two shafts and the appliances con-
nected therewith, cost $380,000, or 76,0002.

1869. | The Projected Mersey Tunnel and Railway. 185

The above amount spread over the 3520 lineal yards of heading
gives 217. 11s. as the cost of each lineal yard, and deducting
therefrom 7/., the value of the additional excavation, centering, and
brick-lining (not found necessary in tunnels in the red sandstone),
it will bring the price per lineal yard to 14/. 11s., without taking
into account the more than double value of labour at Chicago,
which has unfortunately greatly augmented the outlay upon this
work.

Now 20,0002. expended upon 1300 lineal yards of heading under
the Mersey gives the price for each 15/. 5s., so that, in drawing a
comparison between the two works, a greater sum has been taken
in the estimate for the one than has been actually expended on the
other, and this is assuming the price of labour to be the same in
both instances, which, however, is by no means the case, that at
Chicago being very high.

I may here allude to a very interesting and instructive work,
also very analogous to that proposed under the Mersey, which has
been earried to a satisfactory conclusion at Attock, on the Khyra-
bad Pass, in India.

It consists of a heading 600 yards long, 6 feet square, driven
under the river Indus through a rock, which forms its bed, at a
depth of somewhat over 90 feet below the surface of the flood-water.

It has been carried on by a few labourers, under the charge of
Mr. Robinson, who have succeeded in filling up the fissures they
met with during the operation by simple “feather” wedging of
wood, and have by this expedient been able to keep back all the
water which otherwise would have flowed into the heading with a
force due to the whole superincumbent column.

The cost of this work has been about 13,000/., and spreading
the whole outlay over the 600 yards, brings out the cost to about
217. 14s. per yard, which goes to prove that, had the labour ex-
pended upon it been paid for only at English prices, it would have
been executed at a considerably smaller cost than that arrived at by
estimate for making the heading under the Mersey.

I have lately constructed a water-level, nearly one-third of a
mile long, through harder rock, yet far less compact and more
broken up, having much larger feeders of water than any to be
expected in the red sandstone. In driving this heading and the
shafts connected therewith, single feeders were met with yielding
1,000,000 gallons per diem, yet these were dealt with without
serious difficulty or expense, the cost not having been one-half that
estimated for the Mersey work.

In driving the heading a boring-rod would, as is usual in water-
bearing strata, be kept ahead of, and at the top of, the work, and
thus due notice would at once be given of any unusual feeder of
water, should such exist.

186 The Projected Mersey Tunnel and Railway. | April, ©

All ordinary cracks in the sandstone are readily made water-
tight by the use of a “feather” wedge of timber tightly driven
into them. . If a large crack were met with, containing water (a
most unlikely thing, as has been already shown), a lining of iron
would be put into the heading and pushed forward, as the excaya-
tion proceeded, until the fault was passed.

The heading will be circular, and 6 feet in diameter.* It will,
when completed, be available not only for draining the tunnels, but
for telegraphic purposes, and probably also for conveying water
from the Welsh lakes to Liverpool, thus avoiding a lengthened
détour and most expensive works.

The heading having been successfully driven, I am confident
that there will be no difficulty in letting a contract for a double
~ line of railway under the river Mersey for 100,0007., which would,
indeed, give a price of 77l. per lineal yard of tunnel—the work
being through good hard sandstone and thoroughly drained by
means of the heading; whereas 60/. a lineal yard is a large price
for tunnels, even through clay, where, of course, heavy lining,
including an invert, is required.

The river tunnel being completed, the remaining works neces-
sary to bring the two towns of Liverpool and Birkenhead into com-
plete communication with each other will be of a very ordinary kind,
and free from any unusual contingency.

Under the existing Parliamentary powers, the railway can be
completed in a direct line from Church Street, Liverpool, to Wood-
side, Birkenhead, with an intermediate station at the bottom of
James Street, and by its means, and by trains running every few
minutes, passengers will be conveyed between the termini im six
minutes. ‘The authorized line runs entirely either under the river
or under streets, and not a single house will be taken for the
railway itself, and only one or two for station purposes. The rail-
way can be readily constructed without interference with the traffic
of the streets. ‘The main line will be double, with extensive sidings
for goods, in direct communication with the dock lines on either side
of the river.

Surveys have been completed of extensions, whereby the Mersey
Railway can be made to form a direct connecting link between the
important railway systems on either side of the river, and this
at a moderate expense, and with the destruction of hardly any
property.

The effect produced by the opening of this railway will be very
great. The docks of Liverpool and Birkenhead, now under the
same management, form the noblest emporium of trade im the
world, but their joint usefulness is much impaired by the want of

* See Plate. It is unnecessary to give any detailed description of the Plate
as it explains itself.

1869. ] The Projected Mersey Tunnel and Railway. 187

satisfactory communication between the two sides of the river; and
the immense resources of Birkenhead, developed at a cost of nearly
7,000,0002. sterling for docks alone, are lying comparatively idle,
whilst the quays and docks on the Liverpool side are flooded with a
trade increasing daily, and already over-tasking their capabilities.

More dock and quay accommodation must be found. On the
Liverpool side, to construct fresh docks either north or south, is to
place them miles away from the centre of trade—at the north, in
a very exposed situation, almost unapproachable in heavy weather,
at the south, only available for vessels of comparatively small
draught—what then so natural as to utilize the expenditure at
Birkenhead, now yielding but a nominal return, but which, with
the Mersey Railway completed, would be placed in a very different
position. The Birkenhead docks and warehouses would then, as
regards both passengers and goods, be placed within a few minutes,
in all weathers, of the heart of Liverpool.

The immense traffic to be expected under such altered circum-
stances, may be inferred from the fact that, with the present imper-
fect means of communication, often brought almost to a standstill by
a fog, or a gale of wind, twenty millions of passengers, at least,
pass over the ferries annually.

The Cheshire side of the Mersey abounds with pleasing sites for
residential purposes, and not only New Brighton, but many other
places, would experience an immediate increase if railway communi-
cation were established. Thousands of persons who would prefer
a residence on that side, are, at present, deterred by the difficulties
of the daily crossing to their places of business.

The construction of this railway, and its extensions would, also,
place Liverpool in direct communication with North Wales and
Holyhead.

Liverpool, Birkenhead, and their surroundings now contain at
least seven hundred thousand inhabitants, and the steady increase
of population renders means of communication every day more
urgent.

“Tf this railway be not soon completed, an immense expenditure
must be incurred to improve the approaches to the landing stages,
which will, after all, not get rid of the most serious inconveniences
connected with the ferries, which are chiefly caused by fogs and
storms.

Those who have interested themselves in the Mersey Railway
are in earnest in the matter, and if they meet with but moderate
assistance from those locally concerned, Liverpool and Birkenhead
will soon be connected by a direct railway.

(S803 [April,

III. VESUVIUS.

Waar Baden-Baden is among inland watering-places, Brighton and
Scarborough among marine resorts, Epsom among race-courses,
such is Vesuvius among volcanoes. The Spaniard ardently ex-
claims, “Que no ha vista Sevilla, no ha vista maravilla;”* and
truly this may be said of Vesuvius. It is, par ewcellence, the type
of volcanoes, both for its historical interest, and the natural beauty
of its surroundings.

That it should be so will seem quite natural when we reflect,
that from its position, near the centre of the earliest and highest
civilization of Europe, its spasmodic movements were anxiously
watched, and more or less frequently recorded for nearly eighteen
hundred years ; sixty-six eruptions having been chronicled between
a.v. 79 and 1868.

With the exception of its sister volcano Etna, there is no other
burning mountain whose history can compare for a moment in
interest or extent with that of Vesuvius; indeed only a very few
out of the 225 recognized active volcanoes were known five hundred
years ago.

Among the many scientific visitors who were attracted last
year to “the City of the Siren” by the activity of Vesuvius was the
veteran Professor Phillips, who for more than fifteen years has
filled the Chair of Geology in the University of Oxford.

Accompanied by an early geological friend and most excellent
antiquary, Mr. John Edward Lee, of Caerleon, Professor Phillips
examined Vesuvius, and the result lies before us in the shape of a
small and neat octavo volume,} illustrated by two maps, nine
plates, and thirty-five diagram woodcuts, expressive, but rough, like
the scori, tuffs, and lavas they so well depict.

Another tourist to Vesuvius, Mr. J. Logan Lobley, F.G.S., has
also put on record an account of his own observations in an unpre-
tending little volume} of fifty-five pages, accompanied by a view, a
map, and a section of the mountain.

Isolated as we happily are in Britain from lands in which the
subterranean energies of our earth still manifest themselves at the
surface in the form of volcanic outbursts, it must not be supposed
that our countrymen, who haye for so long a time been foremost
in all the other branches of cosmical science, should on this account
have devoted but little attention to Plutonic investigations.

* “Who has not seen Seville has not seen a marvel.” —Spanish adage.

+ ‘Vesuvius,’ by John Phillips, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., &e., &e. Oxford :
Clarendon Press. 8yo. 1869. Pp. 355.

{ ‘Mount Vesuvius: a Descriptive, Historical, and Geological Account of the
Voleano, with a Notice of the Recent Eruption, &e, By J. Logan Lobley, F.G.S,
8vo. 1868. London: EB, Stanford,

1869. ] Vesuveus. 189

On the contrary, we recall the writings of Sir W. Hamilton,*
Professor Babbage,t Mr. G. Poulett Scrope,t Dr. Daubeny,§
Principal Forbes,|; Sir Charles Lyell,{] Charles Darwin,** and
many others who have each contributed a share to the world’s store
of knowledge on volcanic phenomena, and largely to the history of
Vesuvius itself.

Any book therefore which may now be written upon Vesuvius,
must of necessity draw largely upon these already written histories,
and its author must be likewise indebted to Padre Della Torre,
Guiscardi, Monticelli, Palmieri, and other foreigners who have given
special attention to this volcanic mountain.

Nor can any description of Vesuvius be complete which does
not include the account given by Pliny the younger of the eruption
of a.p. 79, i which the elder Pliny lost his lifett This eruption
justly deserves the attention it has received of all subsequent
historians, not only from the loss of the celebrated naturalist Pliny,
but also because of the sudden overwhelming of those large and
populous cities, Herculaneum, Pompeu, and Stabie, which at that
time stood in the Campania on the shores of the Bay of Naples, and
the exploration of whose buried streets and palaces has added so
largely to our knowledge of the arts and civilization of the ancient
Romans.

“Through eighteen centuries,” writes Professor Phillips, “the
dwellers round the Bay of Naples have watched with mingled pride,
wonder, and alarm, the great solitary mountain whose shadow in
the morning stretched across the sea, and whose evening splendour
threw into far distance the snowy peaks of the Apennines. |

“ Well might they be proud of so fair a prospect. All around
the mountain, and even climbing to half its height, stretch vine-
yards and orange-groves, populous towns and prosperous villages,
churches, palaces, and ports; the well-paved road, and the Strada
Ferrata. Here the Norman built his fortress, the Roman reared
his amphitheatre ; and long before the birth of Rome, the wan-
dering Greek or Pheenician trader laid the foundations of Cumz
and Pestrum, perhaps as long after an earlier race had built the
giant walls of Arpimum and Alatrium, Ferentinum and Venafrum.
Such has ever been this fertile land since history began to shed

* Campi Phlegrei. Fol. Naples, 1776.
+ ‘Geog. Proc.,’ vol. ii. p. 72; and 9th ‘ Bridgewater Treatise,’ p. 200.
t Scrope, ‘On Volcanoes,’ 2nd edition, 1862.
§ Daubeny, ‘On Volcanoes, 2nd edit., 1848; and Quarr. Journ. or Science,
vol. iii., p. 199,
| Forbes, in Brewster’s ‘Edinburgh Journ.,’ 1829, &c., vol. iv., p. 12; and
‘ Miscellanies,’ vol. i., part 2.
{| Lyell’s ‘ Principles.’ 10th edit., vol. i., pp. 598-654.
** Darwin, ‘On Voleanic Islands,’ &c.
tt Plinius Cecilius Secundus (Caius) to Cornelius Tacitus. Book vi., Epistle xvi.
and ipistle xx,

190 Vesuvius. [ Apri,

light on ancient Hesperia; a country on which the sun shines in
his strength, washed by a translucent sea, bordered by the most
picturesque shores in the world, and these crowned by villas and
palaces, temples and tombs, of every age and many nations—
worshippers of Neptune the earth-shaker, and believers in Jan-
uarius, whose very image stays the heaving of the ground and
arrests the current of lava. Well might they wonder and be
terrified! More than fifty times since the Christian era has the
mountain poured forth floods of lava and tossed up clouds of ashes ;
while far more frequent tremblings of the earth have justified
the fable of antiquity, that Titanic forces lay oppressed but strug-
gling below the heavy load of the Phlegreean hills,”

“Threatened people live long,” and the inhabitants of Canvpania
felix, who, amidst perpetual fertility, have to put up with occasional
terrors and sometimes to witness the destruction of their homes and
churches by the devouring lava-streams, cannot be induced to quit
the dangerous but lovely spot.

Thus we find the modern and flourishing town of Resina
standing on the ashes and lavas beneath which Herculaneum lies
buried : and Torre del Greco even nearer to the mountain than
Resina, and three or four times, more or less, destroyed by lava-
streams, its total destruction being all but accomplished (but for
St. Januarius) by the eruption of 1861.

It has been already mentioned that sixty-six eruptions are on
record since A.D. 79. These, as matter of course, have not only
altered the appearence of the surrounding country, but have
frequently changed the form and height of the crater itself.

Seen from the sea or from the Campagna, Vesuvius rises alone
from a broad base, and its outlines sweep upwards in an easy curve,
growing continually bolder towards the summit, and these, in
ordinary periods of tranquillity, passing over an uneyen but
variable “dome” or “cone” 4000 feet high, to slopes on the
opposite face not tamely identical, but harmoniously diverse.
The view from Naples eastwards is in happy contrast with the
opposite one, the northern outline being broken by a deep hollow,
which is itself overlooked by a sharp angular crest 3760 feet above
the sea. Thus the mountain appears double: the northern crest
is now called the “ Monte Somma,” the hollow is the “ Atrio del
Cavallo,’ and the dome-shaped summit, now the highest part of
all the area, is the modern “ Monte Vesuvio.”

Viewed from the south-west in the direction of Sorrento or
Capri, Vesuvius is in front, and its long continuous slope comes
down to Pompeii on the south, and to the sea at Torre del Greco,
and Resina on the west; while on the north it is encircled by the
rugged crests of Somma,

The histories of Somma and Vesuvius, as known to us, are

1869. ] Vesuvius. 191

strikingly different. Somma, the broken external crest of the
greater and earlier volcanic crater, has been unmoved in place, un-
changed in form and height (save by atmospheric denudations)
through eighteen centuries.

Vesuvius, born of Somma, and seated within the encircling
grasp of its parent, is a variable heap, thrown up from time to time,
and again, not seldom, by a greater effort of the same force, tossed
away into the air, and scattered in clouds of dust over far away
countries.

Thus it has happened often, in the course of these variations of
energy, that Vesuvius has risen to a conical height exceeding that
of Somma by 500 or 600 feet, and again the top has been truncated
to a level as low as Somma, or even as much below that mountain
as we now behold it above it.*

Within the last four hundred years the cone of Vesuvius has
been five several times gutted by explosive eruptions of a paroxysmal
character, viz. in 1794, 1822, 1831, 1839, and 1850; and its
central craters formed in this manner ag often gradually refilled
with matter, to be again in due time blown into the air.

B.o. 72 Vesuvius was unborn; and the great crater of Somma,
a mile in diameter, its summit encompassed on all sides—save one
which had a narrow breach—with broken and slippery precipices
covered with wild vines, reared its truncated cone in silent grandeur
unbroken by the least fretful token of an eruption.

To this wild spot retreated Spartacus and his small army at the
beginning of the Servile War, the floor of the crater being then a
nearly level surface, but deeply sunk below the encircling walls.

It was, no doubt, the great eruption of a.v. 79 which blew
away nearly three quarters of the crater-walls of Somma, beneath
whose ponderous ruins the towns of Herculaneum, Pompeii, and
Stabize le buried; and to this day we trace in the platform of the
Pedimentina the outline of the base of the south-western portion of
the ancient Somma, although, of course, much obscured by modern
lava-flows.

Meantime, what remains of the old external crater is itself be-
coming choked up by the accumulation of all the lava-streams and
fragmentary matter that are expelled towards the northern and
outer side of the cone, which is also growing in bulk all round. It
would therefore be in exact accordance with the habit of this
volcano (as of volcanic mountains in general), if at length the
valley of the “ Atrio,” which at present separates the remains of the
ancient and far larger cone of Somma from the modern cone of
Vesuyius, should be completely filled up, the two cones combined
into one, of increased height and bulk, and ultimately, perhaps,

* Phillips, p. 174.

192 Vesuvius. [ April,

the entire conjoint mountain should be blown up by a more than
ordinarily violent paroxysm, and the crater of Somma re-formed.*

Although many of the early writers have preserved for us much
of interest which relates to Vesuvius, yet their ideas of telluric
phenomena were always so involved with the supernatural, that we
are seldom able to reach the germ of truth which produced the
great mass of mythological romance.t

Strabo, Vitruvius, Diodorus Siculus, and Tacitus, all speak of
the indications of the igneous origin of this region of Southern
Italy: Seneca also detected the true character of Somma (8.c. 1 to
A.D. 64), and pointed out that its crater had thrown out more than
its own mass of earthy matter, “being, in fact, a channel for the
fire, but not its food.”

By a careful study of volcanic mountains, we are enabled readily
to perceive that they possess a marked similarity, their character-
istic form being a cone, truncated at the summit by a funnel-
shaped cavity or crater. The cone is found to be built up of ashes,
scorie, and other loose materials ejected from the crater, and
deposited in layers, which are thickest near the rim, and conse-
quently attain a steeper angle as the cone increases in height.
These loose materials are often bound together by outflows of
liquid mud, or lava, and the percolation of rain-water, acting on the
light tuffs and loose volcanic sand, converts them into a heavy and
compact rock.

These alternating layers of ashes, lava, scorie, and mud, afford
an interesting illustration of subaérial stratification resembling
marine and fresh-water deposits, and, like them, often rich m
organic remains.{ .

But no marine or fresh-water deposits, however formed, could
have preserved for nearly two thousand years the rich treasures of
Roman painting and ceramic art, in all their freshness and beauty,
which the buried cities of the Campania have revealed to us.

Liquid lava streams seldom issue from the cone of eruption,
more frequently they make their escape from lateral vents at low
levels. When lava rises and overflows the crater, it usually breaks
down a portion of the wall, and so makes its escape.

Fragments of melted lava ejected from the cone harden instantly
on their surface, while the interior becomes vesicular from the ex-
pansion of the gases and minute particles of water disseminated

* Scrope, ‘On Volcanoes,’ p. 189.

+ The contest between Earth and Sky which the Greek fable of Typheus
brings before us, is locally associated with voleanic energy in the region round
Naples, Aitna, and elsewhere.—Phillips, p. 2.

¢ An eruption which occurred in the island of Arran in the Carboniferous
period, has covered and enclosed a forest of erect trees in volcanic matter.
Professor Phillips (p. 129) mentions seeing carbonized trees in lava near the
Hermitage, Vesuvius,

1869. | Vesuvius. 193

through the mass. The same is the case with the surfaces of lava
streams.

Ascending obliquely, from the direction of Bosco Tre Case and
Pompeii (writes Professor Phillips, p. 191, March 1868), “we
reach a broad hot region, in which are the principal fumaroli; from
these quite lately—last night—lava was flowing freely, now barely
moving under a solid crust of pipy or cellular rock, deep sunk
below the rest of the surface, or merely glowing in deep cavities,
and yielding reluctantly to the pressure of a pole, which instantly
takes fire. Beneath our feet, however, for considerable spaces, the
ground is really fluid, only crusted over by the partially coherent
and yery partially cooled scoriaceous blocks. Removing these,
where practicable, by the help of a pole, we see the sullen red lava
below. The quickness of the consolidation of the surface of lava
is remarkable; we stand on the solid crust, over what remains of
yesterday’s current, in a deep canal, which not long since ran full
of melted rock; on this very hot surface it is requisite to keep
in motion, if one has any regard for English shoes, but there is no
other inconvenience.

“The air is hot, somewhat like that in the vicinity of iron-
furnaces—which seems, whether it be so or not, a little deficient in
oxygen, but no smell of sulphur, in any combination, and no
fumes of hydrochloric acid.”

The products issuing from the crater of Vesuvius are extremely
various, as also are the conditions under which they are ejected.
They may be roughly grouped under three heads, namely: 1st,
Gaseous ; 2nd, Liquid; 3rd, Solid. Under the first we may in-
clude carbonic acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, free hydrogen, hydro-
chloric acid, and nitrogen; under the second, liquid lava and
streams of boiling water often charged with fine mud; the third
includes ashes, pumice, lapillo, puzzolana, and volcanic bombs.

The gases referred to have been noticed in the exhalations from
the fumarole of the lava of Vesuvius, and escaping from the
numerous crevices in the sides of the vent after the termination of
an eruption.

Lava-rocks, although differing more or less in mineral character,
are all found, upon analysis, to be composed of silicates of alumina,
or magnesia, with some protoxide of iron, potash or soda, and
lime.

The texture of the great bulk of them is stony and granular,
often highly crystalline; the component crystals of felspar, augite,
or hornblende, mica, olivine, and perhaps quartz, being, though
interlaced and interpenetrating, occasionally as distinct and large as
in granite.*

* Scrope, chap. vii., pp. 110 and 114.

194 Vesuvius. { April,

Mr. Lobley furnishes us in his Appendix* with a list of the
minerals found about Vesuvius and Somma on the authority of
Professor Scacchi. Of these thirty-three occur in Somma, four
in Vesuvius, four others are common to the lavas of both, and two
were obtained from the fumaroles.

This great disparity in the relative numbers of mineral species
met with in Somma and Vesuvius has a most important bearing on
their origin in volcanic rocks, and confirms the opinion generally
held by imineralogists, that a very large proportion of them owe
their origin to a slow process of disintegration and re-combination
of the constituents of volcanic tuffs, and lavas, mm which rain-water
acts a most important part as carrier.

The above opinion chiefly refers to those compound minerals
which form the great bulk of Professor Scacchi’s list, and does not
in the least invalidate the observations of Bischoff, Darwin, Forbes,
Monticelli, and Covelli, as to the formation of crystals of olivine,
quartz, albites, leucite, &c., previous to the emission of lava, or
whilst flowing at an exceedingly high temperature.

The most glassy and semitranslucent varieties of lava are known
by the name of “ obsidian.” It does not occur in this condition
around Vesuvius, but is abundant in the Lipari Islands, Mount
Ararat, &e.

Large tracts in Mexico (called Malpais) are covered with
“obsidian,” and of it (as from the chalk-flint in Western Europe)
the worshippers of the sun manufactured their knives, &c., which
were still in use at the time of the Spanish conquest.

So long ago as 1825, Mr. Scrope arrived at the conclusion that
the mobility of the solid component particles of liquid lava was not
due to the mass being in a state of molecular fusion, in which
condition it never occurs—subaérially,—but to the presence of an
interstitial fluid disseminated through the mass, and that this fluid
was water in a highly comminuted condition. This conclusion he
seems to have arrived at from observing that the incandescent lava
at the moment of its exposure and in the act of consolidation always
gave off abundance of steam.

This hydro-igneous theory of lava has since been remarkably
confirmed by the microscopic investigations of Mr. Sorby.t

The hard materials ejected from the crater are only diverse con-
ditions of lava. Thus, when by the violent ebullition in the crater
a more liquid portion of lava is shot up into the air, it assumes a
globular or pearshaped figure, and is known as a volcanic “ bomb.”
Other fragments of lava projected at a slightly lower temperature
possess ragged, tattered shapes, and are full of vesicles; the heavier
are called “scoria,” the lighter “pumice.”

* ‘Volcanoes of Central France,’ pp. 54 and 55.
+ ‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe.,’ vol. xiv., pp. 453-500.

1869. | Vesuvius. 195

The smaller fragments shot up vertically into the air are re-
duced by mutual friction to a sort of gravel called “lapuillo;” still
further comminuted into sand ‘‘ puzzolana,” and when reduced to
fine dust, cener?, or “ ashes.”

The distance to which these finely-divided ashes have been
carried is prodigious. During one of the early eruptions of Vesu-
vius, A.D. 472, its ashes were carried as far as Constantinople,
where the singular event was afterwards commemorated annually
on the eighth of the Ides of November.

Among the sublimated mineral products of Vesuvius and its
neighbourhood we must not omit to mention Sulphur ; it enters
most largely into the composition of volcanic mineral products, and
also occurs in a pure state deposited in joints and fissures, especially
round the remarkable crater called the Solfatara, near Pozzuoli,
one of the all-but-extinct volcanic vents of the “Campi Phlegrei,”
west of Naples.

Vast beds of this mineral (deposited from the vapours of sul-
phuretted hydrogen) occur both in Iceland and Sicily, and are of
ereat commercial value.

We come then to the active agent in all volcanic outbursts—
Water. “ Water,” says Mr. Scrope, “we know is converted into
vapour only at temperatures increased in proportion to the in-
creased pressure to which it may be subjected; and when altogether
hindered from communication with the atmosphere, as in a Papin’s
digester, or other closed vessel, may be made red hot without ex-
panding into vapour.* The moment, however, that an opening is
made in the enclosing vessel, reducing the pressure to that of the
atmosphere only, it flashes instantly into steam with explosive
violence. The same effect of course must take place in an im-
perfect liquid or paste composed of water and any solid matter in
mechanical suspension or mixture, such as flour, clay, sand, or any
other granular substance.”

* The Annales de Chimie, II., xxi. and xxii., record the experiments of Cagniard
de Latour on the expansion of liquids under pressure.

De Latour partially filled some strong glass tubes with water, with alcohol,
with ether, &e., and furnished them with gauges, and hermetically sealed them.
He then cautiously raised the temperature. The alcohol (sp. gr. 0°844), which
occupied two-fifths the capacity of the tube, gradually expanded to double its
volume, and then suddenly disappeared in vapour, at a temperature of 497° Fahr. ;
it then exerted a pressure of about 119 atmospheres.

Water was found to become gaseous in a space equal to about four times its
original bulk, at a temperature of about 773° (that of melting zinc). So great was
the solvent power of water on glass, at this high temperature, that the addition of
a little carbonate of soda was necessary to diminish the action on the glass, which
frequently gaye way until this expedient was adopted. As the vapours cooled, a
point was observed at which a sort of cloud filled the tube, and in a few moments
after the liquid suddenly reappeared.

From these experiments it would appear that there is a point in the tem-
perature of every liquid at which no amount of pressure is sufficient to retain it in
the liquid form,

196 Vesuvius. [ April,

Having thus seen the potency of water under pressure as the
motive agent, and haying the assurance of all observers, that water
is always present, we may conclude beyond doubt “that the rise of
lava in a volcanic vent is occasioned by the expansion of volumes
of high-pressure steam, generated in the interior of a mass of
liquefied and heated mineral matter within or beneath the eruptive
orifice.” A

During great eruptions much forked lightning has been ob-
served, darting forth in frequent flashes from the rising column
of smoke and ashes. Mr. Scrope thinks that the intense mutual
friction in the air of the ejected solid matter is sufficient to gene-
rate it; Professor Phillips, on the other hand, suggests that its
occurrence is due to the rapid evaporization taking place and the
vast quantity of steam liberated producing electric tension in a
high degree.*

Professor Phillips mentions the observations of Professor Pilla,
of Pisa, as to the occurrence of flames during volcanic eruptions.
He evidently thinks them deserving of full credit, although he
admits that in the majority of cases the light emanates from the
surface of incandescent lava. We doubt one part of Professor
Pilla’s observation, that “ Hydrogen was perceived by the smell ! ”7
Surely this should read “ Sulphuretted Hydrogen.”

The theories as to the source of volcanic heat are many and
various, but the one which may be said to claim the largest share
of support is that which attributes the phenomena of volcanoes and
earthquakes to the reaction of the interior of our planet upon its
uppermost strata.

A volcano therefore exists only where there is a permanent
connection between the interior of the earth and the atmosphere.

That such mterior possesses a very high degree of heat is
shown, not only by the state of fusion in which lava issues from
volcanic vents, but also because, in proportion to the depth, there
is a gradual increment of temperature observable so far as the
solid crust has yet been pierced by artificial means.

Mr. Hopkins nearly thirty years ago, and subsequently Arch-
deacon Pratt and Sir William Thomson, have condemned as un-
tenable, and contrary to the known laws of precession and nutation,
the notion of a globe with a moderately thick crust and a fluid
interior.

In order to produce a complete accordance in the motion of the
entire mass, it is necessary, according to these authorities, to assign
a solid crust of at least 800 to 1000 English miles in thickness.

Can any one believe that lava is pressed up through channels of
that length ?

Ms ae t P. 154.

1869. | The Artificial Production of Ice and Cold. 197

M. Delaunay has, however, clearly shown that “there is a
fundamental error—not in the mathematical formula, but in the
condition assumed, namely, that the interior is filled with a free-
flowing liquid rock.”

“The interior fluid can only be of the nature of lava, and that,
when examined at the surface, however fresh, is a very intractable
mass, flowing indeed as does thick honey, pitch, or slag ; incapable
of moving at the very utmost above a few miles an hour even on a
slope of 30°, and on ordinary slopes only one mile, half-a-mile, or
even thirty or forty feet in an hour. The problem solved by Mr.
Hopkins, looked at in this light, does really not settle anything as
to the thickness of the crust of the earth.”

“The globe is continually, though very slowly, losing heat; it
grows cooler in a very small degree, and suffers contraction in the
same small deeree.” .. . “From what we certainly know of the
constitution of the crust of the globe, it is of unequal strength to
resist change of form in different parts. ‘The weakest part must
yield, and if by local yielding the general pressure may be satisfied
(which is equivalent to supposing the general pressure determined
to a small area), the displacement of a small tract may be extremely
great, and the rocks there be bent into arches or broken by faults.
If we are right in our views of the history of the globe, very many
epochs would arise, when, first in one region, then in another, lines
or areas of relative weakness would be depressed into concave seas,
and receive a long series of deposits; and at other times the same
areas or parts of them might be re-elevated, producing end-pressures
and violent local flexures or fractures.”

With these extracts from Chapter XII. of Professor Phillips’s
book we must now conclude this brief sketch of Vesuvius, hoping
some day to be able to look at the probable connection between
lines of volcanoes and volcanic centres and old volcanic areas now
extinct, in other parts of the world.

IV. THE ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF ICE
AND COLD.

By Dz. B. H. Paut.

THE application of heat for cooking food has been considered one

of the most obvious characteristics by which man is distinguished

from the lower animals, and there is even still greater reason for

regarding the application of this physical agency for various

economic and industrial purposes, as being one of the circum-

stances most important in determining the difference between
Vou. VI. P

198 The Artificial Production [ April,

civilized man and savages, and most conducive in various ways to
the spread of civilization.

In most of the industrial arts the application of heat is involved
in some one or other of the operations to be performed. Through
the medium of vaporized water it is the principal means of locomo-
tion on land and by sea, as well as the chief source of motive-
power ; while in the extraction and working of metals and m most
productive arts, involving chemical alteration of raw materials, it is
essential for bringing about the various changes to be effected.
But though chemical alteration is in many cases the object to be
attained in manufacturing operations, and then the application of
heat is the means by which that change is facilitated, there are
some cases in which it is desirable to hinder or prevent the chemical
changes to which certain materials are able even within the ordi-
nary range of atmospheric temperatures. Thus, for instance, all .
articles of food, and especially those of animal origin, when kept for
any length of time at the ordinary temperature, undergo a chemical
change which renders them unfit for use. They pass into a state
of putrefaction or decay, and are gradually resolved, under the
influence of atmospheric oxygen, into the simplest forms of com-
bination their elements are capable of assuming. For this change
a certain temperature is essential, and though it probably cannot
be prevented altogether, it is very considerably hindered by a reduc-
tion of temperature. ‘Thus, for instance, in Siberia, the carcasses
of mammoths have been found in a very perfect state of preserva-
tion, notwithstanding the vast lapse of time they have been buried
in the frozen soil. In like manner meat, and game, or fish may be
preserved for a long time quite fresh by keeping it at or below the
temperature of freezing water.

For this and other purposes which require a low temperature,
and where it is desirable to abstract heat mstead of applying it to
any substance, ice has been largely employed, and the importation
of ice into this country from higher latitudes has become a very
large trade since the year 1840.

Ice acts as a cooling agent in virtue of the physical fact that, in
common with all solid substances, it requires an expenditure of heat
for its conversion into the liquid state. The heat thus applied does
not produce any elevation of temperature, but as the ice melts it
disappears, so far as the indications of the thermometer will show,
and there remains a quantity of water of the same temperature as
the ice itself. Thus when ice or, still better, snow is mixed with
three-fourths its weight of boiling water, the water remaining after
the ice has melted, has a temperature of 32° Fahr., the same as the
ice itself ; the quantity of heat in the boiling water, corresponding
to the interval of temperature between 32° and 212° Fahr., haying
been rendered latent, or expended in effecting the liquefaction of the
ice. It is in this way that ice cools water, air, or any other substance

1869. | of Ice and Cold. 199

it is brought in contact with, which has a temperature higher than
32° Fahr. Hence it will be seen that refrigeration, or the produc-
tion of cold, is simply a manipulation of heat. It is an operation
in this respect perfectly analogous to the production of a high
temperature, in so far as both processes consist in the transfer of
heat from one substance to another, and are subject to the same
general laws. They are however reverse processes. Thus in
generating steam, heat produced by the combustion of fuel is
communicated to water. In making ice, on the contrary, heat
is abstracted from water, and in this process the water which is
cooled corresponds to the fuel burnt in generating steam, or in
converting any other substance into vapour. Just in the same
way that the fuel in burning yields its heat to the substance
vaporized, so does the water, in making ice, yield its heat to some
other substance capable of receiving it.

This is the nature of the work to be done in making ice, and it
is now necessary to consider the amount of that work requisite for
producing a given quantity of ice.

Water at the temperature of 60° Fahr. contains an amount of
heat greater than that contained in an equal weight of ice at
32° Fahr. to the extent of 170°65 heat units* for each pound,
consequently to convert water at 60° Fahr. into ice, it is necessary
to abstract that amount of heat from it. Thus to produce a ton
of ice the quantity of heat to be abstracted from water at 60° Fahr.

amounts to
Heat units. lbs.

382,256 = 2240 x 170°65.

This is a quantity of heat not more than about one-eightieth
part of that capable of being generated by the combustion of a ton
of ordinary coal.

The means by which this amount of heat may be abstracted
from water consist in producing some physical change involving an
expenditure of heat, and doing this in such a way that the heat
required for, and applied to that purpose, is abstracted from the
water to be cooled and frozen. The conversion of any substance
into vapour is a change of this kind, which involves an expenditure
of heat similar to that taking place in the melting of ice. The
amounts of heat thus absorbed by various substances in vaporizing
are as follows :—

Latent heat per Ib.

Heat units. Authority.
Witteteetes os 4. 2. 966° ... , «» Regnanit:
Liquid ammonia .. .. 900°0 .. .. Favre and Silbermann.
AICONOMPEeE ae as 25) 130453

Hie oe ease “: } Andrews,

* The unit of heat here referred to is the quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of a pound of water from 40° to 41° Fahr., or one degree of tem-
perature,

p 2

200 The Artificial Production | April,

The amount of heat thus disposed of and rendered latent in the
formation of steam from water is considerably greater than that
existing in the latent condition in liquid water, or, what amounts to
the same thing, that expended in melting ice; but the vaporization
of water cannot be applied as a means of refrigeration to any great
extent, because under the ordinary atmospheric pressure it does not
take place readily or with sufficient rapidity at temperatures much
below the normal boiling point, or 212° Fahr., and even when the
pressure is removed by means of an air-pump, the vaporization of
water proceeds very slowly at low temperatures. There are,
however, other substances which vaporize readily under these
conditions: and, for this reason, they are specially suited for
artificial refrigeration, although the amounts of heat expended and
rendered latent in their vaporization are less than in the case of
water. Ether, alcohol, and liquid ammonia are substances of this .
kind ; and, according to the foregoing data, expressing the latent
heat of their vapours, the quantities of each of these substances
which would have to be vaporized, in order to produce a ton of ice
from water at 60° Fahr., or to produce a refrigeration equivalent
to the melting of a ton of ice, would be :—

Ibs.

Hither?) Seabee Bt bel atest. oas. 009
AU COHN! tis) uation cated Sie ere Oona
Liquidammonia .. .. .. 424°728

From this comparison it will be seen that the expenditure of
heat accompanying the vaporization of liquid ammonia is much
greater than it is in the case of alcohol or ether, and that in this
respect it is the most powerful as a refrigerating agent. But the
amount of heat rendered latent in the vaporization of any substance
is not the only, or even the chief point which determines its efficiency
as a refrigerating agent. The degree of facility with which a
substance vaporizes at low temperatures is of still greater import-
ance, as will be evident from the following table, which gives the
tension of the vapours at different temperatures below the boiling-
points of the liquids under normal atmospheric pressure :—

Ammonia. Ether. | Alcohol. Water.
Normal Boiling-point. 28° 95° ily pe 212°F.,
104 463-64 Shrsl) 4\)> 5:26 2°16
é 68 | 254-61 POG Se ey i T5 os “68
Pectonch rey |) Viele am elese |! 996 “36
hice F $2.) WQa62 >)" "7°92 “50 ‘18
inches 0 o 4. | 55°03 | 2-66 | ‘13 }
Mercury at | _ 49, 20°81 ik
— 109 9°45

1869. | of Ice and Cold. 201

Since the tension of a vapour at any temperature is the measure
of the facility with which the liquid evaporates at that temperature,
it will be seen from the data in this table that, in this respect, there
is a very considerable difference between the liquids there named.
Here, again, the characters of liquid ammonia are such as to give
it a marked precedence over all the other liquids, as a refrigerating
agent, by reason of its relative capability of vaporizing at very
low temperatures. This substance 1s in fact gaseous under normal
pressure, within the ordinary range of atmospheric temperature, the
boiling of the liquid bemg many degrees below the zero of Fahren-
heit’s scale; and at ordinary temperatures it requires a pressure of
from eight to ten atmospheres—117 to 150 Ibs. per square inch—
to maintain it in the liquid state.

Alcohol, although it has a greater capability than ether of ab-
sorbing heat in vaporizing, is still inferior to ether as a refrigerating
agent, on account of its being much less readily vaporized at low
temperatures ; and even ether evaporates so slowly at temperatures
much below its normal boiling-point, that it can be used for refrige-
rating only with the aid of an air-pump to maintain the requisite
rate of vaporization.

Liquid ammonia is therefore by far the most efficient material
to use for this purpose, not only on account of its ready vaporiza-
tion at low temperatures, but also because its power of absorbing
heat in that change is but little inferior to that of water.

Another process, in which heat is expended and rendered latent,
is the expansion of air. The amount of heat thus absorbed is at
the rate of -069, or about ;,th of a heat unit for each pound of
air expanded to the extent of *002035, or about ;1,th of its
volume at 32° Fahr. under normal pressure. If therefore air be
compressed, say to one-tenth of its bulk, and, after being cooled
to a low temperature, it be allowed to expand in such a way as to
perform mechanical work, such as moving a piston, there is an
expenditure of heat proportional to the resistance overcome and to
the degree of expansion. Consequently the temperature of the gas
is reduced during the act of expansion, and this effect may be taken
advantage of for purposes of refrigeration. The chief disadvantage
of this method consists in the great expenditure of power requisite
compressing the air, which involves a large consumption of
uel.

From what has been stated, it will be apparent that at present
the choice of a refrigerating agent for producing ice or great
degrees of cold, lies between ammonia, ether, and air, and that
ammonia presents the greatest advantages for this purpose.

The expansion of compressed air appears to have been the
means first adopted for making ice, by Dr. Gorrie of America; and
in this country ether was the material employed in one of the

202 The Artificial Production | April,

earliest ice-making machines invented by Harrison, in 1856.* This
was a very simple, but rather crude arrangement, represented by
Vig. 1, and consisting essentially of an air-pump, c, connected with

an evaporating vessel or refrigerator, A, on one side, and with a con-
denser, D, on the opposite side, so that, by the action of the pump,
ether was continuously vaporized in the refrigerator, while at the
same time, the vapour formed was withdrawn and forced into the
condenser, where it was liquefied, and then returned to the refrige-
rator by a lateral pipe furnished with a valve.

The fundamental principles on which this apparatus was con-
structed were correct, but there appear to have been several serious
errors made in their application, and the plan did not come into
use in this country. The ether machine was afterwards improved
by Messrs. Siebe in 1862,} and they have since applied themselves
specially to the manufacture of these ice-machines. Most of those -
which have been made were for India and other hot climates, where
it has been found more advantageous to make ice by artificial refri-
geration than to import it from America, owing to the large amount
of waste by melting during the voyage through warm latitudes.

In the year 1860 another apparatus was invented by M. Carrét
of Paris, in which a very strong solution of ammonia was used as
the refrigerating agent, The arrangements of this apparatus pro-
vided for the condensation of the ammonia vaporized in the refrige-
rator, in such a way that it was used over and over again, and the
operation of the apparatus was continuous, as in the case of the

* Specification, No, 747. + Specification, No. 782. { Specification, No. 2503.

1869.| of Ice and Cold. 203

ether machine. The woodcut, Fig. 2, represents this apparatus.
A strong, vertical boiler, a, is charged with a concentrated solution

Fig. 2.

of ammonia, to which heat is applied under a pressure of eight or
nine atmospheres —100 to 135 lbs. per square inch—and_ the
mixture of gaseous ammonia and steam produced, passes off through
an ascending coil of pipe, B, attached to the upper end of the boiler,
into a tubular condenser, p, surrounded by cold water, where the
distillate is cooled and liquefied under the pressure above stated.
The condensed liquid collects in a receiver, z, and thence passes by
the pipe eee into the reirigerator F at a rate which is regulated
by a special contrivance.

The refrigerator F consists of a close vessel with tubes, /f,
closed at the bottom and open at the top, fitting tightly into the
cover, so that the liquid ammonia surrounds them. Into these
tubes cylindrical vessels are placed, containing the water to be
frozen. The upper end of the refrigerator is connected by means
of a pipe, G, with a vessel, u, within which the gaseous ammonia
discharged from the refrigerator comes in contact with a continuous
supply of cold water and is thereby absorbed, while the solution of
ammonia produced is removed from the bottom of the vessel H by
the pump1. In this way the gaseous ammonia is removed from
the refrigerator and the pressure kept so low that the liquid am-
monia is vaporized continuously, thereby abstracting heat from the
contents of the tubes f.

The solution of ammonia produced in the absorber 4 is forced
by the pump 1 through the pipe bb into the outer casing of a

204 The Artificial Production | April,

tubular vessel, x, called the regenerator, through the tubes of which
hot water exhausted of ammonia flows in the opposite direction
from the boiler a. Here an interchange of temperature takes
place, the solution of ammonia becoming heated while the exhausted
liquor is cooled. The solution of ammonia, thus heated, then passes
on into the closed vessel above the boiler and containing the coil B,
where it is still further heated, while the gaseous ammonia and steam
within the coil B are partially cooled and condensed, and it then flows
by the pipe b into the boiler a, to serve for a repetition of the process. .

The hot liquor exhausted of ammonia meanwhile flows from
the boiler in a regulated current through the pipe s into the tubes
of the regenerator K, thence through a cooling worm, m, surrounded
by water, where its temperature is sufficiently reduced, and then
passes into the absorber u, furnishing the supply of water for
dissolving the ammonia as already described.

This machine has been largely used in the south of France for
effecting the crystallization of salts by cooling, and several have
been sent out to India for making ice.

In 1862 Mr. Kirk,* of the Bathgate Chemical Works, invented
a machine in which the alternate compression and expansion of air

was applied as the means

Fig. 3. : :
of refrigeration, on the
same principle as Stirling’s
air-engine for obtaining
motive power. This ma-
aT lf chine, which is represented
lt Hx. by Fig. 3, has been used
“4 in paraftin oil works for
7 = effecting the separation of
solid paraffin from the oil ;
it has also been worked at
:t3 Messrs. Flower’s brewery

NN NV at Stratford-on-Avon, and
el

Ss
Z
Z
Y
Y
J
Z
Z
Z
g
A
Z
Z
g
g
Zi

{ one has been sent to China
for making ice. The ar-
rangement of the machine
is very good; but for
making ice it is expensive,
on account of the relatively
large expenditure of power
required. Messrs. Mort and
Nicolle,t of Sydney, in Aus-
tralia, have quite recently
patented another apparatus, in which the expansion of cold com-
pressed air is proposed to be applied ; but the principle on which it

* Specification, No, 1218. + Specification, No, 3278.

1869. | of Ice and Cold. i 205

is based appears to be erroneous, and it is not likely to be effective
for refrigeration, besides which their apparatus is far too compli-
cated in its arrangements. Several other patents have been taken
out for ice-making machines, but those already mentioned are the
principal ones which have been tried.

An improved form of the ammonia apparatus, which comprises
some novel features of very great importance in regard to the use
of that material for refrigeration, was patented by Mr. Reece* in
1867. The arrangement of this apparatus is shown by Fig. 4.

The boiler a is charged with water or a very weak solution of
ammonia, and the steam, discharged under a pressure of 100 Ibs.
per square inch, passes by the pipe a a to the bottom of a Coffey’s
analyzer, B, consisting of a tall columnar vessel with a series of
plates arranged one above the other inside. Into the top of this
vessel a concentrated solution of ammonia is pumped continuously,
and in descending from plate to plate it meets the ascending current
of high-pressure steam, the effect of their contact being to convert
the ammonia into gas, while the steam is condensed and flows back

* Specification, No. 1621.

206 The Artificial Production | April,

again to the boiler a. The gaseous ammonia passes out of the
analyzer by the pipe g into a tubular rectifier, p p, where the
remaining steam is condensed and separated, while the ammonia
passes on through a condenser, Fr, where it is liquefied, and then
flows through the pipe e to the refrigerator, H, the supply being
regulated by a cock, n.

Meanwhile a regulated current of spent liquor passes from the
boiler into a long tube, ©, called the heater, fitted with an internal
set of tubes, through which the concentrated solution of ammonia is
forced by the pump J, into the top of the analyzer. By this means
the solution of ammonia is heated, and at the same time the hot
liquor from the boiler is sufficiently cooled to be supplied to the
absorber 1, ito which it is forced by the pressure of the boiler,
through the pipe «@, fitted with a cock, w, to regulate the supply.
In the absorber 1 this water becomes saturated with gaseous
ammonia discharged from the refrigerator H, and the resulting —
strong solution of ammonia is then pumped out into the analyzer.

The important feature of this arrangement consists in the
application of the analyzing column 8, and the rectifier p p, by
which it is intended that the dehydration of the ammonia should
be carried so far that the condensed liquid passing into the refrige-
rator may be practically free from water, while in Carre’s apparatus
the liquid supplied to the refrigerator contams 25 per cent. of
water, and only 75 per cent. of actual ammonia.

The effect of this difference upon the working of the apparatus
would be very great. ‘hus, for instance, the distillate passing from the
boiler of Carré’s apparatus, is separated into 95 per cent. of a liquor
containing 25 parts of ammonia—which after being cooled is used
for supplying to the absorber—and 5 per cent. of a distillate con-
sisting of # ammonia and } water; which passes through the con-
denser without any further separation of the water. Therefore only
8 of the liquid supplied to the refrigerator is ammonia; and since
water, at the temperature of from— 22° to—40° Fahr., which
is produced in the refrigerator, is capable of dissolving and retain-
ing in solution its own weight of gaseous ammonia, only two-
thirds of the ammonia in the liquid supplied to the refrigerator
will be available for refrigeration, the remaining third being
retained by the water in that liquid, so that there will be a residuum
of solution of ammonia, which must be run off from time to
time from the refrigerator. Therefore since the effective refrigera-
tion in an apparatus capable of making 5 cwt. of ice an hour from
water at 60° Fahr., must be equivalent to the vaporization of 106 lbs.
of ammonia within that time, it would be requisite to produce in
the condenser a distillate at the rate of 212 lbs. per hour, for of this
quantity 53 lbs. will be water, and that water will retain 58 lbs. of
ammonia in solution, leaving only 106 Ibs. available for refrigera-

1869. | of Ice and Cold. 207

tion. Then, since the cooled exhaust-liquor, as introduced into the
absorber, already contains 25 per cent. of ammonia, it will dissolve
only -, of its weight more of ammonia; and consequently to main-
tain the required rate of vaporization it will be necessary to supply
at the rate of 200 gallons exhaust-liquor per hour to the absorber,*
and to pump nearly one ton of ammonia solution per hour into
the boiler, against a pressure of ten atmospheres, which will require
an expenditure of power to the extent of }-horse power per hour.

In the apparatus devised by Mr. Reece, on the contrary, it is
proposed that the ammonia solution should be separated by the
operation of the analyzer into 75 per cent. of liquor, containing five
parts of ammonia, which is to return to the boilers, and into 25 per
cent. of gaseous ammonia, which after being completely dehydrated
in the rectifier, is to be delivered to the refrigerator almost en-
tirely free from water. In this case, therefore, 3ths of the ammonia
distilled would be available for refrigeration, while mm Carré’s ap-
paratus not more than ~;th of it 1s available. Then, since the
exhaust-liquor in Reece’s apparatus would contain only 5 per cent.
of ammonia, instead of 25 per cent., as in Carré’s apparatus, it
would be capable of dissolving a further 20 per cent. Consequently
for the same amount of work only 1th as much would be required
as in Carré’s apparatus, and there would be only 4th as much
solution of ammonia to be pumped back into the analyzer.

These are advantages of a very striking and important nature,
and, if realized practically, they would offer for the first time an
opportunity of utilizing to the fullest extent the great capabilities
of ammonia as a refrigerating agent, m such a way as to surpass
all others in efficiency.

Little has hitherto been done in the application of artificial
refrigeration to the making of ice in this country; but m hot
climates, remote from natural sources of ice, it has been found
to work very advantageously. Apart, however, from the actual
production of ice, which from our proximity to Norway can be
cheaply obtained thence in great abundance, there are many other
purposes for which artificial refrigeration can be of great service.
In preparing salt meat, for instance, a certain degree of cold is
required to enable the meat to take the salt, and in this case the
use of an apparatus capable of producing cold at pleasure would do
away with the expense attending the transport and storing of large
quantities of ice. Again, the influence of cold in preserving meat,
fish, and other provisions, is sufficiently well established to justify
the belief that artificial refrigeration might be applied with great
advantage, not only in the transport of such materials from the
country to the metropolitan markets, so as to ensure their arrival

* Sce Report by Regnault, Balard, and Pouillet, ‘Comptes Rendus,’ 1862.

208 The Artificial Production of Ice and Cold. | April,

in better condition, but also as a means of compensating that
uncertain and variable relation between supply and demand which
sometimes renders articles of food excessively dear, and at others
reduces their value to almost nothing. Large quantities of pro-
visions are constantly being destroyed as unfit for food, on account
of damage during transport, or from being kept too long, and this
might in all probability be prevented if suitable means were ap-
plied to keep them cool, while being brought to market, and to
store surplus supplies at a sufficiently low temperature for their
preservation. Enormous quantities of fish are at times destroyed
or carted on the land for manure, because, in the absence of any
means of preserving an unusually large supply, it is not worth the
cost of transport to market. In lke manner the importation of
what may be called the waste meat of the Australian colonies,
South America, and of other countries, appears to depend mainly |
on a practical solution of the problem, whether a sufficiently low
temperature for preserving the meat fresh can be maintained during
the passage to England, at such a cost as would afford a profit on
the trade.

Another of the purposes to which artificial refrigeration may be
applied with advantage, is the brewing of beer, especially as the
necessity for cooling power is of uncertain occurrence, and varies
very much according to the season, so that there is too great a risk
in keeping a store of ice for the purpose, to admit of its being so
much practised as might be desirable. It is, indeed, remarkable
that so little has been done hitherto by brewers in applying
artificial refrigeration, for with the exception of Messrs. Flower, of
Stratford-on-Avon, who were the first to put up a machine for this
purpose, and of Messrs. Trueman, Hanbury and Buxton, who have
lately put up one of Siebe’s ether machines at their brewery,
there is, perhaps, no other brewery where artificial refrigeration is
practised.

The practical benefit of such a means of producing cold at will,
without incurrmg the expense arising from the waste of ice kept
in store, has been well illustrated by the results obtained by Mr.
King, the engineer to Messrs. Trueman’s brewery, during the
autumn of last year. The apparatus worked there is capable of
producing five tons of ice within the twenty-four hours, with a
consumption of coal at the rate of ten tons per week, or about
7s. per ton of ice produced; and the additional cost corresponding
to expenses for labour, waste of material, and interest on first
outlay, would probably fall far short of the average price of ice
during warm seasons, when it is most in demand, and sometimes
rises as high as 27. per ton. But this is not the whole of the ad-
vantage capable of being realized in such a case by applying arti-
ficial refrigeration. In many cases it is by no means necessary for

1200 1700 1600 1500 14006

{ a re SS

- talren
ah

Carbon

ee

Brorsen’s Comet 1868.

Spark.

FIG.4.

Hydrogen at

A tmosphert c

pressure
Spectriun of Solar Spectrum
Solar surtlace } line F.

Spectrum of
Sirius

Hydroge re un

Vacuiwim tube

1869. | On some Recent Spectroscopic Researches. 209

the object in view to produce ice, and, in fact, there may be a very
ereat advantage gained by not doing so. Thus, for instance, Mr.
King has, by an ingenious contrivance, arranged the working of hig
apparatus in such a manner that the refrigeration is applied directly
to the material to be cooled, without making ice or using any
refrigerating medium; and by this means he has succeeded, with the
apparatus just referred to as capable of producing five tons of ice
in twenty-four hours, in obtaining, during the same time and with
the same consumption of fuel, an effect equivalent to the production
of no less than fourteen tons of ice. This reduces the cost of the
work done very considerably below the estimate already given, and
the fact serves well to show what great benefit may be derived
from the judicious application of refrigerating apparatus.

Among other purposes to which it has been proposed to apply
artificial refrigeration, is the cooling of the air in dwellings, and in
passenger ships passing through tropical regions ;* and there are, no
doubt, many other cases in which it might be usefully employed.

V. ON SOME RECENT SPECTROSCOPIC RESEARCHES.
By Wittiam Hvearns, F.R.S., Hon. Sec. R.A.S.

Ir is the intention of the writer to give in this article an account
of some of the more recent additions to our knowledge of the
heavenly bodies which have followed from the application to them
of that elegant and most searching method of analysis for which
science is laid under lasting obligation to Kirchhoff.

The circumstance that in astronomy so large an amount of
new and important knowledge has been gained, will not appear
surprising when we consider how peculiarly spectrum analysis,
which enables the observer to be independent of his distance from
the source of light, and also of the length of time that the light has
been on its way to him, is adapted for an examination of the light
of the heavenly bodies, which are, for the most part, independent
sources of light of a high temperature. Indeed the light of the
sun, of the stars, of the nebule, and of comets, was written over
with unread hieroglyphic characters, which, when the key was
furnished by the German physicist, revealed to us information,
such as it had appeared to man almost vain to hope ever to
obtain.

Spectrum analysis, which consists in the skilled interpretation
of the minute peculiarities by which spectra are distinguished, and

* Mr, Shand, ‘ Society of Arts Journal,’ xvii., 97.

210 On some Recent Spectroscopic Researches. | April,

the mode of its application to terrestrial objects and to the heavenly
bodies, are now too generally known to need description here. Ii
may be well, however, to state the principal forms under which all
spectra may be classed, and the interpretation which, in the present
state of our knowledge, we are justified im giving to these different
spectra, when the light has been emitted by bodies rendered
luminous by a high degree of heat. It is necessary to make this
distinction, as it is not purposed to describe the spectra of fluores-
cent and phosphorescent substances.*

The spectra of all highly heated bodies may be referred to
three typical forms.

First Form.—When the continuity of the coloured band into
which the light is dispersed by the prism remains unbroken either
by bright or by dark lines. Now, as a general rule, such a spec-
trum may be interpreted as telling us that the body which emitted
the light is in the solid or liquid state. Further than this, a con-
tinuous spectrum gives to us no information of the nature of the
source of the light, for all solid and liquid bodies are characterized
by a continuous spectrum, whatever their chemical nature may be.

Such is the interpretation which, as a general rule, and unless
there should exist circumstances rendering a solid or liquid con-
dition of the source of light highly improbable, ought to be given
to a continuous spectrum. In certain cases gases may give a
spectrum which is continuous. Dr. Balfour Stewart has pointed
out that as gases and vapours possess a power of general or indis-
criminate absorption, in addition to the elective absorption peculiar
to each gas, it would follow that a gas when luminous would also
emit light of all refrangibilities, producing a continuous spectrum,
in addition to the spectrum of bright lines which is peculiar to the
gas, and further, that the intensity of this continuous spectrum
would be in proportion to the opacity of the gas.

Besides this consideration, the researches of Pliicker and Frank-
land have shown that, under certain conditions of temperature and
density, the bright lines of some gases expand, and so a spectrum
may be produced which would not be distinguishable from that of
the light of a solid or liquid body.

Second Form.—Spectra belonging to this class consist of bright
lines. These lines tell us that the source of the light is luminous
gas. Further, since, so far as observation extends, each gas and
vapour is distinguished by a set of lines peculiar to itself, it
becomes possible to discover if any of the substances known to
us are present in the source of light. This method of analysis is
not invalidated by the circumstance that the appearance of the lines
may be greatly modified, or even altogether changed, under dif-

* For an account of the spectra of fluorescent and phosphorescent bodies, the
reader is referred to ‘ La Lumiere,’ by E. Becquerel, vol. i. Paris, 1867.

1869. | On some Recent Spectroscopic Researches. 211

ferent conditions of temperature and density, as is well known in the
case of nitrogen, the vapour of sulphur, and some other substances,
for throughout all these changes each gas behaves in a way peculiar
to itself.

As far as our knowledge goes, there appears to be but one
exception to the statement that a spectrum of bright lines indicates
luminous gas. Bunsen found that when solid erbia is heated to
incandescence, the continuous spectrum contains bright bands.

Third Form.—This type embraces all spectra in which the
continuity of the colours of the spectrum are interrupted by dark
lines or bands. These gaps in the spectrum, which indicate that
light of certain refrangibilities is wanting, do not teach us anything
of the source of light itself, but show the existence, without the
source of light, of vapours at a lower temperature, which, by a
selective power of absorption peculiar to them, have quenched the
light of certain periods of vibration only, and have not been able to
make up for the light they have taken, by light of their own. As
the kinds of light absorbed by each vapour correspond precisely
with the set of bright lmes which that vapour emits when in a
luminous state, a comparison of the bright lines of substances that
are known with the dark lines seen in a spectrum will show whether
the vapours through which the light has passed are those of any of
the bodies with which we are acquainted. The bright spectrum,
in which the dark lines occur, must be questioned for information
of the source of the light itself, according to the principles stated
under the first form of spectra.

The foregoing statements form the canons of interpretation by
which we are to be guided in our explanation of the spectra of the
heavenly bodies.

The most important recent information obtained respecting the
fixed stars results from the application of spectrum analysis in a
new direction.

Under certain conditions, which will be stated, the spectrum of
a luminous body is adapted to tell us whether that body is moving
towards or from the earth.

It may be well, however, to point out in how remarkable a
manner this new application of prismatic analysis supplies a want
which astronomers had come to regard as one that could not be met
by any method of observation within our reach. The stars, though
apparently so immovable that they can serve as the figures on the
dial-plate of the heavens to which all sensibly moving objects may
be referred—the fived stars, as it is still convenient to call them,
are not absolutely motionless, like fiery studs riveted in the canopy
of heaven. These brilliant points are found to shift their places to
a minute extent relatively to each other. Small displacements are
found which must be interpreted to represent a proper motion

212 On some Recent Spectroscopic Researches. | April,

peculiar to each. Now, by ordinary methods of observation, that
part only of a star’s motion which is transverse to the line of sight
can be detected, for the motion a star might have in the visual
direction, either directly towards the earth or from it, would not
cause any apparent change of position of the star, and would there-
fore remain undetected.

The method of photometry was clearly too coarse and too un-
certain. ‘Too coarse, for the eye, even when aided by suitable
instruments, could not hope to distinguish the minute increase or
decrease of brightness which would correspond to any velocity we
could with probability assign to the stars, even if the observations
were repeated at intervals of a thousand years. ‘Too uncertain,
for if the variations in the transparency of our atmosphere could be
certainly eliminated, the large number of stars, of which the ight
is known to be variable, would forbid us to regard any alterations .
of brightness that might be observed, as trustworthy indications of
the approach or recession of the star.

Now this radial motion of a star, which eluded our methods of
observation, does record itself most fortunately in small alterations,
which can be distinguished in the spectrum of its light. If the
star be approaching the earth, a line, either light or dark, in its
spectrum will be found to have moved from its proper place towards
the blue end of the spectrum; if the star be receding from the earth,
the line will have moved in the opposite direction, towards the red.
The amount of shift of position produced by a star’s motion will
express exactly the proportion which its motion bears to the velocity
of light. As the rate of propagation of light is known, the velocity
of the star may be found.

The refrangibility, or the colour of a ray of light, or what is
the same thing, the place in the spectrum which the light would
take after it had passed through a prism, is determmed by the
number of pulsations or waves which meet the eye, or fall upon
the prism, in a second of time. The special character which dis-
tinguishes red light from violet ight consists in that the waves
of red light are nearly as long again as those of extreme violet
light. Now the velocity of propagation through the ether is
precisely the same for all the colours of the spectrum. ed, yellow,
green, blue light, emitted by a distant star, would reach the earth
at the same instant, and it is for this reason that a new star, at the
first moment that its light falls upon a human eye, appears of its
true colour. Light travels with a velocity of about 185,000 miles
in a second of time, a series of waves therefore extending through
185,000 miles enters the eyes each second. Now as it is upon the
length of the waves, or upon the number contained in the series
that enters the eye in a second, that a judgment is formed of the
colour of the light, or the place of the light in the spectrum after

1869. | On some Recent Spectroscopic Researches. 213

passing through a prism is determined, it follows that any circum-
stances which would alter the length of the waves relatively to the
observer, or in other words cause a large number of waves to enter
the eye in a second of time, would cause a change in the colour or
refrangibility of the light so far as the observer was concerned.
An alteration in the velocity of the propagation of light would
effect a change of wave-length, not, of course, intrinsically, but as
measured by the eye which it entered, or the prism through which
it passed. Less than twice the actual velocity of light would cause
red light to be changed into violet, and all the other colours, the
yellow, green, and blue, to be raised into force of that quality which
exists in the long invisible spectrum beyond the violet.

Now it is obvious that the velocity of light is virtually altered
to an observer moving in the direction in which the light is
travelling. If the observer advances to meet the light, the velocity
with which it enters his eye is increased, a longer series of waves
falls upon the retina in a second of time, each wave appears
shorter, and he therefore ascribes to the light a different colour, a
higher refrangibility, than he would do if he were not advancing
to meet the light. There is no change in the light itself, the
alteration consists in a new relation of the observer to it.

To a swimmer striking out from the shore, each wave appears
shorter, and he passes a greater number in a given interval in
proportion to the speed of his progress through the water. If the
distance between the men in a single file of soldiers be taken to
represent the length of the waves of light, the distance will be
diminished to a man meeting the soldiers, for he will pass a greater
number of them in a given time than if he had been standing
still.

Further, since the change of refrangibility depends alone upon
the continually shortened distance between the observer and the
source of the light, it is obviously of no moment whether the
motion of approach belongs to the observer or to the source of the
light. It requires no consideration to see that an opposite change
in the refrangibility of the light will be produced by a motion of
recession between the observer and the source of the light.

The idea that an effect upon the refrangibility of light would
be produced by a motion of the observer or of the source of the
light towards or from each other, is due to Doppler, who stated at
the same time (in 1841) that an analogous change should take place
in sound. In 1845 Doppler’s theory was put to the test by Ballot,
who published a series of acoustic experiments which confirm the
correctness of the theory in the case of sound.

The comparatively slow velocity of sound through the air
makes it an easy matter to give to the sounding body or to
the listener a relative motion sufficiently great to produce a very

VOL. VI. Q

214 On some Recent Spectroscopic Researches. _—_[{ April,

sensible alteration in the pitch of the sound. In the case of light,
however, which travels with a velocity of about 185,000 miles per
second, it would be necessary to give to the luminous body and the
obseryer a relative motion of 20 to 30 miles per second, even for
such a minute change as could be just detected by a powerful
spectroscope. *

The change in sound can be observed under many circumstances.
The pitch of a railway-whistle when a train in rapid motion has
passed the station of the listener is no longer the same as it was
when the train was approaching. The sound of the whistle re-
flected from a wall is different from the sound which comes directly
to the observer’s ear. If two tuning-forks sounding in unison be
held in the hands, and if at the same moment one hand be thrust
suddenly forward and the other hand be drawn quickly backward,
immediately to a listener standing in front of the experimentalist |
the unison will be interrupted by beats which tell of a difference of
pitch produced on his ear by the opposite motions of the forks.
Doppler in 1841 proposed by a similar consideration to account for
the remarkable difference of colour observed in some double stars.
But here he went wrong, for he overlooked the important circum-
stance, thatif a star could be conceived to be moving with a velocity
sufficient to alter its colour sensibly to the eye, still no change of
colour would be perceived, for the reason that beyond the visible
spectrum, at both extremities, there exists a store of mvisible waves
which would be at the same time exalted or degraded into visibility,
to take the place of the waves which had been raised or lowered in
refrangibility by the star’s motion. No change of colour, therefore,
could take place until the whole of these invisible waves of force
had been used up ; which would not be the case until the relative
motion of the source of light and the observer was several times
greater than that of light.

These considerations bring into prominence the conditions that
must be fulfilled before the alteration of the refrangibility of light
by the relative radial motion of the source of light and the observer
can be employed to detect the motions in the line of sight of the
heavenly bodies. It is essential, first, that we can ascertain the
original colour or refrangibility of some part of the light at the
moment when it left the star; and, secondly, that we can recognize

* The writer thought it might be possible to obtain an experimental illustra-
tion of the principle discussed in this article by observing an induction spark
taken between electrodes of sodium placed ata little distance apart. It seemed
possible that by the force of the spark the sodium, in a state of vapour, might be
carried from one electrode towards the other with a velocity sufficient to alter the
refrangibility of the lines of sodium when the spark was viewed in the direction in
which it was proceeding. Several experiments, with a large induction coil, were
made with the necessary care, but it was found that the vapour of the sodium

remained very close about the electrodes, and no cliange of position of the lines
in the spectrum could be detected.

1869. | On some Recent Spectroscopic Researches. 215

this particular part of the light again in the spectrum of the star’s
light.

Spectrum analysis enables us to obtain the information and to
make the recognition which are necessary. When, by means of a
group of dark or bright lines, we iearn the presence of a terrestrial
substance in the star, we possess the means of knowing with the
greatest exactness the original refrangibility of those lines; and
further, these dark or bright lines are objects which can be easily
recognized, and can be compared directly with the lines produced
by the same substance on the earth. By this method an observer
can detect any minute shift from their original position which the
lines may have suffered from the motions of the star and the earth.

For such an investigation it was necessary to choose a brilliant
star, in the spectrum of which there were strong and very distinct
lines, and which, by their coincidence as a group with the bright
line of some terrestrial substance, showed that they were produced
by the vapour of that substance in the star. Of all the stars which
the writer had compared with terrestrial elements, when working
with his distinguished friend, Dr. W. Allen Miller, Treas. R.S.,
Sirius appeared to fulfil most nearly these conditions.

The spectrum of Sirius (see woodcut) contains four very strong
lines; two of these were found to be coincident, as seen in a
spectroscope of two prisms, with bright lines of hydrogen ; a third
line is probably also to be regarded as a line of hydrogen. In
addition to these strong lines, the spectrum is furrowed from end
to end by numerous fine lines. Among these were found lines
indicating the presence of sodium, magnesium, and iron. Nearly
all stars of which the light is white or nearly so give a similar
spectrum.

SPECTRUM OF SIRIUs.

Of all these lines, however, there is only one (the strong line
due to hydrogen and coincident with Fraunhofer’s F) which could
be seen with the necessary distinctness when the powerful battery
of prisms required for this delicate investigation was employed.

It may be well here to give an answer to an objection which
may suggest itself to some readers. If the line in the star is not
absolutely coincident with the line of hydrogen, would not the

Q 2

216 On some Recent Spectroscopic Researches. | April,

simple interpretation that the substance in the star is not hydrogen
be preferable to the somewhat out-of-the-way hypothesis that the
line has suffered a small displacement by the motion of the star?
Certainly it would if we had one line only for comparison. Since,
however, there are two strong lines in different parts of the spec-
trum, coincident, within the power of an ordinary spectroscope, with
those of hydrogen, and a third line almost certainly comcident under
similar circumstances, the probability is so great that hydrogen exists
in the star, that we are, probably, justified in assuming that such
is the case, and therefore in ascribing any very minute want of
coincidence which a more powerful spectroscope may reveal, to a
change which the light has undergone since it left the star.

The question then presented itself, how large a spreading out
of the spectrum would be necessary in order to detect such a
velocity of motion as might be expected from the observed proper .
motions of the few stars of which the parallax is known. The
spectroscope which the writer had hitherto employed consisted of
two prisms, and was competent to show a shift of position in a
line equal to the distance which separates the lines D of sodium,

which would be equivalent to a velocity of about 190 miles per
second. ‘The velocities in a direction at right angles to the line of
sight of the few stars, of which the distance is known, lie between
twenty miles and sixty miles per second. An apparatus, therefore,

1869. | On some Recent Spectroscopic Researches. 217

equal to about seven prisms was needed to detect the amount of
motion which was to be expected.

The circumstance that the writer possessed two fine compound
prisms by Hofmann, of Paris, and some other considerations, led to
the construction of an apparatus of the form represented in the
woodcut on the opposite page. a is an adjustable slit, b an
achromatic collimating lens, of 4°5 inches focal length; ¢ repre-
sents the small telescope with which the spectrum is viewed. The
train of prisms consists of two compound prisms, giving direct
vision, d@ and e, and three simple prisms, f, g, h. ‘The compound
prism marked e is permanently connected with the telescope ¢,
with which it moves. The compound prism d is so fixed that
it can be removed at pleasure when the dispersive power of the
instrument is reduced from about six and a half prisms of 60°
to about four and a half prisms of 60°. It was with this
instrument that the observations were made; but an apparatus
in many respects superior has since been constructed for the
writer.

A difficulty of some importance, and which had been expected,
had now to be overcome. It was necessary to contrive a method
by which the light from a substance to be compared with a star
could be made to pass through the prisms in such a manner that
the spectrum of comparison should be with certainty im absolute
coincidence with the spectrum of the star. When the light to be
compared is reflected into the instrument in the usual manner, by
means of a small prism placed before the slit, a very small alteration
of the position of the source of the light will cause the two spectra
to shift upon each other to an amount much larger than the small
differences of position which were to be sought for. In the former
researches of the writer this source of possible error was constantly
kept in view, and guarded against by a frequent comparison of the
lines of sodium reflected into the instrument with those from a flame
containing sodium placed before the object-glass. When the lines
of sodium, as seen in both spectra, were truly coincident, the appa-
ratus was considered to be in perfect adjustment. This method,
however, was not found to be trustworthy for the more delicate
investigation now in hand, since there existed the risk of a slight
accidental displacement of the spark, or of the mirror by which it
was reflected into the instrument, which would produce an error
much more serious with the larger dispersive power now in use.

After the trial of some other methods, an arrangement was

218 On some Recent Spectroscopic Researches. [April,

terrestial light relatively to the mirror was ensured by making it
pass through a small hole in a plate of ebonite. This plan pos-
sessed two other important advantages. The two identical spectra
of comparison were seen, one above the spectrum of the star, the
other below it; and further, as the rays irom the terrestrial hght
were divergent, they encroached a little upon the pencils from the
object-glass at the slit, and caused the lines in. the two spectra of
comparison to overlap for a little distance the spectrum of the star.
This state of things greatly assisted the eye in forming a judgment
as to the absolute coincidence or not of a line in a star with that of
a substance compared with it.

The comparisons, even when effected in this way, were not
trusted to alone, but were checked by independent observations
made when the light of comparison was placed before the object-
glass of the telescope.

To return to the observations of Sirius. ‘The only line in the
star that could be successfully observed is the strong line at the
position of Fraunhofer’s F, which is due to hydrogen. Now this
line of hydrogen is subject to great modifications under different
conditions of density. Hydrogen at the atmospheric pressure
gives a broad band of diffused light; it was, therefore, necessary
to ‘employ the hydrogen at a small tension. The light of rarefied
hydrogen is resolved by the spectroscope into three bright lines. It
is with the line at the blue extremity of the green that the com-
parisons were made,

In Fig. 4 of the Plate these lines are represented.

As the result of numerous observations on many nights, it was
found that the narrow line of rarefied hydrogen did not coincide
precisely with the dark line of Sirius, but appeared to be a little
more refrangible.

After the excessive care that had been taken to eliminate every
conceivable source of error, it is believed that the want of coinci-
dence of the line in the star with that of hydrogen, may be accepted
as a shift produced by the star's motion. The amount of the
displacement represents a velocity of separation between the star
and the earth of about 41 miles per second.

The writer then obtained evidence from experiment that the
want of coincidence of the narrow bright line of rarefied hydrogen
with the centre of the band in Sirius was not due to an unsymme-
trical expansion of the line as the tension of the gas is increased,
For this purpose a modified form of Sprengel’s aspirator was con-
structed, and also a condensing apparatus, with which the spectra
of hydrogen and some other gases were examined under different
pressures. It is obvious that the hydrogen in Sirius is at a pres-
sure considerably less than that of our atmosphere at the surface of
the earth, but is more dense than the hydrogen in the solar atmo-

1869. ] On some Recent Spectroscopic Researches. 219

sphere by which F is produced. This conclusion is in accordance
with the presumably enormous mass of Sirius, as suggested by its
great intrinsic splendour, which, according to some calculations, is
393 times that of our sun. Some more recent comparisons of its
light by Alvan Clark, however, would give a somewhat smaller pro-
portion.

The platform from which the astronomer observes is itself in
rapid motion. The earth is moving through space, in its orbit
round the sun, at about 19 miles per second. ‘The part of the
earth’s motion, which will be in the direction of any star, either
towards it or from it, will be different for different seasons of the
year, and according to the star’s position relatively to the plane in
which the earth moves.

At the time the observations on Sirius were made, the earth was
moving from the star with rather more than half its orbital velocity ;
this would leave about 30 miles due to the star itself.

Another correction has to be applied. It appears probable that
the whole solar system is in motion towards the constellation
Hercules, with a velocity of about 4 or 5 miles per second. As
Sirius is situated in a part of the heavens opposite to Hercules, its
motion must be further reduced to about 26 miles per second, the
remaining (about) 15 miles of separation between the earth and
Sirius being due to the two causes just assigned.

The true motion of Sirius will consist of this radial motion from
the earth, compounded with the transverse motion which is shown
by a small displacement of the star relatively to the neighbouring
stars, and is known as its “ proper motion:” this apparent motion
represents a velocity of the star from 24 to 40 miles per second,
according to the value which is assigned to the parallax of the star,
that is, according to the distance at which we suppose it to be from
the earth.

There are in the proper motion of Sirius certain periodic
inequalities which led to the prediction, that there existed a body
very near to Sirius, a prophecy which received a remarkable fulfil-
ment by the discovery of a companion star to Sirius by Alvan Clark.

We now pass to some observations on that strange and mysterious
order of heavenly bodies, the Nebulz. The writer's former observa-
tions showed that the prevalent opinion, that all these objects were
swarms of bright stars too remote to be separately distinguishable,
could no longer be maintained. A large part of these objects
give a remarkable spectrum (Fig. 2, Plate), which appears to be
peculiar to the nebule. It consists essentially of three bright lines,
though in some objects a continuous spectrum and a fourth line are
also present. The writer showed that within the limits of the
apparatus he then employed, the brightest of the lmes was coincident
with the brightest of the lines of nitrogen, and the third line with

220 On some Recent Spectroscopic Researches. | April,

one of the lines of hydrogen. These objects were thus shown to be
masses of luminous gas, of which the principal constituents were
hydrogen and nitrogen.

Now it appeared possible that the application to these objects
of the more powerful spectroscope, and more exact methods already
described, by which the apparent coincidence of the nebular lines
with those of nitrogen and hydrogen would be subjected to the test
of a spreading out of the spectrum, three or four times as great as
that previously employed, might furnish new information on two
important points. ‘

If the coincidence of the lines was found to be no longer main-
tained, then if it should be seen that both lines were, to about the
same amount, a little more or a little less refrangible than the
corresponding terrestrial lines, there would be reason to conclude
that the want of coincidence was due to a motion of the nebula -
towards or from the earth. If a want of coincidence were observed
in one line only, or in both lines, but in different directions, then
there might be reason to infer that one or both lines were not
really due to the substances nitrogen and hydrogen.

A careful re-examination of the nebula in Orion on several nights
showed that the coincidence of one line with nitrogen and one line
with hydrogen was perfectly maintained, a result which appears to
show that the lines are really emitted by hydrogen and nitrogen ;
and further, that this nebula is not receding from us with a velocity
so great as 12 miles per second, for such a velocity added to the
earth’s motion at the time would have produced a sensible shift of
the lines. If, however, the nebula were moving in the opposite
direction, it might have had a velocity of approach as great as
20 miles per second, for half of this amount would have been
annulled by the earth’s motion from the nebula.

The method of placing the spark before the object-glass brought
into notice a fact of sufficient intexest to be recorded. The great
loss of brightness which followed from the distance at which the
induction spark passing in nitrogen was observed, showed itself
alike in the case of hydrogen and nitrogen by the total extinction
of all the lines of the spectrum, with the exception of the one line
in each spectrum which is found in the nebule. The obvious
inquiry suggests itself whether the other lines of hydrogen and
nitrogen were also originally present in the light of the nebule,
and have been quenched on their way to us. As the nebulz are
objects of sensible size, we cannot attribute the extinction of the
lines to the effect of distance alone. If one had reason to believe
that the fainter lines of nitrogen and hydrogen have been extinguished
on their way to us, we should have experimental evidence of the
absorptive: power on light, which, from theoretical grounds, was
ascribed to cosmical space by Chéseaux and the elder Struve.

1869. | On some Recent Spectroscopic Researches. 221

A fourth line has been detected in spectrum of the nebula
of Orion, by Lieut. Herschel, in India, which appears to agree in
position with a fourth line seen by the writer in the nebula 18 H.
IV., and which is probably coincident with a line of hydrogen.
The fourth line in the nebula of Orion has been also seen by Lord
Rosse and by Professor Winlock, of the Harvard Observatory.
These observers also suspect the existence of some other extremely
faint lines.

The writer expects after a short time to continue his researches
on the motions of the stars, and on the spectra of the nebule, with
more powerful instruments than those he has hitherto employed.

In the years 1866 and 1867 the writer observed the spectra
of two small comets. The spectra of both these objects were
compound, showing that part of the light was reflected and part
probably emitted by the cometary matter. Last year two comets
of superior brightness appeared, which permitted a more complete
analysis of their light to be made.

The first of these was the return of the well-known comet of
Brorsen, which was examined from May 2 to May 13. The second
comet, a still brighter one, was discovered independently by Win-
necke and by one of the assistants at the observatory of Marseilles.
This comet was observed in June.

The spectra of these comets, which consist mainly of three
bands of light, are represented in Fig. 2 of the Plate. These sets
of bands, though they occur in similar parts of the spectrum, are
far from being identical. It may be that from the faintness of
Brorsen’s comet the bands could not be traced so far; but even
if it were so, this circumstance would not explain the considerable
difference of position which exists between the bright well-marked
beginning of the middle band. The positions of the bands in the
spectrum are shown by the solar spectrum which is placed at the
head of the diagram.

The morning after the observations of comet IT., the writer was
surprised to find that its spectrum appeared to agree exactly with
one of a series of the spectra of carbon, as obtained from the
decomposition of various carbon compounds which the writer had
prepared a few years before. ‘Two of these spectra are given in
Fig. 2. It will be seen that though the light emitted by the
carbon in both cases consists of the same refrangibilities, in the
upper spectrum of the diagram the bands in the spectrum are
resolved into narrow bright lines, while in the second spectrum,
under similar conditions of the slit and of temperature, the bands
remain undivided. These spectra are given not as exclusively pecu-
har to the particular combinations of carbon from which they were
obtained, but as types of the spectra of a wide range of carbon
compounds. The upper spectrum of bright lines was obtained

222 On some Recent Spectroscopic Researches. | April,

by passing a powerful induction-spark between the points of plati-
num wires, sealed in glass tubes, through olive oil. A similar
spectrum is given by the spark in cyanogen. ‘The other spectrum
of unbroken shaded light was obtained by the spark in olefiant gas.

It is with this modification of the spectrum of carbon that the
spectrum of the comet appeared to agree precisely, not only in the
position of the bands, but also in the special characters of the light
of each band. ‘The circumstance that in the comet’s spectrum
the bands become shorter as well as fainter towards the more

refrangible limit of each band was due to the arrangement of light
in the comet itself. The appearance of the comet in the telescope
is represented in Fig. 1; the slit was placed across the head of
the comet. The greater brightness of the central spot permitted

1869. ] On some Recent Spectroscopic Researches. 223

the middle part of each band, which was due to the light of this
part of the comet, to be traced to a greater distance than the
marginal parts which were produced by the fainter portions of the
comet.

The same evening the writer put this apparent identity of the
comet’s spectrum with that of carbon to the test of a direct com-
parison of the two spectra. For this purpose a jar of olefiant gas
was prepared, and the comparison was made in the manner shown
in the woodcut.

The glass gas-holder a, containing olefiant gas, was connected
by a flexible tube with a glass tube, 6, into which platinum wires
were soldered. This tube was so fixed that the spark between the
wires was suitably reflected by the small mirror ¢ into the spectro-
scope attached to the telescope, so that the spectrum of carbon
appeared directly below the spectrum of the comet.

Very careful comparisons on that evening and similar direct
comparisons on a subsequent night showed that in every particular
the spectrum of the comet was similar to that of the spectrum of
carbon as obtained by the decomposition of olefiant gas. The lines
of hydrogen which are prominent in the spectrum of the gas were
not present in the comet’s spectrum.

Considering that the apparent identity of the spectra rests upon
the positions of three bands and also upon the special characters of
the distribution of the light in them, the conclusion may, perhaps,
be considered well founded, that the source of a part of the cometary
light is really due to carbon.

The difficulty of accepting what appears to be the obvious
teaching of these observations arises from the very high tempera-
ture necessary to raise carbon to a state of vapour ; for it appears to
be alone when carbon is in the condition of luminous vapour that
the characteristic spectrum of the bright bands appears. A degree of
heat sufficient perhaps even for this purpose has been experienced by
a very few comets. A temperature less excessive might be indeed
sufficient, if we were free to suppose that comets consist of some
compound of carbon which is decomposed by the sun’s heat.

It is right to state that phosphorescent and fluorescent bodies
give spectra containmg bright bands. ‘The former phenomenon
appears to be restricted to solid and highly-reflective bodies, and the
phosphorescence emitted by them is not seen so long as they are
exposed to light. The phenomenon of fluorescence, when a nearly
transparent liquid becomes an object of some brightness by absorb-
ing the nearly invisible rays of the spectrum, and then dispersing
them in a degraded and more luminous form, is less inconsistent
with the small reflective power of cometary matter.

The violent commotions and internal changes of comets when
near the sun seem, however, to connect the light they emit rather
with a condition of great heat.

224 On some Recent Spectroscopic Researches. | April,

Some further considerations and speculations relating to cometary
matter, and the phenomena which comets exhibit, will be found in
a paper presented by the writer to the Royal Society.*

The invisibility on ordinary occasions of the bright prominences
which appear round the sun at the time of a total solar eclipse is
not due to the great splendour of the solar dise, for the sun could be
easily eclipsed artificially by suitable diaphragms, but to the imper-
fect transparency of our atmosphere, which, on this account, near
the sun is much brighter than the prominences which lie beyond it.
When, however, the great natural diaphragm, the moon, cuts off
the sun’s rays before they reach the earth’s atmosphere, the screen
of illuminated air no longer exists, and the fainter phenomena
beyond are seen.

In order to render the prominences visible without an eclipse, it
is necessary to reduce by some means the light from the air ina .
much greater proportion than the light of the prominences. It is
possible to do so, because while the solar light of the atmosphere
consists of all colours of the spectrum, the light of the prominences
is made up of three refrangibilities only. Any method, therefore,
which would spread out the colours, or would produce absorption
on certain parts of the spectrum, would diminish the brightness of
the air relatively to that of the prominences, and might render
them visible.

Though to Mr. Lockyer is due the first published statement of
the possibility of rendering the prominences visible by the spectro-
scope, the same idea had also occurred, quite independently, to the
writer, and to Mr. Stone, F.R.S. The writer tried the method on
several occasions without success, in consequence of not knowing in
what part of the spectrum the lines of the prominences would be
found. When their places had been determined approximately by
the observations in India of the solar eclipse, with the same instru-
ment, he found the bright lines at the first moment of looking for
them. Nearly three years ago it occurred to the writer that the
form and appearance of the objects might be seen by means of
coloured glasses and other absorptive media, by which the parts of
the spectrum in which the bright lines occur could be isolated, and
the light of all other refrangibilities extinguished by absorption.

By this method, combined with a modified form of spectroscope,
he has found that it is possible to see the outlines of these objects.

In this connection it may be well to refer to an observation
made on the spectrum of a solar spot. The sun’s surface, when
seen under favourable conditions, consists of aggregations of bright
bodies, between which are minute spaces, more or less dark, which
are known as the “ pores.” Such is the normal state of things, but

* «Phil. Trans., 1868, pp. 560-64.

1869. | The Future Water-supply of London. 225

temporary phenomena are of frequent occurrence, in which some of
these minute pores are enormously increased in size, and become ~
“spots.” The inner portion of these spots is not uniformly dark,
but contains usually a still darker spot. The writer in one instance
found that the light of the inner part of a spot was about three
times that of the light of the atmosphere near the sun’s limb.
When the light of the umbra is examined in the spectroscope the
lines of Fraunhofer are found increased in width in a small degree,
as is shown in the Plate, Fig. 3. Mr. Lockyer made independ-
ently a similar observation. In April, 1868, the writer found in
the spectrum of a spot that the lines C and F were not widened.
This observation is of some interest, now that we know that two of
the three bright lines of the prominences are coincident with the
dark lines C and F.

The writer prefers not to build any speculations on these facts
at present, since, in his opinion, the precise state of things which
constitutes a sun-spot is not certainly known. The fragmentary
character of the latter portion of the article has been owing to the
writer’s desire, not to omit some recent observations in this won-
derful method of analysis, which promises to aid us in the solution
of numerous cosmical problems hitherto deemed inscrutable, and
greatly to extend our knowledge of the universe.

VI. THE FUTURE WATER-SUPPLY OF LONDON.

By C. W. Heaton, F.C.8., Professor of Chemistry in the Medical
School of Charing Cross Hospital.

Tue long-expected Report of the Royal Commission on Water-supply
will, it is to be hoped, be presented to Parhament in the course of
the present session. Its publication will probably put us in pos-
session of the most important document ever issued on this most
important subject ; for it is understood to contain many new and
some rather startling results, in addition to the complete epitome of
previously acquired knowledge, which was to be expected from the
high reputation of its authors. In the meantime the public slumbers,
as 1t generally does in England in the intervals of the periodical fits
of energy in which so much of the real work of reform is done. To
one whose study has brought him face to face with any of the great
problems of sanitary reform, it is, indeed, a never-ceasing wonder
that slumber, in the presence of such fearful questions, should at any
time be possible; and he is apt to feel thankful to any monitor—even
to the death-dealmg cholera—that succeeds in awakening men to
life and work. It is marvellous, certainly, that so enlightened,

226 The Future Water-supply of London. | April,

wealthy, and practical a nation as we boast ourselves to be, can live
on in peace in the midst of such foul impurity as riots on every side
of us; that we can even sleep in our beds and forget that tens of
thousands of our fellow-countrymen are annually falling victims to
this curse of man’s stupidity and sloth, to this vampire of filth which
haunts our towns and villages. And our wonder is increased when
we remember the ineffably disgusting nature of the filth with which
we are poisoned ; that we are in very truth, in many cases, drinking
and breathing human feecal matter; and that the only consolation
we are offered in these cases for the nasty fact, is the comforting
assurance that it is “very much diluted!”

In considering the question of water-supply, it is important to
notice at the outset, that it is inseparably associated with another
question, which, for this and other reasons, is equally pressing,
namely, the question of the disposal of sewage. The Reports of the
Rugby Sewage Commission, and especially the elaborate and exhaus-
tive Third Report, published in 1865, seem to leave no doubt upon
this point ; and it is satisfactory to find that the Pollution of Rivers
Commission has adopted its suggestions, and has recommended the
enforcement of sewage irrigation as the only way of preserving
the purity of the streams. Many practical difficulties will no doubt
have to be overcome, and some few doubts will still have to be cleared
up, before this simple and rational method of utilizing sewage can
be generally adopted ; but enough has already been done to prove
that success, in the great majority of cases at any rate, will be a
matter of certainty. The Rivers Commissioners appear to have
satisfied themselves upon one important point, and assert, in their
Report on the River Thames (1866), “that no ground exists for
serious apprehension of miasma from fields irrigated with sewage.” *

If this process were generally and thoroughly applied, if the
sewage were really passed through, and not merely over, the land,
and the filtration, when necessary, repeated a second time, there
would of course be a vast improvement in the quality of the river
water. Land irrigation is by far the best mode of purifying sewage
which is known, and is immeasurably superior to any method of
precipitation. Precipitation, indeed, although it may, and often
does, diminish the amount of organic matter present in solution in
sewage, is rather a process of clarification than of absolute purifica-
tion ; whereas the action of grass-land is a chemical action, and, when
properly applied, there can be no doubt that it affects a considerable
alteration in the quality as well as quantity of the dissolved organic
matter.t It will be seen that the urgent necessity for the adoption
of this system raises a new question in regard to water-supply. It

el auiP.
t+ Way, Evidence before Select Committee on Lea River Conservancy Bill,
May, 1868.

1869. | The Future Water-supply of London. 227

may be asked whether, supposing the water of a river can be kept
free from the contamination of all sewage except that which has
been filtered through meadow land, it will be safe to use it for
drinking purposes? An absolute answer cannot as yet be given to
this question ; but considering the large amount of organic matter
which often remains in solution in such filtered sewage,* and the
extreme risk of the filtration being in some cases imperfectly effected,
it is highly improbable that water so contaminated could ever be
used with safety. For the sake of the rivers, and for the sake of the
land, the sewage must be purified ; but it should not be forgotten
that, after all its purification, it will still be sewage—the diluted
and somewhat modified excreta of human beings—and as such will be
disgusting, and possibly dangerous, as an article of food. Whether
purified or not, the sewage, it is evident, must in most instances be
discharged into the nearest river; and we are therefore led by this
view of the case to the general inference that rivers, below the
highest points at which they receive sewage, are unfit sources of
water-supply.

But the subject of the sewage-contamination of water cannot be
dismissed quite so easily as this. Very contrary opinions are held
in regard to it; for although no one doubts that water largely con-
taminated with recent sewage is likely, or, rather, almost certain to
lead to epidemic disease, many persons believe that, provided the
admixture be small and that it has flowed for some miles down the
stream, the well-known self-purifying power of the water, due to
its dissolved oxygen, will have destroyed all organic bodies in it,
and have rendered the sewage perfectly innocuous. This is the
view held, very naturally, by the London water companies, and
strenuously supported by Dr. Letheby, their consistent and zealous
advocate. The question has been chiefly argued in relation to the
cholera, and it will therefore be convenient to keep to that issue,
although it must not be forgotten that sewage-polluted water is
quite as deeply implicated as a cause of other forms of epidemic
disease. Let any one who doubts this read the ‘ Report on Typhoid
Fever at Tottenham, by Dr. Seaton, and at Buglawton, by Dr.
Buchanan. Both are printed in the Appendix to the Ninth Report
of Mr. Simon, the medical officer of the Privy Council, 1867.

This last-named Report, together with the excellent ‘ Report on
the Cholera Epidemic of 1866, by Dr. Farr,t which forms the
supplement to the Twenty-ninth Annual Report of the Registrar-
General, afford ample materials for a consideration of this question,
a consideration which is forced upon us by its close and intimate con-
nection with our immediate subject. It is unnecessary to multiply
proofs that water contaminated with choleraic discharges is a frequent

* ‘Third Report of the Sewage Commission, 1865,’ p 46.
+ Published 1868.

228 The Future Water-supply of London. [| April,

cause of the disease. Some of the most striking were adduced by
Dr. Frankland, in the admirable paper which he contributed to this
Journal in July, 1867. To the cases there quoted may be added
the frightful sporadic outbreak at Theydon Bois, in Essex, in the
autumn of 1865, where nine persons out of a family of twelve,
including servants and a visitor, died of the disease in a few days,
and where it was distinctly proved that the first patient, and some
of the others in turn, had from a defect in the sewage arrangements
caused a contamination of the well-water.

The history of the epidemic in Newcastle m 1853, quoted by
Dr. Farr, is not less instructive. But it must be understood that
these numerous instances would be overstrained if we argued from
them that choleraic water was the sole cause of cholera. Other
causes, no doubt, are efficient in many cases for the propagation of
the disease. Contact with cholera patients; the washing of their.
clothes; dust impregnated with choleraic discharges ;* and the noxious
emanations of sewer gases, have all been traced as causes in cases
where water could not have been concerned. Dr. Macpherson f
quotes the case of the Baltic fleet, in which distilled water only
was used, and in which a violent epidemic took place ; and in his
lucid Report on Cholera in Southampton, in 1866,{ Dr. Parkes excul-
pates the water-supply altogether, and succeeds in fixing the stigma
upon the exhalations from a large volume of sewage which was
being pumped through an open conduit at the time. This case is
the more important, because the number of deaths reached a total
of over 20 to 10,000 of the population, and because a similar
cause is alleged by Mr. Orton as conducing to the epidemic in East
London. .

In all these dissimilar cases, however, there is one common
circumstance to be noted, and to that the communication of the
disease is almost invariably to be ascribed. The dejections of
the sick, whether carried by air, water, or direct contact, have
undoubtedly the power of infection; and the elaborate researches
of the last few years have illustrated the cause of this power in
a most remarkable manner. The zymotic theory of cholera—that
theory which traces the origin of the disease to the presence and
development in the intestinal canal of some peculiar form of
organized matter—has for the last twenty years had many
adherents, and the evidence of observation and experiment in
support of it has increased materially of late, and has acquired a
very high value. The subject is not one for a chemist to dwell
upon, but it is impossible to avoid a slight reference to it here, as
it lies at the root of the question of the safety of river water. Those

* Dr. Mudge, ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ May 18, 1867.
+ ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ July 13, 1867.
¢ ‘Ninth Report to Privy Council,’ p. 244.

1869. | The Future Water-supply of London. 229

who require more detailed and trustworthy information may find
abundance. in Dr. Farr’s Cholera Report, and also in Appendix
No. 11 to Mr. Simon’s Ninth Annual Report ; both of which have
been already quoted. The final conclusion of the best observers
on the subject seems to be, that the active agent in cholera is to
be found in certain “ choleragenic molecules” (they receive different
names by different writers), or germs of very low forms of life.
These molecules are exceedingly minute—not more than zsoo0th
of an inch in diameter—and seem to be indistinguishable in appear-
ance, though so very different in power, from the molecules of other
zymotic diseases.* They are discharged in myriads in the flux of a
cholera patient ; and hence it probably is that this flux is the main
agent in the conveyance of the disease. Dr. Farr proposes to call
them “cholrads,” and the choleraic matter containing them ‘“ chol-
rine.” ‘There is great convenience in the use of these terms, and for
the future I shall adopt them. By careful experiments with this
cholera matter Hallier succeeded in cultivating it in various arti-
ficial soils, and producing definite forms of fungoid growth. Dr.
Thiersch, in 1854, and more conclusively, Dr. Burdon Sanderson,
in 1866, made experiments on the action upon mice of papers
steeped in cholera flux. Both found that a disease closely resem-
bling cholera could be produced in this way; and these and other
similar experiments seem to leave no doubt that this is the normal
mode in which the infection is conveyed. What it is chiefly
important to notice here is, that the specific poison of cholera
is in all probability not a definite compound, hike arsenic or strych-
nine, but a series of extremely minute solid particles, each of which,
if placed in suitable conditions, may by fissiparity develop into an
infinite number. The number which may be communicated to a
river by the discharges of a single cholera patient can, of course,
only be guessed at. One thousand millions of the cholrads would
not occupy a larger space than a pin’s head; and Dr. Farr gives a
curious calculation, founded, for illustration, on the assumption
that their number in the cholera flux is equal to that of the
globules in the same volume of blood. According to this calcu-
lation, a single patient would introduce into the river no fewer
than 41,769,000,000,000 of the cholrads. Now, the volume of
the Thames at high water, from Bow Creek to Teddington, may be
taken approximately as 14,000,000,000 gallons, and each gallon
might, therefore, become contaminated with 2983 cholrads!} The

* Beale. To whose marvellously careful observations much of our knowledge
on this subject is due.

+ An error occurs in Dr. Farr’s calculation, arising from the circumstance
that Vierordt’s estimate of the number of the blood-corpuscles is copied from the
6th edition of * Carpenter’s Physiology,’ where it is incorrectly given as 5,069,000
per cubic centimetre, instead of per cubic millimétre. I have introduced the right
figures in the text.

VOL.” Vi R

230 The Future Water-supply of London. [ April,

general properties of cholrine, as far as they have been ascertained,
are well summed up by Dr. Farr. Its development is arrested by
acids; and this, no doubt, accounts for the efficacy of sulphuric
acid in premonitory diarrhcea, and affords a probable explanation of
the apparently partial and occasional action of the poison. No
doubt, certain favourable conditions of the body are necessary for
the development of the germs, and these conditions may chance to
be absent in any given number of cases. Dr. Frankland has found,
as Chaveau found with vaccine granules, that cholrine cannot be
separated from water by filtration—a fact which, from the exceeding
minuteness of the cholrads, is not to be wondered at. Careful
filtration, no doubt, removes very much of the noxious matter, the
cholrads being probably entangled by the solid matters separated ;
but their complete separation would appear to be impossible. This
most alarming fact is, however, to some extent, neutralized by the.
probability that a certain quantity of the poison is required to
render its operation at all a matter of likelihood;* and by the
further certainty that the germs cannot live for any great length
of time in the water, unless recent foecal matters are present ; in
which case, it is of course possible, that they may develop and
reproduce themselves in the water, though no distinct evidence
on this point has been obtained. Finally, a certain external tem-
perature is necessary for the action of the poison; and when present
in small quantity, it is absolutely impossible to detect it by chemical
methods.

The whole history is unpleasant in the extreme ; and the drinkers
of sewage-contaminated water will be apt during warm weather to
think more of the horrible possibility connected with their sparkling
beverage, than even of any of the probabilities which its vendors
may be able to allege in its defence. To take the case of the present
water-supply of London. There can be no doubt that the sewage
of thousands upon thousands of persons is thrown into it before it is
collected by the companies. When cholera is prevalent, cholrine must
be thrown in with this sewage, which at all times must contain the
germs of some zymotic disease. Now it may be, and probably is in
many cases, that the whole of the soluble organic matter is oxidized
before it is consumed as drink; but who would like to trust ‘to this
probability ? And even if the whole of the unorganized matter of
the water were oxidized, there exists no security that the organized
germs, the really mischievous part, would also be oxidized and ren-
dered inert. Dr. Frankland points out,t that such germs would
probably resist oxidation for a longer time than mere organic matter
in solution, ‘To quote his forcible illustration, an eg¢ thrown whole

* Farr, op. cit., xv.
+ Frankland and Armstrong ‘On the Analysis of Potable Waters,’ Journal of
the Chemical Society, March, 1868.

1869. | The Future Water-supply of London. 231

into the Thames at Oxford would probably retain its vitality at
Teddington; but the same egg, if it had been broken and its con-
tents beaten up in water, might have suffered complete oxidation in
the same time.

Although, therefore, we may for the present be forced to remain
contented with doing our utmost to secure the minimum of sewage-
contamination in our water-supply, it is highly probable that in the
future these makeshift precautions will not satisfy us. It behoves
us of course to be extremely careful in deciding on radical changes
in our water-supply ; for although the case so far looks very black
against sewage-contaminated water, the possibility must not be lost
sight of, that it may ultimately break down altogether, and the
London companies succeed in proving that no possible harm can
arise under any circumstances from the use of their water.

The history of London water-supply and its connection with
the cholera is a very important element in the inquiry to which we
are thus impelled. Some points in it have been made the subjects
of very fervent, if not acrimonious discussion, and to these points
it is now necessary to allude as briefly as possible. The three last
epidemics of cholera in London have found three different conditions
of water-supply ; and Dr. Farr has proved in the clearest manner
that the progressive amelioration which has been effected m the
quality of the water, has been accompanied by a corresponding
diminution of the mortality of the disease. It is unnecessary to
quote evidence on this pomt, because Dr. Frankland has given
enough to convince any sane person, in his before-named article m
this Journal. The fact is not indeed, as far as I am aware, doubted
by any one. ‘The Metropolis Water Act of 1852, which pro-
hibited the London companies, after the 31st August, 1865, from
drawing their supply below the tidal pomts of the ‘Thames and its
tributaries, and compelled them to filter it, was undoubtedly the
cause of the very slight virulence which marked the epidemic of
1866 in all the districts of London, with the important exception
of those which were supplied from one reservoir belonging to the
East London Water Company at Old Ford, Bow. We all know the
terrible catastrophe that befel that fated region; we all read at
the time, with lively sympathy and horror, the vivid narratives
which week by week were compiled by Dr. Farr and the other
investigators of the tragedy. The story need not here be told in
detail. The acuteness of Dr. Farr soon suggested a probable cause
for the localization of the outbreak; and Mr. Netten Radcliffe,
who was specially commissioned by the Privy Council to inquire
into the circumstance, and whose elaborate Report is printed as an
Appendix in the Ninth Report of the Medical Officer, found himself
compelled to adopt his hypothesis. It cannot now be doubted that
the water of the ordinary reservoir at Old Ford was, on a particular

R 2

232 The Future Water-supply of London. | April,

occasion, shortly before the outbreak in East London, contaminated

with some unfiltered and probably foul water from one of two open

reservoirs on the other side of the river Lea. Shortly before the pro-

bable date of this contamination (for the exact date cannot be fixed),

the first two deaths from cholera in this district had occurred in

Priory Street, Bromley, about 600 yards lower down the river. The

open reservoirs were close to the river, which in this place is tidal, and

the banks which divided them from it were almost certainly porous.

It is therefore alleged that some portion of the poisonous discharges

of the two Priory Street victims, which were undoubtedly thrown

by the sewer into the Lea, found its way into the open reservoirs,
and being from one of these admitted into the covered reservoir,

carried its deadly infection throughout the whole district. Such is

the result arrived at by Mr. Radcliffe from a variety of considera-

tions, the chief of which may be taken to be the necessity of some:
definite cause having been at work to produce so peculiar and well-

defined an effect. He establishes with great force the general

localization of the epidemic in the sub-districts supplied with the

water, and discusses seriatim all the causes which could be con-

ceived to have occasioned this localization. Altitude, soil, density
of population, filth, sewerage, and locality, are all considered in

turn, and are all dismissed, either as not having been unfavourable,

or as not having presented any marked differences from the condi-
tion of other places. By the application of this method of exclusion,

he is led to the adoption of the water-theory which I have stated,

and which has received the adhesion of Mr. Simon, as well as of Dr.
Farr, who, in fact, originated it. He writes with singular modera-
tion and impartiality, and has saved his opponents much trouble by
the care with which he has pointed out the weak points of the
theory.

It was, of course, not to be expected that views so damaging
to vested interests should pass unchallenged; and a keen contro-
versy has, in fact, been waged in regard to them, although the bulk
of the medical profession has, I believe, accepted the conclusions of
the Government officials. The most able collection of arguments
that I have seen on the other side of the question is from the pen
of Mr. Orton, the medical officer of health for the Limehouse dis-
trict,* who has suggested some points which, as even Mr. Radcliffe
admits, present grave difficulties. He argues that East London
was In a very much worse condition than the rest of London in
respect both of filth and of sewerage; and the picture which he
draws of the sanitary condition of the neighbourhood is very strik-
ing, and is described with unusual power. The account of the
Limekiln Dock Sewer, with its filthy windings, its syphons, or

* ‘Report to the Board of Works for the Limehouse District for the year ending
Lady-day, 1867.’

1869.| The Future Water-supply of London. 233

semicircular channels, intended for carrying sewage under canals,
but serving, in addition, to collect and store up the more solid filth ;
its ventilating shafts and gully-gratings, and its final discharge
into Limekiln Dock, is highly suggestive; and in reading the
description, it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that so noxious a
set of conditions must have contributed in some measure, at any
rate, to the virulence of the explosion.

The high and middle levels of the northern drainage system
unite at Old Ford, and the united torrent is carried on to Barking
Creek. The unfinished low-level sewer, “choking with filth, from
whatever source it came, probably from Poplar, took its course in
this direction, right through the centre of the Limehouse district,
on either side reeking with pestilence, mto Ratcliffe Highway.”
My own local knowledge is not sufficient to enable me to decide
upon the extent to which these various abominations may account
for the sharp boundaries of the area of explosion ; but Mr. Radcliffe,
while admitting their probable influence, does not regard them as
sufficient to account for the special phenomena observed. He
remarks that East London was not peculiar in respect of unfinished
sewerage works, for that all places on the line of the low-level
sewer must have been in the same condition, and that the middle
and high level sewers flowed through many places besides Hast
London. But, on the other hand, it must be remembered that the
mere circumstance of these places being situated higher up the line
of the sewer, would, as Mr. Orton remarks, render them less likely
to suffer injury from the sewage, the sewage being less in quantity,
and probably less foul. Be this as it may, it cannot be doubted
that the influence of filth on the course of the epidemic is deserving
of careful inquiry, and this is freely admitted by Mr. Radcliffe
himself.

Another formidable objection to the water-theory of the explo-
sion is founded by Mr. Orton on the fact that certain places, and
notably Stamford Hill and North Woolwich, which were continu-
ously supplied from the Old Ford reservoir, did not suffer from
cholera. ‘The circumstance is highly remarkable ; and Mr. Radcliffe
is only able to explain it by showing the possibility that the infected
water was really not distributed to the places in question until the
day after the contamination, when the poison may be supposed to
have become too dilute to be operative. Dr, Farr, however,* while
noticing the fact that water was distributed to North Woolwich on
the constant system, a circumstance that, by ensuring the main
being full at the time of the contamination, would probably prevent
the district from receiving the first portions of the contaminated
water, suggests that in these remote districts the cholrine might

* *Cholera Report,’ xxvii.

234 The Future Water-supply of London. | April,

well be supposed to have become precipitated, in virtue of its greater
density, before the water was delivered. Mr. Radcliffe * makes the
important admission that he holds the immunity of these places to
be fatal to the idea that the water of the Old Ford reservoir was,
during the epidemic, constantly and directly impregnated with
choleraic poison by infiltration from the river Lea. If this be true,
the case against the East London Company must rest entirely on
the use, on one occasion, of water from the open reservoir ; and the
whole explosion must then be traced to the two deaths in Priory
Street. I own I think this admission goes too far; for, looking to
the whole circumstances of the epidemic, coupled with the history
of other epidemics, I am constrained to admit the strong proba-
bility that the water-supply was implicated; and yet, on the other
hand, I am unable to refer the whole explosion to the limited cause
assigned by Mr. Radcliffe. My reasons for this rejection of Mr. |
Radcliffe’s theory may be stated briefly.

The two deaths in Priory Street took place on the 27th of
June, 1866. It appears probable that the contamination of the
Old Ford reservoir occurred early in July, and the distribution of
unfiltered water must therefore have followed the deaths in a few
days’ time. In the week ending July 14th the outbreak may be
said to have commenced in East London; but the real force of it
was not manifested until the following week, when the deaths sud-
denly rose to a most alarming extent. The following figures, taken
from Table 21 in the Appendix to Dr. Farr’s ‘ Cholera Report,’ will
serve to illustrate the progress of the epidemic. They refer solely
to the East districts of London and the district of West Ham.

Week ending Deaths from Cholera,
July 7, 1866 apm 3
ee AY, = or oO" 06 41
ee eae tne)) oe ees 438

bas ee noe Woe mney odoe LN 0e
Aug. 4, ,, ASP are, epayt spor UMMM

sy) Ss StH Bie U erfe eob 664

ay URSA tas So) SAAS Pema 341
Age ety ee ee

An examination of these figures naturally suggests the inquiry,
How many of these deaths can be supposed to have been the effect
of cholrine discharged into the sewer on June 27th? Now, the
experiments of Thiersch and Dr. Saunderson, already quoted, prove
that cholrine, at any rate when dried on paper, is almost inert,
when fresh, attains its maeimum of activity on the third day, and is
again inert by the sixth.

Probabilities are, therefore, against the idea that the discharges
of the two Priory Street patients, could haye acted as poison, unless

* « Report,’ p. 325.

1869. | ihe Future Water-supply of London. 239

they were actually drunk within six days afterwards, that is, before
July 4th. Moreover, the period of incubation of the poison in the
body is believed to be short. Dr. Farr says on this subject, “ There
is reason to believe that the period of mcubation is as brief as the
term of attack in fatal cases of cholera; the cholrine often acts as
suddenly as any of the poisons.”* And again, in another place,
“It may now be laid down as an established law, that water into
which cholera dejections find their way produces cases of cholera
all over the district in which it is distributed for a certain period
of time; and that if the distribution is in any way cut short, the
deaths from cholera begin to decline within about three days of
the date at which the distribution is stopped.” f

Mr. Radcliffe, indeed, instances the outbreak at Theydon Bois, in
order to show that the period of incubation may be somewhat longer
than is here suggested, for in that instance several persons were
attacked on the sixth day after the disuse of the water. If, however,
we assume the utmost in every respect, and allow six days for the
period during which the cholrine retained its activity in the water,
seven days for the period of incubation, and three for the duration of
the attack,t we are still compelled to admit that the Priory Street
cases could only have led to those deaths which took place within
sixteen days after the 27th of June, that is, at the outside, before
the 14th of July. The above-quoted table shows us that only forty-
four deaths occurred in this period, and it is difficult to magine how
the special contamination of the Old Ford reservoir can be made
accountable for more than this number. If the view of the case be
correct, the cause, or rather perhaps the causes, of this terrible
mortality which followed are still to seek. Very probably the bad
sanitary condition of the district aggravated the epidemic, and the
mere establishment of the disease in a place is almost sure to lead to
its increase by personal contact, the influence of impregnated soil,
sewer gases, &c. But none of these, or even all of these combined,
appear to me to account for the singularly well-marked and all-but
universal prevalence of the disease in the districts supplied with the
Old Ford water; and, in spite of some difficulties and apparent
contradictions which beset the question, I find myself constantly
led back to the belief that the Old Ford water must have contained
cholrine. We can never know the exact truth of the matter, and
must be contented to accept probabilities as our guide; and it
appears to me much more probable that the Old Ford water should,
either by infiltration from the Lea, or in some other manner, have
become impregnated with cholera poison, than that the remarkable

* ‘Cholera Report,’ xxxiii. + Ibid., xxxix.

{ About four-fifths of the deaths from cholera in England in 1866, excluding
cases in which no return was made on the subject, took place within three days of
the first attack, vide ‘ Cholera Report,’ Table 12.

236 The Future Water-swpply of London. | April,

localization of the ,epidemic should have been entirely fortuitous.
Dr. Letheby* has indeed suggested that the area affected coincides
pretty nearly with that supplied with gas by the Commercial Gas
Company, and that the gas might as well be accused as the water.
But this ingenious special pleading will not bear a moment's exami-
nation ; for not only is the coincidence between gas and water supply
less perfect than is pretended, but bad water is well known as a very
frequent cause of cholera; and it is absurd to suppose for a moment
that gas has anything to do with it.

Most of the other evidence that is brought against the water
theory of the epidemic of 1866, is founded on the immunity of
individuals of certain houses or streets, and of some public building,
where many persons were assembled durmg the epidemic, and
which were supplied with water from Old Ford. The case of the
Limehouse schools is perhaps the most striking instance of this
kind. In this establishment nearly 400 pauper children lived in
perfect health throughout the epidemic. Not a single case of
cholera or even of epidemic diarrhoea occurred, although the
children used the Old Ford water continuously. The sanitary
arrangements are, indeed, described as excellent; every precaution
that could be devised to prevent an outbreak of the disease was
employed; and, instead of standing upon porous gravel, as the
surrounding buildings do, the schools stand upon a thick bed of
fine brick-earth, into which the soakage of sewage is impossible ;
but still the case is certainly curious, though it cannot be regarded
as proving anything. The death-rate from cholera in Limehouse
during the epidemic was 107°6 in 10,000; so that, if the average
had been strictly preserved, four or five deaths would have occurred
in the building. But uniformity cannot possibly be looked for in
the distribution of an epidemic; and just as the mortality im some
streets and houses was much above the average, so it must neces-
sarily have been lower in others. No one thinks of supposing that
water was the sole cause of the mortality; and it is not by any
means wonderful that the well-fed and well-cared for inmates of a
healthy building should haye escaped the infection. The error
hes with those who persist in assuming that the cholera poison is
of the nature of arsenic or strychnine, and that it is therefore sure
to produce the disease in every individual who takes it; the truth
being, as we have before seen, that any given number of individuals
may take cholrine into their stomachs without injury, and that
they may even drink cholrine-contaminated water without getting
any of the cholrine. A similar argument was brought forward by
Dr. Letheby in respect to the London Hospital. In his evidence
before the Select Committee of the House of Commons on East

* “HWyidence before Select Committee of House of Commons on East London
Water Bills,’ p. 429.

1869. | The Future Water-supply of London. 237

London Water Bills,* he stated that in the London Hospital,
which is exclusively supplied with water from Old Ford, there was
not, during the whole of the epidemic, one case of cholera among
the ordinary inmates or attendants of the hospital. This statement,
which is said to have been repeated before the Royal Commission
on Water-supply, would, if correct, have supplied us with a still
more curious instance than that of the Limehouse schools; but,
unfortunately, it appears that Dr. Letheby’s knowledge of his
own hospital was inaccurate, for in the official hospital returns
Mr. Bathurst Dove gives a detailed account of seven cases of cholera
which occurred among the hospital attendants, and one among the
ordinary patients. Six of these cases terminated fatally, including
the patient, a child; so that, out of the 130 attendants employed in
the hospital, five died—a proportion of 385 in 10,000 !

It is now necessary to consider the amount and nature of the
evidence which science is able to offer on the quality of water
intended for drinking purposes. With respect to the mineral con-
stituents of a sample of water, chemical analysis, of course, enables
us to speak with great certainty and accuracy ; and geology can,
most cases, account satisfactorily for the results of the analysis. It
seldom happens, however, that a water which is used for drinking
purposes contains any ingredient which, either from its nature or
exorbitant amount, is likely to be deleterious to health. When
calcium or magnesium salts are present in large quantity, they
render the water inconyeniently hard, and are therefore objec-
tionable, as leading to an enormous waste of soap; but this 1s a
subject which has been so fully discussed by Dr. Frankland in this
Journal that it may now be passed over. Some of the mineral con-
stituents which are found in ordinary waters, though entirely
harmless in themselves, are yet of great significance, as throwing
light on the previous history of the water. Thus ammonia and
nitrous and nitric acids must be determined with the utmost care
the examination of a water, because, with the exception of a small
and neyer-exceeded quantity which is derived from rain, they arise
in the great majority of cases from the alteration of animal exuvie
in the water. So, again, with common salt and other chlorides.
Though sometimes present naturally in waters uncontaminated with
organic matter, any large quantity of them may generally be regarded
as a sion that sewage contamination is present. For an analogous
reason the gases dissolved in water yield valuable indications ; oxygen
being usually deficient and carbonic acid in excess when organic
matter has undergone recent oxidation in the water. All these
constituents can be estimated with the most astonishing accuracy
even when present in extremely minute quantity, and it is from a

* «Minutes of Evidence,’ p. 45,

238 The Future Water-supply of London. [ April,

collation of these results that the previous history of the water is
written. From the amount of nitrogen present, as ammonia and
nitrates and nitrites, minus the quantity which may have been
derived from aérial sources, Frankland calculates the “previous
sewage-contamination” of the water on the assumption, founded on
many analyses, that one part of nitrogen is contained in 10,000
parts of average London sewage. Of course, it must not be for-
gotten that this estimate includes previous dratnage as well as
previous sewage-contamination ; for land drainage, especially in
times of flood, carries to the rivers much of the soluble portions of
the excreta of animals in a more or less complete state of decompo-
sition ; and it is obviously impossible to distinguish in a water the
nitrogen which comes from sewage from the nitrogen which comes
from drainage. But in spite of this drawback, the estimate of
previous sewage-contamination in the London Companies’ waters,
agrees so well with calculations founded on the number of persons
whose sewage pollutes the streams, that it may, I believe, be
accepted as a marvellously close approximation to the truth.

It is very much to be wished that we were able, by equally
direct and accurate processes, to determine the quantity and nature of
the “organic matter ” which exists in solution in all polluted waters,
except those in which natural oxidation has proceeded to its furthest
limit. But, unfortunately, the very nature of the subject precludes
us, and will perhaps for ever preclude us, from knowing much about
the nature of this organic matter. For what is organic matter ?
It includes, according to the views of modern chemistry, all except
the very simplest of carbon-containing compounds. ‘The phrase is
indeed only exceeded in vagueness by the idea for which it stands,
and has been long discarded from the realm of pure science, in
company with the “extractives” and “earthy matters” which
formerly marked unknown regions on the map of science. To find
organic matter in water is nothing. Sugar is organic matter, so is
strychnine, and so is a worm, or the contents of an egg. In the
complex wanderings which water often pursues in its journey from
the clouds back to the sea, it is obviously liable to become con-
taminated with “organic matter” from the most various sources.
It may pass through peat; through living plants or dead vegetation ;
through a paper-mill, a dye-house, or a soap-boiler’s, or through all
three ; it may receive the washings of a pig-sty, the drainage of a
town, or the garbage from a butcher’s shop; and its composition
will differ in every one of these cases. Moreover, if we knew
exactly what contaminations the water had received, and their
chemical nature, we should still be unable to say in what condition
they existed in the water as we found it. For nearly all kinds of
organic matter commence a complex series of changes from the
moment they enter the water—a series which is only completed by

1869. | The Future Water-supply of London. 239

entire oxidation. These changes, no doubt, vary greatly with the
nature of the organic matter, the amount of free oxygen which it
meets with, the conditions of rest or agitation, the temperature, and
soon. They belong to that most complex department of chemistry
which deals with the processes of putrefaction, fermentation, and
decay, and as such they are connected in some direct, but ill-
understood manner, with the vital changes ot low forms of organic
life in the water. It is not wonderful that in such a chaos we
should have to pick our way carefully, and should be compelled
to decide rather by inference than direct proof, on the nature and
significance of the organic contaminations in our river and well
waters. The methods upon which reliance is placed vary from
time to time as sounder views and wider knowledge are acquired,
and they are still very imperfect, but enough has been done to
justify great hopes in the future. It is unnecessary in this place
to enter into the details of the recent improvements in analytical
method, but some of their leading features must not pass unnoticed.

The old incineration process, in which organic matter is esti-
mated by igniting the dried residue and noting the loss of weight,
appears now to be pretty generally discredited. Its indications
cannot, of course, furnish the least clue to the nature of the volatile
matter, and do not even correctly record its amount; for even when
all precautions are taken, some of the mineral substances, such
as ammonia and nitrates, are sure to be volatilized, wholly or in
part; and Frankland and Armstrong have, on the other hand,
shown that urea, a very significant and important impurity, is not
entirely volatilized during the process. To show the utter untrust-
worthiness of the method, it will be sufficient to mention that a
water residue sometimes weighs more after ignition and treatment
with carbonic acid than it did before. In such a case the analysis
would, of course, indicate rather less than no organic matter !

The permanganate of potash process, suggested in the year
1850 by Forchhammer, has in the last few years been very largely
employed, and has received many modifications of form. The per-
manganate, when applied in solution to the acidified water, loses a
definite portion of its oxygen to the organic matter present; and
the amount of oxygen so employed can be ascertained by the amount
of the beautiful violet solution of the salt which is decolourized.
Most chemists are content to record the amount of oxygen so indi-
cated, or, at any rate, the amount of permanganate employed ; but
Dr. Letheby calculates the organic matter from the oxygen by
multiplying its weight by eight. This would give a perfectly
correct result, if all organic matter were equivalent to oxalic acid
in its action on the permanganate. But this is so far from being
the case, that it appears, from the careful experiments of Frankland
and Armstrong, that of nine different kinds of organic matter

240 The Future Water-supply of London. | April,

experimented upon, oxalic acid was the only one which was per-
fectly oxidized even in six hours. All the others escaped oxidation
to a greater or less extent; and such important compounds as urea,
creatin, and cane sugar, were scarcely oxidized at all. Moreover,
although one part of oxygen will oxidize eight parts of oxalic
acid, it could only oxidize perfectly 0°47 part of urea, 0°45 of
creatin, or 0°89 of sugar; so that even if the oxidation effected
by the permanganate were perfect, the calculation would be wrong.
The consideration of the irregularity in the action of the perman-
ganate test has induced Dr. Frankland and some other eminent
chemists to abandon its use altogether; and in the present state of
our knowledge this is perhaps the safest course to pursue; but I am
by no means convinced that it may not, even yet, be made a most
valuable auxiliary test in water analysis when properly used. In an
interesting and suggestive pamphlet ‘On the Examination of Water
for Organic Matter,’ by Dr. Angus Smith,* to whom we owe the °
earliest and some of the most successful attempts to discriminate
between different kinds of organic matter in water, will be found
many important details on the mode of using the test, and inter-
preting its results. I regret that space precludes me from quoting
some of his results. I have derived much instruction from the
perusal of the paper, and can only hope that the author will follow
up his experiments, which appear to have been unavoidably post-
poned.

A new and very ingenious method of water analysis was pre-
sented to the Chemical Society of London on June 20, 1867, by
Messrs. Wanklyn, Chapman, and Smith, and is more fully described
in a little work published by the two first-named chemists in 1868.
The chief process is conducted in the following manner :—The
quantity of ammonia in the water to be examined is first determined
in the usual way by means of the Nessler test. Another portion is
then mixed with carbonate of soda, and a fraction of it, usually
about one-third, is distilled off, measured, and the ammonia it
contains estimated as before. To the residue in the retort is now
added an alkaline solution of permanganate of potash, and the
liquid again distilled until a very small bulk remains. A third
determination of ammonia is made in this distillate, and from these
results three different portions of nitrogen are determined in the
original water. ‘The first portion exists in the water, as ammonia ;
the second is believed by the authors to exist as urea ; and the third
as albuminoid substances. If these distinctions were exact; if the
whole of the nitrogen of urea could be recovered as ammonia in
the first distillation, and the whole of the nitrogen of the albumi-
noid compounds in the second, this method would be, as far as it

* London: Taylor and Francis, 1868.
+ ‘Water Analysis: A Practical Treatise on the Examination of Potable
Water. London: Triibner and Co.

1869. | The Future Water-supply of London. 241

went, perfect ; but, unfortunately, this is not the case. Pure urea
does not yield the whole of its nitrogen under the circumstances
of the experiment, and neither does pure albumen, unless with
extreme difficulty. The authors believe that the ammonia obtained
bears a definite and constant relation to the amount of those com-
pounds present, and think themselves justified in calculating the
amounts of urea and albuminoid compounds from the figures they
obtain; but such a method is obviously inferior to one which
should give more positive results. The process is very easy of
application, and, as an empirical method of judging of the goodness
or badness of a water it is certainly valuable. It gives concordant
results ; and though it is somewhat difficult to give a distinct iter-
pretation of those results, without venturing on hypothetical ground,
it may, I think, safely be used, when the more exact method of
Frankland and Armstrong cannot be applied, as a means of Judging
whether a given sample of water is, or is not, fit for drinking purposes.
Water which yields very minute traces of the so-called ureal and
albuminoid ammonia, and is free from nitrates, can never, I believe,
be injurious.

The process of Frankland and Armstrong, alluded to above, is
described in their previously quoted paper, and is unquestionably
the most important contribution to the study of potable water
which has ever appeared. In this wonderfully exact and ingenious
method, the dried residue of the water, which has been previously
deprived of carbonie, nitric, and nitrous acids, by boiling with sul-
phurous acid, is ignited with chromate of lead in a combustion-tube
sealed at one end, and connected at the other with a Sprengel-pump,
by which a perfect vacuum is effected at the commencement of the
experiment. During the ignition of the residue, the organic carbon
is converted into carbonic anhydride, and the nitrogen is evolved
either free or as nitric oxide. When the combustion is complete, the
pump is again worked, and the gases formed during the experiment
swept down by the falling mercury, and collected m an ordinary
mercurial trough. They are then removed to another piece of
apparatus, and measured and analyzed by known methods. Such,
divested of details, is an outline of this remarkable process. It will
be seen that no attempt is made by it to ascertain the absolute
amount of organic matter present; but it furnishes us with precise
information in regard to two of the most important elements of
that organic matter, namely, the carbon and nitrogen. From the
nitrogen found in the experiment must be deducted that present in
the original water in the form of ammonia. A separate experiment
must be made for this purpose, and a second for the determination
of the nitrogen present, as nitrates, and nitrites, which yield their
nitrogen in the form of nitric oxide when agitated with mercury
and sulphuric acid. As the nitrogen, present as nitrates, nitrites, -
and ammonia, are used as a measure of previous sewage-contamina-

242 The Future Water-supply of London. | April,

tion, so the organic nitrogen may be made an index to the present
sewage-contamination, on the same assumption as before, namely,
that one part of nitrogen corresponds to 10,000 of sewage.

With regard to the presence of organized germs, such as cholrads
in the water, their chemical composition would probably approxi-
mate to that of albumen; but their minute size, as it has hitherto
rendered it impossible to detect them in water by the microscope, so
it serves to place them beyond the reach of chemical methods. Even
if we could distinctly prove the presence of albuminoid compounds
in a sample of water, it would, on chemical evidence, be impossible
to say whether or not it was organized. It might consist of white of
ege, or it might consist of cholrads, for anything that an analysis
could show. The only safeguard which can be adopted against
the presence of noxious germs in our drinking-water is, as I have
already said, the complete exclusion of all sewage from sources of .
the supply.

Although the microscope has hitherto failed to detect m water
the germs of zymotic disease, it must not be supposed that its
indications are of no value in the diagnosis. When Dr. Hassall
was preparing his Report to the Committee, which, in 1854, was
commissioned by the Medical Council of the General Board of
Health to make scientific inquiries in relation to the cholera
epidemic of that year, he observed and described a great many low
forms of life in the waters consumed in London. Some of the
animal forms are terrible-looking monsters, and the coloured draw-
ings in which they are portrayed are by no means pleasant to
contemplate.* But Dr. Hassall states explicitly that none of these
tiny monsters can be identified in any way with the cholera, for all of
them are found frequently when cholera is absent. In like manner
he found vibrions in myriads in “every drop of every sample” of
the rice-water discharges of cholera patients which he examined ;
but knowing the ease with which vibrions are developed under a
variety of circumstances, he did not venture to connect them in a
causal relation with the disease. But we must remember that
animalcule are formed of albuminoid compounds, and that if their
germs develop in the water, it is a certain proof that the nourish-
ment necessary for their subsistence is present. In pure water it is
impossible for organic life to be developed; and the presence of such
life may therefore be taken as a certain proof of nitrogenous and
therefore probably of sewage contamination. In fact, I cannot help
agreeing with Dr. Angus Smith, in the belief that the microscope 1s
too much neglected in examinations of water.

The length to which this article has already extended has left
me but little space for a consideration of the various projects for the
amelioration of the water-supply of London which are now before

* See, for example, Plates 5, 10, and 12, in Appendix to Report.

1869. | The Future Water-supply of London. 243

the public. I regret this the less, because it would be premature to
express a decided opinion on their respective merits until the
appearance of the Report of the Royal Commission on Water-supply.
It would indeed be folly to attempt the work of criticism in antici-
pation of the full particulars which that document will no doubt
supply on each of the separate projects ; but a slight sketch of their
leading characteristics may, perhaps, be found useful. The schemes
may be divided generally into those which propose to confine the
source of supply to the Thames basin, and those which propose to
take the supply from a distance. ‘There is, indeed, one scheme—
that of Mr. A. $8. Ormsby*—which belongs to neither of these
classes. He proposes to collect rain-water by means of vast roofs
of glass and iron, so arranged that the water may immediately flow
off ito receiving, and hence into settling, filtering, storage, and
distributing reservoirs. These might be constructed either in the im-
mediate neighbourhood of London or on Salisbury Plain, where, by
roofing in a space of 2012 acres, a supply might be obtained that
would, the author estimates, supply one gallon of pure water
per head per diem to the inhabitants of London. The ground
below the roofs might be employed by market, fruit, and flower
gardeners. The supply would, of course, be only supplementary to
the ordinary supply; and we should, therefore, be provided with
water of two qualities—one for drinking, and one for all other pur-
poses. Such a double supply would, I imagine, be a grave objection
to the scheme ; and I do not think it very likely to find favour in
London, though it might probably, as the author suggests, be used
advantageously in some of our foreign stations where water is scarce
or of bad quality.

Apart from Mr. Ormsby’s, the projects stand as follows :—

Thames Basin Suppl:.—Mr. Bailey Denton,} Mr. Telford Mac-
neill.t

North Wales.—Mr. Bateman.§

South Wales—Mr. Fulton. |

Cumberland and Westmoreland. — Messrs. Hemans and
Hassard.4]

Staffordshire and Derbyshire Hills——My. Remington.**

It is obvious at the first glance that those schemes which pro-
pose to utilize the Thames basin have a great initial advantage.
The strongest reasons ought to be shown to induce us to quit our
natural watershed for a distant one, for the objections to such a

* © A New Idea for the Water-supply of Towns.’ Metchim & Son, Parliament
Street. 1867.

+ ‘The Water Question : A Letter to the Earl of Derby.’ London : Stanford, 1866.

t ‘ Water-supply of London by means of Natural Filtration of the Water of the
tiver Thames.’ London: Stanford, 1866.

§ ‘Sources of the River Severn.’ London: Vacher, 1865.

|| Mr. Fulton has favoured me with a description of his scheme in manuscript.

{| ‘On the Future Water-supply of London.’ London: Stanford, 1866.
** © Wngineering.’

244 The Future Water-supply of London. [| April,

change are manifold. In the first place there is the very important
question of expense ; and it needs no great consideration to perceive
the probability that the farther we go from home the more we shall
have to pay for the journey. Then, again, we have to look at the
extent of the source of supply ; for in a work of such magnitude it
would be absurd to adopt a scheme which did not provide for a
very great extension with the increase of population. The supply
to be obtained from the Thames basin is practically unlimited, the
enormous surface more than atoning for the raimfall being less
than in mountainous districts. Durmg the long drought of last
summer the supply of water to the metropolis never fell short for a
single day ; and the London companies have reason with them when
they point to the terrible scarcity that was experienced in many
parts of the island, and, amongst others, in Manchester, during the
prevalence of the dry weather. All the gathering grounds pro- .
posed for London are petty in comparison with the enormous
basin of the Thames ; and to be secure from the possibility of a short
supply, reservoirs of vast size for the storage of storm-water would
have to be provided. And, finally, it has been urged with great
force that we are not justified, except in case of actual necessity,
in withdrawing from the Midland Counties the supply which sooner
or later may become of extreme importance to them.

Armed with arguments such as these come the proposals of
Mr. Bailey Denton and Mr. Telford Macneil. I cannot, of course,
follow the engineering details of these or any other of the schemes,
and, indeed, feel considerable diffidence im describing them at all.
In Mr. Denton’s interesting letter it is suggested that, whereas it
is impossible to prevent the fouling of rivers by sewage, a line
ought to be fixed on each river above which its freedom from
sewage-contamination shall be jealously preserved. To ensure a
sufficient supply for London in the face of these precautions,
storage reservoirs for the collection of the surplus water of floods
must be provided, and an increase effected in the volume of the
rivers by means of an efficient system of drainage. Such a system
would, no doubt, supply us with sewage-free water; but it must
be remembered that a great portion of the water would still be
drainage water, arising in great part from cultivated land. It
is perhaps rather less unpleasant to drink the exuvie of cattle,
sheep, and pigs, than that of human beings; but it must be dis-
tinctly understood that that is the only improvement suggested.

Mr. Telford Macneill proposes to draw the Thanies water from
the river at Teddington, and carry it back by an open canal to the
Bagshot sands, where it would be subjected to a process of natural
filtration, and would then be conducted by a covered conduit to
a service reservoir at Norwood. He calculates that, with the addition
of a certain quantity to be collected from the Guildford district, a

1869. ] The Future Water-supply of London. 245

supply of 400 million gallons per day of pure water could be pro-
vided in this manner, and that the supply so obtaimed would have
the great advantage of being always cool. I cannot pretend to
give an opinion on the merits of this scheme, which rest almost
entirely on engineering questions. As to the question, whether
such a gigantic filtration would be certain to remove all noxious
matters from the water, that is a point which could not be decided
off-hand.

Out of the four schemes which propose to draw the London
water-supply from distant collecting-grounds, two (those of Mr.
Bateman, and Messrs. Hemans and Hassard) have already been
noticed in these pages. Mr. Bateman, it will be remembered, pro-
poses to go to the sources of the Severn, and store up the water of
the North Wales mountains in enormous reservoirs; while Messrs.
Hemans and Hassard would impound and increase, by intercepting
conduits, the waters of lakes Haweswater, Ullswater, and Thirl-
mere. Mr. Remington’s scheme I am but imperfectly acquainted
with, but Mr. Fulton’s deserves a word of notice. He has selected,
in the basin of the river Wye, in South Wales, a larger collecting-
ground than either of the above-mentioned ones. He divides the
gathering ground into four districts, having a total area of 440 square
miles; the whole capable, he estimates, of supplymg London with
393 million gallons per diem ; but he proposes, in the first instance,
to utilize only one of these districts, and to content himself with a
daily supply of 130 million gallons. To guard against deficiency
of supply, he proposes to construct impounding reservoirs in each
district, capable of containing 150 days’ supply. ‘The water is to
be conducted by a conduit, which shall pass near Bromsgrove, War-
wick, Banbury, and Watford, to Totteridge, near Barnet, where
service reservoirs will be constructed. The conduit will be 180
miles in length. The cost for a supply of 130 million gallons
a-day, the conduit being large enough for 230, is estimated at
7,000,0007. The great merit of the scheme appears to me to
lie in the thin population of the Wye basin and the absence of large
towns on the line of the proposed conduit, which might claim a
prior right to the gathering grounds.

With this meagre sketch of the present claimants for the honour
of supplying London I must conclude. To the report of the Royal
Commission we must now look for further light on the subject, with
the hope that their labours will result in securing to London that
priceless treasure—an unimpeachable and abundant water-supply.
That is the object to be striven for; and the richest city in the
world will surely allow no paltry motives of economy to prevent the
attainment of that which is so essential to the health and well-bemg
of her children.

VOL. VI. s

( 246 ) | April,

CHRONICLES OF SCIENCE,

Including the Proceedings of Xearned Societies at Home and Abroad ;
and dotices of Recent Scientific Literature.

1. AGRICULTURE.

Tue past quarter has been full of agricultural interest. Thanks to
the Chambers of Agriculture throughout the country, and their
central representative in London, farmers are gradually acquiring
that share in the conduct of public affairs which properly belongs
to their wealth, their numbers, and their importance. As every
addition to power and self-respect quickly shows itself in material ©
results, it 1s proper that a social development of this kind be
noticed here. And though for the present the movement bears
rather a political than a practical aspect, yet we shall, no doubt,
soon find technical and professional advancement marching in equal
step with political and social progress.

Turning now to the details of agricultural experience, we have
to report that the severe drought of 1868, which resulted in the
utter failure of the turnip crop, the complete stoppage for several
months of all grass growth, and the provision of but a scanty crop
of hay for winter use, has been followed by so mild and wet a
winter that autumn-sown green crops (stubble turnips, rye, rape,
mustard, and Italian rye-grass) have done much to meet the diffi-
culties which the stock-owner had anticipated. And the smaller
consumption of succulent food, and the larger use of straw cut into
chaff, and mixed with meal or cake for cattle and sheep (whether
in a fatting or ordinary “store,” or a breeding condition), have at
once kept the live-stock of the country in a more than usually
healthy condition, and proved a useful lesson of economy for
future seasons. An inquiry into the agricultural lessons of so un-
usual a season has shown that land-drainage is serviceable even in a
drought—both directly by deepening and enlarging the storehouse
of vegetable resource on which plants can draw, and indirectly by
enabling a deeper, earlier, and more thorough tillage, which hinders
the cracking of the surface, and thus the searching influence of dry
weather.

It has also shown the advantage in farm practice of retain-
ing for use seed-beds of plants, such as cabbages, capable of trans-
planting as soon as rain comes, and thus of furnishing the earliest
possible provision against a scarcity consequent on the failure of
ordinary crops. It has shown, too, the great injury done to farmers,

1869. | Agriculture. 247

and to agriculture generally, by a rigid system of rules laid down
in agreements between landlord and tenant. Those who felt at
liberty, whether as to the subsequent cropping of the land in con-
sequence of a failure of the young clover plant, or as to immediate
cropping to make up for a deficient mangold and turnip crop, to
act as they thought best under the unusual circumstances, have
been much better off than those who could do nothing out of the
rule of rotation laid down to them without special licence from the
owner or the agent.

The dry weather was a great aid to those who are interested in
the promotion of sewage farming.

At the recent annual meeting of the Liverpool Sewage Utiliza-
tion Company, Mr. R. Neilson, the chairman, gave some information
as to the satisfactory progress of the company’s works. The original
intention of laying the main line to the Crosby Sands was prevented
by obstacles over which the company had no control. They had
consequently arranged with Mr. Blundell, of Ince, for a lease of
40 acres of excellent land, on which to develop the system, and
advantageously supply the sewage to a number of the tenants of
that gentleman and of Lord Sefton, who were anxious to take it.
Seven and a-half miles had already been laid. The erection of the
buildings of the pumping station was completed, the boilers were
in their places, and the principal portion of the engines were already
finished. The connecting sewer had also been completed from the
well to the point of junction with the main sewer which received
the sewage from all the upper parts of Liverpool and Everton,
as far as Edge Hill, being that portion of the town where water-
closets had been most generally adopted, and which would give
a comparatively inexhaustible supply.

On Lodge Farm, situated near the market gardens around
Barking, which were dried up and comparatively unproductive,
enormous growths of cabbages, mangold-wurzel, and other succu-
lent crops were obtained by three or four soakings with sewage in
the course of the year ; and unusual success also attended the use of
sewage even for corn crops. A return of potatoes, grown with
sewage, was obtained, equal to 50/.an acre: cabbages, sold for 207.
an acre, and stubble turnips, sold for 11/7. an acre, were grown
during the autumn months. Five and a-half quarters of wheat,
taken after the wheat crop of 1867, on poor gravelly soil, were
obtained by the use of two dressings of sewage; and heavy crops
of rye and winter oats were also grown. Around Salisbury, and in
other water-meadow districts, the value of summer irrigation was
seen, and farmers who owned any water-meadow had an immense
advantage over their burned-up neighbours.

As another feature of the season, we have to mention the suc-
cessful commencement of the sugar-beet cultivation in this country.

8 2

248 . Chronicles of Science. | April,

Analyses have proved that our sugar-beets of 1868 have contained
9 per cent. of sugar, which is rather more than those of Dutch
growth: and roots grown with sewage at Lodge Farm yielded over
13 per cent. to Dr. Voelcker. Mr. Duncan’s factory at Lavenham
has begun work. Eight hundred tons have been grown for him by
the Suffolk farmers ; and contracts have been completed to supply six
thousand tons next year ; and there is every prospect of the industry
being established at other points. At a recent meeting of the
West Suffolk Chamber of Agriculture, Mr. Duncan said that the
prospect of a satisfactory establishment of the beet-sugar manufac-
ture in England now is greater than it has ever been, for in
Cuba—which alone has hitherto supplied us with as much sugar as
all the beet-sugar of the Continent—the abandonment of slavery is
imminent; and this will, no doubt, so diminish supplies as very
materially to raise the price. Moreover, the industry is not by any,
means an exhaustion of the soil. Sugar-beet does not exhaust the
land, even so much as mangold-wurzel growing. A small root,
with a small percentage of ash is desired: and as it is the ash alone
which the plant takes from the soil, that will for the most part
be returned to it in the compressed cake of pulp which is sent back
from the factory to the farm.

Turning now to another subject, we find from Dr. Voelcker’s
report to the English Agricultural Society, that four hundred
and thirty-two analyses of manures, and cattle food, made in 1868,
indicate the general excellence of the superphosphates supplied
to English farmers last year. Compound artificial manures, on the
other hand, which are generally manufactured on a basis of spoiled
guano, were inferior and dear. Sulphate of ammonia has increased
in use for other purposes than those of English agriculture, and has
thus risen enormously in value. The coprolite beds of Suffolk and
Cambridgeshire are gradually becoming exhausted. Large quantities
of Sombrero rock, and of the recently discovered phosphorite of the
valley of the Lalm, in Nassau, have been imported.

The immense demand for artificial foods has given a greater
impetus to the adulteration of oileakes. Among other newly intro-
duced cattle foods is “ Nutritious cocoa extract.” “ Theobroma,”
the generic name of the plant, signifying “‘ food for gods,” has long
since proved an agreeable food for man, and it is quite possible that
some of the coarser refuse part of the seeds from which the cocoa of
the breakfast table is obtained may yield a wholesome food for beasts.

Among the more important points in Dr. Voelcker’s report is
the scarcity of sulphate of ammonia. M. Ville, of Paris, has lately
made known the fact that salts of ammonia are found in large
quantities in some of the Tuscan lagoons. This fact had, indeed, .
been already fully investigated and published by M. Becchi, a distin-
guished Italian chemist and mineralogist, who in 1853 described a

1869. } Archeology. 249

mineral known as “ Larderelliti,” named after the proprietor of the
estate, and containing a considerable percentage of ammonia. A
large block of this mineral, which is a borate of ammonia, was
shown in the International Exhibition of 1862. Since then M.
Becchi has continued his researches, and obtained by the reerystalli-
zation of the residual salts left when some water from a lagoon
at Travale was evaporated, a sample of ammoniacal mineral, contain-
ing no less than 80 per cent. of the pure salt. The announcement
of such a fact as this is a very important point in the recent history
of agriculture; and, though an Italian discovery, it will very soon
tell upon English fertility.

Coming home again, we have to report the activity of our local
farmers’ clubs, on whose operations, as well as on imported fertilizers,
English fertility very materially hinges. The subjects of deep culti-
vation, steam culture, live-stock management, dairy farming, the in-
crease of home-meat production, the condition of the labourer, the
serviceableness of benefit societies on his behalf, the best way of
dealing with pauperism, the relations of railways and agriculture,
have been thus discussed. And it is not only the strictly Agri-
cultural Society which thus benefits the farmer. The Society of
Arts has interested itself in, among other agricultural topics, the
provision of contrivances for the safe transit of milk and meat by
railway. And, in competition for its prizes, some thirty or forty
devices have been exhibited, more or less simple and efficient, out of
which, probably, some improvement may arise in the present very
imperfect arrangements by which so large a proportion of the food
of the metropolis now reaches the consumer.

From the annual returns of the Board of Trade, giving the
agricultural statistics of the years 1867 and 1868, it appears that
a considerable increase took place last year in the area under wheat,
and a diminution under all other grain crops. There was an in-
crease in the area of the potato crop, and a diminution under all
other green crops. An increase in the number of cattle and sheep
was returned, and a diminution in the number of pigs.

2. ARCHAXOLOGY (Pre-Hisroric),
And Notices of Recent Archzological Works.

Mr. G. V. Du Noyer, late of the Geological Survey of Ireland
(whose death we regret to record), communicated a paper last year to
the Geological Society,* “On Flint Flakes from Carrickfergus and
Larne.” These worked flints (a series of which is placed in the

* Which appears first in the list of postponed papers published in the February
number of the Society’s Journal, p. 48.

250 Chronicles of Science. [ April,

Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn Street) were picked up by
the author from the gravelly drift and subsoil clay of the north of
Treland, in Antrim and Down. Mr. Du Noyer describes the method
of forming the flakes, and points out that they appear to belong to
two different periods, viz:—1. In the drift-sand and gravel which
skirt the shores of Belfast and Larne Loughs, in the Co. Antrim,
and the coast from Holywood to Donaghadee in the Co. Down,
about 20 feet above high-water mark. ‘These are rude in form and
are always oxidized on the surface, and are often much abraded.
2. In the subsoil clay at all elevations up to 600 feet or so, on the
northern slopes of Cave Hill at Belfast, the Common of Carrick-
fergus and the high-ground around Larne Lough, and the Island
Magee, they often occur in groups so that hundreds can be col-
lected over a surface of fifty square yards, and their appearance
is fresher than the littoral specimens. In Island Magee they .
would appear to have manufactured some, judging by the hoards
found. Mr. Du Noyer considered that the great abundance of
flint-implements in this region was due to the aborigines seeking
the natural outcrop of the chalk to obtain the raw material; he
further suggests that the leaf-shaped flint-flakes of this second
epoch (found in the bed of the river Bunn) were known and used
by the earliest of the historic races in Ireland, and by them worked
into those delicately-chipped and symmetrically-formed winged ar-
row-heads, spear and javelin heads which are found so often,
associated with rude pottery, beads of amber, glass, and shells,
in the sepulchral tumuli and megalithic chambers of Ireland.

In Mr. Bauerman’s paper on Arabia Petraea,* he gives an ac-
count of the ancient Turquoise-workings in the Wady Maghara,
which, although much encumbered by cliff-falls at the outside, are
for the most part accessible for a considerable distance from the
surface, and in many instances the old faces of work can be seen.
These are covered with small and irregular tool-marks, of such a
character as to leave no doubt that they have been made with flint-
flakes, great numbers of which are found strewing the valleys and
hill-sides, as well as within the workings themselves. Most of these
flakes are of a triangular or trapeziform section, brought up to a
point, which is generally well-worn and rounded, and the shape of
which, when blunted, corresponds perfectly with the grooves on the
face of the rock. In one of the smaller caves, carefully examined
by Mr. J. K. Lord, the floor was covered to a considerable depth
with a coating of impalpable dust, which, when disturbed, rose in
suffocating clouds. On sifting this, numerous fragments of stone
hammers and pieces of wood, some partially carbonized, but which
had evidently been fashioned into tools, were found.

* Also in the February number of the ‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe.’

1869. | Archeology. 251

The latter form segments of cylindrical blocks, with roughly
conical points (that have evidently been shaped with a blunt, or
imperfectly cutting tool), with a thickened head, notched round
underneath as if to receive a withe or cord. The head bears
evident marks of having been subjected to repeated blows. Al-
though only a single segment in any degree of perfection was
found, there can be little doubt that these were used as mountings
for the flint chisels employed by the ancient miners. Without
something of the kind it would be difficult to work with the flakes,
owing to their tendency to break across when not struck fairly on
the top.*

The hammers found in the workings were mostly of a very rude
kind; in many cases rough natural fragments of dolerite, taken
from the flow capping the adjacent hills, have been used, only a
pair of holes on opposite sides, produced by the action of sand
pressed upon the surface by the thumb and forefinger, being ap-
parent. Some, however, show a little more work, having a groove,
to receive a withe handle, cut round them, like the so-called Aztec
hammers found in the aboriginal workings in the Lake Superior
Copper Mines. Most of them are broken at the ends, and can
only be regarded as spoiled or waste tools. The same holds good
with regard to the wooden fragments and flint-flakes. Tablets cut
on the face of the rock show these workings to have extended
from the 3rd to the 13th Manethonian dynasties, corresponding to
an interval of about 1600 years.

Captain F. yon Koschkull, writing on the Caucasus,t mentions
that, being engaged ina survey of the Salt-district in 1865, he had his
attention attracted by some old mines which were regarded by the
inhabitants as natural caves. (‘The principal beds of rock-salt, we
should state, are in the valley of the Araxis, both east and west of
Mount Ararat, and geologically are of Lower Tertiary age.) Cap-
tain Koschkull soon satisfied himself of their being the work of
man, and resolved to explore them. At first his guides would fain
have dissuaded him from carrying the plan into execution, as their
imagination had peopled all these subterranean passages with evil
spirits, of which they stood in bodily fear. Disregarding their
superstitions, the Captain penetrated one of the ancient adits, and
partially explored what proved to be a very extensive and fairly-
well-wrought mine, evidently of great antiquity. At the remote
end of one of the galleries he found heaps of mined salt, and hun-
dreds of tools of various forms and sizes, either perfect, or more or
less worn and broken. ‘These implements consisted for the most

* A gentleman present when this paper was read (we think Dr. Murie),
suggested that it was more probably a tent-peg, such as the Arabs use for driving
into the ground to secure the border of the tent.

+ Silliman’s American ‘Journal of Science and Art,’ vol. xlvi., p. 336,

252 Chronicles of Science. [ April,

part of picks or pick and hammer combined, and varying from 5 to
15 inches in length, wrought with great labour and considerable
skill out of a tough hornblendic rock. None of these tools were
pierced for the insertion of handles, but all were encireled by
grooves for the reception of withes or thongs; in this, as in
the character of the material of which they were formed, resem-
bling many of the stone implements of Europe, and being appa-
rently the product of the same age, or more accurately speaking,
of the same stage of intellectual development. The same author
mentions that in the mountains of Karthli-Imeritia are excavated
(“troglodyte”) houses, and an entire city has been discovered,
wrought out of the rocky walls which border the narrow valley
of the river Ljokhwa, an affluent of the Kur. He was also present
and assisted (in 1864) at the opening of two royal tombs which had
been found in one of two tumuli, called the twin tumuli, situated -
upon the peninsula of Taman. They proved to be of Greek origin,
and contained two sarcophagi of cypress wood, carved and gilded.
The contents of the sepulchral vault were very rich and varied,
and belonged to a period of high art and civilization.

Early in September last, in making excavations for a sewer at
Trowse, near Norwich, a number of oak piles were discovered by
the workmen, driven into a bed of compact river-gravel, 7 feet
beneath the surface, and covered by 3 feet of peat, containing fresh-
water shells and abundance of bones; but no flint or other imple-
ments were met with. The evidence is too scanty to form any
positive conclusion upon ; but in this broad but shallow valley, before
the peat accumulated, it is suggested the piles stood in the water,
and formed the base of a pile-work habitation, from which the large
quantity of bones were thrown into the water. The animals iden-
tified were sheep, horse, deer; so plentiful were the bones that the
navvies sold them by bushels to the dealers. Owing to the nature
of the contract, the trench was again refilled within forty-eight
hours from the discovery being made, and so all further search was
stopped. If the site of a habitation, it must have been at a com-
paratively late period.

In the ‘Journal of the Proceedings of the Essex Institute,’ *
Salem, Massachusetts, Mr. F. W. Putnam gave an account of the
exploration of several Indian shell-banks at Goose Island, in Casco
Bay, and at Ipswich. Many relics were found of great interest to
the archeologist.

He also exhibited a series of Indian stone implements, found in
Essex county, consisting of axes, tomahawks, gouges, arrow-heads,
and many others to which no accurate name could be given. Some
he considered were “sinkers,” from their being found on the shore

* Vol. v., No. viii. Dee., 1868.

1869. ] Archeology. 253

at Swampscott, and other places, and they seemed from their form
well adapted for sinking a fish-net.

There were several stones of a flattened oval form, and others
nearly round, all having a groove cut round them: also some flat,
smooth stones, with two holes bored through them, perhaps used in
the process of rope-making to twist strips of skin or bark together.
Besides these were some stones of very perfect finish and of various
shapes, but all provided with a hole through the thickest part ; in
blowing into which (as one does into a key) a loud call or whistle
could be sounded. Mr. C. Cooke gives a description of an Indian
burying-place in Essex county, containing six skeletons, lying from
18 inches to 2 feet beneath the surface, and placed in a row north
and south, 5 feet apart, save two, which were within 18 inches
of one another. Beneath each skeleton were placed three flat pieces
of red sandstone—a rock not found in this region—one piece
beneath the head, another near the middle of the body, and the
third under the feet. All the skeletons were in the same position ;
namely, lying on their left side, with their faces turned to the west,
the hands under the head, and the knees drawn up against the chest.

M. Roulin laid before the Academy of Sciences* a report on a
series of stone implements from Java, collected and forwarded, by
M. Van de Poel, of Cheribon, as a present to the lrench Govern-
ment. The collection comprises thirty-nine articles of polished
stone, which were successively dug up from great depths in the
soil. They belong to a period antecedent to all the records and
traditions of the country. It is difficult to obtain any from the
natives, owing to the adoration they profess for them. The speci-
mens differ in general aspect from any already in the possession of
the Academy ; they are remarkable for the beauty of the materials
out of which they have been shaped, and for the symmetry of
their form. They vary in size from 385 millimetres in length to
only 26 millimetres; these being the two extreme measurements.
Owing to the want of any information relating to the mode of occur-
rence of the specimens, the report is confined to their direct exa-
mination, and the comparison of them with analogous modern
objects. Nearly all of them belong to implements of labour ; there
are, besides, three bracelets and a thin plate of oval shape, probably
“ destiné & une incrustation,” which from their style of workman-
ship are evidently to be associated with the other specimens. There
is a yery striking absence of all kind of arms. It is impossible to
suppose that the ancient Javans were entirely wanting in weapons
of warfare or of the chase; but perhaps these were made of wood,
like those now used over a large portion of Polynesia. Under
ordinary circumstances it does not require many years to eflace the

* ‘Comptes Rendus de l’Acad. des Sciences.’ Paris, 28 Dec., 1868.

254 Chronicles of Science. [ April,

traces of such arms. Still, some vestiges would have escaped
destruction, and they will, when discovered, become the objects of
much interest. Fifteen only of the thirty-five implements are
entire, but some of the others, though not perfect, are of great
importance. One of these latter, made of a greyish flint, formed
part of a strong blade 25 millimetres in thickness, smooth beneath,
slightly convex above, of a uniform width and thickness (82 and
25 millimetres respectively). Its length, which at first must have
been—so far as we can judge by its other dimensions—from 12 to
15 centimetres, is no more than 8; in this state it was still large
enough to be made useful, and by the following expedient :—It was
necessary to make a new edge, and it was first cut square. This.
was performed by two saw-cuts made on the opposite faces, and
continued so as to nearly meet, the separation having, however, been
finished by fracture. The stone appears to have been attacked first .
on the convex side, which is more deeply cut, and, strange to say,
the depth of the notch is likewise convex. This cutting or sawing
may have been performed in a manner similar to that practised by
the inhabitants of St. Domingo, and their neighbours on the
adjoining continent, as recorded by Oviedo, who visited the country
in 1513. With sand and a thread of cabuia or henequen (two
species of agave) they can cut iron. They make use of the thread
as we should of a saw, drawing it alternately from right to left,
during which they move about and rub quickly against the iron very
fine sand, which they have previously spread along the passage.
Some of the other specimens have been cut in a similar manner. In
the majority of the Javan specimens the edges are square, and the
thickness nearly uniform—features that are characteristic of the
Scandinavian celts. The implements seem all adapted for cutting
wood. Some of the heavier specimens must have needed both the
arms of a strong man to wield them, and they probably were used
for chopping down trees, whilst the smaller tools, which could be
used with one arm, were intended for more delicate work. All have
been shaped ona similar plan. They offer in general a single cutting-
edge formed at the expense of the lower face, which is even, or slightly
concave, like our modern adzes. They have been formed from flint,
chalcedony, jasper, porphyry, aphanite, sandstone, &e. The report
is illustrated with a plate, representing an adze from the Isle
D’Oualan (Carolinas), and an ancient implement found in Egypt,
which are very similar to the forms from Java, described by M.
Roulin.

Mr. Woodward read a paper before the Geologists’ Association
on “ Man and the Mammoth; being an Account of the Animals
found associated with early Man in Pre-historic Times.”* The

* The lecture has since been published iz extenso in the ‘ Geological Magazine,’
February, 1869, p. 58.

1869. | Archeology. 255

author gave an account of cavern-explorations and their results ;
the progress of discovery in the Quaternary deposits ; the proposed
order of chronological sequence of the various remains found
in river-grayels, peat-mosses, kitchen-middens, caves, crannoges,
pfahlbauten, &c.; of the animals found, whether migrated, extinct,
now living, or having been killed off by the hand of man.

He pointed out that widely different states of civilization (as at
the present day) might then have existed in close proximity to each
other, and suggested that the old cave-dwellers of Perigord repre-
sented the population of the less civilized portion of the globe, as
the aborigines of Africa, America, and Australia do now in our
own day.

ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

The Ethnological Society have resolved to institute a permanent
committee (upon a scheme proposed by Col. Lane Fox, Hon. Sec.),
for the purpose of examining into the validity of all evidence sub-
mitted to the Society, or otherwise obtainable, in relation to the
science of man. ‘To assess the relative value of such evidence,
whether direct or second-hand, and to record the names of the
authors or communicators according to a scale to be hereafter
determined upon. To decide on a fixed terminology, and to classify
all facts admitted in evidence. The classification to include the
following primary divisions:—1, Races; 2, Languages; 3, Reli-
gions; 4, Folk Lore and Superstitions; 5, Laws, Customs, and
Institutions ; 6, Works of Art and Industry.

Another part of the scheme is the distribution of skeleton maps
of various sizes for the purpose of marking the geographical distri-
bution of the several classes. Distributions arranged by individual
members will be discussed by the Committee, who will from time
to time report to the Society the progress they make. Registers
will be kept which shall be available to any member of the Society
desiring to consult them. Such a scheme, if carried out successfully,
is likely to result in a rich harvest of materials on which, at a future
day, sound generalizations may be based.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL Society or Lonpon.

A paper was read on the 2nd of February, by the Rey. J. G.
Atkinson, on the “ Cleveland Gravehills.” The moorland districts
of the valley of the Esk, lying to the west of Whitby, at between
eight and sixteen miles distance, are thickly studded with burial
mounds or barrows, or in the old Danish vernacular, “ howes.”
Many have been destroyed; but of the larger ones which yet
remain, a large proportion have been examined by the author. He

256 Chronicles of Science. | April,

obtained forty-five urns and evidence of more than one hundred
interments after cremation, but not any trace of metal. In some
of the larger mounds, evidence appeared of three successive inter-
ments: first, in the centre ; the second, inserted at a distance from
the centre, and rudely and violently misplaced to make room for a
third, due to an intrusive, perhaps a conquering tribe. The author
was of opinion that the whole of the remains belonged to an ex-
tremely remote period.

Mr. Edward Peacock, F'.8.A., described the opening of a barrow
at Chatham, Lincolnshire. The approximate dimensions of the
mound were 114 feet by 75 feet, with a central depth of 9 feet
6 inches. ‘Three interments were discovered: one in the centre;
another at 42 feet south (of a youthful subject), and another at
40 feet north of the centre; all accompanied by urns of a Celtic
type. The work of excavating was particularly interesting, as .
showing the manner in which these mounds were constructed, the
materials being carried in baskets or panniers; each basketful of
sand could be distinctly traced.

3. ASTRONOMY.
(Including the Proceedings of the Royal Astrononucal Society.)

Ar the General Meeting of the Astronomical Society on Feb-
ruary 12th, it was announced that the gold medal for the year
had been awarded to Mr. Stone, of the Greenwich Observatory,
for his labours towards the determination of the sun’s distance.
We have already had occasion to refer at intervals to the various
papers which Mr. Stone has written upon this subject; and a
reference to the accompanying review of the proceedings of the
Astronomical Society will show that he is still engaged on the
same interesting work. What he has done may be divided into
two sections: first, independent solutions of the problem of deter-
mining the sun’s distance ; and secondly, the careful re-examination
of the observations and calculations of others. He has detected
numerical errors in the processes of Leyerrier and other mathe-
maticians, besides errors of interpretation in the work of those who
investigated the transit observations made in 1769; and he has
given a large share of attention to the consideration of the proper
means of weighing Ciscordant observations,—a question of great
difficulty, which largely enters into the problem of determining the
sun’s distance. The result of his labours has been to show that
the sun’s equatorial horizontal parallax is probably about 8°91;
his distance, therefore, about 91,700,000 miles.

1869. | Astronomy. 257

Major Tennant’s account of his work during the great eclipse
of August last, had not led us to form very hopeful expectations
respecting the photographs taken by his party. Fortunately it
has turned out that these photographs were much better than
Major Tennant had supposed. Mr. De la Rue suggested that it
would be advantageous to take enlarged pictures of the photo-
graphs on glass, and to etch them according to the plan which he
had used for the eclipse of 1860. In reference to this suggestion,
Major Tennant wrote to Mr. De la Rue, that “the large pictures
were thin and poor, and there was no use in treating them by
etching ; for the real thing would be better shown by a distribution
of transparencies, so as to make them generally accessible.” Accord-
ingly Major Tennant sent eight sets of transparent copies on glass
of his eclipse pictures to the Astronomer-Royal for distribution. One
of these sets has reached Mr. De la Rue’s hands. He says of them
—and no one is better able to judge — “they are extremely
interesting, and must be considered as cminently successful re-
sults.” They contain much more detail than can be seen in the
paper copies.

The two most important features exhibited in Major Tennant’s
photographs are: first, the spiral conformation of the Great Horn,
marked A in the drawings (the only prominence which was visible
throughout the totality); and secondly, the well-defined elevations
indicated by a soft light, altogether different from that of the red
prominences. “These entities,” says Mr. De la Rue, in reference to
the fainter light, “bounded by outlines which blend almost imper-
ceptibly into the general light of the corona, are deserving of
especial study, which will be best accomplished by means of pho-
tography, as it truly records their faint contours, which are likely
to be overlooked in eye observations, because they are lost in the
softened light which surrounds the moon, and also because the eye
is naturally attracted most by the prominences which have a dis-
tinct outline.”

It appears that the alterations which have taken place in the
nebula round 7 Argtis are not nearly so important as Mr. Abbott’s
papers had seemed to indicate. In a letter sent to Sir John
Herschel on this subject, Lieutenant Herschel (his son) remarks
that the nebula is not only a very difficult object to draw properly,
but that its appearance varies under every change of illuminating
and magnifying power or of atmospheric conditions. He has
carefully marked down the place of every conspicuous star in the
nebula, and Sir John Herschel finds no difficulty im identifying all
of these stars (except one small one) with those he had himself
mapped down when at the Cape. Again, it is clear from Lieutenant
Herschel’s drawings that the closed lemniscate vacancy seen by Sir
John Herschel thirty years ago, has not been replaced by a vacancy

208 Chronicles of Science. | April,

extending along two perfectly open channels to the boundary of
the nebula. On the contrary, a closed figure is shown in the
drawings just sent, which, though not agreeing exactly with the
older drawings, yet presents no difference which may not fairly be
ascribed to the effect of using so much smaller a telescope in the
recent observations. On the other hand, there is no doubt that
the visibility of the nebula has largely increased in recent times.
Lieutenant Herschel says that the eye catches the nebula as readily
as the Pleiades. When Sir John Herschel was at the Cape the
nebula was not visible to the naked eye. We can hardly suppose
that so remarkable a change as this can be wholly due to the dimi-
nution of » Argis from the first to the sixth magnitude. This
variation might certainly enable the eye to recognize a nebulosity
before invisible, but it could not bring out the nebula as a distinctly
marked object.

Mr. Huggins has succeeded in seeing the red prominences
round the sun by the aid of coloured glasses having the power of
absorbing nearly all rays, except those belonging to the red part
of the spectrum in which the C line of the prominences is found.

Notices oF THE ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY.

Mr. Tebbutt supplies a paper on the Solar Eclipse of August
18th last, as observed at Windsor, New South Wales. At that
place only about one-third of the sun’s diameter was eclipsed.

Mr. Huggins refers to observations which he had made during
the past two years for the purpose of obtaining a view of the red
prominences seen during a solar eclipse. The report of his observa-
tory refers to the fact that the spectra of the prominences should
be visible if those bodies are gaseous. He goes on to describe the
contrivances by which he attempted to isolate portions of the
spectrum. It appeared to him highly probable that if the parts
of the spectrum which remained after certain portions had been
absorbed were identical with those in which the bright lines of
the flames occur, these objects would become visible. But as he
had no knowledge of the position of the bright lines in the spec-
trum, “it would have been only by accident,” he remarks, if he had
succeeded. We have seen elsewhere that he has now succeeded in
making the prominences visible by this method.

The same idea appears to have occurred to Lieutenant Herschel,
who communicated his views on the subject in a letter to his father,
Sir John Herschel. The letter remarks that this suggestion shows
how immediately and readily a clearly-defined new fact suggests to
an active and combining intellect the possibility of immediate prac-
tical application. “If I mistake not,” he adds, “ the double discovery

1869. | Astronomy. 259

made by Mr. Lockyer and M. Janssen, of a mode of rendering the
prominences sensible (not visible) turns on the same feature.”

Mr. S. Newcomb discusses Mr. Stone’s rediscussion of the
transit of Venus in 1769. He endeavours to show that Chappe
cannot be assumed to have observed an apparent internal contact of
Venus instead of the real one, or “the formation of the black drop ”
as it is termed. Certainly, Chappe’s words are not clear. After
describing the undulating appearance of both the sun and Venus,
he goes on to say,—* A ce premier contact Vénus s'est allongée
plus considérablement que le matin, en s'approchant tout-a-coup du
bord du soleil.” One might interpret this to signify that the
elongation of the disc (the pear-shaped figure it assumes) was more
remarkable at the egress than at the ingress; or that the sudden
leap, so to speak, by which the edge of the planet’s disc is carried
forward to that of the sun’s, covered a greater range than the
corresponding phenomenon (reversed) at ingress. Mr. Stone takes
the passage to signify that the elongation was of a more complete
kind, so that a broader (not a longer) connecting-band was seen ;
in other words, Mr. Stone holds that Chappe missed the formation
of the narrow ligament owing to atmospheric undulations, and first
saw some phase much nearer to the apparent internal contact.
Weighed by results, Mr. Stone’s view has clearly the advantage
over Mr. Newcomb’s. As Mr. Stone remarks, “If the observer's
words are doubtful, and we find that by assuming he observed an
apparent contact all the observations are rendered accordant, whilst
by assuming that he has observed a real contact all the observations
are rendered discordant, it is not only permissible but necessary
that we should assume that apparent contacts were observed.

Mr. Stone draws from the results of the observations made at
Greenwich upon the transit of Mercury in November last, that
the three following points should be carefully attended to in future
observations of the more important transits of Venus :—

1. That telescopes of nearly the same aperture should be em-
ployed.

2. That very nearly the same magnifying powers should be
employed by all the observers.

3. That attention should be directed to observations of real
internal contacts as the chief points.

The words “real internal contacts,” it is to be observed, refer
to the formation of the black drop, which is undoubtedly simulta-
neous with the true internal contact of the planet’s limb with
the sun’s.

Mr. Stone has extended to 1867 the calculations he had made
respecting the constant of nutation, as determined from the ob-
servations of the pole-star with the transit-circle of the Greenwich
Observatory from 1851 to 1865. Taking these observations, thus

260 Chronicles of Science. [April,

extended, in combination with those made upon Cephei 51 and 6
Ursee Minoris from 1851 to 1865, he obtains for the final value
of the constant of nutation

9”°134 — 0°55 p + 2°02 dp + 0°29 5m — 0°6 be.

where p, Op, dm, and 6c are the possible errors in the assumed
estimates of the proper motion of the pole-star in R. A, and N.
P.D, and of 6 Urs Minoris, and of 51 Cephei in N. P. D. re-
spectively. On account of the bearing of the constant of nutation
upon our estimate of the moon’s mass and of the sun’s distance,
these investigations are of extreme importance.

The Astronomer-Royal has supplied another of his valuable
papers on the preparatory arrangements which will be necessary
for the efficient observation of the transits of Venus in the years
1874 and 1882. It is almost impossible fairly to represent the
nature of the present paper in the brief space available in these -
pages. Indeed the eight octavo plates which accompany the
paper, and the two which illustrate Mr. De la Rue’s paper on the
same subject, are very necessary to the proper interpretation of
Mr. Airy’s remarks. But while referring the reader who would
thoroughly master the views presented in these admirable essays
to the papers themselves, we may point to the following important
conclusions derivable from Mr. Airy’s calculations :—

1. For observing the ingress of Venus as accelerated by parallax
(in 1874), Owhyhee and the neighbouring islands, the Marquesas
Islands, the Aleutian Islands, and the mouth of the Amoor are
more or less favourably situated.

2. For observing the ingress retarded by parallax, Kerguelen
Island and Crozet’s Island are well situated though geographically
unfavourable. Next in order come Rodriguez, Mauritius, and
Bourbon Islands, Madras, and Bombay.

3. For observing the egress accelerated by parallax, a part of the
Southern Continent if available would be the best place. Passing this
region over, we come next to the Auckland Islands, Canterbury,
Wellington, and Auckland, Norfolk Island, Melbourne, and Sidney.

4. For observing the egress retarded by parallax, Omsk, Orsk,
Astrachan, Erzeroum, Aleppo, Smyrna, and Alexandria are well
situated.

All these cases refer to the transit of 1874. As regards the
transit of 1882, it is noteworthy that there is a possibility of ap-
plying the same method as was employed in 1769,—that is, deter-
mining the sun’s distance from the different duration of the transit
as observed from different points of the earth’s surface. This
method, Mr. Airy remarks, fails altogether in 1874, and there is
not much prospect of its being successfully applied in 1882. Both
these transits take place in December, when the southern or sea-

1869. | Astronomy. 261

hemisphere of the earth is turned towards the sun. The transits
of 1761 and 1769 took place in June, when the northern hemi-
sphere was bowed towards the sun. Hence, principally, arises this
important difference between the approaching pair of transits and
the pair observed last century.

Failing observations on the duration of the transit in 1882,
the accelerated and retarded ingress, and the accelerated and re-
tarded egress, may be respectively observed from the four following
sets of stations :—

1. Kerguelen, Crozet’s, Bourbon, Mauritius, and Rodriguez
Islands.

2. Every city near the seaboard of the United States, and every
important city of Canada, also Bermuda, Jamaica, and the West
Indian Islands.

3. The stations mentioned under 2, and the coast of South
America from the Isthmus of Darien to Rio Janeiro.

4. Parts"of the Antarctic Continent, Sydney, Melbourne, and
parts of New Zealand.

If the durations of transits are to be observed, then certainly
portions of the Antarctic Continent will have to be selected. Cap-
tain Richards, Captain Toynbee, Rear-Admiral Ommanney, and
Staff-Commander J. E. Davis, supply some remarks on the geogra-
phical difficulties to be encountered in finding stations in high
southern latitudes, but the examination of their papers would lead
us away from astronomical considerations.

Mr. De la Rue gives an interesting paper on the possibility of
taking photographs of Venus in transit. If this were done at
several well-separated stations, it seems clear that a most important
auxiliary means of estimating the sun’s distance would be afforded.
Mr. De la Rue points out that the close correspondence between
the results obtained by micrometrical measurements applied to his
eclipse-photographs in 1860, and the elements calculated by Mr.
Farley, of the ‘ Nautical Almanac’ office, show that a very close
approximation to the truth is to be looked for in the case of the
transit of Venus. For the difficulty of measuring the solar and
lunar discs presented in an eclipse-photograph is very much greater
than that attending the corresponding measurements in the case of
a transit-photograph. And moreover, the observer of a transit
would not be hurried lke the observer of an eclipse, since the
former phenomenon is several hours in progress, while the latter
lasts but a few minutes.

Mr. De la Rue deals with the optical and physical corrections
which would have to be made, showing how the distortion due to
the optical peculiarities of the telescope could be determined before-
hand, and suggesting that the experiments which appear to show
that the collodion in drying shrinks only in the direction of its

VoL. VI. T

262 Chronicles of Science. { April,

thickness might be repeated if any doubts still remain as to their
correctness.

He remarks in conclusion, “No difficulties exist in photo-
graphing a transit of Venus; the operations are quite the same
as those practised daily at the Kew Observatory ; no strain on the
nerves would occur as in the anxiety consequent on the desire of
rendering available every moment of the short duration of a solar
eclipse. All the operations could be conducted with that calm so
essential for such a problem as the determination of the solar
parallax, and I feel confident in recommending that timely steps
should be taken to secure photographic records of the transits of
Venus in 1874 and 1882.”

A paper by Mr. A. Marth draws attention to the observations
which should be made upon Mars during the present opposition.
His calculations respecting the presentation of the planet correspond,
closely with those on which we founded the views of Mars which
appeared in our last Chronicle. Mr. Marth invites observers to
send in any drawings they may make or have made of Mars, in
order that they may be arranged in the order of their areographical
longitudes and latitudes. He proposes so to combine them as to
form a new map of Mars. We have very little hope that any
ordinary drawings will throw much new light on the conformation
of the Martial continents and seas. Those of Mr. Dawes are so far
in advance of anything that has yet been attempted (so far at least
as fullness of detail is concerned) that little seems to be promised
by the examination of inferior drawings. What seems more hopeful
is the fact that new and larger telescopes are now being directed to
the examination of Mars by well-practised observers. Amongst
others we may mention Mr. Browning, who is now observing the
planet on every favourable night with his fine 12-inch reflector.

Professor Kirkwood remarks respecting the meteor-shower of
November last, that its duration was much greater than that of
former showers. “As seen in Europe in 1866, and in America in
1867, the display was limited to three or four hours. Last
November, however, it commenced on the night of the 12th,
and had not ceased at daylight on the morning of the 14th.
This would indicate considerable irregularity in the thickness
of the stream.” Regarding the meteor-zone as in a sense the
tail of Tempel’s comet (Comet I., 1866), we can understand the
peculiarity here referred to, as corresponding to the expansion of the
visible tails of comets, with increased distance from the nucleus.
Doubtless in a few years this expansion will have attained such an
extent, and the meteors will be so far apart, that there will be
properly speaking no shower, though meteors will continue to be
comparatively plentiful on the nights of the 12th, 13th, and 14th
November.

1869. | Astronomy. 263

Mr. Birt discusses at considerable length the subject of the
Lunar Crater Linné. From the drawings made at different times
by Messrs. Huggins, Noble, and Tacchini, he has estimated the
dimensions of the cone, crater, and orifice of this interesting object.
He remarks that these estimates must be received as approximations
only, serving rather as a guide to observers than as being expres-
sions of the exact state of Linné at the present epoch. Those who
see in the varying appearance of Linné a proof of the activity of
lunar volcanoes in the present day, should study the researches of
Mr. Birt on the probable configuration of the crater.

Mr. Kincaid suggests an ingenious mode of constructing an
automatic transit instrument. The apparatus consists of a plane
mirror and a burning-glass, to be adjusted in such a manner that,
at the instant the sun reaches the meridian, the rays ignite a thread
which burns without smoke or residue; this releases a detent, and
a motion is thereby given to the hands of the clock, bringing it to
the correct local mean time. There is a supplementary arrange-
ment by which if the thread should not ignite, in consequence of a
passing cloud, at the instant of the transit of the first limb, the
subsequent ignition of the thread will not affect the clock.

Mr. Lockyer, in a note on Mr. Huggins’s paper “ On a possible
Method of viewing Red Flames without an Hclipse,” writes to show
that he was not aided by the eclipse observations in seeking for the
prominence-spectrum. Unless Mr. Lockyer claims credit for the
discovery of the gaseity of the prominences, apart from the credit
due to him for his share in the discovery that their spectrum can be
seen without an eclipse, we cannot see how Mr. Huggins’s mistake
(assuming it to be such) at all affects the proper apportionment of
recognition in the matter of recent solar discoveries. The eclipse
observers clearly deserve all the credit due to the first-mentioned
discovery, which had been fully discussed in England for two
months before Mr. Lockyer examined the prominence-spectra. It
is impossible to undiscover the discovered. On the other hand, no
one has disputed the claim of Janssen and Lockyer to the discovery
that the prominence-spectra can be seen without an eclipse.

Professor Brayley supplies an interesting paper on the relation
of the luminous prominences to the faculz of the sun. He shows
that there is strong reason for supposing the facule and pro-
minences to be identical, or at least that the latter are the superior
terminations of the former.

Some very singular facts connected with the mean distances of
the asteroids and the commensurability of their periods with that
of Jupiter are pointed out by Professor Kirkwood. He shows that
wherever there is a wider gap than usual between the asteroids
(considered in the order of their distances from the sun), that gap

invariably corresponds with such values of the mean distance as
re

264 Chronicles of Science. [| April,

would give a period having some simple association of commen-
surability with the period of Jupiter. It is well known that
any such association would result in disturbance, and Professor
Kirkwood argues that the particles which, on the nebular hypo-
thesis, would have occupied these vacant zones, must have been so
disturbed by Jupiter, as to adopt eccentric orbits, and so come into
collision with exterior or interior particles. Even if this did not
happen, the disturbance of their orbits would lead to a change of
period and so of mean distance. Hither result serves to account
for the gaps in the asteroidal zone. He considers that very
strong evidence is afforded by these coincidences (which certainly
cannot be looked upon as accidental) in favour of the nebular
hypothesis. He goes on to examine the Saturnian rings, which he
remarks have been quoted in Proctor’s Saturn as furnishing strong
evidence of the nebular hypothesis of Laplace. He shows that the .
great division between the rings corresponds exactly with that
portion of the width of the system where the particles would moye
in periods commensurate with those of the four inner satellites.
The coincidence is certainly most remarkable. The whole paper is
well worthy of careful study, being founded on well-established
mathematical principles, and serving to bring together and account
for a number of remarkable relations in the solar system.

Mr. Stone supplies a paper upon Aboul Hhassan’s catalogue of
240 stars, which he shows to have been derived from Ptolemy’s
catalogue, and not (as Delambre had supposed) from Arzachel’s.
It is known that Ptolemy derived his catalogue from that of
Hipparchus by applying an erroneous correction for precession.
Mr. Stone shows how this fact may have led to the Arabian notion
that the precessional motion is oscillatory. “If this view be
correct,” he says, “ Ptolemy’s want of candour respecting the
nature of his catalogue is thus found to be throwing astronomy into
complexities more than 1100 years after his death.”

4. BOTANY, VEGETABLE MORPHOLOGY AND
PHYSIOLOGY, AND ECONOMIC BOTANY.

Sterility of Hermaphrodite Flowers.—Mr. Thomas Mecham has
observed that the flowers of Hpigea repens are practically dicecious
—since the hermaphrodite flowers are sterile. He is led to specu-
late upon this observation, as to whether the dicecious character
may not be a result of subsequent changes in the development of
a once moncecious form, and suggests that all plants would be pri-
marily moncecious but that there isa kind of exhaustion of the

1869. | Botany and Vegetable Physiology. 265

form—an old age of the race, as of the individual—when accord-
ingly hermaphrodite fertilization becomes inefficient, and it becomes
necessary that the sexual elements of distinct races should be com-
bined to ensure the continuation of the species.

The Botany of the Malvern Hills.—Such spots as the Malvern
Hills are peculiarly interesting to the botanist as well as to the
geologist, and it is because they have special geological features
that they present special botanical developments. The supposed
igneous or metamorphic axis of the Malvern anticlinal carries with
it a certain peculiarity of vegetation which is not met with in the
iunmediately surrounding country, and, in addition to this, the
height of the Hills has rendered them the refuge for Alpine forms
when the Straits of Malvern flowed over the Severn valley. Mr.
Edwin Lees, the Vice-President of the Malvern Field Club, has
brought out the third edition of his little book on the flora of this
district, which must be of great service to those who wish to
explore the range and make the acquaintance of its botanical
rarities. A sketch of the geology and physical geography of the
range is also given, which appears to be considered—and very
rightly—a necessary accompaniment of a local flora in these days.
It is not only, however, by giving the two sets of facts, the bo-
tanical and geological, that the students of local floras should set
forth the important connection of the two studies, but by tracing
out in detail and completely the history of a flora as influenced by
geological changes and the nature of the soil. To do this well
requires great study and much extended observation. Mr. Lees
unfortunately uses the Linnean system, which really diminishes
the value of his book. A special feature of interest in the volume
is the recognition of the cryptogamic species, which often are passed
over in silence in handbooks and pocket floras. Mr. Lees is a well-
known student of these forms, and his account of them may be
considered the most valuable part of his ‘ Botany of the Malvern
Hills.’

The Malvales.—Dr. Maxwell Masters having carefully examined
the relations of the families Malvacee, Sterculiace, and Tiliacese of
Bentham’s and Hooker’s Cohors VI., has arrived at the con-
clision that though it may be desirable for convenience sake to
separate the two former from each other, yet they are so closely
related morphologically, that it is not possible to understand the
peculiar structural relations of the one without comparing them
with the corresponding parts of the others. Dr. Masters considers
the stamens as organs of the highest importance in classification.
“ Not only,” he says, “does the connection of the stamens furnish
one of the best characters of the entire group, but even in the
discrimination of the smaller sub-divisions (genera) the appearances
presented by the column are of the greatest value.”

266 Chronicles of Science. [ April,

Oblique Leaves.—In.a late volume of the Boston Society of
Natural History, Dr. Wilder shows that in the Elm the larger
portion is in the upper or most elevated side; the leaves not lying
with their edges horizontally. In the Hornbeam the outer or lower
portion is the largest. De Candolle and Herbert Spencer have
both tried to account for obliquity in leaves, but Dr. Wilder con-
siders their reasoning to be insufficient. Dr. W. believes it to be
caused by no external agency, but by an inherent constitutional
force. The German botanists, especially Schimper and Braun, have
long since investigated the development of leaves in connection with
the general subject of phyllotaxis. They found that each leaf was
primarily a swelling or wave of growth freeing itself from the axis
of the embryo; and that differences in size between the sides of a
leaf were caused by the greater force of the wave in its upward or
downward movement. Such peculiarities as have been pointed out
between the leaves of the Elm and the Hop Hornbeam exist therefore °
in the earliest formation of the leaf, while yet connected with the
axis by a broad base, and before any constriction for the petiole has
taken place. Professor Agassiz considers the word “ antistrophe ”
as better expressing the inverse relation of corresponding parts on
the opposite sides of a line than “symmetry.” Dr. Wilder has
shown that the corresponding leaves on each side of a shoot are
symmetrical.

The Rubi, of Plymouth—The Rey. A. Bloxham names a new
Rubus after Mr. Briggs, who has recently given a very interesting
account of the stations of the Rubi in his own neighbourhood. The
marvellously protean genus ftubus is one of the most interesting
studies at the present time for English botanists. By careful
examination we may hope to see definite relations of cause and
effect pointed out between the various species and their stations.

The Culture of Opiwm.—Mr. Hefller, of Smyrna, describes
some of the difficulties and risks attending the cultivation of the
poppy in Asia Minor. The agricultural implements used are most
primitive, and no irrigation is appled. The poppy must be grown
mm a moist but not a too wet soil, and hence is very much sub-
ject to injury from variations of season. Accordingly it is sown
at three different periods of the season, so that if one crop should
fail, another may have a chance of success. This method also
enables the labourers to gather first one field and then another,
which is desirable from the scarcity of hands and the necessity of
gathering just at the right time in the plant’s development. When
the seed capsule is considered to have arrived at maturity, the
gatherers go into the fields and in a very skilful manner make
horizontal and vertical incisions in the outer portion of the capsule,
being very careful not to penetrate to the seeds. On the morning
following this operation, the cuts are found to be covered with

1869. | Botany and Vegetable Physiology. 267

milky juice which has oozed from them, and which the gatherer
scrapes off with his knife and wipes on a leaf. When he has accu-
mulated a sufficient quantity on a leaf to make a ball, it is rolled
up and left to dryin the sun. ‘The period between the making of
the incisions and gathering the juice is a very critical one, for
should a shower of rain come on, as it often does at this season, the
juice is entirely lost. The opium-growers are generally small
landowners, who superintend the cultivation themselves with their
families. The cakes are bought by travelling merchants, who
convey them in sealed bags to Smyrna, and some few to Constan-
tinople, where the bags are opened after being sold to the city
merchants. Then they are carefully examined for adulteration and
as to quality, three qualities being distinguished. It requires the
greatest skill and long experience to become a good judge of opium
cakes—odour, weight, texture, &c., being all important.
Akazga.—Akazga is a poison known from the reports of
travellers, used as an ordeal on the west coast of Africa, and found
by two French chemists to exert physiological effects similar to
those of nux-vomica. A supposed sorcerer is made to drink an
infusion of Akazga bark and then to walk over small Akazga sticks.
If guilty, he stumbles and tries to pass the sticks as though they
were great logs, eventually falling in convulsions and being clubbed
by the surrounding savages. If innocent, the kidneys are said to
act freely, and the poison is supposed to be thus eliminated. Dr.
Fraser, of Edinburgh, has received specimens of Akazga in bundles
of long, slender, and crooked stems, and examined its botanical
relations and chemical properties. Consulting with Professor Oliver,
of Kew, Professor Balfour, of Edinburgh, and Professor Dickson, of
Glasgow, he comes to the conclusion that the Akazga plant is new
to the flora of West Africa, and he supposes it may be a new
species of Strychnos. He has succeeded in separating from it a
crystalline alkaloid, closely resembling Strychnia, but differing from
it in being precipitated by alkaline bicarbonates. Dr. Fraser made
a careful comparison of the microscopic structure of the stems of
Akazga and Strychnos nux-yomica, and was thus able to separate
them still more closely. Amongst the parcels of Akazga which he
examined, were certain twigs which had a different stem-structure,
and failed to yield the chemical products of the other specimens. Is
it not possible that those who escape in the ordeal may have been
fortunate enough to get an infusion prepared from this “ false
Akazega” by mistake? Dr. Fraser terms the new alkaloid Akazgia.
The Uses of Pine Leaves.—In a paper lately read before the
Society of Arts, Mr. P. L. Simmonds states that a new and curious
application of a waste product is the utilization of the acicular
leaflets of pine trees. Near Breslau, in Silesia, are two establish-
ments, one a factory where the pine leayes are converted into what

268 Chronicles of Science. | April,

is called ‘‘ forest wool,” or wadding ; the other, an establishment for
invalids, where the waters used in the manufacture of this pine wool
are employed as curative agents. The manufacture has extended,
for there are now factories at Runda, in the Thiiringer-Wald; at
Yonkoping, in Sweden ; Wagenerger, in Holland ; in parts of France,
and other places. ‘Two cases of these products were shown at the
last Paris and Havre exhibitions, which contained various illustra-
tions, in the shape of wool for stuffing mattresses and other articles
of furniture, instead of horse-hair ; vegetable wadding, and hygienic
flannel for medical application ; essential oil for rheumatism and skin
diseases ; cloth made from the fibre; articles of dress, such as inner
vests, drawers, hose, shirts, coverlets, chest preservers, &c., and other
useful applications. In the preparation of the textile material an
ethereal oil is produced, which is emp!oyed as a curative agent for
burning, and as a useful solvent. The liquid remaining trom the
decoction of the leaves is used for medical baths, The membranous °
substance and refuse are compressed into blocks and used as fuel;
trom the resinous matter they contain, sufficient gas is produced for
illuminating the factory in which the manufacture is carried on.

The Structure of the Diatomaceous Frustule.—Dr. John Denis
Macdonald, F.R.S., of the Royal Navy, has published a very ela-
borate paper on the composition of the Diatom’s shell, and the part
it plays im the process of division. He finds the views expressed in
the writings of Dr. Wallich (particularly in his paper on ‘Tricera-
tium, and on the diatom-valve, in the ‘Quarterly Journal of
Microscopical Science’) most in accordance with his own independent
researches. Dr. Wallich appears to have been the first to set forth
clearly that the middle piece, or “ zone,” running round between
the two large valves of the diatom, consists, while the frustule is
intact, of two distinct plates, the one received within the other; and
that the growth of such plates can only take place at the free
margins, or those which are not connected with the valves. Dr.
Macdonald shows that by the process of division (valve being formed
within valve), the resulting diatom will ultimately become reduced
to a very small size; and he observes that the species would be
indefinitely diminished were it not for the process of conjugation,
in which Mr. Thwaites showed that the produced sporangial
frustule was very much larger than the parent cells. This dimi-
nution of size is very well illustrated in a diagram representing the
progeny of the two valves of a divided Biddulphia, and by it the
ultimate relations of the dividing frustules are exhibited.

Reproductive Organs of Lichens.— MM. A, Famitzin and
J. Boranetsky have been recently investigating this matter, and
are led to conclude that—

1. Not only algae and fungi, but lichens also, are provided with
ZOOSpores,

1869. | Botany and Vegetable Physiology. 269

2. Zoospores have been discovered in three very different genera
of lichens, viz. Physcia, Cladonia, and Evernia; and as these
genera were selected undesignedly, it is probable that zoospores
exist in all other lichens furnished with chlorophyll.

3. The identity of free gonidia with unicellular alge (Cystococcus
of Nageli) may be considered as demonstrated ; consequently this is
not a distimct genus, but only a phase of development of a lichen,

4. The culture of the freed gonidia of Physcia, Cladonia, and
Eivernia led us to expect that other lichens would afford forms
corresponding with rudimentary alge. Our researches prove this
to be well founded. Vertical sections of the thalli of Peltigera and
Collema, cultivated on moist earth, showed the filaments in dis-
integration, the augmentation in size of the gonidia, and their
transformation into glomerules composed of spherical cellules. The
gonimic cellules of Peltigera and Collema continued to live when
separated from the thallus; those of Peltigera were identical with
an alga called /olycoccus; those of Collema produced organisms
sunilar to Nostoc. Consequently these three genera of alg, hitherto
regarded as distinct, are in reality only the gonidia of lichens in a
state of development when separated from the thalli which produced
them.

New Lichens.—The Rey. J. Crombie describes in the ‘ Journal of
Botany’ a number of new lichens from the well-searched neighbour-
hoods of the New Forest and Scotch moors. What he has been able
to do is an encouragement to others to pursue the very fascinating
study of these little plants ; taking the student over mountain rocks,
among old ruined towers, or under vast and aged tree stems—with
a geological hammer and a strong knife in his hand, and no need of
great tin-boxes and blotting-paper.

Deaths.—Carl von Martius, the great botanist and traveller,
died at Munich, in December last, aged 74. Adalbert Schnitzlein,
Professor of Botany at Erlangen, died in October, from the result
of an accident whilst botanizing in the Tyrol.

The late Professor Harvey.—Those who would like to read
the history of a good, well-loved, and great botanist should see the
recently-published memoir of the late Professor of Botany in
Trinity College, Dublin.

The Chair of Botany at Trinity College, Dublin.—We are
glad to find that the fears of Dr. Wright’s friends as to the
election to the late vacancy in Dublin have not been fulfilled.
Trinity College has not followed the nomination of the Science and
Art Department, and Professor Wyville Thomson, though appointed
lecturer in the Government College of Science, has not obtained
the University chair, to which Dr. Edward Perceval Wright has
been elected.

270 Chronicles of Science. | April,

5. CHEMISTRY.

Wirsovt exception, the most important contribution to chemical
science which has been published for some time is the paper
recently read by Professor Graham, the Master of the Mint, on
Hydrogenium. The author discovered some time ago that the
metal palladium was capable of absorbmg, or occluding, as he
terms it, 800 or 900 times its volume of hydrogen; and the idea
has forced itself upon his mind, that palladium with its occluded
hydrogen was simply an alloy of a volatile metal hydrogen, in which
the volatility of the one element is restrained by its union with the
other, and which owes its metallic aspect equally to both con-
stituents. How far such a view is borne out by the properties of
the compound substance in question, will appear by the following .
examination of the properties of what, assuming its metallic cha-
racter, may be named hydrogentum :— ;

The density of palladium when charged with 800 or 900 times
its volume of hydrogen gas is perceptibly lowered, being reduced
from 12°3 to 11:79; and, ultimately, as the mean of several con-
cordant experiments, the density of hydrogenium was found to be
1:951, or nearly 2.

The tenacity of the hydrogen-charged wire was found to be
81-29, that of the original palladium wire being 100. It is seen,
therefore, that the tenacity of the palladium is reduced by the
addition of hydrogen, but not to any great extent. It is a question
whether the degree of tenacity that still remains is reconcilable
with any view other than that the second element present possesses
of itself a degree of tenacity such as is only found in metals.

The electric conductivity was tested by submitting a palladium
wire before and after charging with hydrogen to trial, in comparison
with a wire of german silver of equal diameter and length, at 10°5°.
The conducting power of the several wires was found as follows,
being referred to pure copper as 100 :—

0
9

lefiliyehiybesy AR ag) de
Palladium + hydrogen

oro
on

A reduced conducting power is generally observed in alloys,
and the charged palladium wire falls 25 per cent. But the con-
ducting power remains still considerable, and the result may be
construed to favour the metallic character of the second constituent
of the wire. As regards magnetism it was found that the addition
of hydrogen to palladium added manifestly to the small natural
magnetism of palladium. It follows, therefore, that hydrogenium
is magnetic, a property which is confined to metals and their
compounds. This magnetism is not perceptible in hydrogen gas,

1869. | Chenistry. 271

which was placed both by Faraday and by M. E. Becquerel at the
bottom of the list of diamagnetic substances. This gas is allowed
to be upon the turning pomt between the paramagnetic and dia-
magnetic classes. But magnetism is so hable to extinction under
the influence of heat, that the magnetism of a metal may very
possibly disappear entirely when it is fused or vaporized, as appears
with hydrogen in the form of gas. As palladium stands high in
the series of the paramagnetic metals, hydrogenium must be allowed
to rise out of that class, and to take place in the strictly magnetic
group, with iron, nickel, cobalt, chromium, and manganese.

The chemical properties of hydrogenium distinguish it from
ordinary hydrogen. ‘he palladium alloy precipitates mercury and
calomel from a solution of the chloride of mercury without any
disengagement of hydrogen; that is, hydrogenium decomposes
chloride of mercury, while hydrogen does not. Hydrogen (asso-
ciated with palladium) unites with chlorine and iodine in the dark,
reduces a persalt of iron to the state of protosalt, converts red
prussiate of potash into yellow prussiate, and has considerable
deoxidizing powers. It appears to be the active form of hydrogen,
as ozone is of oxygen. A wire charged with hydrogen, it rubbed
with the powder of magnesia (to make the flame luminous), burns
like a waxed thread when ignited in the flame of a lamp.

The general conclusions which appear to flow from this inquiry
are—that in palladium fully charged with hydrogen, there exists
a compound of palladium and hydrogen in a proportion which
may approach to equal equivalents ; that both substances are solid,
metallic, and of a white aspect; that the alloy contains about
20 volumes of palladium united with 1 volume of hydrogenium;
and that the density of the latter is about 2, a little higher than
magnesium, to which hydrogenium may be supposed to bear some
analogy ; that hydrogenium has a certain amount of tenacity, and
possesses the electricial conductivity of a metal; and finally, that
hydrogenium takes its place among magnetic metals. The latter
fact may have its bearing upon the appearance of hydrogenium in
meteoric iron, in association with certain other magnetic elements.

A paper on meteoric iron has been communicated by M. Sta-
nislaus Meunier to the ‘Chemical News.’ The numerous researches
hitherto made with regard to the composition of meteoric irons
have demonstrated in these extra-terrestrial bodies the existence of
the following compounds :—

1. The general mass which is formed by the union of several
alloys in which iron and nickel are predominant, and which we
will designate under the name of nickeliferous iron. Among the
substances comprised in this mass, the Ramacite, the Lanite, and
the Plessite will be specially mentioned.

2. The carburetted iron, comprising the Campbellite and the

272 Chronicles of Science. [ April,

Chalypite, recognizable by the carboniferous deposit which they
give under the action of acids.

3. The sulphuretted iron, or Z’rdilite, which appears in nodules
and in veins.

4, The phosphide of iron and nickel or Schreibersite. 5. Gra-
phite. 6. The external crust. 7. The stony particles or crystals.
8. The gases retained by occlusion. 9. Several compounds which
are only met with exceptionally, as Chromite, &c. Space will not
allow us to give in detail the very ingenious methods adopted by
the author for separating these different substances. It must be
sufficient to say that he has succeeded in isolating each of these
components in a state of purity and ascertaining their composition,
with the exception of the gases, owing to his having employed for
their separation a method which Professor Graham has since shown
to be inapplicable.

Professor Stas, to whose researches chemists are so much in-
debted, has published a modification of Gay Lussac’s method of
estimating silver in the wet way. In the ordinary process a
standard solution of salt is employed, but, as the precipitated
chloride of silver is soluble in a solution of salt, it is impossible to
carry out this principle to the minute accuracy which is sometimes
required. M. Stas has now discovered that by substituting a
bromide for a chloride in precipitating silver, this error may be
absolutely removed.

An Italian chemist, Massino Levy, has devised a method of pre-
paring nitrogen gas, which may be useful in some cases. It consists
in heating bichromate of ammonia in a retort; the salt is trans-
formed into green sesquioxide of chromium, and disengages vapour
of water and nitrogen gas. In the ordinary process of bleaching
wood-pulp it is very difficult to avoid a yellow or reddish tint, and if
iron is present the paste generally blackens in a very short time.

M. Orioli has discovered a process of bleaching in which these
objectionable results are obviated. ‘To 100 kilogrammes of wood-
pulp, 800 grammes of oxalic acid are added; this serves the double
purpose of bleaching the colouring matter already oxidized, and of
neutralizing alkaline principles. ‘Two kilogrammes of sulphate
of alumina, free from iron, are now added. This does not bleach of
itself, but it forms with the colouring matter of the wood a nearly
colourless lake, which enables the brilliancy of the product to be
heightened.

At one of the recent meetings of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, Mr. Sidebotham drew attention to the large
number of galls, which appeared to be much commoner now than
they were a few years ago. They were produced by the gall fly,
Synips Lignicola ; and, from experiments which he had tried, it

1869. | Chemistry. 273

appeared that the English galls were about two-thirds the value of
the foreign ones, or, according to the present market value, they
were worth about 66s. a cwt. The galls, even when in great num-
bers, do not appear to injure the trees. The proper time to collect
them would be the middle of September, when the flies have all
eaten their way out and laid their eggs for another year’s supply.
In the plantations where these galls abound, a man might collect
easily half a cwt. in a day.

A not uncommon adulteration of glycerin is to mix sugar and
dextrin with it. These substances have not hitherto been easy to
discover when mixed with the glycerin; the following process is,
however, said to answer perfectly :-—To 5 drops of the glycerin to
be tested, add 100 to 120 drops of water, 3 to 4 centigrammes
of ammonium molybdate, 1 drop of pure nitric acid (25 per cent.),
and boil for about a mimute and a half. IPf any sugar or dextrin is
present, the mixture assumes a deep-blue colour.

The abominable odour of bisulphide of carbon is a great bar to
its employment in the arts. This, according to M. Millon, can
soon be got rid of. The sulphide of carbon is first washed several
times with distilled water, as in the purification of ether, and then
transferred to a retort of large capacity containing quick-lime.
After twenty-four hours contact the sulphide is distilled off from
the lime, and received in a flask partially filled with copper turnings,
previously roasted to remove all traces of fatty matter, and after-
wards reduced by hydrogen. The lime remaining in the retort is
strongly coloured. All the disagreeable odour of ordinary bisulphide
of carbon is removed by this treatment, and when the nose is placed
close to the mouth of the receiver, an ethereal odour is only
perceived. With bisulphide of carbon thus purified, MM. Millon
and Conimaille have separated the perfume of milk to the extent of
recognizing certain plants eaten by the cow—the Smyrnium
olusatruim among others.

Professor A. Silvestri, of the University of Catana, has recently
discovered a great quantity of citric acid in the fruit of the
Cyphomandra betacea, a plant belonging to the family of Solanacex
which is found here and there in the gardens of Sicily. It is
indigenous to Mexico, and has spread itself into Peru and other
parts of South America, where it 1s called Tomate de la paz. It is
a woody plant, and attains to the height of 4 metres. On analysis
the fruit gives from 1 to 1°5 per cent. of pure citric acid. This
acid, which probably exists also in our edible tomato, has already
been discovered by Bertagnini in the potato, and will doubtless
be found in all plants belonging to this tribe.

A plan of testing the strength of acetic acid, likely to be of
great use to photographers and others, has been published in

274 Chronicles of Science. [ April,

the ‘ Photographic Journal.’ It was observed, we believe, indepen-
dently by M. Berthelot and Mr. E. Chambers Nicholson, that an
acid which, although of a high degree of purity, is not glacial,
becomes inflammable when the temperature is raised to the boiling-
point. If we take, for instance, about a drachm of the acid of 95

er cent., and heat it in a test-tube to the boiling-point, it will be
found that the vapour takes fire on applying a lighted match, and
burns steadily as long as the ebullition is maintained ; if, however,
10 per cent. of water be mixed with the sample, there will be
great difficulty in causing inflammation, and the vapour, when
ignited, will only burn with a lambent flame of pale-blue separated
cones, whilst below this strength the acid vapour is altogether un-
inflammable. By this test then (avoiding a too prolonged ebulli-
tion, which increases the strength of a weak acid), we have a ready
means of estimating the quality of liquid samples of a high degree .
of concentration, without resorting to the more tedious method of
acidimetry. It has only to be stated, in conclusion, that the boil-
ing-point of the ordinary qualities of acetic acid, although higher,
is so little removed from that of water, that the indications of the
thermometer are not much more to be relied upon than those of the
hydrometer. In many respects carbolic acid imitates the deport-
ment of acetic acid in the characters above described; it likewise
becomes glacial upon separation of the last traces of water.

M. Chabrier has studied at nitrification works, in particular
circumstances, the different degrees of oxidation of the nitrogen,
and especially nitrous acid. He has devoted attention to the esti-
mation of this acid in saline mixtures, where nitrites and nitrates
occur together with reducing agents, and has submitted to the
Academy the result of the first part of his researches. The facts
contained in this memoir are deduced from the following conclu-
sions:—Ist, in liquids containing at the same time nitrites, nitrates,
and organic matter, the nitrous acid of the nitrites may be deter-
mined by the decolourizing action which hyposulphite of soda
exerts on the iodide of potassium in presence of starch, and dilute
sulphuric acid ; 2nd, in the absence of nitrates and organic matter,
the determination could be more easily made by the decolourizing
of indigo solution, operating with the aid of heat, but out of contact
with the air.

A combination of iodic acid with oxide of ethyl has been
prepared by M. K. Lisensko. He finds that a mixture of equal
volumes of ethyl iodide, and dry ether, readily acts upon argentic
iodate. If the temperature is not allowed to rise above 10° C,,
the liquid remains colourless, and the new ether undecomposed.
The solution distils between 37° and 40°. The distillate at first
floats upon the water with which it had been mixed, but on
passing a current of air through the liquid, in order to drive off

1869.| Chemistry. 275

ethyl ether, it sinks to the bottom of the vessel. All attempts at
further purification failed; the liquid boils at 75° under decomposi-
tion. Organic chlorides are converted into iodides by the action of
concentrated iodhydric acid. M. A. Lieben finds that this method
of conversion seems to be a general one, and subject to limitation
only in so far as some iodides at the moment of their formation are
converted into hydride. Ethyl chloride, at 130° C., is almost com-
pletely converted into iodide, without evolution of gas or formation
of any bye-product. The same is the case with butyl and amyl
chloride.

Lipowitz has recommended the use of hypochlorite of lime
(bleaching powder) as a means of detecting the adulteration of olive
ou, and also of sweet almond oil, with the oil of poppy-seed. When
eight parts of either olive oil or oil of sweet almonds is rubbed
up and shaken with one part of bleaching powder, and left at rest,
it will be seen that even after some four or five hours a layer
of clean and limpid oil separates and floats at the top and surface of
the mixture, which layer is, if the oils operated upon are pure, at
least half the bulk of the original mixture ; if, however, poppy-seed
oil is mixed with either of the two oils just mentioned, and the same
experiment then repeated, the mixture takes the appearance of a
liniment, from which no oil separates. Sweet oil of almonds adul-
terated with one-eighth part of poppy-seed oil behaves as if it were
almost pure poppy-seed oil. Btichner and Brande have found
Lipowitz’s statement correct as regards sweet oil of almonds, but not
as regards oil of olives; but they add that the olive oil they
operated upon was already old. The action of Lipowitz’s reagent
is explaied by the fact of the rapid oxidation of all so-called drying
oils, which on drying yield solid products before entirely changing,
by continuously absorbing oxygen into water and carbonic acid.
Linseed oil, hemp-seed oil, poppy-seed oil, oil from walnuts, croton
oil, castor oil, are all drying oils. The drying of drying oils is, in
fact, a process of slow oxidation of these oils.

Professor Parkes, F.R.S., of Netley, calls attention to the fact
that it has always been seen that the action or non-action of water
on lead could not be entirely accounted for by the usual statenients
on the subject; and lately Dr. Frankland has made a curious
observation, which may throw hght on the subject. He found that
water which acted on lead lost this power after passing through a
filter of animal charcoal. He discovered this to be owing to
a minute quantity of phosphate of lime passing into the water from
the charcoal. On comparing two natural waters, that of the river
Kent, which acts violently on lead, and that of the river Vyrnwy,
which, though very soft, has no action on lead, he found that the
latter water contained an appreciable amount of phosphate of lime,

276 Chronicles of Science. [ April,

while none could be detected in the Kent water. This observation
may probably explain much of the discrepancy of evidence in
respect of the action of soft water on lead.

Professor Tomlinson has advanced a very good explanation of a
circumstance which has often been a stumbling-block for students :—
Why does hydrochloric acid fume when let out into the air, while
ammonia, which has a much stronger attraction for water, does not ?
After making several observations of specilic gravity, boiling-points,
&c., Professor Tomlinson comes to the conclusion that, although
ammoniacal gas and hydrochloric acid gas are greedily absorbed by
water, there must be some important differences in the constitution
of the respective solutions. The alkaline solution is much lighter
than its own bulk of water, whilst the acid solution is much
heavier ; also the presence of ammoniacal gas in water lowers its
boiling-point, while the presence of hydrochloric acid in water has .
a contrary effect. Hence the mode of combination between ammonia
and water must be different from that between hydrochloric acid
and water. The one must be a case of simple adhesion, the other
of true chemical combination as well as adhesion. Ammonia Jet out
into moist air simply adheres to the moisture, and increases its
volume. Vapour of alcohol, ether, &., does the same. Now any
amount of aqueous vapour that the air can maintain in an invisible,
elastic state, at a given temperature, it can maintain with increased
effect in the case of ammonia vapour, alcohol vapour, &c. Hence
the combination of these vapours with the moisture of the air is
necessarily an invisible compound. Hydrochloric acid gas, on the
other hand, let out into the air, combines chemically with the
moisture, producing condensation or diminution of bulk. Hence
the compound is visible, just as the condensation of pure steam in
air produces visible vapours. 'uming nitric acid and Nordhausen
sulphuric acid are also cases in point. Concentrated nitric acid,
exposed to the air, absorbs moisture until it attains the density
of 1:424, when it distils unaltered at a boiling-point of 250°.

Dr. Carter Moffat has succeeded in fixing on paper the beau-
tiful figures which are produced when oils, &., are allowed to fall
drop by drop on a surface of pure water, and which Professor
Tomlinson has shown to be characteristic of each oil. The method
is very simple ; and is, briefly, to obtain a pattern on water, note the
time, lay on the paper, glazed side downwards, for an instant, take
out, draw through a plate of ink, remove, and wash with water. The
process is capable of great extension, and will be valuable to paper-
stainers and others. Several books of oleographs, as these figures
are called, have been presented by Dr. Moflat to different idi-
viduals interested in them, and have elicited cordial approbation.

According to M. Oser, every time that solutions of sugar fer-
ment under the influence of yeast, besides alcohol, a new alkaloid is

1869. ] Chemistry. 277.

produced. The chlorhydrate of this base crystallizes in hygroscopic
tables, which become brown on exposure to the air. It appears
that all fermented liquors contain the new alkaloid, or at least one
of its compounds. The presence of such a substance in wine and in
beer, till now entirely unknown, will doubtless explain certain effects
of fermented liquors on the animal economy—ettects which cannot
be attributable to alcohol alone.

PRocEEDINGS OF THE CHEMICAL SocIETY.

The first meeting of the season took place on Thursday, Nov. 5,
1868, Dr. W. A. Miller, V.P.R.S., &c., Vice-President, in the chair.

The first paper read was by Mr. W. H. Perkin, “On the
Hydride of Butyro-Salicyl and Butyric-Coumaric Acid.” The
author’s previous communications had shown that hydride of aceto-
salicyl is an intermediate stage in the formation of coumarin from
acetic anhydride and hydride of sodium-salicyl. By the substitution
of other anhydrides for the acetic, he had obtained homologues of
coumarin, and he now describes the hydride of butyro-salicyl, which
forms the intermediate stage in the synthesis of butyric coumarin,
as hydride of aceto-salicyl does in that of ordinary coumarin. It
is an oil boiling at 260°-270° C. Hydrate of potassium decomposes
it into hydride of potassium-salicyl and butyrate of potassium, and
it yields with acetic anhydride a compound perfectly parallel with
those produced by the action of the anhydride on the hydrides of
ethyl-salicyl, aceto-salicyl, &e. When boiled with butyric anhydride
and butyrate of sodium it yields butyric coumarin. By the action
of hydrate of potassium, butyric coumarin yields butyric-coumaric
acid, a true homologue of ordinary coumaric acid, and, like it, capable
of yielding only monometallic derivatives.

The next was one “ On the Application of Chlorine Gas to the
Toughening and Refining of Gold,” by F. B. Miller, F.C.S., Assayer
in the Sydney branch of the Royal Mint. The methods now in use
for effecting the above purposes are all more or less unsatisfactory,
and the author has therefore devised a process which appears to satisfy
all the requirements of the case in a single operation. A French
clay crucible is saturated with borax. The gold is then melted in this
crucible with a little borax, and a stream of chlorine gas is allowed
to pass through it by means of a tobacco-pipe stem. In a few
hours the whole of the silver is converted into chloride, which floats
on the gold. The borax prevents the absorption of the chloride by
the crucible, and also its volatilization, except in very minute quan-
tities. As soon as the gold has become solid, the still liquid chloride
of silver is poured off, and the gold is now found to have a fineness
of say 993 parts in 1000. The apparent loss of gold is very little

VOL. VI. U

278 Chronicles of Science. [ April,

greater than is found in ordinary gold melting—being 2°9 parts in
10,000—whereas in the ordinary process it is 2. The Chairman,
in proposing a yote of thanks to the author, remarked upon the
great importance of the new process. Much of the gold imported
into this country contained 60 or 70 ounces of silver in 1000,
which could not at the present time be profitably extracted. The
new method would probably be soon adopted by English assayers.

This was followed by a “ Note on the Specific Gravity and
Boiling-point of Chromyl Dichloride,’ by T. E. Thorpe, Dalton
Scholar i the Laboratory of Owen’s College, Manchester. The
author prepared the liquid by distilling an intimate mixture of ten
parts sodium chloride and twelve parts potassium dichromate with
thirty parts strong sulphuric acid. He removed the free chlorine
by repeated distillation in an atmosphere of carbonic acid. The
specific gravity of the liquid so obtained was, at a temperature of |
25° C., 1:92. The boiling-point, at a pressure of 733 millimetres,
was found to be 116°°8. The dichloride cannot, however, be
distilled without some slight decomposition.

The same author, Mr. T. E. Thorpe, then gave a paper “On
the Analysis of the Ashes of a Diseased Orange Tree (Citrus
aurantium).” The orange plantations along the south-eastern
coast of Spain and in the adjacent Balearic Isles have recently
been visited with a severe epidemic, the rapid progress of which
was naturally viewed with no little anxiety by the people, since
the culture and exportation of oranges constitute one of their
principal industries. The origin of the disease is involved in com-
plete obscurity, and as yet it has bafiled all attempts at remedial
measures. ‘The first symptoms are observed in the leaves, which
turn yellow and drop off; a most disgusting odour exhales from the
roots, and in a few days the tree succumbs. The violence of the
disease is now, happily, much abated, and it appears to be dying out.
We have no space for the details of the analyses. Tables are
given which show the percentage composition of the ash of the
roots, stem, branches, and fruit, and the results are compared with
the analyses of the ash of healthy plants made by Rowney and How,
and by Dr. Richardson. The most remarkable differences observed
in the comparison are given in the following table, showing the
percentages of lime and phosphoric acid :—

Lime. Eee Acid.

Root of diseased plant.. .. .. 61°82

Stem -Gudittoawree as Oni aus TOMO Ve, 2°66
Root of healthy plant .. .. .. 49°89 .. 18°47
Stem yor.cliiho see MERE IC AN PuclO SLGieiay ys er (OG

The phosphoric acid is thus shown to be in deficiency in the
diseased plant, and the lime in excess. Similar differences cannot,
however, be traced in the ash of the fruit.

1869. | Chemistry. 279

At the meeting on November 19, 1868, Dr. Warren De la Rue,
F.R.S., the President, in introducing the business of the meeting,
observed that their object on the present occasion was to discuss cer-
tain proposed alterations in the bye-laws, by which a greater number
of Fellows would be admitted to a share in the government of the
Society. The Council had long felt anxious to effect this object ;
and finding that the Charter did not permit them to increase the
number of the Council, they now proposed to raise the number of
Vice-Presidents, who had not filled the chair, from four to six.
This alteration would, it was felt, infuse some new blood into the
governing body.

Formal alterations in the bye-laws, to provide for the proposed
change, were then carried unanimously.

Mr. W. H. Perkin then made a communication “On the Action
of Chloride of Lime on Aniline.”—In this paper the author points
out the difference between Runge’s blue and aniline purple, and
shows that the blue can be changed into the purple when decom-
posed by heat.

Professor Church gave an analysis of a meteorite from South
Africa.

The meteor in question was seen by a native to fall at Daniel's
Kuil, a place about two days’ journey N.N.E. of Griqua Town.
The native said it was warm, and smelt of sulphur, when he picked
it up. He offered it to the Rev. James Good, a missionary in
Griqua Town, who declined it, and recommended him to take it
back to the place where he found it! Instead of domg so, he gave
it to Captain Nicolas Waterboer, and from his hands it passed into
those of Mr. J. R. Gregory, of Russell Street, Covent Garden, then
at the Cape, and is now in the British Museum.

It was small in size, of an irregular oblong form, weighing
2 Ibs. 50z. It was covered with a dark-grey crust, speckled here
and there with reddish-brown spots, these spots arising from a
partial oxidation of the ferruginous materials of the stone. Its
density was rather low, namely, 3°657 and 3° 678, as found in two
determinations. The following was given as the analysis of the
meteorite :—

Nickel-iron (containing 5°18 per cent. nickel), 29°72; Trdilite,
6:02; Schreibersite, 1°59; Sihca and Silicates, chiefly olivine
and labradorite, 61°53. Carbon, oxygen, other constituents, and
loss, 1°14.

A paper on the “Action of Salt on Chessylite” then followed
by the same author.

At the meeting of the Chemical Society, on December 3rd, the
President announced that the Council had that evening adopted a

uv 2

280 Chronicles of Science. [ April,

resolution which would, it was believed, tend to promote scientific
investigation. At the present time gentlemen were frequently
deterred from the prosecution of interesting investigations by the
great expense which they entailed upon the experimenter. ‘To miti-
gate this difficulty it was now resolved that a certain sum of money
not exceeding 50/. should be set aside annually as a grant fund in
aid of original research. Any claims for grants from this fund
which were sent in would be investigated by a committee consisting
of four members of council. The Committee recommended that,
except in special cases, each single grant should not exceed 100.
In accordance with this resolution, gentlemen who wished to pro-
secute researches were now invited to apply in writing to the
Secretary for grants. It was of course to be understood that
results obtained with the assistance of such grants must be com-
municated in the first instance to the Chemical Society.

Two papers followed of great theoretical interest, but too
abstruse to bear condensation here. They were “ Researches on
the Action of Sodium on the Ethers of the Fatty Acids,” by Pro-
fessor Wanklyn, and on some compounds of ‘‘ Phosphorus with

Nitrogen,” by Dr, J. H. Gladstone.

On December 17th the only paper was by Dr. J. Emerson
Reynolds, “ On the Isolation of the Missing Sulphur Urea.” The
new substance crystallizes in long fine needles or in short thick
prisms, in either case belonging to the trimetric system. It is
not deliquescent in moderately dry air, is very soluble in water
and alcohol, and sparingly so m ether. The solution froths slightly
on agitation, has a neutral reaction, and a somewhat bitter taste.
Heated with water in a sealed tube for some hours to 140° C., it is
reconyerted into sulpho-cyanate of ammonium, as may be shown
by the iron test. The urea does not give a colour-reaction with
the test. Hydrochloric and sulphuric acids effect a similar change.
The substance fuses at 156° C. Heated to a higher temperature
in a closed tube it evolves sulphide of ammonium, carbonic disul-
phide and ammonia; the mixture blackens, a yellow oil distils
over, and a white mass remains which strongly resembles Liebig’s
hydromellone. A beautifully-crystallized nitrate of the new urea was
prepared by treating the strong aqueous solution with nitric acid of
sp. gr. 1:25. No hydrochlorate nor oxalate could be obtained.

At the meeting on January 21st, the first paper read was,
“On the Chemical Composition of Canaiiba Wax,” by Neyil Story
Maskelyne, M.A. This wax is the product of a palm—the Coper-
nicia cerifera — known to the Brazilians as the Canaitiba tree.
The glaucous coating which protects the younger leaves contains
the wax in the proportion of about 50 grains to the leaf. It is
collected and melted into a mass, and in this state constitutes a

1869.] Chemistry. 281

pale yellow or greenish body, somewhat harder and less resinous
than the wax yielded by the noble palm of the Cordilleras. Its
specific gravity is 0°99907, and its melting-point 84° C. The
author found that the wax contained no less than one-third of its
mass of free wax alcohol—a fact of no little interest in vegetable
physiology.

A paper then followed on a subject of great importance to
metallurgists, namely, “The Connection between the Mechanical
Qualities of Malleable Iron and Steel, and the Amount of Phos-
phorus they Contain,” by Dr. B. H. Paul. It is generally con-
sidered that very small quantities of phosphorus in malleable iron
and steel are most prejudicial to the quality of the metal. Quite
recently an eminent metallurgist had stated as a fact that much
less than 3 per cent. of phosphorus produces a decided and injurious
effect on steel. The author had, however, been unable to discover
any evidence sufficient to justify such a conclusion, and still less
any reasonable explanation of it. He had recently had an oppor-
tunity of testing the truth of this conclusion, by determining the
phosphorus in some samples of the iron and steel made by the new
nitrate of soda process, from British pig-iron known to contain
phosphorus. Seven bars of iron and two of steel, made by the
Heaton process were examined; their tensile strength and exten-
sion had been determined by Mr. Kirkaldy. The iron bars had a
tensile strength of from 46,547 to 52,842 lbs. per square inch of
area, and an extension, when subjected to this strain, of from 21
to 28°6 per cent. of their length. The two cast-steel bars had
tensile strengths of 80,916 and 106,602 lbs., and extended to 3°3
13°7 per cent. of their lengths. In the iron bars the author found
144 to °38 per cent of phosphorus (average °257 per cent.), and
in the two steel bars ‘24 and -241 per cent. The author therefore
thinks himself justified m asserting that the commonly received
opinion on this subject does not always represent the truth. An
animated discussion followed the reading of this paper.

On February 4th the members assembled to hear a lecture by
Dr. Wallace, on the “Chemistry of Sugar Refining.’ This was
too long to allow of our condensing it into an intelligible abstract.
The author commenced by drawing attention to the statistics of
the sugar trade in this country, from which it appears that the
total value of the imports of sugar during 1868 amounted to
21,000,0007. The various stages of selection of the raw sugar,
solution, decolourizing the syrup, filtration through charcoal, re-
vivifying the charcoal, and evaporation of the liquor were then
fully described. The lecture, which was fully illustrated with
tables and diagrams, was followed by an interesting discussion.

282 Chronicles of Science. | April,

6. ENGINEERING—CIVIL AND MECHANICAL.

A GRADUAL change seems to be creeping over the minds of railway
engineers, the result of which may not improbably be that some
long-acknowledged principles will soon become obsolete. There
can be no doubt that the best line of railway, and that which is
most cheaply and economically worked, is the one with easiest
gradients and longest curves, a perfectly level and straight line
being of course the acme of perfection. It is, however, possible
that such advantages as to working expenses may be too dearly
purchased at the expense of capital, in consequence of the more
numerous cuttings, viaducts, and tunnels that would be required,
and the greater breadth of land that, in the case of cuttings and
viaducts, would have to be purchased; attention is consequently .
now being directed to the possibility of constructing surface lines,
the cost of which would be very small compared with that of our
present systems of railways. The Mont Cenis Railway has clearly
solved the problem as to the possibility of working up inclines of
1 in 12 and round curves of only two chains radius; and this, it
may here be stated, is quite practicable without the aid of the
central rail, the use of which is beginning to be seriously doubted.
Trains have indeed been worked on the Baltimore and Ohio Railway
up inclines of 1 in 10, where coupled engines drew after them a
load equal to their own weight; on the Jeffersonville, Madison, and
Indianapolis Railway there is an incline of 1 in 164 of 14 mile
in length; whilst in South Wales some of the mineral lines near
Aberdare are regularly worked with locomotives on inclines of 1
in 18. The steeper the incline, the less is the adhesion of the
locomotive wheels to the rails, and consequently it is capable
of drawing only a lighter load: under similar circumstances also
the resistance of a train is considerably increased; thus, on a
gradient of about 1 in 150 its resistance is doubled as compared
with working on a level, and trebled on a gradient of 1 in 70
or 75. With these data it is easy to calculate upon the probable
economy of constructing steep gradient lines, having reference to
their less original cost, although probably their working expenses
would be increased. On the Metropolitan and St. John’s Wood
Railway, on its extension to Hampstead, the line will have an
incline of 1 in 27 for ? mile; the Mauritius Railway in its ascent
from Port Louis rises 1817 feet to the summit, a distance of 16
miles, in which an aggregate length of 13,526 feet consists of
eradients of 1 in 27, and with engines weighing 48 tons, pas-
senger trains of about 50 tons are carried up to the summit
at the rate of 12 miles per hour, including stoppages. Mr.
Brumlees’ proposed Metropolitan and Brighton line would present

1869. | Engineering—Civil and Mechanical. 283

no heavy works for construction, the gradients nowhere exceeding
1 in 60, and there being no curve of less than 50 chains radius.
Whilst the possibility of working steep gradient lines is thus clearly
proved, there can be no doubt with reference to their greater
economy in construction; with our present advancement of know-
ledge, however, a gradient of 1 in 40 is probably the steepest that
should be allowed when practicable, and coupled engines only should
be employed, of as great weight as can be obtained, and haying
a good long wheel base.

Under the provisions of an Act of Parliament passed last
session, all trains running distances of twenty miles and more,
without stopping, must, after the present month (April), be sup-
plied with some sufficient means of intercommunication between
passengers and guards. With a view to test the different means
for accomplishing this object, some experimental trips were under-
taken on the line between York and Scarborough at the latter end
of November last, and on the London, Chatham, and Dover Rail-
way, between London and Sevenoaks, during the following week.
Three systems have been proposed for the purpose, viz—1. The
rope pulls, which is the oldest of them all. 2. The electrical sig-
nalling system, of which there are many varieties, and some of
them have already been in use for a length of time on the various
lines of railways. And 3. The pneumatic system, which, whilst
it is the newest, is also in many respects the most efficient. Space
will not admit of our giving a detailed description of the several
systems that were submitted to trial. The principle of the rope
and electric bell systems will probably be well known to most of our
readers, and we shall not therefore make further reference to them
here. The pneumatic system, being novel, may, however, fairly
claim a brief notice. The signalling apparatus consists of a heavy
gong upon the engine or tender, and a smaller one in the guard’s
van. Both these gongs are struck by hammers, which receive
direct motion from the train, when a signal is given. When no
signal is passed from passengers or others, these hammers are kept
away from the gongs, and they are put into gear in the following
manner. A tube runs along the whole train, beginning at a pump
in the tender, passing from carriage to carriage, and ending in a
plug at the back of the train. This pipe, which is worked by
the machine, keeps pumping the air out of the pump, and sustains
in it a partial vacuum. Underneath those vehicles, which are
supplied with gongs, there are shallow cylinders in connection with
the vacuum-tube, from which the air being exhausted, their pistons
are drawn backwards, and pull thereby the striking portions of the
bells out of gear. Over each compartment a T-piece is inserted in
the tube, and a plug is fitted into its lower stem so as to keep the
tube air-tight. The passengers give signals by pulling out these

284 Chronicles of Science. [ April,

plugs, and this, breaking the vacuum, causes the bells to fail into
ear.

That the pneumatic principle possesses many advantages over
the other two, both as to certainty of action and from its non-
liability to be tampered with, is beyond a doubt: but the Com-
mittee of Railway Managers have nevertheless recommended the
rope system, probably on account of its cheapness, and their recom-
mendations have been accepted by the Board of Trade.

The anticipated difficulties attendant upon the location of the
great floating-dock recently constructed in this country for Ber-
muda, in consequence of the insufficient depth of water at the
selected site, has led to a proposal by Messrs. Gwynne & Company
for the use of a hydraulic dredger for the purpose of increasing the
depth of water where the dock is to be finally moored. The prin-
ciple upon which this dredger is constructed is based upon the ,
fact that sand or other loose earthy material can be freely passed
through a centrifugal pump, when mixed with water, in the same
manner as the water itself is passed through it. If the sand to be
dredged can be well stirred up and the pump be placed under
water and close to the sand itself, the rapid removal of the latter
is certain; and Messrs. Gwynne’s idea is therefore to get their
pump to work down at the very bottom, to stir up the sand
mechanically, and to conduct all that is so stirred up directly into
the pump itself. It would then be driven up a wrought-iron pipe,
to the bottom of which the pump is fixed, and delivered in a stream
into a barge.

Few people could form any idea, at the first introduction of
Giffard’s Injector, which has now so generally taken the place of
donkey-pumps for feeding boilers, what an important part the
principle involved in its construction was likely to play in the
economy of steam-engines generally ; and even now one would be
scarcely justified in assuming that the extent to which it is
applicable has been fully realized. Testimony has been amply
and repeatedly borne to the correctness of the principles of its
construction, but the extent of its economical results is, perhaps,
not so widely known as might be. Professor Henry Morton, in
the course of a paper recently communicated to the Journal of the
Franklin Institute, stated, “That the entire force which passes
from the boiler in the issuing steam is returned to it, with the
exception of that expended in lifting and injecting the feed-water,
and so much as is lost by radiation of heat from the various parts
and connections.” M. Ch. Combes, Inspector-General and Director
of the Heole des Mines, says that the Injector is “without doubt
the best of all those hitherto used for feeding boilers, and the best
that can be employed, as it is also the most ingenious and simple,”
and he further adds, “it is theoretically perfect.”

1869. ] Engineering—Civil and Mechanical. 285

The applicability of the Injector to other than mere feed-water
supply has not long been permitted to remain a matter of doubt; and
besides other purposes to which it is now applied may be mentioned
Messrs. Yarrow and Hedley’s plan, by which it has been adapted
for clearing out the bilge-water from vessels, for which duty it has
been fitted to some steam launches lately built by that firm. It
has also been applied as a steam syphon-pump, for supplying
locomotives with water in places where a pump for that purpose
is not available. In this case the steam is taken from the boiler of
the locomotive to be supplied with water, which, passing through
an injector, forces the water up through the stand-pipe.

The most valuable application of the principle as yet attained is,
however, to be found in Morton’s Ejector Condenser, which inyen-
tion has recently been brought before the Scottish Institution of
Engineers, by Professor W. J. Macquorn Rankine. This ingenious
machine will be understood better by reference to the aceompanying
engraving, in which a represents the water-inlet ; 63, the exhaust

passages; c, the regulating spindle ; d, the self-adjusting steam-
valve; e, the steam inlet; and f, the discharge-pipe. It con-
sists of three concentric tubes terminating in conoidal nozzles,
and opening into the hot well or waste-water receptacle by a
common and gradually-widening mouth-piece. The central tube
is In communication with the water-tank from which the current
of injection-water is obtained, while each of the other tubes con-
veys the exhaust steam from one of the cylinders. As the result
of experiments made with one of these condensers, fitted to a
pair of steam-engines of 24-horse power collectively, Professor
Rankine estimated the saving of power through the dispensing
with an air-pump equivalent to the doing away with a resistance
of 0:6 Ib. per square inch area of steam-pistons; and he found it
to be on an average of several experiments just 1-horse power,
being about 4 per cent. of the mean indicated horse-power of the
engines,

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.
The number of Societies meeting in different parts of England
and Scotland for the discussion of matters relating to engineering,
renders it impossible to do more than briefly allude to some of the

286 Chronicles of Science. [ April,

more important papers read before them during the period em-
braced in this review.

Institution of Civil Engineers.—A paper by Mr. John Frederick
Bourne, “On the Roman Rock Lighthouse, Simon’s Bay, Cape
of Good Hope,” is instructive, as pomting out the causes which led
to the failure of the original structure. The building consists of a
circular tower of cast-iron plates, but it had to be surrounded by
a granite casing to a certain height, owing to many of the plates
having cracked after its completion. The subject of “ Lighthouse
Apparatus and Lanterns” was dealt with in two papers by Mr.
D. M. Henderson and Mr. J. 'T. Chance, M.A., in which all the
best practice of manufacture at the present day was fully detailed.
Of course the manufacture, grinding, and polishing of the glass
for the apparatus formed the most important feature in these
papers; but the various kinds of lamps were also explained, and,.
im conclusion, the means adopted for lighting the entrance to
Odessa harbour were described. ‘The importance of some improved
means for coal-getting has led to the production of two papers by
Mr. 8. P. Bidder, jun., and Mr. C. J. Chubb, the object of both
being a consideration of the means available for getting coal more
economically and with greater safety to the miners. A paper “On
the Mauritius Railway,” by Mr. James R. Mosse, afforded some
very valuable information with respect to the working of steep
inclines, which subject has been more fully entered into at page 282
of these Chronicles.

Institution of Mechanical Engineers—At a General Meeting
of this Institution at Birmingham on the 5th November last, three
papers were read on the following subjects; namely: “On the
further Utilisation of the Waste Gas from Blast Furnaces,” by
Mr. Charles Cochrane, of Dudley; “On an improved Friction
Coupling and Break, and its application to Hoists, Windlasses, and
Shafting, &.,” by Mr. T. A. Weston, of Birmingham; and “On
the Moulding of Toothed Wheels, and an improved Wheel Mould-
ing Machine,” by Mr. G. L. Scott, of Manchester. The author of
the first-named paper stated that, with the increased capacity of
the present large blast furnaces in the Cleveland district, the waste
gas given off from the furnace is so far impoverished, both in
quantity and quality, that, in order to obtain a uniform supply of
gas for heating purposes at the steam-boilers and hot-blast stoves,
it is of importance to utilize the whole of the gas given off from
the furnace, by preventing the loss of gas hitherto occurring at
the times of lowering the closing cone or bell for charging the
materials at the top of the furnace; and this, Mr. Cochrane would
accomplish by doubly closing the furnace top, the ordinary closing
bell and hopper being completely closed in by the addition of an
outer cover, containing flap doors, through which the charging
materials are filled into the hopper.

1869. | Engineering—Civil and Mechanical. 287

Society of Engineers—The most important papers brought
before this Society during the present session have been one on
“ Modern Gasworks at Home and Abroad,” by Mr. Henry Gore ; and
another “On the Application of Steam to the Cultivation of the Soil,”
by Mr. Baldwin Latham. Both of these papers contain matters
of vast importance at the present time, especially the latter one ;
but the subjects dealt with are of such a character that it would be
impossible to do them justice in the few lines which could be given
to them here.

Institution of Engineers in Scotland.—-Professor Sir William
Thomson has recently introduced before this Institution a new
Centrifugal Governor, the principle of which is to employ the
increase of centrifugal force produced by increase of speed, by
making it the normal pressure for a frictional arrangement directly
and simply resisting the rotary motion. A simple modification of
Sir W. Thomson’s governor allows a plan invented by Professor
Fleeming Jenkin to be applied, by which it would be conyerted
into a powerful steam-governor.

LITERATURE.

There are so few works which entirely devote themselves to the
subject of Irrigation, that every fresh one must be considered as an
important addition to our Engineering literature. Few, if any, of
note exist beyond what have resulted from the pens of officers of
the Indian Government, and now we have to notice another work
emanating from a similar source, entitled ‘Irrigation in Southern
Kurope,* by Lieutenant C. C. Scott Moncrieff, R.E. This volume
was compiled by Lieutenant Scott Moncrieff after a visit to the
principal Irrigation works in Southern France, Spain, and Italy,
and it will be found to contain much valuable information regarding
them which is not to be met with elsewhere. ‘The account of the
works in Italy is not so complete as of those in France and Spain,
as the author has wisely abstained from going too minutely over
the ground so admirably described by the late Captain Baird Smith
in his work on ‘Italan Irrigation.’ In the book now before us,
many of the most important headworks, sluices, &c., are illustrated
by woodcuts, and the subject of the administration of waters in
the different countries is fairly described. In an appendix there is
given a translation of the celebrated Spanish Law of Waters, of
3rd August, 1866, under which concessions are granted for the
construction of works of irrigation in Spain. A chapter on the
Meadow Ivrigation of the Mosel Valley is especially interesting,
as if gives an account of a system of irrigation not previously
described, so far as we are aware, in any work on a similar subject.

‘The Railways of India, t by Captain Edward Davidson,

* K. & F. N. Spon: London, 1868. + Ibid.

288 Chronicles of Science. [ April,

R.E., is another work which cannot fail to be acceptable at the
present time, containing as it does an account of their rise, progress,
and construction. It has been compiled from the records of the
India Office, and is stamped with additional authority from the fact
of its author having formerly been Deputy Consulting Engineer
for Railways to the Government of Bengal.

7. GEOLOGY AND PALAZONTOLOGY.

(Including the Proceedings of the Geological Society, and Notices
of Recent Geological Works.)

Tus Paleontographical Society have just issued their twenty-second
annual yolume, and, as usual, it is a bulky one; but, though large,
it is good. It consists of a series of six parts, all continuations of
Monographs now in progress.

(A.) In the first Dr. P. Martin Duncan introduces us to the
corals from the White Chalk, the Upper Green-sand, and the Red
Chalk of Hunstanton.

Twenty-eight species are illustrated in the nine plates which
accompany this part, and many more are enumerated which Edwards
and Haime figured and described in the Paleeontographical volume
(VILL) for 1853. Such forms as Trochosmilia, presenting nume-
rous minor differences of doubtful specific value, have been entered
as varieties under a common species. ‘This trmomial nomenclature
proves exceedingly convenient where the amount of character to be
expressed is trivial.

(B.) Mr. Henry Woodward contributes a second part to his
Monograph of the fossil Merostomata, belonging to the genus
Pterygotus. 'The specimens figured are all from the Upper Silu-
rian of Lanarkshire, where they are collected by a Mr. Simon, who
ingeniously turns aside the stream of Logan Water in the summer
season, and then excavates the beds which lie beneath. The fossils
are preserved (often in a wonderfully perfect state, considering their
extreme tenuity) upon the surface of olive-green and grey slates,
frequently with all their appendages attached.

Mr. Woodward has. pursued the same course as Dr. Duncan,
and we find in this part figures and descriptions of four varieties of
Pterygotus bilobus. Six plates are occupied with their illustration.
These queer creatures, with their chelate antenne, large heart-
shaped lip-plates, great starmg compound eyes, and long fish-lhke
bodies, remind one strongly of larvee of some aquatic insect. The
largest of all the Pterygoti is six feet in length !

(C.) Again we welcome Mr, Davidson, with his splendid suite of

1869.] Geology and Palzontology. 289

Silurian. “ Lamp-shells,” or Brachiopoda; he is truly the gold-
medallist of invertebrate paleontology. His Monographs are
altogether his. He draws the wood-cuts, he draws those beautiful
lithographs; everything is done withhis own hand. Here are fifteen
quarto plates, each of which, to look at it, must have been a good
ten days’ work to draw, even after his great experience of the
group. How he must love his task to stick by it so manfully
year after year! There are more than eighty-eight species and
varieties, many of which have a dozen figures in illustration of one
species.

(D.) The worthy Professor Phillips adds Part LV. to the British
Belemnites, which so many years ago he took under his care. The
seven plates (which include three double-sized ones) were executed
in Paris, from drawings sent out by Mr. Phillips. They exhibit
well the beauty and clearness of French lithography. A great
deal, however, depends on the printer. The Professor gives the
positions and horizons of twenty species of Belemnites in the strata
of the Yorkshire coast, from the Leda-beds to the Lower Lias shale,
prepared from his own careful observation, as taught him by his
uncle, William Smith, the father of English Geology, the man who
was the first to show that strata could be identified by their fossils.

(E.) Professor Owen has added a third part to his Monograph
on the Fossil Reptilia of the Kimmeridge Clay, belonging to the
genus Plhosaurus. In Plates I, IL, and III. he gives views of
the under or palatal surface of the skull of Pliosawrus grandis,
and of the upper surface of the lower jaw of the same animal,
portion of premaxillary (natural size), jaw, and parts of crania of
Pliosawrus trochanterius, from the Kimmeridge Clay, Dorsetshire ;
collected and presented to the British Museum by J. C. Mansel,
Esq. The head of P. grandis must have been nearly six feet in
length, and reminds one (especially the lower jaw) of the cachalot
or sperm-whale, Lastly, the Professor figures a very perfect paddle
of Pliosaurus portlandicus, from the Portland Oolite of the Isle
of Portland; also in the British Museum.

(F.) Messrs. Boyd Dawkins and W. A. Sanford add Part ITT.
to their British Pleistocene Felidx, including Felis spelwa, Goldf.,
and Kelis lyn#, Linn. Two single and two double plates are
occupied with figures of the limb-bones and pelvic-bones of F,
spelea, and one plate with the skull and lower jaw of the Lynx.
Of this new cave mammal the authors observe, there is sufficient
evidence to prove that the animal was specifically identical with
the Felis (lyna) borealis of Norway, or with the variety F. (dyna)
cervarai of Siberia. The discovery of the Lynx, a carnivore
hitherto unknown in Britain, was made by Dr. Ransom in a
fissure that penetrates the Permian Limestone in Pleasley Vale,
Derbyshire, termed “'The Yew-tree Cave.”

290 Chronicles of Science. | April,

The City of Manchester is determined to be to the fore. It is
proposed to extend Owen’s College into a University, under the
title of “ Manchester and Owen’s College.” A large sum (80,0007.)
is already secured, and the buildings are planned. What will
Government do? They have, by the mouth of one of their chief
members, intimated that they could do nothing. We are desirous to
record that Mr. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A., F.R.S., of the Geological
Survey, whose researches in Fossil Mammalia of the Quaternary
Period are so well known, has been appointed to the chair of
Natural History at Manchester. Mr. Dawkins, it will be remem-
bered, was the first Burdett-Coutts’ Scholar at Oxford.

The Museum of the City of Manchester undoubtedly possesses
the finest collection of fossil botanical specimens ever brought
together in illustration of the Flora of the Coal Period, by Edward
W. Binney, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S., who has devoted so many years
of his life to this branch of geological inquiry.

The Geological Society of Glasgow have just recently issued
Fasciculus I. of their quarto Transactions, Paleontological Series.
It consists of a Monograph by Mr. Thomas Davidson, F.RS.,
“On the Upper Silurian Brachiopoda of the Pentland Hills, and
of Lesmahagow, in Lanarkshire;” and contains descriptions of
twenty-six species belonging to thirteen genera of Upper Silurian
Brachiopoda from the Pentland Hills, and a single species of Lin-
gula (L. minima), and an uncertain species of Lhynchonella,
from Lesmahagow. They are illustrated by the author, with his
accustomed skill, in three very beautiful plates. This publication,
which is started for the express purpose of illustrating Scottish
fossils, deserves to be supported by all who take an interest in
North British Paleontology.

Mr. A. Keith Johnson, F.R.G.S. of Edinburgh, has published
a small quarto Physical Atlas (price 12s.), for the use of schools.
From the glance we took of it, we were favourably impressed
with its neat, clear, and attractive appearance. The maps are
coloured to show regions of winds, currents, snow-lines, geological
formations, geographical distribution of plants and animals; im fact,
on a smaller scale, all that the larger folio Atlas teaches. One map
is devoted to illustrations (drawn by A. Geikie, Esq., F.R.S., &e.)
of geological features of land; sections of various formations illus-
trating faults, anticlinal and synclinal curves, glaciers, volcanoes, and
all the other phenomena which are treated of in this branch of
natural science.

Mr. Scrope, in a communication to the ‘Geological Magazine,’
vol. v., p. 537, “On the supposed Internal Fluidity of the Earth,”
observes, “I am gratified to find that the views | entertained and
published, more than forty years ago, as to the nature and modus
operandi of the subterranean agents of change in the earth’s crust

1869. | Geology and Palxontology. 291

are now becoming recognized as true by many—perhaps the majo-
rity of geologists—more especially as respects the large part played
in these movements by the water contamed in the imterior heated
matter, which eventually, on its superficial cooling, forms the sub-
stance of all hypogene rocks. or entertaining this view, I was at
that early period subjected to much ridicule, and my arguments
generally disregarded.”

No better proof can be given of the value now set on the work
so long ago performed by this eminent geologist than the fact here
referred to, and the writings of Lyell, Phillips, Forbes, and others,
testify how much they have themselves learned from this great
master,

Professor Owen has an article* on the gigantic Beaver of
the Cromer Forest-bed (T'vrogontherium Cuviert), in which he
describes the femur, tibia, calcaneum, and dentition, maintaining
its position and distinctive characters, as pointed out by him in
1845.

Mr. Woodward calls attention to the curvature of the tusks in
the Mammoth from Ilford, and compares it with the specimens in the
British Museum from Siberia and elsewhere, and shows clearly that
all the tusks of H. primigenius have, in aged individuals, a ten-
dency to curve inwards at their extremities.

Mr. Carruthers describes some new Coniferous fruits t from the
Secondary rocks, also a new genus of Cycad from Scarborough.t

Messrs. Meek and Worthen have published in their ‘ Palzon-
tology of Illinois’ a most interesting series of Articulate Fossils
from the Coal-measures of Grundy County, Illinois. Commencing
with two new species of Phyllopoda, Ceratiocaris sinwatus, and
Leaia tricarinata, they proceed to describe a new and very re-
markable form of Hurypterus (H. Mazonensis), very distinct from
those described by Hall, from the State of New York: a new
Limulus (Huproops Dane), nearly related to Prestwichia anthrax:
two new Isopods, Acanthotelson Stimpsoni and A. Eveni. A third
form, Palxocaris typus, compared by Messrs. Meek and Worthen
with Gampsonyx jfimbriatus, from the Trias, is by them referred
to the Decapoda-Macrura ; but its affinities appear to us far closer
with the Mysidz# among the Stomapoda.

They have found good evidence of Anthrapalemon (a short-
tailed lobster), a species of which they name A. gracilis. Still
more interesting is it to learn that many remains of Insecta,
Arachnida, and Myriapoda, of the same age, have been met
with. They are—l. Huphoberta armigera, a large species of
centipede, upwards of 4 inches in length, and preserved in a very

* «Geol. Mag..,’ vol. vi., p. 49.
+ Ibid., 1869, January, p. 1, Plates I. anJ II.
t Ibid., 1869, March, p. 97, Plate IV.

292 Chronicles of Science. [ April,

perfect state. Another genus of Myriapods (Xylobius Sigillariz)
has been described by Dr. Dawson, from the Coal-shales of the South
Joggins, Nova Scotia,* and since by Mr. Woodward, from the Coal-
fields of Huddersfield and Glasgow.

A still larger form, named Euphoberia major, resembling the
fossil from Coalbrook-dale, described by Mr. Salter as Hurypterus
(Arthropleura) ferox,t has been discovered in the Iron-stone Coal-
measure nodules of Grundy County, Illinois.

A very well-preserved Scorpion—named by them oscorpius
carbonarius—is figured and described, which in structure closely
resembles the Scorpio Europxus, now living, save that the dorsal
plates of the thoracic segments appear to be narrower than in the
living form. How vast is the measure of the life-time of this
species of air-breather of the Coal-period, whose descendants, appa-
rently unchanged in form or organs, are living now in America,
Europe, Africa, and Asia, and,even Australia, and the fossil remains *
of which have now been discovered in the Coal-measures of Bohemia
and North America. A second form of Scorpion, but very unlike
any recent genus—named Mazonia Woodiana—is also recorded.
Whether it had a long and slender abdomen, like the ordinary
Scorpio, or—like Chelifer and Thelyphonus—the abdominal seg-
ments are coalesced, cannot readily be determined until more
perfect remains haye been discovered.

A supplement by Mr. Samuel H. Scudder gives figures and
descriptions of eight genera and ten species of fossil insects from
the coal of Illinois. As most of these new genera are established
on very fragmentary evidence, they should be dealt with leniently ;
but beyond the fact, which they well establish, that Insect-life was
rife in the Coal-period, they do not prove the presence of special
families of Insects quite to the satisfaction of the Entomologist.
We do not intend, however, by this to disparage the value of
Mr. Scudder’s labours, as we are well aware of the difficulties he
has to contend with in his researches.

The Australian papers have shown, from time to time, that the
Legislative Assembly of Victoria was in a very unsettled state of
mind upon most questions of mternal policy which it was called
upon to discuss, and the Ministerial party seemed usually to be in a
minority, whichever side happened to be in office. The stoppage of
supplies was a favourite method of carrying on political war, the
paid officials thereby suffering temporary inconvenience for the sake
of their leaders.

But that this learned body should, in its wisdom, decide that
the Geological Survey of the Colony of Victoria—conducted thus

* See ‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ vol. xvi., p. 268.
+ See ‘ Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow,’ vol. ii., p. 284, Pl. III.
t ‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ vol. xix., p. 84, Fig. 8.

1869.] Geology and Palzontology. 293

far so ably by Mr. Alfred R. C. Selwyn and his staff—should for
the present come to an end, and that these gentlemen should be
paid off and sent home to England, seems incredible, did we not
learn it from the best authority. Henceforth Mining and Mineral
Surveying will alone be considered; but the completion of those
beautiful maps—some of which were exhibited by Mr. H. M.
Jenkins at Norwich, in illustration of his paper “On the Tertiary
Deposits of Victoria ”*—will, we fear, now be a far distant event.
Strange that the presence of the noble metal, Goxp, should render
men so shortsighted—nay, blind—to the best interests of the
Colony, as to decide that its geological resources shall remain un-
mapped and unexplored. Has there arisen a rival geological
prophet who objects to Mr. Selwyn’s observations on the age of
true Auriferous Quartz-reefs because he had a non-auriferous
quartz-reef for sale ? f

Fossil Botany— Mr. R. H. Scott, M.A., F.G.8. (who obtained
from the Council of the British Association a grant of 100/. in aid
of the exploration of the Greenland Plant-bed), has just forwarded
to the British Museum a series of the leaf-impressions from
Atanekerdluk, W. Greenland, collected by E. Whymper, Esq.,
and described by Dr. Oswald Heer, in his ‘ Flora fossilis Arctica.’ t

Another series of leaf-impressions from the Pipe-clay Bed
(Lower Bagshot), Alum Bay, Isle of Wight, collected by W. Stephen
Mitchell, M.A., F.G.S., also under a grant from the British Asso-
ciation, have likewise been placed in the British Museum.

The collection of leaves most nearly resembling the Greenland
series are from the Miocene Tertiary Fire-clay deposit, overlying the
celebrated burning coal-seam on the Mackenzie River, near to the
Great Bear Lake, described by the late Sir John Richardson, the
leader of the Boat-expedition in search of Sir John Franklin.

Obituary Notices.—All geologists will sympathize with the
“Old Silurian Chief” in the loss of Lady Murchison, though she
has gone from us in the fulness of years and honours.

Her scientific attainments and abilities as a naturalist were well
known, and it has always been Sir Roderick’s pleasure to attribute
to Lady Murchison’s influence his first pursuit of geology as a
study, and his subsequent success to her unfailing sympathy and
support.

The Irish branch of the Geological Survey of Great Britain has
received a severe check, in the loss by death of Mr. George V. Du
Noyer, M.R.I.A., F.R.GS.1., &., District Surveyor of H. M.
Geological Survey in Ireland. His work, commencing as it did

* ‘British Association Reports.’ Norwich, 1868. Section C.
+ See ‘Geol. Mac.,’ 1866, vol. ili., p. 457 and p. 561.
t{ Die Fossile Flora der Polarlinder von Dr. O. Heer. Zurich, 1868, 4to,
pp. 192 (50 plates).
VOL. Vile x

294 Chronicles of Science. [ April,

under the late General Portlock, extends over nearly thirty years.
His pen and pencil have aided in the task of completing forty-eight
sheets of the Map of Ireland. He was an admirable draughtsman,
and his sketches are well known among geologists and archeologists.
He was carried off suddenly by fever, on January 3rd, at Antrim,
greatly to the regret of his numerous friends. He leaves a widow
and three children unprovided for.

Among the great men who have dropped from the geological
ranks during the last year must be mentioned Dr. Horne’s, of the
K.K. Mineralien-Cabinet, Vienna. His work on ‘The Molluscan
Fauna of the Vienna Tertiary Basin’ is unrivalled, and the death of
its author just as it was arriving at its completion will be deeply
regretted.

Principal Forbes, of St. Andrew’s, was a man who justly held a
high position among men of science. He was a F.R.S. of London,
and Edinburgh : and his books and papers on ‘ Heat, ‘The Theory
of Glaciers ;’ ‘Travels in the Alps of Savoy; ‘Norway and its
Glaciers, have exercised no little influence on Physical Geology.

The Rev. 8. W. King, M.A., F.S.A., F.G.S., of Saxlingham,
near Norwich, whose labours in the Crag and Norfolk Forest-bed
have resulted in a fine collection of Mammalian remains, now placed
in the Jermyn Street Museum.

Nor should we pass over poor old John Ruthven, the author of
a geological map of the Lake Country, and the faithful companion
and humble friend of Professor Sedgwick in his many geological
rambles in the Skiddaw Slate District.

Geology is largely indebted to such native talent in almost
every part of our island for some of the best chapters of its history.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL Socrery.

Since our last Chronicle was written, Mr. Henry M. Jenkins, F.GS.,
Assistant Secretary to this Society during the past six years, and
Sub-editor of this Journal, having been elected to the post of Secre-
tary and Editor to the Royal Agricultural Society of England, has
retired ; and Mr. W.S. Dallas (for ten years Curator to the Yorkshire
Philosophical Society's Museum, York), has been appointed in his
stead. The February number of the Proceedings, however, is
edited by Mr. H. M. Jenkins. It contains nine papers published
in full, and six in abstract, besides several translations of foreign
papers.

Among these papers are several which have been postponed :—
(1.) Mr. G. W. Ormerod has a short notice of the probable occur-
rence of the “ Water-stone Beds” of the Keuper (containing pseudo-
morphous crystals of Chloride of Sodium) in the counties of
Somerset and Devon.

1869. ] Geology and Paleontology. 295

(2.) Messrs. J. W. Salter and Henry Hicks contribute descrip-
tions of five new species of Trilobites, from the “ Menevian Group,’
St. David’s, belonging to the genera Conocoryphe and Paradoxides,
illustrated by two 8vo plates.

(3.) Mr. Alfred Tylor, F.G.8., describes the Quaternary
Gravels of the Aire Valley at Bingley, of the Taff Vale, of the
Valley of the Rhonda, the Cave-section (called Bacon Hole)
Gower, and the sections at Crayford, Erith, and Salisbury, and
he compares the angles of deposition of Gravel-beds concealing the
escarpment of the Chalk in these last three localities with the escarp-
ment at Brighton and Sangatte.

The bulk and height of the Quaternary deposits had strength-
ened the conviction which he expressed in his paper on the Amiens
Gravel,* (1) That there was a long period, reaching nearly to the
Historical epoch, in which the rainfall was excessive, and which he
termed the “ Pluyial Period.”

(2) That the ice-action (of which there is evidence) was subor-
dinate to the aqueous action.

(3) That the fossiliferous Quaternary deposits have been best
preserved where they have been formed in cavities lying between
the edge of the bank of a river, estuary, or sea, and an escarpment
running parallel with it at no great distance.

(4) That the immediate source of the gravels was the high
lands adjoining the rivers, whence they had been washed down by
rain, with the assistance of lateral streams, into the lower ground,
where they had come in contact with larger quantities of running
water, had been mixed with rolled materials, and spread in thick
beds over the bottoms and slopes of valleys or the sides of escarp-
ments.

(5) The escarpment is usually concealed under a coating of
gravel or loess.

Mr. Tylor argues that with a rainfall such as we now have it
would be impossible that such widely-extended gravel-beds could be
spread over an extensive area, and reach to a height more than
150 feet above the level of the ‘Thames. It is equally impossible,
he thinks, for the present volume of the Thames to have produced
fluviatile beds at all equivalent in size to those of the ancient
Thames.

That the condition of the beds, which rise above the 50-feet
level, points rather to pluvial than to fluvial action.

Mr. Tylor informs us there are no traces of marie remains in
the Thames-valley gravels. Assuming that they are of marine
origin, gravel-banks are not the safe depositories of organic remains.
A walk along the Chesil Bank, or the Shingle-beach at Weybourn

* See ‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ vol. xxiv., 1868, p. 103.
x

296 Chronicles of Science. | April,

on the Norfolk coast, would teach this in an hour. As well might
we expect to find grains of wheat preserved between millstones.

The gravel that fills a valley is not necessarily the result of the
excavation of the valley. It may have been cut out, then sub-
merged beneath the sea—filled to the top with drift—once more
re-elevated, and again scooped out, leaving remains of the old drift
on its flanks.

To enable the Thames to reach the gravel-beds now more than
150 feet above its waters, we must have a subsidence of land to that
extent, which would not only enable the Thames, but the sea itself,
to have a hand in rolling them over and remaking them.

We cannot deal here with the great mass of materials brought
together in Mr. Tylor’s paper, and as we rise from its perusal the
feeling is strongly impressed upon us that he is not the “master-
mind to whom is reserved the privilege, to whom is given the.
power, to construct from those fragmentary truths a systematic
whole.” *

(4.) The other postponed paper, “On Flint Flakes from Car-
rickfergus and Larne,” by G. V. Du Noyer, Esq., will be found
noticed in the ‘Chronicle of Archzeology.’

The contents of the journal proper, that is to say, the papers
belonging to the past quarter are :—

(1.) An announcement by Sir Roderick Murchison that the
Russian geologists had ascertained that a large tract in Siberia,
between the rivers Lena and Jenissei, is composed of Upper Silurian
rocks and Carboniferous rocks, containing coal-seams ; with rocks of
Oolitic and Liassic age, corresponding with those already examined
in Russia. It thus appears that the vast, slightly undulating, and,
to a great extent, horizontal and unbroken formations, each of which
occupies so wide an area in European Russia, are repeated on the
eastern side of the Ural Mountains. In this range of mountains
only are to be found igneous and erupted rocks.

(2.) Professor Sandberger gives a section of a well at Kissingen
through the Zechstein formation, the Bunter and Saliferous beds.

(3.) An abstract only of Mr. Tylor’s paper on the ‘ Formation
of Deltas, and on the Evidence and Cause of Great Changes in the
Sea-level during the Glacial period.’

This is again a very complex paper, and is presented to the
mind like a vast picture, painted by a patient artist who, however,
lacked the necessary genius to group his figures and produce the
effect he doubtless had in his mind at starting.

A paper treating of the formation of deltas ; the parabolic
curve of the beds of rivers; raised sea-breaches ; the ice-cap at the
poles, and reduction of the volume of the sea during the Glacial

* See Article VII., “Tho Scientific Year,” ‘Quart. Journ. of Science,’
January, 1869, p. 74.

1869. | Geology and Paleontology. 297

period; coral-reefs in the Pacific; the origin and age of the
English Channel—is not to be taken in hand lightly ; the paper is
a failure, for the reason stated in the other case, the subject
has mastered the author.

(4.) Mr. G. M. Browne records an earthquake-wave which ap-
peared at Admiralty Bay, Island of Bequia, on 17th March, and
advanced 3 feet in height, a distance from 70 to 350 feet beyond
high-water mark. A second smaller wave followed.

(5.) Captain F. W. Hutton sends a note on an extinct Volcano
(Nga Tutura) in New Zealand, previously described’by Mr. Heaphy.*
Captain Hutton thinks the fluid matter that escaped as lava was
not connected with any deep-seated matter in the interior, but may
have come from rocks 1000 feet below the surface. We are glad
to see Mr. David Forbes was present to condemn the rashness of
such a statement made at hazard ;-—the idea of fluid rocks only
1000 feet below the surface is dreadful.

(6.) Mr. Wood Mason calls attention to the discovery of teeth
of Dakosaurus in the Kimmeridge Clay of Shotover Hill. Dako-
saurus had, however, previously’ been found at Potton, near Cam-
bridge, and deseribed by Mr. John F. Walker, B.A., F.G.S8., in the
‘ Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist.,’ 1866.

(7.) Dr. Duncan’s paper on the Test of Amphidetus was
withdrawn.

(8.) Mr. Bauerman’s “Geological Reconnaissance in Arabia
Petreea” is, we trust, the first only of a series of good papers on this
interesting country. Hills of gravel-topped alluvium, gravel-plains,
gently swelling or terraced plains of sand, a kind of oolite made up
apparently of rolled fragments of shells, dipping sea-wards ; blue
shaly clays with gypsum; granular massive gypsum, or alabaster ;
cliffs of calcareous grit-stone finely stratified ; white chalky hme-
stone; a bluish grey or white crystalline (Tertiary) limestone, and
a soft limestone (these last bearing Nummulites), a series (600 feet
thick) of Lower Cretaceous rocks, and of dark-red soft sandstone,
with marly partings (like the Lower New Red Sandstone about
Chester), these are the principal formations met with.

Old mines were observed in several places in a bed of iron and
manganese, and remains of copper-works of considerable extent.
‘Turquoise-mining has been carried on by the late Major Macdonald,
and subsequently by a Frenchman with more or less success. The
implements of still earlier miners, discovered by Mr. Bauerman,
are recorded in the Chronicle of Prehistoric Archeology.

(9.) Dr. Le Neve Foster aud Mr. Banerman have a joint note on
the occurrence of Celestine in the Nummulitic Limestone of Egypt.

The Celestine occurs not only in detached crystals, but also,

* ‘Quart, Journ. Geol. Soc., 1859.

298 Chronicles of Science. [ April,

filling the interior of fossil shells, especially the chambers of
Nautili.

(10.) Dr. Duncan adds anote on the Echinodermata, Bivalve
Mollusca, &c., from the Cretaceous rocks of Sinai. The list shows
that thirteen out of twenty-four species are common to the North
African and Sinaitie Cretaceous rocks, and that eight others are
well-known European forms.

(11.) M. Charles Martins describes the evidence on which he
concludes that a Glacier during the Quarternary Period occupied
the Valley of Palheres, in the Lozere.

At the Annual General Meeting of the Society, the President
(Professor T. H. Huxley, LL.D., F.B.S8.), presented the Wollaston
Gold Medal to Henry Clifton Sorby, Esq., F.R.S., as a mark of the
Society’s appreciation of his researches into the structure of rocks,
minerals, and meteorites, and the inyestigation of the phenomena
of Slaty Cleavage. He also handed the balance of the proceeds of’
the Wollaston Donation Fund to William Carruthers, Esq., F.L.S.,
F.G.S8. of the British Museum, in aid of his researches in Fossil
Botany, in which branch of study he has already added so much to
our knowledge.

8. METEOROLOGY.

Tx Pilot Charts for the Atlantic, alluded to in our last number, are
the first instalment of a systematic series of representations of the
physical phenomena of the ocean which are promised by the Hydro-
graphic Office of the Admiralty. In the advertisement prefixed to
the work, Captain Richards explains that, from their very nature,
these charts cannot be offered with the same confidence or authority
as the charts on which depend the safety of navigation. They are
in fact only intended to furnish hints to the seaman in shaping his
course. All available sources of information, both British and
foreign, have been consulted in their preparation, so that the charts
may be fairly considered as a record of the present extent of our
knowledge of ocean meteorology, in the particulars of which they
treat.

They consist of four wind-charts, corresponding to the dif-
ferent seasons, a current chart and an ice chart of the Southern
Hemisphere.

On the wind-charts the percentages of prevailing winds are
represented by means of stars, for spaces varying in size from ten-
degree squares in the heart of the S.E. trade-wind to two-degree
squares off Cape Horn. The number of gales from each point per
month is also given, and on the coasts some useful practical remarks

1869. | a Meteorology. 299

as to the weather which may be expected there. Other notices
concerning meteorological phenomena generally are to be found in
the form of notes, while the limits of certain districts, such as those
of the trade-winds, the equatorial rainfall, &., are laid down by
curves. These wind-charts are most useful of their kind, and far
more intelligible than those which have formerly appeared in this
country and the United States; but in certain parts of the ocean
more specific information as to both date and place is undoubtedly
required. Though for the $8.H. trade the means of ten-degree
squares for three months may suflice amply, we require for other
parts at the least monthly means for much smaller areas, such as
those given on Adm. Chabanne’s charts for the coast of Brazil,
published by the Département de la Marine in Paris in 1861.

The current chart gives a graphical representation of the general
course of the chief currents throughout the year, with notes showing
how their set on each coast is affected either by the winds or by
other disturbing causes. The course of the principal isothermal
lines of surface temperature is also given, as well as entries of the
most remarkable deep-sea soundings.

In the atlas is included the ice chart of the Southern Hemisphere,
which appeared about three years ago. The urgent necessity for
such a chart became very obvious when the introduction of great
circle sailing brought prominently before the notice of navigators
the dangers to be experienced from ice in high southern latitudes.

The whole atlas is a most useful work, and shows on its face
the care and labour which have been spent on its compilation ;
we shall be glad to see the similar series for the Indian and Pacific
Oceans.

With reference to the subject of sea-temperature, and more
especially of that prevailing at great depths, the report recently
submitted to the Royal Society by Dr. Carpenter and Dr. Wyville
Thomson is of great interest and importance. These gentlemen
wishing to test, by direct experiment, the truth of the assertions
made by the late Edward Forbes, as to the depth in the sea at
which organic life ceased to exist, and on which statements con-
siderable doubt had been thrown by the soundings made by
M‘Clintock, in the ‘Bulldog, and by others, obtained the use of
H.M.S. ‘ Lightning, and proceeded last autumn on a cruise off the
west coast of Scotland. The results as to the precise biological
question above referred to, which were obtained by the expedition,
do not belong to the present subject, but the observations on tem-
peratures at great depths merit particular notice.

It is well known that an idea has been nearly universally
accepted, that the sea-bottom at great depths was covered by a
stratum of water possessing a temperature of 39°°5. In low lati-
tudes this stratum was said to be covered by water warmer than its

300 Chronicles of Science. [ April,

own; in high, by water colder. This view carried with it the
support of so eminent a man as Sir J. Herschel, in his various
writings on Meteorology and Physical Geography. This tempera-
ture of 39°°5 is, however, that of the maximum density of fresh
water ; whereas the behaviour of saline solutions is very different
from that of fresh water under similar circumstances. The direct
experiments of Despretz on sea water, brought from the South
Pacific by Freycinet, established beyond a doubt the following
facts :—

The density of the water at 68° F. was 1-0273 under ordinary
circumstances, 7. é. if slightly agitated, it froze at 27°-4; but if it
were cooled very carefully, a maximum density was reached at 25°: 4.

Subsequent to Despretz’s experiments, which were published in
the ‘Comptes Rendus’ for 1837, Sir J. Ross, in his Antarctic Expedi-
tion, tested the temperature at various depths, but failed to ascertain
the existence of any water at a lower temperature than 39°. How-
ever, long anterior to this date, General Sabine had obtained evidence
in the Arctic regions of the existence of water at a temperature
much below 32°, at depths of 700 fathoms or so. Recent observa-
tions by Captain Shortland in the Indian Ocean have led to similar
results.

The instruments, however, which have hitherto been used were
eminently untrustworthy, the indices, especially of the maximum
thermometer, being extremely liable to displacement by a jar, so
that frequently a temperature was recorded as maximum which was
not as high as the surface temperature. Such a fact as this throws
discredit on the observations of minimum temperature made by the
same instrument. In addition, these thermometers are liable to be
deranged if they are even laid in a horizontal position ; so what are
we to expect when the sounding line brings them up, as it sometimes
does, in a reversed position! However, during the past year, the
Hydrographic Office has paid particular attention to the improve-
ment of these thermometers, and the ‘ Lightning’ was accordingly
furnished with the new pattern instruments, several of which were
brought home in good order, so that the results furnished by them
merit especial credit.

The chief fact as to temperature ascertained by the expedition
is the existence, over a certain area between the Faroe and Orkney
Islands, of water possessing a temperature of about 32° at a depth
of 500 fathoms, while in other soundings taken in the adjacent
districts, the temperature at equal or even greater depths was
persistently registered above 45°. On one occasion, within the
cold area, bottom was found at 140 fathoms, and the minimum
temperature recorded was 41°:7, showing the decrease in tempe-
rature to be progressive with the depth. Each of the areas was
characterized by the presence of special organisms, leading to the

1869. ] Meteorology. 301

conclusion that the distribution of animal life is more closely related
to the temperature than to the depth of the sea. However, the
results of the sixteen soundings made by this expedition must be
considered as merely tentative; and we can only hope that the
present Board of Admiralty will give as cordial countenance to
the inquiry as their predecessors did, now that it has been shown,
as Dr. Carpenter observes, “that within a short distance of the
northern coast of Scotland an opportunity is presented for deter-
mining with great precision the physical conditions of two opposing
currents with a difference of temperature of at least 15°.” This
determination is not, by any means, as simple a matter as it may
seem. Deep-sea sounding is no child’s play, and when we have
to ascertain thereby not only the depth of the sea, but the ex-
istence, the course, the limits, and the physical conditions of
submarine currents, the problem becomes one of extreme difficulty ;
and we shall look with great interest to the attempts made to effect
its solution.

While we are on the subject of ocean currents, a book recently
published by Mr. Jordan,* calls for special notice. In this work
the author proceeds, as he says himself:—“ Firstly, by theo-
retical deduction, to demonstrate hypothetically the action of vis
inertie.

“Secondly, by practical investigation, to ascertain whether or
not there exist in the ocean such movements as may, in the first
part, be demonstrated to be the natural result of the action of
vis inertiz.”

In the first book the theoretical effect of the principle, as
brought into action by the rotation of the earth on its axis, and
by its annual orbital motion, is examined. In this portion, though
we may allow the truth of a good deal that Mr. Jordan says, we
must say that more actual proofs are required before we can admit
the existence of perpendicular and inclined circulations in the ocean,
such as he supposes to exist. We are hardly prepared to attribute
the circumstance that the tendency of an equatorial current of air
is to lower, while that of a polar is to raise, barometrical readings,
to the fact that while the former is, in virtue of its nature, an
ascending current, the latter is a descending one.

The question of ascending and descending currents requires
investigation, but we are decidedly disposed to believe that not
unfrequently the south-west wind descends to the earth, e. g. at
the edge of the trade winds, while the north-east wind at times
rises from it.

Some of the diagrams of ocean circulation given by the author

* «A Treatise on the Action of Vis Inertiw in the Ocean, with Remarks on the
Abstract Nature of the Forces of Vis Inertize and Gravitation, and a new Theory of
the Tides.’ By W. Leighton Jordan, F.R.G.S. London: Longmans.

302 Chronicles of Science. [ April,

are extremely pretty as representations of osculating curves, but
we want more positive facts in support of them before they can
be accepted as final explanations.

In Book II. we have the investigation of ocean currents, which
are all attributed to the action of vis inertiv, but here the author’s
hobby runs away with him a little, for at page 105 he says :—

“Why, if the trade-winds result from the heating action of the
sun, they should continue to blow at night just as in the daytime,
is, it appears to me, not easy to understand.”

The action of a heated surface in causing an ascending current
of air does not cease at nightfall over large areas ike Central Asia,
as it does in the case of small islands, where the diurnal alternation
of land and sea breezes holds good. An extensive circulation of
air, once set going, is not easily diverted into other channels.
However, the monsoons and coast winds in general offer a serious
objection to Mr. Jordan’s views, and are in favour of the interpre- ’
tation generally received.

Book III. treats of vis inertiz and gravitation ; and here at the
outset we are met by a new principle—evanescence. “In this
term comprehendmg the unknown laws which control matter
throughout its existence, and by it inferring that matter has not
always existed, and that in course of time it will cease to exist;
presuming, of course, that it is only reasonable to suppose that
something immaterial existed from which it had its origin, and
that when it has run its course and ceased to exist something im-
material evolved from it will exist after it.”

Not having seen the author's other work, ‘The Elements, we
are at present unable to understand how he proposes to create
matter.

The chapter on tides is happier, and the explanation of the
retardation of spring and neap tides respectively for a day or two
after the moon’s changes have taken place is clear and intelligible.

There is one very serious objection to the book as a whole—the
style is confused to the last degree, and it is often necessary to read
a page two or three times to make sure that you have caught the
author’s meaning. When he is stating two alternatives, each is
given at full length, so that the occasional use of the words, “and
vice versa” would have reduced the size of the book by at least
twenty pages, and made it much more intelligible,

In the last Chronicle we referred briefly to the synoptic charts
of the Indian Ocean, submitted to the British Association by Mr.
Meldrum, Secretary of the Meteorological Society of the Mauritius.
These charts present some features of great interest when compared
with those issued by Le Verrier for the North Atlantic. Mr.
Meldrum’s long experience of the weather of those seas renders
whatever he may say about it well worthy of attention. However,

1869. | Meteorology. 303

in these charts he allows the facts to speak for themselves, not
drawing isobaric lines unless their course is fully justified by obser-
vations. In every case he enters these latter, pure and simple,
omitting the barometrical readings, unless he is thoroughly satisfied
as to their correctness: accordingly the charts are chiefly represen-
tations of wind and weather. The region with which he has to
deal is in some respects easier to manage than that of the North
Atlantic, because the areas of the monsoons and other prevailing
winds are clearly and sharply defined. In some of them Mr.
Meldrum has been able to trace cyclones from their origin at the
southern edge of the N.W. monsoon, rotating with the hands of
a watch; while in high southern latitudes he finds the wind at
times moving in the opposite direction round a relative barometrical
maximum, forming what Galton calls “Anticyclones.” Both these
motions are of course opposite to what obtains in the Northern
Hemisphere. It is sincerely to be hoped that Mr. Meldrum will
carry out his imtention of issuing these charts for a considerable
period of time, so that weather may be traced consecutively from
day to day. We should say that the ime on the charts is noon for
the meridian of 60° E., being the central meridian of the charts.
The most important paper which has appeared of late in the
journals of our home Societies has been one of which the subject
is somewhat cognate to what has just been described—we mean Mr,
Buchan’s investigation of some American storms, published in the
October number of the ‘Journal of the Scottish Meteorological
Society.’ In this paper, which is illustrated by three charts for
March 16, 18, and 19, 1861, we are presented, not only with the
atmospherical conditions of half the Northern Hemisphere, north of
the parallel of 30° N., but also with the tracks of certain storms,
some of which he has traced across the Atlantic Ocean. The charts
have precisely the faults which have been avoided in those just
noticed, v2z. that the isobaric lines are drawn with a free hand and
on insufticient data, so that the attention is distracted from the
observations themselves to the interpretation given of them by the
author of the paper. If the line of inquiry thus undertaken by Mr.
Buchan be followed out by him, and the fact that storms do occasion-
ally cross the Atlantic be placed beyond the possibility of cavil, a
great step will have been made; but in the theoretical explanation
given of the storms we regret to find a vagueness of reasoning,
which is a very serious defect, and leads us to doubt the probability
of his proving his case satisfactorily. Thus he reiterates the old idea
that the latent heat set free by condensation of aqueous vapour has a
material effect in reducing atmospherical pressure, without justifying
the statement by any calculation whatever. He also adheres to
the belief that the rotation of the air in a cyclone is caused by the
diurnal rotation of the earth, whereas the opposite to this has been

304 Chronicles of Science. [April,

shown to be the case. In a cyclone in the Northern Hemisphere,
on one side, the wind in its motion round the central area “ backs”
from south towards south-east, and on the other side it backs from
north towards north-west ; whereas the effect of the earth’s rotation
on a southerly wind flowing pole-wards is to give it westing, in con-
sequence of its change of latitude, and the wind therefore “ veers”
towards south-west and west, forming not a cyclone but an anti-
cyclone.

This carelessness of language is most unfortunate, as it mars
much of the valuable work Mr. Buchan is doing. In one of his
later papers he asserts that the air is composed of oxygen and
hydrogen, while in the last edition of his ‘Handy Book of Meteo-
rology’ he proposes that each missionary should be instructed in
meteorology, in order to issue storm warnings for the South Sea
Islanders, “and legitimately increase his influence over them!”

9. MINERALOGY.

CoNSIDERING the extensive employment of that large class of orna-
mental stones grouped together under the general name of Agate,
it is surprising how little 1s commonly known in this country as to
the source whence they are obtained, and the manner in which they
are worked. A small district at the southern foot of the Hundsriick,
in Western Germany, has for more than four centuries been almost
exclusively the seat of the agate trade, and at the present time
upwards of 38000 of the inhabitants gain a livelihood by this
peculiar branch of industry. Full information on all that relates to
the subject of agates has lately been published by Herr Lange, who
writes from the little town of Idar, situated in the very centre of the
agate works.*

Agates usually occur in the form of amygdaloidal nodules, of
greater or less size, embedded in a dark-coloured trap-rock or
melaphyre. Many are the theories that have been advanced to
explain the origin of these nodules, since the time when it was first
suggested that they were petrified melons! At the present day it
is generally supposed that the cavities now filled with agate were
produced by the disengagement of gas or steam when the melaphyre
was in a viscous condition. After the solidification of the laya-like
mass, the cavities were gradually filled, either partially or com-
pletely, by silica held in solution by the water percolating through
the rock. The precise manner in which the silica was introduced

* ‘Die Halbedelsteine aus der Familie der Quarze, und die Geschichte der
Achatindustrie.’ Von G. Lange in Jdar. Kreuznach, 1868. Pp. 100,

1869. | Mineralogy. 305

is a question still open to discussion. Some suppose that the
solution transuded through the walls of the entire cavity, whilst
others argue in favour of a local infiltration confined to special
inlets, which are often exposed on cutting a section of an agate,
Probably both theories may be advantageously combined ; the de-
posit of “green-earth” which commonly lines the smaller cavities
being due to a general percolation through the walls, whilst the
solution of silica was introduced through definite channels or inlets
of infiltration. It is difficult, however, with either theory to
explain satisfactorily the formation of a regular succession of con-
centric layers lining the internal walls of a cavity, and not deposited
simply upon its floor ; whilst itis still more difficult to understand
the conditions under which concentric layers were deposited at one
time and horizontal layers at another—conditions which must have
obtained during the formation of many of the so-called “ Brazilian
agates,” which exhibit both deposits in the same stone. According
to Reusch, the successive layers have been deposited from a solution
which was alternately forced into and expelled from the cavities by
the action of intermittent thermal springs. A modification of this
theory is that adopted by our author. He supposes that the solution,
after having deposited gelatinous silica in the cavity, was heated to
its boiling point, and that the elastic force of the steam thus
generated would press the siliceous jelly equally against all sides of
the cavity, so as to produce a layer of uniform thickness throughout.
The compressed steam would then slowly make its exit by per-
forating a passage through the successive layers; but if this outlet
became sufficiently large, the steam might escape before acquiring
sufficient tension to keep the gelatinous mass distended against the
walls, and hence the silica, left to the force of gravity, would be
deposited in horizontal layers upon the floor. In this way the
author attempts to explain the alternation of concentric and hori-
zontal deposits in the same cavity—a point which has hitherto been
a standing enigma in all theories on the formation of agates.

The occurrence of beautiful agates in the melaphyre of the
Saarbruck coal-field led at an early period to the localization of the
agate trade in the neighbourhood of Oberstein and Idar. Although
for many years past no agates have been quarried in that locality,
all the fine stones being imported from Uruguay, the trade of
cutting and polishing still remains active, and at the present time
there are 183 mills in the district, carrying 724 grinding stones ;
each double mill being reckoned as two single ones.

In the Chronicles of Mineralogy for July last, attention was
directed to a remarkable shower of meteorites near Pultusk, in
Poland.* Many thousands, not to say hundreds of thousands, of

* ‘Quart. Journ. of Science,’ vol. v., p. 419.

306 Chronicles of Science. | April,

these stones fell within a very limited area, and thus ample oppor-
tunity was furnished of collecting specimens. A large number of
these have lately been examined by Vom Rath, who shows that
they consist of about 86 per cent. of silicates—probably Olivine and
Shepardite—associated with 10 per cent. of nickeliferous iron, and
nearly 4 per cent. of magnetic pyrites, together with a small
percentage of chrome iron-ore.*

Although copper-pyrites is the most widely diffused of our
copper-ores, it is by no means common to meet with well-defined
erystals ; and hence observations upon its crystalline forms are of
much yalue. Formerly the mineral was referred to the cubic
system, but in 1822 Haidinger showed, by measurement of the
fundamental octohedron, that it must be removed to the tetragonal
system. Herr Sadebeck, of Berlin, has paid considerable attention
to the crystallography of this species, and has recently published the -
results of hisstudy.t He first separates the two opposite tetrahedra,
or hemihedral forms of the tetragonal octohedron, distinguishing
them as tetrahedra of the first and second orders respectively. He
then discusses the laws according to which twins are combined—a
point of considerable interest, since twins of this mineral are much
more common than simple crystals. Finally, he gives the charac-
ters of typical forms from different localities, and shows that these
are in many cases so peculiar, as to enable the mineralogist, by
a study of form alone, to refer a given crystal to its original
locality.

Every collector must be familar with the beautiful crystals of im-
pid quartz, which, in company with calcareous spar, line many of the
drusy cavities in the famous snow-white marble quarried at Carrara.
More than 200 specimens from these quarries have been examined
by Dr. Scharff, who has lately published a paper on their irregu-
larities of growth.t He shows that the crystals, although appa-
rently simple, are in many cases formed by the union of several
individuals, by which the aggregate crystals possess an apparent
rhombohedral cleavage. The two opposite rhombohedra, forming
together the six-sided pyramid that caps each crystal, are often
developed to a very unequal extent; the faces of the positive
rhombohedron being enlarged at the expense of the corresponding
negative form.

Dioptase—a beautiful and rare silicate of copper found in the
wilds of the Kirghese Steppes, and so strongly resembling the
emerald as occasionally to be mistaken for that gem—has recently

* Leonhard und Geinitz’s ‘Neues Jahrbuch.’ 1869. Heft I., p. 80.

+ Zeitschrift der deutschen geologischen Gesellschaft. Band xx. Heft IIL,
p- 395.

{ Leonhard und Geinitz’s ‘ Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie,’ u.s.w. 1868. Heft VII.,
p. 822.

1869. | Mineralogy. 307

been subjected to chemical examination by Herr Rammelsberg.*
From the behaviour of the mineral when exposed to heat, he infers
that the molecule of water which it contains is present in a state
of true chemical combination, and not simply as water of crystal-
lization. The formula of dioptase thus becomes

H, Cu Si 0,

and the mineral is therefore isomorphous with the two corresponding
hexagonal silicates, Willemite and Phenakite, the former containing
Zn, Si O,, and the latter Be, Si O,.

Some time ago we had occasion to notice the discovery of a
native hydrous arseniate of zine from Chile, described under the
name of Adanvte.t This species has lately been obtained by Messrs.
Gory and Boutigny from a small copper mine worked in the Keuper
sandstone of Cape Garonne in the Dépt. du Var. The French
adamite occurs in the form of lenticular crystals or thin plates on
the walls of fissures traversing a quartzose rock, and is associated
with the two arseniates, olivenite and cobalt bloom ; the latter
imparts a reddish tint to many of the crystals, which otherwise
present a greyish colour.t

In compliment to Professor Laxmann, the Siberian traveller,
the name of Lawmannite is proposed by M. A. E. Nordenskjéld for
a new mineral discovered at Beresow, in Siberia.§ It appears to
be a chromate and phosphate of lead and copper; its chemical
composition being represented by the following formula, where

RO=PbO-+ Cu O:
3 (2 RO, 4 HO) PO; + 2 (3 RO, 2 Cr O,).

The component minerals of some of our Cornish granites have
lately been examined by the Rey. Dr. Haughton.|| He finds that
these rocks contain two felspars and two micas; the felspars, he
refers to the species orthoclase and albite, and the micas to lepidolite
and lepidomelane. Dr. Haughton supposes that these constituents
are common to all the granites of Cornwall and Devon, which thus
bear a close resemblance in mineralogical composition to the granites
of Leinster and Mourne.

Analyses of two titaniferous magnetites from Norway have been
published by Mr. David Forbes ;4] and a large number of chrome
iron-ores have been chemically examined by M. J. Clouet, whose
memoir on these minerals is supplemented by a note in which

* Zeitschrift d. deutsch. geolog. Gesellsch. Bd. xx., p. 536.

+ ‘Quart. Journ. Science,’ vol. iii., p. 427.

t ‘Comptes Rendus,’ Dec. 7, 1868, p. 1124. ‘Geol. Mag.,’ Feb., 1869, p. 79.
§ ‘Journal fiir praktische Chemie.’ Band ey., No. 22, p. 335,

|| ‘Proc. Royal Society,’ vol. xvii., No. 108, p. 209.

{ ‘Chemical News,’ Dee. 11, 1868, p. 275.

008 Chronicles of Science. [ April,

M. E. Peligot points out the many relations that subsist between
chrome iron-ore and magnetic oxide of iron.*

Von Lasaulx announces the discovery of tridymite in trachytic
nodules occurring in a kind of hornstone rock from Alleret, in the
department of Haute-Loire.t

One of Dr. Blum’s valuable contributions to the study of
pseudomorphism has recently appeared,t and contains the results
of his observations on materials that have accumulated since his
last publication.

Several new Swedish minerals have been described by C. W.
Blomstrand from near Westana, in Schonen.§ Most of these are
hydrous phosphates of alumina, more or less akin to Wayvellite.
They have received the names of Berlinite, Trolleite, Augelite,
Attakolite, and Kirrolite. A hydrous silicate of alumina, named
Westanite, has the following composition :—

2 Al, 03.3 SiO, + HO.

Dr. Petersen of Darmstadt apples the name of Hydrotachylyte
to an amorphous mineral found in the basalt of Rossdorf, near
Darmstadt.|| It is a hydrous silicate containing alumina, sesqui-
oxide of iron, potash, soda, magnesia, lime, and the protoxides of
iron and manganese. A portion of the silica is apparently replaced
by titanic acid.

10. MINING, METALLURGY, AND RECENT
LITERATURE.

Mininc.

Tur Stannary Court of Cornwall and Devonshire is nearly the
oldest—if not actually the oldest—court existing in this country,
with almost all its original constitution preserved, and with its forms
unaltered. Dating from the time of John, who granted a charter
of special privileges to the tinners, and taking a more perfect
organization in the third year of Edward IL., the Court of the
Stannaries has remained until now without any special alteration.
Carew tells us that “upon suit made to Edmonde, Earl of Corn-
wale, sonne to Richard, King of the Romans, they obtained from
him a charter with sundrie privileges; amongst which it was
granted them to keep a court and hold plea of all actions (life,
lymme, and land excepted), in consideration whereof the said lords

* « Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Jan., 1869, pp. 90, 100.

+ Leonhard und Geinitz’s ‘Jahrbuch. 1869. Heft I., p. 67.

$ Leonhard und Geinitz’s ‘Jahrbuch.’ 1868. Heft VII, p. 805.
§ ‘Journal fiir praktische Chimie.’ Bd. ev., No. 22, p. 337.

|| Leonhard u. Geinitz’s ‘ Jahrbuch,’ 1869, p. 32.

1869. | Mining. 309

accorded to pay the Earl a halfpenny for every pound of tynne
which should be wrought,” &c. At the head of this court is a
Lord Warden—now the Duke of Cornwall—who appoints his Vice-
Warden, by whom the courts are held.

This ancient Mining Court is now about to undergo—perhaps
not too soon—material modification ; and on the evening of Friday,
the 26th February, Mr. John St. Aubyn, one of the members of Par-
hament for West Cornwall, obtained leave to introduce a bill to the
House of Commons “for amending the law relating to Mining
partnerships within the Stannaries of Devon and Cornwall and to
the Court of the Vice-Warden of the Stannaries.” This involves
so important a change in the laws which relate to mining in the
West of England, that, although this Journal is not the place for
discussing the questions at issue, it appears necessary to record the
intended alterations in our mining chronicles.

From time to time various suggestions have been made relative
to the organization of some system by which a provision might be
secured for the widows and children of such coal-miners as may
perish in the course of their labours. A plan of colliery insurance
has been more than once proposed, and there is but little doubt
that it would have been long since established had the period been
a more auspicious one for commercial speculation.

The project for organizing a Colliery Insurance Company, to
embrace a provision for the survivors of those killed in colliery
accidents, and to reimburse the colliery proprietor or worker for any
loss accruing to his property, is again exciting attention. A letter
has been published by Mr. Stephen Sleigh, of Austin Friars, which
clearly shows the practicability of such a system of insurance. We
learn from this letter that the value of the colliery property of
Great Britain is estimated at 70,000,0002 sterling. The production
of coal is at present 104,000,000 tons per annum, and in obtaining
this, on the average of ten years, 1000 lives are lost in each year.
It appears that 2d. per week per man would produce a fund
from which 1002. could be given to the widows and children of the
deceased collier ; and that a very small premium, varying of course
with the district, would secure the msurer from any serious loss to
his property. Asactive measures are about to be taken to establish
this most important principle, we content ourselves at present by
directing attention to the movement.

In the House of Commons, on Thursday, February 25th,
Mr. Greene asked the Secretary of State for the Home Department
whether it was the intention of the Government to introduce any
measure for the further prevention of accidents in coal-pits. He
elicited the reply—that a measure on the subject was being pre-
pared and would shortly be laid before the House. Mr. Kinnaird
inquired if the Government intended to bring in a bill for the

VOL. VI. Y

310 Chronicles of Science. | April,

better regulation of metalliferous mines in accordance with the
recommendations of the Mines Commission. The answer given by
Mr. Knatchbull-Hugessen was curiously evasive; no bill was in
preparation, but he hoped that legislation would not be long post-
poned. It is now nearly five years since the Commission, of
which Lord Kinnaird was the President, made its report. In that
report the Commissioners most strongly urged the necessity of
some prompt legislative enactments, by which the more perfect
working of the copper and tin mines might be secured and the
lives of the men preserved. Nothing has, however, as yet been
done, and during the long-continued depression of mining, things
have been allowed to become gradually worse than they were when
the Commission examined them. ‘The whole system of working
our copper and tin mines is so bad, that no hope can be in-
dulged in of their improvement until the Legislature steps in, and:
by some well-considered measure protects alike the miner and the
shareholder from the present destructive system.

Coal in the Colorado district is a matter of great importance.
According to the ‘Denver News,’ General Pierce stated to the
Board of Trade that besides the bed of 31 inches, discovered near
Fort Dupton, on the Platte, there were also two beds on the Cache-
la-Poudre. One of these beds was 4 feet thick, and the other about
18 inches. The ‘Salina Herald’ says that in digging a well on
the east side of the Smoky Hill River—less than two miles from
town—a bed of good bituminous coal, 18 inches thick and about
20 feet below the surface was cut through.

Coal-mining in France has, during the past year, been particu-
larly active. This will be seen from the following statement of the
production during each of the last six years :—

4

Tons (Statute), | Tons (Statute).
18630 a LO DLGOZ | 1866 .. .. 11,807,142
1864 .. .. 11,001,249 1867 .. .. 11,975,164
I86D) 2 9 4.) Bsa le | 1868 .. .. 12,345,000

The collieries of Belgium have not exhibited the same progres-
sive increase. From the report of Mr. F. Jocham, Director of
Mines in the province of Hainault (which is the last published
authority on the production of coal in Belgium, we learn that to
the end of 1867 the production was as follows :—

1865. 1868. 1867.
Hainault .. .. .. .. 9,206,058 .. 9,831,424 .. 9,595,280
Wamtr .. ..° ws... «805,754. S5RGR7 .. ‘SBunen
Liégge .. .. . « « 2328911 .. 2,564,551 .. 2,770,956

Total of the Kingdom

in Metrical Tons \ 11,840,728 - 12,794,662... 12,755,822

The copper mines of Africa have of late years been attracting

1869. | Mining. SEL

considerable attention. ‘The copper lodes in the Insizwa Mountain,
about 12 miles from the southern boundary of Natal, are remark-
able. Some comparatively small workings have been carried on
about 80 miles from Port St. John. The deposit here is described
as about 18 feet thick by 24 feet in depth. From this description
it is evidently not a vein, but a bed. ‘This is clearly in a state of
decomposition, since it is said the ore is replaced by a yellow
ochreous deposit (gossan of miners) containing nodules of very
pure carbonate of copper or malachite, varying in size from a pea
to masses of 10 or 15 lbs. weight. Some miners from D’Urban
penetrated deeper into the mountain, and again found a similar
deposit. Portions of considerable masses have been found to con-
tain as much as 56 per cent. of metal, the average, however, being
from 30 to 40 per cent. Silver was found to the extent of 5°30
ounces to the ton of copper, and a trace of gold was detected.

Chromium is stated to have been discovered in large quantities
in Maryland and Pennsylvania. Chromate of iron of fine quality
has also been found in Victoria. We understand samples of this
mineral and antimonial ores of good quality have been shipped to
this country with a view to determining their real commercial
value.

In a cave in the mountam of Galenstock, which it is well
known separates the cantons of Berne and Urich, a valuable deposit
of topaz has been recently found.

Tin mines in Siam are, on the authority of the ‘Journal of the
Society of Arts, about to be worked. We quote the paragraph :—

“ Another tin district is about to be opened at the Isthmus of
Kra. ‘The immense value of the tin-workings at Junk, Ceylon, or
Phuket, supposed to be not less than 150,000 tons per annum,
has incited a Chinese merchant to propose the active development
of the Kra Mines, and as tin is supposed to abound along the whole
range of the Malay peninsula there are many who believe in his
success. He is to have the government of the district to enable
him to cary out his designs. The river of Kra is the southern
boundary between British Burmah and Siam.”

Seeing that the annual production of tin is as follows :—

Tons.
bngland’ 8. Vas a ae one e0o
Baticar 2) Miaooe. Pe es 4,260
Billeton Roxy cord cA merce 1,900
Otheripartsis. 6 cen et eo, 000

Total ;. .«. 16456

—the 150,000 tons said to be produced at Junk is an evident

absurdity. During the past year the Chinese merchants have been

the largest buyers of British and Dutch tin, to which circumstance
yx 2

312 Chronicles of Science. | April,

we owe the rapid rise in the price of tin which has lately taken
place. This proves that they have not any great expectations of
very considerable production of this valuable metal nearer home.

The prominence which has been given to technical education
has led to a proposal to found a Professorship of Mining in the
University of Glasgow; and a deputation has been in communi-
cation with Professors Ramsay and Huxley, of the Royal School of
Mines, on the question of establishing a mining school in Wales.
The experiments made already in Glasgow, at Bristol, and by Sir
Charles Lemon, and others, in Cornwall, should teach the lesson
that it is quite impossible for the miner to attend any fixed central
school. The only practical and useful system of imparting instruc-
tion to the miners is that—adopted with great success by the Miners’
Association of Cornwall and Devonshire, and by Mr. Daglish, in the
neighbourhood of Seaham,-—of sending the teacher to the miner, |
and giving him the advantages of a school of mines in the very
midst of the district in which he labours.

Gotp.—The Nova Scotia gold-fields have produced during the
past three years as follows :—

Ounces

{RG weak a ween ODE
1867 ¢ eet Ze OF ee:
ie6s bctotat ey ae aes

The production of the quartz-rocks of Merionethshire has
fallen to 490 ounces in the period between October Ist, 1867, and
December 31st, 1868.

There has been a small rush to certain gold-fields in Sutherland-
shire. On a district not far from Helmsdale, which was known
only to a few sportsmen and shepherds, recognized as the Kildonan
Burn, a regular system of “ Diggings” has been organized, and the
burn has been christened as “Gold Creek.” The results are not,
however, satisfactory, since it appears that the most industrious
gold-seeker cannot realize more than 5s. a-day.

METALLURGY.

Considerable differences of opinion still prevail as to the value of
the Heaton steel-making process noticed in our last number. We
have carefully read and considered all that has been said in favour
of the process and against it. We are not by any means satisfied
with the tone which has been assumed by those who have entered
on the discussion of the question. Indeed, it is to be regretted that
many of the statements which have been copied from paper to paper
should ever have been made at all. They are obviously not con-
sistent with our knowledge of the chemical changes effected in a

1869. | Metallurgy. 313

mass of iron when subjected to the action of nitrate of soda. We
have been informed by one of the largest of- the Sheffield steel
manufacturers that, while he waits to see the result of a continuance
of the experiments carried on at Langley Mills before he adopts it,
he is strongly predisposed in favour of the process—that he regards
it hopefully, and—we are bound to say it—that he is greatly
pleased with the liberality and openness observed by Mr. Heaton.
With these remarks—which we introduce mainly to convince our
readers that we are not inattentive to the experiments in question—
we leave the Heaton steel process until its more complete develop-
ment remoyes it from the doubtful position in which it has been
placed by injudicious advocacy.

A discussion of some interest in connection with the Heaton
process has been opened in the pages of ‘The Chemical News.’ It
arises out of a paper read before the Chemical Society, by Dr. B. H.
Paul, on “'The Connection between the Mechanical Properties of
Malleable Iron and Steel, and the Amount of Phosphorus they Con-
tain.” Mr. W. Mattieu Williams, of the “John Brown and Co.,
Limited” Works, Sheffield, argues that Dr. Paul has shown an
imperfect knowledge of his subject. That although Dr. Paul’s
conclusion that 0°50 per cent. does not impair the quality of steel
is correct when it applies “ to tenacity as measured by a direct and
gradually applied longitudinal or axial strain,” yet, that it is
absolutely wrong when it is made to refer to steel which is to be
employed for cutting instruments of any kind. “ It is obvious that
the power of resisting a sudden, a vibratory, and a transverse
shock is the property most demanded,’ and that here the smailest
quantity of phosphorus is highly mjurious—* this is just the pro-
perty which phosphorus tends to destroy.”

Chromium steel has been attracting some attention. An alloy
of chrome and iron can be made of sufficient hardness to scratch
glass. Experiments are stated to be in progress, on a large scale,
as to the practicability of making a chromium steel for rails, by
adding chrome iron-ore and manganese to the iron in the puddling
furnace.

At Pittsburgh (United States) some apparently successful
experiments have been made im substituting a purely chemical
process for the operation of puddlng. Into melted pig-iron
crushed hematite iron-ore is thrown—the oxygen of the ore com-
bines with the carbon of the iron, removing it. The metal thus
obtained is said to yield a very good iron, upon re-heating and
squeezing in the usual manner. We believe a process much like
this has been tried in this country and abandoned.

Works on Mintne.—‘ Under-ground Life; or, Mines and
Miners, by lL. Simonin, has been translated by Mr. H. W.

314 Chronicles of Science. | April,

Bristow, F.R.S., and published in a very handsome volume by
Messrs. Chapman and Hall. This is a book which could scarcely
have been produced by an Englishman—the whole idea is essen-
tially French—and it requires a Frenchman, with all a Frenchman’s
quick perceptions, and his love of exaggeration, to give form to the
idea. Victor Hugo writes a clever romance—‘The Toilers of
the Sea ;’ and M. Simonin seizes on the idea, and writes a narra-
tive of ‘ The Toilers of the Mine.’

“What he (Hugo) so happily calls the avay«n, or irrepressible
power of the Elements, addresses itself alike to the mariner and the
miner, for each is the soldier of the deep, against whom the powers
of nature wage at times their utmost fury.” This paragraph gives
the key to the whole book; and every action of the miner’s life
is seen through the medium which has been coloured by the
influences of Victor Hugo’s romance. The author professes to.
describe the struggle of the miner “in its reality, without exag-
geration of any sort.” This profession is not fulfilled, since every
page of the original book is coloured beyond the truth ; and with all
the efforts made by the translator to subdue this sensational writing
to a more sober tone, he has only partially succeeded in doing so.

‘Under-ground Life’ is, especially in its English form, neyer-
theless, a book full of interest; its interest depending upon the
most graphic descriptions of the perils which attend all subterranean
labours. very detail of mining is fully and in most cases faithfully
given; the tools, the lamps, the processes—from boring the ground
in the search for coal, to the removal of the coal from its bed—are
carefully described, The dangers which await the miner are drawn,
as we have said, with a bold pencil; and, as in the drawings, so in
the text, the explosion of fire-damp and of gunpowder, the inun-
dation of a mine, or the collision of tubs in a shaft, becomes equally
the subject of sensational drawing and writing.

After all, we are not certain whether in a book of this sort—a
book intended for the public, and decorated to the extent which
fits it for the drawing-room—the proper course has not been
adopted, especially when the work was originally intended for the
author’s countrymen; and is now—with the interpolations on
British Mining by the translator— produced as a. popular Treatise
on Mining.

M. Simonin naturally looks at mining from a French point of
view ; and, although he admits that mining in Great Britain is far
more extensive than it is on the continent, he insists upon it, that
the same amount of careful system is not observed in the English
mines as is to be seen in the mines of France and Germany. Mr.
Bristow, who has translated the book in a most creditable manner,
and who has used considerable judgment in adapting it to the
English reader, might have modified still further much that Simonin

1869. | Physics. ales

had written. The difficulty of dog this we fully admit, and its
danger. Many of the chapters must have been entirely re-written ;
and then, indeed, the work would have been no longer a translation
of Simonin’s, but the production of the English geologist, founded
on the idea of the French mining engineer.

No one desirmg an account of all the mining countries of the
world, and of the methods by which the exploration of mines are
carried out, can find in any one volume so much instruction on
these points as in this one. Commencing with coal-mining, M.
Simonin proceeds to the consideration of metalliferous mining ;
and follows this by descriptions of the processes of washing for gold,
the search for gems, &c.; each division of the subject being treated
with considerable detail—as to methods of working, statistics of pro-
duction, and the like. For the latter, the author is under considerable
obligations to ‘The Mineral Statistics of the United Kingdom.’

The whole is most amply illustrated, and the chromo-lithographie
plates of the minerals are beautifully executed. We have never seen
anything of the kind to equal them. ‘The new maps of the mining
fields of all countries, which have been executed especially for this
work by Mr. James Jordan, are of peculiar excellence, and give a
very high character to this essentially popular book on mining.

‘Industrie Minérale de la Province d Hainault, a report
by Mr. F. Jocham, the Director of Mines in that province, gives a
very full account of the process of coal-mining. From this report
we learn that the production of coal in Belgium has been falling off,
as will be seen by reference to our Chronicles of Mining.

The returns for 1868 have not yet been completed. The
falling off is attributed to the depressed state of trade and manu-
facture ; and the Belgian coal-owners look hopefully to the future.
Another book of considerable value is ‘Htude sur la Howille du
bassin de Liége, by Leon Jacques. In this work a very detailed
description of the collieries of this division of the Belgian coal-
fields 1s given.

‘On the Haulage of Coal, —being the report of the Committee
appointed by the North of England Institute of Mining Engineers
to investigate this subject,—which has just been published at New-
castle-on-Tyne. This is a work of pure experimental detail, of the
utmost value to all who are concerned in raising coal.

11. PHYSICS.
Licut.—M. Janssen has forwarded a letter from Simla (Himalaya)
to the French Academy of Sciences, m which, after giving further
particulars respecting his discovery of the visibility of the spectra of

316 Chronicles of Sevence. | April,

the protuberances on the sun’s disk in full sunshine, he describes
an ingenious plan by which he expects to be able to see the actual
prominences at any time. The principle consists in getting one of
the luminous lines into the spectral field, and then rapidly rotating
the spectroscope. As the length of the luminous line depends upon
the height of that part of the protuberance which it represents, it
is evident that the rotation will cause the line to vary with the
different widths of the elevations; and if the rotation is suffi-
ciently rapid, the permanence of the impression on the retina will
produce an accurate representation of the protuberance under exa-
mination.

Whilst M. Janssen only suggests an ingenious method by which
these prominences may be seen, Mr. Huggins has actually suc-
ceeded in seeing them, as our readers will have seen from our
‘Chronicle of Astronomy.’

A very beautiful experiment in spectroscopy has been described
by Dr. Wallner. He passes the rapid discharges of a Leyden jar
through an ordinary Geissler tube, and examines the light by
means of a spectroscope. If the length of the discharge is increased
a little, the sodium line immediately appears; and with a proper
length of spark the brilliancy of the sodium line far exceeds that
of the spectrum of the gas. By further increasing the distance of
the discharge, the calcium line is produced with such intensity that
it cannot be seen to greater advantage by any other method known.
Finally, if the length of the spark is again augmented, the pheno-
menon changes, the light in the tube assumes a dazzling splendour,
this luminous line forms a continuous brilliant spectrum in which
the spectroscope reveals a completely black line instead of the
sodium line; this, therefore, is the artificial production of a Fraun-
hofer line.

Microscopists will read with interest a very simple method of
preserving animal specimens for fine dissection. It 1s described by
Dr. Alcock. The advantages of the plan are—very perfect preser-
vation; no necessity for closing up, so that the specimen cannot
be got at; no fear of losing a valuable dissection from accidental
evaporation, as where spirit is used ; lastly, cheapness. The method
adopted is to prepare a saturated solution of corrosive sublimate in
alcohol, and when a dissection in water is in progress, a small
quantity, as half-a-teaspoonful, of the solution is to be added from
day to day if the shghtest appearance of putrefaction is observed,
but no more of it is used than is absolutely necessary ; and by the
time the dissection is completed, the specimen has become imperish-
able from the union of the corrosive sublimate with the tissues, and
it may then be kept in pure water, either open or mounted in the
usual way.

1869. | Physics. SLT

The oxyhydrogen light, in which the burning jet of mixed
gases is allowed to impinge on a piece of Zirconia instead of Lime,
is gradually being introduced in Paris. The advantages of em-
ploying Zirconia are, that of all the known earthy oxides it is the
only one which remains entirely unaltered when submitted to the
action of the blowpipe fed by oxygen and hydrogen. Zirconia is
also, of all the earthy oxides, the one which, when introduced into
an oxyhydrogen flame, develops the most intense and the most
fixed light.

All persons interested in optical researches will be glad to hear
that Messrs. Chance are now making optical glass of a density of
4°4. Glass of this density has never before been prepared com-
mercially in England, although we believe it has long been made
and used in France.

Hrar.—M. Le Roux has made some experiments with the
vapour of sodium, and examined its capability or incapability of
passing through rock-salt. Two crucibles of rock-salt were pre-
pared, a thin plate of the same substance placed between them, and
in one of the cavities sodium was placed.

Notwithstanding a bright red heat maintained for several hours,
the piece which was not in direct contact with the sodium vapour
remained completely unaltered, even where it had been in contact
with the plate already completely penetrated. Chloride of sodium
is not attacked by the vapour of sodium, but soda corrodes it ener-
getically. A very small quantity of soda suffices to hermetically
seal two surfaces of rock-salt, sodium preserving its lustre for several
months in a crucible of this kind. Potassium vapour does not attack
its chloride, but it covers the chloride with a bright blue substance,
in which, possibly, chemists recognize the suboxide of potassium.

Mr. W. P. Dexter has described a new gas-lamp for heating
crucibles, &¢. The ordinary Bunsen burner is known to act
upon the surface of platinum vessels brought into contact with the
inner line of the flame; the metal loses its polish, becoming super-
ficially porous and spongy, and requires the use of the burnisher
to bring it back to its original state. This alteration of the surface
is attended with a change of weight, and Mr. Dexter has conse-
quently devised the following arrangement :—He removes the air-
tube of a common Bunsen lamp, and puts in its place a somewhat
longer one of glass or iron, of about 12 millimetres internal dia-
meter. The gas-jet has a single circular aperture, and should be
in proper proportion to the diameter of the tube, which may be held
in any of the ordinary clamped supports. The tube being raised
sufficiently above the jet to allow free entrance of air, and a full
stream of gas let on, a “roaring” flame is produced, of which the

318 Chronicles of Science. | April,

interior blue cone is pointed, sharply defined, and extends only
about half-an-inch from the top of the tube. A polished platinum
surface is not acted upon by this flame, provided it be not brought
into contact with the interior cone.

In the Bunsen burner, as usually made, the supply of air
depends upon the diameter of the tube, the holes at its base being
more than sufficient to supply the draught. With the wider tube,
it is necessary to limit the admission of air by depressing the tube
upon the lamp, when the force of the gas is diminished. Otherwise
the proportion becomes such that an explosive mixture is formed.
For this reason it is more convenient to use an arrangement in
which the excess of air can be regulated by an exterior tube sliding
obliquely downward over the air-apertures. The gas-jet should
be on a level with the top of these apertures, which must be much
larger than those of the ordinary Bunsen’s burner. .

Mr. Brown, of the War Office Chemical Department, has
discovered a remarkable property connected with the ignition and
explosion of gun-cotton. He has found that the explosive force of
gun-cotton may, like that of nitro-glycerine, be developed by the
exposure of the substance to the sudden concussion produced by a
detonation ; and that if exploded by that agency, the suddenness
and consequent violence of its action greatly exceed that of its
explosion by means of a highly heated body or flame. It follows,
that gun-cotton, even when freely exposed to air, may be made to
explode with destructive violence, apparently not inferior to that
of nitro-glycerine, simply by employing for its explosion a fuse to
which is attached a small detonating charge. Some remarkable
results have been already obtained with this new-mode of exploding
gun-cotton. Large blocks of granite and other very hard rock, and
iron plates of some thickness, haye been shattered by exploding
small charges of gun-cotton which simply rested upon their upper
surfaces. Further, long charges or trains of gun-cotton, simply
placed upon the ground against stockades of great strength, and
wholly unconfined, have been exploded by means of detonating
fuses placed in the centre or at one end of the train, and produced
uniformly destructive effects throughout their entire length, the
results corresponding to those produced by eight or ten times the
amount of gunpowder when applied under the most favourable con-
ditions. Mining and quarrying operations, with gun-cotton applied
in the new manner, have furnished results quite equal to those
obtained with nitro-glycerine, and have proved conclusively that if
gun-cotton is exploded by detonation, it is unnecessary to confine
the charge in the blast-hole by the process of hard-tamping, as the
explosion of the entire charge takes place too suddenly for its effects
to be appreciably diminished by the line of escape presented by the
blast-hole. Thus the most dangerous of all operations connected

1869.] Physics. 319

with mining may be dispensed with when gun-cotton fired by the
new system is employed.

Exectrriciry.—M. Becquerel, in his sixth memoir ‘On Electro-
Capillary Actions,’ describes the processes which he employed to
obtain a great number of hydrated oxides in the crystalline state.
In a vessel containing a solution of nitrate of copper, a smaller
vessel, one side of which was composed of parchment paper, was
placed, containing aluminate of potash. Nitrate of potash was
produced, but in the place of aluminate of copper in the porous
vessel, crystals of hydrated alumina presented themselves ; and on
the outside, crystals of hydrated oxide of copper formed. By re-
placing the aluminate of potash by silicates, M. Becquerel obtained
hydrated silica sufficiently hard to scratch glass.

A new arrangement for furnishing currents of electricity has
been made known by M. Ney. It is composed as follows :—(1) a
vessel filled with solution of chloride of ammonium, containing a
plate of amalgamated zinc; (2) a porous cylinder filled with car-
bonate of copper, into which a plate of copper plunges. To main-
tain the battery in action, it is only necessary to add solid chloride of
ammonium from time to time. In military telegraphy, where the
pile should be capable of transport, the outer vessel might be filled
with sand saturated with a solution of chloride of ammonium in the
place of the solution. This arrangement recommends itself on the
score of cheapness, for native carbonate of copper answers suffi-
ciently well, and it likewise only requires attention while in actual
use. Carbonate of copper is insoluble in a solution of chloride of
ammonium, but upon closing the current, the chloride is decom-
posed into hydrochloric acid and ammonia; the hydrochloric acid
collects at the zinc pole, the ammonia at the copper. The carbonate
of copper becomes soluble, and its reduction gives rise to a secondary
current having the power of a Daniell’s element. This form of
battery is perfectly constant.

Mr. Gore has recorded some experiments on the electrolysis of
hydrofluoric acid, both anhydrous and hydrated. They are in-
teresting as showing the extreme energy and refractory character of
that almost unknown element fluorine. With the anhydrous acid
he has used anodes of gas carbon, carbon of lenum-vite, and of
many other kinds of wood, of palladium, platinum, and gold. The
gas-carbon disintegrated rapidly; all kinds of charcoal flew to
pieces quickly, and the anodes of palladium, platinum, and gold
were corroded without evolution of gas. ‘The acid with a platinum
anode conducted electricity much more readily than pure water ;
but with one of gold it scarcely conducted at all. ‘These electro-
lytic experiments presented extreme difficulties, and were conducted

320 Chronicles of Science. [ April,

in a platinum apparatus specially devised for the purpose. Scarcely
more satisfactory results were met with in the experiments of
electrolysis of the aqueous acid of various degrees of strength, made
with anodes of platinum. Ozone was evolved; and with the
stronger acid only, the anode was corroded at the same time.

M. Berthelot has examined the action of the electric spark on
marsh gas. When a succession of powerful sparks is made to
traverse pure marsh gas, carbon is deposited, and the volume of gas
augments considerably. Operating with 100 ¢.c¢., this volume
becomes 127 c. c. at the end of two minutes, 154 c.c. at the end of
ten minutes, and so on; but some hours are required for the com-
plete destruction of the marsh gas. That no marsh gas remains at
the end of the experiment may be demonstrated after removing the
acetylene and the traces of condensed vapours which are present
mixed with hydrogen.

12. ZOOLOGY—ANIMAL MORPHOLOGY AND
PHYSIOLOGY.

Singing Mouse-—A gentleman relates in one of our contem-
poraries the discovery of a “singing mouse” in his kitchen, which
he and his daughters listened to with much delight, the notes being
like those of a canary, but very much subdued. He suggests that
the mouse may have taken to imitating a canary kept in the house,
which he states is the case with field-mice. We need hardly say
that this is a somewhat startling explanation ; a more likely one
is that the singing is the result of spasmodic breathing caused by
the presence of a parasite—the Cysticercus fasciolaris—in the
liver of the poor little songster, since in every case of a singing
mouse examined these parasites have been found. But apart from
this source of irritation, it is curious that mice should possess the
power of singing like a bird. The Rodents are so exceedingly
bird-like in many of their habits and structural characters, that
one is almost prepared to find some of them able to sing. It isa
common mistake to suppose that as a rule birds sing; the vast
majority do not. It seems impossible to account for the existence
of the faculty in a few birds. Why do they sing? How are they
benefited by it in the struggle for existence ?

A Sword-fish scuttling a Ship.—aA case lately came on before
one of the London courts in which the- question was raised as to
whether a vessel had been struck by a sword-fish, which afterwards
had withdrawn its sword, and thus caused a leak which injured
the ship’s cargo. Professor Owen (who is now travelling Egypt

1869. | Zoology. 321

in order to avoid the winter weather) gave evidence as to two
cases which had come under his observation, in which sword-fishes
had struck vessels; but in both cases the sword had been broken
off in the animal’s subsequent struggles, thus fillmg up the hole.
The fish’s snout in the first case penetrated into fourteen inches of
wood; in the second case it had passed nght through the timbers
and into a berth. In the case under discussion it “appeared that
only three inches of wood had been penetrated ; and Professor
Owen thought that a sword-fish might get its nose out of that
depth again. The force exhibited in the penetrating power of
these blows from the sword-fish is something enormous. The
Xiphias is a true fish, its sword being formed “of two facial bones
—the vomer and premaxillary. It must not be confused with
the saw-fish, nor with the cetacean narwhal, whose sword is one
of a pair of teeth, which grows to the enormous length of ten
feet in some of the males, whilst the other remains small, as do
both in the females. The sword-fish and the narwhal are about
the same size—a little over twelve feet in length.

The Auditory Organ of Molluscs.—Professor Lacaze-Duthiers
has made a very important communication to the French Academy
on this subject. Leydig, Huxley and Claparede, and M. Duthiers
himself, too, had thought that the otolithic sac of Molluscs, with
the exception of Eolidee and Heteropoda, derived its nerve from
the pedal ganglion, since it lies quite on that ganglion; but M.
Duthiers has now found that this is a mistake, and that the nerve
really comes down to the otolithic saccule from the supra-ceso-
phageal ganglion or brain-ganglion, as in Heteropoda, so that all
the organs of sense are presided over by this cerebral ganglion.

The Annelids of the Bay of Naples. —Professor Claparade, of
Geneva, haying had to pass a winter at Naples for the sake of his
health, has produced one of the most beautiful volumes that we have
ever seen, on the annelids of its bay. The volume is a quarto one,
with thirty-two plates containing innumerable drawings of micro-
scopic structure and detail, and charming coloured figures of the
annelids themselves. There is no exaggeration of colour, and the
lines are the work of a true artist. Nothing could be more beau-
tiful than the figure of Phyllochetopterus. The work is a most
important one, moreover, for many new species are described, and—
what is of more importance —much that is new in the structure of
known forms is told and figured.

A New Type of Polyzoa. —Professor Allman, of Edinburgh,
obtained from Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys a most interesting and quite new
form of Polyzoa, which was dredged up off the Shetlands. In the

‘Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science’ the Professor has
described and figured the new molluscoid under the name of Ethabdo-
pleura. TItisso 5 called from the presence of a remarkable chitinous rod

322 Chronicles of Science. | April,

which occupies the centre of the branching tube, in the free ends of
which the polypides live. This rod spreads out below the particular
cavity occupied by an individual, and there gives attachment to
the “funiculus” which attaches the polyzoon to its tube. Another
remarkable thing is that the polypides are hippocrepian ; but still
more important and new is the presence of a convex body on each
side of the lophophore, which Professor Allman compares to the
mantle of the Lamellibranchs ; and he proceeds to show, by two
most instructive diagrams, that the resemblance between the Polyzoa
and the Lamellibranchs is closer than between them and the
Brachiopods, to which they have so frequently of late years been
assimilated.

The simplest Living Forms.—In the ‘Quarterly Journal of
Microscopical Science’ for October, Professor Huxley described the
viscid substance which abounds everywhere in the mud of the .
Atlantic bottom, giving to it its sticky character, and contaming the
small ovoid bodies known as coccoliths—and gave to this substance
the name of Bathybius, regarding it as an organism probably living
by absorption of mineral matter, but not to be certainly referred
either to plants or animals. In the same Journal a most interesting
paper, by Ernst Haeckel, of Jena, the renowned author of the
‘ Radiolarien,’ and of the ‘ Morphology of the Organism,’ is being
published, in which the very lowest forms of animal life—or of life
at all—are described—Protogenes, Protomyxa, Protomxba, and
others, forming the group Monera—muinute bits of living jelly,
devoid of all structure, of nucleus, or vacuole, but capable of most
active movement, embracing solid food, and digesting it; and at
times becoming encysted, and breaking up into spores or gemmules,
which grow in time into adult Monera.

Deep-sea Dredgings.—Naturalists have suddenly been aroused
to the importance of investigating the fauna of the deepest sea-
bottoms with the dredge. Soundings no longer are to be considered
satisfactory, but “the dredge, with its iron edge, and mystical tri-
angle” is to explore the ocean-floor at depths of a mile or two. The
results obtained by Lovén and Sars incited Professor Wyville Thom-
son and Dr. Carpenter to a like exploration—their results are
most important in what relates to the temperature of the deeper
currents. Dr. E. P. Wright’s little excursion off Portugal, where
he dredged in 600 fathoms, produced some interesting facts, besides
the confirmation of Bolage’s discovery of Hyalonema; especially as
to the presence of a shark and of Chiasmodon at these depths. On
what do these fishes feed? The American dredgings, however,
promise to be the most interesting, and the most fully carried out.
The Superintendent of the Coast Survey (why have we not one
likewise in England ?) no sooner perceives the importance of these
dredgings than he arranges for deep-sea dredgings in the region of

1869. | Zoology. 323

the Gulf Stream—actually within the Gulf of Mexico. Mr. L. F.
de Pourtales has had the direction of this matter, and gives a most
promising account of dredgings at a depth of 400 to 500 fathoms,
and also at 300 fathoms. In this last region he found the most
eommon mollusc to be Terebratula Cubensis —a new species; and
also a Waldheimia, both of large size. This Terebratula is of great
interest ; for before this, only two living species of that genus—so
abundant in Oolitic and Cretaceous times—were known: the one,
T. vitrea, found in the Mediterranean ; the other, 7’. wva, a wnique
specimen from the coast of Mexico. This tends to confirm the idea
of Sars—-that in these deeper parts of the sea-bottom many forms
thought to be extinct may be still lingering on—or at any rate be
represented—not able to encroach on the fauna which occupies the
shallower water, but kept down by the advancing coast-fauna to the
lower regions, like prisoners ina dungeon. The case is comparable to
that of “ Alpine ” floras, which are now kept to the top of high hills
and mountain slopes, but which must once have spread from these
spots to Arctic regions. Mr. de Pourtales found Gasteropods rare
at a depth of 300 fathoms, Acephala rare and small, but Bryozoa
abundant. The most common Echinoderm was a new species of
Cidaris, besides which there were other forms, and a new Psolus.
Eighteen new species of corals, and other new Ccelenterates are
mentioned. No sea-weeds were obtained. Some animal remains
were found whose presence is accidental, such as sharks’ teeth, bills
of Cephalopods, shells of Pteropods, and fragments of bones of the
Manatee. A new Crinoid (probably the same as the Rhizocrinus
of Sars), considered to belong to the genus Bourgueticrinus of
D’Orbigny, was obtained—possibly identical with a species found
fossil in Guadaloupe. In the presumed absence of vegetable life, we
may fairly ask, What do these animals feed on? They cannot eat
one another, or there would soon be an end to them. Must we
suppose that the Bathybius of Professor Huxley is here organizing
food from mineral matter ?

The Fauna of the Victoria Docks.—Mr. Kent, of the British
Museum, at one of the excursions of the Quekett Club to the
Victoria Docks, discovered a new Nudibranch, of the genus Emble-
tonia, which he calls KH. Grayit, also a new Polyzoon, large
numbers of a species of Mysis, the respiratory organs of which he
has been investigating, and besides these, that most interesting
fresh-water Hydrozoon, Cordylophora. These interesting forms
are associated with a vast variety of fresh-water Rotiferee, Entomos-
traca, and Infusoria. The occurrence of Hmbletonia in this posi-
tion is exceedingly interesting. It appears from some observations
of Dr. Gray, that Hmbletonia pallida is found in the Baltic, ex-
tending far up into that part of the sea where the water becomes
almost fresh. Hence the occurrence of the genus in the brackish

324 Chronicles of Science. | April,

or nearly fresh-water of Victoria Docks is not without parallel.
It is an important subject for inquiry, as to how the fauna of the
Victoria Docks originated. Is it the representative of an ancient
marsh fauna, presenting in its Nudibranch and Hydrozoon an indi-
cation of the recession of the sea? Or has Embletonia been intro-
duced with ships and established itself, and has Cordylophora, long
since adapted to lacustrine conditions, also been introduced since the
time when the area was a marine one ?

PHysiIoLocy.

Influence of Section of the Pnewmogastric Nerves on
Respiration.—Herr Voit, of Munich (a physiologist, whose writings
on the subject of the connection between muscle-oxidation, food, and
muscular work, as opposed to Liebig’s old teaching, were of much .
value, and of early date in the late revulsion of scientific opinion on
that subject), has experimented on the effect of cutting the pneumo-
gastrics as to respiration. Previous experimenters have shown that
the amount of carbonic acid exhaled after section of the nerve, is
the same as that before. The author and Dr. Raber find now
that this is true only for the first few hours after the operation.
At a later period when the tissue of the lung has begun to undergo
a change, the quantity of carbonic acid diminishes rapidly, and that
of oxygen is increased.

Influence of Respiration on the Temperature of the Blood.—
Dr. Lambard, of whose wonderfully delicate thermo-electric appa-
ratus we spoke in our last Chronicle in relation to the temperature of
the head, capable as it is of indicating a difference of temperature
of about ~,',>th of a degree centigrade, has been applying his instru-
ment to the study of the effects of respiration on the temperature
of the blood. One apparently anomalous result which he obtained
is this—though the air taken into the lungs, and consequently into
the blood, be quite cold and dry, it does not lower the temperature
of the blood sufficiently to be appreciable by this delicate thermo-
meter, as compared with the temperature when the air respired
is hot. We must all of us have noted the feeling of heat in the
lungs on a cold frosty day —a sensation which is not experienced in
warmer weather, and which is the very reverse of what we should
expect from the greater coldness of the inspired air. M. Brown-
Séquard suggests that the explanation may be this—the lower the
temperature of the inhaled oxygen the greater will be the amount
absorbed according to a well-known law in physics, and hence
possibly, there being a larger absorption of oxygen, there may be
increased oxidation, and increased heat accordingly. The tension of
the vessels affected by cold air, may have some connection with the
sensation in the lungs.

1869. | Loology. 325

Poison of Snakes.—M. Vulpian, of Paris, a well-known physi-
ologist, received some dry and some moist poison of the Cobra di
eapello, which had been forwarded from India by Mr. Shortt. He
proceeded to try its effects upon frogs, rats, and rabbits, and had
especially in view the object of testing the truth of Dr. Halford’s
observations as to the extraordinary increase of white corpuscles in
the blood of bitten animals. In the condition in which he was able
to study it—a condition in which its activity is without doubt
notably diminished—M. Vulpian found that the poison appeared
to act on the central nervous system, the functions of which it little
by little suppressed, producing a state of somnolence of a remark-
able kind. In frogs it produces an effect similar to that induced
by curare; it abolishes the action of motor nerves on the muscles
as regards contractility. ‘The movements of the true heart persist
some time after death, whilst those of the lymphatic hearts cease
very soon, as in frogs poisoned by curare. It is hardly necessary
to say that the results of the action of the poison of the Cobra di
capello, relatively to the muscles and to the nerves, has nothing
peculiar about it; for we know now more than twenty toxic sub-
stances which destroy the function of the motor nerves as regards
muscular contractility. As to the blood, M. Vulpian has not con-
firmed the existence of the modification described by Halford, and
has seen nothing at all like it. He finds (and this is a peculiarly
interesting fact) that the buccal mucous membrane is capable of
absorbing the poison, and that the same symptoms are produced as
when the poison is absorbed from a wound. Those who have
had the opportunity have lately been busy in examining snake-

oison.
A writer in the ‘ Lancet’ details some experiments, in which he
failed to produce the effect on the blood described by Halford and
by Jones. It appears to us quite possible that the intensity of the
poison might affect this condition very much, and that while being
sufficiently powerful to kill, M. Vulpian’s specimens of poison may
have failed to produce the exaggerated leuccemic condition simply
from the loss of intensity or of a special quality acting on the
blood itself or on the heemopoietic glands. Some remarkable cases
of cure from snake-bite are reported in the medical journals, as
effected by Dr. Halford in Australia, by the injection of ammonia
subcutaneously and into the veins. Ammonia has long been used
as a stimulant in these cases, and the injection seems to be merely
a more direct method of application, the object being to counteract
the drowsiness which comes on. Colonel Showers records some
striking instances of cure from snake-bite effected by a native
Hindoo with certain herbs. Jf M. Vulpian is right in regarding
the mode of action of snake-poison as similar to that of curare, it
seems not improbable that vegetable principles should exist haying
VOL. VI. Z

326 Chronicles of Science. [A pril,

an opposite physiological effect, and therefore capable of neutral-
izing it.

an Experiment with a Scorpion.—Mr. Frank Buckland gives
an amusing account in his ‘Land and Water’ of a fight between a
mouse and a scorpion. He received two scorpions from Egypt
through Mr. J. Keast Lord, who is now exploring the Red Sea for
the Viceroy, and turned one of them into a bell jar with a freshly-
caught mouse. The scorpion was not one of the big African species,
but a little fellow, the body being about the size of a large cock-
roach, and the tail of course additional. He carried this last over
his head, and when brought up to the mouse let out with it in
furious style, stabbing the mouse several times, who did not seem
to mind it much, except one blow received on the nose which he
wiped with his fore paw. The mouse proceeded to bite off two of
the scorpion’s legs and also injured his tail so that he could not .
sting. Mr. Buckland expected after a while to see the scorpion’s
poison take effect, but nothing of the sort ensued, and the last
scene in the drama was the mouse quietly devouring the body of
its late antagonist. The journey from Egypt in a box without food,
and in cold weather, doubtless had affected the scorpion’s secreting
powers ; he was suffering from an exhausted nervous system.

1869.] Go3827 A)

Quarterly List of Publications received for Webdtety,

10.

1:

12.

13.

. The Malay Archipelago. The Land of the Orang-Utan and the

Bird of Paradise. By Alfred Russel Wallace. 2 vols. JIllus-
trated with Plates and Woodcuts. Macmillan & Co.

. The Polar World. A Popular Description of Man and Nature in

the Arctic and Antarctic Regions of the Globe. By Dr. G.
Hartwig. With 8 Chromolithographs and Woodcuts.
Longmans & Oo.

. The Theory of Ocular Defects and of Spectacles. Translated

from the German of Dr. Hermann Scheffler. By Robert B.
Carter, F.R.C.S. Longmans & Co.

. On Molecular and Microscopical Science. By Mary Somerville.

2 vols. With Illustrations. John Murray.

. Circle of Light, or Dhawalegeri. By H. P. Malet. J. C. Newby.
. Sciography ; or, Radical Projection of Shadows. By R. Campbell

Puckett, Ph.D. Chapman & Hall.

. Underground Life; or, Mines and Miners. By IL. Simonin.

Translated and Edited by H. W. Bristow, F.R.S. Illustrated
with 160 Wood Engravings, 20 Maps, and 10 Chromolithographs.
. Chapman & Hall.

. Lectures on the Preservation of Health: By Chas. A. Cameron,

Ph.D., M.D. Woodcuts. Cassell, Peiter, & Galpin.

. Physical and Historical Evidences of vast Sinkings of Land on

the North and West Coasts of France and South-Western
Coasts of England, within the Historical Period. R. A. Pea-
cock, C.E. LE. & F. N. Spon.
Handbook of Natural Philosophy. By D. Lardner, D.C.L.
Optics. Sixth Thousand. Edited by T. O. Harding, B.A.
James Walton.
Preglacial Man, and Geological Chronology. By J. Scott Moore.
Dublin : Hodges, Smith, & Foster. London: Williams & Norgate.
Facts and Arguments for Darwin by Fritz Miller. Translated
from the German by W. 8. Dallas, F.L.S. John Murray.

Medicine in Modern Times. By Dr. Stokes, Dr. Acland, Pro-
fessor Rolleston, Rey. Prof. Haughton, and Dr. Gull.
Macmillan & Co.
% 2

328 List of Publications received for Review. [April,

PAMPHLETS AND PERIODICALS.

Observations on the Spectra of some of the Stars and Nebule, &c. ;
also Observations on the Spectra of the Sun and of Comet IL.,
1868. By William Huggins, F.R:S.

On the Home Produce, Imports, and Consumption of Wheat. By
J. B. Lawes, F.RS., and J. H. Gilbert, F.R.S. Longmans.

Vital Law. Longmans.

On the Coal Measures of the Neighbourhood of Rotherham. By
A. H. Green, M.A., Geol. Survey.

On the Prevention of excessive Infant Mortality. By Mrs. Baines.

’ On the Condition of the Metallic Currency of the United Kingdom, -
with reference to the Question of International Coinage. By
W. Stanley Jevons, M.A. Harrison & Sons.

Notes on the Extinct Floras of North America, &c. By J. 8. New-
berry, Columbia College, New York.

On the Origin of Genera. By HE. D. Cope, A.M.
Philadelphia : Merrihew & Son.

More Light. Wyman & Sons.

On the Influence of Mind on the Molecular Forces of Matter. By
Dr. J. B. Nevins.

Invention of the Electric Telegraph. Simpkin, Marshall, & Co.
Revue Bibliographique Universelle. Paris : Aua Bureaux de la Revue.

Polytechnisches Notizblatt fiir Gewerbtreibende, Fabrikanten und
Kistler. Herausgegeben und redigirt v. Prof. Dr. R. Boettger in
Frankfurt. a. M. C. G. Kunze’s Nachfolger.

Nachrichten von der Kénigl. Gesellshaft der Wissenschaften und der
G. A. Universitit zu Gottingen.

Revue Hebdomadaire de Chimie Scientifique et Industrielle, sous la
Direction de M. Ch. Méne. Paris: Ch. Mene.

Catalogue of American and Foreign Scientific Books for Sale by
D. van Nostrand, New York.

Van Nostrand’s Eclectic Engineering Magazine. Same Publisher.
The American Naturalist.

The Geological Magazine. Triibner & Co,

1869. | List of Publications received for Review. 329

The Canadian Naturalist and Geologist.

The Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science. J. Churchill & Sons.
The Westminster.

Scientific Opinion.

The Popular Science Review. Hardwicke.
The Public Health.

Notes on Books. Being an Analysis of the Works published during
each Quarter by Longmans.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES, &c.

Thirty-sixth Annual Report of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic
Society.
Transactions of the Edinburgh Geological Society.

Proceedings of the Essex Institute, Salem, Mass.

Proceedings of the Royal Society.

%9 5 Royal Astronomical Society.
+ » Royal Geographical Society.
» » Geological Society.
9 » oological Society.

In the present Number (XXII). of this Journal will be found,
besides numerous Short Notices of Books, Pamphlets, and
essays, Reviews of the following recent works on Scientific

subjects :—

PAGE
Wallace’s ‘Malay Archipelago’ (Macmillan) .. .. .. .. « « 165
Bickmore’s ‘ East Indian Archipelago’ (Murray) .. .. .. .. « 165
Phillips’ ‘ Vesuvius’ (Macmillan’s: Clarendon Press) .. .. .. .. 188
Lobley’s ‘ Mount Vesuvius’ (Stanford) .. .. .. .« «. « « 188
Jordan’s ‘ Vis Inertiz in the Ocean’ (Longmans) .. .. . . « 801
Lange’s ‘Geschichte der Achatindustrie’ .. . er eR eee Toe

Simonin’s ‘ Underground Life’ (Chapman & Hall) si “ew “einige wenlick

TO ADVERTISERS.

—_+oe—

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

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Eighth of a Page, or under : 0 6 0
Quarter of a Page 5 ; : : Orla: 6
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QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, No. 23.

IDEAL SKETCH OF SUBMARINE GARDEN ON THE COAST OF YAR-CONNAUGHT.
The characteristic Sea- Weeds are:—Fucus nodosus, F. vesiculosus, F. serratus, Laminaria digitata
(vera), L. digitata, var. stenophylla, L. saccharina, and Alaria esculenta.

THE QUARTERLY

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

JULY, 1869.

I. THE SEA-WEEDS OF YAR-CONNAUGHT, AND
THEIR USES.

By G. H. Kiyanay, M.R.LA., F.R.GAS.L, &c., &c., of the
Geological Survey of Ireland.

On the west of Lough Corrib, the second largest sheet of fresh
water in Ireland, forming the north-western part of the Co. Galway,
lies the district called Yar or West Connaught. The western
portion of this tract, mcluded in the Barony of Ballinahinch, is
called Connemara ; however, now-a-days tourists seem to have given
the latter title to the whole of Yar-Connaught, although the natives
still retain the ancient names.

Yar-Connaught les on the Atlantic Ocean, being on the west
and south-west indented by numerous fiords, bays, and cooses, and
along its sea-board the fuci vegetate luxuriantly.

The sea-weeds are used for manufacturing into kelp, also as
manure for the land, and are locally divided into three classes,
which have received as names—I1st, Red weeds, or the iodine pro-
ducing plants that grow below the low-water mark of neap tides ;
2nd, Reeshagh, or the non-iodine producing weeds that grow in
similar situations ; and 3rd, the Black weeds, growing on the rocks
between high and low water.*

The first, in the order of importance as sources of iodien, are
“Laminaria digitata vera,” “ L. digitata stenophylla,” “L. saccha-
rina,” “LL. phyllitis,” and “ Alaria esculenta.” The Black weeds

* To John Steven, Esq., of Mullaghmore, the representative of William
Patterson, Esq., of Glasgow, I am indebted for the classification of the fuci, and
also for many of the statistics in this paper. .

VOL. VI. 2A

332 The Sea-weeds of Yar-Connaught, | July,

proper, grow between high and low water; such as “ Fucus vesicu-
losus,” “ F’. nodosus,” and “ F. serratus,” with many others of little
importance; besides these are the weeds found in deep waters,
that have somewhat the aspect of the Red weeds, and ‘are called
Reeshagh, namely, “ Chorda filum,” “ Himanthalia lorea,” and
“Laminaria bulbosa.” The last named are burned along with
the black weed by fair dealers in kelp, but by others are used to
adulterate the red weed, although they contain merely a trace of
iodine ; sometimes, however, they may be added to compensate for
the soluble salts lost from the red weed that has long been exposed
to the atmosphere, as the influence of the latter partially decomposes
the weed, and the alkaline salts liberated are washed away, including
much of the iodine compounds. If this damaged weed is burned
alone, the earthy salts and matter in excess from the loss of the
alkalies, cause the mass to be comparatively infusible, and very dif-
ficult to burn, but by adding “reeshagh” (which is rich in “Ile” ©
(oil), as the natives say, but in reality on account of its containing
much of the potash and soda salts) the infusibility of the earthy
salts is corrected, and the product is a nice-looking, well-fused mass,
yet necessarily poor in iodine. This is the plan usually adopted with
damaged red weed ; but good burners, instead of using “reeshagh,”
add to it fresh well-saved red weed, as the latter contains sufficient
alkaline salts to flux the earthy salts and matter of the old weed,
and form the mass into a kelp containing all the iodine salts of the
new weed with whatever remains in the damaged article. Neces-
sarily the product will not have as high a percentage of iodine as if ~
the kelp was manufactured from the fresh well-saved red weed
alone ; however, the kelp procured from the mixture is found to pay
better than if the iodime which remained in the damaged weed
were totally lost, and without some flux or another it is unat-
tainable.

Sea-weeds grow much more rapidly in strong tidal ways than
elsewhere. In such localities the black weeds arrive at maturity
in two years, while in the land-locked cooses, creeks, and bays,
where there is a sluggish tide, they will take three or even four
years. The growth of the red weeds is also affected by the tide,
the plants being more luxuriant in a good race than elsewhere.

The great sea-weed harvests are in the spring and summer
months; nevertheless, during the winter the inhabitants of the
coasts collect what may be driven in by the tides and storms,
which is locally known by the names of “Claddagh,” or “Sea-
wrack,” to spread on the lands they intend to till and crop
subsequently. In the spring of the year the great work begins,
as the inhabitants then cut from the rocks the two or three
year old plants, according to the situations in which they are

1869. | and their Uses. 333

erowing,* and much of this weed they send by boat for sale at
Galway, or some of the small towns on the south or east of Galway
Bay, from whence it is brought by carts, or even by the railways,
into the interior of the country, to be used as a fertilizer for the
land; while the “seawrack” that may be driven in during this
period, they save by drying in the sun; some to be burned into
kelp, while more, later in the year, will be sent away in boats to be
sold as manure for the late potatoes and turnip crop.

The burning or kelp manufacture usually begins in the latter
end of April, but sometimes earlier, if the sprmg has been dry
and hot, and is carried on until the end of September ; however
during a fine dry autumn they may keep the fires lighted all
October or even November, but this depends entirely on the
weather and the quantity of weed they are able to save, as in
Yar-Connaught, except in the Aran Islands, the drying process is
altogether effected by atmospheric heat.

In former years there was an extensive trade in black weed
kelp, as the prices ranged from £15 to £20 a-ton; most of the
soda used in the manufacture of soap, glass, &c., being procured
therefrom. But the duty having been taken off salt, cheaper
methods were resorted to, such as that discovered by M. Lablane,
for obtaining soda from common salt, through its decomposition by
sulphuric acid. The adaptation of M. Lablanc’s celebrated process
rendered black weed kelp almost valueless as a source of soda, and
this trade, for soap-making purposes, ceased about the year 1840.
Its loss not only affected the mhabitants of Yar-Connaught, but
also the people living on the west coast of Scotland, particularly the
inhabitants of the Hebrides, whose country, as well as their manner
of living, resemble those of Yar-Connaught. From the Hebrides
many of the inhabitants emigrated, while in Yar-Connaught the
people became poorer and poorer till the famine of 1846 and the
following years, during which visitation many of them found a
resting-place in their graves.

After the great trade in the black weed succumbed, a new one
sprang up in red weed kelp, for obtaiming the marine salts, which
yield iodine, bromine, &c.; but this trade was not of much im-
portance until after the year 1845, since which it has become
annually more and more developed. It should here be mentioned
that to William Patterson, Esq., of Glasgow, Yar-Connaught is

* The inhabitants of this coast have an ingenious way of saving themselves the
trouble of carrying the weed they cut on the rocks, by throwing it as cut in a heap,
and, before the tide rises to it, tying it round with a hay or grass rope, locally
called a sugaun. This heap rises with the tide, and can be easily towed to
whatever part of the shore they wish. This practice seems to have been in vogue
for at least 200 years, as it is mentioned by Roderick O’Fflahertie in his history
of ‘ Hiar, or West Connaught,’ which was written in the year a.p. 1684.

2 a2

334 The Sea-weeds of Yar-Connaught, [ July,

principally indebted for this source of industry. He introduced
and fostered it, and now carries on an enormous trade along the
west and north shores of Ireland, from the mouth of the Shannon
to Glenarm.

Of the red weed, that known to botanists as “ Laminaria
digitata vera” is the principal weed of Yar-Connaught, and of
this plant Mr. Steven believes that he has remarked two distinct
varieties. ‘‘ One which sheds its frond early in April and May, and
when dried and stacked for a time, does not yield any mannite ;
while the other, parts the frond and a portion of the stem besides, in
July, and gives out quite as much mannite as the ‘ L. saccharina.’
Of the other red weeds some varieties fall in June, July, August, or
September, but all the ‘ Laminariz’ are supposed to shed the frond
twice a year.”

Doctor Harvey thus describes the separation of the old leaves .
from the stems :—“ As soon as the existing frond has served its
purpose and begins to grow brown, an expansion commences
between its base and the apex of the stem. This expansion con-
tinues to increase in length and breadth till it has attained a
considerable size. We have then a large ovate lobe at the apex
of the stem, separated by a deep constriction from the old frond.
As yet this lobe is quite entire ; but after awhile longitudinal splits,
commencing near its margin, and continuing towards its centre,
begin to appear. These widen and lengthen by degrees, and at last
the outer ones reach the decaying base of the old frond ; a rupture
ensues, and the tip of the new segment is free. This process is
continued, until, when many segments have thus been formed, the
connection between the old leaf and the now nearly perfect new one
is so much weakened, that the former adheres by a very small
surface, and is soon cast off altogether.’ *

The fronds of the red weeds are driven on the shore by the first
gale after the plants begin to shed, whereupon hundreds of men,
women, and children immediately congregate at the different cooses
or small bays to collect the weed driven in, and carry it inland on
their own or on ponies’ backs. The produce of the spring and
summer harvests is usually spread, dried, and stacked to be burned
into kelp; while that driven in during the late autumn and winter
(unless the weather is extremely fine) is spread on the land as
manure for the spring crop. The weed thus treated for manure is
supposed by the natives to retain its fertilizing properties, while any
which may be left above high-tide mark until it ferments, they
consider would be rendered useless. This, however, is controverted
by scientific men, as they say “the best way of using sea-weed for

* «Phycologia Britannica,’ by W. H. Harvey, M.D., M.R.LA., &e., &e., vol. i.,
syn. 24

1869. ] and their Uses. 335

manure is to allow it to ferment above high-water mark in alternate
layers with either turf-mould or clay, and that the native plan is
very wasteful in every respect.”

If the sea-weed is to be used for kelp burning, a gravelly beach
(if there be no fine sand) is considered a good place on which to have
it driven; but if there is sand the latter will adhere to the weed and
cannot be got off even when it is dried, therefore both must be
burned together. This deteriorates the kelp, as it adds consi-
derably to its weight, and also decomposes the iodine compounds,
which causes some of that metalloid to be volatiliized—the former
being a loss to the buyer and the latter to the seller.*

The weed haying been fully dried, is stacked in heaps until a
sufficient quantity is collected, when the fires are lighted. The
burning is effected in rude kilns built of loose stones, of which
the dimensions are about eight feet long, three wide, and eighteen
inches high, the “eye of the kiln” being placed opposite to the
wind to catch the draft. This is the plan usually adopted, but in
some localities they are made longer and narrower. The best kelp
ought of course to be made entirely from red weed ; however the
operators often mix with it any black weed or reeshagh at hand,
more especially “Chorda filum” and “ Himanthalia lorea.” The
price of red weed kelp ranges from 3/. to 5/. a-ton, according to the
quantity of iodine it contains, as all lots are examined previous to
purchase by the sulphuric acid test.

When writing of iodine, Apjohn says, in reference to its
manufacture,t “The burning of the fuci must not be effected at
too high a temperature ;.for if so, much of the iodides will be
volatilized, or decomposed by the silex present in the ash. The kelp,
broken into small fragments, is digested with boiling water, which
dissolves out the soluble salts, amounting on an average to about
half its weight. This solution is then boiled down, until a film
forms on its surface, and set to crystallize, when sulphate of soda,
carbonate of soda, and a good deal of chloride of potassium, are
separated. The mother liquor, which still imcludes the iodides,
mixed with chlorides, sulphides, carbonates, sulphites, and hypo-
sulphites, is heated with one-eighth its bulk of oil of vitriol, when
carbonic acid, sulphurous acid, and sulphide of hydrogen are dis-
engaged in the gaseous form, and sulphur is set free. Upon
standing, the sulphur subsides, and along with it additional crystals
of sulphate of soda. The liquid which remains, and in which the

* A wilful fraud committed by the burners on the buyers is the throwing into
the mass of kelp, when fluid, lumps of slag procured at the different forges
throughout the country ; also pounded granite, gravel, &c., all of which add con-
siderably to its weight.

+ ‘Manual of the Metalloids, by James Apjoln, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., &c., &e.

336 The Sea-weeds of Yar-Connaught, | July,

iodine is present, chiefly as hydriodic acid, is then introduced
into a large retort, usually made of lead, the beak of which enters
the first of a series of three receivers communicating with each
other, and finally pulverized peroxide of manganese is added to it
through the tubulure. Upon the application of heat, water and
sulphate of manganese are formed, and the iodine distils over. The
temperature must not rise to 212°; for if it does, chlorine will also
be developed, and cause a loss of iodine by converting some of
it into chloride. The leaden retort used in this process, and which
is of a cylindrical form, is heated through the intervention of sand,
and is furnished with two tubulures, through one of which the
materials are introduced. The other is placed at about the middle
point of the neck of the retort, and serves the purpose of allowing
access to the interior of the beak in the event of its becoming plugged
with deposited iodine.”

The average quantity of red weed kelp sent yearly from the
shores of Yar-Connaught is 2500 tons, and the average price per
ton is 4/., giving a total of about 10,000/. per annum brought into
the country.*

If during the spring and summer it is at all favourable weather,
and the prices of red weed kelp range from 3/. 10s. to 47. 10s. a-ton,
men are enabled to earn from 2s. to 3s. a-day. The work, however,
is very laborious, for, besides the weed driven in on the shores, the
kelp manufacturers must supplement the supply naturally brought
in by the waves during the summer months, by cutting weed at low-
water during spring tides. To do this they go to favourable localities
while the tide is high, and the moment the water is low enough,
begin operations by one man, with a hook fastened on the end of a
long pole, cutting the weed off the rocks at the sea-bottom; whilst
another with a pole, having a cross attached, gathers together the
weed that floats to the surface, and a woman or boy drags it into the
boat. When the tide rises, the boat is rowed to land and the load
thrown on the shore for the women and children to carry up and
spread out to dry; and as this has to be done twice in the twenty-
four hours, while the spring tides last, the work is very arduous.
On many of the outlying islands off the coast of Yar-Connaught
there are huts which, during the summer months, are inhabited by
herds of women, solely for the purpose of carrying up, spreading,
and saving the weed thus procured. On such places the kelp is
seldom manufactured, but as soon as the weed is saved it is boated
to the mainland, or one of the larger islands, and there burned.

* During the year 1867, which was an unprecedented year, some of the kelp
fires not being extinguished till Christmas, there were about 3000 tons bought on
the coast of Yar-Connaught. These, at an average of 4/, a-ton, give a gross sum
of 12,0001.

1869. | and their Uses. 337

We are told that “the red weed kelp is the only really paying
trade; nevertheless, some black weed kelp is manufactured, but it is
most unproductive, for, on account of the price for soda, it is never
worth more than 1/. 10s. to 27. 10s. a-ton, and even at these prices
there is not a good demand for it. Previous to the repeal of the
salt duty the soap-maker obtained his alkali (soda) from ‘Spanish
barilla,’ or kelp ; Yar-Connaught in those days yielded from 8000
to 4000 tons of black weed kelp annually, and Scotland about
20,000 tons per annum; but now from Prussia and Austria vast
mineral supplies of alkaline salts are obtained, therefore black weed
or reeshagh kelp, chiefly valuable on account of these salts, are
scarcely worth making.”

Between the former prices for the black weed kelp (about 157.
a-ton) and that now paid for the red weed kelp (4/. a-ton) there is
a vast difference, and seemingly the former ought to have been the
most productive trade. Nevertheless, it was not to the manufac-
turers, unless they were also the proprietors of the land, for as the
black weed grows between high and low water mark the cutters of
the weed had to pay a high rent to the proprietors of the land,
which considerably diminished the profit on the kelp; while all
the red weed grows below low-water mark. However, some pro-
prietors charge a small sum for the right to collect the “claddagh ”
or “seawrack,” and others a royalty per ton for leave to burn the
kelp on their shores.

As only a trace of the iodine compounds is found in the black
weed, why therefore should they occur in the red weed? And
from whence does the latter receive them? Neither of these
questions has been satisfactorily answered, nor does their im-
portance seem to have been considered. As the “black weed ” ig
daily lying exposed many hours to the atmospheric agencies,
possibly this exposure may be unfavourable to the secretion of the
iodine producing salts; this suggestion, however, seems to be con-
troverted by none of these compounds occurring in the “ reeshagh ”
—The “red weed” apparently cannot receive the iodine from any
particular rock, as this class grows luxuriantly on granite, gneiss
schist, limestone, sandstone, slate, and in fact on every rock found
on the west coast of Ireland, even on blocks in the gravel, if
they are heavy enough to anchor the weed and prevent it being
wafted away by the tidal currents. Iodine is rather rare in nature ;
Apjohn says “ Iodine is found in nature only in a state of combina-
tion. In 1811 it was discovered by Courtois in kelp, in which it
exists united to sodium and potassium ; and it has since been found
in combination with the same metal in sea-water, several galt
springs, and the ashes of the sponge. M. Bussy has detected it in
the coal of Allier, and M. Duflos in the coal of Silesia. Lastly, the

338 The Sea-weeds of Yar-Connaught, . [July,

iodides of silver and mercury have been met with in Mexico and
iodide of zinc in Silesia.” In South America salts of iodine occur in
some rock masses ;* and for this reason some suwvans are favourable
to the idea, that the American continent is the source of supply to
these shores, the Gulf stream acting as the carrier, and that it is
on the shores washed by its waters that the iodine producing fuci
principally grow. Against this it might be put forward, that the
Gulf stream weed “Sargassum bacciferum” is very poor in iodine.
This, however, may be only negative evidence, as there may be
richer varieties nourished in the same waters, and the “ gulf weed”
may be destitute of iodine for somewhat similar reasons to those
which prevent the black weed and the reeshagh of Yar-Connaught
from secreting it.

If the iodme is brought over by the Gulf stream, naturally it
might be expected that it should be best developed near the source,
and in places farther removed it ought to be less and less, according
to distances ; this however does not seem to be the case, for Mr.
Steven says, “Ilodine although very sparingly developed in sea-
water is very generally distributed, and the iodine producing fuci,
wherever found, in Ireland, England, Scotland, Channel Islands,
France, or Japan, are nearly uniform in composition. In 1857
I analysed some specimens of L. digitata vera and L. digitata
stenophylla from Iceland. They were identical in every respect
with those found at home; quite as rich in iodine as the best
Trish.” In none of the published analyses of sea-water that I can
find, is the quantity of iodine recorded, it bemg always mentioned
as “a trace.” To settle the question whether the Gulf stream is
the carrier of it to these shores, it seems necessary that a series
of analyses should be made, especially of the waters of the Gulf
stream, in all of which the quantity of iodine should be carefully
determined. In some medical books there is the vague statement,
“ A cubic foot of sea-water contains ‘005 grain of iodine,” but as
no authority is given, much reliance cannot be placed on its value.t

* See ‘Manual of Mineralogy,’ by J. D. Dana, M.A., &e., &e.; and ‘ Glossary
of Mineralogy,’ by H. W. Bristow, F.R.S., &e., &e.

+ In the Journal des Connaissances Médicales (published in November last), there
is a brief notice of a method proposed by M. Moride whereby to prepare tinctures
from the iodine producing sea-weeds for medicinal purposes. In it are first men-
tioned the iodine and non-iodine producing weeds, and then the writer goes on
to state : —“ Sea-weeds containing more chlorine and potash than soda are richer in
iodine than in bromine, and the contrary is the case if the plant contains more
sulphurie acid and soda than potash.” Guided by these general facts, M. Moride
conceived the idea of turning these plants to account in their natural state, that is,
without subjecting them to a combustion which may modify them considerably,
and drive off their most useful volatile ingredients. M. Boussingault and M.
Humboldt had stated that in America the inhabitants of the Cordilleras of the
Andes were in the habit of using the decoctions of sea-weeds, or else their alcoholic
tinctures, in cases of scrofula, wens, and lymphatic tendencies, These liquids are,

1869.] and their Uses. 339

In conclusion, it may not be out of place to give a very brief
description of the coast, but more especially of those places at
which the kelp manufacture is principally carried on. As _ before
mentioned, Yar-Connaught on the west and south-west is indented
by numerous fiords, bays, creeks, and cooses. This has led some
people to imagine that the name of its western portion, Conne-
mara, 1s derived from Coum-ne-mara, 7.e. the “cooms or bays of
the sea.” This however is incorrect, for, according to the historian
O’F flahertie, the tract was called Conmac, after the name of its
prince, and ne-mara (of the sea), to distinguish it from his other
territories, also called after him, but situated in other counties,
such as Conmac-ne-rein in the Co. Longford, Conmac-ne-culy in the
Co. Mayo, &c., &e.

Bounding Connemara on the north, and separating it from the
county of Mayo, isa remarkable fiord called The Killary, which is over
nine miles long, sometimes a quarter, rarely half-a-mile wide, and
embosomed in hills that rise abruptly from the water’s edge to con-
siderable heights, Moahlrea (the bald king), the highest, being
2688 feet in altitude. South-westward of The Killary, between
it and Slyne Head, the south-west point of Yar-Connaught, are other
bays, that extend nearly east and west, but none so considerable
as The Killary ; while eastward of Slyne Head the bays and creeks
run north and south, or nearly so, and these latter, combined with
east and west straits, form an archipelago between Kilkieran and
Greatman’s Bays.

Off the coast between the Killary and Slyne Head are
numerous islands and sea-rocks, or, as they are locally called,
illauns, carricks, and carrigeens, swept by the full force of the
Atlantic, therefore most advantageous ground for the growth of
the red weed; and on the islands, more especially Innishbofin,
also on the main land, but particularly in the neighbourhood of
Rinvyle, a considerable quantity of kelp is burned. Hereabouts
would not be an unfavourable place for one interested in the manu-
facture of kelp to examine the process; for at Letterfrack (5 miles
from Rinyyle) excellent accommodation can be had at Cassan’s
Hotel ; or, if the observer would like to rough it a little, and see
more of the natives, he can take a canoe from Cleggan Bay, and

however, very unpalatable, and have, moreover, a strong smell of the original sea-
weed; to avoid which M. Moride proceeds as follows :—* The plants, gathered on
the rocks on which they grow, are slightly rinsed in fresh water, in order to rid
them of the salt water adhering to them, then dried and exposed to the sun,
whereby they lose their smell and taste of wrack; after which they are pounded
in a mortar and macerated in strongly alcoholized water at a somewhat high
temperature. The iodized tincture thus obtained may be used to prepare a
medicinal wine or else a syrup with, which will be found useful in all affections
for which iodine is prescribed.”

340 The’ Sea-weeds of Yar-Connaught, | July,

run over to Innishbofin, to remain there until driven off by the
kelp smoke. This smoke is very peculiar; it does not ascend like
other smoke, but hangs near the surface, creeping along the ground,
and lying in heavy clouds in the cooms and hollows among the
hills, The natives consider it very wholesome; but strangers
generally find it heavy and oppressive, and usually contract a
headache from its smell. Visitors might also stop at Mullarky’s
Hotel in Clifden, from whence they could see the kelp burning
to the northward and southward, but the nearest station to the
great kelp dépdts is the village of Roundstone.

Roundstone, instead of being a miserable village, ought to
be one of the principal ports on the west of Ireland, haying an
excellent harbour, easy of access and sheltered from all winds;
moreover, opening into it, are other land-locked harbours, such as
Blackhaven, Bertraghbwe Bay, Cashel Harbour, &. It may be
truly said of it, that “it is favoured by God but neglected by man ;”
and this in a great measure seems due to an absentee proprietary.
From this village the kelp fires can be seen on all sides,—out on
the islands, in on the bays, north, south, east, and west; and unless
there is a good breeze, the horizon will be formed of a heavy cloud of
brownish-grey smoke. The great kelp stores are on Kilkieran and
Cashel Bays; at the former there is a good pier, alongside which
the kelp ships can go; but in Cashel they have to he out, and the
. cargo is put on board by boats loaded by girls who carry the blocks
of kelp from the store on their backs (see vignette, p. 8341), and this
exercise so develops them, that they have chests like dray-horses ;
moreover, it is wonderful what a weight they can carry; some of
them thinking nothing of a block two or three hundred-weight.

Roundstone is also a favourable locality from which to visit and
explore the beds and tracts of seaweed, the most favourable time
being during calm weather and spring tides. The village should
be left in the morning with the tide; taking a course eastward or
westward as the wind suits; as the tide falls (if the weather is set
fair) so will the wind, and by low water the boat ought to be lazily
drifting about on a sheet as smooth as a mirror and almost perfectly
transparent, so much so that objects, in from twenty to thirty
fathoms of water, are quite apparent. ‘Then if an observer leans
over the gunwale of his boat he will see the submarine gardens in
all their pristine grandeur. If in the deeps of the land-locked bays,
there will be groves of the Laminaria bulbosa; or perhaps he may
drift in among the cord-like fronds of the Chorda filum, or among
the “sea thongs” or Himanthalia lorea, Outside, in the open sea, or,
even in the vicinity of the islands, if there are facilities for a strong
tide, will be seen groves of the Laminaria digitata tangled up with
parasite sea-weeds, or perhaps a mass of the beautiful Alaria

1869. | and their Uses. 341

esculenta fringing precipitous rocks. However, one of the most
characteristic sights is a low rock in a sandy waste, on which is a
garden of L. saccharina or L. phylltis with their accompanying
green, purple, and red parasitic weeds, and in and out through the
foliage may be seen little fishes, crustacea and mollusca, creeping,
gliding, and sporting.

To the eastward of the previously mentioned archipelago the
coast line extends in an east and west direction to Galway town ;
while on the southward, at the entrance of Galway Bay, he the
Avan Islands. These latter, with a fair breeze, are not more than
two or three hours’ sail from Roundstone, and are well worthy of a
visit, not only on account of the quantity of kelp there manufactured,
but also for their peculiar formation, the outcrop of the strata
forming long continuous large steps or terraces, and also for the
richness of their flora. Besides these natural attractions, anyone
interested in archeology will find a good field among the Christian
and Prehistoric ruins that exist on all the islands, but more especially
on Innishmore.

© Grae [July,

II. THE LAMBETH OBSERVATORY.
~ By Rosert James Many, M.D., F.R.AS.

In the outer courtyard of the Government India Store, situated in
the Belvedere Road, Lambeth, and on the bank of the Thames, on
the direct line of river-side thoroughfare between the Waterloo and
Westminster Bridges, there stands a very complete and pretty little
observatory devoted to severe philosophic work, which would cer-
tainly not be looked for by the uninitiated in this locality and in
these surroundings. ‘The establishment is of modern date, and but
little known. Its history, and the reason for its occupying this
site, are, however, simple and plain. It rose to its present position
when the Indian Store disappeared from the old and traditional
ground of Leadenhall Street, and when the Indian administration
took westward wing to find its new and more convenient home in
Downing Street. At that time it was thought meet to provide a
lodgment for the store department nearer to head-quarters, and a
very commodious building was accordingly erected in the Belvedere
Road, and opened in the month of February, 1864. The general
purpose of this building is to furnish a temporary warehouse in
which all articles destined for the military, medical, and educational
branches of the Indian service may be received, examined, and
packed for shipment.

A considerable number of scientific instruments of various
classes have for some time been annually sent out for use in India
under the auspices of the Indian Government. In the old days of
the Indian administration, the custom in regard to such instru-
ments was that a sealed pattern of each kind of instrument in
occasional demand was kept in the store department attached to the
establishment in Leadenhall Street, and whenever a supply was
required for service in India, the instrument makers of England
were invited to send tenders of the prices at which they would
undertake to furnish the required articles, constructed in exact
imitation of the sealed patterns. In general practice, the maker
who offered to supply at the lowest price received the commission ;
and when it was executed the instruments were sent in to the
store, superficially compared with the pattern to see that they were
of the kind that had been ordered, and were then shipped off to
India, and the transaction was held to be complete.

In this proceeding the real excellence of the instrument, its
real fitness for the satisfactory performance of the work it was
designed to accomplish, was altogether left to the accident of the
way in which the maker might be able or willing to perform his

1869. | ~The Lambeth Observatory. 343

share of the bargain. It was assumed that if the implements
looked like the pattern, it would be all that could be desired, and if
by any accident it was discovered that it was not all that was
desired, the responsibility was conceived to rest upon the shoulders
of the tradesman who had thus badly executed his order, This
system was obviously not likely to prove satisfactory where the
delicate and exact work of observational science was concerned. In
the first place, the sealed pattern assumed a perfection in instru-
mental construction which will not be obtained after many more
centuries have been consumed in unceasing improvement; and in a
sense also ordained that Indian science should operate with obsolete
instruments, instead of with the best that could be produced in the
existing state of cosntructive art. And in the next place, the best
makers who had a reputation for excellence to sustain were more
or less excluded from the Indian orders because they were expected
to compete with men who looked to profit out of low prices, rather
than to furnish excellence of work.

It happened while matters were in this position that Colonel
Strange, who was the originator, and is now the life and manager
of the Indian Store Observatory, was requested to examine a
quantity of instruments that had been sent to England for repair,
before they were again shipped off for India. In performing
this duty, he was constrained to urge that the greater part of
these instruments, about which a considerable expenditure had
been incurred, were really of an obsolete form and useless for
practical work; and to recommend that the whole should be sold
for anything that could be made of them, rather than that the
serious injury should be inflicted on officers in India of giving
them tools that could only furnish erroneous and misleading
observations.

The instruments accordingly were withdrawn from the service,
and the incident had also a further and more practical result. It
opened the eyes of the authorities to the need of a different moce
of procedure, and arrangements were forthwith entered upon to
secure at least a standard measure of excellence in all instruments
sent out to India. At first Colonel Strange was commissioned to
examine batches of instruments of various kinds fitfully, as they
were prepared for shipment; but after he had pointed out that
this could only be serviceable when means of efficient examination
were available, he was requested to submit a recommendation
as to the appliances which were requisite for the scrutiny. The
recommendation was that a fixed observatory should be esta-
blished for the work, and a plan of the character and instrumental
furniture of this testing observatory was suggested. The plan was
formally and officially examined by the Astronomer Royal, the
President of the Royal Society, and the Director of the Ordnance

344 The Lambeth Observatory. | July,

Survey; and these practical authorities pronounced that the pro-
posal was sound in principle, and likely to be efficient in operation.
The order was then issued that the observatory should be con-
structed ; and the construction, and subsequent management of the
establishment, were placed in the hands of the designer, Colonel
Strange, who in addition to a natural taste for, and capabilities of,
dealing with delicate and fine mechanism, had enjoyed the field ex-
perience of thirteen years of service upon the great trigonometrical
survey of India.

The first matter that had to be decided in connection with this
design was the place where the fixed observatory could be planted.
Up to this time all instrumental examinations had been made in
the old building that had been used as the Indian store, and that
stood opposite to the ancient Company’s “ House” in Leadenhall
Street. It therefore was deemed only natural that the instruments
should follow the store, and that the observatory should be planted
on the ground acquired by the department in Lambeth; the site
was obviously not the best in the world for the purpose, but as no
other available position could on the instant be fixed upon, it was
ultimately resolved to do the best that could be done in connection
with the Lambeth store, and the existing observatory was com-
menced in the year 1865.

The earliest proceeding was necessarily to neutralize the natural
unfitness of the ground and position for exact instrumental work,
so far as this could be done. This has been most admirably and
most efficiently accomplished, and as follows :—First, twelve iron
serew-shod piles with the widest part of the spiral thread 2 feet in
diameter were wormed into the gravel, which here lies 24 feet
below the surface of the ground. Broad heads of cast iron were
next keyed upon the top of the piles. Thick slabs of flag-stone
were then laid upon the pile-heads, and the space beneath filled in
with concrete cement to the depth of about three feet. A circular
platform of brickwork was finally constructed upon the flag-stones,
and upon this, two semicircular segments of wall were reared
round the circumference, and a solid pedestal of masonry was
erected in the centre. This circle of wall, cut by two gaps at
opposite points of the circle, and this enclosed central pedestal are
the objects which now form the visible base of the observatory, and
which carry the chief instruments employed in the scrutiny. A
wooden platform, or floor, between the circular wall and the central
pillar, to which access is obtained through the gaps, is carried upon
beams that are supported from beyond the system of pile-work,
and is carefully isolated from all mechanical connection with the
piled foundation, so that the observer moves about upon this floor
without effecting any disturbance in the position of the instruments
carried upon the walls and the pedestal. This method of securing

1869. | The Lambeth Observatory. 345

a firm foundation upon so unpromising a base as a river-bank
shaken by the incessant rolling of heavy carts, has been found to
be very efficient, if not practically perfect. Since the first setting
of the masonry of the platform not the slighest permanent change
has occurred in the bearings of the instruments. Passing carts
communicate a slight transient vibration for the moment, which,
however, has no other inconvenience than causing an occasional
brief suspension of observation.

Upon entering this little model testing observatory of the
Indian store, then, the general aspect is that of a square room with
a raised circular platform in its centre, reached by a small flight of
stairs. A broad solid wall-lke rim, breast high, and included
within an outer suspended pathway for the observer, runs round
the platform, and affords a convenient resting-place for instrumental
apphlances of various kinds. In the midst of this circle a flat-topped
pular forms the bed upon which the instrument to be tried is placed
by the examiner.

Overhead the broad glass roof, with the uninterrupted space of
clear sky, indicates that the star-rulers of the night can be appealed
to whenever such higher and more refined arbitration is deemed
desirable.

One of the most important objects that is attempted in this
observatory is the examination of the exactness of graduated circles
that are designed for horizontal measurement. Unless these circles
do measure equal and true degrees in all their parts, it is obvious
that the angular intervals recorded from them are not worth the
paper upon which the records are inscribed. To accomplish this
end four horizontal tubes, called collimators, have been placed on
different parts of the circular wall, so that an observer can contem-
plate each of them from the telescope attached to the instrument
under trial. These collimators are in reality only so many fixed
and immovable points, occupying for the time known, or more
properly ascertainable, positions on the great wall-circle, and there-
fore including also known, or ascertainable, angular intervals
between them. The exact reference-points, or virtual centres in
these collimator tubes—‘“ the marks to be collimated or aimed at”
—are of a varied character. In one there is a system of diagonally
crossing spider-threads, and in another of horizontally and verti-
cally crossing threads, forming the reference-points by their inter-
section. In yet another tube an artificially fixed star is formed by
throwing gaslight through an exquisitely minute ‘aperture, which
has its own image reproduced in the focus of a convex lens, so
contrived as to fall only one-fifth of an inch from the curved surface
of the glass, a proceeding which practically reduces the image of
the simulated star to the very smallest dimension to which it is pos-
sible to compress it. The four reference-points, or collimators, are,

346 The Lambeth Observatory. | July,

for convenience sake, so placed upon the wall that the angular
intervals included between them on the circular are are respectively
30, 60,120, and 150 degrees. This arrangement, by varying the
pairs of collimators used, allows twelve different angles to be tested.
The test, in plain language, is simply reading these angles off as
they are given by the circles of the instruments, and then shifting
round the circles again and again, so that exactly the same work is
performed in succession by different portions of the same graduated
rim. If the graduations of the circle are correct and trustworthy,
the angles read off between any given pair of collimators will
obviously always have the same value whatever portion of the circle
be employed in the reading. This test is a very accurate and a
very severe one. ‘The slightest inexactness and failure in the
mechanical work at once becomes glaringly obvious, and can be
estimated as a question of amount as well as of fact. In practice
the process is repeated with each instrument on successive occasions,
to test permanence as well as exactness of construction and per-
formance ;—to see that there are no weak and yielding points, or
shifting serews, or attachments, involved in the structure. If the
reference-points were simply so many fixed spots, established upon
the circular wall, it would be necessary that every graduated circle
placed under examination should be truly centred upon one point
with the most refined exactness. This necessity is practically
avoided by placing the reference-points in tubes behind, or beyond,
curved lenses of glass, which have the useful property of always
sending parallel rays to the telescope of the tried instrument, and
therefore always securing the invyariability of each angular instru-
ment however the centre of the reading circle may le. Colonel
Strange has satisfied himself by actual trial that the centre of a
graduated circle, or arc, may be shifted a fifth of an inch without
making any appreciable alteration in the value of the angles read.
It is this especial virtue which converts a mere visible fixed point
of reference into what is technically known as the “ collimator.”
The testing of vertical circles is a far more difficult piece of
business than the trial of horizontal ones, for this reason—in
vertical circles the telescope which is employed in making each
observation is rigidly connected with some unalterable radius of the
circle, and any given angle included between reference-points cannot
therefore be applied over and over again to different portions of the
circle. This however is not of very much moment, because the
vertical and horizontal circles of any given maker are turned out
by the same graduating instrument, and if the horizontal circle is
found to be graduated correctly, the vertical circle may with some
confidence be assumed to be of the same excellence. In the case
of the larger and more important instruments the examination is
rigidly carried out by observing standard Greenwich stars as they

1869. | The Lambeth Observatory. 347

pass over the meridian. ‘The angular intervals lying between the
culminating points of these standard stars are most accurately
determined by multiplied observations at established observatories ;
therefore all that is necessary, is to see that the graduations of the
circles indicate the precise angular intervals that they ought to
show for the stars that are employed in the test. There is, however,
one appendage to all vertical circles that is of a somewhat slip-
pery and suspicious character, but that is nevertheless at the bottom
of all correct indication, and must therefore be made the subject of
scrutiny. ‘This is the level which is used to give the horizontal
point from which vertical elevation is reckoned. One portion of
the internal surface of the glass tube used in the construction of the
level is so ground that it just departs from a straight direction in
the line of length, so far as to give the air-bubble imprisoned on
the spirit an inclination to rest in the centre. But this surface
requires to be graduated so that the bubble travels over exactly the
same linear space on the graduation, for every equal angular change
in the elevation of one of the ends of the tube. To ascertain
whether the level is so made that this actually occurs, it is placed
upon a cradle of iron, and a delicate screw with a divided head is
turned hundredths of parts of a revolution at a time to raise or
depress one end of the cradle. If the level is well made, the bubble
travels one mark of the graduation for every hundredth part of a
turn of each thread of the screw. ‘This appliance of test is so
delicate, that if the finger and thumb are placed gently against
opposite sides of the bearer, the bubble moves from its place under
the expansion caused by the mere warmth of the living contact ; or
if, again, the hand be pressed firmly on the two-inch-thick slab of
slate that carries the instrument, the flexure of the seemingly
inflexible slate is immediately made apparent by the travelling of
the bubble.

The optical performance of the telescopes of small surveying
instruments is tried by fixing a card, which has a series of lines
clearly traced upon it, some the fiftieth, some the seventy-fifth, and
some the hundredth of an inch asunder, 25 feet away ; telescopes
of different degrees of power should render the divisions of the one
or other of these series distinctly visible at this distance. The lines
which are the hundredth of an inch asunder subtend seven seconds
of angular measure at the distance of 25 feet; that is to say,
a telescope which can show the closest lies as distinct visible
objects at the distance of 25 feet, will be capable of clearly dis-
cerning an actual object of even less than seven seconds of size.
The card containing the tracing of these lines also carries the exact
representation of the scale of the surveyor’s levelling staff as it
would be seen at a distance of five chains and ten chains. These
scales are produced in most exquisite clearness and perfection by

VoL. VI. 2B

348 The Lambeth Observatory. [ July,

photography. They are printed from a standard negative plate
preserved in the observatory, so that identically the same test can
be supplied in any number of instances where instrument makers
may wish to avail themselves of it.

There are two clocks in the observatory, of which one marks
mean, and the other sidereal time. The mean time clock is in
immediate and sympathetic connection with the great central time
standard of the Greenwich Observatory, the communication being
effected by electrical agency. The bob of the clock-pendulum is a
hollow coil of copper wire, embracing, without contact, a selection
of permanent magnets. The ends of the coil pass away, and are
ultimately connected with the Greenwich clock, which supplies
through the wire a current of electricity at every alternate second.
The movement of the clock-train is maintained in the usual way by
a weight; but the accuracy of the going is secured by the magnetic
contrivance. Every alternate second of true mean time, the swinging
magnet receives a slight accelerating pull from the coil, virtually
converted into a magnet itself for the instant. A tell-tale magne-
tized needle marks the seconds by alternate sway, but always stands
still at the first second of every hour by the Greenwich time, and
starts its vibration again at the fourth second after the hour. This
most elegant and efficient application of electro-magnetism is due
to the ingenuity of Mr. Jones, station-master at Chester, and is
known as “ Jones’s Patent Controlled Pendulum.”

Meteorological instruments, in every variety, are tested at this
observatory ; the standard barometer has been carefully com-
pared with the standards of both Kew and Greenwich. The
divisions of the scale are also very accurately compared with a
measure of length finely marked into hundredths of an inch, taken
primarily from the preserved national standard. Aneroids are
tried by a very ingenious contrivance. <A batch of the instruments
is placed in a glass-covered cylindrical reservoir, which is connected
with the receiver of an air-pump, in such a way that the channel
of communication is crossed by a diaphragm of porous porcelain.
The receiver of the air-pump is then exhausted to a certain degree,
and the exhaustion of the reservoir containing the aneroids goes on
through the porous diaphragm very slowly, in order to imitate the
action of the instrument when used to measure mountain ascents.
The exhaustion takes place at the rate of about one inch of pressure
per hour, and at every half-inch of change the instrument is com-
pared with an accurate mercurial barometer forming part of the
apparatus.

Thermometers are proved in the freezing and boiling points by
immersion in melting ice and in steam; and a certain number of
intermediate points of temperature are also verified, by comparison in
water, with standards authenticated at Greenwich and Kew. With

1869. | The Lambeth Observatory. 349

the existing appliances this comparison is carried, not without
difficulty, up to 92 degrees of Fahrenheit. It is deemed most
desirable, where service in India is contemplated, nevertheless to
extend the examination of intermediate points up to 120 degrees.
But this is a very delicate and difficult task. Whenever there is
more than 30 degrees between the natural temperature of the air
and the temperature of the water in which the instruments are
immersed, the cooling of the water goes on so rapidly and so
irregularly that instruments immersed in the liquid are really
differently affected in different places. A remedy for this imper-
fection is under consideration, and it is intended that means shall
be provided, as opportunity allows, for testing large numbers of
thermometers at a time in which the uniform diffusion of tempera-
tures quite up to 120 degrees is artificially provided for in a vessel
surrounded by a large body of heated and constantly moving water,
the heat of which is to be retained by a jacket, or coating, of very
slowly conducting material. ‘The freezing points of four standard
thermometers, which, after all, are the sole reliable and unalterable
elements, are examined once a-year to guard against error from the
contraction of the bulbs and other slow changes of constituent
material.

The instrument which occupies the place of scrutiny in this
testing observatory at the present time is one of a very magnificent
set that has been for some time preparing for use at the central
stations of the great Trigonometrical Survey of India. It is a
large theodolite (one of a pair), with a three feet vertical, and a two
feet horizontal, circle. Its companions for this service, of which
specimens stand in reserve in other parts of the observatory, are a
pair of transit instruments, a pair of zenith sectors, and a pair of
chronographs. In many particulars these noble instruments are
entirely unique, and deserve a much more precise and particular
description than can here be given, in consequence of limitation of
space.

It may, however, be nevertheless briefly explained in regard
to them, that each theodolite, which is designed mainly for deter-
mining the angles of large triangles through the instrumentality of
heliotrope flashes given by mirrors from twelve to forty miles away,
has a frame chiefly composed of aluminium bronze, which is three
times as rigid as a similar structure of gun-metal, and therefore
confers twice the rigidity, in two-thirds of the weight that gun-
metal can furnish. The large circle bearing the graduations for
fine work is protected by an outer guard-ring which takes all the
strain, and serves also to equalize temperature. The tangent screw
is made, by the application of a peculiar spring, to exert an
invariable force. The adjusting levels are of great delicacy, and
the telescope is furnished with two eye-pieces, one with a horizontal
2B 2

350 The Lambeth Observatory. [July,

- and the other with a vertical set of micrometers. The foot screws
press against flat arms of metal, which are a fixed and integral part
of the stand, to obviate lateral wriggle.

The transit instrument, which will fix the longitude of the
principal stations, has an adjustment for the bearings of the pivots,
because the plan, now universally adopted in large imstruments for
fixed observatories, of banishing entirely these adjustments, could
not be conveniently adopted in peripatetic instruments, that must
be moyed from station to station. ach pivot is carried on a
triangle of iron resting on three screws, furnishing means of rough
adjustment for horizontality. The connection of the pivot with
the triangle is, however, managed through a kind of ball and
socket intervention, in which the socket or cup is attached to the
triangle, while the broad convex spherical surface representing
the ball is the bottom of the metallic piece which supports the
cylindrical bearing of the pivot. One pivot allows of vertical, and
the other of horizontal adjustment ; in both cases the ball and socket
adapting itself with ease and exactness to the movement effected.
Four levels for securing horizontality, hang from spindles mounted
transversely upon the centre-piece of the telescope itself, and in
such a way as to remain in free and constant adjustment during
the rotation of the telescope upon its transverse axis.

The chronographs, or time-registers, prepared to make the
transit observations to be recorded upon paper by electrical agency,
are chiefly remarkable for a most exquisite contrivance for securing
uniformity and exactness of movement, which is the invention of
M. Foucault, of the Imperial Observatory of Paris. A barrel
is carried round every two minutes by a tram of clock-wheels, and
two companion points so press upon paper stretched over the barrel,
and saturated with an appropriate chemical agent, as to allow a
deep purple dot to be impressed on the paper every time the
pendulum of a clock sends a momentary current of electricity
through one point, which in practice is at the completion of each
second, while the finger of the observer does the same thing at will
with the other point, to register the time of the observation, so
interpolated between the seconds-dots. The movement of the
barrel is regulated to rate and uniformity—first, by a fly-wheel,
something like a miniature paddle-wheel, which revolves rapidly
in a hollow case furnished with a peripheral slit, which can be
enlarged or diminished, to secure more or less aérial resistance, as
it may be desired. But in addition to this, the double balls of
the ordinary Watts’ steam-governor are attached in such a way
that when they diverge from each other with too rapid motion,
they lift the weight of a lever-mounted counterpoise by rods
coming down from the middle of the diverging arms. The more
rapidly the balls revolye the more load they take upon themselves

1869. | The Lambeth Observatory. 351

from the lever-weight as a retarding influence. The weight of the
lever hangs, for this purpose, perpendicularly under a suspending
pivot, and therefore in repose and out of use, when the gyration of
the governor is not too fast and the drag is not wanted. It only
comes into effective operation when it is drawn out sideways by the
too rapidly revolving governor acting upon a tail-like lever arm
above.

The zenith sector, which is to give the latitude of the principal
stations, is of the same optical and measuring power as the zenith
sector of the Royal Observatory, but on account of its peculiar con-
struction, weighs only 595} Ibs., while the Greenwich sector weighs
1140 lbs. It consists essentially of a vertical pillar, carrying a
transverse axis, which has, in place of a wheel, two crossing sets of
radii, of which one pair is in reality the telescope, and the other
pair the arm of the sectors, read by four microscopes, and each
including an are of 45 degrees. The sectors are free from all
mechanical strain, and only looked at by the microscopes. In
observing, the position of a star nearly on the meridian and within
15 degrees of the zenith is noted, and the graduations of the
sectors are read off. The instrument is then turned half round on
its vertical axis, the star brought into the telescope field again, and
the sectors once more read off. The angular interval of the are
comprised between the two readings is then necessarily twice the
zenith distance of the star; and if the star is a standard star with
known and determined polar distance, this at once becomes an
indication of the latitude of the place whence the star is observed.
The zenith distance of the star gives the height of the pole of the
heavens from the horizon, and this involves the angular distance of
the place from the earth’s pole; or, in other words, its latitude.
The star is referred to its exact place on the meridian, as it has to
be observed in succession immediately before and immediately after
its culmination to allow for the reversal of the instrument, by a
micrometer wire adjusted in the field of vision. A series of very
beautiful and perfect mechanical expedients are adopted to combine
in this instrument the two opposite excellences of lightness and
firmness; in other words, to enable the instrument to be readily
transported from station to station, and yet to make it of high
astronomical value when in use. ‘The entire series of these instru-
ments has been in hand and under examination during seven years,
and within that period they have undergone continual and fre-
quent modifications under the suggestions of the tests applied, and
are therefore in a fair way of presenting in the end a measure of
excellence which could not have been attained without the exact
and refined appliances of scrutiny which the establishment of this
observatory affords. Indeed, no better witnesses than these instru-
ments could be called in support of the argument urged by Colonel

352 The Lambeth Observatory. [July,

Strange, at the last session of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, for the institution of increased facilities for
prosecuting research into the physical conditions and laws of
material nature, and for improving man’s dealings with those
mighty, though subtle powers.

One hundred different kinds of instruments are tested in this
useful and unpretending little observatory at Lambeth, and the
number of individual instruments examined each year now amounts
to about four thousand. The final result of the establishment of
the observatory has, in Colonel Strange’s opinion, amply justified
the proceeding and established its need. The Colonel, to use his
own words in speaking of the matter, considers that “the instru-
ments now sent out for use in India are to their predecessors very
much what the civilized man is to the rude savage.” The practice
in connection with the testing observatory is that orders for the
different kinds of instruments required are given to the best —
makers at prices which enable the highest amount of mechanical
excellence to be furnished, and which justify the exaction of the
best possible workmanship. No trammels of “ patterns” are
incurred, and the freest scope is left for the adoption of rapidly
progressing improvement in mechanical art. The maker who
receives the commission goes to the observatory to ascertain exactly
what is required of him. This often leads to a lengthened discus-
sion, and extended deliberation before the work is commenced. The
price is estimated by anticipation, and submitted to the inspector,
and if in his opinion the estimate is reasonable the work is proceeded
with. The instrument on completion is sent to the observatory
on the understanding that the right of rejection has been reserved
either provisionally or unconditionally, and that in either case any
such decision is to be held final. Responsibility for excellence of
work is thus transferred from a necessarily interested maker to an
independent and specially qualified judge. Makers are continually
invited to avail themselves of the exceptionally excellent facilities of
the observatory in testing their own work, and are so incited to
renewed efforts to obviate imperfections. In this way the most
sagacious and capable of the profession come to see at a glance that
their performance is made the object of examination by an impartial
tribunal that only concerns itself with facts, and has nothing to do
with hesitating and loose opinion, and that therefore the Lambeth
Observatory constitutes a court of final appeal whose decisions
must be held to be beyond further question or dispute.

Quarterly Journal of Science, NOX

TERTIARY | difcesuateeae ees — ———= 3. Dark Slates, Sandstone, &c. of the Alps. (Glarus).
SERIES.
. ( Nummulite Timestone, not represented wr Brita).
. Thanet Sands, Reading Beds & London Clay. Sands, Gravels & Clay.
. (Upper sedimentary member lost by denudation ).
CRETACEOUS
SERIES Dr Upper & Lower Chalk, and Chalk Marl £c.
vf Green Sand & Gault. (Sands, Gravels & Clays).
UPPER 3.
JURASSIC. . 2.
MIDDLE SENOS aa 3. wdge Clay & & at Cale. Grit, (Sandstone).
JURASSIC. a 2. . (Limesto
1. Lower Grit. ( a en
3. Oxford Clay & Kelloway Rock.
LOWER 2. Bath and Inferior Oolite.
JURASSIC
cae ae | 1. Lower, Middle and Upper Lias.
3. Rhatic Beds, Red Marl & Lower Keuper Sandstone.
TRIASSIC oe chelkalk eS ee represented, Englar
SERIES. 4 merged ee ee m "4
Eine ie eee) i. New Red Sandstone.
PERMIAN | 3. Upper Permian ae (S& Bees Sandstone ?).
SERIES. ae estar. Lunesto
1. Lower Permian Soe Sandstones, Maris & Conglomer

isX}

. Coal Measures, Millstone Grit & Voredale Serves.

CARBONIFEROUS

SERIES.
. Carboniferous Limestone, (with Shales € Sandstones in the North
: Lower, [am stoi ; Shale. Carboniferous Slate.( Upper Old Red Sandst
of Sco: :
. Shists & Sandstones 3. Middle Old Red Sandstone.) ~
DEVONIAN = : i. ; S
SERIES. ; ee _ Iif-acombe Timestone Series..>$ 2.( Gap) }
. Iynton Slates & Grits.. 1. Lower Old Red Sandstone.
. Upper Inudlow Rock & Tilestones .
UPPER .
SILURIAN . Aymestry and Wenlock Inmestone Series .
Soa ao . Denbighshire Grits, Flags & Slates.
MIDDLE = : — 2 Tarannon Shale.
SILURIAN SS E i 2. Llandovery Limestone .
SERIES. _— |[fReeereitaerintire soe yoo o7o . Upper Llandovery Rocks.
LOWER 5 7 f . Lower Llandovery Rocks & Caradoc Sandstone.
SILURIAN | vi I 2 Bala and Llandeilo Limestone Series.
SERIES, 1.Tremadoc Slates.
1.2.3. Lingala Flags. (Formang a sub-group with a Calcareous
central member wr. Bohemia.
CAMBRIAN |eeeee eeed<Ssss Cambrian. Rocks. (Slates, Grits & Conglomerates).
SERIES. (Only partially represented we Britaw ).

LAURENTIAN |e Taurentian Gneiss. (Series only partially represented ).

SERIES.

Column 1. Column hs

TENTATIVE CLASSIFICATION OF BRITISH ROCKS,
ACCORDING TO A TERNARY SYSTEM, REPRESENTING
GEOLOGICAL CYCLES.

1869. ] ( 853 )

III. ON A TERNARY GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION.
By Epwarp Hutt, M.A., F.RS.

THE views I am about to advance in the following paper are the
result of observation and reflection extending over several years,
at first somewhat vague, but now taking a definite form and direc-
tion. ‘They are advanced with some diffidence, and I am aware
that exception will be taken to some of my conclusions as being
contrary to general acceptation. Such objections, as far as they
have occurred to myself, have been well weighed. It must be left
to time to determine whether there is sufficient ground for be-
lieving in a general law of development of geological formations,
depending on the mutual relations of organic and inorganic agencies ;
in the meanwhile I content myself with the endeavour to point out
the evidences of such a law as bearing more especially on the
arrangement of the British strata, leaving to a possible future the
attempt to deal with those of foreign countries,

The tendency of several groups of strata to assume a three-
fold arrangement has not escaped the notice of geologists. Sir
Roderick Murchison has very strongly insisted on it in reference to
the “ Permian system,” both in Britain and the Continent. The Trias
is (as 1ts name denotes) an evident example, as is also the great
Carboniferous series both of Britain and America. In each of these
cases we have a central calcareous member interposed between an
upper and lower member composed of sandy or muddy materials, to
which the term “sedimentary” may be applied. Now, when we
find in the case of three great groups following each other in order
of time, and lying on the margins of the grand divisional line which
marks the boundary of the Paleeozoic and Mesozoic series, a similar
order of sequence and of mineral composition, we may well pause
and inquire whether there must not be some great principle lying
below the surface, impelling or guiding the operations of nature
in the direction of geological cycles, reproducing themselves at
distant intervals, and indicated by the mineral characters of the
rocks. It may seem a hazardous assertion that the history of a
natural system (or group) of strata is analogous to that of a nation,
or of man himself individually ; that it has its beginning, its prime,
and its decline ; and that each of these stages has its representation.
Yet the evidence in favour of this view is very strong, and seems
to fall in with the course of physical events which we know to have
occurred at successive geological periods. This view of the natural
grouping of strata forced itself on my mind in 1862, when treating
in the pages of the ‘Journal of the Geological Society of London’
on the relative distribution of the “ calcareous” and “sedimentary”

304 On a Ternary Geological Classification. [ July,

strata of the Carboniferous rocks of Britain.* I there remarked
that “we cannot fail to have observed that many groups of strata
have a tendency to arrange themselves into threefold divisions,
the upper and lower being composed of sandstones and shales, the
middle of limestone.”

As the subject was foreign to the question before me at the
time, except as bearing on the Carboniferous series, I did not pursue
it; but in a paper more recently read before the Geological Society
of Glasgow (in 1867), and published in their Transactions,f on
another branch of the subject, I entered rather more fully into
the discussion of this question, and ventured to state certain general
principles as bearing on the operations of nature during past
geological periods, which I venture to repeat here—

Ist. That in any formation composed of contemporaneous
calcareous and sedimentary strata, these two classes of rocks nvust
have had their sources in opposite centres or lines of distribution.

2nd. That in the same formation, consisting of calcareous and
sedimentary materials, the maximum development of each class has
been reached in positions relatively opposite to each other.

In that paper I also proposed a threefold arrangement of the
British formations from the Upper Silurian to the Tertiary inclusive.
Since then I find that somewhat similar views have forced them-
selves on the mind of a distinguished geologist, Dr. Dawson, F.1.S.,
of Montreal, who, in his elaborate paper on “The Conditions of
Distribution of Coal as illustrated by the Coal-formation of Nova
Scotia,” arranges the Carboniferous series of that country under
three heads corresponding to those of Great Britain, and formed
under similar physical conditions.

These alternations lead Dr. Dawson to the suggestion of
“Geological Cycles” for the Paleozoic rocks of America, but he
adopts a fourfold classification, though, as it seems to me, a three-
fold is a more natural one, at least as regards the Carboniferous
sroup. The following is Dr. Dawson’s quaternary classification,
which he has more recently incorporated in his work, ‘ Acadian

eo.
Geology ? {—

* Vol, xviii, p. 134. + Vol. iii, part 1.

+ Although Dr. Dawson’s paper was published more recently than my own
already alluded to, it seems to have escaped his observation. This fact is satis-
factory, as showing that on opposite sides of the Atlantic there is evidence of a
natural order of arrangement according to geological cycles, and indicated by the
mineral character of the strata. With regard, however, to the arrangement pro-
posed by Dr. Dawson, it appears to me that a threefold classification might equally
well be adopted, at least in the case of the Carboniferous series, and that there are
no good grounds for dissevering the third and fourth stages. In the case of the
other groups, it is a question for further inquiry whether the series is not also
capable of arrangement according to a ternary system; but in order to determine
this point, a fuller knowledge than I possess of the relative importance of the

several members of the series, and their relations to each other over the whole
area would be required.

1869.]

On a Ternary Geological Classification.

355

TABULAR VIEW OF CYCLES IN THE Patmozorc AGE IN EASTERN AMERICA.

CHARACTER OF Group. | LOWER SILURIAN.) Upper SILURIAN. DEVONIAN. CARBONIFEROUS.
Shallow subsiding marine | Hudson-River | Lower Helderberg | Chemung group.| Upper Coal-
area, group. formation.

Elevation followed by
slow subsidences,
Marine conditions; form-
ation of limestones,

group.
Utica shale.

Trenton, Black-
River, and Chazy
limestones.

Salina group.

Niagara and Clin-
ton limestones,

Hamilton group.

Coniferous
limestones,

Coal-measures.

Lower Carbon-
iferous limestone .

Subsidence; disturbances ; | Potsdam and Cal- | Oneida and Medina} Oriskany sand- | Lower Coal-
deposition of coarse ciferous sand- sandstones, stone. measures and
sediment. stones. conglomerates,

I now proceed to explain the principles upon which a three-
fold classification of strata with a calcareous central member is
based; in order to which a knowledge of the origin of marine
limestones is essential.

Marine Limestones.—And, first, this classification depends on
the distinctive character of marine limestones as compared with all
other stratified deposits. While conglomerates, sandstones, shales,
and clays are essentially mechanical in their mode of formation,
limestones (except under peculiar circumstances) are essentially
organic. This, indeed, is the view of many of our most distinguished
naturalists, and amongst others of our great authority on chemical
geology, M. Bischof, ‘This author states that the quantity of free
carbonic acid gas contained in the sea is five times as much as is
necessary to keep in a fluid state the quantity of carbonate of lime
to be found in it. From this he draws the conclusion that it is
impossible for any carbonate of lime to be precipitated in a solid
form at the bottom of the sea by chemical action alone, and as the
quantity is extremely small in the open sea, it is difficult to conceive
that this can be effected otherwise than by vital agencies.*

This is a view, indeed, that can scarcely be questioned, and
which is supported by reference to the composition of the limestones
themselves. If, indeed, we might have looked for illustrations of
this class of rocks as having been formed independently of organic
agencies, it would have been amongst the most ancient formations
of the globe. But what has been the case? Far down below the
“ Primordial zone” —in strata more ancient by at least two geologic
cycles than those lately supposed to contain the first traces of animal
life—we find a series of serpentinous limestones, of the real organic
origin of which, the microscope has not left us in doubt. “The
researches of Sir William Logan and his colleagues of the Geological
Survey of Canada, followed by other naturalists, have demonstrated
that even the oldest known limestones on the surface of the globe
owe their origin to the Hozoon, an animal considered by Dr. Dawson

to be a Foraminifer.
* ‘Chemical Geology

306 On a Ternary Geological Classification. [July,

It can scarcely be considered an argument against the organie
origin of marine limestones, that they frequently exhibit no trace
of organic structure. Limestones undergo metamorphism sometimes
during their very formation in the open sea; how much more so
after having been subjected to the action of heat, pressure, perco-
lation of water, and other agencies, known and unknown, acting
within the crust of the earth. On this subject the testimony of
Mr. J. B. Jukes may be considered conclusive. Speaking of the
rapid change which coral reefs undergo as observed by him during
his voyage in H.M. ship ‘Fly,’ he says, “ The surface of a reef
when exposed at low water is composed of solid-looking stone, which
is often capable of being split up and lifted into slabs bearing no
small resemblance to some of our oldest limestones. These slabs,
when split up, are frequently found to have a semicrystalline
structure, by which the forms and the organic structure of the
corals and shells are more or less obliterated.”

As to the origin of the lime in the sea-water, that is a question
immaterial to my present purpose, which is to show the essential
distinction between the great group of calcareous formations in all
geologic ages, and the strictly mechanical strata with which they
are associated.* But before passing to the discussion regarding
the relations of this latter class of strata, let us notice the several
varieties of marine animals which have chiefly contributed to the
formation of limestones, and which we may call “the limestone
builders.”

Limestone Builders.—At first sight it might be supposed that
nearly all invertebrate marine animals having stony skeletons, or
shells, contributed proportionally to the formation of limestones.
But when we come to examine the classes of animals which in our
own day have contributed to the formation of the calcareous ooze of
the Atlantic, or the limestone reefs of the Pacific; and extending
our researches back into geologic times, examine the structure of
our great limestone masses, we soon perceive that the chief limestone
builders have been animals of comparatively low organization, and
embrace but a small portion of the sub-kingdom of cnvertebrata.
They consist for the most part of the calcareous shells of Forame-
nifera, associated with the siliceous shields of Polycystina, forming
not only the present calcareous ooze of the Atlantic bed but also a
large proportion of the Secondary and Tertiary limestones. Next
come the polyps or corals (Actinozoa or Anthozoa), ranging down-
wards from Paleozoic times to the present day, and entering largely
into the composition of Silurian, Carboniferous, and Jurassic lime-
stones. Then the Bryozoa or Polyzoa, largely distributed in the

* The reader will find the question as to the origin of lime in the sea-water,

and the apparent increase of calcareous rocks in more recent times, discussed in
Lyell’s ‘ Principles of Geology,’ 10th edit., p. 608,

1869. | On a Ternary Geological Classification. 357

Carboniferous, Permian, and Jurassic limestones. With reference
to this order I may here quote an observation of Professor Rupert
Jones, who says,* “Some of the dark-grey Carboniferous limestone
is as largely composed of Fenestellx, &c., as the Permian limestone
of Durham and Germany often is. One of the best instances of
Polyzoan limestone (representing the Faxoe and Maestrich chalk)
is the great white limestone of South Australia traversed by the
Murray river, and which occurs again, as it were, in New Zealand
as the Ototara limestone of Otago, &.”

The Echinodermata, as represented principally by the Crinoideex,
have contributed very largely to the formation of the limestones of
the Carboniferous period, as well as, though in a smaller degree,
of those of the Upper Silurian and Jurassic periods. As the late
Professor Edward Forbes remarks, “ Formerly they were amongst
the most numerous of the ocean’s inhabitants,—so numerous that
the remains of the skeletons constitute great tracts of the dry land
as it now appears. For miles and miles we may walk over the
stony fragments of the Crinoidee; fragments which were once
built up im animated forms, encased in living flesh, and obeying
the will of creatures amongst the loveliest of the inhabitants of the
ocean.Ӣ The Crustacea, as represented by the diminutive Hnto-
mostraca, took a very important part in the formation of limestones,
as abundantly proved by Prof. Rupert Jones and Dr. H. B. Holl.t
In the “Caradoc Bala” limestone of the Chair of Kildare they
largely occur, and, with other Paleozoic forms, are placed by these
authors under the generic name of “ Primitiz.”§ Prof. R. Jones
states, “The Caradoc Bala limestone of Kildare swarms with them ;
so does that of Keisley in Westmoreland ; so do the Upper Silurian
limestones (Wenlock chiefly) near Malvern, as shown by Dr. Holl ;
so does the Upper Silurian limestone of Gothland remarkably. The
Dudley limestone is rich with Beyrichix ; the Upper Silurian lime-
stone of Beechy Island in the Arctic regions and the Lower Silurian
limestones of Canada (in the Calciferous and Trenton groups) either
abound with, or are made up of, them. In the Lower Helderberg
group of the New York State (Upper Silurian) there isa Leperditia
limestone, and in Russia and Oesel Isle, Leperditize make up at least
one of the limestones.” || Prof. R. Jones and Mr. J. W. Kirkby,
together with Mr, John Young and other authors, have also shown
that these little crustaceans abound in the calcareous beds of the
lower Carboniferous series of Scotland.4{ The part in nature played

* In a letter to the author (1868).

+ ‘British Star-fishes,’ p. 2.

} ‘Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist., 1865-8.

§ “On Paleozoic Bivalved Entomostraca, &c.,” ibid., July, 1868.

|| Letter to the writer (1868).

4 ‘Trans. Geol. Society of Glasgow,’ vol. ii., part 2, p. 213; ibid., p. 155.

358 On a Ternary Geological Classification, [July,

by the Entomostraca seems to have been that of scavengers of
animal matter.

Amongst the above generally minute organisms, the molluscs
lived and flourished, often contributing to the building of the lime-
stones; and amongst the most important class of mollusca in this
respect were the Brachiopoda, placed by naturalists almost in the
lowest rank of this sub-kingdom,

I shall close this branch of our subject by offering the following
synopsis of the chief limestone builders of successive geologic periods
in ascending order.

LaureEnNTIAN. Foraminifera (?). Hozoon. )

SILURIAN and Drvontan. Corals (chiefly of the orders Zoantharia tabulata,
and Z, rugosa of MM, Milne-Edwards and
Haime), Crinoids, Brachiopods, and Entomostraca.

CaRBONIFEROUS .. .. Corals(Zoantharia tubulatu, Z. rugosa, Z. tabulosa),
Crinoids, Bryozoa, Brachiopods, and Entomos- .
traca.

PERMIAN »» «+ Corals (not abundant; Zoantharia tabulata, Z.
rugosa), Bryozoa, Conchifera, Entomostraca.

TRIASSIC +» o « Bryozoa, Echinoderms, Conchifera.

JURASSIC .» «2 Corals (Zoantharia aporosa), Bryozoa, Echino-
derms, Molluses largely.

Creracrous .... ©... Amorphozoa, Foraminifera, Corals (Zoantharia

aporosa, Z, tabulata, Z, rugosa) Echinoide,
Bryozoa, Entomostraca, Brachiopods (Tere-
bratule).

TeRTIARY .. .. . Foraminifera (Nummulites), Corals (Zoantharia
aporosa, Z. perforata, Z, tabulata), Echinoderms
(Echinoide, Asteroide), and Ophiuride.

We have now to turn to the discussion of those strata of
mechanical origin which are associated with the limestones,

SEDIMENTARY, OR INoRGANIC, StRATA.—In contrast with the
calcareous rocks, not only as regards origin but in mode of distri-
bution, we may include all those strata which are strictly mechanical,
such as conglomerates, sandstones, shales, clays with their several
varieties and combinations, whether metamorphic or otherwise. It
is not necessary to enter into a description of the manner of forma-
tion of this class of strata, except to observe that from the more
rapid subsidence of the coarser particles which are brought down
into the ocean and distributed over its bed—truncated sheets of
strata of this class will have a tendency to increase in thickness in
the direction of the source, or sources, of sediment.

Now, the existence of sandy or muddy sediment in the waters of
the sea is well known to be detrimental to the growth, and even
vitality, of many of the delicate organisms which chiefly contribute
to the formation of limestones. On this point the evidence of
observers is conclusive as regards the present inhabitants of the
sea, and we may feel sure this adverse influence of muddy sediment

1869. ] On a Ternary Geological Classification. 359

extended far back through all geologic times. Taking the Polyps
as the chief limestone builders of the present period, we find them
flourishing in mid-ocean, or in tracts removed from the influence of
turgid waters. Thus Mr. Darwin, when describing the coral reefs
and atolls of the Indian and Pacific Oceans, refers to them as being
at an immense distance from any continent, and where the water is
pertectly limpid.* Mr. Jukes describes the water surrounding the
barrier reef off the coast of Australia as being quite clear ;f and
Dr. T. Wright, in his summary of the character and conditions of
development of modern coral reefs, says,t ‘where the bottom is
muddy, and the rivers pour fresh water in any great abundance
into the sea, there the reef-building Polyps are absent.”

The Foraminifera, a group of limestone builders, distinct from
Polyps and Echinoderms, seem to have been most prolific in limpid
waters. In our present seas we find them largely associated with
the Polyps, as well as engaged in forming a deposit over the bed
of the mid-Atlantic, which if converted into land would yield
a limestone not dissimilar to chalk.§ In geologic times we find
two very important and pure limestone formations—the chalk, and
nummulite limestone of the Kocene period,—for the most part com-
posed of the shells of these little animals.

That the Brachiopods and the Crinoids especially of past times
flourished with greatest vigour in limpid seas, is perfectly clear
from the mode of their occurrence in the rocks themselves. Not
only are they most numerous as individuals in the beds of the less
earthy limestones, but we frequently notice the species (or their repre-
sentatives) becoming dwarfed in size, as well as fewer in numbers,
when we pass from limestones into adjacent clayey strata. In the
Carboniferous limestone of Derbyshire, where these animal remains
are found in such marvellous profusion, the rock itself contains scarcely
a band of shale through hundreds or even thousands of feet.

If, then, there existed this detrimental influence, exerted by mud
or sand held in suspension, on the vital development of those marine
animals which contributed to the formation of limestones, it follows,
that during any special geologic period in which both classes of
strata (calcareous and sedimentary) were being formed, the maxi-
mum development of each class must have been in directions
opposite to each other. If, for instance, the sediment was being
transported and deposited over the sea-bed by a current coming
from the north, the contemporaneously formed limestone would
grow with greatest rapidity, and attain its greatest proportions far

* *Naturalist’s Voyage,’ p. 468.

t+ Voyage of H.M. ship ‘ Fly.’

ae é ‘On Coral Reefs, Past and Present,’ Trans. Cotteswold Naturalists’ Club,

§ See Dr. G. C. Wallich’s “ Account of the Deep-Sea Soundings,” ‘ Quart,
Journ. Science,’ vol, i,

360 On a Ternary Geological Classification. [July,

out to sea to the southward, and beyond the region to which the
sediment was carried, and of this phenomenon we have several ex-
amples over the British area, the most striking of which are furnished
by the Carboniferous, Permian, and Lower Jurassic formations.

As I have on a former occasion treated this branch of the
subject at length, it will only be necessary here briefly to refer to
the illustrations afforded by two of these groups of strata.*

Carboniferous Series.—The calcareous central member, or Car-
boniferous limestone, attains in central England a development
nowhere else reached in Britain. Its base is never exposed,
although the beds are over many parts of Derbyshire thrown into
highly inclined positions with numerous faults and flexures.
Several sections measured with the utmost care by the geological
surveyors combine to give a thickness of more than 4000 feet for
this great calcareous formation in this part of the country, where it
is also in composition remarkably free from the intermixture of —
shales, sandstones, or other sedimentary materials. It is in this
district also that its organic origin is strikingly brought to light,
for it abounds in corals, shells, and crinoidal remains. To the
region of Derbyshire we may emphatically point as a former ocean-
bed, where during the era of the Carboniferous limestone, a limpid
sea offered full scope for the development of the marine animals
which were the limestone builders of that geologic period.

If, from the Derbyshire district, we trace the range of the
Carboniferous limestone northwards into Scotland, we find this
formation gradually deteriorating both in quality and thickness.
In North Lancashire, Cumberland, and Yorkshire, it has nowhere
a thickness exceeding 2000 feet, frequently less ; and, as shown by
Professor Phillips, is split up into several distinct bands by the
intercalation of beds of shale and sandstone with coal. This
deterioration is still more strikingly exhibited when we pass into
Scotland, for in the Carboniferous districts of Lanarkshire, Renfrew-
shire, and the Lothians, the formation is represented by several
thousand feet vertical of sandstones and shales, with coal and iron-
stone, and a few beds of limestone only attaining a combined thick-
ness of about 150 feet. Here, then, we have a clear illustration of
the effects produced in the calcareous strata by the introduction of
muddy or sandy sediment. The same waters which, being free
from impurities in the region of central England, gave scope for the
maximum development of the limestone, were charged with sand
or clay towards the north, and in proportion as this was the case
interfered with the growth of the limestone, and in the Scottish
area well nigh prevented its formation.

Carboniferous Sedimentary Strata.—But not only did the

* See my paper, “ On the Relative Distribution of the Carboniferous Strata of
Great Britain,” ‘ Journ. Geol. Soc. London,’ vol. xviii., p. 127 (with map).

1869. | On a Ternary Geological Classification. 361

antagonistic influence of the muddy waters pervade the Carboni-
ferous area during the period of the central calcareous member, but
it held sway and gained ground throughout the succeeding stages
so as almost to annihilate the limestone builders during the periods
of the millstone grit and coal-measures, or cause them to migrate
into other regions of the ocean. But the poimt we have specially
to deal with is the direction from which this sedimentary matter
was drifted. Now, the very accurate measurements which the
Carboniferous series enable us to obtain, point clearly to a northerly
source, for in this direction the sedimentary strata tend to attain
their greatest development, and this, be it observed, is the direction
in which the calcareous strata tend to thin away and disappear.
Thus if we take a series of vertical sections along a line from
Leicestershire and Warwickshire into North Lancashire, we find
the proportion of the Yoredale series, millstone grit, and coal-
measures as follows :*—
Leicestershire & Warwickshire. N. Staffordshire. |S. Lancashire. _N. Lancashire.

Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet.
2600 9000 12,130 18,700

Here, then, we see a steady augmentation in the thickness of the
sedimentary materials within a distance of about 120 miles to the
extent of 16,000 feet.t In Scotland and the north of England, it
is true, owing to a shallower sea bed, and the nearer approach to
the parent land, the increase is not maintained, but the northern
source of the sedimentary materials is no less clear.

Now, if it be inquired, “ What relationship as regards the mutual
development of the calcareous and sedimentary materials can there
be between the period of the Carboniferous limestone and that of the
succeeding strata?” the reply is this: that these relations were
maintained, though in different proportions, throughout all the
stages of a natural group of strata representing a geological cycle
(such as the Carboniferous), and were only reversed or considerably
changed with the introduction of a new natural group.

Permian Series.—-My illustration from this group of the
English strata will be stated in briefer terms than the foregoing.

The central calcareous member of this group is clearly repre-
sented by the magnesian limestone of Durham, and Yorkshire and
Nottinghamshire along the north-east of England. Along this
region it attains a maximum thickness of about 600 feet, as shown
by Professor Sedgwick; while the overlying sedimentary strata are
but feebly represented, and the lower red sandstone (othe-todte-
liegende) does not exceed 250 feet in thickness. Now, if we com-

* These measurements are taken chiefly from sections of the Geological Survey
of Great Britain.

+ See my paper “On the Thickness of the Carboniferous Strata of Lancashire,
&e.,” ‘Jour. Geol. Soe. London,’ vol. xviii.

362 On a Ternary Geological Classification. [ July,

pare this section with that on the west of England (Cumberland
and Lancashire), we find the conditions of these several members
completely reversed in respect of development. Here the central
calcareous member is reduced to very small dimensions, being
represented in South Lancashire by marls with thin bands of
limestone,* and in Cumberland by thin bands of magnesian lime-
stone near Whitehaven, Stank, and Bispham. On the other hand,
the upper and lower sedimentary beds attain great dimensions ; the
former, as Sir Roderick Murchison has shown, represented by the
St. Bees sandstone, over 600 feet in thickness; and the latter by
the Penrith sandstone, estimated by Professor Harkness to attain a
thickness of 8000 feet. It is clear therefore that the sedimentary
region in the north of England area has been to the westward, and
the calcareous area to the eastward; and that in this group there
has been a development from opposite directions of the two types .
of strata.T

North-west of England. North-east of England.
Feet. Feet.

Upper Permian (Sedimentary) .. 600 <. ot JO OWOD
Middle ,, (Calcareous) Je) LOMOOO Veet. 600
Lower » (Sedimentary) .. 3000 Fe) ene LOO ORZOU

I now pass on to the consideration of the physical conditions of
which these interchanges of vertical development between the cal-
careous and sedimentary strata are the palpable representatives.

Natural Grouping of Strata on a Threefcld System.—Re-
garding the calcareous strata as the representative of the pelagic,
or deep-sea, conditions, and the sedimentary as the representative of
more littoral conditions, it is to be understood that each of the three
divisions of a natural group represents the predominance of these
conditions at each successive stage, and not their existence to the
exclusion of others. We must also take as representatives of a
special group that section of tt which is somewhat intermediate
between its eatreme conditions of littoral and pelagic; for we can
easily understand that there must have been tracts in the ocean
where sediment was never deposited during (for instance) the whole
of the Carboniferous period, and where the only representative
of the series would be the Carboniferous limestone. And, on
the other hand, there must have been tracts bordering on the
old land surfaces of the period where the calcareous member was
scarcely represented (as in Scotland), and where sedimentary strata
were formed, almost to the exclusion of others. As a matter of
fact, however, it is this portion of the geological groups (between

* As shown by Mr, E. W. Binney, Mem. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Manchester,
vol. xii., &e.

+ I have not referred to the Lower Permian beds of the central counties, as the
relationship of these beds to those of the north is somewhat obscure, They were
probably deposited in separate basins.

1869. ] On a Ternary Geological Classification. 263

the littoral and the pelagic) which is generally preserved for our
observation, as it is only on rare occasions that we meet with the
actual margins of geological formations.

But not only does a natural group represent special regions
of the sea-bed, but also, we may suppose, three historical periods of
formation, making up in the aggregate a geological cycle ; the first
of movement, the second of quiescence, and the third of movement
again, terminating in those great oscillations, accompanied by
denudation, which brought the cycle to a close, and produced dis-
cordant stratification. We have already seen that the formation of
calcareous matter depends mainly on the absence of muddy or
sandy sediment in the waters of the sea. ‘This state of things
would naturally attain predominance after the close of a series of
vertical movements, accompanied by a maximum of subsidence of
the land. The prevalence of sediment would be brought about
during periods of disturbance, accompanied by a maximum of ele-
vation of the land. Thus the three stages of a natural cycle going
to form a geological group may be thus expressed :—

Lower stage, representing prevalence of land with movement,
producing chiefly sedimentary strata.
Natural | Middle stage, representing prevalence of sea with quiescence,
Group. producing chiefly calcareous strata.
Upper stage, representing prevalence of land with movement,
producing chiefly sedimentary strata.

On the principles here stated it is easy to account for several
phenomena of frequent occurrence amongst the formations of our
globe. We can account for these interstratifications of calcareous
and sedimentary strata, called “passage-beds,” of which we have
good examples, for instance, at the base of the Yoredale series of
England, by supposing the alternate predominance of muddy and
clear water in the sea at the margin of the pelagic and littoral
regions. We can also account for the fact that a natural group of
strata is rarely if ever introduced by a series of limestones, but
generally by coarse sedimentary strata, often congiomerates. I
question if a true natural group is ever represented by limestones in
its lowest beds, and if this should happen to be the case it may be
concluded that it is exceptional and due to the local absence of a
lower member. A natural group is also seldom terminated by a
calcareous stratum, and when this is the case (as, for instance, the
chalk of England) it is owing to the local absence of an upper
sedimentary member. Iam not, however, prepared to say that this
is invariably the case, as the Upper Silurian group of the United
States seems to offer an illustration in an opposite direction.*

* It is questionable, however, whether this is really an exception, as the Oris-
kany sandstone might be assumed without much hesitation to be the upper sedi-

mentary member of the Silurian; and the “ Cauda galli grit” the lower member
of the Devonian series.—See ‘ Siluria,’ 4th edit., pp. 436-7.

VOL. Vic 206

364 On a Ternary Geological Classification. (July,

British ForRMATIONS ARRANGED UNDER THE TERNARY
CLASSIFICATION.

Applying the above principles to the classification of the British
stratagraphical series, I shall give a short statement regarding
each group as arranged in the accompanying table, in ascending
order (see Plate), reserving to a future occasion the consideration
of foreign groups.

Laurentian Group (Sx W. Logan).—The existence of this
earliest known group of rocks in the British Isles was first
announced to the scientific world by Sir Roderick Murchison in
1856, and again in 1859. It occupies the north-west coast of
Scotland, from Cape Wrath southward to Loch Enard as well as
the whole of the Hebrides. It consists mainly of highly metamor-
phosed gneiss, with only thin bands of limestone at rare intervals. ,
The prevalent strike is from N.W. to §.E., and it is overlaid discor-
dantly by Cambrian rocks, with a prevalent strike from N.E. to
S.W.*

The formation as represented in Britain is manifestly incomplete,
the calcareous beds with eozoon canadense, which are finely developed
in Canada, being absent, and as Sir Roderick Murchison considers
the British rock to be the representative of only the lower division
of the Laurentian series as it occurs in Canada, there is a loss of
one entire member. It is therefore impossible to represent this
fundamental rock in our Geological series otherwise than as a mere
fragment of a great formation.t

The Cambrian Group.—This group as it occurs in Britain,
especially in the Longmynd, where as shown by Sir R. Murchison
it lies at the base of all the Silurian series, has no calcareous
representative. In the north-west of Scotland, the basement
beds, consisting of hard chocolate-coloured sandstone and con-
glomerate{ rising into the lofty mountain of Queenaig, are truly
represented. ‘These are surmounted by quartzites with crystalline
limestones of Lower Silurian age. In Wales, on the other hand,
the base is not visible; so that we find what seem to be the
upper beds surmounted by the “Lingula Flags” of the “ Pri-

mordial Zone.” As this great formation is devoid of a calcareous
representative in Britain, it cannot be regarded otherwise than as a
fragmentary.

The Lower Silurian Series—The “ Lingula Flags” of Britain,
being entirely composed of sedimentary strata, and exhibiting no
very marked discordance in the stratification with reference to the
Llandeilo series, form naturally a portion of the lowest member of

* See new geological map of Scotland, by Sir R. Murchison and Mr. A.

Geikie, 1862.
+ ‘Siluria,’ 4th edition, pp. 10-12. ¢ Ibid., p. 15,

1869. } On a Ternary Geological Classification. 365

the Lower Silurian series, of which the Bala and Llandeilo lime-
stone series form the Middle, and the Lower Llandovery rocks and
Caradoc sandstone, the upper sedimentary series.

In Bohemia, however, as M. Barrande has shown, this group,
named by him “ Zone primordiale,” assumes a threefold arrange-
ment, with a central calcareous member, as represented in the
column of strata.

Middle Silurian.—A Middle Silurian group is not yet gene-
rally recognized, but, as Professor Ramsay has very clearly shown,*
there is a great physical break between the Lower and Upper Llan-
dovery beds, accompanied by the disappearance of the great majority
of species of animals belonging to the Caradoc beds, while at the close
of the Upper Llandovery series (Tarannon shale) there is a second
break and unconformity. There are therefore apparently very good
grounds for a Middle Silurian group, of which the Upper Llan-
dovery limestone may be considered the central caleareous member.

Upper Silurian Series —The basement beds consisting of the
Derbyshire grits, flags, and slates, rest unconformably on the Middle
Silurian series. This is the lower sedimentary member. The
middle caleareous member is represented by the Wenlock and
Aymestry limestone series. ‘These two beds of limestone assume
in this country an individuality and distinctive palzontological
character, which, as Sir Roderick Murchison has shown, is not
maintained by their Continental equivalents.| The Upper Ludlow
rock and tilestones combine to form the upper sedimentary member
of the group.

Devonian Series—This natural group appears under several
distinctive characters in different parts of the British Islands.
Nowhere, indeed, is the series represented unbroken and complete ;
but in Devonshire we have probably the nearest approach to this.
I shall therefore, in dealing with this great formation, call to my
aid those “breaks in succession” which Professor Ramsay has
recently dealt with in his Presidential address to the Geological
Society of London.t

Devonshire.—The ternary division of the series into a lower
and upper sedimentary, with a middle calcareous member, seems to
have been very clearly established, both by the original obserya-
tions of MM. Murchison and Sedgwick, and confirmed by the recent
detailed examination of Mr. Ethridge.§ The classification here
proposed differs slightly from that of these authors who have
established a Lower, Middle, and Upper Devonian series ; but as I

* Presidential Address to the Geological Society of London, 1863.

+ This view is borne out by M. Barrande, who refers the three upper lime-
stones of the Silurian series in Bohemia to the Wenlock and Ludlow beds con-
jointly, finding it impracticable to make the distinction of these beds into two
groups corresponding to the English series.

t 1863-4. § ‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ vol. xxiii., p. 580.

2 Ore

366 On a Ternary Geological Classification. [July,

find it necessary to confine the middle division to the Ilfracombe
limestone series alone, the passage from the sedimentary conditions
of the lower into the calcareous conditions of the middle, and from
these latter into the sedimentary conditions of the upper series
appears in this district to have been gradual and uninterrupted.

Herefordshire-—The Old Red Sandstone in this district and
South Wales appears, from the observations of Sir Henry De la
Beche, to consist of two members lying discordantly on each other,
the upper member appearing to pass upwards into the Carboni-
ferous series, the lower to graduate downwards into the Silurian.
A possible explanation which I venture to offer is, that we have here
the representatives of the upper and lower sedimentary members of
the ternary group, of which the central calcareous member has not
been deposited in this region. In illustration of this view I may
point to the Trias of England, which, as we shall presently see,
affords a similar example capable of ready explanation.

Scotland.—In Scotland we seem to have a succession of beds
somewhat parallel to that of South Wales. Mr. A. Geikie has
divided the Devonian series into three groups, each resting uncon-
formably on that below it. But as the upper member of this three-
fold series is stated by him to graduate upwards in the lowest
beds of the Carboniferous rocks, I have ventured in this classifica-
tion to place this “ Upper Old Red Sandstone” at the base of the
Carboniferous series, with which it seems to be more closely allied
than with the “ Middle Old Red Sandstone.” We have then two
sedimentary members resting discordantly on each other, and
leaving an intermediate gap in the succession, which the middle
member ought properly to have filled, as in the case of South Wales.

Ireland.—The investigations of Mr. Jukes seem to have brought
to light in Ireland, as in Scotland, a double series of sedimentary
strata resting discordantly on each other.

To the unrepresented space between these members may, I
think, be referred the position of the central calcareous member,
and the two divisions to the upper and lower sedimentary members
of a natural group. Thus we have the “Dingle and Glengariff
Grits” of the lower stage surmounted discordantly by the Coomhola
Grits of the upper. If the above explanation of a highly difficult
al regarding the relations of the Devonian series in Wales,

cotland, and Ireland has any approach to the truth, the entire
absence of the middle calcareous member may probably be accounted
for by supposing that during this stage in the geological cycle
these tracts had been elevated into land surfaces, while in the
Rhenish and Devonian regions the limestones of the middle
Devonian group were in course of formation. Such oscillations of
the sea-bed would serve also to account for the break and un-
conformity between the upper and lower members of the group.

1869. | On a Ternary Geological Classification. 367

Carboniferous Series—The threefold division of this group
with its calcareous central member in Great Britain has already
been so fully alluded to, that it is scarcely necessary for me to add
to what I have already written. I may, however, here remark
that although there is a nearly continuous and uninterrupted
sequence in the beds from the lower limestone shale throughout,
there are both in England and Scotland occasional slight breaks,
denudations, and unconformities, but that these are of an excep-
tional character, and of limited extent. I have already mentioned
my reason for placing the upper “Old Red Sandstone” of Scotland
at the base of the Carboniferous series of that country.

Permian Series.—It is almost superfluous to insist upon the
threefold classification in the case of this group, as originally
established by Sir Roderick Murchison and Professor Sedgwick,
in the north-east of England, and more recently developed in Lan-
cashire and Cumberland by the labours of Professor Harkness, Mr.
Binney, and others. Having already described the relations of
these beds (see page 361), I shall only here refer to what I consider
to be the true position of the Lower Permian rocks of central
England and Shropshire with reference to those of the north of
England. Those who are familiar with the aspect and physical
characters of the Permian beds in these two districts cannot fail to
haye observed that they belong to two different and distinct types.
And regarding as I do the beds of central England and Shropshire
as belonging exclusively to the Lower Permian series, the most
probable explanation of the difference in their mineralogical
characters, as compared with their representatives im the north
of England, appears to be that each group was deposited in
a separate hydrographical basin, disconnected by a barrier of lower
Carboniferous rocks which crossed from west to east under the
central plain of Cheshire and parts of South Derbyshire. Into
the evidence of the former existence of this barrier I have fully
entered in a paper read before the Geological Society of London
in 1869.

Triassic Series. —It is scarcely necessary to observe that in
Britain we have no representative of the central calcareous member
of this natural group. The reasons for the absence of the Mus-
chel-kalk and St. Cassian limestones, which on the Continent form
the central calcareous member of the group, is now clearly under-
stood. In England the basement-beds of the Keuper division rest,
with a slight discordance, upon an eroded surface of the Bunter,
representing a gap in geological time during which the English
area was elevated into dry land, and only submerged again at the
commencement of the Keuper period. I regard this case of the
Trias of England, bereft of its middle calcareous member, as a
parallel case to that of the Devonian group of Wales, Scotland, and

368 On a Ternary Geological Classification. [ July,

Ireland, and as throwing light upon the mutual relations of the
upper and lower members of that group.

Jurassic Series —I1 venture to assert that no very valid objec-
tion can be taken to the arrangement of the three Jurassic groups
here adopted, and which are given in the table of geological forma-
tions. If we examine the elaborate tables of the distribution of
species which Professor Ramsay has, with the aid of Mr. Etheridge,
laid before the Geological Society, we shall observe that there are
species common to the groups as here arranged, and that the theory
of “migration” accounts for the temporary change of groups of
animal remains. (See Plate.)

The Liassic series seems to admit of a sub-group if we take the
marlstone (or Middle Lias) as the central calcareous member.
This, however, is a distinction to which it is scarcely entitled. The
upper sedimentary member of the Upper Jurassic group is only
very partially represented by certain littoral and marine beds of °
the Middle Purbecks. Their marine equivalents, and certain ante-
cedent strata now lost, are, however, the true representatives of this
stage. That these have been denuded away from off the upper
surface of the Portland limestone is, I think, made sufficiently clear
by the eroded surface which this rock generally presents. On the
Continent the same phenomena are presented, poimting to the
absence of certain strata through denudation. On this point M.
D’Orbigny says :—“ Quant aux limites supérieures rien nous manque
pour la séparation nette et précise qui existe avec l’étage néocomien.
Cette séparation, en effet, se montre sous tous les formes, par dis-
cordances et par des discordances de dénudations et d’érosions.” *

Cretaceous Series.—The close of the Upper Jurassic period is
marked by a complete physical break, and, as above stated by
D’Orbigny, by denudations of the Jurassic beds. This is observable

all along the line of the chalk Downs through Wiltshire and Oxford-
shire, where we find occasionally (as Dr. Fitton long since pointed
out) the Greensand resting on different members of the Jurassic
series, from the Portland Oolite down to the Coral Rag inclusive.
As regards the accompanying change in the palzontological features,
Professor Ramsay remarks:—“'The break in the succession of
species is as great as in any part of the Paleozoic series, and is
shown by the total change of species which marks the introduction
of the marine cretaceous formations.” f

The Lower Greensand, Gault, and Upper Greensand, though
showing in places evidence of breaks in the succession} form on
the whole a well-defined lower sedimentary member of the Cretaceous

* ‘Paléontologie,’ p. 563.

+ Anniversary Address to the Geological Society of London, 1864.

+ This break is shown to be large in the ease of the Lower Greensand, for out
of 28 species 233 are peculiar and 51 (or 18 per cent.) pass upwards.—Ramasay, ¢bid.

1869. | On a Ternary Geological Classification. 369

group. The Upper Greensand may be considered as “a passage-
bed” from the sedimentary to the great calcareous central member,
the Chalk, a view which seems borne out by the paleontological
relations of the beds, for of the known species 20 per cent. pass
up into the overlying beds.* The upper sedimentary member is
lost to us, both in Britain and on the Continent, through denudation,
for we find the basement beds of the Tertiary series resting every-
where on an eroded surface of the Upper Chalk, or of the Maestricht
beds. On this point D’Orbigny remarks :—“ Pour les limites
stratigraphiques supérieures (de l’étage Danien) elles sont marquées
par des discordances de dénudation et @isolement les plus pronon-
cées ;” and as regards the enormous break in time represented by
the paleeontological changes Professor Ramsay remarks :—*“ Of the
521 species known in our Upper Chalk, all, with the exception of
Terebratula caput-serpentis, and a few Foraminifera, have appa-
rently become extinct during that vast period that elapsed between
the close of the Cretaceous and the beginning of the Kocene period
in England.” It is clear, then, that the series is incomplete ;—there
iS @ missing member.

Tertiary Series—The Woolwich and Reading series of Mr.
Prestwich together with the London clay, form in England the
natural lower sedimentary series of the Tertiary group. These
were deposited in a sea open to the north and west, and at the close
of this stage a general depression of the middle and south of Europe
took place, accompanied by the introduction of the “ Middle Eocene
series” of Sir Charles Lyell. In the great nummulite limestone
formation we cannot but recognize the middle calcareous member
of our ternary classification, which has spread over large tracts of
Europe, Asia, and Northern Africa, but is absent in Britain. Sir C.
Lyell and Viscount d’Archiac have shown that these beds are repre-
sented in Belgium and French Flanders by strata characterized by
three species of nummulites, which arealso more abundantly developed
in the limestone formation of the Alps, where it attains a magnitude
and characteristically calcareous features unknown in Northern
Europe. I regard this as another illustration of development from
opposite directions of the calcareous and sedimentary members of
the same natural group.

The upper sedimentary stage is represented by the black shales,
marls, and sandstones of Glarus (“flysch”), and other strata of the
Miocene period, of which the “molasse,” a great conglomerate or
breccia of Switzerland, is the best representative. In England it
is doubtful if we have true representatives of this stage, which
completes the range of our natural groups and brings us to the
confines of the Glacial epoch.

* See Table v., Professor Ramsay’s Address.

(18m...) [ July,

IV. THE TRANSIT OF VENUS IN 1874.
By Ricu. A. Procror, B.A., F.R.AS.

On account of the important bearing of the transits of Venus upon
the problem of the sun’s distance, men of science are looking
anxiously forward to the two transits which occur in the present
century. Although the later of the two will not take place for
thirteen years, its circumstances have already been examined.
Indeed both transits were subjected to careful examination by the
Astronomer Royal so far back as 1857; and since then he has con-
tinued to put forward from time to time the considerations which
have suggested themselves to him as his examination of the subject
proceeded. Early in the inquiry he expressed the opinion that
the method founded on the observed differences of the transit’s
duration, as seen from opposite points of the earth’s surface—which
method had been the sole one employed in the treatment of the
transit of 1769—is wholly inapplicable to the transit of 1874 ; and
he suggested another method of utilizing that transit,—a method
less perfect in itself, more difficult (astronomically) to carry out, and
involving processes of preparation essentially different from those
which would be required under the other method. ‘To the prepa-
rations thus called for, astronomers and geographers have hitherto,
I believe, solely confined themselves.

Having had occasion to examine the reasoning of the Astronomer
Royal, and to test the conclusions he had arrived at, I have been
led to form a somewhat different opinion of the value of the transit
of 1874, so far as the simpler method of observation is concerned.
I have found that, if consideration be made of internal contacts —
the only phenomena on which estimates of the sun’s distance have
ever been founded—the actual difference of duration which can be
made available in 1874, is about 35m. or 36m., as against an out-
side value of 28m. in 1882, and an actual observed maximum of
difference of 234m. in 1769.

I am sensible that mere magnitude of observed difference is not
the sole point on which the value of a transit depends, The rate at
which the planet crosses the sun’s limb is an almost equally impor-
tant subject of consideration, I shall be able to show that when
this point is dealt with in the manner most unfavourable to my
case, the value of the transit of 1874 yet remains superior to that
of the famous transit of 1769 (as actually utilized), and scarcely
inferior to the most favourable estimate which can be formed of the
transit of 1882. Therefore, remembering the importance which
has been always attached to the observations made in 1769, and the
immense advances since made in the construction of instruments

Quarterly Journal of Science, N° XXIII.

\ ) =
\ = Accelerated

: Qe
Ce \ ON

\. ~ THE EARTH:

as seen from the Sun,
at the Epoch of Venus’s Ingress.
Dec. 8%1874, 14% 16™-

Greenwich Mean Solar Time

“——~ THE EARTH:

_ as seen from the Sun,

at the Epoch of Venus’s Hgress.
Dec. 8% 1874. 18™. 9°.

Greenwich Mean Solar Tune

Kv
vy ual aeatial ph

Ae aa

‘|

ie “Vir Ma .
| ya
a

4

1869. ] The Transit of Venus in 1874. 371

and in observing-skill, we cannot look upon the transit of 1874 as
otherwise than highly valuable.

If we briefly consider the general nature of a transit, we shall
be the better able to define the circumstances on which the value
of any particular transit depends.

Fie. 1.

In Fig.1, let s represent the sun, v Venus, and & the earth,
the plane of the paper representing the plane of the ecliptic, so
that the path of Venus (supposed to be near one of her nodes) must
be conceived as inclined rather more than 3° to the plane of the
paper. The arrows show the direction in which the planets move.

Conceive the sun and Venus enveloped by two double cones
s ee s' and s FE’ E s’, one having its vertex inside, the other
having its vertex outside, the orbit of Venus. These cones have a
common axis, namely, the line joing the centres of Venus and the
sun. Now it is clear that as Venus with her more rapid motion
sweeps round the sun, the accompanying cones must overtake the
earth (situated as shown in the figure), and that as they sweep
onward, the earth will pass through them. As this takes place,
there will occur the following eight phenomena in the given order :
The forward part of the outer cone will reach (i) the nearer, then
(11) the farther side of the earth’s globe; the corresponding part of
the inner cone will reach (ii) the nearer, then (iv) the farther side
of the earth’s globe; next, the backward part of the inner cone will
reach (v) the nearer, and (vi) the farther side of the earth; and
lastly, the corresponding part of the outer cone will reach (vii) the
nearer, and (vii) the farther part of the earth. And these several
events will readily be seen to correspond to the occurrence of :—

(i) Most accelerated external contact at ingress.
(ii) ,, retarded #

(iii) Most accelerated internal contact 55

(iv) ,, retarded - 93

(v) Most accelerated “ at egress.
(vi) ,, retarded . .
(vii) Most accelerated external contact 7,

(vii) ,, retarded % -

372 The Transit of Venus in 1874. [July,

In Fig. 2 the actual nature of the earth’s passage through the
cones is illustrated, as exactly as possible, to scale. In this figure

the circles A188 and a27b represent the sections of the outer
and inner cones where they cross the earth’s orbit. For convenience
we consider these circles to be at rest, and examine only the effects
of the earth’s relative motion. Boa is parallel to the ecliptic.
As the earth is in reality moving from right to left in a direction
parallel to Bo A, and with a less rapid motion than that of the two
circles A B, ab, it is clear that the earth’s relative motion is from
left to right. Also, as the circles are crossing aoB from south
towards north (for Venus is at an ascending node both in 1874
and 1882) it is clear that the earth has a relative motion from
north to south. ‘The triple sets of lines marked with arrows show
the actual direction of the earth’s relative motion (the small circles
representing the earth in various parts of her passage). Calculation
shows that this relative motion is such that a central transit would
occupy nearly eight hours. The triple lines are inclined to 40 B at
about 94 degrees; and 14 degrees to the east and west line E w.

The actual path of the earth across the circles in 1874 and
1882 is indicated by the lower and upper sets of triple lines,
respectively.

In considering the circumstances of the transit of 1874, I
dismiss all consideration of the phenomena marked (i), (11), (vii),

1869. | The Transit of Venus in 1874. 373

and (vii) in the above table. But besides the four remaining
phenomena I take into account the passage of the earth’s centre
across the circles, because Mr. Hind’s elements are calculated only
for these phenomena, and without considering them I should have
been unable to test the accuracy of my own conclusions by com-
paring them with his results.

Thus the eight phenomena corresponding to the positions of
the earth, numbered 1 to 8 in Fig. 2, correspond to—

(1) External contact for the earth’s centre at ingress.
(2) Internal contact most accelerated at ingress.

(3) - as seen from the earth’s centre.
(4) i most retarded.

and the four corresponding phenomena at egress.

The treatment applied to these phenomena has been the fol-
lowing :—Taking Mr. Hind’s epochs for the external contacts at
ingress and egress, I have thence calculated all the remaining
epochs and the position-angles (NO1, NO2, &c., Fig. 2); the exact
agreement of my estimates of such of these elements as Mr. Hind
has calculated with the results he has obtained has sufficed to
establish the correctness of the mode of operation. Thus has been
formed the following table, in which the numbers 1, 2, 3, &c., refer
to the figures in Fig 2 :—

Epoch. Position-angle.
Y m\C

Deco elohe 46maso6sh) 2 ee NOI = 1305333)
He EE S58) ee eNO 2 al adm
Saye tee hoy 8 be ee NOSe— wl oomelS
cb Ae SE gee Ys e242) 5 see (NOL = 139" 26
ei FOL OS peepee NOS e168 bs
Oat oh lil Be, 5 ee ee NOGe=—slG6 m0
ee tee, LOD 4 eNO e636
8 13°26 5 ul se NOS Ms ilGOCrS

v
v
~

The results thus obtained have been applied to the formation of
Figs. 1 and 2 (Plate), in the following manner :—

Rejecting phenomena 1 and 8 as no longer concerning us, the
triple sets of phenomena 2, 3, 4, and 5, 6, 7 (see Fig. 2), are alone
considered. Properly speaking, we should form an orthographic
projection of the earth as supposed to be seen from the sun at each
of the six epochs corresponding to these phenomena. But no error
of importance will be introduced if we take the epochs of the two
central passages, 3 and 6. All that will be necessary is to re-
member that in considering accelerated or retarded ingress, the
earth in Fig. 1 (Plate) must be supposed rotated backwards or
forwards respectively, through the arc due to about 12 minutes’ or
13 minutes’ rotation respectively, while corresponding charges must
be supposed applied to the earth, as seen in Fig. 2 (Plate), at the

374 The Transit of Venus in 1874. [July,

corresponding epochs at egress. It must be remarked further that
Figs. 1 and 2 (Plate) will be found not to correspond to the hours
of Greenwich mean solar time, which are affixed to them, but to
the corresponding hours of apparent solar time.* It is clear that
the conditions of a transit have nothing to do with our horological
arrangements, but only with the actual aspect of the earth as sup-
posed to be seen from the sun.

Fig. 1 (Plate), then, represents the earth as she would appear
from the sun when in the positions marked 2, 3, or 4, in Fig. 2
(Woodcut), or in any intermediate position. In a similar way
Fig. 2 (Plate) represents the earth as she would appear when in
the positions 5, 6, or 7, or in any intermediate position.

The lines which lie side by side across the earth’s face in
Fig. 1 (Plate) represent the actual position of the edge of the large
circle (a b of Fig. 2), at intervals of one minute, counted with
reference to the moment of central passage. We notice that while ~
the large circle takes but about 12m. in sweeping across the north-
eastern hemisphere, it occupies more than 13m. in sweeping across
the south-western. This obviously agrees with the facts exhibited
in Fig. 2; since it is clear that the nearer the earth approaches
towards the middle of the line marked 1874, the slower is her rate
of approach towards O.

Considerations of precisely the same sort apply to Fig. 2
(Plate), which will be at once understood when examined with
reference to the three positions of the earth marked 5, 6, and 7, in
Fig. 2 (Woodcut).

It must be here remarked that as respects all this part of the
inquiry there is no doubt or difficulty whatever, the calculations
involved being of the most elementary character. But we may
stay a moment to inquire how far the results exhibited in Figs. 1
and 2 (Plate) agree with those which have been obtained by the
Astronomer Royal; because, although there is no difficulty in the
work thus far, a different method has been pursued by him in
obtaining corresponding information. In obtaining those points
of the earth marked “ accelerated ingress,” “retarded ingress,”
“accelerated egress,” and “retarded egress” in Figs. 1 and 2
(Plate), the Astronomer Royal has employed the terrestrial globe
adjusted with reference to the epochs of the passage of Venus’
centre across the centre of the sun, the phenomena being supposed
to be seen from the earth’s centre, This*would correspond to the
passage of the centre of the small circles, marked 1, 2, 3, &c., in Fig. 2
(Woodcut), across a large circle midway between the circles a B
and ab. He has assumed the position-angles at ingress and egress
to be equal to NOI and NO8. Neither the method nor the
assumptions are strictly exact (as Mr. Airy has himself pointed out),

* The equation of time on December 8th is nearly 8m. additive to mean time.

1869. | The Transit of Venus in 1874. 375

and no correction has been made for the equation of time. It
seems to me questionable whether the results are quite near enough
for practical purposes. They he severally about 315, 920, 760, and
230 miles from the positions I have obtained for the corresponding
points. These corrections seem to me to appreciably affect the
question at issue. The following rough description of the situation
of the four spots referred to applies, however, almost as well to the
Astronomer Royal’s results as to mine :—

Most accelerated ingress takes place at a spot far to the north
of Owhyhee; most retarded ingress in a place far to the west of
Kerguelen’s Land and Crozet Island. Most accelerated egress
takes place near the Antarctic continent in longitude far to the
east of Victoria Land; most retarded egress takes place in the
north-east of European Russia.

The actual longitudes and latitudes of these places I have cal-
culated to be, in order :—

Latitude. Longitude.
Gy B94 aN en ck oe, 148° 2B" W.
(Ca) oR a (lh amin ae hein a 26 27 &E.
(tO AG St aod. nes TW
CGNiGR sed: INE ntleent esis) 48520) ce

We come now to considerations which require to be closely
attended to, as they involve the gist of the whole matter.

If stations (1) and (4) were identical, it is clear that an observer
there, seeing most accelerated ingress and most retarded egress,
would observe the absolute maximum duration of transit. So if
the stations (2) and (3) were identical, an observer there would see
most retarded ingress and most accelerated egress, and so observe
the absolute minimum duration of transit. Or even if observers at
stations (1) and (4) could be brought into communication by means
of the telegraph,* as also those at (2) and (3), it would be possible
to render available the total difference of twice 25m. 6s., which
actually marks the durations of transit m 1874 considered with
reference to the whole earth. ‘This difference of 50 m. 12s, would
exceed more than twofold the observed difference in 1769.

But under the actual circumstances what has to be done is to
secure a station as near as possible to both the stations (1) and (4),
and so situated that the sun shall be fairly raised above the horizon
at the epoch of the internal contacts both at ingress and egress ;
and the like for stations (2) and (3). The examination of Figs.
1 and 2 (Plate) will show that there is a difficulty in fulfilling each
set of conditions. The point marked “accelerated ingress” is far

* Nothing but the consideration of expense renders this impossible or even
difficult.

376 The Transit of Venus in 1874. [July,

away on the darkened hemisphere at the moment of “retarded
egress,” and vice versd. The pomt marked retarded ingress in Fig. 1
(Plate) has moved far upwards towards the centre of the illuminated
hemisphere at the epoch represented in Fig. 2 (Plate), that is, far .
away from the point marked “accelerated egress.”

It was the consideration of these circumstances which led the
Astronomer Royal to pronounce the transit of 1874 altogether
unfit for the purpose of observing the durations of transit, as seen
from opposite parts of the earth’s surface. And he suggested that
four sets of observers should be sent to watch each of the four
phenomena,—accelerated and retarded ingress and egress ; and that
by determining the exact longitudes of their stations, and so (with
the aid of exact chronometers) learning the exact Greenwich time
of each phenomenon, the transit might be rendered available
through the comparison of the results inter se. Clearly the .
elements of difficulty and the probability of error are seriously
increased in this method as compared with one which practically
requires but the simple estimate of duration, and scarcely admits of
being affected by chronometer errors. However, let us note that
by this method an observed difference of at the outside 24 m.
might be obtained ;—not more, because the sun cannot be observed
when too close to the horizon, and because also of the difficulty of
finding suitable stations.

Now let us see what can be done towards the utilization of the
transit of 1874 by the simpler method :—

Suppose the northernmost station taken in latitude 60°, that is,
along the uppermost parallel in the figure. As the whole duration
of transit is but about four hours, and day lasts about six hours in
this latitude on December 8, we may take a place two hours on the
left of the central meridian in Fig. 1 (Plate), knowing that the same
place will be (at the end of transit) two hours to the right of the
central meridian in Fig. 2 (Plate); and at one epoch the sun will
be one hour risen, on the other one hour from setting. Doing this
we find that the station (which lies in Siberia, not far from Lake
Baikal) falls in Fig. 1 (Plate) on the sixth cross-line from the
centre, and in Fig. 2 (Plate) above the tenth cross-line. In other
words, the transit as seen from this spot exceeds the mean by
(6 + 103), or 16} minutes.

Next for the southern station. Here we have a wide choice.
If we put our observer on Petra Island (a place probably very little
suited for astronomical observations) we get (from Fig. 1, Plate)
ingress retarded by 8 m., and (from Fig. 2, Plate) egress accele-
rated by 12 m., or in all the duration of transit falls short of the
mean by 20 m. If we take the place marked out by the Astronomer
Royal for observing the transit of 1882, a place near Repulse Bay,
in east longitude 105°, we get ingress retarded by 9 m. and egress

1869. | The Transit of Venus in 1874. 377

accelerated by 94 m., or in all transit shortened by 184m. If
we take Victoria Land, in south latitude 70° (say), and east longi-
tude 172°, we get ingress retarded by 6 m. and egress accelerated
by 113 m., or im all transit shortened by 174m. If we take
Enderby Land, in east longitude 50°, we get ingress retarded by
11} m. and egress accelerated by 84 m., or in all transit shortened
by 203m. These four southern stations, combed with the
northern station before considered, give a total difference of dura-
tion of 364 m., 344 m., 334 m., and 364 m. respectively. Also, as
it would not be well to trust to a single northern station, it may
be noticed that any part of the nearly circular region extending
from Lake Baikal to Saghalien, and from north latitude 40° to
north latitude 60°, might be used for observing the increased dura-
tion without important disadvantage as compared with the station
already considered. Also, Crozet Island, Kerguelen’s Land, and
other parts of the Antarctic continent besides those considered, give
abbreviated transits of considerable value. Thus for Crozet Island
the abbreviation is no less than 17 m.; for Kerguelen’s Land, 16 m.
Even Macquarie Island, Royal Company Island, Hobart Town,
and parts of New Zealand, might serve as useful subsidiary stations.

And now to compare the value of the transit of 1874 with that
of 1882. We see that by the method of durations we get a dif-
ference of more than 386 m., whereas the maximum difference ig
501m. The Astronomer Royal has shown that for the transit of
1882 it is possible to take positions for observation (not by any
means more favourable than those above considered) which give at
the outside a difference of duration bearing to the maximum the
proportion of 341 to 400. The maximum difference in the case of
the transit of 1882 is only 32m. 48 s., in place of 50 m. 12s. ag
in 1874. Reducing 32 m. 48 s. in the proportion of 341 to 400,
we obtain the period 27 m. 57. in place of the difference of
365 m. which the most favourable situations in 1874 will give.

If we assume that the value of a transit is not to be estimated
according to the magnitude of the observable difference, because the
rate with which the planet crosses the sun’s limb is diminished in
exactly the same proportion, and the error of observation corre-
spondingly increased, we have the relative values of the transits of
1874 and 1882 as

364, 28

505 *° 323
or almost exactly as 6 to 7. But this extreme result, although as
it stands it is altogether opposed to the theory of the utter value-
lessness of the transit of 1874, is obtained on an assumption which
is unsupported by evidence. Mr. Stone has shown that the forma-
tion and breaking of the black ligament connecting Venus with the

378 On the Teaching of (July,

sun at the true moment of internal contact is an instantaneous
phenomenon in favourable weather. In unfavourable weather the
error in the observation of this phenomenon should depend rather
on atmospheric causes—the length of the periods of atmospheric
disturbance, and so on—than on the rate of the planet’s separation
from the sun’s limb. If this is so, the transit of 1874 is superior
to that of 1882 in the proportion of 364 to 28, or more than 9 to 7.
If the truth les between these extremes, the transit of 1874 may
be fairly taken to have a value bearing to that of 1882 a pro-
portion midway between 6 : 7 and 9 : 7; that is, the proportion
of da3744,

In any case no doubt can remain that the transit of 1874 is
highly valuable, when dealt with in reference to the mode of ob-
servation we have been considering; and it seems clear that when
all the difficulties and all the sources of error involved in the
second method are duly considered, the simple method, founded
on observed differences of duration, is to be held altogether more
likely to give satisfactory results. I believe, therefore, that such
preparations as geographers are already thinking of with reference
to the choice of suitable southern stations for observing the transit
of 1882 ought at once to be undertaken in connection with the
transit of 1874.*

V. ON THE TEACHING OF NATURAL SCIENCE IN
SCHOOLS.

By Epwin Langesrrr, M.D., F.RS.

AurHoucH amongst educated men there is a generally accepted
opinion that the teaching of one or more branches of natural science
ought to be introduced into schools, there is still much indifference
on the subject in the public mind, and no definite view of the

* Since the above was written the subject of the coming transits has been
considered by Mr. Stone, than whom no one is better qualified to pronounce
authoritatively on the principles which should guide us in utilizing those pheno-
mena. He is of opinion that observations made when the sun has a less elevation
than 10° would be altogether useless. This principle enables me to considerably
augment my estimate of the relative superiority of the transit of 1874, with
reference to the simpler mode of observation. In fact, the only southern stations
which had seemed suitable in 1882 must at once be rejected; and thus we may
say of that transit what had been said of the other, that the simpler mode “ fails
totally ” with respect to it. On the other hand, the value of the transit of 1874 is
scarcely at all affected by the application of the principle.

Mr. Stone considers the superiority which I have ascribed to the simpler
method to have ‘a real existence, but to be so slight (the values of the two modes
being as 6 to 5) as to be unimportant. This is just; but the distinction between
this view and the imagined total failure of the method seems not the less to
require attention.

1869. | Natural Science in Schools. 379

nature and extent to be given to such teaching anywhere. Anyone
looking at the character of the human mind, and the accumulated
knowledge resulting from its activity, must feel that the attempt
to educate the human being without supplying some knowledge of
the great facts of natural science is a one-sided proceeding. It is
clear that, without a definite knowledge of facts, the art of being
able to ¢alk and write about them, or to nwmber them, is of com-
paratively little importance. So obviously is this the case, that at
first sight it is a matter of wonder that the teaching of the facts of
natural science has not been more largely introduced into schools.
The difficulty of introducing natural science into schools is of two
kinds. In the first place, our school system has grown up from a
period when there was little or no natural science to teach: com-
mencing at a time when all knowledge was locked up in the languages
of Greece and Rome, and precise science was confined to mathematics,
those branches of culture have been universally introduced into all
our high schools. Under these circumstances, the teaching of the
classics and mathematics has become a kind of institution around
which the feelings of those who have been educated under their
influence have clung as around a political system whose existence
is regarded as the palladium of the State. Propose to add anything
or take away anything from this system, and you are immediately
met with the demand to look at the long list of statesmen, warriors,
scholars, and divines who have attained distinction under its influence.
It is vain to reply that these worthies might have attained more
distinction had they known more of natural science, or that probably
their distinction was entirely independent of their knowledge of
Latin, Greek, and mathematics. It is this feeling which meets us
in the Universities and higher schools ; and the unhappy tendency
of the middle class to produce a miserable copy of this teaching
brings down the sentimental objection to teaching natural science
into the lower ranks. The only way in which this opposition can
be overcome is by attacking the Universities. It is here that the
natural sciences meet with their first rebuff. A very small propor-
tion of the vast funds appropriated for education at Oxford and
Cambridge are given to those who pursue natural science; and,
although public opinion has forced both our Universities to be
more favourable to the students of the natural sciences, it is very
questionable whether anything short of legislative mterference will
induce the University authorities to get out of the groove in which
they have run for centuries.

There are, however, schools which are not dependent upon the
example of our Universities. There are the National Schools of
England and Ireland, the British and Foreign Schools, and Girls’
Schools everywhere. In these schools they do not pretend to teach
Latin or Greek, why it is difficult to understand, for if the study of

VOL. VI. 2D

380 On the Teaching of [July,

the classical languages is of the value in training the mind that the
advocates of their teaching assert, then the minds of all those who
are not taught them must suffer, and thereby a great loss is incurred
by the community. But let this pass. Some people believe in a
male mind and a female mind, and other subdivisions of mind; so
that what is strengthening and elevating to one class of mind is
weakening and depressing to another. Thus our schools, as a whole,
present an immense variety of subjects to be taught, but all agree
in the exclusion of natural science. The real reason, however, why
natural science is not introduced into the latter class of schools is
no sentimental love of the subjects they teach, but the difficulty of
teaching facts. Natural science cannot be taught by books; and
the whole system of schooling, except in girls’ schools where they
teach sewing and music, is carried on by the agency of books. To
teach the natural sciences, recourse must be had to things; books
are of little or no use. Physics and chemistry must be taught by -
experiments ; mineralogy and geology must be taught by specimens
of minerals and rocks; botany and zoology by plants and animals.
Neither teachers nor parents are prepared for this invasion, and the
consequence is that little or no natural science is taught, even where
the bugbear of Latin and Greek does not exist to frighten it away.

At the same time, whilst these difficulties exist with regard to
teaching natural science in our schools, the study of natural phe-
nomena has gone on during the last century with increasing rapidity.
The Universities of the continent of Europe have in almost every
instance acknowledged the position of natural science. In France
and in Germany this has been remarkably the case; and in the
latter country so great has been the progress, that she fairly ranks
intellectually as first amongst the nations of the world. In England
the necessity of natural knowledge for the exercise of certain pro-
fessions, as that of the medical man and the engineer, has caused
the foundation of schools from which have proceeded men who
have cultivated the natural sciences with great success. We are
not, therefore, without some practical knowledge of the beneficial
effects produced by their study. That it may be safely introduced
into our schools without injuring other studies is obvious from the
fact that, when some branch of natural science has been taught in a
school, the boys have been found not to have suffered in their know-
ledge of Latin and Greek. The result of a limited experiment at
Rugby has been “ that the school, as a whole, is the better for it, and
that the scholarship is not worse.” It is also found by the examiners
in classics at the Travers of London and the Colleges of Phy-
sicians and Surgeons, that the point of excellence attained by the
medical student who has to study natural science is not lower than
that of general students who do not study natural science at all.
If this be true, then it shows us that our present system confers

1869. ] Natural Science in Schools. 381

less benefit than if the whole of our scholars were compelled to
study the natural sciences. This is also the experience of Germany,
where the extensive study of natural science does not deprive her of
classical students who may challenge the rest of the world for
accurate criticism and profound scholarship.

Another reason for introducing natural science into our schools
is seen in the fact that some boys have an innate aptitude for
acquiring the facts of natural science, whilst they dislike or are
entirely unfitted for classics and even mathematics. In this way
the employment of scientific facts generally throughout the schools
of the kingdom would assuredly be the means of raising up men
who would devote themselves to this subject, and enrich the world
with new discoveries and new applications. of scientific principles.

We may say, however, that whatever may be the bent of a
lad’s genius towards classics and mathematics, a knowledge of the
principles of scientific inquiry would go far to correct the acknow-
ledged defects of such education. The observation of individual
facts, the arranging them in laws, and reasoning from the known
to the unknown, involved in the inductive and deductive processes
employed by the natural philosopher, could not fail to provide a
discipline of benefit to the scholar as well as the mathematician.

Another advantage of the cultivation of these sciences is, that it
places the individual who studies them more closely in contact with
the thought and experience of the age in which he lives. All the
great activity of life depends much more on the progress of the
natural sciences than the culture either of classical or mathematical
knowledge ; and a man in almost every position of life is placed more
or less at a practical disadvantage who is not acquainted with the
principles of scientific discoveries. Who is there with a knowledge
of natural science that has not been grieved to hear an eloquent
discourse marred by ignorance of the laws that govern the simplest
natural phenomena! Who that has been examined before a Com-
mittee of the Houses of Lords or Commons, has not wondered at
the ignorance displayed by our legislators of the commonest facts
known to the scientific man! Again, how many of our scientific
witnesses bring away from our courts of criminal justice impressions
of the thoroughly false estimate that advocates, jury, and judges
take of the simplest natural facts brought before them !

Another reason why the principles of natural science ought to
be universally taught, is the fact that the daily health and life of
mankind depend upon their obedience to the laws that govern the
external world in which they are placed. The human body is so
constructed that no one can understand the nature of the laws by
which it exists without deriving benefit therefrom. A slight know-
ledge of the nature of the atmosphere in which we live, of the
properties of heat, of the composition of materials about us, may

2D 2

382 On the Teaching of [ July,

frequently be the means of saving life. In every occupation in which
the human being can be employed, he must act in accordance with
laws which have been discovered and understood by others, and
every one must be directly benefitted by possessing such knowledge.
To leave such a precious possession as this to the mere accident of
a man finding out its value in after-life, is to play with the mercies
of Providence, and to merit the punishment that attends the infrac-
tion of Divine laws.

In the last place, we may speak of the high intellectual pleasure
afforded by that special exercise of the mind which attends the
pursuit of natural science. There is, no doubt, pleasure afforded
im poring over the beauties of ancient poets, and satisfaction given
in the perfectly accurate results that follow the solution of mathe-
matical problems; but we question if the gratification in either
case is so great as that of contemplating the truths of physics, |
of chemistry, or of life. Especially are these studies ennobling in
the highest degree when they are pursued with the feeling that all
the great facts and phenomena of the universe are revealing the
mind of God to man. ‘The mind of the human being who has not
studied the great laws by which God is governing and upholding
the natural world, cannot be so capable of understanding the
questions of man’s responsibility and relation to God as he whose
mind has, in the feeblest way, been led to contemplate God’s nature
in his works.

But supposing the point settled of the desirableness of intro-
ducing the study of natural knowledge into our schools, to what
extent ought we to teach it, how ought it to be taught, and where
are the teachers to come from ?

With regard to the first question, a distinction ought to be
made in the beginning as to the object of teaching the natural
sciences at all. On the one hand, we may teach one branch or all
these sciences for the sake of imparting desirable knowledge to the
mind ; or, on the other hand, we may use them with the object of
training and strengthening the mind for action in the pursuit,
generally, of the facts of the external world. It would not be
impossible, we think, consistently with the time boys spend at our
higher schools, to carry them through the chief branches of natural
science in the course of their studies ; and especially could this be
done if the teachers were themselves skilled in science generally, and
understood the relation of one subject to another. Unfortunately,
the way in which science is pursued in England affords little chance
at present of our seeing a body of skilled teachers who, whilst they
could take a class successfully through one branch of subjects,
should understand their relation and bearing to another class of
subjects. The only profession that could supply this class of men
is the medical ; but then the man thus educated and fitted for

1869.] Natural Science in Schools. 383

teaching, would make a much handsomer income by the practice
of medicine than anything he could get by teaching science in
schools. At the same time, it might be worth the while of some
of our better schools to tempt men thus educated, by better salaries
than are given to ordinary school teachers, to enter upon such a
course of instruction.

By commencing the teaching with boys ten or eleven years old,
they might be carried through the elements of all the natural sciences
in a scheme like the following :—

First year: Experimental physics, embracing the laws of sound,
heat, light, electricity, and the elements of mechanics.

Second year : Chemistry, embracing more especially the metallic
elements, and a knowledge of the forms and composition of minerals,

Third year: The chemistry of the organic elements, and the
consideration of those compounds which enter into the constitution
of plants and animals.

Fourth year: The structure and physiology of plants, with the
principles of systematic botany.

Fifth year: Comparative anatomy, and the general principles of
zoology, and the physiology of the lower animals.

Sixth year: Human physiology, and anthropology.

This course of study might easily be varied, according to the
judgment of the teacher; and the organic sciences might even be
introduced from the commencement.

Such a plan as this could only be pursued with able instructors,
and when ample time is given to acquire the knowledge imparted.
It would be quite impossible to carry it out where only two or three
hours a week are given to natural sciences. Five or six hours a
week, for eight or nine months in the year, would be the least
that would be required for such a course as the above.

This is one of the greatest difficulties connected with the
working of natural science classes in schools, that none of the old
masters are prepared to afford a sufficient amount of time for any-
thing like giving a satisfactory amount of instruction. The
writer once asked the master of a large school if his pupils were
taught natural science, to which he answered, O yes! we teach all
the natural sciences. “In what way?” it was asked, and the answer
was, that an occasional course of lectures was delivered by dis-
tinguished professors from the neighbouring city. This gentleman
would have been greatly surprised if a schoolmaster teaching the
natural sciences were to propose to teach Latin and Greek by
occasional courses of lectures. This is a fundamental error, if
possible to be got rid of from the minds of men educated in classics
and mathematics. They all regard natural science as an amusement,
as something to be encouraged by way of relaxation in leisure
hours, but never as the serious business of life. Until this notion

384 _ On the Teaching of [July,

is thoroughly eradicated from the minds of our teachers, little or no
progress will be made in the teaching of natural sciences.

But suppose we have only two or three hours a week to give to
this kind of teaching, the question comes, What is the best use
that can be made of them? Provided a competent teacher can
be found, we have little doubt as to what subjects would be found
most useful and advantageous. When the object is to give the
mind a training in the principles of inductive science, there is no
branch of knowledge more fit for this purpose than chemistry.
The facts which it comprises are most varied, whilst their combi-
nation and arrangement admit of almost mathematical accuracy.
The processes of observation and reasoning are called forth, whilst
the experiments which must necessarily be performed excite the
interest of the pupil to the highest degree. The facts when
acquired are of the utmost practical utility. They lie at the
foundation of most of the practical arts of life, and are the founda- °
tion of the higher sciences of vegetable and animal physiology.
At the same time, care must be taken to place this science on its
right footing. The pupils themselves should be made to perform
the experiments. To teach chemistry by mere lectures with ex-
periments is a defective method. To teach it by books without
experiments is worse than useless.

There is another subject so daily useful, so important, that
although not to be placed by the side of chemistry asa training
science, it nevertheless demands the earliest attention, and that is
human physiology. The information conveyed in this branch of
knowledge is so individually valuable, that we think it might be
successfully shown that no advantage obtained by any other kind
of knowledge is so directly beneficial to mankind. It may no
doubt be objected that physiology presents some of the most difficult
problems that can be mastered by the human mind, and that as it
is the last science that we have recommended to be taught in
schools, under no circumstances ought it to be the first. It is no
doubt true that it is better, where time can be given to the inor-
ganic sciences, that they should precede physiology ; but when it
becomes a question about which of the sciences it is most beneficial
to know something, then we have no hesitation in placing human phy-
siology first. Nor is this science so difficult to teach as its complex
problems would lead philosophers to think. Every pupil has in his
own body the means of performing experiments, and can watch the
functions which it is the province of physiology to teach. It is not
proposed to teach physiology on account of its satisfactorily develop-
ing mental processes, but on account of its pee facts being
necessary to be known in order to preserve health and save life.
The great bulk of even educated people have little idea of the
immense destruction of life that takes place every year through our

1869. | Natural Science in Schools, 389

ignorance of the most ordinary laws that regulate human life. The
rudiments of physiology could not be taught in nine-tenths of the
schools of Great Britain without rebuking the disregard paid to its
laws in the ventilation of rooms, the distribution of the hours of
study and relaxation, the conduct of exercises, and a hundred other
points connected with health. The homes of the poor and middle
classes of this country are the constant sources of disease and death,
not because of poverty or injudicious economy, but from sheer igno-
rance of the simplest laws by which God provides for the health
and life of his creatures. The whole country is full of mourning
for those who are stricken down with fevers and other contagious
diseases, with scrofula and consumption, yet it can be demonstrated
that the larger proportion of these diseases could be prevented
by a knowledge of the preventible causes of disease and death.
To defer teaching this subject till it can be taught at some distant
time after school-days are over, is to forego one of the greatest advan-
tages that can be conferred in teaching the natural sciences at all.
This subject is seldom taught, and to no class completely except to
the medical profession ; and although they have done nobly in urging
upon the public mind the necessity of sanitary legislation arising
out of their physiological studies, there is no public opinion to
sustain sanitary law. Our legislators, our clergymen, our judges,
our vestrymen, our electors, our people, are alike ignorant of the
structure and functions of the bodies they live in, and disease and
death stalk through the land from year to year with undiminished
strides. The great hope of the sanitary reformer lies in the intro-
duction into schools of the teaching such an amount of physiological
knowledge as would form a public opinion that would second the
efforts of the Legislature to secure for the people of England houses
and homes free from the easily preventible causes of disease and
death.

But, dwelling on this subject for a little, let us suppose that no
effort is made in a school to introduce natural science as a means of
training the intellect of the scholar; has not physiology a higher
claim to attention than most of the subjects introduced into reading
lessons? The favourite subjects for such exercises are history,
geography, and natural history. Such reading is extensively
introduced into our lower schools and into girls’ schools. Everybody
is agreed that children must read about something; and if this is -
the case, why should they not read about the structure of their own
bodies and the functions on which their life depends? Surely it
would be as well that the time for reading should be occupied in
an account of Harvey’s discovery of the circulation of the blood or
Jenner’s more important discovery of the prevention of small-pox
by vaccination, ag on the invasion of Britain by Julius Cesar or
the discovery of America by Columbus. Even the inveterate pre-

386 On the Teaching of [July,

judice of those who think that nothing can be taught without the
aid of books might be thus accommodated, and books on Physiology
pointed out that might be read in schools, whether boys or girls are
taught in these schools.

From what we have said, it will be seen how difficult it is to
introduce the subject of natural science at all ito schools. Where
an individual teacher sees the importance of the subject it can
always be introduced, but where there is indifference on the part of
the teacher there is no pressure from without. We may say confi-
dently that with regard to the success of any school, from a dame’s
school to an upper school or a University, it is a matter of perfect
indifference to parents whether they teach natural knowledge or
not. Hence we are driven to seek some power external to our
whole scholastic system. There is no doubt our Universities
possess this power. In a Report recently published by the House
of Commons* it is stated that, “although no more than 35 percent. ~
even of the boys at our great public schools proceed to the University,
and at the majority of schools a still smaller proportion, yet the
curriculum of a public school course is almost exclusively prepared
with reference to the requirements of the Universities and the
rewards for proficiency that they offer.” If this be the fact, it is
then obvious that our Universities are really obstructive of the
increasing intelligence of the age; and however much they are
cultivating the “sweetness” of our youth, they cannot be said to
increase their “light.” This obstructive influence is felt not only
in the higher schools, but in all educational establishments where
English is spoken. The one great drawback to teaching natural
science in the colleges of the United States of America is the example
of the English Universities. Recently, in one of the largest Dis-
senting colleges in England the most feasible way of reducing the
expenditure of the institution was in diminishing the modicum of
teaching that had previously been attempted in natural science.
The late principal of the Liverpool Collegiate Institute, when
desirous of introducing natural science teaching into the school,
was plainly told by the merchants of Liverpool that they only
wished him to teach those branches of knowledge to their sons by
which he had gained his own eminence. It seems very clear then
that one great object to be kept in view in introducing natural
science into education is to change the policy of those who rule in
our Universities.

At the same time there are some cheering signs of movement
both in our English Universities and in our public schools. At
Oxford, Christchurch has opened a very complete chemical laboratory.

* Report of a Committee appointed by the Council of the British Association

for the Advancement of Science to consider the best means for promoting Scientific
Education in Schools, 1868.

1869. ] Natural Science in Schools. 387

Although there is little teaching of natural science in the colleges,
Christchurch gives annually a junior studentship, Magdalen College
a demy-ship, and Merton College a post-mastership for these subjects.
There is also a scholarship founded by Miss Brackenbury at Balliol —
College for natural science ; and another lady, Miss Burdett Coutts,
has founded a geological scholarship for University graduates. There
is also the Radcliffe travelling fellowship given to candidates who,
having taken a first-class in natural science, are preparing for the
practice of the medical profession. At Christchurch also there
are two Lee’s readerships in natural science, and recently fellowships
have been given at Merton, Queen’s, and Pembroke, for the same
subject.

At Cambridge there is a natural science tripos, but little
encouragement is afforded by the colleges for its study. There
are scholarships at King’s, Caius, Sidney-Sussex, St. John’s, and
Downing. ‘The latter college has recently given a fellowship for
natural science, and Trinity College has appointed a lecturer on
the same subject. At St. John’s there is a chemical lecturer and
laboratory. In reference to Cambridge, the report above referred
to says, “At present public opinion in the University does not
reckon scientific distinction as on a par with mathematical or
classical ; hence the progress of the subject seems enclosed in this
inevitable circle,—the ablest men do not study natural science
because no rewards are given to it, and no rewards are given for it
because the ablest men do not study it.” The great question for
the consideration of the people of England to whom these Univer-
sities belong, is, How is this vicious circle to be broken? In
Cambridge there are also lectures on various branches of natural
science adapted to a medical education.

The London University requires a certain amount of elementary
knowledge of natural science in its matriculation examinations,
which is classed under the heads of mechanics, hydrostatics,
hydraulics, pneumatics, acoustics, optics, and chemistry. At the
examination for B.A., a further knowledge of astronomy and animal
physiology is required. The London University also gives degrees
in science, and there is a B.Sc. degree, and two years after a D.Sc.
is granted.

The College of Preceptors gives an honorary fellowship, for
which one branch of science, either chemistry, natural history, or
physiology, is required.

The Agricultural College at Cirencester has fifty pupils, who
are engaged entirely in the study of natural science. There are pro-
fessorships of geology, botany, chemistry, agriculture, and physics.

Amongst our high schools a beginning to teach natural science
has taken place. At Rugby there are lectures on mechanics, geology,
and botany, and these form part of the regular school course. A

388 The Pre-historic Antiquities [July,

Natural History Society has also been established at Rugby, to
which the senior scholars are permitted to belong, the Transactions
of which are before us, containing reports of papers and meetings
held during the year 1868.

Natural science is encouraged at Harrow by a voluntary exami-
nation, to which all the boys are invited, and they are placed
according to their merits. ‘There is no systematic teaching, but
many of the boys make great attainments im science, and some of
them have already distinguished themselves in the scientific world.
There is also a Scientific Society at Harrow, which meets at fixed
periods under the presidency of one of the masters. A museum has
been formed, and the masters speak highly of its beneficial influence
in the training of the boys. At the International College at Spring
Grove, the natural sciences are made a part of the general training
of the boys. Competent masters have been appointed to teach these
branches of science, and Dr. Schmitz, the intelligent head-master of
the school, speaks very confidently of the success of the plan.

Intermittent attempts have been made to teach natural science
in various other schools throughout the kingdom, but the want of
determination in the masters and encouragement on the part of
parents very often lead to the entire abandonment of any sustained
efforts to proceed in this course. There seems little doubt that
if young men of scientific tastes would fit themselves to become
teachers in schools without applying themselves to the practice of
some profession, they would find ample employment for their ability
in tuition. They must, however, be prepared to insist on their
own terms, and times and methods of teaching, as the condition of
mind of the majority of those who undertake to teach the young,
whether male or female, is utterly blank as to the nature, value, or
methods of teaching any branch of natural knowledge.

VI. THE PRE-HISTORIC ANTIQUITIES OF AND
AROUND LOUGH GUR.
By Prorrssor Harkness, F.R.S.
(With a Sketch-Map.)

At the distance of about 3 miles north of the town of Bruff, Co.
Limerick, is an irregularly formed sheet of water known as Lough
Gur. Including its islands and the district immediately surrounding
it, this lake has been one of the most prolific sources of pre-historic
remains in Ireland.

Near its margins there are several stone, and stone and earth
circles, and from the abundance of remains of this character the
lake has derived its name, which is, according to the statement of

Quarterly Journal of Science. N° XXII.

Knocktennell

Stone, and. Stone and Earth (Circles.
(romlechs.

Gast.

Remains of Stone Korts.
Grannoge.

Remains of Hut Enclosures °.

SKETCH MAP OF LOUGH GUR
AND THE

SURROUNDING COUNTRY.

Scale Two Inches to the Mile

Malby & Sons, ith

1869.] of and around Lough Gur. 389

Mr. John Fitzgerald, who is resident near it and who has a thorough
knowledge of the Irish language, a corruption of Lough Cirgor, or
the lake of the stone circles.

The most perfect of these circles is near the west side of the
lake and close to Grange Cottage. This owes its perfection to
Mr. John Fitzgerald, who has preserved it with most zealous care,
and whose great interest in the pre-historic remains of the neigh-
bourhood of Lough Gur has enabled him to recognize every spot
near its margins where relics of this kind occur.

This fine circle is about 150 feet in diameter.* Internally it
is made up of large blocks of conglomerate and limestone, the
former being generally of greater size than the latter, and one of
which, on the north-east side of the circle, is about 9 feet high,
by 4 feet in thickness, and 6 feet in breadth. There are about
sixty of these upright blocks of conglomerate and limestone, and
these make up the inner portion of the circle.

Outside this circle of stones, and supported by it, is an earthen
rampart, which at its crest is about 9 feet higher than the ground
surrounding it. ‘This rampart has a gentle curve outwards, except
at one spot, and its base is about 34 feet wide. On the E.N.E.
side of the circle a passage has recently been discovered by Mr.
Fitzgerald, leading into the enclosed portion. This passage, which.
is about 2 feet wide, has the sides lined with flagstones. The
area within the circle is considerably higher than the surface of
the ground which surrounds it, and this area has been raised by
artificial means, its level being less than 4 feet below the crest of
the rampart.

A short distance northwards from this fine circle the remains
of another are seen. This second one is entirely composed of blocks
of stone. An old road runs through the western side of this second
circle, the portions which remain are, however, sufficient to afford a
knowledge of its original size. Its diameter is larger than the fine
stone and earth cirele at Grange Cottage, being 170 feet. Almost
immediately adjoining this larger imperfect circle, and on its N.E.
side, there is another, which is also composed solely of blocks of
stone. This is a small circle, and is still very perfect. It consists
of fourteen large irregularly shaped masses of rock, which have a
squarer outline than the blocks forming the other circles. The
diameter of this circle is only 55 feet.

A short distance N.W. of these three circles, and in a field
adjoining the Limerick high-road, there are other traces of pre-
historic remains. These occur in the form of a few large blocks of
stone arranged in a double row. They may have originally formed

* For this, and the other measurements of the pre-historic remains around
Lough Gur, I am indebted to Mr. Fitzgerald,

390 The Pre-historic Antiquities [ July,

the western side of the large imperfect circle, having been removed
from thence when the road was being made. ‘There is also in the
same field a large cup-shaped depression about 210 paces in diameter,
but whether this is a natural or an artificial production there is not
sufficient evidence at present to determine.

The eastern side of Lough Gur is margined by a very irregular
outline, and the surface here is much bolder than on the western
shore. Before the surface of the waters of the lake was reduced to
its present level, a large island, about half the size of the lake,
occupied the eastern side. This was, however, separated from the
mainland only by shallow water in a narrow channel and boggy
ground ; it now forms a peninsula, and is known as Knockadoon Hill,
the summit of which rises about 200 feet above the level of the lake,
and the sides of which exhibit several bold rocky escarpments.

On the west side of Knockadoon, about 34 perches from the
border of the lake, another stone and earth circle is seen. This,
which is about 90 feet in diameter, is made up of a double ring of
upright flagey limestone blocks which have been obtained in the
immediate neighbourhood, and which, when contrasted with the
blocks forming the circles on the western side of the lake, are of
small size. ‘The interval between the outer and the inner row
of flagstones is about 4 feet. The flags, as in the case of the large
stone and earth circle at Grange Cottage, are placed very near each
other, and the interval between the two rows is partially filled in
with earth. Inside this circle are several detached blocks of rock
of comparatively small proportions.

Another double stone circle filled in with earth occurs on the
south side of Knockadoon, about 15 perches from the shore of
the lake. This is somewhat smaller in size than the one just
alluded to. It also has several detached blocks in the area enclosed
by it. One of these, near the N.E. side, is a flagey mass placed on
its end in the ground, and being about 3 feet high, forms a small
monolith. The antiquity of this monolith is well indicated by the
weathered state of its surface, which is deeply eroded by atmospheric
action. Mr. Day, F.S.A., Mr. Fitzgerald, and myself opened the
ground immediately west of this monolith, and at the depth of
little more than a foot from the surface discovered human bones.
These consisted of fragments of ribs, fragments of bones of the
arms, a nearly perfect lower jaw, a portion of the upper jaw, the
frontal and parietal bones of the skull very nearly entire, with the
temporal and occipital bones in a less perfect state. These bones
had belonged all to one individual, a young person of from six to
eight years of age. The bones of the head exhibited features of an
interesting nature, and the lower jaw had also peculiar characters.

As regards the latter, these consist of its great thickness, espe-
cially where the molars are inserted ; the form of the malar angle,

1869.] of and around Lough Gur. 391

which is very obtuse, being 143°, and the relation of the condyle
to the coronoid process, which are much removed from each other,
giving to the hind portion of the jaw a form which belongs to a
very aged individual, or to that of an infant, rather than a young
person. The upper jaw is very prognathic in its outline ; and this
circumstance may have had some influence in giving to the lower
jaw its singular modifications,

The form of the skull is strongly platybregmate, being broad
and short, with the upper portion singularly flattened. Its greatest

Human Skull and Lower Jaw, discovered near Monolith, Lough Gur.

length is about 6} inches; and its greatest breadth, which is from
the centre of the parietal bones, is about 54 inches. The width of
the frontal bone is about 4} inches; and the circumference of the
skull measured from the frontal sinus by the juncture of the sagittal
with the occipital suture is about 18 inches. The frontal bone is
peculiar in form. A line drawn along its ascending portion, and
meeting another drawn along the flat upper surface of the skull,
would form a right angle. The ascending portion of the frontal
bone is about 14 inch high, and, curving rapidly over upwards for
about an inch, meets the flattened surface of the head. The orbits
have the upper portions small, with a very rounded outline. The
bones of the skull are also very thin.

With these human bones a small fragment of the antler of a
stag, about 14 inch long and ? of an inch in breadth, was found.
Surrounding the monolith which marked this burial-place was a
rude circle of small stones, about 8 feet in diameter.

A few yards west from the monolith in this circle, is a small
patch, enclosed, also by a rude ring of small stones. This has an
elevation of about 9 inches above the ordinary level of the surface,
continued within this stone and earth circle. On opening this
patch, and at the distance of about 18 inches beneath the surface
a stone cist was discovered. The sides of the cist were composed
of limestone flags, and the ends were also formed of the same
materials. A flag of the same kind also covered the cist. This
covering did not however extend over the whole of the chamber
formed by the flags, the portion in which the lower extremities
had reposed was uncovered. ‘This, however, may have resulted from

392 The Pre-historie Antiquities [ July,

stones breaking the lid, as above the cist several pieces of rock were
found. The lower portion of the cist was formed of small portions
of flaggy limestones, which had been arranged with considerable
care, in the form of a pavement when the cist was being made.

Several fragments of human bones were met with in this cist.
These consisted of fragments of ribs, a portion of a femur, two os
calces, a portion of a lower jaw, and other fragments. The portion
of the lower jaw had appertained to a young person of from six to
eight years of age, and one of the os calces seems referable to the
same individual. ‘The other os calcis appears to have belonged to a
nearly, if not quite, full-grown person; and the fragment of the
femur, which had the epiphyses fully united, seems also to have
formed part of the skeleton of an adult. The length and thickness
of the thigh bone when compared with the corresponding bone of
the skeleton of a modern full grown individual indicate a person of
small stature.

The length of the cist also points out the small size of the body
which had occupied it. This was not more than 4 feet 2 inches
long ; and as its depth did not exceed 18 inches, it is not probable
that the body was buried in a crouching position.

The remains in this cist had been to some extent disturbed ; but
this had resulted from the burrowing of rabbits, the bones of which
were found along with the human remains. Associated with these
there occurred also fragments of the bones of swine. A portion of
the right side of the upper jaw of this animal contained in the cist
exhibited the last molar tooth, which was of a large size. The
condition of this fragment indicated that it had long been buried ;
its state being similar to that of the human bones, and altogether
different from the rabbits’ bones, which have a very recent aspect.

Among the bony fragments of this cist were two upper incisor
human teeth of rather a large size, and having the cutting surfaces
considerably worn.

The two bodies in this stone and earth circle seem to have been
placed originally in a north and south direction, the heads being
towards the latter.

It would be premature, from these human remains, to draw any
general conclusions as to the characters of the race which at an
early period inhabited the shores of Lough Gur; and which buried
its dead within the circles so abundant near this lake. Further
evidence will probably be obtained from some of the other circles.
So far, however, as these human remains enable us to judge, they tell
us of a broad-headed people, with small eyes and of short stature,
approximating more nearly to the present Fins and Laps than to
any other race of men. And this circumstance is in accordance with
many of the conclusions which have been arrived at concerning
the pre-historic races of other countries.

1869. | of and around Lough Gur. 393

Another small stone and earth circle occurs on the east side of
Knockadoon Hill, at the distance of about 60 perches to the N.E. of
the one just referred to. This, however, is in an imperfect condition.

Below the circle from whence the human remains were ob-
tained, and to the west of this, about 35 perches, on the margin of
the lake, there are several irregular-shaped small patches of ground
enclosed by blocks of rock. One of these, which has an oblong
form, is about 30 feet long by 18 broad. These enclosures occur
ina small dell. They are the results of human labour, and have
probably surrounded the huts of the ancient inhabitants of this
shore of Lough Gur.

At the distance of about half-a-mile N.E. from Knockadoon
Hill, on the farm of Ballycullen, a very large stone and earth circle
is seen. It is about 155 feet in diameter ; and this circle, both on
its outer and its inner side, is composed of large upright blocks
having earth in the interspace, the width of the circle being about
14 feet. In size this circle slightly exceeds the very perfect one
at Grange Cottage. It is not, however, in so good a state of pre-
servation, and has an earth fence intersecting it. It encloses within
it another circle of the same character, which is about 49 feet in
diameter, and which occupies a central position in the area em-
braced. by the larger circle.

A few yards beyond the southern margin of the large circle
another small one occurs. Its diameter is 35 feet; it is com-
posed of flagstones, which touch each other. The area enclosed
by this circle is raised to the height of about 3 feet above the
surface of the adjoming ground. In this circumstance this small
circle is analogous to the large one at Grange Cottage. The
elevation of its interior has probably resulted from the fallmg down
of a tamulus enclosed by the ring of flagstones. In the case of the
raising of the level in the large circle several tumuli may have com-
bined to produce this. In some instances these tumuli have pro-
bably fallen down from natural causes, but in many cases they have
been destroyed by the hand of man under the impression that beneath
them were buried hidden treasures.

That these several stones, and stone and earth circles near
Lough Gur enclosed the places of sepulture of an early race is
rendered probable, not only by the occurrence of human bones in
them, but also by the circumstance that similar circles, which are
found in other countries, afford evidence supporting the same
inference. Local traditions have assigned them to a very different
origin. By some they are regarded as Druid Temples; but this
mode of disposing of their origin is of recent introduction into
Treland, and in general the peasantry look upon them as ancient
fortifications. None of them bear a name indicative of a burial-
place, and as there are no ideas prevalent that such is their nature,

394 The Pre-historie Antiquities [July,

they have probably belonged to a race of men antecedent to that
from whence the Celtic population of Ireland has had its origin.

In a field a short distance to the north of the circles of Bally-
cullen, many stone cists containing human bones have been found.
In this field there are at present no remains of circles. It is, how-
ever, probable that these did formerly here exist, and that their
stones have been taken away for building cottages, several of which
are near this spot. ;

Besides circles of stone, and of stone and earth, the neighbour-
hood of Lough Gur also contains the remains of Cromlechs. One
of these is seen on the south side of the lake, at the distance of
about a third of a mile E.N.E. of Holycross, which is on the
Limerick high-road ; and two others occur at the distance of about
three-quarters of a mile south of this spot. These Cromlechs are
locally known as “ Giants’ Graves.”

On the south-east side of Lough Gur, a short distance from
the ruin known as Black Castle, there is a stone cist of considerable
size made up of large slabs of flaggy limestone. This, which is also
known as a giant’s grave, is 16 feet 8 inch. in length, 5 feet 5 inch.
wide, and 2 feet 2 inch. high. Its covering still to a considerable
extent remains, and consists of large heavy limestone flags. The
object for which this was designed was most probably like that of
the cromlechs, namely, for a place of sepulture.*

There is also on the western side of Lough Gur, near Grange,
a very fine monolith. It consists of a mass of conglomerate, and is
about 12 feet high by 7 feet broad, and from 3 to 4 feet in width,
Its north-west side is flat, but its other sides are irregular in shape.
It leans somewhat towards the §.E., and on this side, close to its
base, the limestone is seen in situ. There are no carvings nor
marks of any kind visible on this monolith.

The numerous stone erections already referred to do not exhaust
the pre-historic remains of the neighbourhood of Lough Gur. On
the summit of Knockfennell, a hill which rises above the northern
shores of the lake, there are traces of a building made of large flat
blocks of stone which had a circular outline, the diameter of which
is about 42 paces. Traces of similar erections, which are even more
distinct than that of Knockfennell, can also be seen on the summit
of another hill, which is on the eastern side of a bog between this
hill and Knockadoon. Here two circular stone erections can be
detected, the most perfect of which is 142 feet in diameter.

* Local tradition has given to this cist, and to many others of the same kind,
the Irish name of Leabthacha Dhiarmada is Ghrainne, or of the beds of Diarmaid
and Grainne, The story of these individuals belongs to the mythical period of
Irish history. The former is represented as the companion of Finn Mac Cumhaill,
and the latter, a daughter of the monarch Cormac Mac Art, who, in order to
escape being made the wife of Finn in his old age, eloped with Diarmaid, his
young and handsome follower.

1869. | of and around Lough Gur. 395

It consists of a wall in some portions about 4 feet in height
and about 11 feet in thickness, composed of large masses of rock laid
regularly one upon the other, and in the interior backed up by a
great accumulation of smaller broken flagments of limestone; the
latter being probably designed to produce a level surface immediately
within the wall. The other circular erection, which is only a short
distance from the one just alluded to, has a diameter of 138 feet,
and is in a less perfect state.

These circular erections of stone, which occur on the hill-tops over-
looking Lough Gur, have no mortar in connection with them. They
appear to have been of the same character as the Staigne Fort in the
Co. Kerry, and they probably formed strongholds. The positions in
which they have been placed near Lough Gur have great natural capa-
bilities for defence, and afford views over a large tract of country.

Although the race which erected the circular stone strongholds
seems to have had no knowledge of the use of mortar, the builders
of these strongholds appear to be referable to a period more recent
than the constructers of the circles and other sepulchral remains
which have been previously referred to.

Besides the numerous pre-historic remains which occur in the
neighbourhood of Lough Gur, the lake itself also affords objects of
antiquity of a similar character. Around Garrets Island, which is
near the centre of the lake, and particularly towards its southern
side, are to be seen many upright piles, especially when the surface
of the lake is low. Garrets Island itself seems to be an artificial
production, for the surface of it, which is only slightly elevated
above that of the lake, is made up of broken fragments of rock, and
these fragments are likewise seen extending from its shores into the
water of the lake. Previous to the lowering of the lake’s surface,
which took place about thirty years ago, a large part of this island
was under water ; the only portion at that time visible was occupied
by the ruins of a small castle or tower, which had probably been
built by one of the Harls of Desmond. It is doubtful whether even
this portion is not an artificial production ; but in consequence of
the rubbish from the fallen walls of this building, the surface which
supports it cannot be seen, and there are circumstances connected
with it which lead to the conclusion that it is not a natural surface,

At the time when the level of the lake was lowered, and the
area of the island increased, the land laid bare was found to be
covered with an enormous accumulation of bones. More than a
hundred cart-loads of these bones were removed and sold to the
dealers in such articles. For many years subsequent to the lowering
of the surface of the lake, this spot continued to be a very prolific
source of bones, for during the potato famine, the poor of the town
of Bruff, when the water was low, obtaimed a scanty livelihood by
collecting and selling bones from this locality.

VOL. VI. 25

396 The Pre-histovic Antiquities of Lough Gur. [July,

The bones procured here consisted of the remains of Bos longi-
frons, the heads of which almost all exhibited a fractured front,
produced by the blow which had killed them. Bones of the pig
and goat were also found, the heads of which were likewise marked
by broken frontal portions. Together with these were the bones
and antlers of the stag, and some skulls, jaws, and other bones of a
dog of a large size, and with an elongated muzzle. These dogs
seem to have belonged to a race which was the progenitor of the
now extinct rough-haired Irish greyhound. A few human remains
were found along with the other bones. Some of these consisted
of lower jaws, generally of a large size, and a heavy outline.

Besides bones, this island has been a very prolific source of stone
implements in the form of polished celts. It has also yielded great
quantities of bone pins and piercers. Stone discs about 3 inches in
diameter and 4 an inch in thickness, beautifully rounded in outline,
and with finely smoothed surfaces, have also been among its pro-
ducts. Similar discs have been obtained in other parts of Ireland
in connection with Crannoges. For what purpose they served it is
difficult to conceive, and nothing analogous to them has been found
among the remains of the pile-dwellings of Switzerland.

Judging from its nature and the character of the several kinds
of remains which Garrets Island has afforded, there is every reason
for concluding that this island is the relic of a large Crannoge.
History contains no authentic records of this, although some of the
Trish Crannoges were occupied so late as the seventeenth century.

The portion of country around Lough Gur had been long in
pon of the Desmonds before their forfeiture in the reign of

lizabeth ; and the occupation of the Lough Gur crannoge must
have been antecedent to the Desmond possession. That this cran-
noge of Lough Gur is of an ancient date, is proved by the imple-
ments which have been derived from it. Very few iron weapons
have been obtained in it. Bronze celts of either the socketed or
winged type, are rare in connection with it. The earlier and
simpler form of bronze celt has been more frequently procured from
it; and pure copper celts, the earliest form of metal, implements
have been among the products of this Crannoge. These copper
celts are of a ruder type than the earliest form of bronze weapons
of the same character, and in outline they approximate more nearly
to the antecedent stone celts.

It is, however, for stone implements that the Crannoge of Lough
Gur is famous, and of these many may be seen in the Museum
of the Royal Irish Academy, in some of the public museums of
England, and also in several private collections.

1869.] ( 397 )

NOTICES OF SCIENTIFIC WORKS.

THE POLAR WORLD.*

Tue distribution of animal and vegetable life upon the surface of
our globe is regulated, with remarkable exactness, by the quantity
of sunshine which falls upon each parallel of latitude. In other
words, the measure of solar energy which, as luminous, or calorific,
or chemical foree—to say nothing of electrical power—becomes
active upon any spot of Karth, determines, not merely the life
which shall exist upon that spot, but the variety of that life, be it
vegetable or animal.
In the tropics, where

=f The long sunny lapse of a summer-day’s light
Shining on, shining on, by no shadow made tender,”

quickens the circulation of those fluids which are the life-stream
of plant and animal alike, we find an exuberance of vitality. The
vegetable world assumes a gigantic character, and bursts into
flowers and fruits, in which nature’s chemistry has produced the
deepest dyes and the most luscious juices. ‘The animal world also
revels in an excess of life, and every passion is stimulated to the
utmost by the influence of radiant forces, which are the beginning
and the end of organized being. There men are
“ Souls made of fire, and children of the sun
With whom revenge is virtue.”

In the temperate zones all nature assumes a milder aspect; trees
and shrubs, flowers and fruits, animals and man, are in the enjoy-
ment of a more subdued existence ; and every phenomenon, whether
physical or physiological, is marked by the weaker influence of the
solar power. As we advance towards the arctic or antarctic zones we
find a gradual decline in the manifestations of vital power, and every
organized creation assumes a peculiar character, which strikingly
marks the struggle for existence under the difficulties of a diminish-
ing quantity of light and heat. At last we arrive at a region
where vegetable life appears limited to the reindeer-moss, and
animal existence is restricted to such creatures as can make a snow
cave their home, and support the heat necessary for life, by gorging
themselves with fuel, in the shape of masses of fat, washed into
their stomachs with large draughts of animal oil.

* «The Polar World; a Popular Description of Man and Nature in the Arctic

and Antarctic Regions of the Globe’ By Dr. G. Hartwig. Longmans, Green,
& Co, 1869.
24n 2

398 Notices of Scientifie Works. | [July,

‘The Polar World; a Popular Description of Man and Nature
in the Arctic and Antarctic Regions of the Globe,’ is devoted to a
full consideration of those cheerless regions near the poles of our
Earth, and the conditions of existence within their ice-bound circles.
The frigid zone of the northern hemisphere is strikingly cut off
from the temperate regions by belts of forest. We have a zone of
evergreen coniferee, which gradually shades off towards the north
into a treeless waste. These wastes, known as “ barrens” in North
America and “tundri” in Russia, are produced by the ice-cold -
winds which sweep unchecked over the islands or the flat coasts
of the Polar Ocean, and for miles and miles compel even the hardiest

lant to crouch before the blast and creep along the ground.

hese “tundri” represent in a striking manner the peculiar phe-
nomena of arctic life. In the winter an awful silence, interrupted.
only by the melancholy hoot of a snow owl or by the yelp of a
_ hungry fox, reigns supreme over this vast expanse. But during
this period of frigid repose, nature has been garnering her stores,
and with the awakening spring she pours over air and sea and land
a teeming luxuriance of life, which draws from the south an army
of destroyers. “ Eagles and hawks follow the traces of the nata-
torial and strand birds; troops of ptarmigans roam among the stunted
bushes; and when the sun shines, the finch or the snow-bunting
warbles his merry note. While thus the warmth of summer
attracts hosts of migrating birds to the arctic wildernesses, shoals
of salmon and sturgeons enter the rivers, in obedience to the
instinct that forces them to quit the seas and to swim upwards, for
the purpose of depositing their spawn in the tranquil sweet waters
of the stream or lake. About this time, also, the reindeer leaves the
forest to feed on the herbs and lichens of the tundra, and to seek
along the shores, fanned by the cooled sea-breeze, some protection
against the attacks of the stinging flies that rise in myriads from
the swamps. ‘Thus during several months the tundra presents an
animated scene, in which man also plays his part. The birds of the
air, the fishes of the water, the beasts of the earth, are all obliged
to pay their tribute to his various wants, to appease his hunger, to
clothe his body, or to gratify his greed of gain.”

Dr. Kane observes, “ No eider-down in the cradle of an infant
is tucked in more kindly than the sleeping-dress of winter about
the feeble plant-life of the arctic zone.” Ere yet the destroying
blasts of winter sweep over earth and ocean, the light and feathery
snow has carefully covered up every organized thing ; and in a state
of repose, resting on or in the earth, kept warm by its sno
mantle, the plant and the animal await that awakening whic
comes with the rising of the sun above the horizon.

‘To the contemplative mind nothing can be more interesting
than to read, in the pleasant words of Dr. Hartwig, of the way in

1869. | Notices of Scientifie Works. 399

which the God of Nature has established his everlasting laws, by
which the balance of existence is unerringly maintained. It is not
possible, even if it were desirable, to follow our author through his
several chapters—each of them interesting. All the lands which are
spread out around the North Polar Ocean are described from the
best authorities, and described in such a way that the reader believes
them, as he reads, to be the result of Dr. Hartwig’s personal obser-
vation. The plants and animals of the earth and seas are all
graphically described ; and the peculiar phenomena which attend their
existence, under the extreme conditions of a polar winter and an
arctic summer, are most fully and faithfully examined.

Living as we do in the temperate regions of the earth—com-
plaining bitterly if our winter temperature falls much below the
freezing point of water—we are astonished to learn from the narra-
tives of the voyages of Belcher and of Kane, that their ships’ crews
endured the temperature of nearly 100 degrees below that point,—
when chloric ether became solid, and strong chloroform exhibited
a granular pellicle on its surface. Kane tells us, as examples of the
readiness with which man adapts himself to the conditions of
climate, that “George Riley, with a vigorous constitution, estab-
lished habits of free exposure, and active cheerful temperament, has
so inured himself to the cold, that he sleeps on our sledge-journeys
without a blanket or any other covering than his walking-suit,
while the outside temperature is — 30°.”

One of the secrets of healthful existence under such conditions
is to be sought in the food taken into the stomach to maintain the
internal temperature, Within the tropics where the solar heat
excites the animal machine to the utmost, but small internal force
is required, and there fruits and succulent vegetables are all that
are necessary to maintain life. We advance to the temperate
regions of this Earth, and then we find that man becomes a devourer
of animal food, this diet becoming, of necessity, more and more
carbonaceous as his dwelling-place is situated nearer to the poles.
Within the arctic circle we find men feeding on fats, and the
miserable Samojede is found eating pounds of blubber at a meal, and
drinking quarts of seal oil.

Notwithstanding much that has lately been written asserting—
at the same time as the materialistic philosophy is decried—that
brute matter lives by virtue of mere motion, no one can study the
relations of animals and plants to powers, forces, energies (call
them what you will) which are external to themselves, without
becoming convinced that light and heat and electricity are agents
ever active in maintaining Life. Whether we examine life in the
tropics or at the poles, we find provisions carefully, beautifully
designed, to equalize the power acting within the living organism,
with the force which ig active from without upon it. ‘Throughout

400 Notices of Scientifie Works. [July,

nature we see that life is maintained by the effort ever made to
maintain the equilibrium of forces. A positive and a negative—a
plus, minus—is found everywhere in the material universe, and, as
the jar of Leyden owes its power to the effort it makes,—almost as
if a sentient thing,—to equalize the conditions of its inner and its
outer coating in relation to electrical power, so is there an analogous
condition of this kind at work everywhere. ‘This is perhaps more
strongly shown in the phenomena of heat than of any other power,
and nowhere is it more strikingly exhibited than in those regions
where the deprivation of the sun for a long period reduces external
nature to the extremity of cold. Those who can read this popular
book with such a touch of philosophy in their minds as we have
imperfectly indicated, will derive a double charm from the volume.
Those who go to it merely for the interest which ever belongs to a
well-written book on strange lands, will not be disappointed.
They will find Man in what would appear to be the most wretched
condition in which it is possible for him to exist, living with a
certain amount of enjoyment; his very animal necessities are
made so many ministers of contentment. Any one who will read
with care the relation given by Dr. Hartwig, must rise from his
task with his conviction strengthened that a superintending Proyi-
dence alone could produce the remarkable results which astonish
the traveller in the polar regions. To borrow some of the author’s
words, the influence on the development of vegetable and animal
existence, of the long polar winter nights, and its fleeting summer,
is amongst the most striking of natural phenomena. ‘To picture
Man waging the battle of Life against the dreadful climate of the
high latitudes of our globe—as the inhabitant of their gloomy
solitudes, or as the bold investigator of their mysteries—is to bring
into striking contrast the highest and the lowest operations of mind,
and to show how nearly equal are the animal conditions of him who
is born amidst the eternal snows, and of him who would pierce the
barriers of ice and knows what wonders lie enchained within them.
Dr. Hartwig has written, for a foreigner, a book in capital English.
He has, as he says, a “ great variety of interesting subjects, embraced
within a comparatively narrow compass,” and he has conveyed
much solid instruction under an entertaining form. ‘To every one
the ‘ Polar World’ must prove a book of interest, and to many,
especially to the young, it cannot fail to be a volume full of
instruction.

1869. ] Notices of Scientific Works. 401

SLEEP.*

Tue “ physical basis of sleep,” as some of our modern biologists
would perhaps be disposed to call the physiological phenomena
which attend that mysterious condition of the higher animals, is
admirably treated in the little work before us; and we cannot do
better than draw attention to its suggestive pages, as we believe
a close study of the subject will throw fresh light upon those
psychical powers of man concerning which so little is known and so
much has been written.

In the first portion of his work the author explains the physio-
logical cause of sleep with great clearness, and his theory appears to
be borne out by our present knowledge of the subject. Popularly
described, it is this: The brain is the organ of thought; when the
brain is working, waste proceeds; when that waste has continued
for some time, reparation is necessary ; full vessels and a rapid cir-
culation favour expenditure of the tissue, and a feebler and smaller
current conduces to repair.t| When the activity of the brain lessens,
or when by a voluntary act it ceases, the diminution of the circu-
lation is effected through the increased activity of the sympathetic
ganglia which partially close the arteries that supply the brain,
and put a stop to the physiological action which is necessary for
the exercise of the mental powers. ‘To facilitate the inactivity of
the mind which is necessary to give rest and reparation to the brain,
all the external avenues to the senses are closed, and so the mind is
no longer disturbed by sensory activities, and is turned inwards, so
to speak, upon itself only.

In sound sleep, then, it is to be presumed that little or no
cerebral waste is going on, and when the reparation is complete we
awake in the natural order of events. The author tells us that
there are numerous causes of awakening, but they may “all be
reduced to one ultimate action, namely, revoking the force of the
ganglia upon the arteries, and reopening the arterial current
throughout the brain.” ¢

Many interesting phenomena connected with the sleeping state
are ably discussed by the author. He treats of the entire absence
of the power of hearmg in some exhausted sleepers, as for example,
the wearied soldier whose slumbers are not disturbed by the roar of
cannon, so powerful is the hold of the sympathetic ganglia over the
brain in sleep. Also of somnambulism, where certain senses are
quite inactive and certain phases of the mind at rest, whilst others
are wide awake :—‘ Some awakening of thought, consciousness, and
will, recovered tactile sensibility, control over the muscles of the

* «On Going to Sleep” By Charles H. Moore: Robert Hardwicke.
; Se is herve quoting Mr. A. E. Durham on the ‘ Physiology of Sleep.’

402 Notices of Scientific Works. [July,

body and limbs, an open eye and dilated pupil; but obscure vision
or blindness, dulness of hearing or deafness, and withal, after
relapsing into sleep and complete awakening, no recollection of the
purposes or occurrences of the somnambulistic state ;”* and this con--
dition he accounts for by the theory that one set of arteries which
supply a certain part of the brain are fully dilated, whilst another
set which supply the remaining portion of the brain are partially
closed, sleep bemg “due to contraction of all the arteries of the
brain, and somnambulism to that of the carotids only.” +

If the closure of certain arteries, which supply the brain with
blood, brought about by nervous influence, is conducive to sleep, it
follows that any cause which diminishes the quantity of blood
circulating in the brain will have a similar effect; and the author
says that “many examples of sleep arising upon the ligature,
compression, or obstruction of the carotid trunks, enable us to.
conclude decisively that the diminution of the arterial current in
the brain which occurs at the instant of sleep is no mere concomi-
tant occurrence, but its actual cause.” He might have adduced
evidence of a kind more familiar to the general reader. Putting the
feet in hot water causes an increased circulation in those members,
and by drawing the blood from the brain, induces sleep. Sometimes
a reaction ensues during the night; the feet become cold, the blood
sets in the direction of the brain, and the patient awakes. On the
other hand, the hydropathic treatment 1s in this respect more
effective. When the feet are put into cold water and well rubbed,
both whilst they are in the water and subsequently, an improved
circulation is maintained throughout the night, and a sound
unbroken sleep is the result.

Again, any person who finds it difficult to obtain rest, may
probably succeed by lying down upon his back and doubling his
pillow so that it fits into the back of his neck. The circulation
is thus evidently impeded, for we have often found a drowsiness to
supervene almost immediately on assuming this attitude.

Whilst the author thus describes the proximate causes of sleep
under ordinary circumstances, he takes care to mention that the
state may be banished by the exercise of the will; and that the will
may also produce it. But this is nothing more nor less than saying
that the mind is the active agent, and the brain the passive instru-
ment; and exactly here it is that we believe his work to be so sug-
gestive in regard to man’s psychical powers. ‘That in the long run
“mens sana in corpore sano” is true, and that the exercise of
active mental power requires a sound and well-ordered physical
frame, no one will for a moment deny. But just as the most
powerful physical exertions are sometimes successfully put forth by

* P, 49. + Pp. 52-55.

1869. | Notices of Scientifie Works, 403

an exhausted man, the most violent display of emotion evinced by
one who is prostrate, or as the most brilliant efforts of the intellect
burst from an expiring thinker, so, too, the mind can at any time
assert its supremacy over the active, or even the wearied instrument
of its operations, and can say, “ Obey me, so shall it be!” “I
desire to sleep, although I have but just awoke.” “I desire to
sleep now, and to awake at such an hour.” ‘ You need rest, but I
desire you to remain active. I will not sleep.” All these things
we can say to our brain and it must obey! How inconsistent are
these facts with the teachings of some modern physiologists, who
would have us believe that the brain is a self-acting thinking
machine, and originates the thoughts which it conveys.

We have no space to deal with other phases of the subject, such
as the physical causes which exclude thought in spite of the will,
rendering the machine incapable of action, but trust that we have
said enough to show how deeply interesting and suggestive is the
unpretending little work which hag served as the basis of these
observations.

On Molecular and Microscopic Science. By Mary Somervinie.
2 vols. Murray.

Tue attention which has been given of late years to the study of
the molecular constitution of matter, and the interesting discoveries
which have been made, have evidently suggested to our remarkable
countrywoman the work before us. Unless we are greatly mistaken,
Mrs. Somerville’s original idea was to show, by collecting all the
evidence within reach, that the molecule of inert matter and the
organic molecule were influenced by the same set of forces or energies.
As we see the inorganic group of atoms compelled to assume a
determinate form under the influence of forces which always mani-
fest, to a greater or a less extent, polarity, so we discover that the
organic molecule—the primary cell—is equally the result of the
operation of similar physical agencies. ‘The materials which constitute
the amorphous mountain masses, whenever they are free to arrange
themselves, assume a geometric form. The microscopic examination
of any rock, indeed, exhibits the struggle between the desire—if the
word may be used in reference to brute matter—to crystallize, and
the mechanical power, pressure, which prevents it. Remove in the
slightest degree the pressure, and the inert molecules undulate into
form, and crystallizations appear—a mute prophecy, as Coleridge
has it, of the coming vegetation. All the elements found in the
organic creation, whether we take for our examples the vegetable or
the animal world, are discovered in the inert, inorganic consti-
tuents of our planet. By what processes are carbon, nitrogen,

404 Notices of Scientifie Works. [July

hydrogen, and oxygen, which we find so abundantly in the three
ancient elements, Air, Earth, and Water, compelled into the mus-
cular matter of an animal or the ligneous structure of a plant?
May we draw from our modern science the conclusion that the
fourth ancient element Fire—we mean thereby the empyreal forces
which are gathered into the sunbeam—is the creative agency.
“Where there is Light,” said Lavoisier, “there we have organization
and Life; where Light cannot penetrate, there death for ever holds
his silent court.”

The elementary constitution of matter, and the relations, so far
as they are known, between Force and matter, are first considered
by Mrs. Somerville. Then she examines all that has been done by
spectrum analysis, as we believe, desiring to shadow out the influence
of the radiant powers in determining organized forms. Our authoress
then plunges (we can find no other word so truly expressive of the
fact) into the microscopic structure of the vegetable world and of '
animal organisms. Here is the great defect of this work. There
is no real connection between molecular science and microscopic
investigation. The first examines with all the subtlety possible, by
the aid of experimental induction, the phenomena dependent upon
atmospheres of force enveloping the ultimate atoms of matter ; the
second observes the vast variety and the infinite beauty observable
in the microscopic forms of life. But, although the microscope may
teach the observer that a particular organic mass is but a wonder-
fully constituted aggregation of cells, that instrument can never
advance him to a knowledge of the mechanical operation of the
osmose forces by which the functions of life are carried on, nor to
any appreciation of the value of the solar energies in producing an
equivalent of organized form. It was a mistake, in the present state
of science, to connect the two. Whatever may have been the first
idea of the authoress, she must feel that the molecules have given
her one set of links, and that the microscope has developed another.
They may appear to have relations to each other; but a great
many links are wanting, and we have two ends of a broken chain.

These volumes exhibit a remarkable amount of industry in the
collection of facts. They show an equally remarkable clearness in
the appreciation of the value of those facts, and they prove that the
weight of years has fallen lightly upon the head of the lady who
so long ago translated the Astronomy of Laplace, and examined so
satisfactorily ‘The Connection of the Physical Sciences.’

We were not honest if we allowed ourselves to be betrayed by
our admiration for this lady into a false praise of her labours.
These volumes are fragmentary: they are made up of the facts,
and the fancies, of experimental and speculative philosophers.
Neither the molecular science nor the microscopic observations of
these volumes must be taken as reliable guides to the truth. They

1869. | Notices of Scientific Works. 405

may be used with advantage as indicators of the world of wonders
which is to be found in the infinitely minute ; and there is a charm
in the variety of the work which will render it valuable as a means
of interesting young and intelligent minds in the study of Natural
History.

A Course of Six Lectures on the Chemical Changes of Carbon.
By Wriu1am Opiine, M.B., F.RS., Fullerian Professor of
Chemistry, Royal Institution. Reprinted from the ‘Chemical
News, with Notes by Wini1am Crooxss, F.R.S., &. Long-
mans, Green, & Co., 1869.

For many years it was the custom of the late Professor Faraday to
deliver, during the Christmas holidays, a course of lectures on some
branch of science. These were protessedly addressed to children ;
but the back seats and galleries of the lecture-theatre were gene-
rally crowded with adults, many of them well known in the scien-
tific world, drawn thither by the charm of the great philosopher's
eloquence and manipulative skill, During the many years that
this custom was observed, almost every branch of physical science
was thus expounded, and it must always be regarded as a misfor-
tune that most of these lectures have passed away without a record.
The last two courses which Faraday delivered, namely, those “On
the Physical Forces,” and “On the Chemical History of a Candle,”
were fortunately published by Mr. Crookes in the pages of the
‘Chemical News,’ the words as they fell from the speaker's lips
having been taken down by a skilful shorthand writer.

For a few years Dr. Tyndall delivered the Christmas Lectures,
and we are now glad to find that Dr. Odling, the worthy successor
to Faraday in his chemical chair, has followed his predecessor's
example in continuing them. As in the former cases, the course of
lectures, taken down in shorthand, originally appeared in the ‘ Che-
mical News, and they have now been reprinted from that journal
in the form of a handsome volume of 162 pages, with preface and
notes.

The author’s arrangement of the subject is most logical, and
the manner in which he starts from marble—a brittle solid—and
gradually unfolds its chemical history before the audience, is a model
for all lecturers on science. Dr. Odling starts with no assumption
of knowledge on the part of his audience. Every step taken is the
logical sequence of that which preceded it, and whilst explaining
the phenomena with all that vivacity of style and clearness of ex-
pression for which the lecturer is so distinguished, he does not fail
to supplement his explanation by a decisive experiment. He first
shows that marble effervesces when an acid is poured on it, this
effervescence being due to the liberation of a particular kind of air

406 Notices of Scientific Works. [July,

or gas. The same kind of air is then shown to be evolved from
marble by the action of a red heat, quick-lime being left behind.
The properties of lime are then shown; its evolution of heat when
slaked by water; its non-effervescence on being treated with acids ;
its solubility in water; its combination with the air previously
evolyed from it to reproduce marble. These phenomena are illus- -
trated with ample experimental evidence, until the audience are
thoroughly familiar with the connection existing between quick-
lime, marble, and the gas evolved from it. ‘The properties of this
gas are then explained; the extinction of ordinary flames in it, and ©
its power to support the burning of other bodies are illustrated ;
but it is not until a piece of carbon is actually obtained before the
audience by heating sodium in the gas which has just before been
evolved from a piece of marble, that the lecturer makes use of the
term carbonic gas, or leads any one to suspect that carbon in any

form is associated with marble. Having proceeded so far, the ~
lecturer shows how carbonic gas may be obtained in other ways ; and
the consideration of this subject naturally leads to the composition
and properties of air and the subject of oxygen and oxides, the ordi-
nary experiments with this gas being varied in a somewhat novel
manner. These subjects occupy the first four lectures. The fifth is
devoted to other forms of carbon, such as graphite and the diamond,
and liquid and solid carbonic gas; whilst the concluding lecture
treats of carbonic di-sulphide, carbonous oxide, and the unburning of
carbonic gas by vegetation. From this part of the subject we are
tempted to make one or two quotations, which will serve to show
the clearness of expression with which Dr. Odling is so happily
gifted. “If you reflect a little, I think you will come to this
conclusion: that substances which grow—vegetable substances—
are all of them destined ultimately to become burnt, or to undergo
a change equivalent to burning. A great deal of wood, for instance,
is chopped up and used for fire-wood ; a great deal more is used for
building ships, for forming the interior portions of houses, and
making furniture. These ships and houses and furniture last for a
certain time; they gradually pass from an honourable into a dis-
honourable condition ; old furniture is put into the lumber-room ;
the disabled ships are broken up and destroyed; and at last they
go to the fire, where the carbon becomes oxidized or converted into
carbonic gas. But there is a great deal of vegetable matter which
never undergoes this burning. In the autumn a large quantity of
leaves fall to the earth, and there undergo some sort of change ;
this change is in fact a very slow burning, but without the pheno-
mena of ignition which we see in the case of a fire, although the
leaves are converted into carbonic gas or oxidized carbon. .....
But a great quantity of vegetable substance neither undergoes
burning nor decay, -but is eaten. We know that cattle feed largely

1869. | Notices of Scientifie Works. 407

on corn and straw, and we ourselves consume much wheat and
other grain. In these instances, although the vegetable substances
do not, strictly speaking, decay, yet they undergo another form of
the process of oxidation by which burnt charcoal is produced. . . .
In this case, the carbon, instead of having been burnt in a furnace,
has simply been burnt in our bodies, thereby rendering them warm,
just as when it is burnt in the fire it warms a room.”

Respecting the unburning of carbonic gas the author illustrates
the phenomena of growth and vegetation in the following words,
which, whilst they place this subject in a clearer light than we
have ever before seen, show at the same time how intimately the
conservation of force is bound up with the conservation of matter.
“Tf the sun, instead of shining on the plants which grow on the
earth’s surface, were to shine entirely upon the stones, it would
heat the atmosphere a great deal more than it does. As it is, a

ortion of the sun’s heat disappears. What then becomes of it ?

t ig absorbed by the vegetation. The amount of heat absorbed by a
growing piece of wood in unburning the carbonic gas of the atmo-
sphere into charcoal and oxygen is exactly the amount which the
piece of wood is capable of giving out when its carbon is reburned
mm the air; and accordingly when we burn coals or wood or peat
upon our fires, or consume bread and oil and wine in our bodies,
and thereby produce a considerable amount of heat either in the
fires or in our bodies, we are really manifesting once more in the
form of heat, the sun’s rays which years and years before shone
upon the plants from which those substances were derived.”

When we remind our readers that the chemistry of carbon
includes the chemical history of all animal and vegetable substances,
it is evident that there can be no better introduction to the study of
that grand science for a youth whose tastes he in that direction
oe the careful perusal of Dr. Odling’s Lectures on the Changes of

arbon.

( 408 ) [ July,

CHRONICLES OF SCIENCE,

Ancluding the Proceedings of Learned Societies at Home and Abroad;
and Slotices of Recent Scientific Literature.

1. AGRICULTURE.

A most instructive and suggestive paper “On the Condition
of the Agricultural Labourer” appeared m a recent number of
‘Fraser's Magazine.’ The decennial statistical records of the
Registrar-General and the annual agricultural tables issued by the
Board of Trade are used in it with great ability to teach both
the leading facts regarding the labourers in our fields, and their
relations to the corresponding facts regarding the labourers in our
mines and in our workshops. The main features of agricultural
practice and experience in the several English counties are also
cleverly marshalled, and exhibited so as to explain the distribution
of the agricultural labourer over the country. The whole is not
only discussed in a very well-written essay, but uncommonly well
depicted and presented to the eye in diagrams and maps. In one
set of curves, for example, the percentages (at the several ages) of the
whole number of labourers employed on land and on coal and iron
respectively are shown ; and we see ata glance that a larger propor-
tion of all that are so engaged is of the middle age in the cases of
coal and iron than in the case of land. The curves of coal and iron
labour stand higher between the ages of eighteen and forty-five ;
and the curve in the case of land labour stands highest over the
early years and over the later years. The explanation is that
many of the boys of the farm leave it for the workshop as they
become men, and return to it as they approach old age and begin
perhaps to look out for a maintenance at the expense of . their
parish. Other diagrams illustrate the quantity of agricultural labour
employed per acre in the several counties; and it appears that it is
not only the amount of arable land in a county which determines
the quantity of agricultural labour employed per 100 acres,—that
depends rather on the quantity of live stock which is on the land,
and especially on the quantity of dairy stock. Lancashire and
Middlesex employ more labour than other counties, notwithstanding
their large proportion of grass land, no doubt because of the great
quantity of live stock which their agriculture maintains. There is
however a good deal of difference in this particular, also due to the
character of the soil. Light lands are suitable for sheep farming,
and sheep require but little care. On heavier soils cattle must be

1869. | Agriculture. 409

kept; and on arable land they must be kept in yards and stables,
and this necessitates much labour. A portion of the essay is
devoted to a discussion of the improvements in agriculture which
are required in the interests of the labourer. We are not at all
disposed to lament the decrease in the number of those employed
in fields; which is the leading fact before reviewers of this subject.
We may depend upon it that any tendency of this kind is the
result of imdividual action on the part of those immediately con-
cerned, which is prompted by the sharpest and most anxious
insight into self-interest. If the sons of agricultural labourers are
as a rule gradually leaving the country for the town, we should
accept it not as a thmg necessarily to be lamented and if possible
prevented ; but rather as a proof that the condition of the labourer
in towns is declared to be better than that of the labourer in fields
by that jury whose verdict, more than that of any other, is likely
to be trustworthy. When it shall have become the interest of the
farmer to employ more labour, and when he shall have been driven
by the force of circumstances to pay a higher wage, then the course
of events will alter; and we may possibly have hereafter to report
that cottages and gardens, and education and wages in country
places, are together offering attractions to the labouring man
superior to those which are presented in the circumstances of our
town population. There can be little doubt that when. that
happens, we shall have a longer lived and healthier race upon the
whole than we have at present. That is an advantage affecting
especially the very young, in which the town labourer is un-
questionably at a great disadvantage.

The current number of the ‘Journal of the Royal Agricultural
Society’ contains reports of several experimental researches, con-
ducted by Dr. Voelcker into the effects of various manures on
clover and grass. His observations on the clover under treatment,
are that nitrate of soda is about as efficient in the production of
growth as sulphate of ammonia—that common salt is variable in
its effects, in one year producing growth and in another inefficient
—that the heaviest crop is obtained from a mixture of super-
phosphate of lime and muriate of potash—that where salts of potash
have been used the second cutting of clover weighs more than the
second cutting of the unmanured crop, whereas when nitrate of
soda has been used the second cutting is inferior. These are the
results in the special instances reported; but every agricultural
fact is the result of so many circumstances besides those to which
the attention of a reporter is especially directed, that it is never safe
to give to particular examples the value of a general law. In the
case of ordinary grass-land, Dr. Voelcker found that the direct
application of quicklime was injurious—that salt and quicklime
produced no effect whatever—that mineral superphosphate and

410 Chronicles of Science. [ July,

crude potash salts gave but a small increase of growth—that
Peruvian guano yielded a large increase ; and that the heaviest crop
of grass, amounting to nearly twice the weight of that upon the
unmanured plot, was obtained by a mixture of superphosphate and
cuano. The experiments were made in 1867, but the summer of
1868, when they were repeated, was so hot and dry, that no trust-
worthy results were then obtainable. It is plain that the effect of
a very soluble manure like salts of potash or ammonia depends very
much upon the circumstances of the application. If applied when
the plants to be affected by it are in the condition of rapid
growth, the result may be very great; while, if applied in winter
when no immediate use could be made of them, it might be
altoge her washed to waste before the time of growth came round.
Soluble top-dressings, therefore, ought to be applied at the com-
mencement, or during the course, of the time of rapid spring growth,
in order that they maximum effect may be obtained.

2. ARCHAZOLOGY (Pre-Historic),
— And Notices of Recent Archxological Works.

Tue most important recent publication in connection with this
branch of science is the grand work by Mr. James Fergusson, F.R.S.,
‘On Tree and Serpent Worship: or, Illustrations of Mythology
and Art in India, in the First and Fourth Centuries after Christ ;
from the Sculptures of the Buddhist Topes at Sanchi and Amrayati.’
Published and prepared under authority of the Secretary of State
for India in Council, this book enjoys the advantages of the printer’s,
engrayer’s, and photographer's skill, and justice is done in the ninety-
nine quarto plates and twenty-one wood-engrayings of these rare
and beautiful remains of early Indian architecture so ably described
by the author in the text. Mr. Fergusson traces out the origin,
rise, and spread of the Buddhist religion in India, and the founding
of monastic establishments for the reception of religious devotees,
varying in size from those capable of containing two or three monks
to several thousands.

The great interest about these edifices is that before the time
of Asoko, 250 years before Christ, there was not in India a single
scrap of a building worthy of the name. With the establishment
of Buddhism, architecture first began to be manifested, and its very
earliest and crudest designs can be traced in church caves, some of
which are older than the Christian era. But probably the most
interesting of all the Buddhist monuments are the topes or tumuli.
These belong to two types,—the early period, represented by the
Sanchi tope, in which one readily traces the imitation of the ante-

1869. | Archeology. 411

cedent wooden constructions, carefully copied in stone and but little
altered ; and the latter period, by the Amravati tope, which from
its beauty and elaborate workmanship clearly shows the develop-
ment in architectural art which had taken place between their
erection.

The Buddhist religion, like most forms of worship, became in
process of time corrupted from its original purity and simplicity,
and Mr. Fergusson traces in the sculpture upon these monuments
the gradual introduction and ultimate adoption of tree and serpent
worship with the religion of Buddha. This tree and serpent worship
is found not alone in India, but appears to have prevailed in the
world from the earliest times. The author traces in the account
of the tree and serpent in the Book of Genesis a remnant of that
old worship, and he shows how it had found its way among the
Greeks and Romans, thence to Scandinavia, and every part of
Europe. Tree and serpent worship prevails in Africa to a large
extent, and there is even evidence of its existence in America.

The application of Architecture as an aid to Ethnology can
hardly be too highly estimated, especially when the task of working
out devolves upon so able and distinguished a scholar as Mr.
Fergusson, and we hope that further researches may yield further
results as worthy of publication as is the present volume.

The illustrations to this beautiful work must be seen and
carefully studied, and they will be found well worth examination.
An old Indian officer observed to the writer, “ India is full of grand
architectural monuments, but they all belong to the native races:
if the English were driven out to-morrow, the only monument they
would leave behind would be empty bottles !”

The appearance of two more parts* of Messrs. Lartet and
Christy’s Reliquix Aquitanice completes the description of the
human and animal remains from the Cro-Magnon Cave. The
human bones belonged to an old man, a woman of thirty-five or
forty years of age, and an adult man. One of the old man’s thigh-
bones presents traces of an old wound, received possibly in a fight,
and the skull of the woman had been penetrated through the left
frontal bone, apparently by a blow from a stone axe, which seems
to have caused death’ after about twenty days, as around the hole is
a deposit of finely porous bony matter, which must have required
fifteen to twenty days for its production.

These circumstances, coupled with the facial characters and the
powerful muscular impressions on the limb-bones, stamp the Cro-
Magnon people as a violent and a brutal race; but their bras do
not lack size and good proportions, so that we may well infer from
this fact and from their ingenuity in the fabrication of weapons, and

* Parts viii. and ix.
VOL. VI. 25

412 Chronicles of Science. [July,

the skill they displayed in their drawings of animals, that—savages
as they undoubtedly were—they were no inferior race, but possessed
of both physical strength and great ingenuity, which placed under
more favourable conditions might have brought forth good results.

One of the animals whose remains have been found in six or
seven different localities in the caves of Central and Southern
France, deserves special notice. It is that of the Saiga Antelope,
now found living on the eastern slopes of the Ural Mountains and
the shores and islands of the Sea of Azof. Strange to state, only
the horncores have been found, yet their peculiar form convinced
M. Lartet that his determination of these remains as belonging to
the Saiga was correct.

He suggests that the long, solid, and pointed horns of the Saiga,
so well adapted to make formidable weapons, may have been
obtained as articles of barter from a more eastern people, with
whom this antelope was indigenous. Numerous plates (accom-
panied by descriptions) of stone implements and Reindeer-horns
carved and perforated, for use or ornament, increase the interest of
this work, a lasting memorial of our much-lamented countryman
Henry Christy.

A cromlech in Jersey, recently opened, was found to contain,
besides broken pottery, nine urns, osseous remains, charred wood,
and ashes, a stone amulet (drilled with two holes), and a few flint
flakes. Several ancient bronze wedges were picked up near the
same spot.

Mr. J. W. Flower read a paper before the Geological Society,
on 28th April, “On the Distribution of Flint Implements in the
Drift, with reference to some recent Discoveries in Norfolk and
Suffolk.” Mr. Flower suggested that the implements belonged to
a period antecedent to the true River-gravels, when the valleys of
the little Ouse and other tributary streams were tidal: to this
Messrs. Prestwich, Ramsay, and Evans demur, holding that all the
eravels with flint implements are of fluviatile origin. Mr. Searles
V. Wood, jun., however, to a certain extent supports the view taken
by Mr. Flower, and considers a part of these gravels at least to
be due to tidal action. Mr. T. C. Wallbridge, at the same meeting,
mentioned (in a paper “On the Geology of Hastings County,
Canada West”) that in a deposit of Hematite, called the “ Kane
Ore-bed,” ancient workings were discovered—apparently those of
Indians, who may have used the ochre for war-paint. He met
with bone needles and other objects of human workmanship, which
he exhibited.

1869. | Archeology. 413

ETHNOLOGICAL SocretTy. ,

Part I. of the new Quarterly Journal of this Society made its
appearance in April last, edited by Professor Huxley, }'.R.S. (the
President), and a Committee of the leading members of the Society.
The number contains articles by (1) Col. A. Lane Fox, Hon. See.
ES., “On some Flint Implements found assdciated with Roman
Remains in Oxfordshire and the Isle of Thanet,” tending to prove
that there must have existed, during the Roman period in this
country, a class of people who employed flint tools such as we are
in the habit of associating with a very early condition of human
culture. The interblending of civilized and barbarous conditions
in Romano-British times occurred as certainly as it does in South
America at the present day, where every shade of gradation may
be observed between the highest condition of civilized life and that
of savages armed with bows and poisoned arrows and wearing lip-
stones. In the Gold-ornament Room at the British Museum may
be seen an Etruscan necklace of most elegant workmanship in gold,
from which is suspended a flint arrow-head of the same pattern as
one of those figured by Col. Lane Fox from Oxfordshire.

(2.) Mr. H. Howorth gives Part I. of an “Essay on the
Westerly Drifting of the Nomads from the Fifth to the Nine-
teenth Century,’ in which he traces the immigration and spread
of the various nomade races which have overspread the great plains
and steppes of Southern Russia and Poland, and the plams of Hun-
gary, Persia, and Asia Minor.

(8.) Col. A. Lane Fox gives an account of a bronze spear with
a gold ferule and a shaft of bog-oak, 6 feet 1 inch in length, the
bronze head 1 foot 4 inches from the point to the base of the
socket, obtained from Lough Gur, County Limerick.

(4.) Mr. Hyde Clarke contributes a paper “On the Proto-

Ethnic Condition of Asia Minor,” and traces out the early history of
the Khalubes and other hill-tribes engaged in mining and smelting
ores, and endeavours to correlate them with the Yuruks inhabiting
the mountains of Western Asia Minor at the present day.
__(5.) Sir John Lubbock’s account of some stone flakes of a very
rude description, from the Great Flat between Table and False
Bays, Cape of Good Hope, is interesting from the fact that,
although the African races are almost all in a very barbarous state
so far as relates to social conditions, yet a knowledge of rude
metallurgy has been long and widely spread throughout Africa, and
we know, as yet, scarcely anything about the stone implements
which, no doubt, here, as elsewhere, preceded the use of metals.

(6.) Mr. H. M. Westropp’s paper “On Cromlechs and Mega-
lithic Structures” is an endeavour to prove that such archaic

remains are peculiar to no people or race or country, but are the
2F 2

414 Chronicles of Science. [July,

result of an endeavour to secure a permanent place of sepulture by
a people in a rude and primitive state of civilization. To this con-
clusion Col. Lane Fox demurs, and in a yery able criticism shows,
first, that the megalithic monuments are peculiar to certain regions,
as Ireland, Britam, Denmark, Sweden, Normandy, the South of
Spain, the North of Africa, India, &.; and secondly, that they
had many other uses besides that of marking and commemorating
the interment of the dead; such as, for instance, places of assembly
and council meetings, of judgment, of worship (not connected with
the dead). Col. Fox instances the frequent imterment in sacred
edifices at the present day as a case in pomt to prove that the
worship of the dead may have had no actual connection with the
stone circle, although the dead may be buried within its radius.

(7.) Dr. Hooker contributes some interesting notes on Child-
bearing among the Aborigines in Australia and New Zealand. é

(8.) Mr. Layland’s notice of the Cave-cannibals of South
Africa has too much of the “ Traveller's Tales” look about it.
Speaking of one old savage, he says he had “a ‘deyilled kadney’ or
‘boiled missionary’ look about him.” Such remarks are hardly in
accord with a scientific journal.

Mr. J. H. Lamprey, the Assistant-secretary and Sub-editor to
the Society, suggests an ingenious method by which photographs
of natives, taken in distant countries, may be rendered of greater
value for purposes of comparison and study. The subject to be
photographed is placed against a background formed by a frame of
wood, 7 x 3 feet, neatly divided by strained threads of silk into
2-inch squares, thus giving an index-scale for the entire figure
easily applied to any subject.

Many minor papers, notices, and reviews are contained in this
number of the Journal. It starts well at least: let us hope its
succeeding numbers may prove equally worthy of notice.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL Socrery.

Many of the papers read before this Society, and published in
their Journal, are of a metaphysical or physiological character.

Dr. James Hunt communicates a paper “ On the Character of the
Voice in the Nations of Asia and Africa, as contrasted with that in
the Nations of Europe.”

Dr. John Beddoe, Pres. A.S.L., gives the result of personal
observations on the physical characteristics of the people of Brittany.

Dr. Charnock, Vice-President, describes a menhir or dolmen
lying broken on the ground at Locmariaker, in Brittany, which,
when erect, must have measured 724 feet.

Mr. A. L. Lewis, who also describes the same place, adds an
account of Gavr Inis, or Goat’s Island, situated in the Morbihan

1869. | Archeology. 415

Sea, and celebrated for its chambered tumulus, the chamber and
gallery of which are together about 70 feet long, 5 feet hich,
and 3 feet wide at the entrance, increasing gradually to a height
and width of from 6 to 8 feet. The surfaces of the upright stones
forming the walls are nearly all covered with incised ornamentations,
composed chiefly of segments of circles interspersed with wavy lines,
resembling somewhat the Northumbrian rock-inscriptions and those
of the tumulus of New Grange, Ireland.

Dr. Hunt reports the results of an investigation of the mega-
lithic monument of Carnac, in Brittany, controverting the statement
of Sir John Lubbock that Avebury and Stonehenge were the two
largest monuments of their class m Europe, and insisting on the
superior proportions of Carnac, which also differs in many respects
from Stonehenge. Dr. Hunt denies that there is any proof of the
contemporaneity in construction of Carnac, Avebury, and Stone-
henge.

Mr. L. Owen Pike contributes a singular paper “On the
alleged Influence of Race upon Religion,” in which the author
expressed his conviction that any race might, to all appearance,
hold any creed, and, in conclusion, that, although there may exist
certain race-elements in the religion of every people, they are of
minor importance, and cannot be defined in the present condition
of language and psychology!

Dr. John Davy, F.R.8., gives a paper on the Negro, chiefly in
relation to industrial habits, vindicating the negro race against the
unjust charge of being inveterate sluggards.

Dr. Charnock, F.S.A., describes the peoples of Transylvania,
which country embraces no less than fourteen distinct races, a most
interesting region to the Anthropologist.

Mr. H. Westropp, “On the Mythic Age,” attempts to show the
intellectual unity of the human race from the almost universal pre-
valence of similar myths among early and uncivilized peoples in
remote countries.

Mr. G. Harris, F.S.A., attempts the difficult task of explaining
“the Mental and Moral Distinctions occasioned by Difference in
Sex,” and Mr. J. McGrigor Allan the equally daring attempt to
show “the Real Differences in the Minds of Men and Women.”
The former writer honestly observes that there are extensive differ-
ences which no artificial attempts can lessen; but each sex has its
proper sphere of exertion and duty in which it excels. The latter
writer evidently places women on a very much lower physical and
moral platform than man, and whilst charging women with con-
tending for empire and seeking masculine privileges, uses rather
unfair arguments. Some of his assertions are palpably inaccurate,
as, for example, that ‘‘ women are always more or less invalids.”

oo

416 Chronicles of Science. | July,

3. ASTRONOMY.
(Including the Proceedings of the Astronomical Society.)

Arter the failure of Brorsen’s comet to make its appearance at the
appointed time, astronomers may think themselves fortunate in the
re-discovery of Winnecke’s short-period comet at its present return to
perihelion. M. Winnecke himself re-discovered the comet at Karls-
ruhe. He describes it as large, but not bright. By the time these
lines appear it will have become concealed from yiew through its
proximity to the sun. We do not hear that any observations of
importance have been made upon it, nor had Mr. Huggins, at the
time of the last meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society, been
able to apply spectroscopic analysis to this object.

M. Faye having called in question Mr. Stone’s title to the merit
of being the first to exhibit the cause of the errors which had
resulted from Encke’s treatment of the transit observations in 1769,
Mr. Stone has put forward a masterly defence of his position. If
any doubts could have remained of the imperfectness of M. Pow-
alky’s treatment of the subject—which M. Faye has undertaken to
defend—Mr. Stone’s paper would have conclusively removed them.
He shows that M. Powalky has followed no settled rule in interpret-
ing observations, that he has rejected good observations without any
cause, and some observations for no other reason than their incom-
patibility with the general run of the discussion. Mr. Stone par-
ticularly cites the ten available observations of duration. All of
these are used by him, and perfectly represented in his result;
whereas M. Powalky has fully employed only four, to three of
which, taken in combination, he has given the weight of one only.
The whole paper is not only most interesting and valuable, but satis-
factory as fully establishing the claim of our distinguished fellow-
countryman to the honour of haying removed what had long been
looked upon as a stain on “the most exact of the sciences.” If
there is any objection to be made against Mr. Stone’s defence of his
case, it is that here and there it seems to be in the slightest degree
too personal. In scientific discussions as in scientific observations,
“personality ” should be reduced to a minimum. It is, however,
not to be wondered at that Mr. Stone should object to remarks which
seemed calculated to diminish the value of his researches on the
transit-observations of 1769.

For the next few months Saturn will be an interesting object of
observation. His rings are now nearly at their widest expansion,
and will doubtless be carefully examined by astronomers for any
signs of those processes of change which are suspected to be in
progress. ‘Towards the end of the quarter Jupiter will also be well

1869.] Astronomy. 417

situated for observation. Venus and Mars will be evening stars
throughout the quarter, but the latter is getting too far off for
effective observation.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY.

Mr. De la Rue had called attention to the great changes which
appeared to have taken place in the figure of a great solar promi-
nence visible during the total eclipse of August, 1868. These
changes appeared to suggest that the promimence had undergone
an axial rotation during the period occupied by the moon’s shadow in
travelling from Aden to Guntoor. It now appears, however, that
the engraving of the Aden photograph in the ‘ Engineer,’ on the
accuracy of which Mr. De la Rue had founded his opinion, was
incorrectly designed. Mr. De la Rue has obtained a copy of the
original photograph, and he finds that the hypothesis of a marked
change having taken place must be abandoned. Instead of the
Great Horn being so curved that its point was directed in the oppo-
site direction from that in which it was turned when seen at Gun-
toor, the aspect of the prominence in the two pictures is almost
identical. It requires actual measurement to distinguish any change
of position. Mr. De la Rue considers, however, that the evidence
is sufficiently distinct to enable us to conclude that some change
had occurred in the direction of the great prominence durmg the
forty minutes which elapsed between the Aden and Guntoor obser-
vations ; but it is impossible to say whether this was due to an axial
rotation of the prommences.

In a paper on the late transit of Mercury, by Mr. Abbott, there
occur some remarks about the geographical position of Australian
towns, which are interesting in connection with the approaching
transit of Venus. The longitude of Hobart Town appears to have
been well determined, but not with such accuracy as will be required
for the application of Delisle’s method to the determination of the
solar parallax. Captain Kay agrees with the Astronomer Royal in
considering that the Australian colonies are unsuited for observing
the transit of Venus until better known. Mr. Ellery, on the other
hand, thinks differently, and considers that the position of the Mel-
bourne Observatory is as well known as that of the Cape of Good
Hope Observatory.

A paper by Mr. Mann on the subject of the same transit contains
an elaborate discussion of the observations which were made at the
Cape of Good Hope, and cannot fail to be highly valuable to astro-
nomers who may in future times undertake the formation of new
tables of Mercury. It will be remembered that m England the
whole transit of Mercury was not visible. Mr. Mann was able to
employ observations made by Sir T. and Mr. G. Maclear from the

418 : Chronicles of Science. | July,

passage of Mercury’s centre across the sun’s limb at ingress until
exterior contact at egress. The result of the examination of twenty-
two observations is as follows :—

Correction to excess of Sun’s R.A. over Mercury's = — 0”°92 — ‘092 ¢;
oA f Nee: + = — 0""16 — °043 ¢;

where 7 is the assumed error in the determination of the longitude
of the Cape of Good Hope Observatory. The observations were
made with the 84-foot equatorial. Sir T. Maclear adds some
remarks on the observed diameter of Mercury. He deduces from
all the observations the value 8’:376, with a probable error of
+0":11. This result is less than the tabular diameter by 1”°50.
As the apparent diameter of Mercury is increased through the
effects of irradiation when the planet is observed off the disc of
the sun, and diminished through the same cause when the planet is
in transit, the difference is readily explicable.

The Astronomer Royal comments on M. Puiseux’s statement that
Halley’s method can be applied with advantage to the transit of 1874.
He interprets M. Puiseux’s carefully-worded statement to signify that
in the French mathematician’s opinion Halley’s method is better
than Delisle’s. We do not find in M. Puiseux’s paper any passage
which can be so understood. All that Puiseux has said is in one
place that the message can be applied “ advantageously,” and in
another that “there can be no reason why it should not be applied.”
It would be to exaggerate the requirements of courtesy in scientific
discussion to assume that M. Puiseux had really another meaning,
but was prevented by courtesy from expressing it. Nor will his
figures bear such an interpretation. He points to statistics which
give intervals somewhat greater than those which come out by
Delisle’s method ; but so skilful a mathematician could not but be
aware that Halley’s mode involves four observations of contact,
Delisle’s only two; and that consequently more had to be consi-
dered in forming a comparison between their relative advantages
than the mere length of the intervals involved. The careful perusal
of M. Puiseux’s pamphlet suggests the impression that what he
really had in his mind in indicating a difference of opmion with the
Astronomer Royal was the latter’s statement that Halley’s method
“fails totally” in 1874. The concluding sentence of Mr. Airy’s
note indicates a change of opinion on this point. After expressing
his wish that Halley’s method may be applied to the transit as well
as Delisle’s, he adds, “ Every series of observations which can really
be brought to bear upon this important determination will be
valuable.”

Mr. Stone supplies an interesting paper on a “ personality” in
the determination of the line of collimation of a transit instrument.
The existence of a personal error of this sort to an appreciable

1869. | Astronomy. 419

amount would be difficult to deal with, and would cast a certain
amount of doubt over the whole of the instrumental corrections.
By comparing together the observations made at Greenwich by
Messrs. Dunkin, Ellis, Creswick, and J. Carpenter, Mr. Stone hag
discovered that a real personality exists, but it is so small, that, ag
far as Greenwich observations are concerned, the uncertainties
introduced into collimation-determinations may be neglected as
insignificant.

Mr. Browning describes a remarkable train of sun-spots, visible
on the 7th of March. He attempted to observe them with the full
aperture of his fine 12-inch silvered-glass reflector, but the defini-
tion was so bad, owing to the state of the atmosphere, that he had
to reduce the aperture to 6 inches. He then introduced what is
called a solar plane, that is, a plate of parallel glass silvered on the
exposed side, into the mouth of the telescope. The spots thus ob-
served presented the appearance of an almost continuous penumbra,
in an irregular hollow curved line, with umbre at intervals ;
some of the umbre containing blacker nuclei. On the convex side
a portion of the penumbre assumed the form of a pair of compasses.
He found the outside dimensions of the cluster to be from E. to W.
97,700 miles, and from N. to 8. 27,130 miles. The group was
the largest which had appeared during the recent outbreak. The
direction of its length was almost exactly parallel to the sun’s
equator. A remarkable circumstance attended the approach of the
spots to the edge of the sun’s disc; the faculous matter around
the spots became gradually brighter and brighter, until, when the
spots had reached the limb, it quite obliterated the penumbra.
The black spots were then seen surrounded by a white border ; a
distinct proof, if any were needed, that the facule are above the
solar surface.

Mr. Browning also describes an improved method of mounting
finders. Every observer is aware of the inconveniences which
result from the imperfect plans at present used for adjusting
finders. Mr. Browning proposes a remarkably promising plan, so
simple in its details, that the wonder is it has never been used
before. In place of the two rings, each with three adjustment-
screws, the only arrangement hitherto applied to a movable finder,
Mr. Browning has the finder attached to two uprights. Its attach-
ment to the one nearest the eye-piece is so arranged that the
finder can be shifted round a horizontal axis perpendicular to
the axis of the telescope; the attachment to the other permits of
motion round a vertical axis (the telescope being understood, for
the purposes of this description, to be placed in a horizontal posi-
tion). It is the more necessary that a simple mode of adjusting
finders should be made use of, because in spectroscopic observations
the star or other object under examination must be brought exactly

420 Chronicles of Science. [July,

between the jaws of the spectroscopic-slit, or the spectrum will not
be visible.

Mr. Proctor supplies the elements of his recalculation of the
rotation of Mars. ‘he total period taken into account contains
640,284,123 seconds, corresponding to 72,232 rotations of the
planet, and giving a rotation-period of 24h. 87m. 227368, He
remarks that Kaiser’s period (24h. 37 m. 22°625s.) would throw
the Kaiser sea so far from the centre of the disc at the epoch of
Hooke’s observation, that that feature would have been concealed
from view by the haze which always hides the planet’s line. Hooke’s
picture shows the Kaiser sea only 18° from the centre of the dise.
On the other hand, Kaiser’s estimate, hitherto undoubtedly the
most exact, suffices to show that it was the Kaiser sea, and not
the somewhat similar Dawes’ strait, that Hooke saw; for the latter,
according to Kaiser’s period, must have been on the farther side
of the planet at the time of Hooke’s observation. The period given ~
by MM. Beer and Midler (24h. 37m. 23°8s.), on the other hand,
although accounting for Hooke’s observation on the omission of a
complete rotation, is shown by Sir W. Herschel’s drawings to be
incorrect. It is a matter of some interest thus to be able to assign
the exact period of a planet’s rotation. As our earth’s motion of
rotation is slowly diminishing through the moon’s action, it may
be important, at some far distant epoch, to have in Mars a cos-
mical clock of undoubted accuracy. For the comparative smallness
of Mars, his greater distance from the sun, the smaller proportion
which the seas on his surface bear to the continents, and the fact
that he has no satellite, all encourage the belief that his period of
rotation cannot be affected appreciably by the motion of a tidal
wave, as is the case with the earth.

A paper by Mr. Maclear on the subject of the Meteoric shower
of November, 1868, is chiefly remarkable for the evidence it
supplies of the wide range over which the display of last November
was to be seen. We have already had accounts of the shower as
seen in America; it was well seen in England ; and it now appears
that it was seen under favourable circumstances at the Cape of
Good Hope. ‘This suffices to show that the part of the meteor
system traversed last November differs wholly in character from
that which gave birth to the more brilliant, but much more short-
lived display of November, 1866.

Professor Cayley gives a simple proof of the property, that if
an indefinitely thin shell of uniform density, rounded by two
similar and similarly situated ellipsoids, attract a point P on its
outer surface, the attraction (assumed to act in the direction of the
normal) is equal to twice the attraction of an infinite plate,
the thickness of which is equal to the normal thickness of the shell
at the point P. The proof may be thus summarized :—

1869.] Astronomy. 421

Let a cone, having its vertex at P, circumscribe the interior
ellipsoid. All the mass of the shell outside this cone may be
neglected when the shell is supposed indefinitely thin. Of the part
within, it will be obvious, on consideration, that the two portions
separated by the circle in which the cone and the inner ellipsoid
touch each other, attract P equally. The portion nearer to P may
be divided into two, by a plane touching the inner ellipsoid, when
the normal through P meets it, and of these parts only the one next
to P need be considered, the attraction of the other vanishing in
respect to that of this part. Thus, finally, we get the attraction
on P equal to twice that of a cone having P as vertex, and in-
scribed within the shell, so that its base touches the inner ellipsoid.
In the limit, the vertical angle of this cone becomes equal to two
right angles, and the attraction of the cone becomes that of an
infinite plane, whose thickness is equal to the normal thickness of
the shell at P.

The same eminent mathematician gives a remarkably simple
explanation of Gauss’s solution of the problem of determining a
planet’s orbit, from three observations. We must refer those of
our readers who are interested in this problem (selected by the
Cambridge University as the subject of the Adams’ Prize Essay),
to the paper itself, as it would be wholly impossible either to
abbreviate Professor Cayley’s treatment of the question or to give
the whole of it in these pages.

Mr. Dunkin gives another of those interesting papers on per-
sonality in observation, which have recently been founded by the
Greenwich observers on the immense amount of valuable material
available to them for the purpose. The object of the present
paper is a personality in observing transits of the moon’s limb. It
has been described by the Astronomer Royal as, strictly speaking,
a difference between the personal equation for the moon and that
for the stars; the duration of the impression on the nerves of the
eye not being the same when the moon is observed as when a star
is. The effect of the personality is visible more in the tabular
errors in the first half of the lunation than in the second, but the
differences of each observer’s mean from the mean of all are too
small to enable one to trace the personality to any particular
source. An important result of the investigation is the evidence
it affords of the necessity of imtermixing observers, when absolute
places have to be determined.

Mr. Kincaid describes a driving-clock founded on hydraulic
principles. The contrivance would need trial, we should imagine,
before its actual qualities can be pronounced upon. Theoretically
it is excellent.

422, Chronicles of Science. [ July,

4, BOTANY—VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY AND MOR-
PHOLOGY; AND RECENT LITERATURE.

Aster salignus.—We some time since noted the discovery of this
plant by Mr. Hiern, of St. John’s College, near Cambridge. Two
~ Jadies—Miss Bever and Miss Edmonds—announce its occurrence
on the shores of Derwentwater. Besides in Cambridge, this plant
also occurs in several places on the banks of the Tay, between
Dalguise and Seggieden. In one locality below Perth, Dr. White
remarks that it is associated with several introduced plants,
such as Linaria repens, Petasites alba, Sanguisorba Canadensis,
Mimulus luteus, Crocus vernus, and Narcissus pseudo-narcissus,
which are all common, more or less, and established along the
banks of the river. In France, Aster novi Belgii seems to hold
the same place as A. salignus does in Britam—that of an exotic ©
plant, well established on the banks of several rivers, as near Stras-
bourg, Langres, and Lyons.

A Method of Bleaching Wood Pulp—M. Ouvli, a French
chemist, states that chloride of lime is open to this objection in the
process of pulp-bleaching for the purposes of paper manufactories,
viz. that if at all in excess, it gives a yellow colour to the pulp.
Powerful acids also, without exception, tend to give a reddish tinge
to the paper when exposed for a long time to the action of sun
or moisture (whence the colour of many foreign papers in books),
and the least trace of iron is sufficient in a very short time to
blacken the pulp. M. Ouvli says he has succeeded in avoiding all
these inconveniences by the use of the following mixture. Fora
hundred-weight of wood-pulp, 400 grammes (#ths of a pound) of
oxalic acid are taken; this has the double advantage of bleaching
the colourmg matter already oxidized, and of neutralizing the
alkaline principles which favour such oxidation. To the oxalic
acid one pound or a little more of sulphate of alumina is added,
entirely deprived of iron. The principal agent in this mode of
bleaching is the oxalic acid, the power of which over vegetable
colouring matters is well known. The alum has no bleaching
power of its own, but forms with the colouring matter of the
wood an almost colourless “lake,” which has the effect of in-
creasing the brilliancy of the pulp.

Curvature in Plants ——M. Ed. Prillieux has studied this subject
in a very detailed manner—experiments both on plants and on imi-
tative models having been extensively made. He arrives at the
conclusion that a purely mechanical cause must be attributed to
the curvature produced by shocks and yibrations on buds, contrary
to general opinion, which had considered these phenomena as of
a very different character and peculiar to living beings (whereas

1869. | Botany, &e. 423

M. Prillieux produced the same results in a model). A certain
state of the tissues is indispensable to their manifestation; they
can only be produced at that period of development when the
tissues are sufticiently flexible; but it is, nevertheless, undeniably
true that they are due to a physical cause.

The Sleep of Plants.—1n an exhaustive essay on this curious
subject, of much physiological importance, M. Royer reviews the
opinions of those who have written on the question, and adduces a
great number of facts m illustration of the various causes which
produce the sleep of leaves and of flowers. These, he maintains, are
not quite identical. He distinguishes a diurnal sleep as well as a
nocturnal for plants equally with animals., Heat, light, and tur-
gescence, are influential in affecting the sleep of leayes—only heat
and turgescence in the sleep of the corolla—by their excess or
diminution. Flowers when they sleep assume the form of their
characteristic eestivation, just as many aninals assume the position
they occupied in utero. The inclination of flowers to the sun ~
depends on the peduncle, not on the flower at all.

Excretion of Carbone Acid by Plants.— Mr. Broughton,
Chemist to the Cimchona Plantations of the Madras Government,
has made, with a Sprengel’s air-pump, some important observations
as to the exhalation of CO, by plants—a phenomenon which was
well known to occur in the night. The experiments were made
mostly on cut portions of the plants, but experiments were also
made for control on plants as they actually grow. Sometimes the
deprivation of oxygen was effected by substituting for air an atmo-
sphere of hydrogen or nitrogen ; whilst comparative experiments
were made on plants supplied with air that had been freed from
carbonic acid. ‘The main conclusions to which he was led are
enunciated by the author as follows : *—

ist. That nearly all parts of growing plants evolve carbonic
acid in considerable quantities, quite independent of direct oxi-
dation.

2nd. That this evolution is connected with the life of the plant.

3rd. That it is due to two causes, namely, to previous oxidation,
resulting, after a lapse of time, in the production of carbonic acid,
and to the separation of carbonic acid from the proximate principles
of the plant while undergoing the chemical changes incident to
plant-growth.

The Respiration of Aquatic Plants in Darkness.—M. Deherain
has pointed out that when aquatic plants are kept in darkness they
are literally asphyxiated ; for on making examination of the water
in which they have died, he has found absolutely no trace of oxygen,
but only carbonic acid and nitrogen. In a pond where a very dense

* «Proceedings Royal Society,’ April 29th,

424 Chronicles of Science. [July,

growth of Lemna minor had been allowed to accumulate on the
surface, a sudden death of all the fish in the water occurred, and the
smell of sulphuretted hydrogen was remarkably strong. On making
examination of the water by careful chemical analysis, M. Dehe-
rain found that there was absolutely no dissolved oxygen present,
hence the death of the fish. The aquatic plants had been killed by
the exclusion of light caused by the Lemna growth, and they had
absorbed what oxygen was available. M. Van Tieghem, a very
distinguished French botanist, relates some interesting experiments
on the action of light in the respiration of aquatic plants. He
maintains that the chlorophyl is brought into a condition com-
parable to that of a phosphoxescent body by the action of direct
sunlight. It is direct sunlight only which is competent to start
the decomposition of carbonic acid by the chlorophyl—as numerous
experiments prove,—diffused (polarized) sunlight not having that
power: when withdrawn from direct sunlight and kept in the
dark, Van Tieghem observed that the plant still continued to exert
chemical action for three hours, and for néne hours if kept in dif-
fused daylight instead of darkness. From this he concludes that
the vibrations induced by the chemical rays of sunlight are con-
tinued in the chlorophyl after removal from their contact, which is
indicated by the continued chemical action, just as ght is con-
tinued by the sulphides of barium, &c.; and he supposes that
diffused daylight, though incompetent to start this action, can assist
in continuing it.

The Action of the Cuticle in the Respiration of Plants.—
M. Barthélemy has applied the results of Graham’s researches on
dialysis of gases through colloid membranes to the case of plant-
respiration. In plants there exists a- cuticle which has a chemical
composition and a physical constitution like caoutchouc. It is
wanting at the “stomata” which occur on the under-surface of leaves.
The experiments of many observers, notably Boussingault, have
shown that the exhalation of oxygen is greatest when sunlight falls
on the upper surface of leaves. M. Barthélemy explains this by
supposing the respiration to take place through the cuticle, the
stomata perhaps absorbing nitrogen. The relative permeability of
caoutchoue to various gases agrees well with the hypothesis—car-
bonie acid passing most freely, oxygen also freely, and nitrogen
with difficulty. This view is further supported by ingenious experi-
ments, in which Zeaves were substituted for caoutchouc in experiments
similar to Mr. Graham’s, and very fairly concordant results were
attained.

Cephalodia of Lichens.—Dr. Nylander makes some important
observations on these organs, which were but little known before he
pointed out their importance as furnishing a primary anatomical
character in their gonimia. They occur only in thalli which have

1869. | Chemistry. 425

gonidia. He distinguishes three principal kinds :—1. Epigenous,
which are the most frequent; 2. Hypogenous, known only in
Peltidea and Psoroma; 3. Endogenous, or Pyrenoid, which occur in
foliaceous lichens. Recently Dr. Nylander has detected both
epigenous and hypogenous cephalodia in Lecanora araneosa from
New Zealand.

Mr. Lauder Lindsay treats of a very interesting matter relating
to Lichens—viz. those species parasitic on other lichens—in the
‘Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science.’

A New Mode of Preserving Fungi.—Mr. James English has
hit on a very effective method of preparing Fungi for the herbarium,
and has communicated a paper on the subject to the Botanical
Society of Edinburgh. By wawing the specimens which it is
desired to preserve, the natural pileus and stipe are retained.
Specimens treated in this manner in 1866 are now as fresh as
when first prepared, and a series of fungi, treated in this manner
by Mr. English, are now in the Museum of the Botanical Society
of Edinburgh.

New Diatoms from the Arran Islands, Galway.—The Rev.
Eugene O'Meara describes and figures in the ‘ Quarterly Journal of
Microscopical Science’ more new Diatoms from dredgings off the west
coast of Ireland. The species are :—Plewrosigma gigantewm, var.
baccatum, Plagiogramma costatum, Melosira Wrights, Pinnularia
marginata, Pinnularia scutellum, and Amphiprora costata.

Botanical Appointment—Dr. Henry Trimen, of King’s Col-
lege, London, Lecturer on Botany at St. Mary’s Hospital Medical
School, has been appointed an assistant in the Botanical Depart-
ment of the British Museum. ‘Those who know the vast accumu-
lation of unworked material at the Museum will rejoice that an
additional office has been created, and that so able a gentleman as
Dr. Trimen has been chosen to fill it.

5. CHEMISTRY.

Art the soirée of the Royal Society, on March 6th, Mr. H.C. Sorby,
F.R.S., exhibited for the first time some phenomena in his spectrum
microscope, which have led him to the conclusion that they are
due to the presence of a new element, for which he has proposed the
name of jargonium.

Mr. Sorby describes jargonia as being an earth closely allied to
zirconia, existing in small quantity in zircons from various localities,
but constituting the chief ingredient of some of the jargons from
Ceylon. It is, however, distinguished from zirconia and all other
known elementary substances by the following very remarkable

426 Chronicles of Science. [July,

properties. The natural silicate is almost, if not quite, colourless,
and yet it gives a spectrum which shows above a dozen narrow
black lines, much more distinct than even those characteristic of
salts of didymium. When melted with borax it gives a glassy bead,
clear and colourless both hot and cold, and no trace of absorption
bands can be seen in the spectrum; but if the borax bead be
saturated at a high temperature, and flamed so that it may be filled
with crystals of borate of jargonia, the spectrum shows four distinct
absorption bands, unlike those due to any other known substance.
Further researches have shown Mr. Sorby that jargonia exists in
two distinct conditions, which have different specific gravities and
optical properties. The flamed borax beads give two entirely
different spectra, according to the temperature to which the enclosed
crystals have been exposed, and there is an analogous difference in
the silicates. On taking a pale-green jargon, which naturally
showed a mere faint trace of the absorption bands, and keeping it
at a bright red heat for some time, the specific gravity gradually
increased from 4°20 to 4°52, and the spectrum then showed all the
narrow black absorption bands in great perfection. It appears,
however, that Professor A. H. Church, M.A., published a similar
discovery nearly three years ago in the ‘ Intellectual Observer.’
Not only did he describe bands, but he noticed their occurrence
in the spectra of some stones from particular localities, and their
absence from stones from other localities. He also added his views
as to the cause of these bands—the presence of an element in some
specimens, not found in others. An account of Mr. Sorby’s further
discoveries in spectrum and microscopic analysis will be found
elsewhere.

During an examination of the Heaton process for making steel
at Langley Mill, Mr. Crookes has noticed a remarkable instance of
the crystallization of iron. When the violence of the action be-
tween the molten iron and the nitrate of soda has subsided, the
lower portion of the apparatus, called the converter, is detached,
and after a few minutes the contents are turned out on to the floor
in the form of a porous mass of nearly ? of a ton in weight. Upon
examining portions of this metallic sponge, it is found to consist of a
segregation of minute feathery crystals of iron, apparently built up
of small cubes. The outlines of some of these are perfectly sharp,
and their appearance, especially in the cavities, is very beautiful.

In February, 1868, two Belgian chemists—MM. Graebe and
Liebermann—communicated a memoir on alizarine, from which an
intimate relation was acknowledged between this colourmg matter
and anthracene. By heating alizarine with zine dust, they ob-
tained as the sole product of reduction a hydrocarbon haying all
the qualities of anthracene. Having thus obtained anthracene as

1869.| Chemistry. 427

a product of alizarme, MM. Graebe and Liebermann have since
succeeded in solving the inverse problem, that is to say, the arti-
ficial preparation of alizarine by means of anthracene. ‘They con-
vert that hydrocarbon into alcohol, and the alcohol into an acid
(lizaric acid and alizarine being synonymous), by acting upon the
hydrocarbon with chlorine or bromine, and next effecting a double
decomposition by means of acetate of potassa and caustic potassa ;
after which an oxidizing agent is again made to act upon the
alcohol so obtained. 'The properties of the product, as well as the
colours which it has given on mordaunted cotton, prove the com-
plete identity of artificial alizarine with that from madder root.

Professor G. Hinrichs has described the following ingenious
way of preserving sodium untarnished as a lecture specimen.
Take two test-tubes, one a little smaller than the other, so as to
slip into the latter without leaving much space between the two
glass walls; put some carefully-cleaned sodium in the wider tube,
insert the more narrow tube, having previously given a thin coating
of beeswax to the upper part of this latter, then gently heat the
whole on a sand-bath. The sodium will fuse, and by a gentle
pressure, the inner tube is pressed down, so as to force the fused
metal over a large surface between the two tubes, while the air is
totally excluded by the beeswax. Sodium has been kept for more
than six months in this way as bright and brilliant as when first
put up.

It is well known that hydrochloric acid is used for the pur-
poses of dissolving the earthy salts of bones, in order to obtain
the gelatine they contain in such a state as to render that sub-
stance readily soluble in boiling water. The use, however, of
hydrochloric acid is rendered rather inconvenient for this purpose,
on account of the formation of chloride of calcium, which interferes
with the drying of the gelatine. M. Coignet, at Paris, has found
that sulphurous acid answers the purpose of hydrochloric acid in
this instance perfectly well. The bones are placed in cold water,
and through the water a current of sulphurous acid gas is forced,
so long as is required to completely soften the bones, which are
afterwards washed in fresh water wherein some sulphurous acid
gas has been previously dissolved.

Professor Horsford, of Yale College, has tried to detect fluorine
in the human brain; he was induced to do so by the fact that
fluorine so frequently accompanies phosphoric acid in the mineral
kingdom, and also on account of the large proportion of phosphoric
acid found in the brain and nerves by Von Bibra and others. After
haying very carefully ascertained that the reagents he was about to
apply were quite free from fluorine, the learned professor operated
upon a human brain which had been long kept in spirits of wine,

VOL. VI. 26

428 Chronicles of Science. [July,

but which in consequence of neglect had, by the evaporation of the
liquor, become wrinkled up and dry. As a result of a series of
carefully-made experiments, he has proved undoubtedly the exist-
ence of fluorine in the brain.

From some experiments made by Professor Bloxam, of King’s
College, it appears that a mixture of tincture of guaiacum and
ozonized ether (that is to say, a solution of peroxide of hydrogen
in ether) instantly produces, with blood or bloodstains, a beautiful
blue tint. Professor Bloxam mentioned that in the case of a blood-
stain twenty years old, he had extracted a single linen fibre with
an almost inappreciable amount of stain on it; and had found the
characteristic blue colour was immediately induced by the test, and
readily detected by microscopical examination.

It is a well-known fact that iron is dissolved by molten zine,
but nowhere is any definite alloy of these metals described, nor yet °
is it stated how much iron is dissolved by zinc. Dr. Oudemans,
jun., obtained for analysis a piece of alloy which had been formed
in an iron vessel wherein zinc had been fused for several weeks
continuously ; this alloy was found deposited at the bottom of the
vessel, and became an impediment to the melting operations, in
consequence of its relative infusibility. In its physical aspect the
alloy was of very much whiter colour, and crystalline structure
entirely different from zinc; the alloy dissolved very readily and
briskly in dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, and was found, on
analysis, to contain 4°6 per cent. of iron.

M. Zschiesche has prepared sulphate of lanthanium of such
a purity that a thickness of 17 centimetres of a saturated solution
gave no trace of the absorption bands of didymium. Working on
this, he has found the atomic weight of lanthanium to be, from a
mean of six experiments, 45°09. The extremes were 44°72 and
45° 625.

M. E. Ludwig has come to the conclusion, as a consequence of
a series of determinations of the specific gravity of chlorine gas,
that this gas belongs to those vapours which only obey Mariotte’s
law when it is at a temperature rather remote from that at which
it is condensed to the fluid state.. The specific gravity of chlorine
at 20° C. is 2°4807; at 50° C., 2°4783; at 100°, 2:4685; at
150°, 2°4609; at 200°, 2°4502. According to experiments made
by Stas, the specific gravity of chlorine, deduced from its atomic
weight, is 2°45012.

In order to obtain a platinizing fluid capable of platinizing
copper, yellow metal, and brass, add, to a moderately-concentrated
solution of chloride of platinum, finely-powdered carbonate of soda
until effervescence ceases, next some glucose, and afterwards just

1869. | Chemistry. 429

so much common salt as will cause a whitish-coloured precipitate.
When it is desired to apply this mixture for platinizing, the objects
to be treated are placed in a vessel made of zine and perforated
with holes; the vessel is then placed, with its contents, for a few
seconds in the mixture just described, which, just previous to using,
should be heated to 60° C. On being removed from the zine
vessel, the objects are to be washed with water and dried in saw-
dust.

Professor Nickleés calls attention to the fact, that when chloride
of sulphur of commerce is mixed with sulphide of carbon whercin
phosphorus has been previously dissolved, a fluid is formed, which,
though emitting fumes when in contact with air, is harmless, and
may be for any length of time kept in well-stoppered bottles; on
addition of liquid ammonia, however, or on passing into this liquid
a few bubbles of ammonia gas, a most intense combustion at once
ensues. ‘This is due to the fact that the ammonia seizes upon the
chloride of sulphur, forming chloride of ammonium, whereby so
much heat is set free as to cause the combustion of the sulphide of
carbon and phosphorus dissolved in it.

PRocEEDINGS OF THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY.

On Thursday, March 4, 1869, Mr. Tomlinson read his long-
promised lecture “On Catharism, or the Influence of Chemically
Clean Surfaces.” He explained the sense in which he applied the
new term, catharism (from «aJagos, pure or clean), distinguishing
between “clean” in its ordinary and in its chemical sense. The
finger could not be made chemically clean by any process, whereas
a glass rod, cleansed with strong acids or alkalies, and well washed,
was chemically clean, and no longer possessed the power of liberat-
ing either salt or vapour from liquids. The action of solid bodies
in determining these changes he ascribes to the greasy film which,
after exposure to the air, they are sure to acquire. For this film,
the adhesion of the solid or vapour is greater than it is for the glass,
and hence the effect of the solid. To such chemical uncleanness
all phenomena of this kind should, he thinks, be ascribed, and he
defines a nucleus as a body which “has a stronger adhesion for
the gas, or the salt or the vapour of a solution, than for the liquid
which holds it in solution.” He repudiates the notion that tempe-
rature has anything to do with the phenomena of supersaturation,
and describes experiments in which supersaturated solutions of
various salts were kept for hours in catharized vessels at a tempera-
ture of 10° Fahr. without crystallization taking place. This was.
even observed with alum, which does not usually exhibit this pecu-
harity. The views of Lowel on crystallization and the pheno?

26

430 Chronicles of Science. [July,

of soubresaut, or bumping, during ebullition, were next discussed,
and a variety of interesting facts were described. The action of
porous bodies in assisting distillation was explained by their absorp-
tion of the vapour of the boiling liquids, which was subsequently
given out in neyer-ceasing jets; and a number of obscure pheno-
mena in chemistry—such as the passive condition of iron, and the
slight action of sulphuric acid on pure and amalgamated zinc—were
explained by the doctrine of catharism, for which the lecturer
claimed the properties of a principle of nature—viz. generality
and breadth of application—a principle which was as yet new to
science.

At the meeting on March 18, 1869, a paper was read by Mr.
Arthur Elliott, “On the Determination of Carbon in Cast Iron.”
The author’s method consists in treating pulverized iron borings
with solution of sulphate of copper, heating gently for ten minutes, .
when the iron dissolves, and metallic copper separates, the carbon
remaining undissolved. Acid solution of chloride of copper is then
added, and the mixture heated nearly to the boiling point, until the
separated copper dissolves. The carbon is collected on a filter made
of combustion tube, and stopped first with broken glass, and then
loosely with ignited asbestos, and washed with boiling water till free
from chlorides. It is then converted into carbonic acid, and the
latter determined by oxidation with chromic acid.

A paper was then read by Professor G. G. Stokes, F.R.S., “On
a Certain Reaction of Quinine.” ‘The reaction is best observed by
diffused daylight entering a darkened room through a hole in the
shutter of about 4 or 5 inches square, or a packing-case may be
made to answer very well. The hole is covered with glass coloured
a deep violet by manganese. In front of it is placed a white por-
celain tablet ; a solution of quinine in very weak alcohol, or very
small fragments may be used. In some cases alcohol interferes
with the reaction. The phenomena exhibited by sulphuric and
hydrochloric acids were as follows:—When a drop of the quinine
solution was touched by a rod dipped in dilute sulphuric acid, the
fluorescence of the quinine was instantly developed. With hydro-
chloric acid no apparent effect was produced, but hydrochloric acid
destroyed the cflect of sulphuric acid; and if a little sulphuric
acid were added to the drop containing only hydrochloric acid, no
effect was manifest. The author found that, on trying a variety of
acids, they ranged definitely into two classes, A and B—class A
developing fluorescence like sulphuric acid, and class B destroying
it, like hydrochloric acid. The classification made by the quinine
reaction agrees almost exactly with the old distinction of ox-acids and
hydracids. The author had found, however, that hyposulphurous
acid, which is not usually ranked with the hydracids, ranged itself in

1869. | Chemistry. 431

class B, and led him to seek for other analogies between hyposul-
phurous and the hydracids; and he found that hyposulphite of
soda restored the blue colour to litmus which had been reddened
with chloride of mercury ; he also found that, in common with the
hydracids, it very readily decomposed cyanide of mercury. Mr. EK.
T. Chapman next read an abstract of a paper by himself and Mr.
Miles H. Smith, “On the Butylic Compounds derived from Alcohol
by Fermentation.” The authors had operated on about 17 gallons
of London fusel-oil. After subjecting it to a series of fractional
distillations they obtained a body consisting of butylic alcohol, con-
taminated with small quantities of iso-butylic alcohol. From this
butylic alcohol the authors prepared the iodide, bromide, nitrate,
acetate, and nitrate of butyl, from which the iso-butyl compounds
are separated by fractional distillation.

The anniversary meeting of the Chemical Society was held on
Tuesday, March 30th, 1869, when the council and officers for the
ensuing year were elected. The new President was A. W. Wil-
liamson, Ph.D., F.B.S.

At the next meeting, Thursday, April Ist, 1859, a paper, by
Messrs. EK. T. Chapman and Miles H. Smith, “ On some Decompo-
sitions of the Acids of the Acetic Series,’ was read. Mr. W. H.
Perkin, F.R.S., then made some remarks in reference to a paper
published in the ‘Chemical News,’ by Fittig, ‘On the Constitution
of Coumarin and Coumaric Acid.” These papers only being of
scientific interest need not be further alluded to here.

At the meeting on Thursday, April 15th, 1869, Mr. Chapman
read a paper by himself and Mr. M. H. Smith, “On Propyl Com-
pounds derived from the Propylic Alcohol of Fermentation.” They
operated on that portion of fusel-oil which remained after the
amylic, butylic, and ethylic alcohols had been as perfectly as
possible removed. Propyl alcohol is a colourless liquid of strong
but not oppressive odour; it boils at 97° C., and its sp. gr. is
1:8120 at 16°C. On oxidation it yields propionic acid. Mr. Chap-
man then read a note “On Bromide of Amyl,” by himself and
Mr. M. H. Smith. They find that it is a mobile liquid, boiling at
121° C., and of sp. gr. 1:2173 at 16° C. They drew attention
to the fact that the intervals between the boiling points of the
bromides of methyl, ethyl, and propyl, are constant, vz. about
29° C.; that between bromide of propyl and bromide of butyl ig
only 22°, but that the interval between the bromides of butyl and.
amyl is again 29°. Professor Wanklyn then made a verbal com-
munication touching the atomicity of sodium. He considered,
from researches which had occupied him during some months, that
sodium was an eminently polyvalent element.

At the meeting of the Chemical Society, on May 6th, 1869, it

432 Chronicles of Science. [ July,

was agreed that the following petition should be presented to both
Houses of Parliament :—

The Humble Petition of the President and Couneil of the
Chemical Society.

SuewetH—That the Chemical Society was incorporated by
Royal Charter for the general advancement of Chemical Science, as
intimately connected with the prosperity of the manufactures of the
United Kingdom. That in the opinion of your petitioners, the future
intellectual position of Great Britain and her success as a manu-
facturing nation, are in a great measure dependent on the scientific
education of her people. That the Society of Arts, in their report on -
technical education, assert that the only effectual systematic training
for technical pursuits, consists of two steps—first, a thorough |
study of several branches of science, including chemistry ; secondly,
professional pupillage. That at the present time the study of
natural science is altogether neglected in a large number of our
secondary schools, while in the remainder it occupies only a sub-
ordinate position, both in respect of the time allotted to it and of
the credit to be gained by proficiency in it. That the neglect
of the study of natural science is in great part due to the influence
exercised by the endowed schools, which by thei number, their
antiquity, and the large funds at their disposal, determime the
course of studies in other schools, their own course of education
representing the requirements of a past, rather than of the
present age. That the necessity for inquiry into the teaching in
endowed grammar-schools has already been recognized, by the ap-
poimtment by Her Majesty of three commissions to report on this
class of schools in England and Scotland. That the Schools
Inquiry Commission have in their report pointed out various prac-
ticable means for the promotion and extension of the study of
physical science in schools. Your petitioners, therefore, humbly
pray your Honourable House to enact such laws as may procure for
Chemistry, and other branches of natural science, as important a
position among endowed school studies as that now occupied by
Latin and Greek, And your petitioners will, &c.

Mr. J. Lothian Bell then delivered a lecture “ On the Chemistry
of the Blast-furnace.” It is impossible to do more than refer to
this exhaustive paper, in which every ale of the operations going
forward in the blast-furnace were passed in review, and the chemical
actions going on explained. After the delivery of this lecture,
a discussion followed, in which Mr. Siemens, Captain Noble, Mr.
Crossley, Mr. Cochrane, and others took part. After Mr. Bell’s
lecture, Mr. W. Chandler Roberts gave a verbal account of, and
exhibited the apparatus for showing the expansion of palladium by

1869. | Engineering—Cwvil and Mechanical. 433

hydrogenium. It consisted of a coil formed with a strip of palla-
dium and a strip of platinum, each being 300" long, 3™- wide,
and 0-3" thick. ‘This is put mto a glass vessel filled with acidu-
lated water ; a plate or wire of platinum is placed near it, and the
ribbon or wire connected with either pole of a battery by means of
a commutator. ‘The coil is first connected with the zine pole of the
battery, hydrogen is then thrown on the surface of the metal,
which consumes the previously occluded hydrogen, and causes the
index to move rapidly back to zero.

6. ENGINEERING—CIVIL AND MECHANICAL.
(Proceedings of Societies and recent Publications.)

In order to accommodate the increasing demand for facilities of
transport fostered by the continued extension of our railways, lines
of communication are now demanded in directions where, until
recently, they were never thought of, and the passage of rivers—
and other obstacles, which, in the early days of engineering, would
have been carefully avoided—is now boldly effected as a matter of
course. It is perhaps difficult to say exactly to what length of span
a bridge may be built, but for practical purposes it is found that
the largest spans are most easily obtainable with bridges con-
structed on the suspension principle. Coupling this fact with the
recognized want of improved means of communication between this
country and the Continent, M. Boutet has put forward a scheme
for erecting a bridge across the channel from the Shakspeare Cliff,
Dover, to Cape Blanc Nez, on the opposite coast; it is to consist
of ten clear spans, each 3282 yards long (nearly two miles), with a
platform 360 feet above the average sea-level. Impossible as we
believe the realization of such a work to be, its author has, it is
understood, succeeded in recommending his plan to the favourable
notice of the Emperor of the French and Earl Granville. Projects
have been put forward also for crossing the channel by means of a
tunnel or subway, but the great question in connection with such
works, and which must ultimately settle the point, is, Will they
pay ? Supposing it to be clearly demonstrable that they would
prove remunerative when completed, is the yearly increasing traffic
to be subject to the numerous inconveniences from which it now
suffers during the many years such works would be under con-
struction ?

Very different, however, to the above schemes is the joint
proposal of Messrs. John Fowler, James Abernethy, and William
Wilson. According to this plan railway trains would be conveyed

434 Chronicles of Science. [July,

bodily across the channel on huge steam ferry-boats, built for the
purpose, and provided with suitable harbour accommodation on
either shore. The proposed route is from Dover to Andrecelles, at
both of which places there exist facilities for constructing the
necessary works. ‘The laying down of a few miles of railway from
Andrecelles to Wimereux would ease the journey from Calais to the
latter station, and shorten the distance to Paris by fourteen miles.
A bill for this “ English and Continental Intereommunication ”
project was deposited last session, but it has, we understand, been
postponed till next year for the adjustment of preliminary arrange-
ments and for the further consideration of details.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Institution of Civil Engineers.—On the 2nd March last two
papers were read on the subject of bridge foundations—one by
Mr. Irvine Bell “On Sinking Wells for the Foundations of the
Piers of the Bridge over the River Jumna, Delhi Railway,” and
the other by Mr. John Milroy, entitled “ Description of Apparatus
for Excavating the Interior of, and for Sinking, Iron Cylinders.”
In the former paper, the author, after describing the native plans
of sinking wells by means of a spade called a “ phaora,” and, after
the first five feet, by an implement called a “jham,’ proceeded to
describe the mode of forming the foundations of the bridge over
the Jumna at Sirsawa. In some instances the sites of the piers
were got clear of water by diverting the river at different points
during the dry season, while in other cases islands were formed by
driving a half-circle of piles on the up stream side, then lowering
sand-bags on the down stream side, to the height of four or five
feet, and afterwards filling up with sand to five feet below low
water. The curb was first sunk by men working with the
“phaora” and basket, till the upper edge was within three inches
ot the level of the water, when a ring of brickwork was carried up
to a height of six feet. The excavation of the interior was then
proceeded with by means of the “ jham” and divers in the old native
style. Afterwards a further height of ten feet of brickwork was
added, but the material was now removed by a sand-pump worked
by a steam hoist of 4-horse power.

Mr. Milroy, in his paper, stated that the great desideratum,
in cylinder sinking, had hitherto been some method of excavating
the earth from the interior, without at the same time having to
take out the water, and to keep it out during the operations. ‘This
object seemed to the author to have been attained by a machine of
his invention, which was used in the construction of the bridge over
the river Clyde, for the Glasgow Union Railway, a description of
which he then proceeded to give.

1869. | Engineering—Owvil and Mechanical. 435

A most interesting paper was read on 9th March “ On American
Locomotives and Railway Stock,’ by Mr. Zerah Colburn, the dis-
cussion on which extended over several evenings. In this a de-
scription was given of locomotive engineering in the States, and
comparisons were drawn between it and the practice in this
country. The paper was, however, too full of statistics and details
to admit of a short abstract.

Mr. W. Shelford, in a paper “On the Outfall of the River
Humber,” described the estuary of that river as the outlet for the
fresh waters from a drainage area of 10,500 square miles, or one-
fifth of the whole area of England; but the present paper only
treated of the outfall, the observations being arranged under four
heads, vzz.—1. The facts in connection with the past and present
condition of the outfall, and of its peculiar features. 2. The ascer-
tained alterations in the tidal régime. 3. The relative value of
tidal and fresh water at the outfall. And 4. The relation of the
operations of nature and of engineering works to the facts
recorded.

“A Description of the Low-water Basin at Birkenhead,” by
Mr. J. Ellacott, read on 11th May last, stated that according to
plans sanctioned by Parliament in 1844 and 1853 the Low-water
Basin was intended chiefly as a deep-water access, and as a sort of
refuge for shipping in the Mersey at all states of the tide. The
basin is 1750 feet in length, 300 feet in width at the mouth, and
400 feet wide at the extreme end. The area is 14 acres, and the
depth 12 feet 4 inches below low-water ordinary spring tides. A
description of the piling was given by the author as well as an
account of the slucing arrangements. In 1866 an Act was ob-
tained for converting the Low-water Basin into a wet dock.

Another paper was read at the same meeting by M. Jules
Gaudard, of Lausanne, “ On the Present State of Knowledge of the
Strength and Resistance of Materials.” The author stated that
the theory of the strength and resistance of materials was closely
connected with that of molecular mechanics; he then proceeded
to consider the forces of various kinds to which materials were sub-
jected, giving the results and formule of the most modern inyes-
tigations.

Institution of Naval Architects—The annual meeting of this
Institution took place in March last, when several valuable and
interesting papers were read. Of those which were of special
interest to the engineer may be mentioned the following :—* On
the Law of Resistance of Armour Plates,’ by Mr. Wilham Fair-
bairn, LL.D., F.RS.; “On the Stability of Floating Docks,” by
Mr. George B. Rennie; “ Hydraulic Steering Gear,” by Captain
TInglefield, R.N.; “On Railway Communication across the Sea,” by
Mr. John Scott Russell, F.R.S.; “On Horse Power,” by Mr. J. 8.

436 Chronicles of Science. [July,

Holland, R.N.; and on “Strains in Propeller Shafts,” by Mr. W. J.
Macquorn Rankine, C.E., LL.D., F.R.S.

Association of Engineers, Glasgow.—At a meeting of this
Association in April last, the President, Mr. John Page, C.E., read
a paper on “ Pipes and the Jointing of Gas and Water Mains.”
In alluding to the enormous waste of gas through leakage, Mr.
Page reviewed the different modes of jointing at present in use, and
dwelling on the difficulty in making and maintaining good joints
under any circumstances, particularly in the curved pipes, he
exhibited drawings of a very simple system, and clearly showed
that a joint on a curved pipe made in that manner could not move ;
a joint tested under the most unfavourable circumstances having
stood a pressure of 600 lbs. to the square inch.

A paper by Mr. Robert Burn, on “The Machinery used for
Cleaning and Packing East India Cotton, and on the Application
of the Seeds for Feeding Cattle,” also deserves a notice, as dealing
with a subject of first importance to India, and to the cotton
manufacturers of this country.

Institution of Mechanical Engineers—At a general meeting
of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, held at Birmingham on
2%th April last, a paper was read by Mr. James 8. E. Swindell,
being a “ Description of Guibal’s Ventilating Fan employed at the
Homer Hill Colliery, Cradley.” This fan has eight vanes, and
revolves on a horizontal shaft within a cylindrical casing of brick-
work. The fan is 164 feet im diameter, and 43 feet wide; its
usual working speed is twenty-six revolutions per minute, dis-
charging 15,500 cubic feet of air per minute ; but it can be got up
in one minute’s time to ninety-six revolutions, discharging 51,700
cubit feet per minute. This is the first mechanical ventilation that
has been applied in the working of the South Staffordshire thick
or ten-yard coal. It has now been running about nine months
without a single stoppage for repairs. The total cost of the fan,
with engine and connections, is only about one-third of that of an
ordinary ventilating furnace for producing the same amount of
ventilation.

Another paper, by M. E. Gellerat, of Paris, was a“ Description
of the Steam Road Roller used in Paris.” This roller consists of a
locomotive engine carried entirely upon two large cast-iron rollers
of equal size, which are both driven by the engine, the course of
the machine being controlled by a special arrangement for changing
the direction of the roller axles. The results of numerous data
show that the cost of horse rolling in Paris is about 14d. per ton
per mile, whereas for steam road rolling the actual payment is only
half that amount, or 7d. per ton per mile, including the contractor's
profit.

1869. | Engineering—Civil and Mechanical. 437

LITERATURE.

‘A Treaties on Lathes and Turning, Simple, Mechanical, and
Ornamental,* by W. Henry Northcote. This work is calculated
to prove a useful addition to the mechanical engineer’s library, and
will be referred to with interest by both professional men and ama-
teurs. It is divided into four parts. ‘The first part contains a
general description of the different kinds of lathes in general use,
with a statement of the points which constitute a good lathe, and
a glossary of the technical terms in general use by turners. The
second part treats of the use of the hand lathe, and it comprises
five divisions, relating to plain turning with hand tools, hand
turning in metals, screw chasing, drilling and boring, and miscel-
laneous operations. ‘The third part enters into a description of a
“ multi-purpose” lathe designed by Mr. Northcote himself; and
this is followed by remarks on self-acting traverse and surface
turning, self-acting screw cutting, self-acting drillmg and boring,
turning irregular shapes, wheel cutting, milling or circular cutter
making, fluting or grooving, facing and slot-drilling, planing and
slotting, and on attention to lathe, repairing tools, &c. And the
fourth part enters into particulars on the subject of ornamental
turning.

‘The Elasticity, Extensibility, and Tensile Strength of Iron
and Steel, t by Knut Styffe, Director of the Royal Technological
Institute at Stockhoim. ‘Translated from the Swedish, with an
original Appendix, by Chester P. Sandberg, A.I.C.E. With a
Preface by John Percy, M.D., F.BR.S.. This volume is the result
of certain experiments recently made by its author. It contains a
full account of those experiments and of the apparatus by the aid
of which they were carried out. The subject is divided into four
chapters: the first, treating of experiments on tension at ordinary
temperatures ; the second, on the application of the results of these
investigations to the determination of the relative values of steel
and iron, and of the different varieties of these materials for various
purposes; the third, of experiments on tension at high and low
temperatures ; and the fourth, of experiments on flexion at different
degrees of temperature. ‘To these chapters are also added certain
tables and plates, and an Appendix by Mr. Sandberg. The record
of these experiments forms a valuable addition to the information
obtamed by Mr. Kirkaldy on the same subject ; much, however,
yet remains to be done in the matter of iron and steel testing, and
it is to be hoped that further experiments will be undertaken, with
the view of arriving at conclusions upon those points which do not
as yet appear to have been satisfactorily settled.

* Longmaus, Green, & Co., London. + John Murray, London.

438 Chronicles of Science. | July,

7. GEQLOGY AND PALAKONTOLOGY.

(Including the Proceedings of the Geological Society, and Notices
of Recent Geological Works.)

Few regions of the earth present to the physical geologist a more
wondrous display of voleanic phenomena on a grand scale than the
Hawaiian group of islands in the Pacific Ocean. These remote in-
tertropical isles (twelve in number) are all of volcanic origin with
the exception of the ancient elevated coral reef and resulting lme-
stone.

Since their first discovery by the Spaniards they have been
repeatedly visited by government exploring expeditions, but by far
the largest share of their physical history has been collected by one
man, the Rev. Titus Coan, for more than thirty years a most de-
voted missionary at Hilo on Hawaii, the largest of the group.
This gentleman sends to ‘Silliman’s American Journal,’* some in-
teresting notes on the recent volcanic disturbances of Hawaii.
Although not on so grand a scale as many of the eruptions which
have occurred in former years, yet Mr. Coan’s account furnishes
information on many points of great interest to the geologist. One
feature frequently observed in the volcanic outbursts on these
islands is the opening of lateral subterranean rents, into which the
overflowing craters discharge their pent-up lava-streams. In the
case of the outburst of April, 1868, when the craters of Kilauea
and Mauna Loa both seem to have been in a state of eruption, their
united lava-streams appear to have discharged into a line of fissure,
having a south-westerly trend, along which they flowed subter-
raneously for a distance of more than thirty miles, appearing on the
surface near Kahuku, running thence for ten miles lke a vast
serpent through the beantiful pasture-lands, and giving off various
minor branches, they finally reach the sea in two great streams
only 1000 feet apart, enclosing between them an island five miles
in length. On this narrow belt of land three houses are left stand-
ing near the shore, and some thirty head of cattle were rescued
alive (though terribly scorched) after the flow had ceased ; so rapid
was the rush of the lava-rivers that cattle grazing on the plains
were surrounded before they were aware of their danger. A family
of four persons in a house were enclosed on an island formed by the
igneous flood, and remained prisoners for ten days, when they were
able to leave their retreat unharmed.

Along the whole line from Kahuku to Kilauea, the subterra-
nean flow was marked by fissures and displacements of the ground,
through which jets of steam and lava issued in several places,

* Vol. XLVIL, No. 139, p. 89.

1869. | Geology and Palzxontology. _ 489
whilst along the hill-flanks the earth was rent, and the surface de-
posits of earth, boulders, rocks, lavas long-buried, trees, &c., were
hurled in one vast avalanche over the plain beneath, a distance of
several miles, filling the air at the same time with dry dust. On
the night of the earthquake the fires in the great crater went out,

and the central area of the great plateau sagged gently down about
300 feet, carrying with it its botanical garden of tree-ferns and
“ohele” bushes (Vacciniwm) still standing.

A very full account of the entire group with excellent maps and
illustrations, and a description of all the modern eruptions, will be
found in the recently published ‘ Memoirs of the Boston Society of
Natural History, by Wiliam T. Brigham, A.M.*

Mr. Peacock’s book} ‘On Evidences of Vast Sinkings of Land
on the North and West Coasts of France and the South-Western
Coasts of England,’ is made up of an olla podrida of antiquarian
scraps and extracts from the writings of all sorts and conditions of
men, from Ptolemy the geographer, a.p. 117, down to Mr. Raphael
Pumpelly in 1868.

The author at the end of his labour concludes there is good
reason for believing that there has been considerable subsidence
on the coast and about the Channel Islands within the historical
period, which from an examination of the wear and tear of the
coasts on both sides of the Channel, and of the submerged forests
on the shores at low water, any geologist would be ready to admit,
on geological grounds, without the very doubtful assistance of
Ptolemy or Diodorus Siculus.

The tract ‘On Steam as the Motive-power in Earthquakes and
Volcanoes, { bound up with the above and written by the same
author, contains a full compilation of geological authorities in
support of the doctrine that steam is the chief agent in volcanic
action, but without any original idea, unless the suggestion that the
vast necleus of the globe, about 6000 miles in diameter, consists
of pumice. A serious objection to the book is the badness of the
typography and the great number of printer’s errors, which render
it often unintelligible to the general reader.

Of Mr. Samuel Mossman’s ‘ Origin of the Seasons,§ considered
from a Geological Point of View,’ the most kind reflection we can
make is, “ What a pity it was ever written!” Imagine a man sug-
gesting that the curative qualities of the climate of Australia || in

* Vol. L., part iii., 1868.

+ ‘Physical and Historical Evidences of vast Sinkings of Land on the North
and West Coasts of France, and South-western Coasts of England, within the His-
torical Period.’ Collected and commented on by R. A. Peacock, Esq., C.K, 8vo,
pp. 190. London; E. and F. N. Spon; and the author, St. Helier, 1868,

56

t Pp. 56.
§ William Blackwood & Sons, Edinburgh, 1869. 8vo, pp. 472.
i| PB. 424,

440 Chronicles of Science. [ July,

cases of consumption is due “to the presence of a larger volume of
carbonic acid gas in the atmosphere than exists here!!!”

Mr. Mossman’s book is a most wonderful compilation of ex-
tracts, strung together by such original pieces of fine writing as
the following :*—“ Let us imagine the sea boiling, bubbling, and
steaming above the domes of red-hot trachyte, swelling and
bursting as they rose towards its surface, and then ejecting through
volcanic cones and yawning fissures such masses of lava as to form
so many thousand miles of mountains ; let us conceive the shocks
and quakes of the earth in this era of her travail, when the pent-
up volcanic forces caused her to rend the solid framework of her
sphere a perturbed daughter of the sun, the most convulsive child
of the solar system.” !!

‘Geological Fragments collected principally from Rambles
among the Rocks of Furness and Cartmel’} (Lancashire), by John
Bolton, is a description by a humble geological worker (an entirely
self-taught man) of the various excursions in and about Furness
and Cartmel, with notes on the formations and fossils to be seen,
and the scenes and people among which he has worked; but we
hardly think it will be read by many beyond the author's circle of
friends.

‘Chips and Chapters, a Book for Amateurs and Young Geolo-
gists, is the title of a small 8vo volume of 300 pages, by that
indefatigable writer, David Page, LL.D., F.G.8., &.{ This is
intended as a reading-book for the many, and is an endeavour on
the part of the author to put before the general public some of the
more prominent facts and bearings of geological science in a read-
able form. The utility of “Geology as a Branch of Education ”§
is a chapter deserving of especial study. We hope the author may
be as well satisfied with the sale of his book as we are with its
perusal.

On Physical Geology there are contributions by G. Poulett
Scrope, “On the Supposed Internal Fluidity of the Earth,” || and
“Qn the Influx of Water as the Cause of Volcanic Eruptions ;”4
by Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, “On the Probable Seat of Volcanic
Action ;”** by Mr. David Forbes, “On the Nature of the Interior
of the Earth.’ tt

In the first paper Mr. Scrope argues in favour of the interior
mass of the earth being held down in a solidified form by the

* ©On Voleanic Forces in South America, &c.,’ p. 101,
+ Ulverston: D. Atkinson; and London: Whittaker & Co. S8vo. 1869,

Pp. 264.
{ Edinburgh and London: Blackwood & Sons, § Pp. 78-104.
|| ‘ Geological Magazine’ (April), p. 145.
4 Ibid. (May), p. 196. ** Thid. (June), p. 245.

tt ‘Popular Science Review ’ (April), p. 121.

1869. ] Geology and Palzxontology. 44]

weight, cohesion, and perhaps increasing contraction of the solid
crust above, yet retaining in this state its intense expansibility,
and being ready, at all points, to return to the fluid or gaseous
state, and make its escape whenever—by a fissure or disturbance
of the superincumbent crust—that pressure is partially removed.
In the second paper Mr. Scrope refers to steam as the recognized
agent in forcing up lavas through narrow and crooked fissures in
the solid crust of the globe, and concludes, from the cellular and
porous condition of most lavas, that water was present, in a finely
divided state, disseminated through the entire mass. Dr. T. Sterry
Hunt calls attention to the views of Keferstein and others, that all
crystalline non-stratified rocks, from granite to lava, are but the
products of the transformation of sedimentary strata.

Mr. David Forbes concludes, after reviewing the evidences (as
to the nature of the interior of the earth) pro et contra, that the
balance of argument appears to be in favour of the older theory,
that the earth is a central molten mass, surrounded or enclosed by
a comparatively thin solid crust or shell; and further, seems to
indicate the probability that its interior, besides consisting mainly
of molten silicates, also contains a great accumulation of the heavy
metals and their compounds.

Mr. N. Plant having brought home some plant-remains from
Coal-beds of true Carboniferous Age in Brazil,* they have been
examined and referred by Mr. Carruthers to the genera Femingites,
Noeggerathia, and Odontopteris. t

Professor Owen has described a remarkably perfect jaw of a
Cestraciont fish, from the Oolite of Caen in Normandy, under the
name of Strophodus medius.{ Its likeness to the recent Port
Jackson Shark is very great.

Mr. Henry Woodward adds a new genus of Ophiuroid Star-
fishes to the Upper Silurian of Dudley.§

Mr. Thomas Davidson contributes a series of notes on Conti-
nental Geology, relating chiefly to the classification of the Creta-
ceous system in France, England, Germany, &c.||

‘The Transactions of the Edinburgh Geological Society,’ 4
consist of papers read before that Society to May, 1868. “'The
Carboniferous Strata of Carluke,” “The Old Red Sandstone of
Scotland,” “The Superficial Deposits of the South Esk,” “Glacier
Action in Galloway, the Coasts of Antrim and Londonderry,”
“The Miocene Beds of Greenland,” ‘“‘ The Precious Stones of Scot-
land,” are among the subjects treated of in this volume. There is
every prospect of this Society, which is now under the presidency

* © Geological Magazine’ (April, 1869), p. 147. + Ibid., p. 151.
t Ibid. (May), p. 193. § Ibid. (June), p. 241.
|| _Ibid., pp. 162, 199, and 251. q 1868. Vol. L, parts i, and ii,

442 Chronicles of Science. [ July,

of Mr. Archibald Geikie (Director of the Geological Survey of
Scotland), continuing to do good work.

‘The Transactions of the Geological Society of Glasgow’* is
marked by Sir William Thomson’s celebrated paper “On Geological
Time.” Considering the motions of the earth, with a careful
regard to the effect of resistance and retardation by tidal influence,
&c., and viewing the sun as we should any large mass of molten
iron, or silicon, or sodium, he comes to the conclusion that: (1) The
earth formerly rotated more rapidly than at present, and that its .
speed is slowly, but certainly diminishing by resistance. (2) That
the sun’s energies in giving light and heat are being dissipated
year by year, and that there is no sufficient supply of new matter
falling into the sun’s orbit to replenish that energy. (3) That
the sun may have illuminated the earth for 100 milhons of years,
but that it is almost certain that he has not illuminated it for
five times that period. (4) From the author’s investigations
of underground temperatures and the secular cooling of the earth,
he infers that the present condition implies either a heating of the
surface within the last 20,000 years of as much as 100° Fahr, or
a greater heating all over the surface at a more remote period.
(5) Sir William Thomson shows, in conclusion, that taking the
largest grant of time, and commencing with the earth at a tempe-
rature sufficiently high to melt its entire mass, we must admit a
limit of between 50 millions and 300 millions of years, beyond -
which our drafts on the bank of Time cannot be honoured.
(6) The Dynamical theory of the sun’s heat renders it impossible
that the earth’s surface has been illuminated by the sun many
times 10 million years. (7) Finally, he concludes that the existing
state of things—aincluding life on the earth—must be limited within
some such period of. past time as 100 million years. We should
like to notice Messrs. James Geikie, “On Denudation in Scotland
since Glacial Times ;” Archibald Geikie, “On Modern Denndation,”
and “On the Silurian Rocks of Scotland ;’ Mr. Edward Hull, “ On
the Causes which seem to have regulated the relative Distribution
of the Calcareous and Strata of Great Britain, with special refer-
ence to the Carboniferous Formation ;” besides many other excellent
papers, but our space does not permit.

PpockeDInGs oF THE GEoLoaicAL Socrety or Lonpon.

The May number of the ‘Quarterly Journal’t furnishes us
with the Annual Report, the Anniversary Address by the President,
and the papers read before the Society from December 23, 1868,

* 1868. Vol. IIL., part i.
+ Edited by Mr. W. 8. Dallas, the new assistant-secretary.

1869.] Geology and Palzontology. 443

to February 24, 1869. The income expected this year (1869)
amounts to 2072/. 16s., and expenditure to 1893/., leaving a
balance in favour of the Society of 1797. 16s. ; whilst the funded
property amounts to 4860/. 14s. 6d., exclusive of trust-fund. We
may, from the above statement, safely congratulate this learned
body upon its healthy financial condition. ‘The President (Prof.
Huxley) takes, as the text for his Anniversary Address, the subject
matter of Sir William Thomson’s article “On Geological Time,”
already briefly epitomized in this present Chronicle.

Commencing with a brief review of the various lines of thought
which a study of geology has developed, the author divides them into
three classes-—Catastrophists, Uniformitarians, and Evolutionists;
with the two former classes of thinkers we were well acquainted,
but the third is a new class, defined as those who “embrace in one
stupendous analogy the growth of a solar system from molecular
chaos, the shaping of the earth * * * to its present form, and
the development of a living being from the shapeless mass of
protoplasm we term a germ.”

Assuming that Sir W. Thomson is correct in asserting that life
on the earth must be limited to 100 million years, Professor
Huxley shows that the whole thickness of stratified rocks, taken at
100,000 feet, or about 563? miles, could have been formed within
that period of time if only yoo of a foot or ~y of an inch of
sediment were deposited annually.

He points out that although so much stress is laid by Sir W.
Thomson on retardation, yet “it 1s not absolutely certain, after all,
whether the moon’s mean motion is undergoing acceleration, or
the earth’s rotation retardation; and yet this is the key to the
whole position.” ‘Ifthe rapidity of the earth’s rotation is dimi-
nishing, it is not certain how much of that retardation is due to
tidal friction, how much to meteors, how much to possible excess
of melting over accumulation of polar ice during the period covered
by observation, which amounts, at the outside, to not more than
2600 years.”

One of the most acute and telling remarks in the address is
that contained in the following paragraph :—

“TY do not presume to throw the slightest doubt upon the
accuracy of any of the calculations made by such distinguished
mathematicians as those who have made the suggestions I have
cited. On the contrary, it is necessary to my argument to assume
that they are all correct. But I desire to point out that this seems
to be one of the many cases in which the admitted accuracy of
mathematical processes is allowed to throw a wholly inadmissible
appearance of authority over the results obtained by them. Mathe-
matics may be compared to a mill of exquisite workmanship, which
grinds you stuff of any degree of fineness; but, nevertheless, what

VOL. VI. 2H

444 Chronicles of Science. [ July,

you get out depends on what you put in; and as the grandest mill
in the world will not extract wheat-flour from peascods, so pages
of formulz will not get a definite result out of loose data.”

The most important papers contained in the ‘Journal of
Proceedings’ are Mr. T. W. Kingsmill’s communication on the
Geology of China, especially with reference to the Province of the
Lower Yangtse; Prof. Huxley’s paper “On the genus Hypero-
dapedon,” a reptile found in the Triassic deposits of Elgin (once
said to be of Devonian age). From remains found of late in
Warwickshire and Devonshire the author has determined its
Lacertilian character, and considers its nearest fossil ally to be the
Triassic genus Rhynchosaurus, and at the present day the singular
genus Sphenodon, or Hatterta, found in New Zealand.

Mr. Edward Hull has an ingenious and suggestive paper “ On
the Evidence of a Ridge of Lower Carboniferous Rocks crossing the
Plain of Cheshire beneath the Trias, and forming the Boundary -
between the Permian Rocks of the Lancashire Type on the North,
and those of the Salopian Type on the South.”

The Rey. T. Wiltshire, “On the Hunstanton Red Chalk,” adds
to our knowledge of this interesting local deposit, which from all the
evidence, both lithological and paleontological, appears to be the
representative at Hunstanton of the upper portion of the Gault of
Folkestone.

The other papers are: Messrs. King and Rowney “On the
so-called ‘ Eozoonal’ Rock ;” Mr. Whitaker “ On the New Locality
for Hyperodapedon on the coast of Devon ;” Mr. W. H. Baily
“On the Irish Graptolites” and “On Tertiary Plant-remains from
Antrim ;” Mr. G. T. Clark “On the Basalt Dykes of India ;”
Dr. Sutherland “On the Auriferous Rocks of South - eastern
Africa ;” Mr. W. Boyd Dawkins “On the Distribution of the
British Post-Glacial Mammals ;” and a postponed paper by Mr. J.
Wood Mason “On Dakosaurus, from the Kimmeridge Clay of
Shotover Hill.”

8. METEOROLOGY.

In a recent part of the Proceedings of the Meteorological Society
there is a very suggestive paper by Mr. Meldrum, containing some
interesting results as to the origin of cyclones in general, to which
ho has been led by his study of the weather of the Indian Ocean.
In our last number we noticed the Synoptic weather charts which
Mr. Meldrum is preparing for publication. The examination of
these charts affords abundant confirmation of an idea which he has
long entertained, and which is traceable in many of his papers, vz.

1869. | Meteorology. 445

that most of, if not all, the atmospherical disturbances experienced
in those seas may be referred to the mutual interference of the two
great currents of air, whether these be the ordinary polar and
equatorial currents, the 8.E. and N.W. winds of the South Tem-
perate Zone, or the 8.E. trade and the N.W. monsoon met with
nearer the equator. When these opposite currents are flowing in
parallel channels at the earth’s surface, the resulting action on the
atmosphere in general differs according to their position as regards
latitude. When the bed of the polar current is in a latitude higher
than that of the equatorial, 7.e. when the 8.E. wind lies to the
southward of the N.W. wind, atmospherical pressure has a tendency
to decrease between them, and ultimately the wind begins to cir-
culate round the area of depression, in the direction of the hands of
a watch. <A cyclone is ultimately formed, and in it the force of the
wind is stronger at the centre than at the circumference. When
the position of the currents is reversed, a barometrical maximum is
produced, around which the wind revolves in the direction opposite
to that of the hands of a watch. In short an “anticyclone” is
formed, in which the wind-force is usually very light in the centre
but stronger outside. It is hardly necessary to observe that as we
are dealing with the Southern Hemisphere, the conditions of the
direction of the wind’s motion are exactly the reverse of what
obtains in this hemisphere. Mr. Meldrum asserts that cyclones
invariably have their origin as we have described. They commence
at the southern edge of the N.W. monsoon, and travel obliquely
across the 8.E. trade.

If this theory be found to be completely trustworthy, we may
hope that it will be possible to assign an origin to the West Indian
hurricanes, which will be more satisfactory than that given hypo-
thetically by Dove, who attributes them to the fact that by some
means or other a portion of the upper current (antitrade) between
the tropics has been forced out of its proper stratum into the true
trade wind below it, so that an eddy, ultimately resulting in a
hurricane, has been formed. This is, after all, something like the
convulsion theories of the older geologists. If we can find that
ordinary causes are capable of producing certain effects, it is well
to satisfy ourselves, whenever these effects are observed, that these
causes were not in operation, before we call in a deus ew machina
of any sort to produce the required action.

We see from the report of a lecture delivered at the Royal
Institution on April 30 by Mr. Scott, that the Meteorological Office
has been led, independently of Mr. Meldrum, to results similar to
his, and we may hope that useful results will come out of the
inquiry.

The Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society for January
contains a good paper by Mr. Buchan “ On the Mean Monthly and

2H 2

446 Chronicles of Science. [ July,

Annual Pressure in Scotland.” He has investigated the returns
from fifteen stations for eleven years, and the results obtained
afford, as might be expected, a strong corroboration of the principle
that the motion of the air is related to the differences of atmo-
spherical pressure. The mean annual pressure decreases from east
to west and from south to north, and as the wind always blows
with the lowest barometrical reading on its left hand side, we see
that the general conditions of pressure are in harmony with the
fact that our prevalent winds are south-westerly.

The monthly curves exhibit three minima and three maxima ;
the former occurring in January, March, and October; the latter
in February, May, and November.

The depression in January increases as we go northwards, while
that in March changes in the opposite direction. In October the
decrease is nearly uniform over the whole of Western Europe.

As regards the maxima, that in February is of slight extent. ~
In May the absolute maximum for the year is reached, corresponding
to the period of prevalence of our east winds. The increase of
pressure in November is the phenomenon so long noted as the
great November wave, to which it is not now the fashion to attribute
nearly so great an influence on our weather as it was some few
years ago. This paper is a very useful contribution to meteorology,
as the results of eleven years’ observations may be fairly considered
as worthy of attention.

The ‘Atlas Météorologique’ for 1867, published by the Ob-
servatoire Impérial, contains an elaborate paper by M. Becquerel,
on the influence of forests on climate. The paper 1s very carefully
written, but on reading it proves somewhat disappointing, as it
leads to very few practical results, owing to a deficiency of evidence
on many questions.

There is one action which all vegetation, of whatever character
it be, exerts, and that is the protection of the soil on which it grows
from forcible removal by floods. The roots traverse the earth in
all directions, and bind it together, while the branches break the
force of the rain as it falls. As soon as a hill-side is cleared of
forests, the rivulet-beds are scored deeper and deeper, and the soil
is gradually washed down, leaving the rocks bare. The roots of
trees have, in addition, a tendency to facilitate the percolation of
water to the subsoil, and thus to prevent its accumulation on the
surface, and the consequent production of swamps, such as have
been formed in parts of France within historic times. There is
another beneficial effect produced by trees, that of impeding the
motion of the air, and thus affording shelter from wind. This
action is, of course, limited, depending on the height of the trees
and the direction of motion of the wind. If this direction be
horizontal the shelter afforded is very considerable, as it has been

1869. | Meteorology. 447

noticed in Provence that a hedge two metres in height shelters a
space 22m. in width from the effects of the “ mistral.” Lastly,
trees have a decided influence on health, in protecting a district
from unwholesome exhalations. It is found along the edge of the
Pontine marshes that the existence of a belt of wood is sufficient to
ensure immunity from malaria to the peasants who live behind it.
These then are the most obvious beneficial effects on climate of the
presence of forests in a country. As regards the direct -influence
of vegetation on the temperature and the climate generally, the
author gives the notes of some experiments which he has made on
growing trees, in order to determine their temperature and that of
the surrounding air at different times of the day. ‘The results seem
to show that trees behave as if they were dead or inorganic bodies,
recelving heat from external sources and radiating it to surrounding
objects. The heat developed in the process of growth was found to
be quite inappreciable by means of the Instruments employed, while
the cooling influence usually assigned to foliage, owing to the
constant evaporation going on from its surface, was shown to be
utterly unfounded. However, this part of the paper is quite in-
complete, as M. Becquerel reserves the exact account of his inquiry
for a future essay. He distinctly denies the truth of the change
of climate alleged to have taken place in various countries, and
attributed to the clearing of the land, without, as it seems to us,
investigating the question thoroughly.

The ultimate conclusions stated in the paper are, as we have said
before, unsatisfactory ; e.g. we are told that the effect of cutting
away the forests is to diminish the quantity of running water in
the country, but the comparison of observations of rainfall in a
district, before and after the clearing, have most decidedly not led
to the conclusion that the amount of rain which falls is seriously
affected by the clearing. We do not therefore learn to what
action the reduction of the amount of river water is to be attri-
buted.

On the whole the paper may be fairly compared to Darwin’s
first work ‘On the Origin of Species.’ Both works contain many
facts of great interest which have a certain relation one to another,
while the reasoning which should bind the whole together is for
the most part entirely wanting. We hope that M. Becquerel’s
promised paper will be more conclusive than this one.

Before we leave the subject of meteorology in France, we
should say that it appears from the Bulletin Hebdomadaire of the
Association Scientifique, that the plan for the establishment of a
central Physical Observatory in Paris and the proposed modifica-
tions in the management of the Observatoire Imperial, the result
of which would have been to put a stop to all but the astronomical
work carried on there, have both been brought to an end. M. Le

448 Chronicles of Science. [July,

Verrier announces that the Observatoire will continue to perform all
its functions as heretofore.

The Norddeutsche Seewarte, in Hamburg, has published its
first Annual Report, and Herr Von Freeden, the Director, promises
two other publications within a brief space. These will be an
account of the German North Polar Expedition of last year, under
Captain Koldewey,* anda weather calender for north-west Germany,
the latter being the discussion of his own observations made at
Bremen during the past ten years. The Report is to a great
extent taken up with the account of the preliminary negotiations
which led to the establishment of the Seewarte by the shipowners
of Hamburg and Bremen. Marine meteorology has been the chief
object of the institution, and the director has set to work very
vigorously in this line. In order to induce the shipping interest
of the towns to co-operate warmly in the work of the office by
making observations at sea, the direction has proceeded to frame
minute sailing directions for the several voyages, and the Report
contains a practical proof of the value of scientific meteorology to
trade, in the form of a tabular statement of the total amount of
gain in time exhibited by the runs made by vessels furnished with
these directions, as compared with passages made by other ships
between the same ports at the same time. ‘The sailing directions
are very definite in their character, for one of the objects of their
issue has been to supply information more thoroughly digested, and
in fact more practical than Maury’s works can afford.

The Report is professedly only the account of the activity of one
department of the office, but hopes are held out that at some future
time its operations may be extended to land meteorology also. The
only work of this nature which is carried on is the publication of
daily observations made at Hamburg, and of occasional storm
telegrams received from our own Meteorological Office. It is inte-
resting to see that these messages have been of practical use,
notwithstanding the great distance of Hamburg from London, for
out of thirty-seven messages sent, more than half were followed
by storms, while in only three instances did the storm precede
the warning.

The long promised charts of surface temperature for the South
Atlantic Ocean have now been published by the Meteorological
Committee. They contain the mean monthly surface temperatures
for five-degree squares, calculated from the data collected by
Admiral Fitz Roy out of Board of Trade registers, and in addition
the mean temperatures for strips of 5° of longitude, but for each
degree of latitude published in 1861 by the Meteorological Institute

* This work has already been published, but a notice of it must be reserved
for the next Chronicle.

1869. |} Meteorology. 449

of Holland. ‘The charts are illustrated by copious notes, consisting
of extracts from the logs of captains, who have noticed sudden
changes of temperature and thus tending to show where the actual
boundaries of the various ocean currents he.

Meteorologists will hail these charts as a useful contribution to
Marine Meteorology, and as a first instalment of the publication of
the partly finished work found by the committee in the office when
they took charge of it.

We are glad to learn that H.M.S. ‘ Porcupine’ has been placed
at the disposal of Dr. Carpenter and his friends, in order to carry
out a more extensive series of deep-sea soundings and dredgings
than was possible during their short cruise last autumn. We hope
that by this expedition some light may at last be thrown on the
vexed question of deep-sea temperatures.

Mr. 8. Barber sends us the following account of the Aurora
Borealis, observed by him near Liverpool. The two remarkable
appearances of Aurora Borealis which occurred lately, afford some
peculiar and noteworthy points of comparison, in addition to the
fact of their unusual brilliancy and striking form, and their prox-
imity to each other; the last in point of time, on May 13th,
showed greater steadiness and a whiter light, the flashes being
feeble and indistinct. The rays of electric ight, arched, broad, and
white, over the entire heavens, converging to an irregular nucleus,
situated about 10 degrees §.8.E. of the zenith. This nucleus had
a jagged edge and an irregular cavity within it, and its form changed
rapidly, one half of its body disappearing in less than a minute.
The space between the streamers was very small, and a very ight
greenish blue colour produced a remarkable effect. The previous
Aurora presented much stronger contrasts of colour, and greater
radial definition. The light was more limited in extent, and the
rays most distinct from north to west, from which quarter, and
from N.W., were rapid and brilliant flashing streamers, having a
wave-like and tremulous motion, as of bands of ribbon violently
shaken ; these converged, as in the former case, to a point not far
from the zenith, and nearly coincident with that of the nucleus in
May. It is worthy of notice that a long period of cold wet weather
followed these remarkable phenomena, the wind ranging from east
to north. The above notes were taken from about 10 to 114 p.m.

450 Chronicles of Science. “= | July,

9. MINERALOGY.

Exacrty eighty years ago, the German chemist, Klaproth, disco-
vered a new earth, or metallic oxide, in a certain mineral found in
the sands and gravels of Ceylon, and occasionally cut and polished
asa gem. As this mineral had long been known under the name
of zircon—a word apparently of Arabic orign—the new earth
received the appropriate name of zirconia. ‘The same oxide was
likewise found in the brightly-coloured stone known as the hyacinth
—not indeed the hyacinth of the ancients, which appears to have
been our sapphire, but the gem so-named by the modern mineral-
ogist—and it was then demonstrated that the zircon and hyacinth
are virtually the same mineral, both being silicates of zirconia.
In 1845, the Swedish chemist, Svanberg, endeavoured to show that
in the zircons of Norway and of the Urals the zirconia is accom- °
panied by another substance which he termed noria; but whether
this is really a distinct earth has not been satisfactorily determined.
About three years ago, Professor Church was led to examine seve-
ral specimens of zircon under the micro-spectroscope; and observing
that some of them exhibited peculiar absorption bands, not given
by pure silicate of zirconia, he conjectured that they might possibly
be due to the presence of Svanberg’s norium. Utterly ignorant of
Professor Church’s observations—the results of which were pub-
lished only in the shape of a letter inserted in a popular journal—
Mr. H. C. Sorby has for some time past been engaged in the
spectroscopic examination of the zircons of Ceylon. When light is
transmitted through certain transparent specimens of zircon, and
is then analyzed by the eye-piece of his spectrum-microscope, it is
seen that the luminous spectrum is traversed by more than a dozen
well-defined narrow black lines. As these absorption bands are
not given by any other known substance, Mr. Sorby regards them
as indicating the presence of a new earth associated with zirconia ;
and as they are exhibited chiefly by those pale-coloured varieties of
zircon which are known as jargoon or jargon, he proposes to name
the new metal jargonium. Professor Church, however, has sug-
gested for this supposed element the name of nigriwm. It would
appear from Mr. Sorby’s further researches that the earth jargonia
is capable of existing in two distinct allotropic conditions, having
different densities and different optical properties. Comparatively
few Cingalese jargons exhibit in their natural state well-marked
lines, but by exposing an ordinary specimen for some time to a
bright-red heat the altered mineral gives a spectrum which is
traversed by a fine series of absorption bands.*

* “Chemical News,’ March 12, April 16 and 30, 1869; also paper printed for
private circulation at soirée of the Royal Society.

1869. | Mineralogy. 451

In association with Mr. P. J. Butler—a gentleman possessing
a fine collection of gems—Mr. Sorby has presented to the Royal
Society a paper “On the the Structure of Rubies, Sapphires, Dia-
monds, and certain other Minerals.’* They find that the sapphire
exhibits numerous cavities, sometimes reaching 75th of an inch in
diameter, and either partially or entirely filled with a lquid—pro-
bably condensed carbonic acid. Small triangular lamellar crystals
are also to be noted as common inclosures in this gem. The ruby
differs from the sapphire—although of course chemically the same
stone—in that it contains fewer fluid-cayities and more included
crystals, some of which are octohedral in form, and are probably
minute spinel rubies. In certain spinels from Ceylon, the fluid-
cavities contain a colourless liquid, accompanied by either a solid
substance or a very viscous fluid in which small crystals are em-
bedded. Many emeralds are extremely full of fluid-cavities, con-
taining what appears to be a strong saline solution with cubic
erystals—probably of chloride of potassium. By examining several
diamonds, the authors find that the embedded black specks, which
Brewster imagined might be cavities, are really inclosed crystals.
Some of these are surrounded by cracks indicating contraction in
the neighbouring mass; and this indication is strengthened by the
appearance of a black cross surrounding the crystals when examined
by polarized light. The authors’ general conclusions drawn from
these observations “seem to show that the ruby, sapphire, spinel,
and emerald were formed at a moderately high temperature, under
so great a pressure that water might be present in a liquid state.
The whole structure of the diamond is so peculiar that it can scarcely
be looked upon as positive evidence of a high temperature, though
not at all opposed to that supposition.”

When Mr. David Forbes, more than eighteen months ago, pub-
lished the first part of his researches in British mineralogy, he
described at length the results of his examination of our Welsh
gold. Since then, his attention has been directed to the gold-bear-
ing districts of England, Ireland, and Scotland, as represented
respectively by the counties of Cornwall, Wicklow, and Sutherland.t
By examining specimens from each of these localities, Mr. Forbes is
enabled to place in our hands a series of analyses of gold from every
quarter of the British Isles—a series peculiarly valuable, inasmuch
as our knowledge of the chemical composition of British gold has
hitherto been remarkably defective. As we have already published

* ‘Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ xvii., No. 109, p. 291.
+ ‘Philosophical Magazine,’ May, 1869, p. 321.

452 Chronicles of Science. | July,

his analyses of Welsh gold,* we need only here quote the English,
Irish, and Scotch analyses :—

Cornwall Co, Wicklow. Sutherlandshire.
Specific gravity .. 16°52 .... 15°07 .... 15°799
Xe II.
Gold 7 i3 nw +c. JOU aol eOl= co cepel td ee aio
Silver’ eo" "5 oes 0D ace S*Sa 2 116545" eee SPa
Silicat. fies eres OSS were Oss nie. 0°44. & 0-26
100-00 100°00 100:00 100°00

On examining these analyses, one cannot fail to remark the large
amount of silver alloyed with the Sutherlandshire gold as compared
with the proportion present in gold from other parts of the British
Isles. Any remarks on the occurrence and distribution of our
native gold are rendered unnecessary by Mr. Robert Hunt's excel-
lent paper on the subject published in a former volume of this
Journal.t ;

A Devonshire mineral, used at one time as an iron-ore, has been
found by Mr. Forbes to have the composition of Babingtonite—a
rare species, found chiefly at Arendal,in Norway. Our British
Babingtonite presents a radiated fibrous structure, a blackish-green
colour, and a composition represented by the formula :—

6Ca0 . S10,4+3FeO . Si0,+ Fe,0, . 38i0,.

On more than one occasion it has been our duty to call attention
to Vom Rath’s discovery of a new form of silica called Tredymite.
Professor Maskelyne has lately found this interesting species, or a
very closely-allied mineral, in the meteorite of Breitenbach, in Bohe-
mia.§ The crystals, although imperfect, are apparently hexagonal
in form, whilst their composition shows them to consist of almost
pure silica. rom these characters alone, the mineral might perhaps
be mistaken for quartz, but as its specific gravity is not above 2° 245,
there can be but little doubt that we are here dealing with a species
closely akin to tridymite, occurring under conditions altogether
novel. ‘The crystals are found in the hollows of the meteoric iron,
where they are accompanied by pale-green prismatic crystals having
a composition nearly agreeing with that of enstatite.

Two or three new American meteorites have been described by
Professor C. U. Shepard.|| One of these is a meteoric iron, from
Auburn, Macon Co., Alabama. Its chief peculiarity consists in its
fissured structure, which gives it an appearance—to use the Pro-

* ‘Quart. Journ. Science,’ v., p. 101.

+ With sesquioxide of iron in the Cornish specimen.

+ Vol. ii.,p.635.

§ ‘Proc. Royal Society,’ xvii., p. 370; ‘Chem. News,’ April 16, 1869.
|| Silliman’s ‘American Journal of Science,’ xlvyii., p. 230.

1869. | Mineralogy. 453

fessor’s own words—“ as if it had been shattered by striking when
in a semi-fused state, against a rock, at the time of its fall.” A
description is also given of another meteoric iron, now in the St.
Louis Academy of Sciences; and an analysis is published of the
Losttown meteorite, previously noticed in this journal.* We have
only space to give the percentages of the chief constituents in each
specimen :—

Auburn. St. Louis. Losttown.
roms ee Oe OSU Palais 92-096 Rares 95°759
Nickel... .. 3°015 wane's 2°604 35 60 3°660

When a polished section of meteoric iron is etched with an acid,
it is well known that a peculiar crystalline structure is usually
developed. The markings thus produced are known, after their
discoverer, as the Widmannstatten figures. Dr. J. Lawrence Smith
has recently found that certain meteorites from Trenton, Washing-
ton Co., Wisconsin, exhibit on similar treatment a distinct set of
markings, different from those of Widmannstatten ; and as his atten-
tion was first directed to them by a Mr. Lapham, he proposes to
distinguish them as the Laphamite figures. The meteorites exhi-
biting these figures contained 91°03 per cent. of iron, and 7°2 of
nickel.

What is really the formula of that curiously-constituted mineral,
Haiiyne? On collecting the published analyses, it will be found
difficult to reconcile their discrepancies. Dr. Kenngott has recently
found that sulphate of soda may be obtained by the action of water
on hatiyne, and hence he believes that some of the recorded analyses
have been made on specimens partially altered in this manner.
Allowing for such an action, he regards the unchanged mineral to
be constituted according to the following formula,t which indeed
agrees with that deduced from Whitney’s analysis of the Alban
haiiyne, namely :-—

3 {(Na, . Al,) 0, . 2810,} + 2(CaO . SO,).

Further contributions to the mineralogy of Nova Scotia have
been published by Dr. How.§ Among these will be found notices
of a carboniferous lignite, from Pictou Co., and of the species Turgite,
Delessite, and Fahlunite. A new locality is given for the interesting
Acadian mineral described in a former number of this Journal under
How’s name of Silicoborocalcite, || but which has stace been appro-
priately named Howlite.

In compliment to the well-known Italian geologist, Quintine

* Vol. vi., p. 134.

+ ‘Silliman’s Journal,’ xlvii., p. 271.

+ Leonhard und Bronn’s Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, 1869, Heft 3, p. 329.
§ ‘Phil. Mag., April, 1869, p. 264.

| Vol. v., p. 259.

454 Chronicles of Science. [ July,

Sella, the name of Sellaite has been appropriated to a new species
described by Striiver.* The mineral is apparently a simple fluoride
of magnesium, and crystallizes in small, transparent, prismatic
forms, embedded in the anhydrite of Montiers in Savoy.

Associated with the eryolite of Ivigtok, in Greenland, a new
species has been found, and named after the locality. Ivigtite
appears to be a silicate of alumina, soda, and protoxide of iron, with
a little fluorine. ft

In a peculiar variety of hyperite occurring in the parish of |
Eura, in 8. W. Finland, a mineral is met with, to which Herr Wiik
applies the name of Huralite.t Its composition approaches that of
delessite.

Professor Reichardt has recently published analyses of the Poly-
halite which occurs in large nodular masses scattered through the
so-called “ polyhalite region” of the salt-deposits of Stassfurt, m
Prussian Saxony.§

Picotite is a mineral bearing close kindred to spinel, and found
in octohedral crystals in certain forms of olivine rock. Dr. Petersen
has lately examined specimens from the Dun Mountain in New
Zealand, and is thus led to establish two types of the species—a
chrome-picotite and an alumina-picotite. The Doctor has likewise
examined the magnetic pyrites of Auerbach, and regards its formula
as FeS instead of Fe,S;, as generally written. Finally, he pub-
lishes some analyses of red szlver-ores, both “dark” and “light,”
or in other words, both antimonial and arsenical.|j

10. MINING, METALLURGY, AND THEIR RECENT
LITERATURE.

Minina.

In our last number we noticed the fact that the ancient Stannary
Court of Cornwall was about to undergo a change, a Bill haying
been introduced for its amendment. Numerous alterations have
been made in the Bill since its first reading; it has been read the
second time; and no doubt, before these pages are in the hands of
our readers, the Stannary Court Act will have become the law
of the future for the Stannaries of Cornwall and Devonshire.

* Atti della Reale Accademica delle Scienze di Torino,

+ Silliman’s Journal, xlvi., p. 400.

+ Ofv. af Finska Vet. Soc. Férh. 1869, xi., p. 28.

§ Leonhard u. Bronn’s Jahrbuch. 1869, Heft 3, p. 325.

|| ‘Journal fiir praktische Chemie,’ 1869, No, 3, pp, 134, 137, 141.

1869. ] Mining. 455

The dues paid to the Stannary Court upon the ores raised
within its jurisdiction have been for the last two years as follows :—

CorNWALL,
1867. 1868.
Quantities. Value. Quantities. Value.

Tons. ecwt. qrs. lbs. £ s. d.|| Tons. cwt. qrs. Ibs. £ s. d.
Tin Ore Care 10,848 9) 3) 27 538,006 19 4 11,216 18 0 22 621,083 1 5
Tinin Stone . . 1440 0 O 90 71,230 17 7 201 ‘OF O70 11,162 9 11
Copper Ore Od 81,663 9 2 0 379,197 18 5 78,012 14 3 £4O 341,602 110
MieadiOrew = ac 8,615 18 1 0 138,676 13 7 8,303 11 3 0 137,197 11 6
ZANCIOLTE Seca sh i674, 6. OF ..0 4,097 1 9 T3852) to) 10),.,.0 4;92u 1
NilverjOre’s << — - - = — Beeeoeels 1019 3
Iron Pyrites . . 8,229 15 0 0 8,658 4 4 6,914 1 1 0 6,762 10 5
Arsenic ols 1,200 (ext) 0 2,074 11 2 1,267 4. 3°90 3,608 19 10
Wolfram 3/2 10 10 0 90 62 0 0 Om e45 OL) 0 Gi ‘Gina,
Ochre and Gossans 730n Ole Om 0 422,122 il Gy) 0) 89 4 4

Nichela> «2s. Ue ie 0 1412 5 a SS = — =
Fluor Spar. . .» — == = — — 60 0 0 20 42 0 0
UromOrey sce sc. 5,418 10 0 Oo 1,675 16 1 6,545 11 0 #0 1,994 1 6
Motel 3 2, (118533 5 3 27 || 7,080,117 “6 Lo || 114,534 3 2 142 | 1,128,541 7 8

DEVONSHIRE.
1867. 1868.
Quantities. Value. Quantities. Value.

Tons. cwt. qrs. lbs. £ s. d.|| Tons. cwt. qrs, Ibs. £ 8. d.
Tin Ore ee. 78 8 0 14 4,137 10 2 54 Ss yet oy em I 3,085 17 7
Copper Ore * « 30,442 10 O QO 139,265 13 4 27,465 3 Zz D 118,811 0 3
Lead Ore . . . 449 18 3 0 11,967 1 10 473 5 Bie Al) 6,206 12 5
Tron Pyrites . . 646 6 1 0 353 17 7% 685 3 3 0 496 14 6
Arsenic hos 56. 5) 1 0 St) 19214 4¢3) 101 2 3.) 0 2,802 12 11
Ochre and Gossans. 33 18 O O 39%) 3 20 2a 10 62 10 10
Tron/Ore’t Ss) 3) +2 7,396 1 0 Oo 2,277 11 9 3,563 17 Gr 0 1,069 345t
POLAR pee =. ite 395103) 5% 1 14 158,079 1 3 32,742 6 S 13 132,534 11 7%

It should be explained, that the above returns do not represent
the actual total production of the mines of the two western counties,
which are comprehended within the Stannaries. ‘They do so very
nearly ; but it generally happens that some of the less important
mines do not make their returns for some time after the termina-
tion of the year. The quantity of arsenic produced in 1868,
being nearly 420 tons more than that obtained in 1867, should be
explained. It arises entirely from the extensive and very complete
arrangement made at the Devon Great Consolidated Mines, near
Tavistock, for subliming the arsenic from the vast heaps of
Arsenical Pyrites which have accumulated on their floors.

“A Bull to Consolidate and Amend the Acts relating to the
Regulation and Inspection of Mines” has been introduced to the
House of Commons by Mr. Secretary Bruce and Mr. Knatchbull-
Hugessen, and read a second time.

In its present form the Bill does not appear to satisfy any one.
The coal-owners and the coal-workers equally complain. On the

456 Chronicles of Science. [ July,

one hand, the owners feel aggrieved at the additional responsibilities
which are thrown upon them; and on the other, the colliers say
they receive no more real protection by this Bill than they did
under the old Inspection Acts. The Mining Association of Great
Britain is meeting from time to time to watch the progress of
matters affecting the interests of the coal trade, and sundry amend-
ments have been proposed to the Government by that body. The
working colliers have also had several meetings, and, by their dele-
gates, they urge the Government to appoint additional inspectors,
or to create a class of sub-inspectors.

The principal novelty in this Bill is the clause making it com-
pulsory that plans of all abandoned collieries should be lodged with
the Secretary of State, within three months from the time when the
coal within the pit has been abandoned. There appears to be some
difficulty in the way of carrying out this excellent provision. It is
thought that the plans so deposited may be used to the injury of
the individual. This, however, may be guarded against, by enact-
ing that such plans shall not be evidence in a court of law, and
that no action can be founded on evidence obtained by inspecting
those plans or maps. As a means of protecting the lives of the
miners, it is important that all information respecting our sub-
terranean workings should be preserved. It is therefore to be
hoped that this clause may, with well-considered restrictions, become
a portion of the new Inspection Act.

Coat.—The production of coal in these islands was in 1867, ac-
cording to the returns given in the “ Mineral Statistics,” 104,500,480
tons. In 1868, according to the returns of the Inspectors of Coal
Mines, the quantity was 104,566,959 tons. Of this the exports,
according to the returns of the Board of Trade, were as follows :—

NAME OF COUNTRY. Quantity. Declared Value.
Tons. £
RUSGIO Sees seees | sul es 623,767 306,103
WOOD! Mica eb) tea) Mac os 336,099 162,971
Denmark? ee ceviche tas terme 835,669 367,721
PXTISHIS eel: Tease eset pes. iets 583,450 239,101
Hansen Lows. scl pe cae lek 767,744 346,393
Holland'sicn a teeeives: Ont elas 260,048 126,004
HMrancery "wes Sistine ear ne 1,925,370 872,492
Spain and Canaries.. .. .. 524,161 294,248
Ttaly—Sardinia ae ee eine 288,852 145,590
United States... oss (sh ‘ss 103,851 72,046
Brazil ip (Lap, aealiees on 293,577 172,393
British India .. .» « 542,570 293,003
Other countries oe A ee 3,752,355 1,957,726

Total .. e» «» «» | 10,887,513 | 5,355,791

1869.] Mining. 457

The report of the Colliery Inspectors for 1868 has been
recently published. The following table has been compiled from
that document :—

A Return showing the Quantity of Coan RatsEep in and about the Coan
Mines of Great Brirain ; the Numper of Fata AccrpEnts and Livrs
Lest by the AccipEnts, in the Year 1868.

Number | Quantity of Separate | Lives Lost

Names OF DISTRICTS. of Coai Fatal by the
Collieries. Raised. Accidents.} Accidents.
Northumberland, Suanauaas & na 175 aaah o00| 67 69
Durham . “aaa
South Durham .. spas Seb aie 171 15,300,000 84 87
North and East Lancashire. A ai 292 7,053,000 61 65
West Lancashire and North Wales se 208 7,600,000 126 237
Yorkshire ae ae 459 9,705,000 77 8c
Derby Nottingham, ‘Leicester, and
2 195 7,699,000 58 60
Warwickshire ss Dae
North Stafford, Cheshire, & Shropshire 225 6,000,000 57 61
South Stafford and Worcestershire .. 550 9,900,000 90 104
Monmouth, Gloucester, Somerset ane
2 2 230 6,200,000 - 59 61
Devonshire ., Aina ae Arse ?
SOULMMVV GIES teh Fpeht loc is. we = 8 329 9,000,000 | 100 104
Totals: England and Wales... | 2834 | 89,857,000 | 779 928
East Scotland see oath ree Ose ae 254 8,456,084 41 43
West Scotland Amuse cial, Pagtaree 203 6,253,875 40 40
otalsee scotland: | sells) es a 457 14,709,959 81 83
Totals: England, Wales, & Scotland | 3291 | 104,566,959 | 860 | 1011

It should be noted that all the collieries given were not at work in 1868—from
two to three hundred were probably idle; we may therefore consider the number
of working collieries at about 3000.

The imports of Coan and CoxE to France were, according to
official French returns in 1868 :—

Coats. CoRE.

Tons. Tons.

From GREAT BRITAIN ,.. .. 1,885,000 3,800
BRONCO GS op | 50) 00 3,718,000 448,200
5, GERMANY As Wop | Ob 1,389,000 212,700
», OTHER COUNTRIES Ae 1,000 300
Totals ha MASA 6,993,000 665,000

Minerat Ors.—M. St. Claire-Deville has recently brought
before the Académie des Sciences a most useful memoir on ane

458 Chronicles of Science. [ July,

calorific value of the mineral oils, the result of a series of experi-
ments which he has carried out by order of the Emperor. The
results to which these experimental trials have led this eminent
chemist are—

“En général, cette chaleur est plus faible que celle qu’on
calcule par la loi de Dulong, et les chaleurs de combustion de
Yhydrogene et du carbone déterminées par MM. Favre et Silber-
mann, si l’on opere sur les huiles non oxygénées. Au contraire,
pour des huiles fortement oxygénées comme de l’huile de houille, on
trouve une chaleur plus grande que la chaleur calculée par la loi de
Dulong. Ces limites seraient done dans la catégorie des corps
explosifs qui contiennent plus de chaleur que les éléments qui les
constituent n’en possedent a l'état isolé.”

The distillation of oils from the bituminous shales and cannel
coals of this country has within the past quarter shown a disposi-
tion to revival. The influx of American oils entirely stopped the
production of oils in these islands, by reducing the price. The
demand for the mineral oils and paraffin is increasing, prices are
advancing, and consequently, in many places, fires are being re-
lighted under retorts which have been for the last two years in a
state of repose.

Gotp.—The quantity of gold raised during the first quarter of
this year at Vigra and Clogau, in Merionethshire has been somewhat
in excess of that produced in the corresponding quarter of last year.
Some other quartz lodes have been opened on in the Dolgelly
district with very promising results.

With the approach of fine weather the Helmsdale diggings in
Sutherlandshire have attracted a large number of miners. An
interesting popular account of those “diggings” has been written
- by J. F. Campbell, Esq., of Islay, called ‘Something from the

Gold Diggings in Sutherland.’ Mr. Campbell states “ that more
than 290 men are paying a pound a aanth for leave to camp out
and work like navvies in claims of 40 feet square; so that they
must be earning wages or going crazy.” From the best authority
we are enabled to state that about 20007. worth of gold has been
found since the Helmsdale burns have attracted attention.

Platinum has been, according to the ‘Mining Journal,’ dis-
covered in Scotland. It is said to have been found in some
auriferous Scotch quartz, and, as we glean, in connection with the
gold deposits which have been exciting attention. We are disposed
to think this to be very problematical, and await some further
information. That some very minute particles of platinum were
found in the auriferous sands of Wicklow, some years since, is
certain, but no quartz in the British Isles has ever yet been found
to contain that metal.

1869. | Mining. 459

Gold is reported to have been found in considerable quantities
in the region of the Cape of Good Hope, mainly in the great
plateau north of the Sneeuwbergen to the Orange river. Although
some doubts have been thrown on the'discovery of diamonds at
the Cape, it appears tolerably certain that about thirty of those
valuable gems have been found. Dr. Muskett, of Hope Town,
writing to the Society of Arts, says the formation in which those
gems are found “consists of rolled quartz, pebbles of various sorts,
chalcedony, agates, quartz crystals, bloodstone, Lydian stone, &e.,
fixed in a matrix of sandstone, and it rests on a regular sandstone
formation.”

The Miners’ Association of Cornwall and Devonshire has just
issued its annual report. From this it appears that in 1868 fitty-
one students in the classes passed the examinations of the Depart-
ment of Science and Art. The Rey. Saltren Rogers, one of the Vice-
Presidents, states :—“'The pupils have been gathered partly from
working miners; more from a class above them, sons of mine
agents, shopkeepers, schoolmasters, and the like. Though it might
be wished that a larger proportion of the former were among our
pupils, it is nevertheless very important that a stimulus to scientific
studies should be given among the latter; it is through them, and
not through the working miner, that we must look for a higher
and more general appreciation of such studies; it is from men
that have had the preparatory elementary education which they
have had, that we may expect inventive genius, which may be of
the highest practical value. It is a fact that becomes more and
more undeniable, that most of our working miners leave school
at too early an age to have their powers sufficiently developed
to master the elements of science; many of them cannot write
correctly, or understand the simplest terms without explanation,
or work a sum in proportion; and without this amount of pre-
paration the simplest sownd scientific trainmg must be lost upon
them. We have, however, commenced an experiment this year,
which is as yet too recent to enable us to form a judgment as to its
success, which will, we trust, bring down our teaching to the level
of a slightly lower capacity than that to which it has hitherto
been adapted; I refer to the formation of sub-classes, of which
those who have passed well in the South Kensington Examin-
ations are teachers; the course being longer and simpler than
those conducted by our official lecturer. ‘These sub-classes are still
under his superintendence, and he is instructed from time to time
to test the efficiency of the work by examinations of the pupils; five
of oe more adyanced pupils are now conducting sub-classes of this
kind.”

There has been some talk about attempting to establish a
mining school in South Wales; and there is some stir amongst the

VOL. VI. 21

— 460 Chronicles of Science. [July,

supporters of the mining school at Glasgow—which was allowed to
die a few years since—in the hope that they may be in a position
to revive it. Dr. Bryce, the President of the Philosophical Society
of Glasgow, has been in correspondence with Mr. Mark Fryar,
now Mining Engineer for the Indian Government, and some of
the remarks made by Mr. Fryar, who was for upwards of four
years the teacher in the old Glasgow school, are worthy of all
attention.

“It is absolutely necessary that some arrangement be made for
enabling young men to give up a portion of their work in the
mines during the time of their attendance to lessons or lectures.
Men or boys cannot be expected to profit much from any source of
instruction after having done an ordinary day’s work in a mine.
I have been all my lifetime among miners, and know them well,
and many a hard day’s work I have done myself in mines, and I
can assure you that schools of mines and scientific lectures are of
no manner of use to the working miner, unless he has too the
means of subsisting on about half the usual amount of labour he is
expected to perform; and so physically prepare himself for mental
work, and for handling the instruments used in mapping and
drawing.”

There is much truth in the suggestion that hard labour is not
compatible with attentive study, and that those men who exhibit
a thirst for knowledge should be placed in a position to acquire it,
is to be desired. In considering the possibility of educating the
working miner we must, however, remember that it is only with
the best of their class that we shall ever have to deal. That those
young and earnest men will generally succeed in placing themselves
i some superior position, which will give them the required period,
not of leisure, but of cessation from actual toil. Mining schools,
wherever established, will only secure as satisfactory students those
who have already made a mental resolve to raise themselves above
their brethren. Experience has shown that mining schools in
Glasgow, in Bristol, in Wigan, in Truro must be failures. It is
quite as difficult for working miners to attend the classes in any
one of those cities or towns, as it would be for them to attend the
courses of the Royal School of Mines in London.

No system of education can be of any advantage to our mining
population which is not an itinerating system. The classes must
be formed in the centre of groups of mines, the instruction must
be taken to the miner, since it has been proved impossible for the
miner to come to the instructor.

1869. ] Metallurgy. 461

METALLURGY.

Wotrram.—tIn the Académie des Sciences, M. La Guen, a
captain of artillery, has called attention anew to the remarkable
properties imparted to Bessemer steel by the addition of a small
quantity of tungsten. The question was put, could wolfram, allied,
as it is, to the ores of tin, be obtained at a sufficiently low price to be
employed with economy? We may answer this by stating that
large quantities of this mineral can be obtained at East Pool Mine
in Cornwall; and that at Drake Wales, Kit Hill, and some other
tin mines, it could be procured at a cheap rate, if the demand
became sufficiently large to warrant its extraction.

Iron ann Zinc.—Although it has long been known that iron
would dissolve in molten zinc; it has not hitherto been determined
whether there was any definite alloy of those metals or not. We
find in Erdmann’s Journal of ‘ Practical Chemistry, an account of
an alloy in which the metals do appear to exist in definite propor-
tions, its formule being given as Fe Zn 86 (Fe = 56; Zn 82°75).
The physical aspect of the alloy was very different from that of
zinc ; 1b was whiter in colour and possessed a different crystalline
structure; it contained 4°6 per cent. of iron.

Coxr.—The importance of obtaining coke free from sulphur
cannot, especially for iron manufacture, be over-estimated. Numerous
experiments have, from time to time, been made, with a view to the
use of coal in which some pyrites occur, in the manufacture of a
pure coke for the blast furnace.

Some experiments have been made in France which are stated
to have been remarkably successful. The coke when at a tempera-
ture of 300° Cent. was submitted to a strong current of atmospheric
air strongly compressed. This current of air is said to convert the
sulphur into sulphuric acid and remove it. The coke is reported to
produce iron equal to that which has been made with wood charcoal.

Auumintum.—The American journals announce that Mr. A. L.
Fleury, of Boston, has succeeded by a new process in smelting
alumina. He mixes pure alumina with gas tar or petroleum, and
forming the mixture into pellets, which are dried, they are placed
in a strong retort which is lined with plumbago. Into this car-
buretted hydrogen gas is forced until the pressure is from 25 Ibs.
to 30 lbs. on the square inch. The aluminium is reduced, and
remains as a spongy mass, mixed with carbon. ‘This is remelted
with metallic zine, and the zinc being volatilized, a pure mass of
aluminium remains behind. About four hours are required for
reducing a hundred-weight of alumina.

Ze iee

462 Chronicles of Science. [ July,

Rerrmep Jron.—Mr. Ellershausen has been carrying out some
experiments, which appear to us to be new only in the method
adopted, at the iron-works of Shoenberger at Pittsburg, U.S.,
on the conversion of crude cast-iron, as it runs from the blast
furnace into wrought-iron of fine quality, by the admixture of iron
ore. It has long been known that an oxide of iron will combine
with and remove the carbon from pig-iron. The ‘American Artizan’
describes the process, which appears to consist in allowing a quan-
tity of very finely powdered peroxide of iron to flow into boxes
prepared to receive it, at the same time as the iron is allowed to
flow into them from the furnace. The mass thus formed is sub-
mitted to the subsequent process of puddling, and it is said that
merchant iron is produced at the first rolling, thus considerably
reducing the cost.

The chemists have of late been turning their attention to the ,
character of iron in its different varieties. Dr. Miller, of King’s
College, has made some useful analyses of that produced by the
Heaton process. Dr. Paul has read before the Chemical Society a
paper “On the Connection between the Mechanical Qualities of Mal-
leable Iron and Steel, and the Amount of Phosphorus they contain ;”
while Mr. Arthur H. Elliott has a paper “On the Determination
of the ‘ Total Carbon’ in Cast Iron.” Mr. J. Lowthian Bell, the
well-known iron-master of Cleveland, has lectured (May 6th) before
the Chemical Society ‘On the Chemistry of the Blast Furnace.”
In this lecture a very careful consideration of all the conditions
under which the changes occur in the blast furnace was brought
before the chemists, This union of the experience of a thoroughly
practical man with the theoretical knowledge of the scientific
chemist cannot fail to have its advantages.

At the present time, attention is turned with so much earnest-
ness to the economy of coal in the production of iron and steel
that we may anticipate ere long to hear of the realization of results
which have hitherto been thought to be highly problematical.

Bronzes.—The production of a fine patina on our bronze
statues instead of a coating of dust and soot is, especially in our
large cities, a thing to be desired. In Poggendorff’s ‘ Annalen’ for
April we find the report of a series of experiments which were
made by direction of the Berlin Verein zur Beforderung des
Gewerbfleisses, to examine into the causes determining the forma-
tion of this vert antique patina, on bronze statues.

The experiments while in progress led the observers to suppose
that grease had much to do with the formation of the finest patina.
Four busts were therefore placed in a part of the town which was
very unfavourable. One of them was rinsed every day, with the
exception of rainy days, and was painted once a month with bone

1869. ] Metallurgy. 463

oil, which was at once rubbed off with woollen cloths. Another
bust was washed daily, but not oiled. A third was cleaned daily,
but oiled only twice a-year. The fourth was not at all touched.
These experiments have been continued for four or five years. The
result is that the bust which has been oiled once a-month possesses
a dark-green patina, which is considered to be very beautiful by
connoisseurs. The bust which has been rubbed twice a-year does
not look so well. ‘The others have no patina. The bust which
has been washed regularly is the usual dull bronze colour. The
other is quite dull and black. The final result of those who have
been engaged in the experiments is, this use of oil justifies the hope
that for the future we may retain beautifully patinated monuments,
even in large towns. Where coal is the only combustible they will
not be bright, but dark-green, and perhaps even black; but they
will have the other beautiful property of the patina, the peculiar
transparent condition of the surface.

We have recently received the following works which are
directly connected with the production of those minerals which
are of commercial value :—

‘Annuaire de l Association des Ingénieurs sortis de Tl Kcole
de Inége. This gives a very complete study of the coal basin of
Liege.

‘Les Howilleres en 1868, being the Report of Amédée
Burat, the Secretary to the Society of French Coal Owners. The
present position of the coal trade of France is very clearly stated.
Some comparisons are drawn between the modes of working the
French collieries and those of Great Britain, in which the author
is disposed to look upon the system adopted in his own country as
superior to that which is adopted in England and Wales. ‘he
comparisons are not fairly drawn; there are doubtless isolated cases
where great carelessness exists, but generally the utmost amount
of care is found to prevail in our collieries.

‘The Mineralogy of Nova Scotia’ is a Report of the Pro-
vincial Government, by Dr. Henry How. It gives such a general
view of the mineral resources of the Province, as will show what
has actually been done in the working of its best known treasures,
—coal, gold, iron, gypsum, and building stones. This report is exe-
cuted with great care, and gives such statistical details as cannot
fail to be of great utility to all who are in any way concerned in
the mineral resources of this most interesting colony.

A recent work bearing on Metallurgy is noticed in our Chronicle
of Engineering.

464 Chronicles of Science. [ July,

11. PHYSICS.

Licut.—The Rey. Father Secchi has made an interesting observa-
tion on the light emitted from the planet Uranus. ‘This light, it
appears, differs from that of the rest of the planets belonging to our
solar system. Its spectrum exhibits broad absorption lines, so that
the yellow colour is almost entirely absorbed. While it is clear that
the light emitted by this planet is reflected light from our sun, it
is evident that the surface of the planet modifies that light in the
same manner as do coloured bodies.

Mr. Crookes has recently sent a paper to the Royal Society,
in which he describes a spectrum-microscope which he has devised
in order to obviate the disadvantages of the ordinary instrument.
The principal features of the new apparatus are the sub-stage and |
the box of prisms. The former carries a sliding-plate to hold the
slit and apertures, a spring stop and screws for adjusting them, and
a* reversed object-glass. The shit and this object-glass are about
2 inches apart, and if reflected light is passed along the axis of the
instrument, the object-glass forms a very small image of the slit in
front of it. The direct-vision prisms consist of three flint and two
crown, fitted in a box screwed into the end of the microscope. By
means of a pin they are thrown in or out of action. The object-
glass screws on in front of the prism box. By taking the illumina-
tion from the sky or a white cloud, Fraiinhofer’s lines are visible,
and by direct sunlight they are seen in great perfection ; the disper-
sion is sufficient to cause the spectrum to cover the whole field, and
the achromatism of the lenses being nearly perfect, the lines from B
to G are practically in the same focus. When the light is good, the
appearance of the spectrum, and the power of grasping faint lines,
are greatly improved by dividing the ight with a Wenham prism,
and using both eyes; whilst the stereoscopic effect thereby commu-
nicated to some absorption and interference spectra, throws a new
light on the phenomena.

By using a spirit-lamp instead of the illuminating lamp, the
instrument answers admirably for examining flame spectra. The
characteristic yellow, crimson, or green lines are seen beautifully
sharp, on introducing sodium, lithium, or thallium into the flame.

By means of this spectrum-microscope Mr. Crookes has observed
some curious optical phenomena of opals.”

If an opal which emits a fine broad crimson light is held in
front of the slit of a spectroscope, or spectrum-microscope, at the
proper angle, and the source of light is moved so as to shine into
the spectrum apparatus through the opal, the appearance is observed
of a luminous spectrum with a jet black absorption band in the red.

From these and other experiments it has been found that those

1869. | Physics. 465

parts of the opal which emit red, yellow, green, or blue light are
opaque to light of the same refrangibility which they emit. The
appearances of some opals examined in this way are very striking.
In the next number of the ‘Quarterly Journal of Science’ Mr.
Crookes will describe these and other kindred phenomena more
fully, but we may briefly allude to the following curious spectra
which have been observed :—

Some opals show a simple black band in the red, which when in
focus has a spiral structure. Examined with both eyes, it bears
a resemblance to a twisted column.

In another opal, which gives an irregular line in the orange, the
spiral structure is shown in a marked manner, the different depths
and distances standing well out; upon carrying the opal slowly
from left to right, the line is seen to revolve and roll over, altering
its shape and its position in the spectrum. It is not easy to retaim
the conviction that one is looking merely at an absorption band in
the spectrum, and not ata solid body possessing dimensions, and
in actual motion. Other opals show an absorption band travelling
along the spectrum, almost from one end to the other, as the opal is
moved sideways.

M. Soret, in consequence of Professor Tyndall’s note “On the
Clouds,” has examined, by means of the polariscope, the beautiful
blue colour exhibited by many parts of the Lake of Geneva, and he
states that this colour is due to the presence of solid particles in
the water, of the same specific gravity as that fluid; but he does
not say what these particles are, nor what size or shape they have ;
promising, however, further researches.

In order to answer the often-doubted fact of the decomposition
of carbonic acid under the influence of light, and the separation of
oxygen by the leaves of plants, Boussingault has introduced into
mixtures of carbonic acid gas and hydrogen, and the former gas
and nitrogen, first a clean stick of phosphorus; as long as no
oxygen is present, this element does not undergo slow combustion,
thereby giving off vapours; but as soon as a green leaf of any
plant was carefully brought into the gaseous mixtures standing
over mercury, the slow combustion of the phosphorus began, owing
to the decomposition of the carbonic acid and formation of oxygen ;
this action takes place also in diffused daylight, but not durmg
twilight ; leaves wherein the chlorophyl is not fully developed do
not act in this manner.

It is a well-known fact that, even independent of the effects
of rain and wind, glass, even of good quality, is affected by
sunlight. The late Dr. Faraday made some observations con-
cerning this subject, and found that violet-coloured glass became
deeper and more intensely coloured than it originally was, after

466 Chronicles of Science. [July,

having been exposed to direct sunlight for eight months. M. Graf-
field, of Botson, U.8., who has been for more than twenty years in
the wholesale glass trade, and is at the same time a good observer,
has recently sent to the Photographic Society of Marseilles a series
of the results of his researches and observations on this subject, im
which he comes to the conclusion (which is especially important to
photographers) that glass is even sensibly affected after one single
day’s exposure to the sun’s rays, and that all glass, without excep-
tion, including that used for optical purposes, is more or less acted
upon, even when made from the best materials and by most ex-
perienced workmen; greenish glass seems to become the least affected.
The author has sent to Marseilles a series of photographs representing
the tinge and changes produced in divers varieties and kinds of glass
after exposing them to sunlight.

Many of our readers have had the opportunity of noticing that
bottles, especially if made of white glass, containing disulphide
of carbon often become lined, if exposed for any length of time
to direct sunlight, with a coating strongly adhering to the glass.
M. Loew has experimented on this substance, by enclosing the disul-
phide in sealed glass tubes previously moistened with water, which
has the effect of lessening the adhesiveness of the brownish coating.
On opening the sealed tubes after a few months’ exposure to sun-
light, the water was observed to have an acid reaction, due to the
formation of some formic acid. ‘The solid substance alluded to is
insoluble in alcohol, chloroform, ether, and disulphide of carbon, but
soluble in a boiling solution of caustic potassa, becoming, however,
at the same time decomposed. It has the composition of sesqui-
sulphide of carbon, and on being submitted to distillation is decom-
posed, yielding sulphur and carbon. The disulphide of carbon
from which this substance is deposited contains sulphur in solution,
although it was perfectly pure previous to exposure to sunlight.

When freshly-precipitated chloride of silver (best obtained by
decomposing a soluble silver salt with chlorine-water) is placed
in a white-glass tube about 15 inches in length, and exposed to
the action of direct sunlight, it will be observed that the chloride
of silver remains quite white as long as the solution of chlorine-
water retains its greenish-yellow colour ; but as soon as that colour
has vanished, the chloride of silver begins to decompose water under
the influence of the direct rays of sunlight; the chloride gradually
blackens, and after a shorter or longer duration of time, the whole
quantity will have become black, especially if care be taken to shake
the tube now and then, so as to expose the whole mass to the light.
When the tube is afterwards placed in a dark place, entirely
excluded from daylight, the black colour of the chloride of silver
again disappears gradually, and the chloride becomes white. This

1869. ] Physics. 467

experiment can be repeated over and over again with the same
tube. The bromide, and probably also the cyanide of silver, behave
in the same manner ; the iodide of silver blackens only after having
been rendered sensitive to light by pyrogallic acid.

Dr. Thudicum has recently published some investigations on
Luteine. By luteime Dr. Thudicum understands a yellow erystal-
line substance occurring in various parts of animals and plants, as,
for instance, the corpora lutea of ovaries, serum of blood, yolks of
eggs, in seeds, as maize (Indian corn), in annatto, in carrots, and
the stamina and petals of a great many flowers. Luteine is easily
soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform ; insoluble in water. These
solutions are yellow; but that in chloroform, when concentrated,
has an orange-red colour. The spectrum of its solutions is distin-
guished by great brilliancy of the red, yellow, and green part, and
by three absorption bands, which are situated in the blue, indigo,
and violet part of the spectrum. ‘The crystals of luteine are appa-
rently rhombic plates, of which two or more are always superposed
in a curious manner. The crystals are microscopic yellow when
thin, orange to red when thick, and have no resemblance to any
other known animal or vegetable substance. Luteine combines with
few substances, mercury-acetate being perhaps the only reagent by
which it is immediately and completely precipitated as a yellow
deposit ; mercury-nitrate produces a yellow precipitate, which on
standing becomes white. Nitric acid, poured over the crystals,
produces a blue colour, which immediately passes into yellow. The
blue is not produced when nitric acid is added to either the alco-
holic, ethereal, or chloroformic solution of luteine, but appears with
the acetic-acid solution, and disappears again rapidly. Luteine has
great affinity for fatty matters and for albumen.

The Paris correspondent of the ‘ British Journal of Photography’
reports that the oxyhydrogen-zirconia light has been such a success
at the Tuileries, having been worked without interruption since the
21st of January, that the Emperor has ordered measures to be
taken to render that mode of illumination permanent in front of
his palace. In connection with this fact, we may mention that
M. Tessié de Mothay has had the Order of Chevalier of the Legion
of Honour bestowed upon him. The learned Abbé Moigno, while
referring to this subject in ‘Les Mondes, says, “Our readers will
undoubtedly hear with pleasure that the production of oxygen in a
cheap manner from manganate of potassa, and that of pure hydrogen,
by means of a hydrocarbon fuel on the large scale, have become a
decided success; that moreover, the reduction of the earths baryta,
magnesia, and alumina to the metals barium, magnesium, and
aluminium, by means of hydrogen under high pressure and a very
high temperature, is successfully carried out ; while lastly M. Caron

468 Chronicles of Science. [July,

has succeeded in obtaining, by means of great perseverance, zircon-
magnesia cones, which, instead of being very breakable and only
lasting for a few nights, are fit for use for any length of time.”

Mr. D. Winstanley has described an apparatus for cbtaining a
light from the combustion of disulphide of carbon. It consists of
a water-bath, heated by a Bunsen gas-burner. Within the water-
bath is placed a vessel to hold disulphide of carbon. The outer and
inner yessels are firmly soldered together, and proper arrangements
are made to enable the experimenter to pour water in the outer
vessel, which is also provided with a neck to hold a thermometer,
serving to indicate when the temperature at which the disulphide
of carbon contained in the inner vessel boils. The inner vessel is
provided with a neck, closed by a well-fitting cap when the appa-
ratus is in use, for the introduction of the fluid disulphide of carbon.
Besides this, there is soldered to the inner vessel a gas-pipe of small.
bore, which pipe projects at a convenient height above the outer
vessel. ‘To this pipe is soldered and connected at right angles
another pipe provided with a stopcock, and further connected, by
means of elastic tubing, with a gas-holder containing oxygen gas
made from chlorate of potash. After the application of gas-flame
beneath the water-bath, the thermometer is watched until it indi-
cates that the vapour of the bisulphide of carbon is issuing from
the burner (from the gas-pipe connected with the inner vessel) ;
the heat is allowed to continue beneath the water-bath until the
flame reaches the flaring point, when it is lessened almost to extine-
tion. The oxygen gas is then cautiously introduced, upon which
the flame at once diminishes in size and increases greatly in bril-
hancy. This light is proposed for use in photography, on account
of its great actinism : as a source of intense heat it may also perhaps
be recommended.

Huat.—While engaged in other studies on geology in the
southern parts of France, M. Andouin found that between Tarascon
and Antibes there exists a very valuable and extensive bed of
bawaite (hydrate of alumina), which is occasionally applied for the
manufacture of sulphate of alumina. ‘This material has been
applied at his suggestion for the manufacture of crucibles and fire-
bricks ; and on haying been tested in comparison with the best
products of the kind from France, England, and Germany, it was
found that even best fire-bricks might be melted in bauxite-made
crucibles, heated by mineral oils and a blast.

In reference to the well-established fact that water, after having
been deprived of air as much as possible, either does not boil at all
when heated, or does so with violent sudden starts and concussions,

1869. | Physics. 469

some experiments have been made by Kremers, who observed that,
in order to assist in expelling air from water, the addition of spirits
of wine, in the proportion of one part of the latter to three of the
former, is very useful. He cautions against a danger which exists
when such a mixture is heated too rapidly ; since it is very apt to
boil over, especially after a portion of the spirit has evaporated. It
is rather curious that, though both the water and spirits of wine
employed were pure, the mixture when boiling should assume a
greenish-yellow hue, which disappears again on cooling. The
boiling-point of the fluid easily becomes as high as 109°. As a
result of a large number of experiments, the author finds that
water, as fully deprived of air as possible, may be heated as high
as from 180° to 200° C., without boiling permanently.

M. Debray has investigated the action of heat upon the peroxide
salts of iron. In a large portion of distilled water a few drops of a
neutral solution of chloride of iron are poured, care being taken
not to apply so much of the salt that its colour is imparted
to the water ; on heating the liquid gradually up to, and above,
70° C., it becomes perceptibly brown-coloured. When this moment
has arrived, the water no longer contains chloride of iron, but
instead a mixture of free hydrochloric acid and free peroxide of
iron ; the limpidity of the fluid is not, however, at all impaired.
In order to prove this, it is only requisite to pour into the fluid
a solution of common salt, whereby the static equilibrium of the
liquid is disturbed, and the oxide of iron precipitated. When the
experiment is made in sealed tubes, and the latter heated to between
200° and 300° C., crystalline oxide of iron is precipitated.

A new freezing mixture, which appears to be of considerable
interest, has been described by Mr. Galletly. When citric acid
and crystallized carbonate of soda, in powder, are stirred toge-
ther, the mass gets into a pasty state, and in a short time becomes
quite liquid. If equivalent proportions of the substances are
used, the temperature falls from 60°F. to—8°F. The mixture
for a time is full of air-bubbles, but soon becomes a clear, dense,
syrupy fluid. The fluid obtained by mixing the powders becomes
solid in a day or two standing in a corked jar. The solid mass has
the appearance of set plaster of Paris or damp chalk. The addition
of a very little water appears to prevent this setting into a solid
mass; but the chalky-looking citrate les a long time in cold water
without being dissolved.

Dr. H. Fleck, of Dresden, has instituted a series of experi-
ments with a view to obtain a non-poisonous paste for application
to lucifer-matches. He ascertained by some preliminary experi-
ments that sodium, when minutely divided along with explosive

470 Chronicles of Science. [ July,

substances, becomes highly inflammable when simply moistened
with water. A mixture was made of

0:5 grammes of sodium,
66°0 Be nitrate of potash,
36°5 - sulphide of antimony.

Provided that during its manufacture this mixture is kept thoroughly
dry, it has been found to answer admirably well. According to
several accounts from Germany, this plan of substituting sodium
for phosphorus has been favourably taken up by some of the largest
leading manufacturers of lucifer and fusee matches. There is
said to be not the least danger in the transport.

It is well known that various accidents occur from fire caused
by persons carelessly throwing down matches, which they believe
to be harmless because the flame has been extinguished, but which, .
in reality, are highly dangerous, and quite capable of communi-
cating fire to any light dry material, in consequence of the wood-
splint being at a red heat, although not actually in flame. It
appears from the ‘ Scientific American’ that it has been proposed,
in order to prevent this, to saturate the splints, previously to their
being dipped, with a solution of some chemical salt which has the
property of preventing the wood from remaining at a red heat after
the flame has been extinguished without bemg in any way detri-
mental to the inflammable nature of the splint, and thus to prevent
the possibility of accident from the dropping of the match after
the extinction of the flame, but while the splint is still at a red
heat. The substance which it is proposed to employ is alum,
though other salts have the same property. The matches before
being dipped are to be immersed in a strong solution of alum, or
other salt with a similar action, until they are saturated; they
are then to be dried and tipped with the ordinary composition.
Matches, so treated, are said to ignite, and burn with flame as long
and readily as other matches ; but the instant the flame is blown out,
the match becomes black and perfectly harmless.

Execrriciry.—By far the most gigantic electrical instrument
ever made has just been fitted up at the Royal Polytechnic Insti-
tution. This is the large imduction-coil, which has been made by
Mr. Apps. It is 10 feet long and 2 feet in diameter. The core of
soft iron weighs 123 lbs., and consists of wires each 5 feet long and
00625 in diameter. The primary coil weighs 145 lbs., and is com-
posed of 3770 yards of copper wire. ‘The secondary wire is 150
miles in length, and 0°015 inch in diameter. ‘The galvanic cur-
rent for the primary coil is supplied by 40 of Bunsen’s cells. It is
capable of producing a spark 29 inches long, and the flash will
perforate plate-glass 5 inches thick. This huge and powerful coil

1869. | Physics. 471

will not only be valuable to Professor Pepper to illustrate the
wonders of electricity to the general public, but it has already been
placed by him at the disposal of Dr. Richardson and other scien-
tifie men as a means of promoting scientific research.

Dr. Sarrazin has noticed some hitherto unknown phenomena of
phosphorescence. As soon as pure oxygen is reduced to a pressure
of only two millimetres or less, it becomes exceedingly luminous
under the influence of electricity. No other known gas is pos-
sessed of this property. All compound gases which contain oxygen
become also luminous, and most so the protoxide of nitrogen.
The doctor has found that the cause of this phosphorescence is due
to the formation of ozone, since it does not take place when,
previous to passing an electric current through the gas, powdered
metallic silver has been introduced into the space containing the
eas ; in this case the silver becomes rapidly oxidized.

While engaged in studying the part which sulphuric acid plays
in these phenomena, Dr. Sarrazin found that when a small quantity
of this acid, which is considered non-volatile at ordinary tempe-
ratures, was confined along with nitrogen gas, for instance, in a
gas jar, and an electric current passed through, a very intense
luminosity was caused, notwithstanding nitrogen is not by itself
rendered luminous under these conditions. The author found that
there was decomposition of sulphuric acid, with formation of ozone,
and that the phenomena ceased when powdered silver was intro-
duced.

Mr. Freidel has quite recently discovered that silicated hydrogen
gas is entirely decomposed by the electric spark, giving rise in the
endiometer to a shower of amorphous silicitum of a brown colour.

A phono-electroscope has lately been described by Mr. Edwin
Smith, M.A., for the purpose of illustrating the heating power of
the voltaic current. It consists of a rectangular wooden box,
10 inches by 5, two steel or platinum wires stretched from end to
end, a small spindle carrying two quill plectra, and an eccentric
wheel for making and breaking the current through one of the
wires. The wheel turns under a brass spring, which plays upon a
button. The spring is connected with one electrode of the battery,
the button with the wire nearest to it, and this wire with the other
electrode. To exhibit the use of the instrument: first, tighten the
wires by means of milled-headed screws, to unison, to about the
pitch of middle C; then turn the spindle so as to sound the two
notes in succession before the eccentric wheel makes the circuit.
After these have unison, turn the spindle a little more; the circuit
is made by wheel and spring, and presently the plectra are allowed
to play a second time on the wires, which now sound, with an interval
of a tone or more, according to the quantity of electricity which has

472 Chronicles of Science. [ July,

passed through one of them. By regulating the time between the
instant when the wires sound in unison and the instant when they
sound again, and noticing the musical interval caused by one of
them becoming flat, we have an audible measure of the expansion
of the connected wire, of the temperature to which it has been
raised, and of the quantity of electricity which has traversed it to
produce that effect. By continuing the movement, the interval
between the notes will increase, and at last the wire operated on will
become too slack to sound at all. If connection with the battery be
now broken, and the heated wire be allowed to cool, its note will
be heard to rise by degrees to its original pitch. With a single pair
of plates, the phono-electroscope answers well. The experiment is a
striking one in a lecture-room, very instructive, and easily managed.

According to Bottger, the metal antimony may replace graphite
in galvanic batteries. He finds the followimg arrangement prefer- -
able, as regards force and durability, to either Daniell, Minotto, or
Leblanche’s batteries. A cylinder of amalgamated zinc is placed
in a concentrated solution of equal parts of common salt and
sulphate of magnesia; the antimony is placed in a porous cell
filled with dilute sulphuric acid.

Mr. Gore, F.R.S., whilst making some experiments on heating
strained iron to redness by means of voltaic electricty, observed
that, on disconnecting the battery and allowing the wire to cool,
during the process of cooling the wire suddenly elongated, and
then gradually shortened until it became quite cold. ‘The amount
of elongation of the wire during the momentary molecular change
was usually about 1-240th part of the length of the heated wire ;
the molecular change evidently includes a diminution of cohesion
at a particular temperature during the process of cooling, and it is
interesting to notice that at the same temperature during the
heating process no such loss of cohesion, nor any increase of
cohesion takes place; a certain temperature and strain are there-
fore not alone sufficient to produce it, but the condition of cooling
must also be included.

M. Alvergniat calls attention to the fact, that by simply rubbing
one of Geissler’s tubes with the dry hand or a piece of silk, it
exhibits the same phenomena of luminosity as if induced by elec-
tricity ; the phosphorescence is, however, weak, but may be increased
when within the tube substances are deposited which may become
phosphorescent under the influence of electricity ; when a tube so
arranged is quickly rubbed, it becomes within a few moments suf-
ficiently luminous to serve as a faint light to see in a dark room.

1869. | Zoology. 473

12, ZOOLOGY—ANIMAL MORPHOLOGY AND PHY-
SIOLOGY ; AND RECENT LITERATURE.

MorpHouoey.

New Views on the Homologies of the Suspensoriwm.—The ad-
vanced school of osteologists—that is to say, those who reject the
vertebral theory of the skull—origmated by Oken and Goethe and
developed by Carus, have been im the habit of pointing to the
ossicula auditis as the homologues of the quadrate and articular
pieces, the incus being regarded as the homologue of the former, the
malleus as that of the latter. The relations of the chorda tympani
to these bones, though said to support this interpretation, did not
really do so; and many powerful arguments were urged against it
by Professor Peters of Berlin, Professor Humphry of Cambridge,
and others. Professor Huxley, who is chiefly responsible for the
view in this country, has re-examined the matter, and has been led
to a much more satisfactory conclusion, especially from the study
of that very remarkable lizard, the Hatteria, rhyncocephalus, or
Sphenodon of New Zealand. Instead of now regarding the incus
as the homologue of the quadrate, he considers it to form part of
the second visceral arch, and to be represented in Birds and Reptiles
by a ligament or a cartilage connected with the stapes. He regards
the malleus as the representative of the quadrate, the articulare of
the lower Vertebrata not being represented by bone in the Mam-
malia. In Fishes he considers the incus to be represented by the
“hyomandibular” or “suspensorial” element. Mr. Parker, the
author of the very splendid volume on the Shoulder Girdle issued
last year by the Ray Society, has been examining this question of
the lower jaw in Amphibians, and his researches lead him to agree
with Professor Huxley’s conclusions.

Muscular Homologies.—There are some important papers rela-
ting to this subject to be chronicled. Professor Rolleston, in a paper
read to the Linnean Society, discusses the homology of certain
muscles connected with the shoulder-jomt ; and in the Transactions
of the same Society are very well-illustrated memoirs on the limb-
muscles of the Six-banded Armadillo, and of the “Ard Vaak,” or Cape
Ant-eater. These three papers emanate from the Oxford Anatomi-
cal Laboratories. Professor Humphry has two papers on similar
subjects (Myology of Pteropus, and of the Leg and Forearm) in the
‘Journal of Anatomy ; whilst Dr. Macalister, of Dublin, has a third,
on the Pronator Muscles in Vertebrate Animals. The general result
of these papers is greatly to add to our knowledge of the muscular
structures of Mammalia, and especially to give definite views on the
serial homologies of the muscles of the fore and hind extremities,

474 Chronicles of Science. [ July,

The Vielle of the Seychelles.—This enormous fish, the Batrachus
gigas, is occasionally caught by the fishermen of the above islands.
Mr. Swinburne Ward, a resident in the Seychelles, writes that he
has made repeated endeavours to procure a specimen to send to
Europe, but it is exceedingly difficult so to do. The fishermen are
sometimes obliged to cut the lines when a Vielle has been hooked,
and on one occasion Mr. Ward was disappointed by the escape of a
monster just as he had brought him to the surface. One has been
known in the harbour for the last six years, lurking in a deep hole,
as appears to be the habit of the species ; and he refuses all snares
and baits which are contrived to capture him. A head was sent
recently to London by Mr. Ward, of a very large specimen, the
greater part of which had been damaged ; and he is now making
continued efforts to obtain a good specimen. The fish is often as
much as seventeen feet in length.

The Zandr, or Pike-Perch, is a fish resembling in external
appearance both pike and perch, which is common in Eastern
Germany, and is much eaten in Berlin, but is not known to the
west of the Elbe. Mr. Frank Buckland has been making endea-
vours to procure specimens for naturalization in this country; and
a dealer who recently went to Berlin to obtain specimens of the
Silurus glanis for the reservoirs of a gentleman residing in Oxford-
shire, brought over with him some specimens of this interesting fish.
Herr Brockhardt has promised to send Mr. Buckland next spring a
living zande of 11 or 12 lbs. weight, and also young zandes. The
fish inhabits the lake-like expansions of the Naffel, Spree, and other
rivers in North Germany, and is hence rather a lacustrine than a
fluviatile species.

The Green Leech.—Trocheta viridis was first recorded as a
British species some years ago by Dr. Gray, who had a specimen
sent to him which was obtained in a very strange place, viz. Regent's
Park. Mr. Henry Lee has lately rediscovered the species, and Mr.
Pryor, of Trinity College, Cambridge, has also found it at Horsham
in Surrey. The green colour was supposed by some persons to be
possibly due to chlorophyl. Mr. Lankester, whose observations
with the spectroscope first proved the presence of chlorophyl in the
river Sponge, in Hydra viridis, and in a green worm (Mesostomum),
finds upon spectroscopic examination that the green colour of
Trocheta is not due to chlorophyl, but to a distinct green colouring
matter soluble in alcohol, which also occurs in some marine
annelids.

Impregnation of Balani—In a recent Chronicle we noticed
Fritz Miiller’s observations on South American Barnacles, which
led bim to believe that these animals are not only hermaphrodite,
but capable of impregnating neighbouring individuals: and thus
possibly in some cases a crossing of species might arise, which he

1869. | Zoology. 475

was led to expect from the occurrence of forms apparently interme-
diate between species which live in adjoining habitats, Mr. R.
Bishop, of Plymouth, records in the ‘ Annals’ that he has seen
copulation take place in a group of Barnacles which he was keeping
in an aquarium. Great activity and excitement was exhibited by
all the specimens, and they continually threw out a long tongue-
like organ which penetrated adjacent individuals, and was clearly im
his opinion an act of impregnation.

PHYSIOLOGY.
Action of Anesthetics on the Blood.—Dr. J. H. McQuillen, of

Philadelphia, has made a microscopical examination of the blood-cor-
puscles of animals killed by chloroform and by nitrous oxide, with
a view of testing the assertion of Dr. Sansom, that chloroform
destroys the red corpuscles. He finds that it undoubtedly does so
when brought into contact with the blood after it has been drawn
and placed on a glass slip, but that it certainly has no such effect
in the body, nor has nitrous oxide, as he fully proves by experiment.
Dr. McQuillen adds to this, that he considers undue prominence
has been given by physiologists to the blood-corpuscles as the
carriers of oxygen to the tissues, and carbonic acid gas to the lungs,
and that it is reasonable to infer that the liquor sanguinis is engaged
in this operation. But to what physiologists does he refer?
Surely he cannot be acquainted with the modern researches and
conclusions on this matter, for it is universally admitted, as the
result of experiment, that a large part of the carbonic acid of the
blood is held by the serum ; indeed it has been a question if any is
held by the corpuscles at all. Alexander Schmidt in a recent paper
has shown that a variable amount is present in the corpuscles,
whilst Sertoli and Zuntz have also been at work on the matter.
The latter physiologist believes that a portion of the CO, of the
blood is combined with carbonate of sodium and phosphate of
sodium in the serum; the rest is in part merely dissolved, and in
part retained, with a combination of potash and hemoglobin in the
blood-corpuscles.

Insusceptibility of Pigeons to Opiwm-porsoning.—Dr. Weir
Michell, an able American physiologist, having occasion to produce
sleep in pigeons, administered to them doses of various preparations
of opium, but failed to produce the desired effect. Astonished at
the failure, he made experiments with a view of seemg how much
opium was required to kill these birds. He writes, “ Pigeon took
80 drops of black-drop internally; no effect except a tendency
to keep quiet; no signs of stupor; no change of pupils; feathers
ruffled, as is common with these birds when sick from any cause.
Pigeon received 42 drops of black-drop under skin of groin.

VOL. VI. 2K

476 Chronicles of Science. [July,

Symptoms the same as in the last case. Neither of them slept at
all, and both were well the next day. Pigeon received under skin,
in three localities in all, two grains of sulphate of morphia dissolved
in water slightly acidulated with acetic acid. No effects were seen
other than those described in the former cases. Pigeon took inter-
nally three grains of sulphate of morphia dissolved; recovery
without notable symptoms. Pigeon took at 8.30 a.m. 272 drops
of black-drop; he retained it during an hour, but at twelve was
found to have vomited an unknown amount of it, by estimate at least
half; recovered after remaining all day quiet in the corner of his
cage, not asleep, and capable of being easily aroused, and then
able to execute every usual movement, as flying, walking, and the
like. The final experiment seems to me decisive. To a large
pigeon, which within the two preceding days had swallowed 42 drops
ot black-drop, I gave, between two p.m. and six o'clock, 21 grains of
powdered opium in soft pills of three grains each. Except the ©
usual tendency to remain quiet, none of the common evidences of
oplum-poisoning appeared, and the pigeon was well and active
next day.”

Cause of Death when the Skin is covered with Varnish —A
writer in the ‘Journal of Anatomy’ observes that some persons
have supposed that when an animal dies from the effects of having
its skin covered with varnish, its death must be ascribed to the
retention of deleterious matters given off by the skin. Edenhuizen
thought that the noxious matter is volatile alkali. Gerlach and
others thought that death was due to suppression of the respiratory
functions of the skin; while Valentine had, on the other hand,
shown that the morbid symptoms manifested by a varnished animal
disappear if the animal be placed in a higher temperature, thereby
leading to the notion that death in such a case results from increased
loss of heat. Laschkewitsch, of St. Petersburg, has by recent re-
searches confirmed the truth of the last-mentioned theory. <A
varnished animal, when surrounded by cotton-wadding, suffered no
harm, though it died when the wadding was removed. He found
the blood-vessels much dilated below the varnish ; he supposes that
the dilatation of cutaneous vessels favours the loss of heat by the skin.
He has found that the volatile alkali spoken of by Edenhuizen
results from the decomposition of hair and epidermis. He further
disproved Gerlach’s view that asphyxia is the cause of death, by
placing an animal in an atmosphere of hydrogen, taking care to
cover the animal’s mouth with an elastic funnel communicating
with the external atmosphere. The animal lived in this medium
for six hours withont suffering any deleterious effects.

1869. | Zoology. 477

MisceELLANEous LITERATURE, &e.

Prof. Husley’s New Book.—A book on the classification of
animals by Prof. Huxley has just been published, and must be of great
value to those reading for examinations, as well as to students and
teachers. It is an extension of the lectures published in a former
volume, which also included lectures on the skull. The orders as
well as the larger groups of the animal kingdom and the principles
of classification are discussed in this book, which is undoubtedly
the most advanced and most trustworthy manual of the outlines of
comparative anatomy yet published.

The Journal of Anatomy.—We desire cordially to recommend
this excellent journal, published half-yearly, to such of our readers
as are interested in the advancement of physiology and anatomy.
Professors Humphry and Turner are ably carrying on their under-
taking, begun in 1867, but we can well believe taat 2 r:cre extended
circulation would be to the advantage of all parties concerned. The
reports on the progress of anatomy by Professor Turner, and on
various departments of physiology by Drs. Gamgee, Rutherford,
and Fraser of Edinburgh, and Dr. Moore of Dublin, are among
the most useful and complete records of biological literature that
are published in any language.

(- ATS *) [ July,

Quarterly List of Publications receibed for Webieww.

1. British Conchology; or, an Account of the Mollusea which now
Inhabit the British Isles and the surrounding Seas. Vol. V.
Marine Shells, and Naked Mollusca to the end of the Gastro-
poda, the Pteropoda, and Cephalopoda, &c. (conclusion of the
work), By John Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S., &e. Van Voorst.

2. A History of the British Hydroid Zoophytes. By Thomas
Hincks, B.A. 2 vols. Plates. Van Voorst.

3. A Practical Treatise on Metallurgy, adapted from the last German
Edition of Professor Kerl’s Metallurgy. By Wm. Crookes,
F.R.S., and Ernst Rohrig, Ph.D. Vol. Il. Copper—lIron..

With 273 Wood Engravings. Longmans.
4, Sound and Colour: their Relations, Analogies, and Harmonies.
By J. D. Macdonald, M.D., F.RS. Longmans.

5. On the Chemical Changes of Carbon. By Wm. Odling, M.B.,
F.R.S. (A Course of Lectures.) Reprinted from the ‘ Chemical
News.’ With Notes by W. Crookes, F.R.S, Longmans.

6. On the Principles of Pure and Applied Calculation, and Applica-
tion of Mathematical Principles to Theories of the Physical
Forces. By Rev. James Challis, M.A., F.R.S., &e.

Cambridge: Deighton, Bell, & Co. London: Bell & Daldy.

7. Iron and Steel. By Knut Styffe, Director of the Royal Tech-
nological Institute at Stockholm. ‘Translated by C. P.
Sandberg, with a Preface by John Percy, F.R.S. 9 Litho-
graphic Plates. John Murray.

8. Habit and Intelligence. By Joseph John Murphy. 2 vols.

Macmillan & Co.

9. On Going to Sleep. By Charles H. Moore. R. Hardwicke.
10. Croonian Lectures on Matter and Force. By Dr. Henry Bence
Jones, F'.R.S. J. Churchill & Sons.

11. Reliquizw Aquitanice. Part VIII. Bailliere.

12. Die Chemie der Jetztzeit. C. W. Blomstrand, Prof. an der

Universitat zu Lund. Heidelberg: C. Wintersche Buchhandlung.

13 La Storia Antica, Restituita a Veritae Raffrontrata alla Moderna,
Dal Commendatore Negri Cristoforo,

Torina : Stamperia dell? Unione Tipografico-Lditrice.

14. Spectrum Analysis. By Henry E. Roscoe. With coloured Plates

and Illustrations. Macmillan & Co,

1869. } List of Publications received for Review. 479

15. Cyclopedice Science Simplified. By J. H. Pepper. With six
hundred Illustrations. Warne & Co,
16. Sound: a Course of Eight Lectures, delivered at the Royal
Institution of Great Britain. By John Tyndall, LL.D.
F.R.S. &e. Longmans & Co.

PAMPHLETS AND PERIODICALS.
Discoveries in Science by the Medical Philosopher, By Sir G.
Dunean Gibb, &e. H. K. Lewis.
On the Conditions of the Metallic Currency of the United Kingdom,
with reference to the Question of International Coinage. By W.
Stanley Jevons, M.A.

On the Structure and Affinities of Parnassia palustris, &e. By Alf.
W. Bennett, M.A., B.Sc.

London Water Supply. By H. H. Fulton, C.E.
On the Action of Nitrites on Blood. By Professor Gamgee.

Reports of the Mining Surveyors and Registrars. Victoria.
A Problem for Trisecting an Angle geometrically, &. By Sampson
Sandys.

Statistics of New Zealand. ;

The Mineralogy of Nova Scotia. By Henry How, D.C.L.

Report on the Culture of the Japanese Silkworm in England. By
Alexander Wallace, M.D., &c.

Of Geological Dynamics. By Sir William Thomson, LL.D. F.R.S,
Reprinted from the ‘ Transactions of the Geological Society of
Glasgow. Vol, III. Part 2.

Colorado : United States, America; its History, Geography, and
Mining. By R. O. Old. London.

Nekrosozoic Process for the Preservation or Embalming of the
Human Body. Reports of Dr. Francis Delafield, Professor James
R. Wood, Professor R. Ogden Doremus, Professor A. Flint, jun.

Garstin & Co.

The Disinfectant Question. Reprinted from the ‘ Sanitary Record,’

London.
Quarterly Notes on Books. Longmans.
Revue Bibliographique Universelle,* June, 1869. Paris,

* This Review contains, besides Notices of Books in all languages, a list of all
important works in Theology, Jurisprudence, the Arts and Sciences, Philosophy,
Politics, Education, Industry, Finance, and Commerce, the Fine Arts, Belles
Lettres, Novels, History, &e.; also the contents of all noteworthy periodicals
published in the French, German, English, Dutch, Italian, Polish, Russian, &c.,
languages.&

480 List of Publications received for Review. [July, 1869.

Van Nostrand’s Eclectic Engineering. No. VI. New York.
The American Naturalist, June, 1869. Salem, Mass.
The Educational Gazette.

The Geological Magazine.

Scientific Opinion. Part VII.

The Popular Science Review.

The Westminster Review.

The Chicago Medical Times. Vol. I. No. 3.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES, &e.
Third Annual Report of the Aéronautical Society of Great Britain.
President: The Duke of Argyll. Hon. Sec.: F. W. Brearey.

The Journal of the Historical and Archzxological Association of
Ireland.

Transactions of the Geological Society of Glasgow.
Proceedings of the Bristol Naturalists’ Society.

a » _ Miners’ Association of Cornwall and Devonshire.
By R. Hunt, F.R.S., Hon. Gen. See.

Report of the Rugby School Natural History Society.
Bollctina della Societ’ Geografica Italiana (with President’s Address).
F Firenze: Guiseppe Civelli.

Journal of the Ethnological Society of London. Edited by Professor
Huxley, F.R.S., President. Hon. Sec., Lionel J. Beale, M.R.C.S.

Address at the Anniversary Meeting of the Royal Geographical
Society, May 24,1869. By Sir Roderick Impey Murchison.

Proceedings of the Royal Institution.

€ » Royal Society.

» » Royal Astronomical Society.

% » Zoological Society.

* » Bath Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club.
No. 3.

In the present Number (XXIII.) of this Journal will be found,
besides numerous Short Notices of Books, Pamphlets, and
Essays, Reviews of the following recent works on Scientific
subjects :—

PAGE

Hartwig’s ‘Polar World’ (Longmans) .. .. .. «. co o « BOT
Moore’s ‘Going to Sleep’ (Hardwicke) .. 1. ss ss os ov so 401

Somerville’s ‘ Molecular Science’ (Murray) ee ee
Odling’s ‘Chemical Changes of Carbon’ (Longmans) .. .. .. 4. 405
Fergusson’s ‘ Illustrations of Mythology and Art in India’*..° .. .. 410
Becquerel’s ‘Influence of Forests on Climate’ t Se nnd, as) 9 Saree

* In Chronicle of Archwology. t In Meteorological Chronicle.

on Cee reins:
— e

os

Ort.

N2 2.
D Eb FE

SPECTRAL PHENOMENA OF OPALS

By Wittiam Crookes F.R.S. &¢

THE QUARTERLY

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

OCTOBER, 1869.

I. ON THE SPECTRAL PHENOMENA OF OPALS.
By Wiiu1am Crooxss, F.R.S., &e.

A Few months ago* the writer described a new form of spectrum
microscope, in which some of the disadvantages possessed by the
old form are removed. The new spectrum apparatus consists of
two parts, which are readily attached to an ordinary single or
binocular microscope, and when attached they can be thrown in or
out of adjustment by a touch of the finger, and may readily be used
in conjunction with the polariscope or dichroscope ; object-glasses of
high or low power can be used, although the appearances are more
striking with a power of 3-inch focus or longer ; and an object as
small asa single corpuscle of blood can be examined, and its spectrum
observed.

The two additions to the microscope consist of the substage
with slit, &c., and the prisms in their box. The substage is of the
ordinary construction, with screw adjustment for centering, and
rackwork for bringing it nearer to or withdrawing it from the
stage. In the accompanying engraving, A B is a plate of brass
sliding im grooves attached to the lower part of the substage ; it
carries an adjustable slit c, a circular aperture p, 0:6 inch diameter,
and an aperture o, $ inch square. A spring top enables either the
slit or one of the apertures to be brought into the centre of the
field, without moving the eye from the eye-piece. Screw adjust-
ments enable the slit to be widened or narrowed at will, and
also varied in length. At the upper part of the substage is a
screw of the standard size, into which an object-glass, shown at
E, of high power, is fitted. The slit c and this object-glass u
are about 2 inches apart, and if light is reflected by means of the
mirror along the axis of the instrument, it is evident that the object-
glass & will form a small image of the slit c, about 0°3 inch in
front of it. A milled head r moves the whole substage up or down

* «Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ May 27, 1869.
VOL. VI. 2.

482 On the Spectral Phenomena of Opals. [ Oct.,

the axis of the microscope, whilst screws G and 4H, at right angles to
each other, bring the image of the slit into any desired part of the
field. If the brass slide a B is pushed in so as to bring the circular
aperture D in the centre, the substage arrangement then becomes
similar to the old form of achromatic condenser. Beneath the slit
© is an arrangement for holding an object, in case its surface is too
irregular, or substance too dense, to enable its spectrum to be
properly viewed in the ordinary way.

Suppose an object is on the upper stage of the microscope,
and viewed by light transmitted from the mirror through the large
aperture D and the condenser ©; by pushing in the lower brass
slide AB so as to bring the slit c in the field, and then focusing by
the milled head F, it is evident that a luminous image of the slit co
can be projected on to the object ; and by proper adjustment of the
focus, the object and the slit can be seen together equally sharp..
Also, since the whole of the light which illuminated the object has
been cut off, except that portion which passes through the slit, all
that is now visible in the instrument is a narrow luminous line, in
which is to be seen just so much of the object as falls within the
space this line covers. By altering the slit adjustments the length
or width of the luminous line can be varied, whilst by means of the
rackwork attached to the upper stage any part of the object may
be superposed on the luminous line. The stage is supplied with a
concentric movement, which permits the object to be rotated whilst
in the field of view, and thus allow the image of the slit to fall on
it in any direction. During this examination a touch with the
finger will at any time bring the square aperture 0, or the circular
aperture D, into the field instead of the slit, so as to enable the
observer to see the whole of the object; and in the same manner
the slit can as easily be again brought back into the field.

The other essential part of this spectrum microscope consists of
the prisms. They are of the direct vision kind, consisting of three
flint and two crown, and are altogether 1-6 inch long. The box x,
holding them, screws into the end of the microscope body at the
place usually occupied by the object-glass, and the object-glass i is
attached by a screw in front of the prism-box. ‘The prism-box is
sufficiently wide to enable the prisms being pushed to the side when
not wanted, so as to enable the light, after passing through the
object-glass, to pass freely up the body of the instrument. A pin
m enables the prisms to be thrown either in or out of action by a
movement of the finger... As the prisms are close above the object-
glass, the sliding-box N, carrying the Wenham binocular prism and
the Nicol’s prism, may be employed as usual, and the spectrum of any
substance may thus be examined by both eyes simultaneously, either
by ordinary light or when it is under the influence of polarized
light. The insertion of the prism-box between the object-glass and

THE Brnyocutar Seecrrum Microscope,

To illustrate Mr. Crookes’s article on the Spectral Phenomena of Opals.

ie

1869. | On the Spectral Phenomena of Opals. 483

the body of the microscope does not interfere with the working of
the instrument in the ordinary manner. The length of the tube is
increased 1 or 2 inches, and a little additional rackwork may in
some instruments be necessary when using object-glasses of low
power. The stereoscopic effect, when the Wenham prism is put
into action, does not appear to be interfered with.

For ordinary work both these additions may be kept attached
to the microscope, the prisms being pushed to the side of the prism-
box, and the large aperture p being brought into the centre of the
substage. When it is desired to examine the spectrum of any
portion of an object in the field of view, all that is necessary is to
push the slit ito adjustment with one hand, and the prisms with
the other. The spectrum of any object which is superposed on the
image of the slit is then seen.

When the spectrum of any substance is in the field and a
double-image prism is introduced, two spectra are seen, one above the
other, oppositely polarized, the same lines being continued through
the two; and the variations in the absorption-lines such as are
shown by didymium, jargonium, &c., are at once seen.

If the substance under examination is dark coloured, or the
illumination is not brilliant, it is best not to divide the light by
means of the Wenham prism at Nn, but to let the whole of it pass
up the tube to one eye. If, however, the light is good, a very great
advantage is gained by throwing the Wenham prism into adjustment,
and using both eyes. The appearance of the spectrum, and the
power of grasping faint lines, are incomparably superior when both
eyes are used; whilst the stereoscopic effect it confers on some
absorption and interference spectra (especially those of opals) seems
to throw entirely new light on the phenomena. No one who has
worked with a stereoscopic spectrum apparatus would willingly
return to the old monocular spectroscope.

If the illumination in this instrument is taken from a white
cloud or the sky, Fraunhofer’s lines are beautifully visible, and
when using direct sunlight they are seen with a perfection which
leaves little to be desired. The dispersion, being four or five times
greater, is sufficient to cause the spectrum to fill the whole field of
the microscope, instead of, as in the ordinary instrument, forming a
small portion of it; whilst owing to the very perfect achromatism
of the optical part of the microscope all the lnes from B to @ are
practically in the same focus.

As the only portion of the object examined is that part on
which the image of the slit falls, and as this is very minute (varying
from 0°01 to 0°001 inch, according to the actual width of the
slit), it is evident that the spectrum of the smallest objects can
be examined. If some blood is in the field it is easy to reduce
the size of the image of the slit to dimensions covered by one

2u2

484 On the Spectral Phenomena of Opa’s. [ Oct.,

blood-dise, and then, by pushing in the prisms, to obtain its
spectrum.

If the object under examination will not transmit a fair image
of the sht (if it be a rough crystal of jargon, for instance), it must
be fixed in the universal holder beneath the slit, and the light con-
centrated on to it before it reaches the slit. If the reflected
spectra of opaque objects are required, they can also be obtained in
the same way, the light being concentrated on them either by a
parabolic reflector or by other appropriate means.

By replacing the illuminating lamp by a spirit-lamp burning
with a soda-flame, and pushing in the spectrum apparatus, the
yellow sodium-line is seen beautifully sharp; and by narrowing
the slit sufficiently it may even be doubled. Upon introducing
lithium or thallium compounds into the flame, the characteristic
crimson or green line is obtained ; in fact, so readily does this form
of instrument adapt itself to the examination of flame-spectra, that
for general work I have almost ceased to use a spectroscope of the
ordinary form.

The additional facilities afforded by the use of this instrument
have led the writer to the discovery of one or two facts con-
nected with the action of different bodies on the rays of the
spectrum; and it has been considered that these may be of suf-
ficient interest to the readers of the ‘Quarterly Journal of Science’
to be described somewhat in detail and illustrated by a few chromo-
lithographs.

The mineral known as opal has long been prized as a gem, on
account of the extraordinary beauty of its colours, but the phe-
nomena underlying these flashes of colour have not been submitted
to strict scientific examination. When a good fiery opal is examined
in day-, sun-, or artificial light, it appears to emit vivid flashes of
crimson, green, or blue light, according to the angle at which the
incident light falls, and the relative position of the opal and the
observer ; for the direction of the path of the emitted beam bears
no uniform proportion to the angle of the incident light. Examined
more closely, the flashes of light are seen to proceed from planes or
surfaces of irregular dimensions inside the stone, at different depths
from the surface and at all angles to each other. Occasionally a
plane emitting light of one colour overlaps a plane emitting light
of another colour, the two colours becoming alternately visible upon
slight variations of the angle of the stone ; and sometimes a plane
will be observed which emits crimson light at one end, changing to
orange, yellow, green, &c., until the other end of the plane shines
with a blue light, the whole forming a wonderfully beautiful solar
spectrum in miniature. I need scarcely say that the colours are
not due to the presence of any pigment, but are interference colours
caused by minute strie, or fissures lying in different planes. By

1869. ] On the Spectral Phenomena of Opals. 485

turning the opal round and observing it from different directions, it
is generally possible to get a position im which it shows no colour
whatever. Viewed by transmitted light, opals appear more or less
deficient in transparency, and have a slight greenish, yellow, or
reddish tinge.

In order to better adapt them to the purposes of the jeweller,
opals are almost always polished with rounded surfaces, back and
front, but the flashes of coloured light are better seen and examined
when the top and bottom of the gems are ground and polished flat
and parallel.

A good opal is not injured by moderate heating in water,
soaking in turpentine, or heating strongly in Canada balsam and
mounting as a microscopic slide.

If an opal which emits a fine broad crimson light is held in
front of the slit of a spectroscope or spectrum microscope, at the
proper angle, the light is generally seen to be purely homogeneous,
and all the spectrum that is visible is a briliant luminous line or
band, varying somewhat in width and more or less irregular in
outline, but very sharp, and shining brightly on a perfectly black
ground. If, now, the source of light is moved so as to shine into
the spectrum apparatus through the opal, the above appearance is
reversed, and we have a luminous spectrum with a jet-black band
in the red, identical in position, form of outline, and sharpness, with
the luminous band previously observed. If instead of moving the
first source of light (the one which gave the reflected luminous line
in the red) another source of light be used for obtaining the spectrum,
the two appearances of a coloured line on a black ground and black
line on coloured ground may be obtained simultaneously, and they
will be seen to fit accurately.

Those parts of the opal which emit red light are, therefore, seen
to be opaque to light of the same refrangibility which they emit ;
and upon examining in the same manner other opals which shine
with green, yellow, or blue light, the same appearances are observed,
showing that this rule holds good in these cases also. It is doubt-
less a general law, following of necessity the mode of production of
the flashes of colour.

Having once satisfied myself that the above law held good in
all the instances which came under my notice, I confined myself
chiefly to the examination of the transmitted spectra, although the
following descriptions will apply equally well, mutatis mutandis,
to the reflected spectra.

The following is a brief description of some of the most curious
transmission spectra shown by these opals. The chromo-litho-
graphs forming the frontispiece, taken from drawings with the
camera lucida, convey as good an idea as possible of the different
appearances. ‘The exact description will, of course, only hold good

486 On the Spectral Phenomena of Opals. [ Oct...

for one portion of the opal, but the general character of each
individual stone is well marked.

The simplest form of band which is met with is shown in
Spectrum 1, which represents the spectrum after passing through
one of my experimental opals. It is one of the best examples
I have met with of a narrow, straight, and sharply cut line. It is
in the green, and might easily be mistaken for an absorption-band
caused by an unknown chemical element.

Spectrum 2 shows a band of a very remarkable character ; it is
broad and black, and cuts diagonally across the green, touching the
blue at the top and the yellow at the bottom.

Spectrum 3 is somewhat similar; it shows a broad indistinct
diagonal band in the blue, and another still more indistinct in the
violet.

So far the bands have been simple lines, and the only peculiarity
has been the diagonal character of some of them. I now wish to —
draw attention to a most remarkable phenomenon presented by
some opals, and that is the production in their transmission spectra
of irregularly shaded lines, which when examined in the binocular
spectrum instrument appear distinctly spiral, and, on moving the
opal, roll over on their axis from one part of the spectrum to
another. Spectrum 4 is an example of this kind; it shows an
irregular line in the orange. Viewed binocularly this exhibits a
spiral structure in a marked manner, the different depths and
distances standing well out: upon turning the milled edge of the
stage adjustment, so as to carry the opal slowly from left to right,
the spiral line is seen to revolve and roll over, altering its shape
and position in the spectrum. It is not easy to retain the conviction
that one is looking merely at a band of deficient light in the spec-
trum, and not at a solid body possessing dimensions and in actual
motion.

Spectrum 5 shows the most striking example of a spiral rotating
line which I have yet met with. On moving the opal sideways the
line is seen to start from the red and roll over, like an irregularly
shaped and somewhat hazy corkscrew, into the middle of the yellow.
The drawing shows the appearance of this band in two positions.

It is scarcely necessary to say that the colour of the moving
luminous line varies with the part of the spectrum to which it
belongs. The appearance of a luminous line, slowly moving across
the black field of the instrument, and assuming in turn all the
colours of the spectrum, is very beautiful.

All these black bands can be reversed, and changed into lumi-
nous bands, by illuminating the opals with reflected hight. They are,
however, more difficult to see, for the coloured light is only emitted
at a particular angle, whilst the special opacity to the ray of the same
refrangibility as the emitted ray holds good for different angles.

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The explanation of the phenomena is probably as follows :—In
the case of the moving line, the light-emitting plane in the opal is
somewhat broad, and has the property of giving out at one end,
along its whole height and for a width equal to the breadth of the
band, say, red light; this merges gradually into a space emitting
orange, and so on throughout the entire length of the spectrum, or
through that portion of it which is traversed by the moving line in
the instrument ; the successive pencils (or tather ribbons) of emitted
light passing through all degrees of refrangibility. It is evident
that if this opal is slowly passed across the slit of the spectrum
microscope, the slit will be successively illuminated with light of
gradually increasing refrangibility, and the appearance of a moving
luminous line will be produced ; and if transmitted light is used for
illumination the reversal of the phenomena will cause the production
of a black line moving along a coloured field. A diagonal line will
be produced if an opal of this character is examined in a sloping
position.

The phenomenon of a spiral line in relief, rolling along as the
opal is moved, is doubtless caused by modifying planes at different
depths and connected by cross planes; I can form a mental picture
of a structure which would produce this effect, but scarcely clear
enough to enable me to describe it in words.

It is probable that similar phenomena may be seen in many, if
not all, bodies which reflect coloured light after the manner of
opals. A magnificent specimen of lumacelli, or fiery limestone,
from Italy, kindly presented to me by my friend David Forbes,
shows two sharp, narrow, and parallel bands in the red. I have
also observed similar appearances in mother-of-pearl. The effects
can be imitated to a certain extent by examining “ Newton’s rings,”
formed between two plates of glass, in the spectrum microscope.

II. COAL WASHING.
By F. C. Danvers, A.I.C.E., M.S.E.

In most mining operations it has been the practice, from the
earliest times of which we have record, to wash the minerals
obtained from beneath the surface of the earth in water, before
subjecting them to further purification by means of fire, for the
purpose of separating a portion of the earthy matters, with which
they are invariably mixed, from the ore. In former years this
was accomplished in a very rude manner, which doubtless involved
the loss of a not inconsiderable amount of pure ore. Dr. Percy, in
his valuable work on Metallurgy, gives an historical notice of the

a

488 Coal Washing. [Oct.,

mode of making iron in South Wales about the year 1750, in which
it is stated as foliows :—‘“ On the wash, or enclosed ground on the
sides of the hills, where we find oar, we dig a trench about 4 or
5 foot wide, till we come down to the lowest vein, about 14 foot
deep, and in that depth is usually four veins or layers of oar.
Then we make small ponds to hold rain water, or any that comes
out of springs, above the trench that is cut ; and as fast as the ponds
fill, we let them down by a flood-gate into the trench, which carries
away all the loose earth, and leaves the myne behind, and the
lowest vein bare. They then undermine the banks of the trench
on both sides, and when great quantities of the banks are fallen
down, they let down the water out of the ponds again, which
washes away all the earth from the myne.” Such then was the
rude method of washing iron ore 120 years ago; but although so
primitive in method, the principle, it will be recognized, was the
same as that which prevails in ore-washing machines of the most ~
approved type at the present day, the separation of the ore from the
earthy matters being due to gravitation. Thus whilst the lighter
particles were carried away by the water, the heavier and mineral
portions were left behind.

Although coal washing has now been practised all over the Con-
tinent for about half-a-century, until comparatively quite recently
the practice of washing the products of coal mines was unknown in
this country, and for the following reasons. Coal, unlike almost
every other mineral product, is found running in broad seams,
yarying from a few inches to many feet in thickness; and so great
is the quantity in which it exists that the richer seams only are
considered worth working at all, and from these blocks are obtained,
possessing a very high degree of purity. Not many years back, it
was the custom to leave all the small coal down at the bottom of
the pit, or, if it was brought to the surface, it was either burned at
the pit’s mouth as so much worthless refuse, or run to spoil. Indeed
so wasteful has been the manner in which coal-mining operations
have been carried on, that large quantities of valuable fuel have
been lost, or habitually left at the bottom of the pit as not being
worth raising to the surface. This subject was closely investigated
in 1860, by Mr. Alexander Bassett, of Cardiff,* the result of whose
inquiries showed that from thirty to forty per cent. of the products
of mines is not unfrequently lost, owing to the imperfect method of
coal “ getting” usually adopted ; but that where, either from the
character of the seam of coal, or from the mode adopted in working,
a less percentage of fuel is lost, “still, under the most improved
system, the quantity of small coal left in the mines, and conse-

* « On the Large Proportion of Coal lost in Working.” Paper read before the

South Wales Institute of Enginecrs, in February, 1861, by Mr. Alexander Bassett,
M,I.C.E,

1869.]} Coal Washing. 489

quently for ever lost, bears a very large proportion to that raised,
and which could be brought to bank, if a market were obtained
for it.”

Since attention was so forcibly called to the probable duration
of our coal supplies by Sir William Armstrong at the Meeting of
the British Association at Newcastle in the year 1863, measures
have been devised with the view of utilizing that which was formerly
counted as waste, and the small coal is no longer permitted to lie
unheeded at the bottom of the pit. In collecting the slack, however,
in addition to any impurities which it contains as coal, such as
shale, iron pyrites, &c., there will invariably be found mixed with it
portions of rocky or earthy matters which have fallen from the roof
of the heading during working, or which may be taken off from the
floors of the passages whilst collecting the small coal for the purpose
of sending it to the surface. Under these circumstances, it is not
to be wondered that the slack coal thus obtained contains a much
greater amount of earthy impurities than does the coal from the
same pit, hewn and sent to bank in larger or smaller blocks. As
has been already stated, this slack coal from the pits was formerly
considered to be worthless, or, at any rate, not of sufficient value to
enable it to bear the cost of transport in order to bring it to
market ; recent experience has, however, shown, not only that such
is not the case, but that what was formerly looked upon as so much
refuse, may be readily separated from the impurities with which it
is in a great measure mixed, and thus purified it obtains a ready sale
either for cokeing purposes or for the manufacture of artificial fuel.

The general large yield of English coal beds may, no doubt, be
assigned as the chief cause which formerly led to the adoption of an
extravagant mode of working them, and this was further stimulated
by an absence of machinery for the purpose, and a want of that
knowledge on the subject which has in comparatively recent times
been acquired and put into practice.

The inferior quality of a portion of the coal measures of France
and Belgium, and, in the former country especially, the compara-
tively small area over which they extend, led to the adoption of
ereater economy in working; and it is not therefore surprising to
find that England is indebted to France for the introduction of the
practice of coal washing, whereby the small and formerly unpro-
ductive yields of coal are now raised into an important branch of
trade. Only a small portion of it is however brought into use in
the manufacture of artificial fuel. That article is at present
scarcely used in England, and the small quantity that is manu-
factured here is made almost exclusively for export. From the
latest returns published, namely those for 1867, it appears that
the amount of artificial fuel exported during that year from the
United Kingdom was only 150,051 tons, which may be taken to

490 Coal Washing. [ Oct.,

represent nearly the whole manufacture of it in this country. By
recent improvements it is now possible to burn small coal in boiler
furnaces, but by far the greatest portion of washed coal is converted
into coke, for which purpose it is specially adapted, and at most
large collieries in the country there may now be seen a coal-washing
machine and ranges of cokemg ovens as part of the indispensable
plant of the colliery proprietor.

About sixteen years ago a Mr. Morrison first introduced into
this country a coal-washing machine from France, and having
obtained certain concessions from some of the north-country coal-
owners, he proceeded to set the apparatus to work, and soon became
celebrated for the superior quality of the coke manufactured by
him. It was, however, some years before the principle of coal
washing became at all general, and for some time Mr. Morrison
was the only person to carry it into practice. Gradually, however, -
the process was taken up, first by one, and then by another, until ~
a washing machine has now become almost as necessary an adjunct
to a colliery as a pumping engine.

Very little alteration appears to have been hitherto made in the
general principles of the first coal-washing machine introduced into
this country, but alterations in detail have materially conduced to
its greater efficiency and economy in working. As in the case of
most other useful inventions, all sorts of modifications have been
from time to time suggested, but few appear to have sufficiently
recommended themselves on their own merits as to obtain any
success. In all cases, excepting where only slack is washed, the
coal has first to be broken up small, in order to prepare it for
the washing machine. The means generally employed for separating
the impurities from coal is gravitation, the mineral to be washed
being thrown into water, when the earthy matters sink to the
bottom, whilst the coal, being the lighter, forms an upper layer
which is easily removed.

Numberless contrivances have been proposed for more readily
effecting this disposition of strata im the washing machine, but,
with the exception of those which we shall presently notice, few
have come into general adoption; and whilst many other plans
have been projected for removing the impurities from coals, those
in which water is employed, either in a running stream or in
agitation, as will be presently described, alone appear to have been
brought into practical use. In order to give a better understanding
of how the last-named machines effect this separation, we shall first
describe them more in detail, and then proceed to give some further
particulars regarding the methods requisite to prevent any un-
necessary waste of fuel; since, if care be not taken, much coal is
liable to be carried away with the waste water, after it has passed
through the machines.

1869. } Coal Washing. 491

The simplest, but by no means the most efficient, form of coal-
washing machine is that consisting of a simple trough, or passage,
having a smooth channel, and set on a slight incline in the direction
of its length, as shown in the accompanying woodcut. At the

Fig. 1.

lower end, the trough is fitted with a vertical sliding sluice valve,
working up through the bottom, and in grooves in the sides, which
may be elevated or depressed at pleasure by means of a screw; and
just above this sluice is placed a valve, opening in the bottom or side
of the trough. The mode of working is as follows. The coal to
be washed is either first crushed by passing it between rollers, or,
as is sometimes the case, the trough is placed under the screen, over
which the coals are tipped in passing from the trucks, as they come
from the pit, into the railway waggons. The finer particles of coal
then, passing through the meshes of the screen, fall into the trough
at its upper or more elevated extremity, into which also a con-
tinuous flow of water is admitted. The coal is thus carried down
the channel by the water, and it has to be kept constantly agitated
during its passage, either by means of a long pronged fork worked
by hand, or by a mechanical apparatus designed for the purpose.
This agitation 1s necessary to ensure the more perfect separation of
the coal from its impurities. As it flows down, the coal, being
lighter than the shale or pyrites, rises to the top, whilst the heavier
particles settle down and remain in the bottom of the trough. The
coal then is permitted to pass over the sluice at the lower end of
the shoot ; but as the impurities accumulate, the sluice is gradually
raised to prevent their passing away with the coal, and this is done
until the sluice has been raised to a height nearly level with the
top of the sides of the trough. The supply of coal is then tem-
porarily turned off, and the valve opened inthe bottom of the trough,
through which the impurities are allowed to pass. The sluice is
then lowered, and the same operation is repeated. In some
machines of this type the trough is made very long, and a sluice is
placed im the middle of its length as well as at the extremity.

492 Coal Washing. [ Oct.,

Attempts have also been made to dispense with the necessity for
stirring the coal whilst being washed, by placing a series of projec-
tions across the bottom of the trough, which, acting as submerged
weirs, were intended to give the water an undulatory motion;
this, however, is not sufficient for the purpose, and experience has
shown that a more sudden and violent action of the water is
necessary in order to effectually separate the coal from its impurities.
The objections to this form of coal-washing machine are that, whilst
it requires a larger supply of water for the purpose, the coal is not
so thoroughly washed as in other machines; and that whilst the
result is still only comparatively purified, a large amount of coal is
probably wasted, by passing away with the other matters down the
outlet valve before referred to.

The most generally adopted plan of coal-washing machine at
present in use is that shown in the Plate accompanying this
article. It is a modification of a French machine, the invention of :
one M. Berard, and somewhat of the form of that first introduced
into this country by Mr. Morrison. The illustration represents
not only the washing machine itself, but the steam engine and other
auxiliaries employed in connection with it. In this machine the
coal, after passing between crushing rollers, is conveyed by means of
a “ Jacob’s ladder” into a hopper, or shoot, down which it falls into
small rectangular troughs, at the head of each of which a current
of water enters which carries the coal away, and deposits it on a
wire, or perforated copper sieve. Beneath this sieve is a hopper-
formed chamber filled with water in communication with the bottom
of a cylinder in which a piston works at the rate of about 100
strokes per minute. The motion of this piston agitates the water
in the “ bash,” causing it alternately to rise and fall on the sieve.
The coal on the sieve is thus kept in a constant state of motion,
being lifted up by the water as the piston descends, and falling
again with its upward stroke. By this constant elevation and
resettling, the heavier particles, which constitute the impurities in
the coal, fall to the bottom and form the lowest stratum on the
sieve; whilst the pure coal, after the space above the sieve is once
full, is carried over the lip of the machine with the escaping water,
and falls down a shoot into a truck placed there for the purpose of
receiving it. As soon as any shale, or other impurity, is seen to
pass over with the coal, or when the space over the sieve becomes
filled with foreign matter (which may be readily ascertained by the
attendant taking a small quantity out to examme it), the valve at
A, Fig. 2, is raised by means of a screw, or weighted lever, and
the accumulated impurities are allowed to pass into the lower part B,
from which they are subsequently removed by means of the valve ¢
at the bottom of the machine. The piston works in the chamber D.
It should have a stroke of not more than from 2 to 24 inches, and

1869.] Coal Washing. 493

is usually driven at the rate of about one hundred strokes per
minute. 4 is the sieve on which the coal rests, and after being
washed it passes away over the shoot F. A machine of this cha-
racter, with pistons of 3

feet diameter, and “ bashes ” Fie. 2.

about 3 feet by 4 feet, will
require a supply of about
32 gallons of water per mi-
nute for each “bash,” and
is capable of washing about
50 tons of coal per day per
“bash.” A four “bash”
machine, capable of purify-
ing nearly 200 tons of coal
a-day, requires about a 12-
horse-power steam engine to
work it and the auxiliary
machinery.

Having thus briefly explained the details of the washing
machine itself, we pass on to notice the entire process through
which the coal has to pass. The coal is brought direct from the
pits im trucks, and emptied into the hopper sunk below the level
of the ground, as shown in the left-hand corner of the engraving.
Thence, if the situation does not admit of putting a pair of crush-
ing rollers into the first reception pit, it is carried by a Jacob’s
ladder, and thrown into a hopper, through which it passes to the
crushing mill, to be broken up into a suitable size for washing, by
which process also the attachment between the coal and its im-
purities is severed or loosened. After passing through the rollers
it is lifted up into another hopper, whence it falls into a number
of short shoots corresponding with the number of “bashes” in the
machine, and, a little above the point in the shoots where the coal
enters, water is admitted through a service pipe, by means of which
the coal is carried down on to the sieve, and the washing proceeds
in the manner already explained.

According to one modification of this machine, which is in
extensive use at Saarbruck, in Germany, a number of “ bashes,”
instead of working separately, act together; the washed coal from
one “bash” falling over a small weir into the next, and so on
until it has passed through the entire series. Although, no doubt,
by this mode a much greater degree of purity is obtained in the
washed coal, the plan of using the “ bashes” separately, as practised
in this country, is found to give results sufficiently satisfactory for
all practical purposes; to continue the process further would, there-
fore, only be to incur additional expenditure without corresponding
results,

494 Coal Washing. * [Oct.,

Another modification of the above process ought not to be passed
by without notice, for, whilst it embodies most of the leading prin-
ciples of Berard’s machine, it has been so adapted as to produce the
greatest possible effect with the least practicable amount of water
and the smallest expenditure of power. The modifications in this
machine—which has been designed by a Mr. Edwards—will be
sufficiently well understood without an illustration, from the following
description :—The coal and water are admitted together through a
hopper on to the sieve, and instead of a piston, for keeping the water
in the machine in a state of agitation, a float is placed so as to rest
upon the surface of the water at a level below that of its height
over the sieve. This float is attached to the top of the cistern, and
the joint made water-tight by a leather flange, which admits of a
certain amount of vertical movement by the float. The motion is
given to the float by means of a three-throw cam; as the cam_
strikes the float, it is deflected, causing the water on the sieve to
rise, in the same way as with the downward stroke of the piston
in the machines already described. Indeed the float is in this
case a piston working on the water only without any cylinder to
work in.

Directly the cam releases the float, the head of water forces it
back, ready to receive the next stroke. Instead of making the
water act as the means of conveying the washed coal from the
machine, as in Berard’s and most other modifications of that machine,
a set of scrapers gradually carry it forward, and finally push it over
the delivery end of the machine, and thus less water is required.
The speed at which the motion shaft is driven need be but one-
third that of Berard’s, in order to obtain the same amount of work.
One of Edwards’s machines, capable of washing about 50 tons of
coal per day, requires so little power to move it, that, were it not
for the auxiliary crushing rollers, &c., which are generally indis-
pensable with a coal-washing machine, it might be worked by
manual power.

Most coal-washing machines are arranged so that the washed
coal falls directly into a truck ready for removal to the cokeing
ovens, to the artificial fuel manufactory, or any other destination.
The coal thus caught forms, however, only a portion of what passes
through the washing machine. It constitutes indeed the greater
portion of it, and consists of all the larger pieces of coal, whilst
many of the smaller particles and almost all the coal dust are
carried away by the water as it flows off. In order to save this
fine coal, which, it is found, contains the smallest amount of im-
purities, and is therefore best adapted for the manufacture of coke,
it is necessary to form settling tanks through which all the water
from the machine is made to pass. So much coal, however, escapes
if due care be not taken, that it has in practice been found desirable

1869. | Coal Washing. 495

to have at least three such tanks, each of which should be in
duplicate, so that one set of tanks may be kept at work whilst the
coal which has collected in the other set is bemg removed. Some-
times a fine mesh wire gauze, or finely perforated plate, is placed at
the outlet of the first settling tank for the purpose of keeping back
all pieces of coal above a certain size, but it is very doubtful whether
such a precaution is necessary, as the larger pieces are sure to be
deposited in the first tank, whilst the finest of all will be found at the
bottom of the last settling tank. Even after all these precautions
have been taken to save as much of the coal as possible, the author
has witnessed instances where samples, collected promiscuously from
the residue which escapes with the water after it has passed through
the last settling tank, have been found to contain seventy-five per
cent. of combustible matter, but it is certain that a small portion only
of this consisted of pure carbon. Under a judicious arrangement
of settling tanks it will be almost invariably found that the depo-
sited coal becomes more pure in each successive tank up to the
third, and that what is subsequently found to be held in suspension
by the water contains too large a proportion of impurities to render
it worth the trouble and expense of collecting.

Too much attention can hardly be given to the construction of
settling tanks, whatever form of washing machine is employed,
since, in the first place, the fine coal passing away with the water
is the purest and best adapted for the manufacture of coke, and
secondly, unless this be carefully conserved the loss consequent upon
the operation of washing may be such as to make it very question-
able whether the cost is not out of all proportion to the benefits
otherwise obtained. Even in a well-arranged coal-washing esta-
blishment the loss in weight by washing will often be found equal
to from twelve to fifteen per cent., consisting of the impurities
extracted, as well as a certain amount of small coal, which, as has
been before explained, will always escape with the waste water.
So far as the author’s experience goes, there appears generally to
exist at collieries a strong objection to devote a sufficient extent of
ground to the proper construction of settling tanks. In setting
them out care should be taken that the tanks are made only of
such a width that they can be readily cleared out without the use
of wheel-barrows ; for this purpose they should not be more than
6 feet wide, and about 3 feet deep at the outside, and on either side
of each tank trams should be laid, at a level somewhat below the
surface, so that men may shovel the deposited coal directly into
waggons. The tanks also should not consist of one long narrow
trench each, as is most generally the case. For a large coal-
washing establishment such an arrangement would be very incon-
venient, and besides, it would not be found to work so well nor to
deposit so much coal as if each tank were made to consist of three

496 Coal Washing. [ Oct.,

or more rows of narrow trenches, communicating with each other
at alternate ends, somewhat in the following manner.

Fia. 3.
4 1 Tank 2"? Tank
is outfall
‘o£ waste
water
Sluice

Here it will be seen advantage is taken of the known tendency
of any obstruction in the flow of water to cause it to deposit what-
ever matter it may hold in suspension. The total area of tanks
required for any coal-washing works must depend upon the extent
to which it is proposed to carry on such work, as well as in some
measure upon the available amount of water for the purpose; it~
would, therefore, not be possible to lay down any general rules upon
that subject, which must be determined after a consideration of the
special circumstances of each case.

The cost of washing coal varies very much at different collieries,
but it may be assumed that, on an average, it should not exceed
threepence or fourpence per ton. At some places the washing is
done by contract, one man receiving a certain sum for each ton of
coal washed, and providing all the labour necessary, and paying all
expenses connected with the operation. At other establishments,
the engine employed to drive the washing machine may, perhaps,
also be connected with other machinery, although it is better, in all
cases, that it should have an independent engine for its own use.
Under such circumstances, the cost of working the engine would be
borne by the proprietors, and the person contracting would, of
course, not be entitled to receive so high a price as if he were
responsible also for the whole duty of the engine.

The practice of coal washing is, as we have already explained, a
comparatively modern introduction in the economy of colliery
management ; but so rapid has been its extension within the last
few years, that it is now coming into very general use. The
advantages of thus purifying the slack of our coal mines are
numerous, and calculated to benefit alike the producer and the
consumer ; for whilst it practically extends the available yield of our
coal beds, it should have the effect of checking any inordinate
increase of prices, if it do not actually tend to reduce the cost to
the public at which certain classes of coal are now obtainable.

1869.] ( 497 )

Ill. ON THE TEACHING OF NATURAL SCIENCE AT
THE UNIVERSITIES.

Tue indifference shown to the cultivation of the natural sciences in
our leading public schools led to the appearance in the last number
of this Journal of an article by our esteemed contributor, Dr.
Lankester, which has caused no little discussion in circles where
an interest is felt in such studies,

Whether or not the great chartered schools of Rugby, Harrow,
Winchester, &c., are likely to be moved by the appeal of one who
has spent a long life in promoting the study of natural science, and
will appoint suitable professors and lecturers, we are unable to say ;*
but one result of the appearance of Dr. Lankester’s article has been
to show us that our Universities are by no means open to the
charge of neglecting science, and are fully alive to the value of
scientific studies.

We have received what we are bound to say are just protests
against the neglect of science being laid to the score of the
Universities, and consequently we hasten to rectify any erroneous
impression which may have gone abroad as to the amount of time
and money really expended at our Universities for the purposes
of science tuition. And it affords us all the more pleasure to do
this, inasmuch as we believe the public indifference to scientific
knowledge has caused the efforts which have for some time past
been made by the Universities to be overlooked, or to remain quite
unknown, except to those who have been obliged by professional
requirements to make science a portion of their education.

The fairest way, then, will be to let each University speak for
itself; and as the first and loudest remonstrance reached us from
Oxford, we shall print verbatim the programme of lectures, &c.,
with which it was accompanied.

The signature will remind our readers that the University pos-
sesses one of the most excellent museums in the three kingdoms,
and that Drs. Rolleston and Phillips, Mr. Westwood, and others
have long striven to make it as perfect as possible for educational
purposes,

* Since this article was written we have been informed that a good deal is
being done at Rugby and Harrow now. Good men are sent up for the Oxford
scholarships from Rugby; and at Eton there has just been established a master-
ship in Natural Science, a gentleman having been engaged who was formerly Sir
B. Brodie’s demonstrator at Oxford.

Synopsis

VOL. VI. 2m

498 On the Teaching of Natural Science [ Oct.,

Synopsis op LrorurEes IN THE Untversity Musrum, Oxrorp,
Lent Term, 1869.

Professorship. Professor. Subject. Days and Hours. 1st Lecture.
GroMETRY .. .- H.J.S.Smith,M.A... An-harmonic Proe Monday, Friday, 1 Friday, Jan.
perties. P.M. 22,
Astronomy... .. W.F. Donkin, M.A.
Leen } .. B. Price, M.A... .. Dynamics of Mate- Tuesday, Thursday, Thursday,
SSeS, ; rial Systems. Saturday, 1 P.M. Jan. 21.
Panache } R. B. Clifton, M.A. .. Acoustics (con- Monday, Thursday, Monday,
tinued). 12. Feb. 1.
MINERALOGY .. — eG S. Maskelyne,
CHEMISTRY .. «. Sir B.C. Brodie, Bart. A Syllabus may be Tuesday, Saturday, Thursday,
M.A. obtained at the La- 11 A.M. Jan. 28.
boratory. Catechetical Lec-
ture, Thursday,
; 11 AM.
eee cog .. G. Rolleston,D.M. .. Circulation and Re- Tuesday, Friday, Friday, Jan.
S5IOL0 spiration. Saturday, 1 Pp... 22.
Grotocy .. .. John Phillips, M.A.
Mepicixne .. .. Henry W. Acland, General and Clinical Tuesday, Saturday, Tuesday,
D.M. Medicine. 11 A.M. Feb. 2.
Borany AND Marmaduke Lawson
ee M.A.
NOMY
ZooLoGY ~- «: J. 0. Westwood, M.A.

The University Laboratory is open daily from 10 A.m. to 4 P.M.

Classes are formed for practical instruction in Anatomy and Physiology. Gentlemen who join
these Classes come to the Lecture on Saturday, and also attend on two other days in the week fcr
study and demonstration.

Dr. Beale will give Demonstrations in Histology on Tuesday, January 26, at 8 p.at., and on fol-
lowing Tuesdays, at the same hour.

Mr. Chapman will continue his Course of Lectures on Physiology.

Mr. Wyndham will continue his Course of Lectures on Chemistry in Merton College.

J. PHILLIPS, Keeper of the Museum.

Passing on to the sister University, some of our readers haye
unfortunately been led by Dr. Lankester’s article to think that the
two lectureships named by him, as having been recently established,
are the only chairs in natural science in the University; but this
impression is not correct. At Cambridge there are professorships
of physic, mathematics, chemistry, astronomy, and experimental
philosophy, anatomy, botany, geology, a second of astronomy,
geometry, medicine, natural and experimental philosophy, minera-
logy, and archeology ; and examinations in all those subjects, as
well as in mechanical and applied science.

Of London University it is hardly necessary to speak. Its
numerous scholarships and its degrees of Bachelor and Doctor of
Science have done as much, perhaps more than any institution
in the world, for the promotion of scientific education. Nor must
the large public schools and colleges in London and the provinces
which are connected with it be overlooked. Of these it is only
necessary to mention University and King’s Colleges, London ;
Owen’s College, at Manchester ; Queen’s Colleges, at Birmingham
and Liverpool, to remind our readers that great efforts are made
to provide scientific instruction for those who seek it.

The Scotch Universities have not been idle. One of our corre-
spondents, who complains that justice has not been done to Edin-

1869. | at the Universities. 499

burgh University, sends us the following details, to which we gladly
give publicity :—

“Systematic instruction in botany, chemistry, natural history
(in which are included zoology, geology, mineralogy, physical
geography, and meteorology), natural philosophy, including optics,
heat, electricity, magnetism, hydrostatics, and mechanics, has for a
very long period been imparted in the University of Edinburgh.
The chair of botany was founded in 1676, that of chemistry in
1713, and that of natural history in 1767; the chair of natural
history is also old-established. The instruction imparted from these
chairs is not merely in the form of lectures; but laboratories,
museums, and a botanic garden are provided for the practical
instruction of the students. The students attending botany,
chemistry, and natural history are, to a considerable extent,
medical, but a very fair proportion of general students participate
in the instruction. Attendance in the class of natural philosophy
is imperative on all candidates for the degree in Arts conferred by
the University, but many students who have no intention of pro-
ceeding to the Arts degree also attend. Candidates for honours in
the faculty of Arts can, if they choose, present themselves for
examination in geology, zoology, chemistry, and botany.

“The University also confers the degrees of Bachelor and
Doctor of Science. Candidates are examined in botany, chemistry,
zoology, geology, natural philosophy, and mathematics. Through
the liberality of Sir D. Baxter, scholarships in the natural and
physical sciences have been founded.”

Speaking of other Scottish institutions, our correspondent goes
onto say that in Glasgow and Aberdeen there are corresponding
chairs in the biological and physical sciences ; and he also forwards
us a programme of the course of science-teaching in the High
School at Edinburgh, which embraces chemistry, natural philo-
sophy, zoology, and botany.

Turning now to Ireland, from whence, too, an admonition has
reached us, we believe we can safely say that whilst the Universities
(Dublin and Queen’s) do all they can to set a good example, nothing
is done by the public schools.

At Dublin, moderatorships in experimental science were first
given in 1851, the course consisting of physics, chemistry, and
mineralogy. Subsequently geology was introduced, and in 1858
zoology and botany were added ; and the name of the moderator-
ships changed to “ Experimental and Natural Science.”

There are professorships of mathematics, natural philosophy,
chemistry, zoology, botany, civil engineering, geology, applied
science, and mineralogy ; to these, museums of natural philosophy,
zoology, and archeology, anatomy, engineering models, and botany
are made subservient.

2m 2

500 The Mineralogical Resources of Ireland. [ Oct.,

At the Queen’s University, science is largely cultivated, and
there are professorships of natural philosophy, chemistry, natural
history, geology and mineralogy, anatomy and physiology, and
engineering; scholarships are awarded in science, and a special
diploma for engineering.

Thus it will be seen that in all our large Universities ample
provision is made for science-teaching, and it is greatly to be feared
that the reason why this branch of human intelligence has not been
hitherto more largely cultivated there, is not so much on account
of the indisposition of the College authorities to afford instruction,
as to the unwillingness of the students to receive it.

The late respected Dr. Daubeny wrote to the writer of this.
article some time before his death, expressing his regret that more
encouragement is not given to the study of science by the middle
classes. A demy-ship in natural science at Magdalen College, he
said, was literally going a-begging, and the writer was asked whe-
ther he could recommend a candidate. One reason for this indiffer-
ence—probably the chief one-—was soon made apparent when the
attempt was made to comply with the Doctor’s wishes. ‘“ What
am I to do for a living, after I have completed my studies ?”
asked one young man. And this question contained the solu-
tion of the mystery—science does not pay. The great prizes
are to be found at the Bar, or in the career of a statesman, and
unfortunately scientific knowledge is not yet appreciated in those
professions.

But why the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge should with-
hold honour where there is no profit; should offer facilities for
instruction and yet deny the student the reward of merit, is a
mystery. The sooner they encourage the pursuit of science by
conferring degrees for its proficiency, and thus making it at least
an honourable profession, the better 1t will be both for the teacher
and the taught. We trust the day is not far distant when the
example of the Universities of London and Edinburgh will, in this
respect, be followed by the older Universities, which should rather
lead than follow in every intellectual movement of the day.

IV. THE MINERALOGICAL RESOURCES OF IRELAND.

As compared with either England or Scotland, the mineral resources
of Ireland are limited in extent, and not very rich in kind. Of seve-
ral species of rocks and formations, which are of economic yalue,
there is indeed an abundance. Ireland can produce the noblest
specimens of granite, serpentine and marble, and prodigious quanti-
ties of limestone, chalk, and other massive rocks; but when we

1869. } The Mineralogical Resources of Ireland. 501

come to consider the extent and nature of her resources in coal
or iron, we cannot but feel that she labours under disadvantages
which go far to explain the causes of the comparative impoverish-
ment and the almost purely agricultural habits of her population.

Without large supplies of coal and iron, especially the former,
it is needless to say that no country can take a foremost rank in
those arts and manufactures which are the sinews, not only of war,
but of peace. And notwithstanding the deficiency in these com-
modities, from which Ireland suffers, it is highly to the credit of
the inhabitants of Ulster that in one branch of manufacture—the
linen trade—this province has no superior, scarcely a rival. This
branch of manufacture, introduced by the Protestant refugees from
France, is carried on by the aid of imported coal and native-grown
flax, and has been the means of making the town of Belfast the
second in importance only to Dublin, and amongst the most thriving,
spirited, and industrious centres of industry in the British empire.

But notwithstanding several successful attempts in Belfast,
Dublin, and elsewhere, to compete with the sister-country in
engineering, ship-building, and iron manufacture, Ireland is, and
must ever be, an agricultural and pastoral country. For this she
is peculiarly adapted by the genial character of the climate and the
richness of the soil; for any other she is disqualified. We look in
vain for those vast deposits of coal, or those stores of iron ore, with
which England and Scotland have been so richly endowed, and
from which they derive such solid advantages. Nature has, we
think, dealt hardly by the sister-isle; for we have very good
evidence for believing, on geological grounds, that the coal-tields of
Ireland must have been, at some distant period, proportionably
greater, as regards the area of the country, than those of Britain.
This assertion may startle some persons who are not versed in the
process of inductive reasonmg on geological principles; and, for
their sake, we shall shortly state the grounds upon which we base
this conclusion.

If we examine the coal-fields of England, we shall find that,
with few exceptions, their lowest strata repose upon a basis of
Carboniferous limestone. Whether we examine the coal-bearing
tracts of South Wales, Gloucestershire, and Somersetshire on the
south, or of North Wales, Lancashire, Cumberland, &ec., on the
north, we find layers of this limestone supporting strata of shale,
sandstone, and grit, which become more carboniferous as we ascend
in the series ; and ultimately pass up into the series of strata which,
on account of their most important feature, are denominated “ Coal-
measures.” Now, throughout this series of strata we observe a
gradual change from the calcareous beds at the base to the coal-
bearmg shales and sandstones of the upper part; the limestones
near their junction with the Millstone grit and Yoredale beds

502 The Mineralogical Resources of Ireland. [ Oct.,

becoming gradually more earthy, and being split into separate
layers by the intercalation of shales and sandstones. Throughout
the whole series, amounting vertically to several thousands of feet of
strata, there is no abrupt change, or break, in the succession of the
beds of any importance; a fact which should be borne in mind,
because on it depends much of the strength of our reasoning from
analogy when we come to the case of Ireland.

Now, reverting to this country, what do we find? We find the
very same succession of strata, from the base upwards, through a
certain distance in the vertical scale, but no farther. We may
observe the Carboniferous limestone—the basement layer of the
coal-bearing superstructure in Britain—spread over an enormous
tract of country, and forming nearly the whole of the central plain
of Ireland ; and resting on this, at mtervals, we have small tracts of
strata, with a few thin seams of coal, representing the Millstone
grit and Yoredale series of England and Wales; but here the suc-'
cession ends. We look in vain for the deposits of coal-bearing strata
—or true Coal-measures—which in Britain are the repositories of
the most important beds of mineral fuel.

To account for this want—this truncation, in fact, of the most
economically important portion of the great Carboniferous formation
in Ireland—the geologist has a theory which is intelligible and con-
sistent with experience as obtained in some parts of Britain itself.
Our readers are probably familiar with the tracts of hilly ground
in parts of Yorkshire and Derbyshire, called “the Penine Chain,”
which separate like a “ backbone” the coal-fields of Lancashire and
Cheshire on the one hand from those of Derbyshire and Yorkshire
on the other. These hills are composed of Carboniferous limestone
and Millstone grit, the basement series of the Coal-measures ; and
no one familiar with the similarity of the strata on either side of
this dividing ridge can doubt for a moment that the strata of which
the ridge is formed were originally overspread by deposits of coal-
bearing strata. Equally certain is it, that a large portion of the
Carboniferous limestone of the central plain of Ireland was once
overlaid by coal deposits; but they are gone, as are those of the
Penine Chain in Derbyshire; and in both cases they have dis-
appeared through the agency of “denudation,” a term by which we
express the removal of masses of strata, by the agency of rivers,
seas, and other forms of water at distant periods of the earth's
history.

Denudation, then, has despoiled Ireland of her mineral resources,
and for all time has moulded the character of her inhabitants. Who
can say, how different might have been her history had an abundance
of mineral wealth stimulated the natural genius of her sons, and
rendered her the centre of mining and manufacturing industries !

From these speculations let us now turn to the consideration of

1869. | The Mineralogical Resources of Ireland. 503

those mineral resources which still are left. Commencing with the
most important—namely, coal—we find that there are the follow-
ing coal-fields, some of which are to be regarded, however, as almost
worthless, as far as our information extends :—

1. County Clare (Connaught Coal-field). 2. Kerry and Limerick
(Munster Coal-field). 3. Tipperary and Kilkenny (Leinster Coal-
field), 4. Leitrim and Fermanagh. 5. Meath. 6. Dungannon,
co. Tyrone. 7. Ballycastle, co. Antrim. Besides which, there are
several small tracts of unproductive Coal-measures.

1. Co. Clare——This coal-field is only partially explored. It
extends from the north bank of the estuary of the Shannon to an
apex a few miles south of Galway Bay, and from the Atlantic coast
inland nearly as far as Ennis. It contains several seams of coal,
the thickest being about 30 inches, as also bands and nodules of
clay-ironstone. The following section by Messrs. Kinahan and
Foot, of the Geological Survey of Ireland, gives a general view of
the succession of the strata where they occur in greatest thick-
ness ; *—

GeENERAL SEcTION—CouNnTY CLARE.

Ft. In

8. Shales principally—thickness uncertain.
Go Money bomt-iags i) cel esa et ee LOO) 0
6 hales;principallly 3. my -. oem ae 200) 10
{SOA pe ter Mees Mee een | ie on] wee, tere IG
5. Intermediate beds, about... .. .. .. «. 600 O
(ON oo oo pu oo 68 A dA ae ae 2 6
4. Intermediate beds, about... .. .. .. . 00 O
JOON ta Sop odo! BoM Ncue. Micbiiitick © kAe ia obuM Be 0 6
SeGnisandeshalessabout: ean cs) es shee. 30 0
2. Lower flagstone series, about .. .. .. .. 70 90
i) Shalevseries;about, 3. 9% 9.2 «= « «00 000) 10
0

3150

2. Kerry and Limerick.—This coal-field is a continuation to
the south of the estuary of the Shannon of that which has just been
described. In proportion to its enormous extent, it is far from
productive. At Coal Hill and Knocknaboola collieries, situated
near the banks of the Shannon, seams varying from 6 inches to
3 feet have been worked, but only to a small extent. The
seams are either anthracite or culm, and appear to be of very
limited range.t| In other parts of the district, according to Pro-
fessor Jukes, the coal-beds are often highly inclined, contorted and
compressed, so as to be only a few inches in thickness for many
yards, and then suddenly expand into large pockets of coal of a
thickness of 20 or 30 feet; under these conditions the coal is some-
times extracted in the manner of working metallic lodes.

* “Explanation of Geological Survey Map 142, p.9. 1860.

+ For an account of these coals, and the mode of working, see ‘ Explanation of
Geological Survey Map 142,’ by Mr. Kinahan, p. 36.

504 The Mineralogical Resources of Ireland. [ Oct.,

Clay-ironstone was formerly extensively worked from the shales
which overlie the uppermost coal-seam, both at the Rock Colliery
and south-east of Glm. Here there was a furnace for smelting the
ore, but the ironstones are generally too poor in quality and too
small in quantity to make them of any economic value.

3. Tipperary and Kilkenny—This is one of the most im-
portant coal-fields in Ireland, and has been ably described by Sir
R. Griffith, in his ‘ Report on the Leinster Coal-field,’ and more
recently by the officers of the Geological Survey.* The coal is of
three varieties, known in the district as anthracite, culm, and kelve.
Of these the anthracite is the most valuable, and the kelve the
least, being merely a carbonaceous ferruginous shale, with so much
combustible matter as to be used for fuel. The culm is exten-
sively used for brick-making and lime-burning ; and the anthracite,
which is generally highly pyritous, when ignited gives out an in-
tense heat. The following is a general section of the strata of this ©
coal-field in its thickest part :—

GENERAL SECTION NEAR CASTLECOMER,

Ft. In,
(Wppermost strata, oop eset ch eas ote en ea
Peacock coal get eae ia er lea Pett get 30 1 10
Intermediate:strata’ 2. 70.0%. Be ee SS oe
STONY COAL oaks. Sidalie vey: Woe ies =e By Al
Intermedisteistrata,nasae tos. )es, asia esas eae ee
Double seam of coal (partly fireclay) phabes sno 5 0
Intermediateistrata is) “i. es wise to ccsares ZOPG
Three-foot seam of coal bear sar teed tat fee 3 0
Intermediate siratay 2.8 vc, s* potcag tee Oa
POOLSCOGL,<. ceck to. cee ae, lees hae oo eee PG
Intermediate strata (about) .. .. -- .. « 3800 0
CalevFGl COGS” tiie. sa as Mh one an Coa TO 0.46
Flagstone series (about) .. .. .. .. «. «+ 650 0
Black shale series .,. heme oe es ee a0) MY

Carboniferous limestone.

The lowest seam of coal is not workable, but the “foot” and
“three-foot” seams have a considerable range, and have been
largely worked. The uppermost seams occupy only a very limited
area, as they have been denuded from off the greater portion of the
coal-field. Along with the seams of coal are several beds of clay-
ironstone of fair quality and thickness. These were once mined
and smelted at Moyhora and Lacka, in the Queen’s County. In
the deep workings at Massford, and at Coolham Hill, Moyhora,
Moyadd, and other places, the old workings were on an extensive
scale.t This coal-field possesses sixteen collieries now at work.

4. Leitrim and Fermanagh.—This coal-field is of considérable
extent, lying to the north of, and around, the shores of Lough Allen.
It contains several seams of coal, at least two of which are workable,

* «Explanation of Geological Survey Map 137,’ by Messrs. Jukes, Kinahan, and

Du Noyer. 1859.
+ Mr.G. H. Kinahan’s ‘ Explanation of Geological Survey Map, sheet 137,’ p. 51.

1869. | The Mineralogical Resources of Ireland. 505

and one of bituminous coal of fair quality, which is worked near
Cashel. There are several collieries in the vicinity of Boyle and
Drumkeeran. As the Government surveyors have not as yet
entered upon the examination of this district, we are as yet only
partially acquainted with its mineral resources.

5. The little coal-tracts of the county Meath are also only
partially explored, but it is well known that the beds of coal are
of very limited extent.

6. Dungannon.—The area of this coal-field does not exceed
twelve square miles, only part of which is productive of coal; but as
compared with the coal-tracts we have been considering, it is com-
paratively rich in minerals, which have been examined and described
in detail by Sir R. Griffith.

Unlike the coal-fields of the south and west of Ireland, which
are on every side bounded by the Carboniferous limestone or the
Atlantic Ocean, the Tyrone coal-field is bounded to the south and
east by the New Red Sandstone formation, below which the seams of
coal may be considered to dip, and to be within reach of mining
operations. The coal-field is divisible into two districts, namely,
that of Coal-Island and Annahone: the former, according to the
estimate of Sir R. Griffith, has an area of about 7000 acres, and
the latter over 800 acres, The general section in its deepest part
is as follows :—

SECTION OF THE TYRONE COAL-FIELD.

May ship
Ohya oars (GeyeKs)\ Sy 54 00 On 2on 00 9s 2 2
Mntermediaterstra tame see eeese lacie meclnisl mites ou 0
ANSE GOH! (EO) on. 00. oa 00 GO. De Moc g)
Intermediate wsirataace eecen Mesh) (Mec aN cme eae mnOOn 20
BONGICOGL Na nctenaciwe. fe Pan ce untae ciate eoohe ea tere 3 0
Thayermeneobohns ne ign oo ao ool! ao el age oo = ou)
Shining coal So 00) O08 HO! dow vedo) co 08 2 10
Intermediates ata. seu sciese Senacoe eee ero. LO.
Brackaveel coal (good quality) oo Bn? oD) oe 4 6
intermediatelstratameecs |. eeem ant Sete wea Mec 74 0
Baltaboy coal (sulphurous) .. «1 6s we we 30
Imtermediate’stratamms) ae seen ee es ince ee 0
Gortnaskea coal (partly cannel) .. .. «we 6 0
intermediate stratgec ) enn) Gentes Ue acl ces co. O
Derry coal (good quality) Ao, Mot? Imo cat pick 4anG

Below these are several other seams, and as a general rule the
coal of this district is of fair quality, and is associated with several
beds of ironstone and fireclay.

To what extent this coal-field underlies the flat tract of ground
which stretches eastward to the banks of Lough Neagh, and south-
wards to the banks of the river Blackwater, is a question of
economic importance remaining to be solved. It is to be hoped
that beds of coal, of such value both as regards thickness and
quality as to resemble those of several of the English coal-fields,

506 The Mineralogical Resources of Ireland. | Oct.,

will be ultimately found like them to extend far beneath the
Triassic strata, and to become a source of industry and wealth to
the country around.

7. Ballycastle, Co. Antrim.—This isolated coal-tract extends
along the southern shore of Ballycastle Bay to Fair Head, and
southward to Murloch Bay. It is of small extent, the strata re-
posing on a floor of crystalline schists, and being surmounted by a
sheet of columnar basalt, which is visible along the fine cliff of
Murloch Bay. There are (or rather were) several good seams
of coal, which appear to have been worked from very early times,
the old passages and chambers having been unexpectedly discovered
by the miners in the year 1770. The coal is now, however, nearly
exhausted, but there still remain at least two seams of “ black-
band” ironstone, which are now being worked, and exported to the
smelting furnaces belonging to the firm of Messrs. Merry and
Cunninghame, in Ayrshire.

The above concludes our review, necessarily brief, of the coal-
fields of Ireland. It will be apparent that, in a national point of
view, the extent of their resources is altogether unimportant.
Perhaps the largest proportion of the valuable seams of coal have
already been worked out, and with the exception of the district of
Dungannon, it is clear that even the local, demands of the country
must be supplied from British sources of supply. In the absence
of coal, peat is the kind of fuel upon which the population of the
country mainly depends; fortunately the supply of this is almost
unlimited, and is to some extent being constantly restored by new
growths as the process of extraction proceeds.

In 1868 there were about thirty-four collieries, often of small
size, in work, producing 126,950 tons of coal, as appears from the
“ Mineral Statistics” for that year.

That iron was formerly smelted from native ores to a considerable
extent there is abundant evidence, both from documents and the
remains of old workings in many parts of the country. During
the last century much of the timber which once clothed the sur-
face of the country, and of which the relics are to be found in every
bog and morass, was felled for the supply of the iron-furnaces, some
of which survived into the present century. The superior resources
of the Welsh, English, and Scotch iron-fields effectually terminated
smelting operations in the sister-isle; nor are they likely to be
resumed.

The chief source of this metal was the clay-ironstone of the
Coal-measures ; but there was a large quantity obtained from bog-
iron-ore and hematite. A new source has lately been opened up in
the province of Ulster. A band of ochreous ore underlying the
basalt of county Antrim is now worked along the northern shores
of Belfast Lough, and is exported to Scotland.

1869. | The Mineralogical Resources of Ireland. 507

As regards the remaining useful metals, it is only necessary to
mention that ores of lead, zinc, copper, silver, and native gold
occur in various parts of the country, especially in the counties of
Wicklow, Waterford, Tipperary, Monaghan, Kerry, Galway, Dublin,
Donegal, Cork, and Clare. We have only to cast our eyes over the
catalogue of localities where mines, or metalliferous ves have
been discovered, published by the General Valuation Office, under
the superintendence of Sir Richard Griffith, to be assured that the
country is rich in minerals, only partially developed. Beds of
rock-salt have been recently discovered near Carrickfergus, and
gypsum near Kingscourt, in county Meath. Nor in this brief
summary of the mineral resources of Ireland may we omit to
mention—the encrinital marbles of Galway, Cork, and Dublin ; the
granites of Wicklow, Down, and Galway ; and the rich serpentinous
marbles of Connemara.*

* For an account of the mines of the county Wicklow the reader is referred to the
‘Records of the School of Mines,’ vol. i., part iii, by Mr. Warrington W. Smyth,
F.R.S. (1853); and for the districts of the south and west of Ireland, to the
‘Explanations of the Geological Survey Maps,’ published by the Geological
Survey of Ireland.

( 508 ) [Oct.,

CHRONICLES OF SCIENCE,

Including the Proceedings of Learned Societies at Aome and Abroad ;
and Zlotices of Recent Scientific Literature.

1. AGRICULTURE.

A coop harvest month has somewhat improved the grain produce
of the year, which, however, as regards the wheat crop, is con-
siderably below the average, and very much inferior to our expe-
rience of last year. The great agricultural meeting at Manchester
has given to our leading manufacturing population a better idea
than they before possessed of the real status as well as of the
relative position of the food manufacture among the other manu-
factures of the country. So admirable a collection of specimen ~
products, and especially of our various breeds of live stock, was
never before exhibited; and the immense collection of agricultural
machinery, which Manchester spectators most of all were likely to
appreciate, could not fail to give the impression that the agricultural
body had contributed quite their share to that ideal of energy,
promptitude, practical ability, and success to which we give the
name—John Bull.

In the Parliamentary session just closed two important agri-
cultural measures have been enacted, one of which assumes,
properly enough, that English farmers cannot take care of them-
selves; of the other, differences of opinion on this point exist.
The former lays certain restrictions on the trade in foreign live
stock, providing for such a separation or quarantine of imported
animals as shall hinder the introduction of infectious diseases; the
latter inflicts penalties on any one who shall kill or dye seeds for
fraudulent purposes. The practice had become notorious, and
called for remedy: but it is believed by many that the true remedy
is already in the hands of the farmer, and needs no legislative sup-
plement. Better teach a great community, whose ability is so well
Ulustrated by every agricultural meeting, the art of taking care of
themselves, than surround them with enactments for their safety.

The analysis of manures, however, much more than the analysis
of seeds, has long been known as an efficient protection against
fraud in the artificial manure market; but it appears now that a
guarantee by the chemist of so much per cent. of soluble phos-
phate cannot be depended on for any length of time. Soluble
phosphates do under certain circumstances fall back into their
original chemical condition by mere lapse of time. And a recent
trial proves that twenty-four per cent. of soluble phosphate may
in a few weeks become eighteen or nineteen per cent. without any

1869. ] Agriculture. 509

taint of dishonesty attaching to either salesman or warehouseman.
Other phosphates besides those of lime are now used in the manu-
facture ; and thus, use as much sulphuric acid in their conver-
sion as’ you will, a portion of the phosphate which it makeg
soluble in water becomes in time insoluble in water—reprecipitated,
as it were, in the substance of the superphosphate itself, or in other
words, it is again reduced. After all, however, the effect of the
original solution is not entirely lost; the process which thus pre-
maturely takes place does in every case ensue upon the addition of a
superphosphate to the soil; and it is the finely divided condition
of the resultant neutral phosphate in the soil, not the easily soluble
condition of superphosphate which is applied to the soil, on which
the immediately fertilizing power of the manure depends.

The subject of thin seeding has occupied a good deal of attention
lately in agricultural journals. The practice of sowing two or even
three bushels of wheat per acre seems on the face of it a monstrous
waste of seed. There are thus 1,200,000 to 1,800,000 grains sown
on every acre, corresponding to from 30 to 40 seeds on every
square foot of ground! which is apparently absurd. And no doubt
it is really wrong in the great majority of cases; nevertheless the
question is one not for the arithmetician, but for the agriculturist.
The object is to get the greatest possible crop; and if, as the
‘ Acricultural Gazette ’ points out, the practice of sowing 20 or 30
seeds per foot proves right during the harvest month, we can well
afford to neglect the arithmetical proof of its folly and absurdity
which it will receive during all the other eleven months of the year.
In practice the quantity of seed sown per acre has gradually di-
minished of late years, and 5 or 6 pecks of wheat are now com-
monly sown per acre, where 8 or 10 used to be the common allow-
ance. Among matters of personal interest which have occupied
attention during the past quarter, we may name the publication of
a memoir of the late John Grey, of Dilston, by his daughter, Mrs.
G. Butler. It is the biography of a large-hearted and accomplished
man, whose great and good influence upon agricultural progress it
will materially help to maintain. The labours of Mr. W. Smith, of
Woolstone, as the pioneer of steam cultivation, have been the subject
of discussion and recognition. The visit of M. Dumas, the distin-
guished French chemist, to this country, and notably to the experi-
mental farm of Mr. Lawes at Rothamsted and to the sewage farm
at Barking, deserves a record for the attention which was directed
by it at once to the long-continued and most valuable labours of
our great agricultural chemists, Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, in the
domain of agricultural theory, and to the leading question in the
field of agricultural practice, which is receiving so satisfactory a
solution in the hands of the Metropolis Sewage Company.

510 Chronicles of Science. ‘[Oct.,

2. ARCHAOLOGY (Pre-Hisroric),
And Notices of Recent Archzxological Works.

Ir is now five years since Professor Owen read before the Royal
Society the first part of his paper “ On the Human Remains from
the Cave of Bruniquel.” arly in the present year he commu-
nicated the second part, containing the account of the Equine
remains.

This cavern, situated in a limestone cliff on the north side of
the valley of the Aveyron, Département Tarne et Garonne, was
explored by its proprietor, the Vicomte de Lastic St. Jal, in 1863,
and a suite of the remains (selected by Professor Owen) were secured
by the Trustees for the British Museum.

Although this deposit is chiefly rich in remains of the Reindeer ~
and Wild Horse—both these animals having been eaten in great
numbers by the ancient denizens of the cavern —there is here a
total absence of the remains of the Cave-lion, Cave-bear, Hyzena,
and those large extinct pachyderms that have elsewhere been found
in ossiferous deposits.

Of the existence of early man in Western Europe with the
Mammoth, Rhinoceros, Hyzna, &c., there can now be little doubt ;
but at the time when he occupied the caves of Dordogne and the
Aveyron, and left behind, in the hearth-stuff of these caves, such
indubitable evidence of his long-continued gesidence, the larger
pachyderms and more formidable beasts of prey had apparently
given place to vast migratory herds of Reindeer and Wild Horses,
upon which the Cave-men subsisted, and of the bones and horns of
which their weapons of the chase were made.

The mammalian fauna of such caves as Kent’s Hole, Torquay,
or Genista Cave, Gibraltar, may be more varied and remarkable,
but as regards the excellence of the drawings of animals on some of
the bones, the fine workmanship of the barbed harpoons and bone
needles, no cavern has yielded a better or finer series than that of
Bruniquel.

We shall look forward with much interest to the publication of
Prof. Owen’s valuable paper in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions.’

In some notes “On the Sutherland Gold-field,” by the Rey.
J. M. Joass, communicated to the Geological Society by Sir
Roderick I. Murchison, Bart.,* the author refers to the Pictish
Towers, a class of ancient buildings very numerous in Sutherland,
and specially abundant within the ascertained auriferous district.
These towers, wherever they occur, from Shetland to the south of

* See ‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ vol. xxv., pp. 317-326,

1869.] Archeology. 511

Inverness-shire, appear to be associated with rocks which may be
more or less auriferous—namely, the Lower Silurian.

These forts have no doubt been erected against maritime in-
vaders. Their number and strength suggest the frequency and
formidable nature of such inroads, for which a motive may be found
in the supposition that south-eastern Sutherland and other districts
where such duns or burgs occur, were known in pre-historic times
to be rich in gold or other mineral treasures.

Hence, perhaps, the connection between the copper of Sandness
and Mousa-burg, in Shetland; the lead and silver of Beaufort and
Struidh-burg, in Inverness; the gold of Durness and Dun-Dor-
nadilla, in west Sutherland; of Uisge-dubh and Caisteal-Coille ; of
Allt-Smeorail with Aschoille-burg on the one side, and Coir-
Aoiscaig tower on the other; and of Strath Ulhe, with its chain of
Pictish strongholds from Dun-uaine on the coast to the wonderful
group of Cyciopean structures that crown Beinn-Ghriam-beg,
twenty-eight miles inland.

Hence too, perhaps, the origin of the native torques and armille
of beaten gold, attractive booty no doubt to the roving Norsemen,
“the extractors of rings”; and hence, also, it may be, one reason
why the largest nugget lately found weighs only 2 oz. 17 dwts., if
we suppose that the gold discoverable without washing or other
modern appliances had been picked up by the pre-historic people.

Mr. George Anderson lately communicated to the Geological
Society of Edinburgh an interesting description of Craig Phadrich,
a vitrified fort-near Inverness. ‘This pre-historic fortress occupies
the termination of a rocky ridge (about 250 feet in height) in the
long chain of mountains which skirt the west of the great glen of
Scotland, and fronts the Ordhill of Kessock, another vitrified fort
on the opposite Ross-shire coast.

It forms the advanced beacon-station on the Moray Firth, from
which signals could be passed by each successive link of the chain
of natural telegraph-stations stretching far into the recesses of the
country beyond the head of the Beauly Firth, in Ross-shire, Glen-
strathfarar and Strathglass, as well as in the great glen.

Six or seven vitrified summits are visible from Craig Phadrich,
and if the ordinary hill-forts, having huge ramparts of stone round
their tops, belong to the same period, that number might be nearly
doubled. Craig Phadrich stands on a hill of Old Red Sandstone,
capped witha mass of hard conglomerate, with precipitous faces on
the north and south sides, and steep ridges of approach on the east
and west. These approaches were guarded by two walls or embank-
ments—one, a very strong and high one on the summit, composed
of loose stones, sand, and gravel—the other about 50 feet lower
down the slope, less massive but much more highly vitrified. The
pathway up the western side is extremely narrow and tortuous, and

512 Chronicles of Science. [ Oct.,

flanked by projecting masses of rock, from which loose stones could
be readily hurled on an invading foe. The eastern ascent is the
main approach, but the entrance is so strongly fortified by project-
ing walls or bastions that it could readily have been defended from
above.

In the upper rampart the vitrified stones occur intermixed with
others not affected by fire, and with loose sand and gravel. In the
lower, or outer wall on the south side, the fusion has been much
more complete, pieces of granite, gneiss, mica-slate, and quartz-
rock, with some bits of sandstone, being all fused together. Mr.
Anderson observed long strings of vitrified matter which had
poured down from the melted mass above among the loose materials
beneath.

The writer has carefully examined similar vitrified forts in the
Sidlaw Hills, overlooking the valley of the South Esk.

Bearing in mind the infusible materials of which these walls are .
built, it seems almost incredible that a rude and savage race should
have resorted to the agency of fire to consolidate them. The heat
required even to vitrify the exterior of a mass of granite must have
been not only very intense, but such as would.endure for many
days. In Craig Phadrich the fusion of the walls had penetrated
for 12 or 14 inches into the mass.

In the ‘ Natural History Transactions of Northumberland and
Durham,”* the Rev. G. Rome Hall investigates the origin of certain
Terraced Slopes in North Tynedale. These terraces occur in the
borders of the valley of the North Tyne and the river Rede, near to
the Roman Wall and Watling Street, and close to the sites of nu-
merous British camps. They have been examined by the geologist,
the military engineer, the practical agriculturist, and the arche-
ologist, and each, from his own particular stand-point, has traced
their formation to widely different agencies. ‘The author describes
and maps upwards of seven sets of these terraced slopes: four sets
near the village of Birtley; two sets near Swinburne Castle, and
another series near Wall Camp Hill, &c.

The terraces of Steel Burn are 400 yards long, about seven to
ten in number, and face to the south-west; another set, ten in
number, are 150 yards long, and face the west. ‘The next series
are seven to eight in number, each several yards in breadth, five to
seven feet in height, and face due south. Near Buteland House
there are six to seven terraces, three feet in height, and many yards
in breadth, facing west. Those near Birtley form nearly a rect-
angle, the western face being 300 yards long, the southern face 110
yards. The former has six ledges, with a shorter one inserted
midway, and the lowest not parallel. The terraces average three,

* Part i., vol. iii

1869. ] Archeology. 513

five, six, seven, one-and-a-half, and five feet in height, reckoning
from the base ; and the platforms are fourteen, eight, and the three
uppermost, nine yards in breadth. The peculiarity of these ridges,
as compared with ancient river-terraces, is their want of parallelism,
their disagreement in relative levels, and their general want of cor-
respondence with the course of the valley, as well as the fact that
one set of terraces disagrees with another near it. Mr. Hall cites
the opinion of Mr. G. Tate, F.G.S., in favour of the artificial, and
against the geological origin of these terraces. He refers to the
various theories as to the military uses to which they may have
been applied, and cites Lieut. Sitwell, R.E., against their fitness as
lines of defences. Finally, from independent investigation, the
author has been led to the conclusion that we have here the early
attempts at cereal cultivation of the ancient British inhabitants of
the valley.

The author cites numerous authorities, both ancient and modern,
in favour of his theory, and we are bound to say he makes out a
good case. Mr. G. Poulett Scrope has given this explanation to
terraces in Wilts and Dorset, and shown that these “ Linchets” or
“ Balks” are still in process of formation on farms in Wiltshire at
the present day.*

In the ‘Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand
Institute, } there is, among other interesting matter, a paper by the
Hon. W. B. Mantell, F.G.S., on the “ Moa.”

After instancing examples to show that New Zealand was not
peculiar in the circumstance that huge birds, without the power of
flight, were the highest form of life previous to the arrival of man
in the islands, he proceeded to describe the different circumstances
under which the remains of the Moa are found, assigning the
highest antiquity -to those that are found under the stalagmite in
certain limestone caves similar to the bone-caves in which traces of
the early animals which inhabited Great Britain are preserved to
us. He drew attention to the fact, that in the British caves,
among the great variety of animals represented, there is always
evidence that they were dragged into these caves by beasts of prey ;
but New Zealand caves have failed to show any such cause for the
presence of the Moa-bones in them, or that any animal existed
beyond larger forms of those now inhabiting the islands. These
cave Moa-bones, and probably those found in certain alluvial depo-
sits, he considered to belong to a period before the arrival of the
aborigines. He then described the several circumstances under
which the remains of the Moa are found associated with works of
man, in such a manner as to leave no doubt that they co-existed
with the earliest aborigines, and were largely used as food, along

* See ‘ Geol. Mag.,’ vol. iii., 1866, p. 293.
+ Vol. i. (issued May, 1869).
VoL, VI. 2N

514 Chronicles of Science. [Oct.,

with seals and a variety of other animals. From the examination
of the wmus or Maori ovens, there was evidence that cannibalism
prevailed at the time the Moas were used for food, but only in the
North Island. Certain works of art associated with bones in these
early deposits appear to indicate a period when many of the imple-
ments in common use among the Maoris, and supposed to have been
brought with them from Hawaiki, were unknown to these early
aborigines. The highly-prized Ponamu, or Greenstone, appears also
to have been discovered in New Zealand at a later date. The most
ancient of the native ovens which he had examined were scooped
out in the surface of marie deposits, generally blue-clays or sands,
such as are deposited in estuaries or tidal lagoons, and never covered
by other than fresh-water or blown sand deposits.

Those at Wainongaro, in the North Island, and at Awamua, in
Otago, were the oldest he had seen, and contained fragments of
stone used as cutting implements, of kinds that showed that even at
that early period the natives had extensively explored the interior
of these islands. In Otago, especially, it is probable that the interior
was their usual dwelling-place, and that they only paid occasional
and periodical visits to the sea-coast. He referred to certain rude
figures which he discovered drawn on the walls of a cave in the
Waitaki valley, among which was rudely depicted the likeness of a
Moa, by some early aboriginal artist, and proceeded to describe the
causes which led to the extermination of those birds. ‘This must
have taken place within a very short period after the appearance of
man, adducing the very slight and obscure allusions im the most
ancient Maori traditions to their existence as proof of this.

After alluding to the probable habits and mode of life of the
Moa, and to the present representatives of the class of bird to which
they belong, Mr. Mantell concluded by saying that in his lecture
he confined himself to the subject of the Moa, the native word
including these birds as a whole, leaving the different species of
Dinornis, Palapteryx, and other genera which have been made, to
those who believe that they have the necessary data ; for his part,
he did not believe that, with the exception of the very fresh skeleton
found in. Otago, and now in the York Museum, of which the integu-
ment and feathers are partly preserved, there was yet a single
skeleton restored in such a manner as would be at all suited to the
wants of the bird if it were alive; he therefore strongly urged the
careful collection of specimens, and that those persons who discovered
bones, if they did not consider themselves well acquainted with the
subject, should leave them untouched until they could be exhumed
by properly qualified collectors,

In Dr. Foster’s ‘ Mississippi Valley, * the author gives an

* P. 415

1869. | Archxology. 515

account of the extent and distribution of the relics of the ancient
“ Mound-Builders,” a race which, long antecedent to the North-
American Indian, once occupied the region of the Great Lakes and
the Valley of the Mississippi. The trees which covered these
mounds when first discovered by the white settlers, differed in no
degree, either of size or form, from those of the surrounding woods.
The late Professor Hitchcock, without examination, denied their
artificial origin, but subsequent investigations by the geologist and
the antiquary, side by side, have proved beyond a doubt that they
were formed by human hands. Evidence afforded by the earth-
works has also connected their builders with the ancient copper-
miners of Lake Superior, whose operations represent probably the
most extensive pre-historic mines in the world.

Dr. Foster points out that the number and magnitude of these
earth-works not only indicate a vast population, but also a people
subsisting by agricultural pursuits; as no mere nomadic race, sub-
sisting by the chase, could have devoted the time necessary for the
formation of such extensive national works. The earth-work at
Cahokia, Ilhnois, is 90 feet high, and has a base of 666 feet ; while
the famous mound at Grave Creek, Virginia, is 70 feet high, with a
base of 333 feet; and the next in rank is that of Miamisburgh,
Ohio, which is 68 feet high, with a base of 284 feet.

Near Newark, Ohio, the circles, squares, parallel roads, and
tumuli, extend over many leagues of ground, and out-rival, in cubical
contents, the great Pyramid of Cheops.

Their weapons were spear and arrow heads, chipped with much
skill, out of hornstone or chert ; hammers, generally of porphyry,
grooved near the head for the attachment of a withe; fleshing
instruments of the same material, brought down to a blunt edge ;
pestles for cracking and grinding corn ; plates of steatite, or chlo-
rite slate, pierced with holes to gauge the size of the thread in
spinning; circular discs, like weights, and concave on both sides,
ordinarily of porphyry and ground; ornaments like plum-bobs,
double-coned, or egg-shaped, and pierced or grooved at one end for
the attachment of a string made of specular iron, like that of Lake
Superior; lastly, elaborately-wrought pipes, showing that they
indulged in the luxury of tobacco.

They mined extensively the native copper on the shores of Lake
Superior, and wrought it into knives, spear-heads, chisels, bracelets,
and other personal ornaments.

They were unacquainted with tin, and had no alloy; and there
is reason to believe they did not, even ordinarily, smelt the copper,
but simply hammered tt cold.

Bracelets of copper have been found in the mounds, enclosing
native silver in the unaltered state as it occurs in the mine.

They had also made considerable advance in the ceramic art,

2N 2

516 Chronicles of Science. [ Oct.,

many of the specimens of pottery discovered displaying considerable
taste and skill.

Dr. Foster concludes that the Mound-Builders were an indus-
trious, peaceful, and numerous race, pursuing agriculture as a
means of support, maize being their staple article of food; ruled
over by a despotic government, under whose direction their great
public monuments were carried out; and lastly, that their extermi-
nation has resulted from the invasion of a less civilized but more
vigorous and warlike people.

3, ASTRONOMY.
(Including the Proceedings of the Astronomical Society.)

Tue successful observation of the eclipse of August 7th is a for-
tunate circumstance for science, because it is not likely that either
of the two next total eclipses (in 1870 and 1871) will afford a
favourable opportunity for observations of the coloured prominences.
The eclipse of 1872 will last but a few seconds as a total eclipse,
and will only be visible as such over parts of the South Pacific.

The observations made by the American astronomers leave
little to be desired. The photographs which have been obtained
will probably be the best which have hitherto rewarded the exertions
of astronomers in the particularly difficult art of celestial photo-
graphy. Major Tennant at Guntoor, and the German observers at
Aden, last year obtained remarkably good photographs of the
eclipsed sun; but the intense heat of the Indian climate added
largely to Major Tennant’s difficulties, while the observers at Aden
had to photograph the prominences soon after sun-rise, when their
light was received through the denser atmospheric strata. In the
United States all the circumstances were highly favourable ; and
from the known skill of the American astronomers in the art of
celestial photography, we may hope for results of the utmost im-
portance and scientific value. It is seldom that an eclipse visits
astronomers so near their own home as this one did, its track lying
close past several of the leading American observatories.

The most interesting result of the observations, so far as our
information as yet extends, is the discovery that the spectrum of
the prominences contains several lines more than had hitherto been
discovered. M. Rayet last year discovered eight, but some doubt
was thrown on his observations by the fact that none of the other
astronomers engaged in the spectroscopic analysis of the prominences
saw so many lines. Professor Winlock, observing the recent eclipse
at Shelbyville, Kentucky, saw no less than eleven bright lines.

1869. | Astronomy. 517

Thus we may infer that the structure of the prominences is more
complex than had hitherto been supposed. It is to be hoped that
the new lines, and possibly others, may admit of being rendered
visible by the spectroscope without the aid of an eclipse. Possibly
when Mr. Huggins’ new telescope is at work, we may learn the
position of the newly-discovered lines in the accurate manner which
the particular mode of observation we refer to renders possible.
It would be interesting to discover what are the elements to which
the lines belong.

The darkness during the eclipse was much greater than during
the eclipse of last year, though the totality did not last so long by
nearly three minutes. Some of the observers searched, but without
success, for intra-Mercurial planets.

Although Professor Tyndall’s recent investigations of the phe-
nomena presented by comets are too closely associated with his
physical researches to be described in full in our astronomical
Chronicle, yet there are certain points connected with his new
theory which it belongs especially to astronomy to deal with.

Passing over the physical considerations on which the theory
depends, and which serve to distinguish it from most of the hypo-
theses hitherto put forward (based as these are on no known
experimental laws), we may describe the theory as follows :—

The tail of a comet is not matter projected from the head, but
matter precipitated on the solar beams which have traversed the
head. ‘Tyndall has shown that such precipitation may occur either
with comparative slowness along the beam, or with the velocity
with which the beam actually traverses space. Thus the amazing
rapidity with which a comet’s tail is sometimes developed is accounted
for “without invoking the incredible motion of translation hitherto
assumed.”* Ag the comet sweeps round the perihelion, the tail is
not composed of the same matter, but new matter is precipitated on
the solar beams, the part of the old tail which is not protected (so
to speak) by the head of the comet being dissipated by the sun’s
calorific rays; and the dissipation not beg necessarily instan-
taneous, “the tail leans towards that portion of space last quitted
by the comet—a general fact of observation being thus accounted
for.” Occasional lateral streamers are explained as possibly due to
the temporary mastery of the actinic rays in parts of the cometary
atmosphere not screened by the nucleus. Lastly, the shrinking of
the head as the comet approaches the sun is due to the beating
of the heat-rays against the attenuated fringe of the head, which
is thus dissipated.

Although the theory, as at present put forward, fails to account

* Here, in passing, we may notice that Professor Tyndall is in error as to the

opinions received among astronomers, for Sir John Herschel long since proved that
no such assumption is permissible.

518 Chronicles of Science. [ Oct.,

for many of the observed peculiarities of comets, yet it appears to
us not unlikely that a way may yet be found to reconcile the strange
phenomena which some comets have presented with the views
maintained by Professor Tyndall. We cannot at present admit
his explanation of lateral streamers, because it leaves us in quite
as much perplexity as we have ever been in with respect to this
strange phenomenon. When we see a tail extending in a right
line from the head, but at an angle of 60° or so to the radial line
from the sun, we require more to account for the peculiarity than
the bare possibility that along that line the actinic rays may
temporarily have obtained the mastery; and when we see, as in the
famous comet of 1774, six distinct tails spreading from the head
in the shape of a fan, it is yet more unsatisfactory to refer to a
mere possibility of this sort. Professor Tyndall mentions no
illustrative case as having occurred in the course of his experiments —
on actinic clouds; and therefore, so far as this part of his theory
is concerned, he seems scarcely justified in saying that “ throughout
he has dealt exclusively with true causes,” and that “no agency
has been invoked which does not rest on the sure basis either of
observation or experiment.”

However, the great difficulty in cometic phenomena, the apparent
swinging round of the tail with a velocity often far exceeding the
greatest velocity possible within the solar scheme, is undoubtedly
mastered by Professor Tyndall’s theory; and this circumstance
renders us hopeful that he may be able to find a more satisfactory
explanation than he has yet given of abnormal cometic phenomena.

The application of the enormous heat-gathering powers of the
great Parsonstown reflector to the solution of the long-vexed
problem of the moon’s heat, is one of the most valuable results
which have followed the construction of clock-work suited to drive
this great telescope. The question is one of such extreme delicacy,
that so long as the telescope had to be guided by the old arrange-
ment no results of a satisfactory nature could be hoped for. On
the other hand, no other telescope could be applied to the work
with reasonable chance of success. Mr. Huggins had detected no
sign of heat, when the moon’s rays were gathered by his powerful
refractor upon the face of a delicate thermopile ; and indeed Pro-
fessor Tyndall long since pointed out that it was almost hopeless
to apply a refractor to such work, the moon’s heat being of such
a nature that far the greater part must be absorbed by the object-
lens. With the Rosse telescope (used in combination with a delicate
thermopile), clear signs of heat were detected, and thus at length
the question has been set at rest.

Comparing the heat received from the moon with that derived
from several terrestrial sources, Lord Rosse has deduced the con-
clusion that at the time of full moon a part of the moon’s surface

1869. ] Astronomy. 519

may be heated to a temperature of more than 500° Fahrenheit.
We have no particulars, however, as to the reasoning which led the
observer to the conclusion that most of the heat we receive from
the moon is radiated towards us. May not the majority have been
reflected ? The distinction is all-important, so far as the views we
are to form of the temperature of the moon’s surface are concerned.

The planet Jupiter will be well placed for observation during
the next quarter. Saturn is passing away from our skies,

Judging from the wide region over which the November meteors
were seen last year, there is every reason to believe that they will
be well seen in England this year, on November 14th, in the
morning hours, though probably the shower will not be comparable
with that of 1866.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY.

Mr. Plummer has been able to confirm Mr. Huggins’ spectro-
scopic observations of the Auroral streamers. He notices that the
line in the Aurora spectrum agrees closely with the most conspicuous
of the lines in the spectrum of Betelgeux, between the solar lines
D and E. There is also a tolerably conspicuous line in the spectrum
of Aldebaran near the same place. A conspicuous line in the
spectrum of air is near the line seen in the spectrum of Aurora,
but not near enough, in Mr. Plummer’s opinion, to suggest the
possibility that the want of coincidence is due to an error of
observation.

Mr. Plummer noticed further that Winnecke’s comet was visible
with the 64-inch refractor of the Durham Observatory, through
one of the densest streamers, “without any other mconvenience
than that of the brightness of the field of view.

Commander Ashe, R.N., sends an interesting account of his
determination of the position of “ Riviere du Loup,” by electric
telegraph. The place is about 130 miles below Quebec. Com-
mander Ashe took advantage of the intense cold then prevailing in
Canada, to obtain a firm stand for his transit instrument. He got
a flour-barrel, removed the snow from the earth, and placed the
barrel on the ground, then filled it with sand, poured two or three
buckets of water over it and around it, and, as it was freezing,
placed a square piece of board on the top. In a few minutes the
whole was a solid mass, and throughout the series of observations
this novel observatory continued firm and unshaken. His work
was somewhat impeded by the Canadian boys, “who are of the
English type,” and therefore are unable to resist their propensity
for throwing stones when they see a light; “ and it is impossible to
count seconds under these circumstances,” adds Commander Ashe.

520 Chronicles of Science. [ Oct.,
The deduced longitude of Riviere du Loup is 4h. 38 m. 10°295s.

An account of the recent transit of Mercury, as seen at Vizaga-
patam by Mr. A. V. Nursing Row (a Hindoo astronomer), contains
some points of interest. Mr. Row and some of his friends noticed
that near the middle of the transit a “wavy tint of light” darted
from the upper edge of the planet. The light was occasionally
disturbed, but continued visible for some time. No change of focal
length or of the eye-piece employed had any effect on the phenomenon.
We do not remember any instance of a phenomenon of this sort
having been noticed before during a transit of Mercury. As the
Astronomer Royal for Scotland remarks, it is not easy to explain
the significance of so peculiar a feature.

Major Tennant supplies an interesting note on the preparations
desirable for photographic observations of such phenomena as
transits of Venus. He believes that this method of utilizing a .
transit is a very valuable one, though he considers that it should be
subjected to trial before being unreservedly trusted. He remarks
that a reflecting telescope with wnsilvered glass mirrors would give
comparatively little light ; and still less if the image were optically
enlarged. This point is of importance in connection with the ques-
tion of instrumental distortion. In a Newtonian telescope, a convex
or concave lens achromatized for the actinic rays might be used ;
or the telescope might be a Cassegrainian, an arrangement which
would be more compact than the other. An “instantaneous shut-
ter” would allow a fairly large aperture to be used, and “ this
having its centre-part removed would give good definition.” He
suggests a new mode of releasing the shutter. At Kew it is held
against a spring by a thread which is cut with scissors. Major
Tennant proposes that it should be retained by an electro-magnet,
and that the current forming this should pass through a chrono-
graph. ‘Thus if an observer at a separate telescope had a break-
circuit key, he could at any moment photographically record a
phenomenon he saw and the instant of its occurrence,

Mr. De la Rue, remarking on Major Tennant’s paper, expresses
his preference for a Newtonian reflector; the heat emerging from
the back of the principal mirror, when either the Cassegrainian or
Gregorian forms are used, would seriously interfere, he remarks,
with the success of photographic manipulations.

Both papers show the importance of a complete investigation of
all the circumstances of the coming transits.

Major Tennant suggests that preparations should be made for
observing the total eclipse of 1871 in the south of India. He does
not comment upon the nature of the eclipse, which we should have
thought little suited for the sort of observations he suggests. In
South India the totality will last little over two minutes.

Mr. Baxendell discusses the nature of the corona seen round

1869. | Astronomy. 521

the sun in total eclipses. He considers that the view taken by
M. Faye and the Astronomer Royal (who look upon the corona as
an atmospheric phenomenon) is wholly inadmissible. When “ the
corona is seen to the greatest advantage, no part of the earth’s
atmosphere within a considerable angular distance of the sun and
moon receives any direct sunlight, and therefore none can be
reflected from it.” He considers that not merely the optical phe-
nomena of the corona, but “an immense number of magnetical and
temperature observations made in different parts of the world” can
be best explained by assuming the existence of an irregular nebulous
ring circulating about the sun nearly in the plane of the ecliptic,
and at a mean distance of *169.

Mr. Joynson has presented another series of drawings of Mars
to the Society. They are selected from ninety made at various
times during the recent opposition of the planet. The planet has
been so carefully scanned by the late Mr. Dawes, with his fine
8-inch refractor and his unsurpassed powers of vision, that one can
hardly imagine what useful object an observer can propose to him-
self in laboriously depicting the planet as it appears under far
inferior powers. Nothing but a very powerful telescope can now
teach us anything new about the lands and seas of Mars.

Professor Loomis shows that Mr. Tebbutt’s observations of the
variation of the mysterious star 7 Argtiis may be explained by
assigning to the star a period of variation of sixty-seven years,
instead of the period of forty-six years obtained by Professor Wolf.
According to this view, the star has now reached its true minimum
of splendour, and we may probably soon expect to see it steadily
increasing. According to the best observations during the past
century, the star has no less than three distinct maxima of splendour
—two nearly equal and corresponding to a brightness exceeding
that of all stars but Canopus and Sirius, the other corresponding to
the least brilliancy of a first-magnitude star. The variable has but
one minimum, corresponding to a brightness somewhat less than
that of a sixth-magnitude star.

Mr. Browning describes a large sun-spot which was visible on
March 14th, 1869. From north to south the spot measured
14,400 miles; from west to east 19,600 miles. The umbra con-
tained three nuclei of very unequal dimensions, arranged nearly in
the form of an equilateral triangle. ‘Two bridges crossed the spot
at an angle of about 40°. These bridges presented the appearance
of broken twigs, lyimg mostly in the direction of the bridges’
length.

On May 13th, Mr. Bidder saw a spot having a bridge of an
unusually attenuated shape, and spirally formed.

Major Tennant suggests certain modifications in the construe-
tion of spirit-levels. He considers that the volume of the bubble

522 Chronicles of Science. | Oct.,

should be large, that its density relatively to that of the fluid should
be small, and that the surface common to the fluid and the bubble
should have as large an area as possible. To gain these points, and
to cause the temperature to have as small an effect as possible upon
the length of the bubble, he proposes that the cylindrical form of
level should be abandoned, and the necessary cavity be cut out of a
rectangular prism of glass. He suggests mercury for the fluid and
hydrogen for the bubble.

Mr. Hind supplies an important note respecting the transit of
Venus in 1874. M. Puiseux, who had independently calculated the
circumstances of the transit, had arrived at results somewhat dif-
ferent from those published by Mr. Hind in 1861. Mr. Hind has
placed the re-calculation of the elements in the hands of Mr. W.
Plummer, his assistant at Mr. Bishop’s observatory, Twickenham,
and the result is that Mr. Hind’s estimates are confirmed in a most -
satisfactory manner.

The June number of the Monthly Notices was not published by
the Society’s printers until the middle of August, nearly six weeks
after the proper time. It contains six large maps by Mr. Proctor,
illustrating a paper on the transit of Venus. Of these, four repre-
sent the same features which had been exhibited in the Astronomer
Royal’s maps accompanying the December number of the Notices,
and show the effects of changing the phase from the passage of
Venus’s centre to the planet’s internal contacts. The other two are
enlarged drawings of the features exhibited in our last number.
The corrections resulting from the former set are new, and some of
them, if established, would seem to be important. Thus Crozet
Island, which had been rejected on account of the low elevation of
the sun there at ingress, is shown to haye the sun 54 degrees higher
than had been supposed. The calculated solar elevation of 44
degrees at Bourbon Island is altered to 124 degrees; 6 degrees at
Mauritius to 14 degrees; and 114 degrees at Rodriguez to 19
degrees. These numbers all refer to ingress. As respects egress,
the most important change is from a calculated solar elevation of
114 degrees at Chatham Island to one of 16 degrees. A number
of Indian stations before unnoticed are shown to be among the best
available places for observing the retarded egress.

Professor Brayley supplies an interesting paper on the nature
of the bridges of light seen across solar spots. He looks upon these
as the upper termination of vorticose flames.

Mr. Stone gives a table of the probable errors of Greenwich
observations in zenith distance, estimated merely by their dis-
cordances from the separate means. More than 2000 observations
were employed in obtaining the errors. The probable error ranges
from 0"°47 at the zenith to 0”: 60 half-way between the zenith and
the horizon; thence to 0:70 at an elevation of 35° above the

1869. ] Botany and Vegetable Physiology. 523

horizon; to 0"*80 at an elevation of 25°; to 0”:95 at an elevation
of 15°; 1”°20 at 10°; 1":92 at 5°; and, finally, 3"°32 at 3° above
the horizon. These results are of the utmost importance in relation
to the probable correctness of the proper motions assigned to stars
which do not rise high above the horizon of Greenwich.

Mr. Browning describes a remarkably simple form of star-spec-
troscope. It is for direct vision, and weighs only about 7 ounces,
or much less than an ordinary micrometer, so that it will scarcely
at all affect the balance of a telescope.

4, BOTANY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

The Antheridia of Ferns.—Dr. Kny, of Berlin, records some inter-
esting observations on the development of the Antheridia in Ferns,
which has hitherto received several distinct explanations, in spite of
its apparently simple character. Cells of the form of closed rings
have hitherto been observed only in the full-grown frond of several
species of Aneimia. Concerning the mode of their formation there
is a difference of opinion, at present unreconciled, between Hilde-
brand and Strassburger ; but both these authorities agree in this,
that the ring-cells have not been originally produced as such, but
have received their peculiar form as a secondary development. In
the antheridia of some species of Polypodiacee and Schizewacex, Dr.
Kny has observed, as he thinks, the first example of a direct origin
of ring-cells by the formation of funnel-shaped separating walls.
They show at the same time that this occurrence, hitherto entirely
isolated in the vegetable kingdom, admits of two modifications ;
since the ring-cells are separated in the one case from a hemisphe-
rical, in the other case from a bell-shaped, mother-cell. Dr. Kny
promises further researches in this interesting field.

Reproductive Organs of Lichens.—According to M. Famitzin,
the Gonidia of Lichens—that is, the spherical cells filled with chlo-
rophyll which are dispersed in the parenchyma of the frond—if
maintained in a condition of sufficient humidity on the surface of
bits of bark during several months, will give rise in their interior to
zoospores; that is, to uniform corpuscles provided with definite
movements by vibratile cilia like the zoospores of Alge.

Spectroscopic Hxamination of Diatomacee.—Mr. H. L. Smith *
has confirmed the vegetable nature of Diatoms by the application
of the spectroscope. He has proved the absolute identity of chloro-
phyll or the green endochrome of plants, with diatomin or the olive-
yellow endochrome of the diatoms, by the identity of their spec-
trum, which is a very remarkable one.

* ‘ American Journal of Science and Arts,’

524 Chronicles of Science. | Oct.,

Fertilization of Graminex.—M. Bidard has been observing the
fertilization of grasses. He states that their pollen does not exhibit
any trace of pollen-tubes, and that self-fertilization takes place before
the anthers are extended beyond the perigone. The fovilla is itself
absorbed from the pollen after it falls on the stigma through the
thread-like tubes which perforate it. There exist im grasses two
principal phenomena which are only known as belonging to this
family,—the elongation of the filaments and their extrusion from
the perigone after fertilization has taken place, and the fecundation
by perforation of the pollen. The heat of the breath or a ray of
sunshine is sufficient to bring about the phenomena of fecundation ;
and the natural hybridization of grasses is impossible, owing to the
exact closure of the chamber containing the fecundating organ.

Fertilization of Salvia.—A contribution towards the imvesti-
gation of the phenomena attending the impregnation of plants has
been made in the case of the genus Salvia, affording a striking ~
instance of the natural tendency towards cross-fertilization which
Mr. Darwin has pointed out. The two perfect stamens of Salvia
contain each two anther-cells at the opposite ends of a connective
which is longer than the filament itself. The arm of the connective
to which the upper anther-cell is attached is longer than that which
supports the lower anther-cell, this latter being in some species
entirely, in others partially, destitute of pollen. The lower anther-
cell projects far into the mouth of the corolla, so that when the
flower is visited by the bees, which frequent it very freely, the
insect necessarily pushes it aside, and causes the extremely mobile
connective to rotate; the upper anther-cells thus emerge from the
hooded receptacle in which they are hidden, so as to bring their
dehiscing surfaces into contact with the bee, one on either side.
The stigmas are not ripe till a considerably later period than the
anthers, and the style beimg prolonged much beyond the upper
anther-cells, these cannot in their rotation strike against the stig-
mas, nor does the bee strike them in retiring from the flower.
At a later period of development, however, the style becomes bent
down, so that the stigmas block up the entrance into the mouth of
the corolla, and it is only at this period that the stigmatic surface
becomes fully developed. When a bee laden with pollen enters a
flower in which the style has assumed this position, 1t cannot fail to
rub its back against the stigmatic surface, and thus secure the ferti-
lization of the flower. This structure has been observed, with slight
modifications, in Salvia officinalis, glutinosa, pratensis, Sclarea,
and some other species.

Effects of Smoke on Vegetation.—Mr. K. Green, gardener to the
Right Hon. J. W. Patten, M.P., of Warrington Hall, read at the
Manchester Congress an article on this subject, which contains some
useful hints for dwellers in towns. During the last twenty years

1869.] Botany and Vegetable Physiology. 525

the smoke and noxious gases from the chemical works have greatly
increased, and one plant and tree after another has succumbed to
their baneful influence. Of forest trees and shrubs, the fir and the
larch were the first to give way; then followed the Cotoneaster
macrophylla, arbor-vite, janiper, Erica, and rosemary. Berberis
ilicifolia, yew, rose, and holly are disappearing, and none of the
Conifers will live more than two or three years. The sycamore and
hornbeam are decaying fast; the horse-chestnut is vigorous, but the
leaves are often cut by the noxious vapours; beech and lime are
more healthy; ash and elm the most vigorous. Rhododendron,
Aucuba, and hawthorn flourish ; the oak does very well; laburnum,
Syringa, willow, birch, ivy, and elder are still healthy, and the
privet moderately so. Of fruit-trees the pear stands best; plum
and damson moderately well; apple suffers much; also red and
white currant; raspberry and gooseberry rather better, but the
fruit much deteriorated in flavour. Of vegetables which do well in
the summer-months, kidney-beans sometimes drop off early in Octo-
ber ; cauliflower and broccoli do not stand any frost; and even the
common winter greens are very frequently injured by the cold;
cucumbers cannot be grown. One effect of the gases from the
chemical works is to make vegetation far more susceptible to cold ;
the trees, even when healthy, cast their leaves six weeks earlier
than in the country districts. The greatest amount of injury
occurs when the atmosphere is heavy and foggy, with scarcely a
breeze ; the young foliage being sometimes found cut and blackened
in a straight line, as if by frost; when the wind is from the west it
does more damage than when in the east.

Action of Ether on Plants——Dr. Masters states that if a
drop of ether is placed gently on the leaves of the sensitive plant,
Mimosa pudica, it produces an anesthetic or paralyzing effect,
rendering them insensible to subsequent contact. If, however, the
ether impinges on the leaf with force, or is allowed to drop from a
considerable height, contraction of the leaf immediately ensues, the
impact of the falling drop counteracting any paralyzing power.
Experiments of a similar kind on other plants resulted in the death
of the leaf or of the whole plant, or in causing the leaf to éurl up
along its under-surface.

Anniversary Address to the Linnean Society—The usual
anniversary address by Mr. Bentham, the President of the Linnean
Society, was distinguished by the declaration of the adhesion of
the first English systematist to the principle of the derivative
origin of species, and the close connection between affinity of
structure and consanguinity of descent. The portion of the
address devoted to botanical science was chiefly occupied by a
discussion of the means of dispersion of plants, the theory of
stores of buried seeds, and the characteristics of dissevered species.

526 Chronicles of Science. [ Oct.,

Mr. Bentham believes that too much stress has been laid on the
structural appliances for the dissemination of seeds, and too little
on the external means of transportation by birds, &e. Among
Composite, several species of Helipta, Hlephantopus, Anthemis,
and Lapsana, the fruit of which is destitute of pappus, have a
much more wide-spread distribution than the great majority of
Senecios. A large proportion, too, of the thistle-down which is
seen floating in the air will be found on examination to have lost its
seeds. It is calculated that out of every 100,000 seeds of the wild
foxglove, 99,999 must perish before reaching the reproductive age.
The usual explanation of the sudden appearance of new species in
localities where they were hitherto unknown, on an alteration in the
condition of the soil, is De Candolle’s statement, “Il faut donc
regarder la couche de terre végétale d’un pays comme un magasin
de graines au profit des especes indigenes.” This supposition _
appears to rest entirely on circumstantial evidence, where direct
evidence ought to be easily attainable. Though the seeds of plants
which thus suddenly appear in great quantities are often by no
means microscopical, as in the case of the white or Dutch clover,
there is no record of a single instance in which these stores have
been actually seen. Nor is there any satisfactory evidence that
seeds will retain their vitality for any considerable length of time
unless kept perfectly dry. Mr. Bentham would be more disposed
to account for these sudden appearances by the rapid transportation
of seeds by birds and other means than by the ordinary theory of
stores buried in the ground for an indefinite period.

Preservation of Sub-tropical Plants through the Winter.—
The mild winter of 1868-69, following closely on the remarkably
fine summer of 1868, was favourable to the preservation of half-
hardy plants through the winter. In the gardens of Battersea
Park a number of such plants and shrubs have now been preserved
for several winters by a covering of dry litter or other loose non-
conducting material sufficiently thick to exclude frost. Under this
treatment Canna peruviana and expansa have been preserved for
two years; Aralia papyrifera and Solanum lacinratum-elegans
survived last winter; while a variety of the rice-paper plant,
A, Sieboldi, has lived through five winters, and Echeveria secunda-
glauca has withstood 22° of frost.

Sources of Copal.—Mr. Jackson, the Curator of the Museum at
Kew, has been investigating the sources of copal, an article well
known to commercial men, but the origin of which has been
imperfectly ascertained by botanists. Several sorts of copal are
known in British trade, as the Brazilian, Indian, African, &c., the
product of widely different plants. Dammar, or East Indian copal,
is said to be the produce of Vateria indica. Dammara orientalis
and australis (Conifer) also furnish copal from Moluccas and

1869. | Botany and Vegetable Physiology. 527

Australia ; while the Indian dammar is thought to be produced
from Canarium strictum and Shorea robusta, and Brazilian copal
from several species of Hymenzwa. H. coubaril is a well-known
tree in the West Indies, Brazil, Guiana, &., exuding large quan-
tities of a clear copal-like resin, and is probably one of the chief
sources. The fruit and bark of Tvrachylobium mossambicense also
contain it in large quantities, and this appears to be the source
of the Zanzibar copal, and of the half-fossilized resin known in
English commerce as anime. The quantity of copal exported from
Zanzibar has been known to amount in some years to 800,000 Ibs.,
valued at 60,0007. The fact of insects and other foreign substances
being found imbedded in copal, whether recent or fossil, is easily
accounted for. The tenacity of the resin when in a semi-fluid state
readily entraps all bodies coming in contact with it, and it then
rapidly hardens; and considermg that the resin flows from the
under-side of the principal branches, the fruit, flowers, or twigs of
the under-growth or lower vegetation would be likely to be caught
by the exuding resin and so preserved, rather than the heavy, glossy
foliage of the tree itself.

Flora of the Sandwich Islands——The flora of this group of
islands was carefully investigated by the late Mr. Mann. They
have a surface of about 4000 square miles, situated just within
the tropics, and more than 1000 miles from any other land, except
a few rocks lying to the north-west, bare of vegetation, and
inhabited only by sea-fowl and seals. On this area, which includes
an excessively dry and hot, a very wet and hot, and every other
variety to a very dry and cold climate, is found a flora of 620
native species of flowering plants (omitting Graminex, which have
not yet been fully studied) and ferns, of which the former comprise
485, and the latter 135 species. Of the 554 flowering plants,
including 69 species known or supposed to have been introduced,
479 belong to Dicotyledone and 75 to Monocotyledonx ; and they
are divided among 253 genera and 87 natural orders. Of the 554
species 377 are peculiar to the group, while 42 are of recent and
27 of supposed aboriginal introduction. Of the 253 genera 39 are
peculiar, and these 39 genera are represented by 151 species, or
3°94 species to a genus, while the whole flora has but 2°58 species
to each genus, thus showing the important part taken by these
genera in constituting the whole phenagamous flora.

Flora of Manbhiim.—Mz. Y. Ball has turned his researches
connected with the Geological Survey of India to account for the
benefit of botanical science, by investigating the flora of the dis-
trict of Manbhtm, no collection having previously been made of
the plants found in its southern portion. Instead of meeting with
a realization of one’s ideal of a tropical jungle, the effect. produced
by the vegetation is, in many parts, not strikingly different from

528 Chronicles of Science. | Oct.,

what we are accustomed to in England, from the park-like aspect
which prevails in the higher and clearer portions; even in the
valleys there are no tree-ferns nor palms, and but few orchids,
mosses, or herbaceous ferns. The water and bog-plants, in par-
ticular, belong largely to European genera, as Nymphxa, Drosera,
Potamageton, Alisma, Cyperus, Scirpus, &c.; while the forest-
trees are entirely different. Mr. Ball enumerates between thirty
and forty of these, the timber of which is more or less valuable.

Luchens of New Grenada.—MM. Triana and Lindig have
brought up the number of ‘species of lichens in New Grenada to
467, of which 98 belong to the European flora. The saxicole
species are generally more cosmopolitan than the terrestrial or
corticole species; according to Nylander a large number of the
European saxicole lichens inhabit also, in the tropics, the summits
of mountains, while the terrestrial or corticole species are almost
always more characteristic of the cryptogamous vegetation of the »
country. which they inhabit. From New Caledonia, Dr. Nylander
announces 220 species of lichens.

The Palms of Equatorial America.—Mr. R. Spruce publishes,
in the ‘Journal of the Linnean Society,’ the results of his researches
among the palms of Equatorial South America during the years
1849-1860, between 7° South and 5° North latitude, including
descriptions of a large number of species not found by Martius or
Wallace. Mr. Spruce’s investigations of palms have led him to
the somewhat singular conclusion that the hermaphrodite and self-
fertilizing structure of plants is an earlier development, which has
gradually advanced to the higher type of unisexuality.

Botanical Exchange Club.—In the Report of the London
Botanical Exchange Club for 1868, Mr. Boswell-Syme includes
much information interesting to the collector of British plants.
Messrs. A. G. More and C. Bailey record the appearance of Scirpus
parvulus on mud flats, at the mouth of the river Avoca, in co.
Wicklow. ‘The only previously recorded British habitat was near
Lymington, in Hampshire, where it was believed to be extinct.
Aster salignus, previously recorded by Miss Edmonds, from the
shores of Derwentwater, appears to have been observed in that locality
for the last thirty years. Mr. Boswell-Syme has revised his sub-
division of Ranunculus aquatilis, as given in ‘ English Botany,’
and now makes only two sub-species, A. peltatus and stenopetalus,
the former including the forms vulgaris, floribundus, and pseudo-
fluitans, the latter heterophyllus, Drouettii, and trichophyllus.
Mentha Nouletiana, sent from Gloucestershire by Dr. St. Brody,
appears exactly intermediate between M. sylvestris and viridis.
Mr. H. C. Watson has established that the so-called Chenopodium
pseudo-botryoides is nothing but an accidental form of C. rubrum.
Potamageton filiformis, not previously recorded from Fife, has

1g69,] Chemistry. 529

been detected in great abundance by Mr. Boswell-Syme, in Loch
Gelly and Camilla Loch. Mr. H. C. Watson and Rev. W. W.
Spicer record Wolfia (Lemna) arrhiza in several: fresh localities
in Surrey. Phegopteris plumosa (J. Smith) from Kew Gardens,
originally from Yorkshire, is pronounced by Mr. J. G. Baker to
be nothing but a very delicate finely-cut form of Athyrium Filix-
Jfemina. Weare glad to observe that the number of members of
this useful society has considerably increased during the last two
ears.

Botanical Appointment.—Mr. J. G. Baker, Assistant-Curator
at the Kew Herbarium, has been appointed Lecturer on Botany
at the London Hospital, in the place of Dr. Silver.

Death.—Dr. Chas. Jas. Meller, Director of the Botanic Gardens
at the Mauritius, the companion of Dr. Livingstone in several of
his journeys, died on the 26th of February, at the age of thirty-
three, of fever, in New South Wales, while on a tour on behalf of
the government of Mauritius, for the purpose of collecting informa-
tion concerning the cultivation of the sugar-cane.

5. CHEMISTRY.
(Including the Proceedings of the Chemical Society.)

THE new earth which we announced in our last Chronicles as
having been discovered by Mr. Sorby, F.R.S., in some specimens
of zircon or jargon, has been submitted to chemical examination by
Mr. Forbes, F.R.S., who, as a result of this examination, has pub-
lished a quantitative analysis of the specimen of jargon in which
the discovery was first made.

The jargon employed was in fragments, being part of an almost
colourless crystal, forwarded by Mr. Sorby, who had previously
found, by optical examination, that it showed with great distinctness
the peculiar and characteristic spectrum which he ascribes to the
presence of the new element jargonium, and noticed that the
bands became much more pronounced after ignition and cooling.

Space will not allow us to append the analytical processes
employed ; but we may briefly state that the result of the exami-
nation when summed up indicates the composition of the jargon to
be as follows :—

SHED saga eo oda ae Ge oe 33°61

ATCOMIAIG ok et es oss 46-12
ENG EWOME IAS Go ce 7°64 66°28

+ y + Bed Peace Os 12°64.

Sesquioxide ofiron .. .. .. "24

100°13

VOL. VI. 20

530 Chronicles of Science. | Oct.,
The formula Zr O., Si O, ascribed to zircon requires :

BEMCIG-ACIG "750 ee ae ce 33°77
Puroanins - 196. e.c 1 (aa, 66°23

100-00

with which the numbers found for jargon are closely approximative.

The results of this chemical examination must be considered as
strengthening the evidence, physical and chemical, that the earth
usually denominated zirconia is, in reality, a compound of two, if
not more, closely allied oxides.

The details of an experiment, very important from a theoretical
point of view, have been published by M. KE. Drechsel; this is the
reduction of carbonic acid to oxalic acid. Clean sodium is place
along with some sand in aclean flask, and a rapid stream of carbonic
acid gas is passed into the flask, which, at the same time, should be .
heated to the temperature of boiling mercury; the metal assumes a
purple colour, and after a few hours is converted into a dark pul-
verulent mass. After having cooled, the substances are withdrawn
from the flask, and the mass is exhausted with water, the aqueous
solution saturated with an excess of acetic acid and precipitated
with chloride of calcium, whereby the salt, oxalate of hme, is
obtained: 60 grms. of sodium yield, by this process, 6 grms. of pure
oxalate of lime.

M. Boettger remarks that oxide of thallium inflames sulphuretted
hydrogen when coming in contact with it; so do pure peroxide
of manganese, peroxide of lead, and peroxide of silver obtained
galvanically. With binoxide of barium, chlorate of lead, and chlo-
rate of silver, the gas becomes vigorously inflamed ; fulminate of
silver also inflames the gas, and the salt explodes. Iodide of
nitrogen explodes in contact with the gas, and gun-cotton is
inflamed by it under certain conditions.

Dr. Matthiessen has succeeded in preparing, by the action of
hydrochloric acid on morphia, a new base which is likely to be of
considerable value from a physiological point of view.

Morphia is sealed up with a large excess of hydrochloric acid,
and heated to 140°-150° C. for two or three hours. The residue
in the tube contains the hydrochlorate of a new base, differing con-
siderably in its properties from morphia. It may be obtained in a
state of purity by dissolving the contents of the tube in water,
adding excess of bicarbonate of sodium, and extracting the pre-
cipitate with ether or chloroform, in both of which the new base
is readily soluble, whilst morphia is almost insoluble in both
menstrua. This new base is called apomorphia.

When the hydrochlorate of apomorphia in a moist state is
exposed to the air for some time, or if the dry salt is heated, it

1869. ] Chemistry. 531

turns green, probably from oxidation, as the change of colour is
accompanied by an increase of weight. The base itself, newly pre-
cipitated, is white, but it speedily turns green on exposure to air.
The green mass is partly soluble in water, communicating to it a
fine emerald colour; it dissolves in alcohol, yielding also a green
tint, in ether giving a magnificent rose-purple, and in chloroform
giving a fine violet tint.

The physiological effects of apomorphia are very different from
those of morphia: a very small dose produces speedy vomiting and
considerable depression, but this soon passes off, leaving no after-ill
effects. Dr. Gee is now studying these effects, and has found that
oth of a grain of the hydrochlorate subcutaneously injected, or
+ grain taken by the mouth, produces vomiting in from four to ten
minutes. Myr. Prus allowed himself to be injected with =1,th grain,
which produced vomiting in less than ten minutes. From Dr. Gee's
experiments on himself and others, he concludes that the hydro-
chlorate is a non-irritant emetic and powerful anti-stimulant. From
these properties it appears probable that it may come into use m
medicine.

M. Hager observes that, although elementary chemical analysis
of caffeine and theine yields results which would conclusively prove
the identity of these two substances, yet the author found that the
physiological effect, after partaking of a dose of ‘25 grm. of both
substances chemically pure, is by no means the same. The human
organism is imbued with testing powers, compared with which
chemical reagents are of little delicacy.

Dr. Hofmann has described a convenient method for the forma-
tion of ferric acid. An intimate mixture is made of one part of
ferrum limatum, and two parts of nitrate of potassa; these are
heated in a small glass flask over a strong gas flame ; the mixture
soon becomes quite incandescent, emits out of the mouth of the
flask a firework of sparks, and leaves at last a mass partly fused
into the glass of the flask, consisting of ferrate of potassium.
After cooling, this mass is reduced to powder, and being exhausted
with water, yields a deep-reddish violet-coloured nearly transparent
solution.

Commercial chloroform is frequently adulterated with alcohol
and ether, and it is sometimes of importance to ascertain whether
these impurities are present in any given sample. In order to
discover this, the chloroform should be first treated with fused
chloride of calcium to eliminate any water; next some‘iodine must
be added. If the chloroform is free from either alcohol or ether,
the colour produced by the solution of the iodine is bright red ;
but when either alcohol or ether is present, the colour of the solution
is brown. In order to distinguish between alcohol and ether, a

202

532 Chronicles of Science. [ Oct.,

small piece of a crystal of fuchsine is added to the chloroform in
question ; when the slightest trace of alcohol is present, a deep-red
solution will ensue. Perfectly pure chloroform yields, with fuchsine,
a solution which is only slightly pinkish tinged.

In a long research on the subject of atmospheric ozone, M.
Houzeau demonstrates that the air of the country is of a different
character from that of towns; that the former is strongly disin-
fectant, has far greater bleaching power, and, especially after rainfall,
affects bright and oxidizable metals far more than is the case in
towns. In his paper the author calls attention to some facts readily
observed—as, for instance, the rapid bleaching of all kinds of woven
fabrics, be they made of linen, cotton, or woollen fibre; the rapid
fading of very many dyed tissues; the far more active rusting of
iron, steel, and even copper, in the country, as compared with large
towns. Curiously enough the author does not mention the well- .
known fact of the effects of the air at sea, even at comparatively
short distances from the shore, nor the peculiar effects produced
by the mountain air at no greater height than from 2000 to 6000
feet above sea-level.

Oenoline is the name given by M. Morat to the colouring
matter met with in genuine red wines obtained from grapes. It is
obtainable by treating the wine by a very complicated process, and
ultimately the colouring matter is precipitated as a red-coloured
flocculent substance, insoluble in ether, very difficultly soluble in
water, soluble in alcohol, and insoluble in benzol.

Professor Rochleder, of Prague, has found that when madder
is treated with dilute mineral acids, it yields, besides alizarine and
purpurine, a small quantity of a third tinctorial substance, which,
in alkaline solution, has a great similarity to chrysophanic acid.
This substance is soluble in alcohol and in acetic acid, and erystal-
lizes from these solutions in orange-yellow coloured crystals; its
aqueous solution, mixed with acetic acid and brought to the boiling-
point, imparts to silk and wool immersed in it a beautiful and
durable golden-yellow colour.

There is met with in commerce, under the name of Victoria
yellow, or aniline orange, a reddish powder, which yields highly
yellow-coloured solutions, and bears in general great likeness to the
binitro-naphthol compounds. MM. Martius and Wichelhaus have
instituted some researches on this material, and have found it to be
a nearly pure binitro-cresol salt. The binitro-cresol they separated
from it is readily soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, and boiling
water. It may be obtained in crystalline shape. The dry substance
fuses at about 110°C. The authors have tried in vain to obtain,
by the experimental method, a clue to the mode of manufacture and

1869. ] Chemistry. 538

origin of this material. The solutions of binitro-cresol gradually
become deep-red coloured on exposure to air.

M. Ponsard has applied Siemens’s furnace to the manufacture
of iron. He states that he has succeeded in producing 1 ton of
cast iron, of excellent quality, with a consumption of only 1 ton
of fuel. The author summarizes his results in the following man-
ner :—1. A great saving of fuel can be made, and iron obtained from
its ores without the use of the blast-furnace. 2. That, since the
heat produced by flame is sufficient to effect-all the chemical reactions
and melt the metal, there may be used all kinds of fuel which
produce gas—that is to say, all kinds of coal, no matter whatever
their quality, wood, lignite, peat, hydrogen gas, and mineral oils,
3. It is possible to obtain, at will, a more or less carburetted metal,
according to the quantity of carbonaceous matter which is mixed
with the ore and placed in the crucibles to act as a chemical agent
only. Specimens of iron, of very good quality, obtained by the
process as carried on by the author, have been exhibited to the mem-
bers of the French Academy.

The great solubility of protoxide of nitrogen in water, especially
if its temperature is rather low, has induced M. 8. Limnosin to
try what the physiological effects of such a solution would be
upon men and animals. The solution of the protoxide of nitrogen
in cold water, obtained under ordinary pressure of the atmosphere,
tastes decidedly saccharine, if by means of pressure water has been
made to absorb a large bulk of this gas; as might be expected,
this solution is readily decomposed by substances capable of taking
up oxygen. The main point of importance in this paper is the
anesthetic action of the gas and solution alluded to.

M. Payen has taken the trouble to analyze a piece of old
woodwork, once belonging to the well-known Chaillot pumps, in
order to ascertain what state the cellulose was in after fully a
century's exposure to wind and weather. By appropriate treat-
ment he obtained pure cellulose, as might have been expected.
This was evidently also expected by Field-Marshal Vaillant, who
happened to be present when the savant deposited, at a meeting
of the Agricultural Society, a piece of pure cellulose obtained from
the wood of the old pump, since the Marshal asked Payen, jocosely,
whether he had not some old wood from the ruins of Carthage to
operate upon; and M. Robinet, improving upon the occasion,
offered to send Payen a piece of the wood from Noah’s Ark, to
continue his researches.

Artificial ebony is the name given to a substance prepared on
the large scale in the following manner: 60 parts of charcoal,
obtained from sea-weeds, and previously treated with dilute sulphuric
acid and dried, are ground to powder, and mixed with 10 parts of

534 Chronicles of Science. [Oct.,

liquid glue, 5 of gutta-percha, and 24 of caoutchoue, care haying
been taken to mix the two latter substances with coal-tar oil, and
thus to render them gelatinous; next, 10 parts of coal-tar, 5 of
pulverized sulphur, 2 of pulverized alum, and 5 of powdered resin
are added, and the mixture heated to 300° F. After haying
cooled, a substance is obtained which, in every respect, is said to
equal genuine ebony wood, but is far less expensive, and takes a
finer polish.

M. H. Pajot has made a series of experiments on the large
scale at the blast-furnaces of Baudonnay, département de l’Orne,
and found that the fact announced many years ago by Messrs.
Lyon Playfair and Bunsen, of the presence of cyanide of potassium
in blast-furnaces, is a reality, and that the salt is formed there in
such large quantities that it might easily become a useful and
plentiful by-product of ironworks.

A French technical paper especially devoted to the art of
paper-manufacture, states that any alterations or falsification of
writings in ordinary ink may be rendered impossible by passing
the paper upon which it is intended to write through a solution of
eallic acid in pure distilled water. After the paper thus prepared
has become thoroughly dry, it may be used as ordinary paper for
writing ; but any attempt made to alter, falsify, or change anything
written thereon, will be left perfectly visible, and may thus be
readily detected.

On the evening of the 22nd of May last, at 9.45 p.m. local time,
there was heard at Vannes, the capital town of the department of
Morbihan, a heavy report, like that due to the firing of large
ordnance, while the sky was at the same time illuminated by a
bluish white light, accompanied by sparks somewhat like those of
fireworks. The next day M. Limur learned that, at Cléguerec, a
meteoric stone had fallen, which had been broken into pieces by the
peasantry, and fragments of which, weighing 22 and 16 kilos., had
been secured by some parties who, knowing the value scientific
men attach to these extra-terrestrial visitors, will shortly send them
to Paris for investigation.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CHEMICAL SoOreTy.

In continuance of our reports of this Society, we have to record
that on June 8 the Society met to hear a lecture by the President
(Dr. Williamson) “On the Atomic Theory.” It is impossible
for us to give a condensed report which will do justice to so
important a subject.

The Chairman, Dr. Miller, proposed a vote of thanks to

1869. | Chemistry. 535

Dr. Williamson, and said that it would be better to defer the
discussion. He would, however, remark that those who opposed
the atomic theory must explain how, according to the notion of the
infinite divisibility of matter, they had combination in definite pro-
portion at all. It seemed to him utterly impossible to explain
combination in definite proportion by the theory of infinite
divisibility.

On the 17th of June the Society met at the Royal Institution,
Albemarle Street, on the occasion of the delivery, by the celebrated
French chemist Dumas, of the Faraday Lecture.

The President, Dr. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S., first addressed
the meeting in appropriate terms, introducing M. Dumas. He
said that the Society was here assembled to inaugurate what would
be inadequately described as a monument in honour of Faraday.
The Faraday Lectureship had been founded by the Council of the
Chemical Society in the hope that it would promote the advancement
of human knowledge, and surely no higher tribute of respect could
be paid to a great man than to do in his name what he would have
loved best to see done. The greatest difficulty which is experienced,
and the greatest defect which one observes, is this, that workers in
one line of thought are frequently ignorant, or insufficiently cogni-
zant of what others are doing, and the defect shows itself between
those who are working in different countries more than between those
who are working in the same country. Now, imagine that we could
induce to come among us a man possessed of one of those master
minds which forms a focus of light throughout science and amongst
all those who are interested in science ; suppose that he were to tell
us the thoughts which are uppermost in his own mind, and—best
of all—that he were to make us for a time think with him in the
very words of his own language; imagine that such a highly-gifted
man combined in his own person the genius of a discoverer, the
breadth of intellect of a philosopher, and the lucid fluency of an
orator. I am sure that you would agree with me, that his visit
would inaugurate something which Faraday would truly have
rejoiced to see. Imagine, I say, those things, accurately fix in your
mind’s eye the image of such a man—and Dumas is before you.

M. Dumas’s lecture commenced with a brief éloge of his friend
the late Professor Faraday. The lecturer then, with admirable
eloquence, passed to the consideration, first, of what he termed
“Ja matiere brute,” and of its forces; and secondly, of organic
matter and the forces special to it. He traced the origin of some
of the more important modern chemical doctrines, of the labours of
the Greek philosophers, and identified the principle of the ancient
classification into fire, air, earth, and water, with that of Lavyoisier’s
chemical elements. He acknowledged his great admiration of the
labours of Dalton and Prout, and in a most lucid manner pointed

536 Chronicles of Science. [ Oct.,

out relations between the atomic weights of the now received
elements which led him to infer the probability of many of them
having a common basis.

The conclusion of this lecture was so eloquent, and at the same
time so profoundly suggestive of new lines of thought, along which
chemists have scarcely yet penetrated, that we cannot refrain from
quoting it 7m eatenso :—

“The chemist has never manufactured anything which, near or
distant, was susceptible even of the appearance of life. Everything
he has made in his laboratory belongs to ‘ brut’ matter ; as soon as
he approaches life and organization he is disarmed.

“Ig the intimate nature of matter known tous? No! Do
we know the nature of the force which regulates the movement of
the heavenly bodies, and that of atoms? No! Do we know the
nature of the principle of life? No!

“Of what use then is science? What is the difference between
the philosopher and the ignorant man ?

“Tn such questions the ignorant would fain believe they know
everything ; the philosopher is aware that he knows nothing. The
ignorant do not hesitate to deny everything; the philosopher has
the right, the courage, to believe everything. He can poimt with
his finger to the abyss which separates him from these great
mysteries,—universal attraction, which controls ‘brut’ matter ;
life, which is the source of organization and of thought. He is
conscious that knowledge of this kind is yet remote from him, that
it advances far beyond him and above him.

“No! Life neither begins nor ends on the earth ; and if we were
not convinced that Faraday does not rest wholly under a cold stone,
if we did not believe that his intelligence is present here among
us and sympathizes with us, and that his pure spirit contemplates
us, we should not have assembled on this spot, you to honour his
memory, I to pay him once more a sincere tribute of affection, of
admiration, and respect !”

6. ENGINEERING—CIVIL AND MECHANICAL.

Tue past quarter has certainly been rather prolific of engineering
enterprises, and can boast of the completion of two most important
projects, in addition to the development of a third which will pro-
bably, ere long, rival Sir Rowland Hill’s penny postage in its uni-
versality and general public value.

Government and the Telegraphs.—By an Act passed in the last
Session of Parliament power was given to confirm certain agree-
ments which had been entered into between the Post-office autho-

1869. ] Engineering—Civil and Mechanical. 537

rities and the various telegraph companies and railways throughout -
the country. An Act of the past Session empowers the Post-
master-General to pay to the various companies the sum of
5,715,047/. for the purchase of their undertakings ; a further sum
of 700,0002., it is estimated, will be required for the purchase of
telegraphs belonging to railway companies whose lines are doing
» public telegraph business ; and 300,0002. has, in addition, been set
down as the probable amount that will be required for extensions.
The present proposals of the Post-office authorities are to serve
with means of telegraphic communication some 3376 places instead
of 1882 as at present. Altogether a sum of 6,750,000/. is expected
to be required for the purpose, and the gross annual revenue is set
down at 673,8387. The net profits to Government have been esti-
mated at from 44,0002. to 77,0007. per annum, according as to
whether the money can be raised at 4 or 34 per cent.

Pacific Railroad—The completion of the Pacific Railroad has
given a line of communication 3300 miles long, between New York
and San Francisco, connecting the Atlantic with the Pacific Ocean,
and crossing a mountain range higher than any other line in exist-
ence. On the 28th April last 10 miles and 58 feet of railroad
were completed between daylight and sundown, a feat hitherto
unparalleled in railway construction, and as such one well deserving
of record in these columns.

French Atlantic Cable.—The successful completion of the
laying of the French Atlantic cable is another engineering achieve-
ment of which the present age may fairly boast. The manufacture
of the core for this cable was commenced on September 14, 1868,
at the gutta-percha works, and the cable was finished in the first
week of last June, at the sheathing works at East Greenwich.
The route along which this cable is laid is well to the southward of
existing cables; the point of departure from the French coast is
between Brest and Cape Ushant, and the landing-place on the
American coast is the small French island of St. Pierre. From
thence a shallow-water cable is laid down the coast to Duxbury
Cove, near Boston, Massachusetts. The greatest depth of water is
2200 fathoms in the deep-sea section. The quantity of cable manu-
factured for these sections is 3564 nautical miles, or about one-third
longer than either of the existing Atlantic cables. The Great
Eastern, with the main portion of the cable on board, reached Brest
on the 21st June last, the French shore-end having been previously
laid. A splice having been successfully made, the Great Eastern
steamed off on her trans-Atlantic voyage early on the morning of
the 22nd June, accompanied by a small fleet of minor vessels car-
rying other portions of the cable. On 15th July the laying of the
cable was completed to St. Pierre, without the occurrence of any
serious hitch or delay of any kind; and on the 15th of August last

538 Chronicles of Science. [ Oct.,

the French Atlantic Telegraph Company opened their line for
traffic. Thus the longest line of submarine telegraph in existence
has been brought to a successful completion within eleven months
of the commencement of its manufacture.

The Channel Passage.—In our last Chronicles reference was
made to the various schemes recently put forward for effecting the
better passage of the Channel between England and France. Since
then the subject has attained increased importance, from the fact
that publicity has recently been given to the report of a commis-
sion appointed by the French Emperor to examine into the project
of a submarine railway between England and France, the result of
whose deliberations was a recommendation to the effect that “The
exploratory and preparatory works should be executed under the
inspection of commissioners appointed by the two Governments (of
England and France), to whose approbation the company should
submit yearly in advance the plans and estimates to be executed in
the current year, and who should control the expenses usefully
made.” From a further section of the report, however, it appears
that “Three members of the commission are of opinion that the
proposed undertaking appears to be incapable of producing suffi-
cient remuneration for the capital employed ; that, thus looking at
it from a purely economical point of view and setting aside con-
siderations which the Government are more competent to decide
on than the commission in the present case, at this present mo-
ment there are no grounds for recommending the acceptance of
the propositions of the committee.” From the evidence taken by
the committee, it appears that the chalky mass found at Cape Blanc
Nez is reproduced with the same characteristics on the other side the
Channel, between Folkestone and Dover. The lower part of the
chalk-bed consists of grey and marly chalk, haying a mean thickness
of 55 to 65 yards, which crops up at Cape Blanc Nez and near
Folkestone. “In this situation its composition is uninterrupted and
free from fissures, and possessing, on account of the marly beds
which are intercalated with it, a degree of elasticity which the
engineers expect would be maintained.” On the whole the com-
mission express their opinion that drivmg a submarine tunnel in
the lower part of this chalk is an undertaking which presents
reasonable chances of success; but in the absence of further in-
formation, they decline to mention any sum as the probable amount
which would be required for its completion.

A report on the best. means of facilitating communication
between England and France has since been drawn up by Captain
Tyler, of the Board of Trade. This officer has an evident leaning
towards the lesser expenses contemplated in Mr. Fowler's large
ferry-boat scheme, rather than to the projects of Mr. Hawkshaw,
M. de Gamond, and the late Mr. Chalmers, for effecting absolute

1869. ] Engineering—Civil and Mechanical. 539

and direct communication with the Continent by means of a sub-
aqueous tunnel. The substance of Captain Tyler’s recommendations
may be summed up in the following extract from his report :—
“ Hither by the construction of new harbours at Dover and Andres-
selles, at a cost (estimated by Mr. Fowler) of 2,000,0002. inclusive
of steamers, or by certain improvements at Dover and Boulogne, at
a cost of 600,0002. exclusive of new and improved steamers, the
immediate object should be to provide an improved fixed service,
irrespective of wind and tide, between London and Paris in eight
hours.” Thus this important matter rests for the present, but it
remains to be seen what further action will be taken by the two
Governments towards the solution of a project, the commercial and
international advantages of which may be estimated as being
scarcely second to those of the Suez Canal. The appointment of an
International Commission for the purpose of discussing the several
projects for effecting improved communication with the Continent,
as recommended by Captain Tyler, will, however, probably prove
the best means of bringing this important question to a satisfactory
issue.

Utilization of Small Coal.—Although we are no believers in
the probability of the speedy exhaustion of our coal-fields, we are
nevertheless, upon other grounds, strongly in favour of all measures
calculated to economize our present supplies, and to check the
extravagance which now characterizes our use of that fuel. In
addition to improved arrangements of furnaces whereby more
perfect combustion is ensured in the coal ordinarily used, namely,
that which is taken from the pits in blocks of some size, attention
has recently been given, in more directions than one, to bringing
into use the small coal, or slack, which had previously been counted
as so much waste. Some reference to this subject will be found in
another part of the present volume, in an article on “Coal Wash-
ing.” Besides its conversion into coke, which is now very much
the practice at all collieries, small coal is, to a certain extent, em-
ployed in the manufacture of Patent Fuel; and at the present time
experiments are being carried out m this country by Mr. F. C,
Danvers, for the Indian Government, with a view to ascertaining
whether that manufacture could be successfully introduced into
India, so as to utilize further than is at present done the coal
products of that country. Methods of burning small coal, without
subjecting it to any previous preparation, if equally applicable,
must, however, prove the more economical process, and several
furnaces have from time to time been devised for this purpose.
It is almost needless here to state that the most perfect furnace
would be that in which proper means exist for the regulation of
the introduction of air in the best direction into the combustion
chamber, so as to effect the most perfect combustion of the fuel,

540 Chronicles of Science. [Oct.,

whilst the fire-grate must be so arranged as to avoid the disadvan-
tages usually attendant on the use of slack, such as the loss of a
quantity of fuel by falling, unconsumed, through the bars, or the
obstruction of a proper draught by cakeing into blocks over them.
Fire-doors of this description are made by Messrs. Newton and
Newton, at Liverpool, and appear to possess great advantages, not
only in enabling slack to be burned where large coal would other-
wise be necessary, but by a proper regulation of the air admitted to
furnaces to which they are fitted, more perfect combustion is
ensured, resulting, consequently, in the almost total prevention of
smoke.

We cannot close this subject without a brief notice of Mr.
Thomas Russell Crampton’s process of burning fuel in the form of a
powder. Many previous experiments have been made both in Eng-
land and America to effect a similar object, but they have failed to
achieve that amount of success which Mr. Crampton appears to have
arrived at. Mr. Crampton’s process, described in few words, consists
of an arrangement by which a portion of finely-powdered coal is
blown into a furnace, where at first a small fire has been lighted.
This immediately bursts into flame, and by properly adjusting the
proportions of air and coal-powder, a flame is then regularly kept
up, giving out an intense heat, and leaving little or no residue in
the shape of clinkers or ash. Want of space prevents further
allusion to this subject now, but we shall return to it again upon
some future occasion.

Meretines or Sorentiric Societies.

Institution of Civil Engineers.—The President’s annual con-
versazione took place on Tuesday, the 25th May last, at which
there were present an unprecedented number of visitors and mem-
bers. The meetings of the Institution have now been suspended
until the autumn.

Institution of Mechanical Engineers.—The annual meeting of
this Society was held at Newcastle on 3rd August last, and follow-
ing days, under the presidency of Sir William Armstrong, when the
following papers were read :—‘“On the Hydraulic Swing Bridge
over the Ouse,” by the President; “Mechanical Ventilation of
Mines,” by Mr. William Cochrane, of Elswick; ‘“ Mechanical
Firing of Steam Boilers,” by Mr. John Daglish, of Seaham ; “ Hy-
draulic Machinery for Warehousing Grain,” by Mr. Perey G. B.
Westmacot, of Elswick; and on “The Navigation of Canals,” by
Mr. Max Eyth, of Leeds. The President, in his address, which
was given before a crowded audience on the evening of the first
day’s meeting, after alluding to the present year being the cente-

1869. ] Engineering—Civil and Mechanical. 541

nary of the steam-engine of Watt, briefly referred to the early
history of its invention and progress. He then entered upon the
subject of coal-mining; the construction and use of large ordnance ;
armour-plating ; the future of the steam-navy, and gun-carriages.

Civil and Mechanical Engineers’ Society —Two meetings of this
Society have been held since our last Chronicles were written,
which took place on the 2nd and 9th June respectively. At the
former meeting the Society was occupied in listening to, and sub-
sequently discussing an able paper by Mr. Arthur C. Pain, C.E.,
“On the principal Building Stones used in the Metropolis.” And
on the latter occasion a very interesting paper was read by Mr.
Frederick H. Roberts, C.E., on “Steam and other Power Ham-
mers.”

LITERATURE.

‘A Manual of Machinery and Millwork,* by William John
Macquorn Rankine, C.E.; LL.D. Trin. Coll., Dublin; F.R.S.S.
London and Edinburgh; F.B.S.A., &e. &c. This volume forms
the last of the series of practical manuals to which it belongs.
Those which have preceded it are probably well known to many of
our readers. ‘The professional position and world-wide reputation
of the author are sufficient to stamp all his works with an autho-
rity which place them almost above the range of criticism. The
work now under review is divided into three parts, treating respec-
tively of the “Geometry of Machinery,” the “ Dynamics of Ma-
chinery,” and the “ Materials, Strength, and Construction of
Machinery,” each part being subdivided and the subject matter
treated under various and well-arranged headings. Want of space
prevents any more detailed account of the present work, but we
‘may, in conclusion, state that, although dealing with the principles
of machinery and millwork, it is of a character entirely distinct
from that of Dr. Fairbairn’s excellent work on Mills and Millwork,
the latter treating more of the practical application of principles,
whilst Professor Rankine’s work deals with the principles them-
selves.

* London: Charles Griffin & Co.

542 Chronicles of Science. [ Oct.,

7. GEOLOGY AND PALAZONTOLOGY.

(Including the Proceedings of the Geological Society and Notices
of Recent Geological Works.)

Mr. Rosert Hunt has contributed a highly suggestive and in-
teresting paper to the ‘Bath and West of England Agricultural
Journal’* on “The Economic Geology of Devonshire and Corn-
wall in 1868.” In it the author points out that, although other
districts may exhibit greater varieties in their geological forma-
tions, yet there are few in which the rock-conditions are so
peculiarly adapted to the production of that high fertility which
distinguishes Devonshire, or the varied and valuable metalliferous
deposits of Cornwall. Mr. Hunt gives a brief sketch of the va-
rious deposits which characterize the two counties, and proceeds
to show the intimate connection which exists between the rocks
beneath and the fertility of the soil above. He thinks that the
agriculturist might study with advantage the geologically-coloured
map of a district, and learn from it which are the more and which
the less productive tracts; but he points out that elevation above
the sea, exposure to prevailing winds, drainage-lines, &c., must also
be taken into account.

The author contrasts the soils lying on the Lias, the New Red
Sandstone, the slaty series (Devonian and Carboniferous), and espe-
cially to those derived from the decomposition of eruptive rocks
and granites, as yielding good crops of ordinary farm-produce, and
favourable to the growth of grass and potatoes. He mentions the
beneficial results witnessed by spreading “China-stone,” a semi-
decomposed talcose granite, in small pieces over a field of wheat,
and suggests that we may yet add many new fertilizers to the lst
of artificial manures offered to the farmer. He affirms that the
relations of geology to agriculture are not yet in a satisfactory con-
dition ; but that, m addition to the maps now issued, showing the
boundaries of the rock-formations, we need maps of the surface,
showing the variation and distribution of soils. He also adds the
welcome intelligence that Government has organized measures for
accomplishing this end.

Turning from agriculture, Mr. Hunt proceeds to describe the
mineral resources of the district. Commencing-with fuel, he states
that 1368 tons of the Bovey Tracey lignite are annually used at
the Bovey Potteries, besides the district consumption. These beds
belong to the Miocene age, and are only a little older (geologically)
than our peat-mosses and peat-bogs, which can also be cut and
utilized as fuel. None of the four million tons of coal, drawn

* Vol. xvi.

1869.] Geology and Palxontology. 543

annually from our Coal-measures proper, are obtained from this
area.

From coal we pass to tin, copper, lead, iron, zinc-ore, nickel,
wolfram, manganese, arsenic, &c., and then to building-stones,
ornamental marbles, roofing-slates, flagstones, lime, whetstones,
clays for pottery, &., yielding a total value of 1,876,739/. for the
two western counties.

The Depths of the Sea.—In a lecture lately delivered before
the Royal Dublin Society, by Prof. Wyville Thomson, the lecturer
gives us the results of dredging operations carried on by Dr. Car-
penter and himself last year in deep water between the Faroe
Islands and the Hebrides.

Two areas were explored—a “cold area,” where the bottom
was of stones and coarse sand, and on which the thermometer
registered a minimum temperature of 32° F., and where the fauna
consisted of a meagre sprinkling of boreal and arctic forms—and
a “warm area,” the “ Gulf-stream area” (550 fathoms deep), with
a minimum temperature of 47°°5 F., where the floor was covered
with fine grey slimy mud, technically called “ooze,” but which
Prof. Wyville Thomson considers should be called “ chalk-mud.”
This area, which formerly yielded only the shells of a Rhizopod
(Globigerina), now proved to be also rich in siliceous sponges,
about forty of which were obtained on one occasion, a little south
of the Faroes. Most of these sponges had long and venerable
beards of flint-spicules, as fine as the finest floss-silk, spreading out
into the chalk-mud in all directions. These beards brought up,
entangled in them, small clams, starfishes, and minute crustaceans ;
and among the mud were scattered the shells of the beautiful and
well-known Pteropods of the Gulf-stream.

There can be no doubt, adds Prof. Wyville Thomson, that Chalk
is now bemg formed in the depths of the Atlantic; and not only
Chalk, but Tur Caatx—the Chalk of the Cretaceous Period. That,
in fact, the physical and biological conditions of the greater part of
the ocean have remained unaffected by the later geological changes
embraced within the Tertiary and Quaternary Periods, which
represent only minor oscillations, the deposits formed during those
periods being all laid down in comparatively shallow water, as
shown by the nature and richness of their faune.

It is gratifying to find that whilst the results arrived at from
the more perfect appliances for modern deep-sea dredging have so
materially modified the late Professor Edward Forbes’s conclusions
as to the depths in the ocean at which life could be sustained—yet
they have also tended to confirm the doctrine which he long ago
enunciated, that the persistence of the same fauna over an extended
geological area did not prove it to be synchronous, but rather the
reverse,

544 Chronicles of Science. | Oct.,

In the latter part of 1867, Mr. W. Hellier Baily (Palzeontolo-
gist to H. M. Geological Survey of Ireland) published Part I. of
‘Figures and Descriptions of Characteristic British Fossils’ (Van
Voorst). We are glad to notice the publication of Part I. with
Plates 11-20 (Lower and Upper Silurian). This publication is
not intended in any way to interfere with ‘ Morris's Catalogue of
British Fossils’ (the third edition of which is very much needed by
all paleontologists). Mr. Baily’s aim has rather been to assist
geological students, and others who, from their limited knowledge
of paleontology, require to have figures of the various fossils placed
before them, as well as their names and references, in order to enable
them to identify their specimens. Those who have the good fortune
to possess a scientific reference library, or who can use that of some
public institution, can hardly understand the assistance which such
a work as this affords to others who, from their isolated position,
are denied these advantages.

We hope Mr. Baily may soon be able to complete the publi-
cation of his ‘ Figures and Descriptions of British Fossils,’ that
we may enjoy the use of it, as a whole, before many years have
passed away.

The ‘ Geological Magazine’ contains various articles of interest.
The following chiefly deserve notice :—

1. A fall report (with illustrations) of Mr. W. Carruthers’s
lecture, at the Royal Institution, on “The Cryptogamic Forests
of the Coal Period.” Mr. Carruthers points out that the Flora of
the Coal Period all belonged to the Vascular Cryptogams, and
represent—(qa) the Ferns; (b) the Horse-tails, Hquisetacex ; (c) the
Club-mosses (Lycopodiace). After describing the modern repre-
sentatives of these three types, the author proceeds to point out
that in the Coal Period, (a) Ferns were most abundant, mostly,
however, humble herbaceous forms, very few attaining the size of
modern tree-ferns; their leaf-forms being nearly all comparable
with living species. (b) The Hquisetacex were well represented in
the Coal Period, but instead of being dwarf marsh-plants, they
attained often a very large size. He described the stems, the
various forms of foliage and fructification belonging to this group,
and pointed out their affinity to the modern Horse-tail (Hguwise-
twm). (¢) He next considered the fruit and stem of Lepidodendron,
contrasting those giant trees with the modern Club-mosses, and
showed that in that point most relied on by Botanists—the spores
—there was a close agreement. He spoke of Stgillaria, another
arborescent form, also a member of the same family as Lepido-
dendron. ‘These are the plants to which we are indebted for our
stores of mineral fuel. They grew in extensive level plains, their
fleshy roots penetrating the soft mud which formed the surface-soil,
or the spongy layer of vegetable matter which covered it. ‘The

1869.] Geology and Palzontology. 545

moist atmosphere (not at all likely to have been charged with more
carbonic acid gas than that of our own day) would encourage the
growth of cellular parasites and epiphytes, &c., probably repre-
senting races much higher in organization than the cryptogamic
trees on which they flourished. The examination of the Flora
of the Coal Period reveals to us an assemblage of plants agreeing
in all essentials with some of the humble members of our present
Flora, but attaining at so early a period in the history of the
world, a development, not only in size, but in organization, greatly
in advance of their modern allies.

2. The fourth part of Mr. Davidson’s “ Notes on Continental
Geology and Paleontology, including a Sketch of the Geology of
Nice.”

3. “ Notes and Figures of the Teeth of Ctenodus from the Coal-
measures,” by Mr. T. P. Barkas.

4. “On the Genus dichmodus, from the Lias of Lyme Regis,”
by Professor Morris, F.G.S. (with a plate). In this paper Pro-
fessor Morris considers the genera Dapedius, Aichmodus, &c., and
discusses the characters upon which they are founded. ‘These
Liassic fishes, with their tesselated surface of highly enamelled
black rhomboidal scales, form most striking objects among the
fossils of this singularly rich deposit, and, from the perfect state
in which they are frequently found, are sure to attract special
attention.

5. Dr. Linnarsson’s paper “On Fossils from the Eophyton
Sandstone of Sweden” is reproduced, together with the original
plates representing these singular bodies, believed by Dr. Torell
and some naturalists of eminence to be plant-remains, but of the
certainty of such determination much doubt still exists; they have
by others been considered worm-tracks and Trilobite-markings, &e.
Whatever their origin, they seem to be due to organic bodies, which
is, after all, the main point of interest.

6. Professor Owen contributes a note on the occurrence of the
Elk with the Reindeer, &c., at Walthamstow, in Essex.

7. Sir Philip Egerton supplies a list of the Typical Fishes in
his collection at Oulton Park, which he states are open to inspec-
tion by all who take an interest in paleontology.

8. Mr. H. C. Sorby contributes a note “On the Excavation of
Valleys in Derbyshire.”

9. Mr. H. B. Medlicott “On Faults in Strata ;” and

10. Mr. G. H. Kinahan “On the Growth of Soil, Formation of
Ravines,” &¢., &e.

VOL. VI. oe

546 Chronicles of Science. [ Oct.

PRocEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL Society or Lonpon.

As there are twenty-nine papers published in the August num-
ber of the Quarterly Journal of this Society, it is impossible to do
more than to briefly notice one or two of the most important ones :

1. Professor Henri Coquand compares the Cretaceous strata of
England and the North of France with those of the West and
South of France and the North of Africa. In this paper the author
points out that although a comparison may be made between the
Cretaceous beds of Paris and in the North of France with those
of England, without any great discrepancies being discovered,
immediately one examines the Cretaceous beds of Provence, one
finds—1st, thick beds with Radvolites; 2nd, 300 metres of Sand-
stones (Gres d’Uchaux) ; 3rd, 150 metres of Limestone with Hzp-
purites, which are wanting both in the Parisian and the English
Chalk series. He pleads, and we think with justice, that, as each
district possesses its peculiar and local formation, it is there that
one should seek for the type, and that if these beds had occurred in
England we should certainly have made an horizon for them, and
given them a place and a name; why then should they not take a
place in the series, and be recognized by foreign geologists ?

2. Mr. W. Carruthers, “On the Structure and Affinities of
Sigillaria and allied Genera,” indicated the characters of the
medullary rays of dicotyledonous stems, and stated, that they have
a vascular horizontal system connected with the axial organs, in
which respect they agree with acrogens. The woody columns of
Stigmaria and Sigilaria are destitute of medullary rays, the
structures previously described as such being the vascular bundles
running to the rootlets and leaves. Hence the author concluded
that Sigillaria is a true cryptogam.

3. Professor T. H. Huxley describes a new Labyrinthodont
Amphibian reptile from the Black-bed coal of Bradford, Yorkshire,
which the author considers was nearly allied to the genus Pholido-
gaster, and for which he proposed the name of Pholiderpeton. It
exhibits portions of both jaws, with close-set, nearly equal teeth,
nearly circular in section, and slightly recurved at the apex. The
ventral armour consists of oval plates, traversed obliquely by a
convex ridge dividing them into two unequal parts; these plates
overlapped each other so as to expose only the surfaces of their
oblique ridges.

4. “On the Upper Jaw of Megalosaurus,” by the same author.
The information concerning the skull of this reptile was very
defective, only a portion of the lower jaw being known heretofore.
The beautiful upper jaw, with the teeth, now figured and described,
from the Stonesfield Slate, adds greatly to our knowledge of this
very interesting and gigantic Dinosaurian.

1869. | Meteorology. 547

It shows the left side of the jaw, measuring 18 inches in
length and 4} inches in depth anteriorly. One tooth, exposed in
its whole length by the breaking away of the bone, measures 6°4
inches, of which the crown forms only 2°6 inches. An animal
with almost identical teeth, the Teratosawrus Suevicus, of Von
Meyer, occurs in the Lower Keuper of Stuttgardt, thus giving to
this type of Dinosaurian a range from the Trias to the Wealden.

Among the Geological papers, the most important is that by the
Rev. J. M. Joass “On the Sutherland Gold-fields,” and by Mr. J.
J. Murphy “On the Nature and Cause of Glacial Climate.”

We regret that want of space precludes our noticing the nume-
rous other papers contained in this number.

8. METEOROLOGY.

Meteorology in France.—Our last Chronicle was barely in type,
when the statements contained in it relating to the organization of
meteorological operations in France were shown to be incorrect.
We learn now that the Government has communicated to the So-
ciété Météorologique its intention of instituting a complete system of
meteorological observations, in a connection more or less intimate
with the Society. A commission has been appointed, with Prof.
Charles Sainte-Claire Deville as its President, to superintend the
work. A central observatory has been established at Montsouris,
near Paris, with which it is hoped that other institutions will soon
be affiliated, and the issue of a daily bulletin of the observations
made at Montsouris has been set on foot since the beginning of July.
It may therefore be expected that ere long a complete system of
meteorological observations will be in operation, and we cannot but
express our satisfaction at the evidence which these facts afford that
the authorities in Paris fully recognize and identify themselves with
the work so long and so well done by the Meteorological Society
of France. As regards the issue of the Bulletin International, no
modification of the service at the Observatoire Impérial will be made
in consequence of the change.

The Aurora.—The remarkable auroras noticed on April 15 and on
May 13, of which Mr. Barber was so kind as to furnish a notice for
our last number, have attracted very considerable attention over the
whole of Europe, and have formed the theme of several interesting
communications to scientific societies. Among the most important
of these have been the notices submitted by MM. Silberman and
C. Sainte-Claire Deville to the French Academy, and contained in the
Comptes Rendus. These gentlemen, the former especially, have

2p 2

548 Chronicles of Science. [ Oct.,

paid particular attention to auroral phenomena of late years, and
the views entertained by them receive abundant confirmation from
the facts observed on the dates in question. The connection be-
tween the aurora and magnetic storms is well known and recognized,
but the relation between its appearance and the phenomena of our
weather is not as yet nearly so universally admitted. The oppo-
nents of the idea of the existence of any relation, naturally and very
justly urge the frequency of auroras in high latitudes, without any
concomitant disturbance of atmospherical equilibrium. We must,
however, remember that magnetic imtensity is i general much
greater in high latitudes than in our own, so that in these countries
it is only at times of disturbance of the magnetic conditions of the
atmosphere that we are to look for an exhibition of auroral appear-
ances. The fact that auroras do occur nearly simultaneously with
periods of stormy weather is too well established to be doubted; the
point to be determined is whether there is or is uot a connection
between the two phenomena. Some connection is distinctly assumed
as a fact by the authors of the papers we are now discussing. They
show that the aurora manifests itself on the appearance of a centre
of barometrical depression (a “ bourrasque”), and that it belongs
to the earlier period of the disturbance, when pressure is decreasing
rapidly and temperature increasing,—in fact, to the period which is
usually characterized by the manifestation of electrical phenomena
such as thunderstorms. M. Silberman attributes the aurora to the
gradual discharge towards the higher regions of the atmosphere, of
the electricity contained in a thundercloud. This discharge only
takes place when streaks of cirri emanate from the upper surface of
the cloud, so that in fact it is induced by the congelation of aque-
ous vapour into the minute ice prisms of which the cirrus is known
to be composed. The chief points in support of his theory, brought
forward by M. Silberman, are the fact that cirri are almost inya-
riably noticed as being present in the space above the dark segment
during the exhibition of an auroral discharge; it is often remarked
that the phenomenon entirely disappeared when the sky became
completely overcast with a stratum of cloud; that during an auroral
period, in the daytime, when their luminosity cannot be observed, it
is frequently noticed that cirri occupy the position of the rays of
the aurora;* and that frequently during an aurora a fall of small

* Very recently a remarkable confirmation of M. Silberman’s statements has
been witnessed by the writer of this Chronicle. On August 25 he was travelling
from Thurso to Wick, and at 5 p.m., while the sun was shining brightly, he observed
a dark bank of clouds along the northern horizon, exactly resembling the dark
segment of an aurora. From this cloud long rays of cirrus directed towards the
zenith emanated. Although at this period of the evening no auroral light was
visible, it was remarked by some persons who observed the phenomenon that this
was the commencement of an aurora. During the night the sky, which had been
very clear for some days previously, became entirely overcast ; but before this

1869. | Meteorology. 549

crystals of ice, as distinguished from hail, has been observed. M.
Silberman has himself noticed that at night thunderclouds, when
there is no moon, give off occasional faint coruscations from their
upper surfaces, and that when this latter appearance becomes of
greater permanency, the ordinary electric discharge, producing a
thunderstorm, is entirely suppressed.

This idea of a relation between the aurora and the cirrus-cloud
goes to establish a relation between the aurora proper and the
appearance of luminous clouds, which are occasionally noticed. It
is also interesting im this connection to refer to the remarkable ob-
servations made many years ago by Sir E. Sabine, at Loch Scavaig,
in Skye, where he remained for a short time at anchor in a yacht.
One of the mountains close to the loch was constantly covered with
a cap of cloud, and at night discharges of a true auroral character
were seen to emanate from this cloud. It was distinctly proved
that these did not belong to an aurora at a distance, of which the
lower portion was obscured by the mountain. Another fact, in
some way corroborative of M. Silberman’s views, is that some of
our most experienced arctic observers state that the aurora is never
noticed unless there be open water in the vicinity of the observer,
and consequently a considerable degree of humidity in the air.

The auroras to which the papers in question especially refer are
very remarkable, owing to their very great extension; that of
April 15 being noticed from the Azores to Central Germany, and
that of May 13 from the British Isles to Russia, where it was well
observed. In a communication to the Academy of Sciences of
St. Petersburg, Prof. Wild gives an extract of a letter from Von
Struve, of the observatory at Pulkowa, who remarked that the
phenomenon, though remarkably brilliant, was chiefly noticed in
the east, and that the dark segment was entirely absent. This
latter particular was especially adverted to by M. Silberman in
Paris, who remarked that its place was taken by a number of small
clouds in various parts of the sky, forming separate auroral foci.

The April number of the ‘ Proceedings of the British Meteoro-
logical Society’ is mainly composed of two papers on the influence
of the moon on rainfall, which lead to diametrically opposite con-
clusions. Mr. Dines states, as a result of the discussion of forty
years’ observations, that no influence is traceable; while Mr. Glaisher
has submitted fifty-four years’ observations to calculation, and has
arrived at the conclusion that the amount of rain which falls
increases to a maximum about the tenth day of the moon’s age,

occurred, the light of a faint aurora was perceived. Next day was very cloudy, and
in places in Scotland rain fell. On the 27th the sky cleared again, another aurora
appeared at nightfall; and on the 28th a very sudden change of weather occurred,
the temperature falling very rapidly, while a strong N.W. wind set in, attaining
in some places the force of a gale,

550 Chronicles of Science. [ Oct.

while the average amount of rain “per fall” has its maximum at
the end of the lunation. The differences are, however, not great,
and it seems scarcely necessary to have printed twenty-three pages
of tables on such a subject.

Underground Temperatures.—The April number of the ‘ Jour-
nal of the Scottish Meteorological Society’ contains a paper by Mr.
Buchan, being the first notice of the observations of underground
temperature carried on at certain stations in Scotland. The Marquis
of Tweeddale, President of the Society, had most liberally placed 507.
at the disposal of the Council, to be expended in investigating the
question. The thermometers were placed at depths of 3, 12, and
22 inches, under grass, at all the stations but one, where they were
placed under the bare soil, so as to reproduce the conditions of a
freshly-sown field. As might be expected, the last-named station
exhibited a much higher temperature at the depth of 3 inches than
those where the soil was covered by vegetation. The results are
of some interest. In drained ground the surface temperature of
the soil rose above the temperature of the air to the extent of 2°°4
on the mean, while in badly-drained ground it fell slightly below
the air temperature. Light soils also exhibited an excess of tem-
perature as compared with that of the air, while heavy soils were
characterized by a defect. These results are naturally to be
- expected, as a dry light soil is a much worse conductor of heat than
wet heavy ground.

There is one observation which merits special notice; on a cold
day, with a north-east wind, cloudy but dry, it was found that the
thermometer at the depth of 3 inches rose above that in the air
3°°7 at Sandwick Manse, where it was under grass, and 5° at
Thirlestane Castle, where the soil was uncovered, while the tem-
peratures at 12 and 22 inches respectively scarcely varied during
the day. This shows us that during the cold east winds of spring
seed in the ground may be enjoying a temperature much higher
than our sensations of air temperature would lead us to expect, and
it also accounts for the greater severity of the east winds on the
east coast than on the west, which they can only reach after having
travelled over a large extent of heated soil. Mr. Buchan is disposed
to attribute the elevation of temperature to the radiation of heat
from the clouds.

Meteorology of Iceland.—The same number contains a notice
of the meteorology of Iceland, based on the observations of Mr. O.
Thorlacius, carried on for twenty-three years. The results are in-
teresting, when we compare them with the corresponding figures
for Scotch stations noticed in our last number; however, they exhibit
some points of difference, the mean pressure showing only 2 maxima
and 2 minima instead of 3. The chief feature of the barometrical
tables is a great depression noticed in the month of January, and

1869. | Meteorology. 551

amounting to 0°3 inch below the mean of the year, and to 0°5 below
the extreme monthly mean of that of May. At Glasgow the differ-
ence between the means of January and May amounts to only 0°17
inch. Pressure in Iceland is most unsteady in February, and most
steady in July.

We may here notice the discussion of the scientific results of
the German North Polar Expedition of last year, which has been
published by the Meteorological Office of Hamburg (the Nord-
deutsche See-warte). It appears from the meteorological observa-
tions that the large and unexpected accumulations of ice met with
by the ‘Germania,’ which had the effect of preventing her reaching
the coast of Greenland, were in great measure connected with the
abnormally low mean temperature prevailing in high latitudes
during last summer. The mean daily temperature observed on
board the ship was 3°°5 F. lower than that which was due to her
geographical position. ‘These facts afford a strong corroboration of
the views long maintained by Prof. Dove, viz. that there is a con-
stant compensation between the non-periodic variations in meteoro-
logical means. A warm season in any region is an indication that
in an adjacent district the weather is unnaturally cold. Our readers
will not forget the great warmth of last summer (1868), and yet
during the whole of the period the temperature north of the parallel
of 70° was unusually low. As regards the winds observed, the
general direction of their change was from N.E. through N. to
N.W., being thus in contravention of the law of gyration. Storms
were far more frequent from the N. and N.E. than from any other
quarter. The extraordinary prevalence of calms and of fog and
mist is also very noticeable.

Deep-Sea Temperatures.—The paper, which is a report of a lec-
ture delivered by Herr von Freeden, at Hamburg, contains a long
discussion on the currents, &c., noticed during the voyage, and also
some notes as to deep-sea temperatures and their indications as to
submarine currents. As to the observations themselves, none go to
a depth greater than 170 fathoms, where a temperature of 33° was
recorded. The position assumed by the lecturer in interpreting the
observations is rather at variance with the ideas generally entertained.
Herr yon Freeden states that by recent observations in the open sea
it has been established beyond a doubt that salt water possesses a
maximum density at 39°°5 F. In No. 22 of this Chronicle we
entered on this question at some length, but new light has since
been thrown on it.

On the one hand, Prof. Mihry of Gottingen has published a
notice in the Journal of the Austrian Meteorological Society, in
which he states that having tried the experiment, he finds that salt
and fresh water haye the same point of maximum density, and that,
accordingly, all deep soundings ought to show this temperature.

552 Chronicles of Science. [.Oct.,

On the other hand, investigations carried on here in Londow
have led to the idea that the deep-sea temperatures hitherto
recorded, many of which were far below 39°, have been as a gene-
ral rule much too high. No account had been taken of the alter-
ation in shape of the thermometer-bulb produced. by the com-
pression to which it was subjected in deep soundings.

On this subject Prof. W. A. Miller submitted to the Royal
Society, in June, a notice of a thermometer calculated to register
correct temperatures, independently of pressure. The principle
on which this new thermometer is constructed is one which had
been tried by Admiral FitzRoy some years ago, and it is this.
The entire thermometer is enclosed in an outer glass coating, the
interval between the two surfaces being nearly completely filled
with a liquid. Compression of such an imstrument only causes the
liquid to fill a larger proportion of the intermediate space, and the
bulb of the internal thermometer is entirely unaffected.

In Admiral FitzRoy’s thermometers this liquid was mercury ;
in Prof. Miller’s it is spirit. We learn from the paper submitted
to the Society that the new instruments have been subjected to
very severe hydraulic pressure in a special apparatus, constructed
by Mr. Casella, their maker, and have performed very well.

The ‘Porcupine’ has been furnished with these instruments,
and we may hope that the savans who take part in the present
dredging expedition in the Atlantic will bring home some tho-
roughly trustworthy information as to the physical condition of the
sea beneath the surface.

Report of the Meteorological Office. —The Report of the Meteoro-
logical Committee for the year 1868 has just appeared. The value
of the information contained in its seventy-two pages must not be
judged of by its price, which is only 5d. It consists of two parts,
with copious appendices. From the summary of Part I. we learn
that the department of marine meteorology has made steady pro-
gress during the year in the discussion of observations relating to
the equatorial portion of the Atlantic Ocean, and in the collection
of new observations. We have already noticed the charts of sea-
surface temperature which have ‘appeared, and we learn that in
addition to these charts materials have been supplied to the Adimi-
ralty for the compilation of pilot charts.

The system of telegraphic weather intelligence, established by
the Committee, is in active operation, and storm warnings are sent
to 101 stations on our own shores and to the adjacent coasts of
the Continent. The work of the office in this department is carried
on in cordial co-operation with that conducted in foreign countries.

As regards the land meteorology of the British Islands the
seven observatories are in active work, and the most earnest atten-
tion of the Committee has been directed to the utilization of the

1869. | Mineralogy. 553

records furnished by their self-recording instruments in the study
of weather, and their publication in a graphical form, which shall
be acceptable to the scientific public. It is satisfactory to learn
that some progress is being made in placing weather study on a
secure scientific basis.

Part II. of the Report is an account of the means adopted by
the Meteorological Committee, in conjunction with the Kew Com-
mittee, to ensure accuracy in the numerical results obtained from
the records of the observatories. According to the plan adopted,
each observatory supplies to Kew the photograms furnished by the
instruments, together with hourly numerical values of the readings
obtained by measurement. ‘These are examined at Kew; and
when certified as correct, are sent to the central office in London
for discussion, &c.

The experience of the first few months showed that a more
searching examination at Kew than had at first been contem-
plated was necessary, in order to prevent errors creeping into so
large a mass of figures. The mode in which this examination is
carried out is given at full length.

On the fly-leaf of the Report we see notices of other publica-
tions; an account of which, together with other meteorological
literature, must be reserved for our next number.

9. MINERALOGY.

Noruine tends more to impede the progress of a science than the
hasty enunciation of laws based upon too narrow an induction.
As our means of observation become extended, it is easy to detect
the fallacy of many of our premature generalizations ; but it is
extremely difficult to eradicate the influence which they may have
exerted on the formation of our scientific ideas. Our attention has
recently been directed by Dr. Laspeyres to the crudeness of many
of those general propositions which, for several years past, have
been accepted, with more or less reservation, as natural laws regu-
lating the association of those minerals which enter into the com-
position of rocks. His remarks will be found in an excellent paper
“On the Association of Magnetic and Titaniferous Iron-ores in
Eruptive Rocks, and on the so-called Laws of Petrography.”* It
is commonly laid down, as a general proposition, that the two
minerals here coupled together never occur associated as com-
ponents of a rock—that, indeed, the presence of the one inya-

* ‘Ueber das Zusammenvorkommen von Magneteisen und 'Titaneisen in

Eruptivgesteinen, und iiber die sogenannten petrographischen Gesetze” Leon-
hard und Bronn’s ‘Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie,’ u.s.w., 1869, p. 513,

554 Chronicles of Science. { Oct.,

riably betokens the absence of the other. Our author has, however,
proved the co-existence of these species in the disintegrated product
of certain volcanic rocks of the Palatinate, and also in an unde-
composed rock, formerly termed gabbro, but which he now pro-
poses to distinguish under the name of Palatinite. He is then led
to a discussion of the ordinary laws of association among rock-
forming minerals; and although he does not say very much that
is original on this subject, it is nevertheless useful to review such
a collection of facts as those which he has here brought together
for the purpose of disproving most of the commonly-accepted con-
clusions. ‘Thus he exposes the fallacy of the famous “ law of the
felspars”—a law which, as most geologists know, teaches that the
alkali-bearing felspars — orthoclase, oligoclase, and albite — are
never associated with the lime-felspars—labradorite and anorthite.
One argument against this law might be found in the recent views
of Tschermak on the constitution of the felspar-group, by which
the so-called species, oligoclase and labradorite, are regarded as
nothing more than isomorphous mixtures of the two extreme
types—anorthite and albite. Moreover, as a matter of fact, Las-
peyres has himself pointed out the existence of a lime-and-soda
felspar, closely related to the labradorite type, in certain basaltic
lavas of the Lake of Laach, where orthoclase had previously been
found. In like manner, sanidine—a variety of orthoclase—occurs
with anorthite in the andesite of Nagy-Banya.

This example must suffice to show the kind of evidence with
which our author sweeps away many a long-cherished notion; but
it may please those who cling tenaciously to the old articles of
faith to know that, in spite of the progress of science, a few of the
petrographical laws still hold ther ground; such, for instance, as
the absence of white potash-mica from the younger ‘eruptive rocks.

So much interest naturally attaches to anything bearing on the
history of those strange visitants from extra-terrestrial regions,
which occasionally reach our earth in the form of meteorites, that
no apology is needed for calling attention to an excellent réswmé
of our knowledge on this subject, lately published by M. Stanislas-
Meunier.* Most of our readers know that meteorites are divi-
sible into two great groups—meteoric stones and meteoric drons.
The members of the former class are composed of a stony base,
consisting of a complex mixture of various magnesian silicates, only
partially attacked by acids; those silicates which have the com-
position of olivine being decomposed, whilst others, resembling
hornblende and augite, are left mtact. Throughout this base of
siliceous minerals, numerous grains are usually disseminated in
greater or less number, some of which are metallic, and consist,

* “ Recherches sur la composition et la Structure des Meétéorites : ” ‘ Annales
de Chimie et de Physique,’ série iy., tome xvii. p. 5.

1869. ] ” Mineralogy. 555

for the most part, of nickeliferous iron, chromite, and troilite. The
author gives his analyses of three meteorites, one of which fell at
Murcia, in Spain, on 24th Dec. 1858, and was exhibited in the
Paris Exhibition; the second fell at Tadjera, in the district of
Sétif, Algiers, on the 9th June, 1867, and is remarkable for the
absence of that crust, or varnish, which usually invests such stones ;
whilst the third is a meteorite that fell on the 7th Sept. 1868, at
Sauguis-Saint-Etienne, in the département of the Basses-Pyrénées.
‘To economize space, we place the analyses side by side, and give
only the mineralogical—not the chemical—composition.

ee vey ‘a Murcia. Sétif. Basses-Pyrénées.
ilicates attacked by acids ‘ AB :
(living) *: ns cee ONO Nec le OFcO4u o. emOG2 OL
Ditto not attacked (augite) .. 24°64 .. 28°80 ., 23°57
Nickeliferous iron Ser: Ac EONS) ae 8232) Ns, 8°05
Chromiter vse sa ven Ve no (O99 Zee 0:20 «.. traces.
Troilite SO sate hice ee ee 2OkD2 S02 |. 3°04
Swe xe INOS 55 alot ahi

Tn the class of metallic meteorites the general mass is not homo-
geneous, but consists of a number of alloys of iron and nickel, each
having a definite composition. Of these the most important are
teenite, kamacite, plessite, and octibbehite. With these alloys are
associated certain carbides of iron, chiefly chalypite and campbellite,
a sulphide of iron called troilite, a phosphide of iron and nickel
termed schreibersite, graphite or free carbon, and chrome iron-ore.
Certain stony grains are also occasionally present, and frequently
the surfaces are coated with a crust of oxidized matter. Add to
this the occluded gases sometimes met with—such as the hydrogen
found by Graham, and the nitrogen by Boussingault—and we have
what in the present state of our knowledge is a complete catalogue
of the constituents of meteoric irons.

At about 6 o'clock in the evening of the 5th May, 1869, a
meteoric stone fell at Krihenberg, in the Bavarian Palatinate.*
It presented the form of a flattened spheroid, and weighed 314 Ibs. ;
its surface was covered with a black rind, and exhibited numerous
furrows. An account of this aérolite was read at the recent meeting
of the British Association.

According to Dr. Sohncke, we can only hope to obtain an
insight into the nature of those recondite forces that produce
crystalline form, by determining with quantitative accuracy the
relative degrees of resistance which a crystal opposes in different
directions to the action of external mechanical forces. With this
view the learned Doctor has instituted a very elaborate series of
experiments on the manner in which the cohesion of rock-salt varies

* Poggendorft’s ‘Annalen, dth May, 1869,

556 Chronicles of Science. [ Oct.,

in several crystallographic directions.* Small rectangular prisms
were cut from the salt of Stassfurt, having their axes normal to the
faces of various crystalline forms. The tenacity of the prism was
then determined by attaching a scale-pan, and loading it until frae-
ture occurred. It was thus found that the prism always broke
along a plane parallel to the face of a cube, but that the breaking
strain varied considerably, according to the direction in which the
prism had been cut.

In working the Jacobsgliick lode at Andreasberg in the Hartz,
a peculiar and extremely rich argentiferous sand has lately been
found.t The lode contains many drusy cavities irregular in shape
and variable in form, the larger ones being usually empty, whilst
the smaller ones are filled with sand. By examination under the
microscope and before the blow-pipe, this sand is found to contain
native silver in minute octohedral crystals, and in scalenohedral |
forms probably pseudomorphous after calcite. It is notable that
silver does not occur crystallized elsewhere in the Andreasberg
district ; while, on the other hand, red silver ore, which is a common
mineral in the veins, is absent from the sand. The pulverulent
material contains, however, chloride of silyer in very small cubes;
and this, strangely enough, never occurs crystallized in the mines,
and is, indeed, a rare mineral in the district. Calcite, quartz, and
a yellow amorphous mineral not yet determined, complete the list
of constituents of this true “silver sand.”

Among the many rich gold-bearing veins of the Maldon Mining
district in Victoria, few have excited more interest than the “Nug-
getty Reef.” Mr. Salter, the manager of the Alliance Company’s
mines, has detected in this lode a peculiar metallic mineral, which
in the hands of Mr. Ulrich turns out to be a new species.{ Mal-
donite—as we are to call it—occurs as a silver-white, slightly
pinkish mineral, with a bright metallic lustre rapidly tarnishing.
It is softer than pure gold, very sectile, and exhibits apparently a
cubic cleavage. Its chemical examination showed it to be an alloy
of bismuth with gold.

From the copper mines of Namaqualand Mr. Gregory has
obtained a mineral, which Professor Church has described under
the name of Namaqualite.§ It occurs in thin layers made up of
short silky fibres, exhibiting a pale-blue colour, and consisting,
apparently, of a “cupric aluminic hydrate,” thus formulated :—
Al, H, O,. 3 Cu H, O. 4 aq.

Jakobsite is Damour’s name for a new species related to the
spinel group, found in the mines of Jakobsberg, in Wermland,

* Poggendorff’s ‘Annalen.”’ 1869. No. 6, p. 177.

+ Leonhard u. Bronn’s ‘ Jahrbuch, 1869, p. 445.

t ‘Notes on the Nuggetty Reef” Maldon, Victoria, By G. H. ¥. Ulrich, F.G:S.
§ ‘Chemical News,’ July 30, 1869, p. 53.

1869. | Mining. 557

Sweden.* It is a black, lustrous, magnetic mineral, crystallizing
in octohedra, having a specific oravity of 4:7, and a composition
expressed by the formula :—

(MnO, MgO) (Fe, O,. Mn, O,).

From Nischne Tagilsk, in the Urals, a sky-blue compact mineral
has been examined by M. Hermann, and described as a new species
under the name of Cyanochalcite.{ It is composed of phosphate
and silicate of copper, thus represented :—

4 Cu O. PO, + 9 (Cu O. Si O,) + 19 HO.

A new ore of the rare metal tellurium has lately been found in
the Sierra de Tapalpa, in Mexico.{ Professor del Castillo trans-
mitted a ee to Rammelsberg, whose analysis leads to the
formula: Ag, S Bi, Te,. Such a ~ substance might, of course, be
a mixture a tninerala, but Rammelsberg himself believes it to be a
definite compound, and therefore a new species.

The same active chemist has also been at work on the composi-
tion of several native silicates, including chabazite, stilbite, desmine,
mesotype, scolecite, and serpentine.

Some crystals of smoky quartz of gigantic proportions have
recently been found in a difficultly accessible part of the Canton
Uri, mm Switzerland, and the details of the discovery have been
published by Dr. Fellenberg. §

In optical mineralogy it will be sufficient to eail attention to
‘Dr. Kossmann’s elaborate paper on the peculiar lustre and dichroism
of hypersthene. |)

10. MINING AND METALLURGY.
Mining.

Te Mines Inspection Bill, which may be regarded as an example
of that uncertamty which ever attends all attempts at legislation
when individual interests are forced into opposition to the ends
in. view, has, at the last hour, been postponed for another year.
Twelve Inspectors are left, as before, to look after the safe condition
of upwards of 3000 collieries ; ; and ‘the coal miners remain still at
the mercy of that superintendence which, sometimes good but often
imperfect, has prevailed during the past years which have witnessed

* ‘Comptes Rendus,’ July 19, 1869, p. 168.

+ ‘Journal fiir praktische Chemie,’ "1869, p. 69.

t ‘ Zeitschr. d. deutsch. geolog. Gesell, ‘xxi, p. 81.
§ ‘ Berner Mittheilungen, 1869, pol

|| Leonhard’s ‘ Jahrbuch,’ 1869, p. 582,

558 Chronicles of Science. [Oct.,

annually the sacrifice of about a thousand human lives in the pro-
duction of upwards of 100 millions of tons of coal.

As the last act of this drama for the year, Lord Elcho called
the special attention of the House of Commons to a memorial
signed on behalf of 30,000 miners, “praying for a special inquiry
into the recent accidents in coal-mines, that have resulted in great
loss of life.” To this Mr. Secretary Bruce’s reply is worthy of
preservation :—“ It was natural that the workmen, whose lives were
constantly threatened, should look to the Government for protection
from dangers, and, within proper limits, the Government ought to
grant them that protection; but, at the same time, the workmen
ought themselves to co-operate. Their occupation was attended by
peculiar dangers, from which no Government could wholly exempt
them. By the co-operation of the men those dangers might be
much lessened ; but, in the absence of such co-operation, he altogether
despaired of seeing a reduction in the number of lives lost in con- ©
sequence of accidents in mines. The Government ought to have in
every locality a certain number of competent men to listen to every
warning and rumour of danger, but it was no part of their duty to
examine personally into the state of every colliery!” It is part
of their duty to inspect every infant school to ascertain if the
teacher is competent, and to grant money for its support, but the
lives of colliers, often placed at the mercy of ignorant men, are of
no moment. So says the Home Secretary !

A conference of delegates from various associations of coal-
miners was held in Manchester on Monday the 23rd August. At
this meeting the delegates advocated, with their usual indiscretion,
the eight hours system, and, as it appears to us, indulged, most
unfortunately, in a series of misrepresentations regarding the
Government Inspectors and the Colliery owners. Desiring above all
things that the rights of labour should be acknowledged, we cannot
but feel that the endeavour now so constantly made by the delegates
to sow the seeds of evil between the employer and the employed is
only postponing for an indefinite period the end desired. The miners’
grievances are many ; but it must never be forgotten that the miners
have duties as well as grievances, and that the removal of the one
depends greatly upon the faithful performance of the other. At
the meeting to which we have referred, it was urged that all the
blame regarding accidents rested with the masters, who were, when-
ever an accident happened, to be convicted of manslaughter, if not of
murder. Is it possible that the speakers could have been ignorant
of the positive wilfulness of the men themselves, who, in defiance
of all the rules, act as if they believed they had some especial
immunity from danger? Let us hope that in time some better
system of training will place the coal-miner beyond the injurious
influences of men who so sadly misrepresent the truth.

1869. | Mining. 559

The discovery of a new coal-field in India has been exciting
considerable attention. ‘The following remarks from one of the
Calcutta journals will be read with interest :—

“There has been a great‘ find’ of coal in the Central Provinces,
and I beg the attention of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway to
the fact. The district of Chanda lies due south of Nagpore,
between that and the river Wurdah, which forms the northern
boundary of Hyderabad. For some years Captain Lucie Smith,
the Deputy-Commissioner, has been boring for coal; and Mr. Mark
Fryar, the practical geologist sent out lately to report on our coal
resources, has more than confirmed his estimate of the value of his
discoveries. Mr. Morris, the officiating Chief Commissioner, has
written with great caution on the subject, until Messrs. Mather and
Platt’s steam-borer, which has been sent for, arrives. But ordinary
borings and the opinions of Mr. Medlicott—Geological Surveyor
under Dr. Oldham, who is Director-General of the Indian Geological
Survey—Mr. Bonner,C.E., and Mr. Fryar, reveal a vast and thick and
uniform deposit of coal, which has led the last to urge Government
to begin mining operations at once, and to make a branch railway
to the main Great Indian Peninsula line. ‘The sandstones of the
Chanda basin are the same as the well-known coal-bearing sand-
stones of Raneegunge, to which, indeed, Mr. Fryar compares the
deposits in value and extent. He is confident that there are at
least two square miles of coal 14 feet thick at a depth of 300 feet,
and in easy working position, on the Chanda side of the Wurdah,
while there is a certainty of more than the same area on the other
side. This practical Government geologist declares that the coal
can be laid down, by branch railway, at Nagpore at 1/. per ton,
giving a profit of 10s., while a ton of English coal costs 1/. 16s. at
Bombay, and double that at Nagpore. If we so far discredit the
Chanda coal as to say a ton of it is equal to only half a ton of
English coal, it will still have 16s. in its favour at Nagpore. All
India at present turns out 600,000 tons of coal a~year—not more
than the produce of one good colliery in England; and the two
square miles of Chanda coal would give the same supply for thirty
years. Labour is abundant; the mines would prove a boon to a
poor population. This is not all. The finest, if not the largest,
cotton mart in India lies between Chanda and the main line of
railway. That is Hingunghat, the cotton of which is so good that
its seed 1s being introduced wherever the Sea Island and Egyptian
varieties do not suit the inland climate. The Chanda coal-field is
to the south of Hingunghat, and to the north of the finest cotton
districts of Hyderabad. Cross the Wurdah to the south and you
come to Edulahad, the cotton of which is so good that an English
merchant hag just laid out 10,0002. there, intending to send the
produce down the river Godavery, of which the Wurdah is the main

560 Chronicles of Science. [Oct.,

affluent, to Coconada. A branch line for the cotton alone was long
ago projected to Hingunghat. Now there is the coal. If even
half of Mr. Fryar’s expectations are realized, the least known part
of India will be opened up, and the feudatory provinces of the
Nizam, who will be a minor for the next fourteen years, will be
enriched, while they are made to contribute their wealth of cotton
and coal to the general good.”

Mr. Mark Fryar has recently published a letter “On Coal-
Mining in India,” addressed to the “proprietors and managers of
coal-mines in India,” which cannot but produce a beneficial result
in directing attention to improved methods of working the coal-
mines.

In connection with this subject of coal-mining, Mr. Henry
Bessemer, who is well known for his process of manufacturing
steel, has—in devising a process for the production of a most intense .
heat for metallurgical processes—been led to suggest a modified
form of that arrangement for lighting mines“ By combustion
under pressure, Mr. Bessemer obtains the most intense heat, and
the most vivid light, “a light that never fails, that never goes out,
that never requires trimming, and, above all, a light that effectually
prevents the mixture of air and gas which pervades all coal-mines
from entering the flame and becoming ignited. Now these are pre-
cisely the conditions obtained by combustion under pressure, which
offers to the miner a source of the most brilliant light wholly inac-
cessible to the inflammable air of the mine. Asa simple illustration
of the fact, let us suppose a small iron box, a little larger than a
policeman’s lantern, having a thick plate glass or a bull’s-eye ono ne
side of it; in the lower part is a common gas-burner, supplied by a
pipe from a gasometer above ground; the supply of air to support
combustion is arranged in a similar manner, and supplied under
pressure from above ground ; a small aperture is made in the top of
the lantern for the escape of the products of combustion. Now, if
air and gas are supplied to this light under a pressure of, say 1 Ib.
per square inch, the light would be brilliant, and the escape from
the orifice at this pressure (or even far less) would prevent the possi-
bility of any external gases entering and becoming ignited. In this
way every gallery in a mine may be lighted like a workshop, to
the great comfort and cheerfulness of those whose whole lives are
spent in the cheerless gloom of these dangerous workings.”

The mode of advancing the light as the work progresses, and
its direction by the use of reflectors, and other necessary details of
the system, are simple enough, and need not be here entered into.

In Cornish mining a most decided improvement is evident, con-
sequent upon the increased and remuneratiye price of tin. The

* See Metallurgical Chronicles.

1869.] Mining. 561

value of several of the mines near Camborne and Redruth, at the
present time, will be seen by the following statement of the monthly
labour cost :—

Doleouth -- «+ o . £2600 paid in August for Wages.
Pendarves United .. 1800 o Pe
Wiest SCLONS eames) ee on L400 5 -
Wheal Seton .. .. .. «.. 1100 ~-
Tin Croft so go 0d. oo LOR 55 A
Cook’s Kitchen .. .. .. 1000 BS is

In round numbers, 15,0002. a-month are now paid in wages by
twenty-one mines in the Camborne district only.

The mineral wealth of Portugal appears to be developing itself
in a somewhat remarkable manner. In 1855 there were but two
mines in the kingdom, there are now

23 Coal mines 66 Lead and Silver mines
45 Iron, 85 Manganese ¢
98 Copper ,, 6 Gold 3
ZW ims 6 Antimony fi

There are now altogether, in full operation, 220 mines.

The mining industry of Queensland is rapidly acquiring
increased importance. In 1867 the value of the gold exported was
189,2487.; in 1868 it reached 593,6162. The value of the exports
of copper and copper-ore have increased during the same period
from 66,0387. in 1867, to 72,1362. in 1868.

Copper in Belgium.—In the neighbourhood of Vielsalm, in the
province of Liege, some drainage works were in progress, when at
no great depth beneath the surface a piece of native copper weigh-
ing about 2 kilos. was found. It was partly hollow, and exhibited
a crystalline structure. A further search was made, and some veins
of malachite were discovered.

Mr. Ball, of the Geological Survey of India, has communicated
to the Asiatic Society some interesting notices “On the Ancient
Copper Mines of Singhbhim.” As a contribution to the history of
mining, this paper is of considerable value. Those mines were pro-
bably worked about the same time as those of the Sinaian range,
and probably served with them to supply the copper to form the
bronzes which were so largely used when the great Eastern mo-
narchies were in their glory. Mr. Bauerman has lately described,
in the ‘ Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society,’ the copper
mines of Arabia Petrea.

The following remarks from the address of Sir Wm. Armstrong
at the Newcastle Meeting of the Institution of Mechanical Engi-
neers have, at the present time, a peculiar interest :—“ England, with
her innumerable steam-engines and manufactories, is more dependent
upon coal for the maintenance of her prosperity than any other
nation ; and the question of the duration of her coal-fields, now,
very properly, occupies the attention of a Royal Commission. The
investigations of that commission are not yet completed, but, so far

VOL, VI. 2Q

562 - Chronicles of Science. [Oct.,

as they have gone, the results are re-assuring. I concur in the
probable accuracy of the announcement lately made by two of my
fellow commissioners, that the total quantity of coal in this island
will prove to be practically inexhaustible; but until the complicated
details of quantities collected by the commission have been put
together, and expressed in totals, it is difficult to judge with cer-
tainty or accuracy on the subject. Although the duration of our
coal may, geologically speaking, be practically unlimited, we have
still to consider the important question, How long will England be
supplied with coal as good and as cheap as at present? We have
unquestionably made greater inroads into our best and most acces-
sible coal-beds than other nations have done into theirs; and if
foreign coal should grow better and cheaper, and ours dearer and
worse, the balance may turn against us as a manufacturing country
long before our coal is exhausted in quantity. It is clear that our
stock of good coal is very large, but most of it lies at great depths ; °
and one of the most important questions the Royal Commission has
to investigate is the depth at which coal can be worked with com-
mercial advantage. The chief obstacle to reaching extreme depth
is the increase of temperature which is met as we descend. J am
justified, by ascertained facts, in saying that this rate of increase
will, as a rule, prove to be not less than 1° Fahrenheit for every
20 yards in depth, and there is reason to expect that it will be even
more rapid at greater depths than have yet been attained. The
constant temperature of the earth, in this climate, at a depth of
50 feet, is 50°; and the rate of increase, as we descend, is to be
calculated from this starting-point. Adopting these figures, you
will find that the temperature of the earth will be equal to blood-
heat at a depth of about 980 yards, and at a further depth of 500
yards, mineral substances will be too hot for the naked skin to
touch with impunity. It is extremely difficult to form an opinion
ag to the maximum temperature in which human labour is practi-
cable in the damp atmosphere of a mine, and it is almost equally
difficult to determine how much the temperature of the air, i the
distant part of an extremely deep mine, can be reduced below that
of the strata with which it is brought in contact. It is certain,
however, that the limit of practicable depth will chiefly depend
upon the mechanical means which can be provided for relieving
the miners of the severest part of their labour ; for maintaining a
supply of sufficiently cool air at the working faces of the coal ; and
for superseding the use of horses, which suffer even more than men
from highly-heated air. For the relief of labour we must look to
coal-cutting machines ; for improvement of ventilation to exhaust-
ing fans; and for the superseding of horses, to hauling engines
driven by transmitted power. The employment of coal-cutting
machines, working by compressed air, conveyed into the mine by

1869. ] Metallurgy. 668

pipes, is already an accomplished fact; and when the difficulties
and objections which usually adhere for a considerable time to new
mechanical arrangements are removed from these machines, they
will probably attain extensive application.”

MeraLLuray.

Mr. Henry Bessemer has recently patented a means of pro-
ducing heat, which is of a very remarkable character. The principle
involved will be understood from the following remarks by the
inventor :—“I am at the present time busily engaged in investi-
gating the action of combustion under pressure in furnaces where
the flame is bottled up (so to speak) like steam in a steam-boiler,
by which means heat is intensified in the ratio of the pressure
employed, so that the most refractory substances known to man may
be fused or dissipated in vapour with the same quickness and facility
with which our most fusible substances are melted. In one modi-
fication of these furnaces the workmen operate in a large iron room,
where the pressure of the atmosphere is greater than it would be
at a depth of ten miles below the surface of the earth, and where
the temperature, under ordinary circumstances, would be such that
no attendant of a Turkish bath could endure it for a single hour.
Yet these men and the furnace they tend may, by a simple arrange-
ment of apparatus, be supplied with thousands of cubic feet of air
per minute, as cool, or if necessary much cooler, than the surround-
ing atmosphere.”

The following new process for obtaining iron from its ores has
been brought before the Academy of Sciences by M. Ponsard. The
author of this paper has applied Siemens’s furnace to the manufac-
ture of iron; he states that he has succeeded in producing one ton
of cast iron, of excellent quality, with a consumption of only one
ton of fuel. The author summarizes his results in the following
manner :—

(1) A great saving of fuel can be made, and iron obtained from
its ores, without the use of blast furnace; (2) that, since the heat
produced by flame is sufficient to effect all the chemical reactions
and melt the metal, there may be used all kinds of fuel which pro-
duce gas—that is to say, all kinds of coal, no matter whatever their
quality, wood, lignite, peat, hydrogen gas, and mineral oils ; (8) it
is possible to obtain, at will, a more or less carburetted metal,
according to the quantity of carbonaceous matter which is mixed
with ‘the ore, and placed in the crucibles to act as chemical agent
only. Specimens of iron, of very good quality, obtained by the
process as carried on by the author, were exhibited to the members
of the Academy at this meeting.

2 q 2

564 Chronicles of Science. [ Oct.

11. PHYSICS.

Licut.—A diaphanometer to determine the transparency of different
kinds of glass has been devised by M. Jicinsky. Without the
engravings, itis impossible to make this instrument understood. The
author has proved that the diaphanicity of divers kinds of glass is
not dependent so much on its chemical composition, as on certain
physical properties due to the heat applied in making it.

Physicists and others engaged in optical studies will feel in-
terested in hearing that there has been a discovery of large crystals
of quartz in a difficultly accessible portion of the Swiss Alps; one of
these weighs 267 lIbs., is 69 centimetres in height, and has a cir-
cumference of 122 centimetres. .

The employment of the spectroscope to distinguish a feeble
light present with a stronger light, has been suggested by M. Seguin. °
The author describes a series of experiments with electric light, and
observations thereon with Duboscq’s vertical spectroscope. The
conclusion arrived at is that the spectroscope eminently serves the
purpose of detecting a feeble light present along with a much
stronger one, the former of which would be inyisible to the naked
eye, or by means of other optical instruments.

The zirconia light is attracting great attention on the Continent.
The chief desideratum in oxyhydrogen illumination of this kind is
the cheap production of oxygen; and the process of M. Tessie du
Mothay, according to the Paris correspondent of the ‘ British
Journal of Photography, appears to be all that can be desired so
far as cheapness and efficacy are concerned. It consists in heating
in iron retorts, divided in two by a horizontal grating, a quantity
of manganate of soda. This is raised to a dull red heat, and a
current of superheated steam is made to pass over the mass.
Oxygen is given off in abundance and passes along with the current
of steam into a refrigerator, where the steam is condensed into
water, and the oxygen is afterwards collected in a gasometer. The
next operation is to re-oxygenize the exhausted manganate. This
is accomplished by passing heated ar, not steam, over it, when the
manganate absorbs the oxygen, and becomes as ready as ever for
yielding it again to the vapour of water. Thus the two operations
can go on for an indefinite time, the air being the source of supply
of oxygen. One advantage claimed by the advocates of the zirconia
cylinders, besides their durability, is that a mixture of equal parts
of oxygen and carburetted hydrogen can be used instead of a mix-
ture in which oxygen is in excess, as is usual. There are large
oxygen gas works for carrying out this method now erected in New
York. The essential portions of the process are carried on by the
aid of brick furnaces, of which only one was in operation at the

1869. | Physics. 069

time of our informant’s visit, several others being, however, rapidly
fitted for use. Each furnace has its fire-box so arranged as not
only to heat the retort which holds the manganate of soda, but also
one or more chambers through which an air-blast passes to the
retort. The retort furthermore communicates, by a pipe furnished
with stop-cocks, with a suitable steam boiler. About 600 pounds of
manganate of soda are placed in the retort, heated to the requisite
degree in the furnace; superheated steam from the boiler is then
admitted for about ten minutes. Two equivalents of the manganate
of soda and two of water react upon each other, and the operation
proceeds as described above.

A method of coating glass, porcelain, or earthenware, with a
thin film of lustrous metallic platinum, has been published by Prof.
Beettger. Dry chloride of platinum, freed from excess of acid, is
mixed in a small porcelain mortar, with essential oil of rosemary,
until the original brown-red colour of the salt has entirely dis-
appeared, and has been converted into a black pitch-like looking
mass. When the pitch-like mass has been obtained, the oil is en-
tirely removed, and the pasty mass is mixed with at least five times
its weight of lavender oil, and mixed therewith to a homogeneous
fluid ; this, after having been quietly standing for half-an-hour, is
applied with a hair brush on the glass or porcelain objects to which
it is desired to give a coating of lustrous platinum, and after the
very thinly and evenly laid on film is dry, the objects are either
placed in a red-hot muffle, or heated in the flame of a glass-blower’s
lamp, care being taken not to exceed a red heat.

According to M. Grimm, chloride of copper completely removes
even from coloured woven cotton tissues, stains occasioned by
nitrate of silver; the tissue is to be afterwards washed with a
~ solution of hyposulphite of soda, and next thoroughly washed with
water. From white cotton and linen tissues, nitrate of silver stains
are more readily and effectively removed by applying dilute solu-
tions of permanganate of potassa and hydrochloric acid, followed by
washing with hyposulphite of soda solution, and rinsing in plenty
of fresh water. By these means the use of the highly poisonous
cyanide of potassium is rendered unnecessary.

Heat.—In the course of an introductory lecture on the occasion of
the opening of the new laboratories at Berlin, Dr. Hofmann, F.R.S.,
illustrated some new experiments with flame, which he had devised
for the purpose of showing its structure. Take a piece of canvas
and put it on to the top of the glass chimney of an argand gas-
burner, taking care to envelop the glass chimney previously with a
very thin piece of copper foil, while the access of air at the bottom
of the burner should be as much as possible prevented. On turning

566 Chronicles of Science. [ Oct.,

the gas on, it escapes readily through the small openings in the
canvas, and the gas may be ignited above. The canvas, however,
soon takes fire and burns off, but leaves a very complete circular
disc, which remains white and unconsumed in the centre of the
flame. If it is desired to demonstrate more completely the nature
of the flame, it is done by placing on the middle of the canvas dise
some gunpowder, and on it the heads of some lucifer matches.
After having again turned on the gas, and left it to escape for a
few moments, it may be kindled again, and will burn quietly ; and
even though, as in the first experiment, the excess of canvas again
burns off, neither the gunpowder nor matches will catch fire until
just at the moment the gas is gently turned off.

M. W. Stein states that the vapour of perfectly pure disulphide
of carbon is not decomposed when passed through a red-hot por-
celain tube ; but on repeating the experiment and increasing the .
heat by the application of a strong coke and charcoal fire, the inner
space of the tube having been filled with broken porcelain, it was
found to be lined with a deposit of carbon, owing to the decompo-
sition of the sulphide, while sulphur was collected in a receiver.

While engaged with experiments on the intrinsic composition
and constitution of various pieces of silver money, made at the
Royal Netherlands Mint at Utrecht, Dr. A. von Riemsdyk carried
on some experiments on the fusibility and volatility of metals. The
author found that there does not exist any relation at all between
the fusibility and volatility of metals, which may be arranged in
the following manner, beginning from the most fusible and most
readily volatile :—

Fusibility. Volatility.
Tin’ eee et ss) AESe OO, on) eee 8@ad mira:
iBismuthepe. se. 2OSeto pane Wee) re eels
Cadminm..2 —\575202°0) 5.) 2. os) smn
WUCad ian wet tepidsOaOenO) ah dene abee, Wlooad:
Zine 420°°0 ,, Tin

Silver melts at 1040° C., pure gold at 1240° C., while the

of 1330° C. to become liquid. Neither pure silver nor pure copper
loses anything at all by volatilization when kept for a considerable
time at temperatures higher than the melting-points of both these
metals, and in a feeble current of pure hydrogen to prevent their
oxidation. The author has made some of these experiments on a
very large scale, having at his disposal several hundred kilos. of
these metals in pure and alloyed state.

Exxcrriciry.—It may be of some interest to our readers to
know the theory which has been formed by the Rey. Father Secchi,
8.J., on electricity, He writes, in a letter to M. F. Mazco, at Turin,

1869.] Physics. 567

“T believe that the true theory of electricity will result from the
principle that electricity is not a motion (mouvement), but a change
of the quantitative and dynamic equilibrium of the ether which
constitutes the atoms of the substances, and that the propagation of
such a change is brought about by the moving of the ether from
one atom to another; this motion shakes, disturbs the ether of the
atoms, and thus produces heat.”

An electrical phosphoroscope has been described by M. Laborde ;
its essential parts are a Ruhmkorff induction apparatus, the spark of
which throws light on the phosphorescent object, and of a sliding
frame, one of the ends of which hides the object during the brief
moment it is illuminated by the electric spark. This sliding frame
is 40 centimetres in length, by 10 centimétres in breadth ; it is fixed
at its centre on an axis, which may be made to move rapidly by
means of a pedal. The arrangement of this apparatus is such as
to render it serviceable for studying the phosphorescence excited by
a blow, as well as by friction. The phenomena of phosphorescence
of substances which, like nitrate of uranium, are only of very short
duration, can be observed by means of this instrument equally well
as the long-continued and strong phosphorescence induced by
friction in pieces of porcelain or glass.

MM. Mure and Clamond have made a thermo-electric battery
with galena. It is composed of sixty elements, made up of small
bars of galena, 40 mm. in length by 8 mm. thick, and bars of thin
sheet iron, 55 mm. in length by 8 mm. in width, and 0°6 mm.
in thickness. ‘These materials have been arranged so as to form a
hollow cylinder, which, when it is intended to be used, is to be
heated by a peculiarly constructed gas-burner. The specimen of
this battery exhibited at a meeting of the French Academy had an
electro-motive force of 15 Bunsen element. M. Becquerel read a
lengthy paper on the subject of this battery, the result of which is
that thermo-electric batteries constructed either of metallic alloys,
or, as in this case, of a metallic sulphide and a metal, are not
economical in use, and are too hable to changes brought on by the
effects of the heat.

M. J. Meunier proposes to make use of the well-known experi-
ment of Leichtenberg’s electric figures to separate from each other
the divers mineralogical constituents of some kinds of rock. We
briefly remind our readers that the experiment alluded to consists
in charging with electricity a cake of resin or sealing-wax, by means
of a previously-charged Leyden jar; it is thus possible to charge
certain portions of the cake with positive, others with negative,
electricity. In order to exhibit this to sight it is usual to blow, by
means of a small pair of bellows, on to the cake of resin, a mixture
of very finely-powdered red-lead and sulphur; the friction on-

568 Chronicles of Science. [ Oct.,

leaying the nozzle causes the powders to become electrified, and
the sulphur being negatively electric is attracted by the curved
figures positively electric on the cake, while the red-lead follows
the opposite course. M. Meunier has tried thus to separate sulphur-
bearing trachite into its mineral constituents, and succeeded per-
fectly in getting the sulphide and feldspar from each other: he
states that he has succeeded equally well with rocks made up of
two different silicates.

12. ZOOLOGY—ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY AND
MORPHOLOGY.

PuystoLocy.

The Temperature of the Human Body.—Mr. Alfred H. Garrod,
of St. John’s College, Cambridge, has made (and communicated
to the Royal Society) a series of observations on a human
“subject, aged 22, male, thin,” whom we take to be himself, by
means of very delicate thermometers and the sphygmograph,
which he considers show that the minor fluctuations in the tem-
perature of the human body, not including those arising from the
movements of muscles, mainly result from alterations in the amount
of blood exposed at its surface to the influence of external absorb-
ing and conducting media. It has long been known that cold
contracts and heat dilates the small arteries of the skin, respectively
raising and lowering the arterial tension, and thus modifying the
amount of blood in the cutaneous capillaries. But modifications
in the supply of blood to the skin must alter the amount of heat
diffused by the body to surrounding substances; and so we should
expect that by increasing the arterial tension, thus lessening the
cutaneous circulation, the blood would become hotter from there
being less facility for the diffusion of its heat ; and that by lowering
the tension, thus increasing the cutaneous circulation, the blood
would become colder, throughout the body, from increased facility
for conduction and radiation. Thus the temperature and tension
rise together on stripping off the clothes in a cold air—the tempera-
ture and tension fall by covering even a part of the body when
stripped ; simply heating the feet lowers the tension and the tem-
perature of the body together. Mr. Garrod gives his observations
very carefully, in numerous neatly-constructed tables, and appears
to have well established his point. He remarks that the fall in the
temperature of the body at night observed by Dr. Ogle, and by
Drs. Ringer and Stewart, which is lowest at from 12 to 1 a.m., and
rises after that time, is due to the fact that Englishmen go to bed

1869. | Zoology. 569

at about that hour and give up heat to the bed-clothes. Another
explanation he offers has a practical importance for every reader.
On a cold day the effect of sitting with one side of the body in the
direct rays of a fire is to cause the other side to feel much colder
than if there were no fire at all, because the fire lowers the tension
all over the body, and supplies heat to the full cutaneous vessels of
one side, while the other side being equally supplied with blood in
the skin, does not receive heat, but has to distribute it rapidly to
the cold clothes, &c. It should be mentioned that Mr. Garrod
takes the temperature beneath the tongue, and that the varia-
tions recorded are all between 97° and 100° Fahr.—the variation
of a tenth of a degree being readily recognized. Some interest-
ing results of a similar nature might be obtained as to the
cause of still smaller fluctuations by means of the thermo-electric
scale.

The Cause of the Rouleaux of Blood Corpuscles.—Dr. Norris,
of Birmingham, has recently repeated to the Royal Society the
explanation of the phenomenon of the aggregation of the blood
corpuscles which he put out in a former paper in 1862, and has
exhibited his very ingenious and conclusive experiments. Dr.
Norris constructed discs of cork of the shape of blood corpuscles,
and found that when thrown into water they aggregated in the
same rouleaux as do blood corpuscles. But he found that this
result could not be maintained if the discs were perfectly sub-
merged: hence there was a considerable difference between the
case of the discs and of the corpuscles, which, of course, are
submerged. At length Dr. Norris found that if he wetted the
dises of cork or gelatine with which he experimented, and then
placed them in a liquid which would not mix with the water, that
the rouleaux were formed quite satisfactorily, even when the discs
were submerged. The formation of rouleauw then depends on
cohesive attraction—but on the cohesive attraction of two interacting
bodies—in all Dr. Norris’s experiments, and in the blood there are
two dissimilar or antagonistic liquids; and upon the presence of
these two the phenomena depend. The air acts the part of one of
these in the case of floating discs. All that is required in the case
of the corpuscles is a difference of this kind, between their liquid
contents, as Dr. Norris prefers to say, or their viscous substance,
as others may term it, and the plasma in which they are submerged.
The difference need not be so great by any means as the difference
between the liquids used in Dr. Norris’s experiments (water and
paraffin), since the corpuscles are so excessively minute.

The Movement of the Chest in Respiration.—Dr. Burdon
Saunderson has constructed an ingenious instrument for measur-
ing the frequency and intensity of the respiratory pulse, as it may
be termed. Other physiologists have tried in various ways to con-

570 Chronicles of Science. [ Oct.,

trive an instrument which should do this, but Dr. Saunderson has
certainly improved upon all previous attempts. A large square
pair of calipers made of steel forms the part of the instrument
which grasps the chest, and which can be moved or adjusted to any
particular size. The movements of the chest are made to press
against a spring placed inside the arm of the calipers, and by the
moyement of the spring an india-rubber sack containing air is com-
pressed. By a well-known and most ingenious device the compres-
sion of the air in the first sack is communicated through an india-
rubber tube to a second larger sack placed at a convenient distance,
and there the motion is transferred to a delicately-balanced lever,
which being furnished with a brush and ink at its long extremity,
writes off the movement on a regularly rotating cylinder. The
advantage of this instrument is that it gives the whole movement
of the chest in one line—the wall of one side of the thoracic cavity
acting as a fixed surface in consequence of the calipers being applied
to opposite sides. An important feature is, that so delicate is the
spring and elastic sack apparatus, that the instrument acts as a cardio-
graph as well as a recorder of respiratory movement. The con-
sequence is that the tracings from the revolving cylinder present
two sets of curves: a large series, belonging to the movement of the
thoracic walls; and a smaller set, due to the heart’s impulse. Thus
by this instrument one is enabled most clearly and satisfactorily to
observe the relations of these two sets of movements and their
interaction. Dr. Saunderson finds that this instrument confirms
the observations which he formerly made with less satisfactory
apparatus.

The Movement of the Wings of Insects in Flight.—M. Marey,
perhaps the most original physiologist which France has produced
im our time, has applied himself to the study of the movements of
the wings of insects during flight. By gilding the tips of the
wings of a hymenopterous insect, he was able to render it suffi-
ciently brilliant to permit the eye to follow its movement, and he
perceived that the tip of the wing described a figure of eight in its
upward and downward movement. By applying a piece of sooted
glass to the wing, he was able to get this movement marked off on
a piece of glass. Now, to describe such a curvature combined with
the flapping movement, supposing the wing to be a rigid body,
would, M. Marey demonstrates, require a most complex arrange-
ment of muscles, especially to produce such a movement with the
great rapidity with which it occurs in the insect’s wing. But the
fact is that this “ feathering” action of the wing is due merely to
the up and down movement of the wing, coupled with its peculiar
form and elasticity. M. Marey has made a model with wings,
having one side rigid and the other tense but elastic, and he finds
that on imparting a simple movement to these wings at their point.

1869.] Zoology. 571

of attachment, exactly the same figure of eight is described as in
the case of the real insect, and a propelling force is obtained suffi-
cient to make the model move rapidly on a pivot.

MorpnHonoey.

The Structure of the Organs of Taste in Man.—The existence
of a peculiar terminal apparatus in each organ of special sense is
now become an indubitable fact. This terminal apparatus has been
studied with care for the organs of touch, of smell, of hearing, and,
above all, of sight; but we were up to the present time in complete
ignorance of the mode of termination of the gustatory nerve-fibres
in the tongue. It is therefore very gratifying to find that, inde-
pendently, two anatomists, Dr. Schwalbe and Dr. Christian Loyén,
have studied this matter, and arrived at closely concordant results.
The gustatory nerve-fibres by common consent have their termina-
tions in the so-called papillz vallatw, and these are variously dis-
posed in different mammifers. Their structure is complex, en-
closing as a rule acinate glands, whilst the epithelium covering
them is much thinner than that on the rest of the tongue. It is
on the walls of the mote surrounding the papilla that it is thinnest.
The gustatory organs discovered by Drs. Loyén and Schwalbe may
be called gustatory bulbs. They occur only in the wall of the
papilla limiting its circumscribed fossa. Each bulb, enclosed in an
epithelial stratum, rests by an attenuated extremity directly on the
mucous layer properly so called. Its form is that of a thick
spindle, and the epithelium of the surface of the wall of the papilla
is punctured by openings, each of which corresponds to the point
of a gustatory bulb, so that by means of these apertures the
gustatory bulbs are placed in direct communication with any fluids
which may accumulate in the mote of the circumyallate papilla.
The structure of the gustatory bulbs themselves is somewhat com-
plex, but they contain elongated bdton-like cells, such as have been
found in other special-sense organs. The nerve-fibres of the gusta-
tory nerve lose their double contour before becoming united with
these terminal organs, and the union is simply, as in other organs,
between the naked axial cylinder and the elongate gustatory cells
which make up the gustatory bulbs. Although in many cases
these bulbs are restricted to the papilla vallate, yet Dr. Lovén
remarks that in some animals (man, sheep, and others) he has found
them in some of the fungiform papille.

Professor Claparede’s Writings—The industry and skill of
the Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Geneva are calculated to
excite the highest admiration. It is only within the year that he
has published a magnificent volume ‘On the Annelids of the Bay

572 Chronicles of Science. [Oct.,

of Naples, and he now appears again, first with an essay—written
in German this time (he writes equally well in that language or in
French)—entitled ‘Studies on Acarids, illustrated with eleven
coloured folding plates ; and secondly, with a jot paper in asso-
ciation with Professor Elias Mecznikow ‘On the Development of
Chetopodous Annelids,’ illustrated with six coloured plates; besides
these, he has in the press an extensive memoir ‘On the Anatomy
of the Earthworm.’ Nothing could more clearly show the im-
portance to the naturalist of possessing skill with the pencil than
these beautiful labours of Professor Claparede. He is able rapidly
to note down his observations by this means, and the very same
faculty which enables a man to draw what he sees, makes him, at
the same time, more apt at disentangling the intricacies of a struc-
ture, and more rapid and certain in his observation altogether. The
‘Studies on Acarids’ is perhaps the more important of the two
works we have mentioned, since the development of several species
is accurately and carefully detailed and figured ; whilst the anatomy
of several others is given, and some remarks headed “ Fiir Darwin”
are appended, pointing out certain arguments in favour of natural
selection and descent which may be gathered from this group, as
Fritz Miiller has so well gathered from the crustacea.

A Living Cystidean.—The Cystidea are a very peculiar group
of Echinoderms whose remains are abundant in the carboniferous
and other Paleozoic rocks, and they have always been supposed to
have become extinct before Mesozoic times. The sensations, there-
fore, evoked by the announcement of a living Cystidean may be
well described as unusual. Yet Professor Lovén calmly describes
in a paper only just published, an Echinoderm which he received
from Cape York, and which appears to justify his assertion that it
is a living Cystidean. In some features it agrees with the living
crinoid Comatula, but in the fact that the canal between the ambu-
lacral organs is covered in by calcareous plates, it agrees with the
Cystidea alone. Further details and figures of this form are
anxiously expected. Professor Lovén terms it Hyponome. It is
worth mentioning, in connection with this, that at the depth of
more than a thousand fathoms, Professor Wyville Thomson has,
during the last month, dredged an Echinoderm, which he says
must be regarded as the type of a totally new division of that
group. For an account of his exceedingly interesting letter to
Rey. Alfred Norman, read to Section D of the British Association,
we must refer the reader to our Report.

Fresh-water Radiolarians.—The beautiful group, some forms
of which are known to us as Polycystina in Barbadoes earth, which
have been so wonderfully worked out by Ernst Heckel, in his
‘Monograph of Radiolaria, which comprises the Thalassicolla of
Huxley, and the Acanthometra of Miiller, and the members of which

1869. | Zoology. 573

are chiefly remarkable for their siliceous spicule, or skeleton, and
their wonderfully long and delicate pseudopodial threads, have long
been thought to have allies in fresh water, in the person of the
sun-animaleules (Actinophrys). But naturalists who have not
watched the record of the proceedings of the Dublin Microscopical
Club, published in the ‘ Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,’
will have been quite unprepared for the astonishing revelation of
several genera of these exquisite forms inhabiting the fresh-water
pools on the Irish moors. Their discovery is due to that careful
student Mr. William Archer. Dr. Focke, of Bremen, it is true,
has this year noticed the occurrence of some of these forms in
moor-pools in Germany, but Mr. Archer’s notices are much earlier
in date than his, though his extended paper is only now appearing.
The largest form, which is a truly noble rhizopod, is as big as a
large pin’s head, with thread-like pseudopods extending to a much
greater circumference ; masses of siliceous spicula are disposed over
the disc, which contains some dozen large spherical bodies of a
bright-green colour. This form Mr. Archer names Raphidiophrys
viridis ; other genera are characterized by Mr. Archer, and coloured
figures referred to. The chief point of difference between these
fresh-water Radiolarians and the marine forms is the absence in the
former of the central cyst or capsule, and the yellow cells which
have been considered of characteristic importance in the group.

A New Vitreous Sponge.—One of the products of the deep
dredging last year, in H.M.S. ‘ Lightning, has been described to
the Royal Society, by Professor Wyville Thomson, as Holtenia
Carpentert. It was dredged up from a depth of 530 fathoms with
several other organisms, there being four genera of Vitreous
Sponges. Holtenia is one of this new group of sponges, which
Professor Thomson makes to include also the Ventriculites of the
Chalk. ‘The genus is named in honour of Mr. Holten, Governor
of the Faroe Islands. The order is mainly characterized by the
great variety and complexity of form of the spicules, which may
apparently, with scarcely an exception, be referred to the sex-
radiate stellate type, a form of spicule which does not appear to
occur in any other order of sponges. The genus Holtenia is nearly
allied to Hyalonema, and seems to resemble it in its mode of occur-
rence. Both genera live imbedded in the soft upper layer of the
chalk-mud in which they are supported: Holtenia, by a delicate
range of siliceous fibres which spread round it in all directions,
increasing its surface without materially increasing its weight ;
Hyalonema, by a more consistent coil of spicules, which penetrates
the mud vertically and anchors itself in a firmer layer. The
vitreous sponges, Dr. Thomson observes, along with the living
Rhizopods and other Protozoa, which enter largely into the com-
position of the upper layer of the chalk-mud, appear to be nourished

574 Chronicles of Science. [ Oct.,

by the absorption through the external surface of their bodies of
the assimilable organic matter which exists in appreciable quantity
in all sea-water, and which is derived from the life and death of
marine animals and plants, and in large quantity from the water of
tropical rivers. One principal function of this vast sheet of the
lowest type of animal life, which probably extends over the whole
of the warmer regions of the sea, may probably be to diminish the
loss of organic matter by gradual decomposition, and to aid in
maintaining in the ocean the “ balance of organic nature.”

A translation of Fritz Miiller’s interesting study of Crustacean
development, which he published under the title ‘ Fiir Darwin,
has been brought out by Mr. Murray, Mr. Dallas having effi-
ciently acted the part of translator.

The British Hydroid Zoophytes, by the Rev. Thomas Hincks,
is one of Mr. Van Voorst’s beautiful series, and is worthy of its
place in that renowned company. The illustrations are in the
form of plates—very copious and very well executed by Mr. Tuffen
West.

1869.] : ( 575 )

NOTICES OF SCIENTIFIC WORKS.

The Scenery of England and Wales; its Character and Origin,
being an Attempt to trace the Nature of the Geological Causes,
especially Denudation, by which the Physical Features of the
Country have been produced. Wath 86 Woodcuts. By D.
MacxintosH, F.G.8. 8vo. Pp. 399. London: Longmans
and Co.

Tuis is the title of a new work on Physical Geology by Mr. D.
Mackintosh, F.G.S., who has, during the past five years, con-
tributed many original articles upon this subject to the ‘ Quarterly
Journal of the Geological Society,’ the ‘Geological Magazine,’ &c.
In pursuing his professional engagements as a lecturer on geology,
&c., the author has travelled through the length and breadth of
England and Wales, and devoted a large part of his time to making
careful observations of all the most striking points of geological
interest within his reach.

The book commences with a description of the causes of denu-
dation and the origin of natural scenery in various parts of the
world. ‘The second and main portion of the work is devoted to a
classification, description, and attempted explanation of the various
forms or types of scenery in England and Wales, included under
the heads Escarpments, Cwms, Combes or Corries, Passes, Longi-
tudinal Valleys, and Transverse Gorges.

The third part is devoted to excursions to special places of
geological interest in England and Wales.

Mr. Mackintosh, by his previous writings, had identified him-
self as an advocate of “ Marine Denudation,” and as strongly op-
posed to the modern school of “ Subzerialists,” as an ultra example
of whom we may cite Colonel George Greenwood, who has, in an
amusing book: (entitled ‘Rain and Rivers’*) set forth his views,
which are the very antithesis of those of Mr. Mackintosh, but
nevertheless contain many excellent observations on Suberial
Denudation.

In travelling East or West—from the plain of the Medway
to the Great Orme’s Head—or from Dawlish and Dartmoor in
the South, to Morecambe Bay and Keswick in the North, Mr.
Mackintosh points out that, from the present coast-lines to the
top of Snowdon, the sea has left its mark on many a Scar and
Crag, and that, in fancy at least, we may still hear its murmur in

* 2nd Edition, 1866. London: Longmans and Co.

576 Notices of Scientifie Works. [ Oct.,

many an ancient sea-worn cave and hollow now far removed above
the roar and turmoil of its surging billows.

We are glad to find that, although Mr. Mackintosh advocates
the sea as an efficient agent to produce geological changes, yet he
does not ignore the action of other causes in modifying the earth’s
surface—as Ice, Snow, Frost, Rain and Rivers, Nature’s untiring
agents, slowly—maybe secretly—yet surely modifying the surface
of our island, as certainly as the sea is ever changing the contour
of our coasts. ;

Mr. Mackintosh’s previous articles elicited rejoinders from
many of our leading geologists, and no doubt his book will have
a similar effect.

Some of the woodcuts to this work are very excellent; e.g.
Wallow Crags;* Sea-worn Chink, Pendower Point; the Peak of
Snowdon (Fig. 31); Cheddar Cliffs, &e.; +t others owe their merit —
to their utility as diagrams; a few might be better drawn, the
subjects being really fine, if well treated.

In a future edition we would suggest the elision of several
pages in Book III. (“ Excursions”), which are merely irrelevant §,
and the substitution of a short “Itinerary,” giving plain direc-
tions how best to reach the many places of geological interest
mentioned by the author.

It is almost too late this year for the home tourist to avail
himself of Mr. Mackintosh’s guidance to the Welsh Mountains, or
Coniston Crags, but no doubt next year he will find many of our
readers who will gladly take a walk with him “ over Malvern
Wych at midnight” (although, as keen geologists, they might

refer the early dawn), or, knapsack on back, to start “from
ieee to Snowdon, through the Pass, and by Llyn Llydaw,”
—or, indeed, along any of the twenty routes he has laid down
for their acceptance—sure of finding fresh air, hard walking,
capital scenery, good appetites, and some very hard geological nuts
to crack afterwards.

Spectrum Analysis.—Six Lectures delivered in 1868 before the
Society of Apothecaries of London. By H. E. Roscoz, B.A,
F.RS. Macmillan and Co., 1869.

Tas is the most complete work on spectrum analysis which has
yet appeared in the English language; and the author being one
of the first popularizers of this branch of experimental analysis, is
thoroughly competent to deal with all the varied ramifications into
which it has branched of late years. Little was heard of spectro-

© -P, S82, ¢ P.55. 7. ©. 141,
§ e. g. pp. 303-4, “ An episode,” &c.; p. 299, “ Unfounded Suspicions,” and one
or two other passages,

1869. ] Notices of Scientific Works. 577

scopic researches until Professor Roscoe communicated to the
‘Philosophical Magazine’ Messrs. Bunsen and Kirchhoff’s paper,
in which they announced the probable existence of some new
elements discovered by its means; but since then, spectrum cbser-
vations have been deemed one of the most powerful means of
research, and have formed an intimate bond of union between
two sciences which before had little in common—astronomy and
chemistry. The book is based, as the title indicates, on a course of
six lectures delivered in 1868; but it must by no means be con-
cluded that the author has merely printed the lectures as delivered.
They are not only rewritten, but a large amount of new matter—
which could not well be compressed into the substance of an hour’s
lecture—is introduced in the form of an appendix, which is often
longer than the lecture itself; references which were originally
brief are here quoted in full; discoveries which have been made
since the delivery of the lectures are incorporated with the text ; and
illustrations, whether diagrammatic or experimental, appear in the
form of woodcuts and chromo-lithographs.

The first lecture is somewhat elementary, being devoted to the
properties of light, the action of a prism, the various conditions of
different portions of the spectrum, and an account of the fixed
black lines which cross it. In the second lecture the ordinary
phenomena of spectrum analyses as usually understood are de-
scribed, and its marvellous delicacy, which is capable of appreciating
the 180-millionth part of a grain of sodium, is enlarged upon.
The description of the spectroscope and its uses concludes this
lecture.

_ The third is a continuation of the same subject, and includes an
historical sketch of the development of spectrum analysis, and an
account of the four spectrogenic metals—cesium, rubidium, thallium,
and indium. Some practical applications of spectrum observations
are here given, including a very full account of the employment
of the spectroscope in the determination of the right moment to
stop the blast durmg the Bessemer process. Speaking of this, we
are told that if the blast be continued for ten seconds after the
carbon lines disappear from the field of view, or if it be discontinued
ten seconds before that point is reached, the charge becomes either
so viscid that it cannot be poured from the converter into the ladle
from which it has to be transferred to the moulds, or it contains so
much carbon as to crumble up like cast iron under the hammer.

Lecture IV. is devoted to the subject of the spectra of metals
which are only to be observed by means of the electric are or
induction spark, and very carefuliy-reduced and well-executed maps
of metallic spectra accompany this subject. The concluding lectures
are mainly devoted to spectrum observations as applied to astro-
nomy, and here are given many beautiful maps and chromo-ltho-

VOL. VI. 2k

578 Notices of Scientifie Works. [Oct.,

graphs of solar, stellar, and nebular lines, together with terrestrial
spectra for the sake of comparisons.

As we remarked above, this book is a useful addition to our
scientific literature; the language is clear, and the reader is pre-
sented with a view of the subject derived from extensive Continental
investigations, as well as researches which have been carried out in
the United Kingdom. Indeed, Professor Roscoe’s intimate ac-
quaintance with foreign physicists occasionally leads him into the
error of crediting foreign workers at the expense of his own
countrymen. The book is not only valuable to men of science, but
cannot fail to be also of great interest for the educated public. The
recent brilliant discoveries which have been made by the spectrum
into the constitution of the sun, dating from the solar eclipse of
1868, show that the prism of Newton in the hands of his successors
is destined to form the basis of a method of analysis, embracing |
not only the solar system, but the whole material universe.

1869. ] ( 579 )

THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE,

MEETING AT EXETER, Avausr, 1869.
Tue Presipent’s ADDRESS.

Tue past twelve months have been characterized by steady work
rather than for many brilliant scientific results. Investigators have
been rather collecting particulars than forming generalizations.
The dominant scientific result of the year has been the extended
knowledge which we have gained of the constitution of the sun and
heavenly bodies, and this met with full recognition in the inaugural
address of the President, G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec. R.S., which was
delivered in the Victoria Hall, Exeter, on the 18th of August.
After briefly alluding to the objects of the Association, the Pre-
sident gave some account of the most recent progress of science,
selecting especially from those branches with which he was more
familiar, some examples which might prove to be of pretty general
mterest. Amongst the various branches of physical science, Astro-
nomy occupies in many respects a foremost rank. The science of
astronomy is indebted to that of optics for the principles which regu-
late the construction of those optical instruments which are so essen-
tial to the astronomer. It repaid its debt by furnishing to optics a
result which it is important we should keep in view in considering
the nature of light. It is to astronomy that we are indebted for
the first proof we obtained of the finite velocity of light, and for the
first numerical determination of that enormous velocity. Astronomy,
again, led, forty-four years later, to a second determination of that
velocity in the remarkable phenomenon of aberration discovered by
Bradley, a phenomenon presenting special points of interest in
relation to the nature of light. If, in respect of these phenomena,
optics received much aid from astronomy, the latter science has
been indebted to the former for information which could not other-
wise have been obtained. The motions and the masses of the
heavenly bodies are revealed to us, more or less fully, by astrono-
mical observations ; but we could not thus become acquainted with
the chemical nature of these distant objects. Yet, by the application
of the spectroscope to the scrutiny of the heavenly bodies, evidence
has been: obtained of the existence therein of various elements
known to us by the chemical examination of the materials of which
our own earth is composed ; and not only so, but light is thrown
on the state in which matter is there existing, which, in the case of
nebule especially, led to the formation of new ideas respecting
2R 2

580 Meeting of the British Association. { Oct.,

their constitution, and the rectification of astronomical speculations
previously entertained.

We are accustomed to apply to the stars the epithet fied.
Defining as fixity, invariability of position as estimated with
reference to the stars as a whole, and comparing the position of any
individual star with those of the stars in its neighbourhood, we
find that some of the stars exhibit ‘‘ proper motions ”—show, that is,
a progressive change of angular position as seen from the earth, or
rather as they would be seen from the sun, which we may take for
the mean annual place of the earth. This indicates linear motion
in a direction transverse to the line joming the sun with the star.
But how shall we determine whether any particular star is ap-
proaching to or receding from our sun? It is clear that astronomy
alone is powerless to aid us here, since such a motion would be
unaccompanied by change of angular position. Here the science of
optics comes to our aid in a remarkable manner. Suppose that we
were in possession of a source of ight capable of exciting vibrations
of a definite period, corresponding, therefore, to light of a definite
refrangibility. ‘Then, if the source of light and the observer were
receding from or approaching to each other with a velocity which
was not insensibly small compared with the velocity of light, an
appreciable lowering or elevation of refrangibility would be pro-
duced, which would be capable of detection by means of a spec-
troscope of high dispersive power. ‘The velocity of light is so
enormous—about 185,000 miles per second—that it can readily be
imagined that any motion which we can experimentally produce in
a source of light is as rest in comparison. But the earth in its
orbit round the sun moves at the rate of about 18 miles per second;
and in the motions of stars approaching to or receding from our sun,
we might expect to meet with velocities comparable with this. The
orbital velocity of the earth is, it is true, only about the one ten-
thousandth part of the velocity of light. Still the effect of such a
velocity on the refrangibility of light, which admits of being easily
calculated, proves not to be so insensibly small as to elude all chance
of detection, provided only the observations are conducted with
extreme delicacy.

But what evidence can we ever obtain, even if an examination
of the light of the stars should present us with rays of definite
refrangibility, of the existence in those remote bodies of ponderable
matter vibrating in known periods not identical with those corres-
ponding to the refrangibilities of the definite rays which we observe ?
The answer to this question will involve a reference to the splendid
researches of Professor Kirchhoff, which led him to make a careful
comparison of the places of the dark lines of the solar spectrum
with those of bright lines produced by the incandescent gas or
vapour of known elements; and the coincidences were in many

1869.] The President's Address. 581

cases so remarkable as to establish almost to a certainty the exist-
ence of several of the known elements in the solar atmosphere,
producing by their absorbing action the dark lines coinciding with
the bright lines observed. Among other elements may be mentioned
in particular hydrogen, the spectrum of which, when traversed by
an electric discharge, shows a bright line or band exactly coinciding
with the dark line C, and another with the line F.

Now Mr. Huggins found that several of the stars show in their
spectra dark lines coinciding in position with C and F, and what
strengthens the belief that this coincidence, or apparent coincidence,
is not merely fortuitous, but is due to a common cause, is that the
two lines are found associated together, both present or both absent.
And Karchhoff’s theory suggests that the common cause is the
existence of hydrogen in the atmospheres of the sun and certain
stars, and its exercise of an absorbing action on the light emitted
from beneath.

Now by careful and repeated observations with a telescope
furnished with a spectroscope of high dispersive power, Mr. Huggins
found that the F line, the one selected for observation, in the
spectrum of Sirius, did not exactly coincide with the corresponding
bright line of a hydrogen spark, which latter agrees in position
with the solar F', but was a dittle less refrangible, while preserving
the same general appearance.

Assuming, then, that the small difference of refrangibility
observed between the solar F and that of Sirius is due to proper
motion, Mr. Huggins concludes from his measures of the minute
difference of position that, at the time of the observation, Sirius
was receding from the earth at the rate of 41-4 miles per second.
A part of this was due to the motion of the earth in its orbit, and
on deducting the orbital velocity of the earth, resolved in the
direction of a line drawn from the star, there remained 24°4 miles
per second as the velocity with which Sirius and our sun are
mutually receding from each other.

We turn now to another recent application of spectral analysis.
Various expeditions were equipped for the purpose of observing the
total solar eclipse which was to happen on the 17th August, 1868,
and shortly before the conclusion of the meeting of the Association
at; Norwich last year, the first results of the observations were made
known to the meeting, through the agency of the electric tele-
eraph. Ina telegram sent by M. Janssen to the President of the
Royal Society, it was announced that the spectrum of the promi-
nences was very remarkable, showing bright lines, while that of
the corona showed none. The prominences could not be clouds in
the strict sense of the term, shining either by virtue of their own
heat or by light reflected from below. They must consist of
incandescent matter in the gaseous form. It appears from more

582 Meeting of the British Association. [ Oct.,

detailed accounts that, except in the immediate neighbourhood of
the sun, the light of the prominences consisted mainly of three
bright lines, of which two coincided with C and F, and the inter-
mediate one nearly, but, as subsequent researches showed, not
exactly, with D. The bright lines comciding with C and F indicate
the presence of glowing hydrogen. Several of the other lines were
identified with those which would be produced by the incandescent
vapour of certain other elements.

Valuable as these observations were, it is obvious that we should
have had long to wait before we could have become acquainted with
the usual behaviour of these objects, and their possible relation to
changes which may be going on at the surface of the sun, if we had
been dependent on the rare and brief phenomenon of a total solar
eclipse for gathering information respecting them. But how, the
question might be asked, shall we ever be able so to subdue the over-
powering glare of our great luminary, and the dazzling illumination
which it produces in our atmosphere when we look nearly in its
direction, as to perceive objects which are comparatively so faint ?
Here again the science of optics comes in aid of astronomy.

When a line of light, such as a narrow slit held in front of a
luminous object, is viewed through a prism, the light is ordinarily
spread out into a coloured band, the length of which may be
sncreased at pleasure by substituting two or more prisms for the
single prism. As the total quantity of light is not thereby increased,
it is obvious that the intensity of the light of the coloured band
will go on decreasing as the length increases. Such is the case
with ordinary sources of light, like the flame of a candle or the
sky, which give a continuous spectrum, or one generally continuous,
though interrupted by dark bands; but if the light from the source
be homogeneous, consisting, that is, of light of one degree of refran-
gibility only, the image of the slit will be merely deviated by the
prisms, not widened out into a band, and not consequently reduced
in intensity by the dispersion. And if the source of light emit
light of both kinds, it will be easily understood that the images
of the slit corresponding to light of any definite refrangibilities
which the mixture may contain will stand out, by their superior
intensity, on the weaker ground of the continuous spectrum.

Preparations for observations of the kind had long been in

rogress in the hands of Mr. Lockyer; and on the 20th of October
i year, in examining the space immediately surrounding the edge
of the solar disk, he obtained evidence, by the occurrence of a bright
line in the spectrum, that his slit was on the image of one of those
prominences, the nature of which had so long been an enigma.
Notices of this discovery were received from the author by the
Royal Society on October 21st and November 3rd. These were
shortly afterwards followed by a fuller paper on the same subject.

1869. | The President's Address. 583

Meanwhile the same thing had been independently observed
in another part of the world. After having observed the remarkable
spectrum of the prominences during the total eclipse, it occurred
to M. Janssen that the same method might allow the prominences to
be detected at any time; and on trial he succeeded in detecting
them the very day after the eclipse. Shortly after Mr. Lockyer’s
communication of his discovery, Mr. Huggins, who had been inde-
pendently engaged in the attempt to render the prominences visible
by the aid of the spectroscope, succeeded in seeing a prominence as
a whole by somewhat widening the slit, and using a red glass to
diminish the glare of the light admitted by the shit, the prominence
being seen by means of the C line in the red.

One of the most striking results of the habitual study of these
prominences is the evidence they afford of the stupendous changes
which are going on in the central body of our system. Promi-
nences, the heights of which are to be measured by thousands and
tens of thousands of miles, appear and disappear in the course of
some minutes ; and a study of certain minute changes in the bright
line F, which receive a simple and natural explanation by referring
them to proper motion in the glowing gas by which that line is
produced, and which we see no other way of accounting for, has
led Mr. Lockyer to conclude that the gas in question is sometimes
travelling with velocities comparable with that of the earth in its
orbit. Moreover these exhibitions of intense action are frequently
found to be intimately connected with the spots, and can hardly
fail to throw light on the disputed question of their formation.
Nor are chemical composition and proper motion the only physical
conditions of the gas which are accessible to spectral analysis. By
comparing the breadth of the bright bands (for though narrow
they are not mere lines) seen in the prominences with those observed
in the spectrum of hydrogen rendered incandescent under different
physical conditions, Dr. Frankland and Mr. Lockyer have deduced
conclusions respecting the pressure to which the gas is subject in
the neighbourhood of the sun.

The President next proceeded to congratulate the Association
on the successful completion of the great Southern telescope, a
description of which appeared in our pages a short time ago. The
telescope, constructed by Mr. Grubb, of Dublin, is now erected at
Melbourne, and in the hands of Mr. Le Sueur, who has been
appointed to use it. Before its shipment it was inspected in Dublin
by the committee appointed by the Royal Society to consider the
best mode of carrying out the object for which the vote was made
by the Melbourne legislature; and the committee speak in the
highest terms of its contrivance and execution. We may expect
before long to get a first instalment of the results obtained by a
scrutiny of the southern heavens with an instrument far more

584 Meeting of the British Association. { Oct.,

powerful than any that has hitherto been applied to them—results
which will at the same time add to our existing knowledge and
redound to the honour of the colony, by whose liberality this long-
cherished object has at last been effected.

The results of the deep-sea dredging committee were then
briefly alluded to; but as they will be found fully described in our
Chronicles and in the reports of sections of the Association, it is
unnecessary to dwell upon them in this place.

The President next referred to the Faraday Memorial, and
stated that the present Chancellor of the Exchequer did not think
_ it right that the recognition of scientific merit, however eminent,
should fall on the taxation of the country, though even in a pecu-
niary point of view the country has received so much benefit from
the labours of scientific men. The carrying out of the resolution
passed by the Heads of the Learned Societies being thus left to private
exertion, a public meeting, presided over by H.R.H. the Prince of '
Wales, was held in the Royal Institution, an establishment which
has the honour of being identified with Faraday’s scientific career.
At this meeting a committee was formed to carry out the object,
and a subscription list commenced.

In Chemistry, the speaker confined his attention to three dis-
coveries. ‘The first was the discovery of turacine, a red colouring
matter extracted from the feathers of the turaco or plaintain-eater,
which has been investigated by Professor Church, who ‘finds it to
contain nearly six per cent. of copper, which cannot be distinguished
by the ordinary tests, nor removed from the colouring matter
without destroying it. In the turaco the existence of the red
colouring matter which belongs to their normal plumage is depen-
dent upon copper, which, obtained in minute quantities with the
food, is stored up in this strange manner in the system of the
animal, This example warns us against taking too utilitarian a
view of the plan of creation. Here we have a chemical substance
elaborated which is perfectly unique in its nature, and contains
a metal, the salts of which are ordinarily regarded as poisonous
to animals, and the sole purpose to which, so far as we know, it is
subservient in the animal economy is one of pure decoration. The
second discovery was that of artificial alizarine, the colouring matter
of madder ; and the third the investigations of Dr. Matthiessen on
the constitution of opium bases. These discoveries have been fully
referred to in our Chronicles, and it is unnecessary to repeat the
details here.*

In relation to mechanism, this year is remarkable as being the
centenary of the great invention of our countryman James Watt.
It was in the year 1769 that he took out his patent involving the

* See ‘ Journal of Science,’ No. xxiii., p. 427, and No. xxiv., p. 530.

1869. | The President's Address. 585

invention of separate condensation, which is justly regarded as
forming the birth of the steam-engime. It needs no formal celebra-
tion to remind Britons of what they owe to Watt. Of him truly
it may be said “se monumentum requiras cireumspice.”

No other physical science has been brought to such perfection
as mechanics; and in mechanics we have long been familiar with
the idea of the perfect generality of its laws, of their applicability
to bodies organic as well as inorganic, living as well as dead. But
from mechanics let us pass on to chemistry, and the case will be
found by no means so clear. When chemists ceased to be content
with the mere ultimate analysis of organic substances, and set them-
selves to study their proximate constituents, a great number of
definite chemical compounds were obtained which could not be
formed artificially; but as the science progressed many of these
organic substances were formed artificially, in some cases from other
and perfectly distinct organic substances, in other cases actually
from their elements; and we may say that at the present time a
considerable number of what used to be regarded as essentially
natural organic substances have been formed in the laboratory.
That being the case, it seems most reasonable to suppose that in the
plant or animal from which those organic substances were obtained,
they were formed by the play of ordinary chemical affinity ; and
since the boundary-line between the natural substances which have
and those which have not been formed artificially, is one which, so
far as we know, simply depends upon the amount of our knowledge,
and is continually changing as new processes are discovered, we
are led to extend the same reasoning to the various chemical sub-
stances of which organic structures are made up.

Admitting this much, Professor Stokes proceeded to ask whether
the laws of chemical affinity, together with those of capillary
attraction, of diffusion, and so forth, account for the formation of
an organic structure, as distinguished from the elaboration of the
chemical substances of which it is composed? ‘To this he replied
decidedly No! No more than the laws of motion account for the
union of oxygen and hydrogen to form water, though the ponderable
matter so uniting is subject to the laws of motion during the act
of union just as well as before or after. In the various processes
of crystallization, of precipitation, and so forth, which we witness
in dead matter, there is not the faintest shadow of an approach to
the formation of an organic structure, still less to the wonderful
series of changes which are concerned in the growth and perpetu-
ation of even the lowliest plant. Admitting to the full, as highly
probable, though not completely demonstrated, the applicability to
living beings of the laws which have been ascertained with reference
to dead matter, the speaker proceeded to say that he felt constrained
at the same time to admit the existence of a mysterious something

586 Meeting of the British Association. [ Oct.,

lying beyond—a something swi generis, which he regarded not as
balancing and suspending the ordinary physical laws, but as working
with them and through them to the attainment of a designed end.

What this something, which we call life, may be, is a profound
mystery. We know not how many links in the chain of secondary
causation may yet remain behind ; we know not how few. It would
be presumptuous indeed to assume in any case that we had already
reached the last link, and to charge with irreverence a fellow-worker
who attempted to push his investigations yet one step farther back.
On the other hand, if a thick darkness enshrouds all beyond, we
have no right to assume it to be impossible that we should have
reached even the last link of the chain—a stage where further
progress is unattainable, and we can only refer the highest law at
which we stopped to the fiat of an Almighty Power. To assume
the contrary as a matter of necessity, is practically to remove the
First Cause of all to an infinite distance from us. The boundary,
however, between what is clearly known and what is veiled in
impenetrable darkness is not ordinarily thus sharply defined.
Between the two there lies a misty region, in which loom the ill-
discerned forms of links of the chain which are yet beyond us;
but the general principle is not affected thereby. Let us fearlessly
trace the dependence of link on link as far as it may be given us to
trace it, but let us take heed that in thus studying second causes
we forget not the First Cause, nor shut our eyes to the wonderful
proofs of design, which, in the study of organized beings especially,
meet us at every turn.

Truth we know must be self-consistent, nor can one truth con-
tradict another, even though the two may have been arrived at by
totally different processes: in the one case, suppose, obtained by sound
scientific investigation ; in the other case, taken on trust from duly
authenticated witnesses. None need fear the effect of scientific
inquiry carried on in an honest, truth-loving, humble spirit, which
makes us no less ready frankly to avow our ignorance of what we
cannot explain than to accept conclusions based on sound evidence.
The slow but the sure path of induction is open to us. Let us
frame hypotheses if we will: most useful are they when kept in
their proper place, as stimulating inquiry. Let us seek to confront
them with observation and experiment, thereby confirming or
upsetting them as the result may prove; but let us beware of
placing them prematurely in the rank of ascertained truths, and
building further conclusions on them as if they were.

The speaker concluded his long and eloquent address in the fol-
lowing words :— “ When from the phenomena of life we pass on to
those of mind, we enter a region still more profoundly mysterious.
We can readily imagine that we may here be dealing with phenomena
altogether transcending those of mere life, in some such way as

1869. | Mathematical and Physical Science. 587

those of life transcend, as I have endeavoured to infer, those of
chemistry and molecular attractions, or as the laws of chemical
affinity in their turn transcend those of mere mechanics. Science
can be expected to do but little to aid us here, since the instrument
of research is itself the object of investigation. It can but enlighten
us as to the depth of our ignorance, and lead us to look to a higher
aid for that which most nearly concerns our well-being.”

MarTHEMATICAL AND PaystcaL Science. (Section A.)

The meetings of this Section were opened on August 19th, by
the President, Professor Sylvester, who, in his address confined
himself mainly to combating the view advanced by Professor
Huxley, that “mathematical training is almost purely deductive.
The mathematician starts with a few simple propositions, the proof
of which is so obvious that they are called self-evident, and the rest
of his work consists of subtle deductions from them.” And again
that “mathematics is that study which knows nothing of observa-
tion, nothing of experiment, nothing of induction, nothing of
causation.” These statements were shown to be opposite to the
facts of the case, and many instances were adduced to show that
mathematical analysis is unceasingly calling forth the faculties of
observation and comparison; that one of its leading features is
induction ; that it has frequently recourse to experimental trial and
verification ; and that it affords a boundless scope for the exercise
of the highest efforts of imagination and invention. Rieman wrote
a thesis to show that the basis of our conception of space is purely
empirical, and our knowledge of its laws the result of observation ;
that other kinds of space might be conceived to exist, subject to
laws different from those which govern the actual space in which
we are immersed. Gauss called mathematics a science of the eye;
and this great man was used to say that he had laid aside several
questions which he had treated analytically, and hoped to apply
to them geometrical methods in a future state of existence, when
his conceptions of space should have become amplified and extended ;
for as we can conceive beings (like infinitely attenuated book-worms
in an infinitely thin sheet of paper) which have only the notion
of space of two dimensions, so we may imagine beings capable of
realizing space of four or a greater number of dimensions.

Most, if not all, of the great ideas of modern mathematics have
had their origin in observation. For instance, one gigantic out-
come of modern analytical thought, itself, too, only the precursor
and progenitor of a future still more heaven-reaching theory, which
will comprise a complete study of the interoperation of algebraic

588 Meeting of the British Association. [ Oct.,

forms,—how did this originate ? In the accidental observation by
Eisenstein, some twenty years ago, of a single invariant (the
quadrinyariant of a quartic), which he met with in the course of
certain researches just as accidentally and unexpectedly as M. Du
Chaillu might meet a gorilla in the country of the Fantees, or any
one of us in London a white Polar bear escaped from the Zoological
Gardens. Fortunately he pounced down upon his prey, and pre-
served it for the contemplation and study of future mathematicians.
It occupies only part of a page in his collected posthumous works.
This single result of observation (as well entitled to be so called as
the discovery of globigerinze in chalk, or of the confocal ellipsoid
structure of the shells of the foraminifera), which remained in-
fructuous in the hands of its eminent author, has served to set in
motion a train of thought and propagated an impulse which haye
led to a complete revolution in the whole aspect of modern analysis,
and will continue to be felt until mathematics are forgotten and
British Associations meet no more.

The speaker continued :—“ Were it not unbecoming to dilate on
one’s own personal experience, I could tell a story of almost
romantic interest about my own latest researches (in a field where
geometry, algebra, and the theory of numbers melt in a surprising
manner into one another, like sunset tints, or the colours of the
dying dolphin (the last still loveliest), a sketch of which has just
appeared in the ‘ Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society,’
which would very strikingly illustrate how much observation,
divination, induction, experimental trial and verification, causation,
too (if that means, as I suppose it must, mounting from phenomena
to their reasons or causes of being), have to do with the work of
the mathematician. In the face of these facts, which every analyst
in this room or out of it can vouch for out of his own knowledge
and personal experience, how can it be maintained in the words of
Professor Huxley, who in this instance is speaking of the sciences
as they are in themselves, and without any reference to scholastic
discipline, that ‘mathematics is that study which knows nothing of
observation, nothing of induction, nothing of experiment, nothing
of causation ?’”

The speaker continued to say that he was not so absurd as to
maintain that the habit of observation of eaternal nature will be
best, or at all, cultivated by the study of mathematics, at all events
as that study is at present conducted, and no one could desire more
earnestly than himself to see natural and experimental science
introduced into our schools as a primary and indispensable branch
of education ; that study and mathematical culture should go on
hand in hand together, and they would greatly influence each
other for their mutual good. He should rejoice to see mathematics
taught with that life and animation which the presence and example

1869. ] Mathematical and Physical Science. 589

of her young and buoyant sister could not fail to impart; short
roads preferred to long ones; Euclid shelved or buried “ deeper
than did ever plummet sound;” morphology introduced into the
elements of algebra ; projection, correlation, motion, accepted as aids
to geometry ; the mind of the student quickened and elevated, and
his faith awakened by early initiation into the ruling ideas of
polarity, continuity, infinity, and familiarization with the doctrine
of the imaginary and inconceivable. It is this living interest in
the subject which is so wanting in our traditional and medieval
modes of teaching. Some people have been found to regard all
mathematics after the 47th proposition of Euclid as a sort of morbid
secretion, to be compared only with the mother-of-pearl generated
in the deceased oyster; others find its justification, its “raison
@étre,” in its being either the torch-bearer leading the way, or the
handmaiden holding up the train, of physical science; and a very
clever writer, in a recent magazine article, expresses his doubts
whether it is in itself a more serious pursuit or more worthy of
interesting an intellectual human being than the study of chess
problems or Chinese puzzles. But this is like judging of architec-
ture from being shown some of the brick and mortar, or even a
quarried stone of a public building ; or of painting from the colours
mixed on the palette; or of music by listening to the thin and
screechy sounds produced by a bow passed haphazard over the
strings of a violin. The world of ideas which it discloses or illu-
minates, the contemplation of divine beauty and order which it
induces, the harmonious connection of its parts, the infinite hier-
archy and absolute evidence of the truths with which it is concerned—
these and such like are the true grounds of the title of mathematics
to human regard, and would remain unimpaired were the plan of
the universe unrolled like a map at our feet, and the mind of man
qualified to take in the whole scheme at a glance.

At the conclusion of the above addrees the reading of the papers
commenced. As it would be impossible to give within the limits
at our command an intelligible abstract of the mathematical and
some of the physical papers, we shall confine our reports to abstracts
of those papers which will be of interest in their condensed form.

The first paper was the report of the Lunar Committee, read by
the Secretary, Mr. W. R. Birt. Since the formation of the com-
mittee in 1864, a surface of 100 square degrees has been surveyed ;
the outlines of 433 objects have been laid down on a scale of 200
inches to the moon’s diameter ; and a catalogue has been prepared,
containing notices of important phenomena bearing on the question
of either transient or permanent lunar change. The report enters
fully on this latter pomt, and, in conclusion, draws attention to cer-
tain differences between the photographs employed, particularly one
with respect to a certain crater figured by Lohrmann, which is found

590 Meeting of the British Association. [ Oct.,

on De la Rue’s, but not a vestige can be discovered on Rutherford’s.
Some attention has also been given to apparent changes of bright-
ness and tint, a subject to which Webb called attention a few years
since. Three or four somewhat conspicuous spots were adduced as
exhibiting these alternations, which appear to be independent of any
agencies with which we are acquainted.

Mr. W. R. Birt then read a paper “On Secular Variations of
Lunar Tints.” The author, in alluding to the importance of an
examination of the tints of the lunar surface, remarked that to
carry it out in its entirety would entail a most enormous labour,
but he recommended that a few of the most prominent objects
should be selected for the purpose. He called attention to the
fact that changes of tint and brilliancy were common on the moon.
These changes were generally referred to variations in the angle
at which the sun’s light fell upon the object. The author then
proceeded to notice certain differences which have been observed
between the tints of objects as recently determined, and those
of the same objects as recorded by previous selenographers. We
have the means of obtaining presumptive evidence of change of
tint, independent of illumination, in the fact that if any two spots
be taken, one being brighter than the other at a given epoch of
illumination, should the order of brightness be reversed at any sub-
sequent epoch, the illumination being the same, the legitimate con-
clusion would be that a change had occurred in the meantime; and,
as being unconnected with any theoretical considerations of change,
the author suggested the term “ secular variation of tint” to desig-
nate such phenomena. In the concluding part of the paper the
author referred to the number of spots which have been observed
during the last forty-nine years on the lunar crater Plato.

In a communication “On the Lunar Crater Plato,’ W. R. Birt
stated that certain peaks on the western wall of the crater had been
measured by Beer and Maedler, the heights varying from 5000 to
7000 English feet. These peaks at sunrise cast well-defined long
shadows on the floor, and these shadows had been measured by
Professor Challis, of Cambridge. Mr. Birt compared delineations
of the shadows by Professor Challis, the late Lord Rosse, the late
Rev. W. R. Dawes, and J. Birmingham, Esq., of Millbrook Tuam,
and finds some interesting results, among which may be named the
proximity of the shadows of the three principal peaks to three very
minute craters on the floor of Plato, thus furnishing a means of
readily identifying these craters at any future time.

Mr. G. J. Symons presented the report of the committee on
Underground Temperatures. The committee had tried experi-
ments on underground temperatures at Glasgow, Dundee, and
wherever they could get access to very deep wells or borings in the

1869. | Mathematical and Physical Science. 591

earth. But the chief experiments had been tried in a well made
many years ago at Kentish Town by a company formed for the
purpose of supplying the district with water. The total depth in
this instance was 1032 feet, 540 feet of which consisted of a bricked
wall, and the remainder of a boring lined with thin sheet iron. The
committee had obtained the use of the old well, and fitted up wind-
ing apparatus above it in a hut, to let specially-constructed ther-
mometers up and down in the bormg. The general result of the
experiments was to prove an increase of temperature of one degree
for every 52°4 feet increase in depth.

Dr. J. H. Gladstone gave an address on the Relation between
the Refractive Energies and the Combing Proportions of the
Metals. He pointed out that in most cases, but not all, the less
the combining proportion of the metal, the greater is the refractive
energy. The rule just mentioned does not hold at all with non-
metallic elements, and proves most accurate with those metals which
form good definite salts, such as magnesium, iron, and zine.

Professor Gustav Magnus read a paper on the Reflection of
Heat, in which he made known a discovery of his own, that fluor-
spar has the property of reflecting, very largely, the dark invisible
rays emitted by hot rock-salt. There is much evidence tending to
prove that the heat-rays from rock-salt are of very great wave
length, belonging almost to one of the extremities of the spectrum.

Lieut.-Colonel Strange, F.R.S., then spoke of the proceedings
last year at Norwich, which resulted in the formation of a committee
to determine whether there is adequate provision in Great Britain
for the vigorous prosecution of scientific research. The committee
had come unanimously to the conclusion that science had not ade-
quate means for its vigorous prosecution. They submit, as the
substance of their report, the recommendation that the full influ-
ence of the British Association for the Advancement of Science
should at once be exerted to obtain the appointment of a Royal
Commission to consider :—1. The character and value of existing
institutions and facilities for scientific investigation, and the amount
of time and money devoted to such purposes. 2. What modifica-
tions or augmentations of the means and facilities that are at pre-
sent available for the maintenance and extension of science are
requisite. 3. In what manner these can be best supplied.

Mr. J. P. Gassiot called attention to a curious dark deposit in
certain vacuum tubes.

On Saturday, the papers were almost wholly mathematical. On
Monday the proceedings opened by the reading of several reports
of committees. Admiral Sir E. Belcher read the report of a com-
mittee appointed to apply to the Admiralty for aid im observing

592 Meeting of the British Association. [ Oct.,

certain sea temperatures. The report pointed out that help in
many cases was only offered on condition that the applicants
employ clerks to search out the information required from the
records, which expense the committee did not incur.

Mr. G. J. Symons read the report of the Rainfall Committee,
which more especially pointed out the necessity for more stations’
of observation.

The report of the Tidal Committee was read by Mr. Rankine.

Mr. Glaisher read the report of the Association Committee on
“Tiuminous Meteors.” Large numbers of meteors had been seen
during the past year. The report gave an account of an extraordi-
nary meteor seen in France in October, which exploded with a
detonation louder than any artillery, at, it was considered, a height
of sixty miles. Much was said of the extensive observations made .
in America by Professor Newton and others. The report contained
catalogues of all the meteors and aérolites observed. The radiant
of the November meteors was well ascertained, but of the August
meteors the radiant was not certain.

Dr. Neumayer read an abstract of a paper detailing the facts
relating to the fall of a meteor a short time ago at Krahenberg.
The fall took place in the day-time, and so great was the velocity
of the mass that it buried itself two feet deep in the sandstone rock.
It was dug out while still warm, and found to weigh 314 lbs. The
sound was heard over a radius of thirteen miles.

Mr. Glaisher narrated the results of some meteorological experi-
ments made in the car of the captive balloon. The principal fact
was, that often when the air near the ground is quite still, and the
smoke from the chimneys of the houses rising vertically, a hard gale
is blowing aloft, and that at a height of less than 1000 feet.

The most important paper read on Monday was one by
Mr. Whitworth, “On the Penetration of Armour-Plates by Shells
with Heavy Bursting Charges fired obliquely,” in which he set
forth the superiority of the flat projectile over the pointed one for
piercing armour-plated ships.

M. Janssen then described in French his method of obtagning
views of the solar prominences at any time by means of a rapidly
revolving slit and spectroscope.

A paper by Professor A. Morren, “On the Chemical Reaction
of Light,” discovered by Professor Tyndall, was then read. Pro-
fessor Morren said that he had repeated Dr. Tyndall’s celebrated
experiments on the action of light upon vapours in tubes, but that,
living in the south of France, he used the rays of the sun, instead
of the light from the electric lamp. His tubes, like those of

1869. | Chemical Science. 593

Dr. Tyndall, were of glass, with flat glass ends, and glass stop-
cocks. After exhausting the air from the tube, he permitted a
mixture of absolutely pure dry hydrogen and nitrogen gas to enter,
and on passing a cone of sunlight from a lens through the long axis
of the tube, he was surprised to see a cloud forming, because of
chemical decomposition set up. This led him to question the
method employed to dry the gases, which was by passing them
through powdered glass wetted with sulphuric acid. When chlo-
ride of calcium and other methods of drying gases were tried, no
clouds were formed by the sunlight, so at last he came to the con-
clusion that a source of error lay in a trace of sulphurous acid gas,
taken up by the hydrogen and the nitrogen from the sulphuric acid.
The latter acid employed by him was absolutely pure, and con-
tained no trace of arsenic from the use of impure sulphur in its
manufacture. In the remainder of his paper he explained the
exact nature of the chemical reactions which took place in his tube,
which reactions he, like Dr. Tyndall, ascribed to a motion of sepa-
ration set up between the atoms of each molecule, by the short blue
and violet waves of the solar spectrum.

Mr. W. Huggins, F.R.S., read a paper “On the Heat of the
Stars.” The instruments used were a telescope, a very sensitive
thermopile, and a galvanometer, by means of which faint indications
of heat were obtained, accompanying the light from different stars.

Dr. Balfour Stewart F.R.S., read a paper on a very cleverly
designed “ New Rain Gauge,” invented, made, and tested by Mr.
Beckley, of Kew Observatory.

Cuemicau Scrence. (Section B.)

The proceedings in this Section were opened by an address by
the President, Dr. Debus, in which he reviewed the various di-
rections in which chemical science was progressing, and directed
attention to some of the fundamental ideas which guide chemists in
their researches. The address was listened to with great attention,
but is too technical to admit of more than this brief allusion to it.
Most of the papers and reports communicated to this Section were
on subjects of special more than general interest, and will not bear
condensation. We will therefore select a few only of the papers
which treat upon matters likely to be of general interest to our
readers.

Dr. Jacobi read a paper on the “Electro Deposit of Iron,”
illustrating his remarks by a series of plates of extreme beauty.
The solution from which the metallic iron was deposited consisted
of a double sulphate of iron and magnesia. It was found desirable

VOL. VI. 28

594 Meeting of the British Association. { Oct.,

to coat the recipient of the deposit with a thin film of nickel or
copper.

The Committee on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron reported
that they entrusted the preparation of pure iron to Mr. Matthiessen,
_ who expressed a hope that next year a great deal of very useful
information will be obtained on the chemical nature and physical
properties of pure iron and its alloys. Prof. Matthiessen then
detailed very elaborately the nature and properties of pure iron,
and the best methods for its preparation and fusion.

Professor Calvert, in some remarks upon the series of experi-
ments conducted by him into the nature and condition of rust,
stated that he thought the oxidation of the bottom of iron ships
might be prevented by an external coating of an alloy of lead and
antimony, and by placing an alkali in the bilge-water within the
vessel. ;

Professor Tomlinson read a paper on the supposed Action of
Light on Combustion. From a series of experiments upon candles
of different sizes and weights in dark chambers and day and sun
light, it was found that the increase of temperature alone led to
increase of consumption of material ; the final conclusion being
that the direct light of the sun, or the diffused light of day, has no
action on the rate of burning, or in retarding the combustion of an
ordinary candle.

Mr. Walter Weldon read a long paper “On the Manufacture
of Chlorine by means of perpetually regenerated Manganite of
Calcium.” What has hitherto been the ordinary process of manu-
facturing chlorine, consists in digesting ores contaming peroxide of
manganese with hydrochloric acid. ‘The chloride of manganese,
which is a residual product of this process, has hitherto been
ordinarily thrown away. Mr. Weldon decomposes this chloride of
manganese by lime, and then blows air through the resulting
mixture. The protoxide of manganese absorbs oxygen from the
injected air, thereby becoming converted into peroxide, which com-'
bines with the equivalent of lime used in excess, forming therewith
the compound which the author calls manganite of calaum. The
compound thus produced is employed instead of manganese ores for
the liberation of chlorine from hydrochloric acid, and is then re-
produced from the resulting solution of chloride of manganese, and
so on continually, the same manganese being thus employed over
and over again perpetually. Last year there were made in this
country, and on the Continent, about 120,000 tons of bleaching-
powder, and this bleaching-powder costs on an average about Ol.
per ton for native oxide of manganese. Mr. Weldon’s process
produces bleaching-powder at a cost of only 15s. per ton for

1869. | Geology. 595

manganite of calcium, and enables more chlorine to be obtained
from a given quantity of hydrochloric acid than has hitherto been
usually obtained therefrom.

Mr. Sorby sent a short note on Jargonia, in which he stated
that zirconia was white, but that after ignition jargonia is of a clear
straw-colour, paler than that of tungstic acid, but deeper than that
of ceroso-ceric oxide.

Dr. Andrews read a short paper “On the Absorption Bands
of Bile.” A solution of bile in water or alcohol exhibits in the
stereoscope well-marked absorption bands, which may be used as a
characteristic test for the presence of bile, and even as a means of
estimating approximately its amount in urine or other liquids
having no absorption bands of their own.

Professor Janssen then delivered in French a discourse “On the
Approximate Estimation of Sodium by Spectrum Analysis,” which
was followed by a discourse on the absorption of the rays of the
spectrum by the vapour of water. Both these papers were copiously
illustrated on the black board.

Mr. Spence then read a paper “ On the Production of Higher
Temperature by Steam of 212° Fahrenheit,” and showed by ex-
periment that the steam of boiling water at 212°, passing through a
saturated solution of nitrate of soda, raised the temperature to 238°.

An interesting paper by Dr. Fritsche, a Russian chemist, “On
the Structural Change in Block Tin,” was read by Mr. Roberts, of
Her Majesty’s Mint. Dr. Fritsche found that the intense cold of
St. Petersburg, during the winter of 1867, caused solid blocks of
tin to crumble and fall into pieces. That the change was due to
intense cold was proved by submitting blocks of tin to a tem-
perature of —40° C., when the same structure was induced.

Our space will not enable us to do more than allude to several
important papers on Water Supply and Utilization of Sewage,
which were communicated by Dr. Paul, E. C. C. Stanford, and H.
Bamber, and which are referred to at greater length in our report
of Section G (Mechanical Science).

Gronocy. (Sxcrion C.)

Professor R. Harkness, F.R.S., the President of this Section,
adopted for the subject of his opening address the Geology of Devon-
shire. He first spoke of the Pilton beds, which form the link
between the Devonian and Carboniferous series, so well seen in this
county, and which have been so ably investigated by Murchison
and Sedgwick, Godwin-Austen, De la Beche, Lonsdale, Phillips,

282

596 Meeting of the British Association. | Oct.,

&c., &c., &c. He pointed out their relation to certain beds in the
south-west of Ireland, which were believed to occur in the same
horizon as the Pilton shales. In referring to the labours of the
Trish Geological Survey, the President paid a graceful tribute to the
memory of Professor J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S., its late Director, whose
active life has terminated since the publication of our last number.
Among the latest labours of Mr. Jukes was the publication of a
series of papers “On the Carboniferous Slate (or Devonian Rocks)
and the Old Red Sandstone of South Ireland and North Deyon ;”
“On North Devon and West Somerset,” and “South Devon and
Cornwall.” There is reason to apprehend that the additional
effort needed to carry out these and other extra-official scientific
labours did much to curtail the life of one who was beloved by all
who knew him, and whose loss we must all deeply regret.

Taking the Irish localities first, the President contrasted the
Wexford district, with its 200 feet of Old Red Sandstones resting
conformably on Cambrian strata, with Hook Point, Comeragh,
Dungarvon, West County Cork, as far south-west as Glengariff and
Killarney, where the unfossiliferous “ Glengariff Grits” attain a
thickness of 10,000 feet. Of all this vast thickness of sedimentary
deposits, included in the Old Red Sandstone series in Ireland, only a
thin band of Yellow Sandstones is fossiliferous, having yielded plants,
mollusea, crustacea, and fishes.

This band (which is elsewhere reported upon by Mr. W. H.
Baily) occurs at Kiltorcan, co. Kilkenny.

Professor Harkness also showed the change which the Lower
Limestone shales or Carboniferous slates undergo in passing south-
westward from Hook Point, where their thickness is inconsiderable,
to Cork Harbour and Kinsale, where they are 6500 feet in thick-
ness, and where gritty beds make their appearance, which in Coom-
hola Glen attain a thickness of 3000 feet. These “ Coomhola
Grits” contain some peculiar fossils, and have others also common
to the Carboniferous slates.

Returning to Devonshire, the President pointed out that to the
north-east of Baggy Point hard purple sandstones occur (= to the
Old Red Sandstones), overlain in North Devon by light-coloured beds,
the equivalents of the “Yellow Sandstones” of Ireland; that above
these again, at Marwood, were greenish-grey grits, with plant-
remains (Filicites linearis and Sagenaria Veltheimiana), such as
the base of the Carboniferous slates afford, these being identified with
the “Coomhola Grits ;” higher still, the Pilton beds had yielded
fossils common also to the Carboniferous slates. He called attention
to a common misapprehension existing among English geologists
that the “ Coomhola Grits” are below the base of the Carboniferous
series, whereas they are truly a part of the Carboniferous slates.

He believed the difficulty of correlating the two areas arose

1869. | Geology. 597

from the fact that the boundary line between the Devonian or Old
Red Sandstones and the Carboniferous series had been placed in two
different horizons. In Ireland the Carboniferous slates and inter-
bedded “ Coomhola Grits” form the base of the Carboniferous series ;
in England they are treated as belonging to the Devonian.

Professor Harkness then alluded to the Triassic pebble-bed at
Budleigh Salterton, with its remnants of palmozoiec fossils. He
mentioned the recent discovery by Mr. Whitaker of reptilian
remains, referred by Professor Huxley to Hyperodapedon. He
drew attention to the Miocene Lignite beds of Bovey Tracey, the
Flora of which has been so ably described by Dr. Oswald Heer, and
the geology by Mr. Pengelly. Dr. Heer has identified many forms
of plants with those which occur in the Miocene beds of Arctic
America, Greenland, and Spitzbergen.

In referring to the exploration of Kent’s Hole and similar
ossiferous caverns, the President observed that geology and archeo-
logy were now shading into each other, and although the early
history of mankind had long remained dim and indistinct like
distant land, we were, by the labours of Lyell, Lubbock, and others,
acquiring a clearer conception of early man, his mode of life and
conditions of existence.

Mr. Godwin-Austen’s paper “On the Devonian Group Con-
sidered Geologically and Geographically,” dealt with the probable
distribution of land and water during the Devonian epoch,
and the effect of such conditions on the Fauna and Flora of
the period. He spoke of the wide extent of the Devonian formation
in Kurope, Asia and America, and of the old Silurian land-surface
which existed in the latter country during its deposition. From
the fact that the fossil fishes of the Devonian belonged to the
Ganoid family, the author inferred that a large portion of these
beds were of lacustrine (fresh-water) origin ; at the same time he
admitted that vast marine accumulations were also simultaneously
in process of formation in the adjoming seas. He spoke of the
passage of the Old Red Sandstone group into the Silurian at its base,
and into the Carboniferous series above, and concluded by indicating
its easterly extension across Europe.

Dr. P. Martin Duncan presented his “Second Report on British
Fossil Corals.” After describing several new forms and referring
to the 140 species already published, the author stated that 251
species of corals had been met with in British Secondary and Ter-
tiary strata.

The author showed that not only are we able by the presence of
certain corals to arrive at a correct estimate of the conditions of the
seas of by-gone epochs, but also to trace out the ancient coast-lines
by their coral reefs.

598 Meeting of the British Association. [Oct.,

Mr. James Thomson exhibited the results of his labours in
preparing sections of Carboniferous Limestone Corals, which, after
being mounted on glass, have been photographed most successfully,
so as to exhibit the most minute points of their structure.

Mr. G. W. Ormerod described the Granites of the northerly
and easterly sides of Dartmoor. He mentioned that Schorl and
Tourmaline are of frequent occurrence in these granites, but whe-
ther they were all of one age he was uncertain; the “elvans” or
veins crossing the mass were undoubtedly of later age. Mr. Orme-
rod had not discovered any glacial striz ; but Dr. Otto Torell had
examined the gravel near Hunt’s Tor, and had declared it to be a
true glacial moraine.

Mr. W. Pengelly, in a note on the “ Source of the Miocene Clays
of Bovey Tracey,” showed that they were mostly formed of dis-
integrated granite, interstratified with the lignite beds.

Mr. T. Davidson’s paper on “ The Brachiopoda hitherto obtained
from the ‘ Pebble-bed’ of Budleigh Salterton,” showed that the
pebbles were a mixture of Devonian and Silurian strata, ten species
belonging to each formation, and fifteen being new and undescribed
forms. The fossil contents of the pebbles pointed to Normandy as
the locality whence they had originally been derived.

Mr. Edward Hull traced the source of the Quartzose “Con-
glomerates of the New Red Sandstone of central England (which
in Lancashire and Cheshire attained the thickness of 700 feet)
to the Old Red Sandstone formation. The pebbles were all liver-
coloured quartzites, well rounded and water-worn, never sub-
angular. ‘The author considered they had gone through at least
two periods of trituration. An examination of the Old Red Con-
glomerates near Loch Lomond fully confirmed his view as to their
origin.

Mr. Henry Woodward gave an account of the Fresh-water
Deposits of the Valley of the Lea in Essex, exposed in excavating
the East London Waterworks Company’s new reservoirs at Walt-
hamstow. The excavations cover an area of 120 acres, and the
materials removed dre all of Post-Tertiary age, consisting of sand,
clay, loam, peat, shell-marl, and river gravel. ‘Twenty-six species
of shells were identified, all of living species. ‘The osseous remains
include man, the wolf, fox, beaver, horse, wild boar, red deer, roe-
buck, fallow deer, reindeer, the elk, the goat, three species of oxen
(Bos primigenius, B. longifrons, and B. frontosus), the sea-eagle,
and some bones of fishes. In the deep trenches of the “ puddle-
walls ” were found tusks of the mammoth and horns of the gigantic
ox and deer. The presence of the reindeer, the elk, and the beaver,
in so modern a deposit and so near to London is full of interest.

1869. | Geology. 599

Mr. Pengelly presented the “ Fifth Report of the Committee on
the Exploration of Kent’s Cavern.” He stated that in the layer of
black soil beneath the floor of the “ vestibule” 366 flint implements
had been obtained, together with flint cores, a bone needle, a bone
harpoon or fish-spear, serrated on one side. Altogether 3948 boxes
of bone fragments had been taken out, which Professor Boyd
Dawkins had undertaken to examine. In the breccia beneath the
cave-earth a flint flake had been discovered, associated with remains
of the cave-lion, cave-bear, and mammoth.

Professor Boyd Dawkins gave some account of the animals. He
stated that the men who lived in the cave when the black layer was
being deposited were cannibals, split and gnawed human bones
haying been met with. He had identified in the lower layer bones
of the glutton, the tailless hare, the beaver, &c.

Mr. H. H. Howorth communicated a very elaborate essay on
“The Extinction of the Mammoth,” in which he had collated all the
statements respecting that animal to be found in the various works
on Siberia, &c. He concluded that climatal conditions had extin-
guished the mammoth, and not the men of the Stone age.

Mr. Pengelly gave a short notice on the alleged occurrence of
Hippopotamus major and Machairodus latidens in Kent’s Hole.
He showed good evidence of the latter animal’s presence, but
stated that the former had never been met with in this cavern.

Mr. W. H. Baily read the “ Report of the Committee for the
Exploration of the Devonian Beds of Kiltorcan, co. Kilkenny.”
A new fossil fern (Adiantites), a Sagenarta in fructification, and a
new Limuloid Crustacean, were the most noteworthy results of this
investigation, which we are glad to state is to be continued.

Mr. Charles Moore called attention to the occurrence of remains
of Teleosawrus in the nodules of the Upper Lias at Ilminster.

Mr. George Maw’s paper “On the Trappean Conglomerates of
Middletown Hill, Montgomeryshire,” furnished an excellent account
of the Trap-rocks of Lower Silurian age which form this ridge,
running parallel with the Breidden Hills on the borders of Shrop-
shire and Montgomeryshire. Great beds of bouldered trap occur,
composed of boulders of compact felstone imbedded in a matrix of
felstone tuff. The interbedded traps are bounded on either side by
Lower Llandeilo flags, and are collectively about 780 feet in thick-
ness. Other eruptive beds were also noticed in this hill. The
author suggested that the porphyritic greenstone of the Breidden
Hills was probably emitted from the same point of eruption as these
bedded traps. The local association of intrusive greenstones with
interbedded. felstones of Lower Silurian age, was stated to be very
general in North Wales.

600 Meeting of the British Association. [ Oct.,

Mr. James Thomson’s paper “On the Teeth and Dermal
Structure of Ctenacanthus and on New Forms of Pteroplaa and
other Carboniferous Labyrinthodonts, and of Megalichthys,” was
intended to prove that several so-called genera founded upon fossil
fishes’ teeth, were in reality only dermal spines. Mr. Thomson
also showed that three or four existing genera could now be united
inone. He exhibited a fine suite of Labyrinthodont and fish-remains,
which he stated Professor Dr. Young would shortly describe.

Mr. W. Carruthers called attention to the occurrence of Rep-
tilian eggs in the Stonesfield slate and in the Greensand of the Isle
of Wight. They were forwarded to him as fossil fruits, and had a
peculiarly glossy appearance, and the test was very thin.

Mr. Henry Woodward noticed (1) the occurrence of a new
form of Stylonwrus from the Cornstones of Herefordshire, and (2)
the discovery of a large Myriapod (Euphoberia Browniwi) in the
Coal-measures of Kilmaurs, near Glasgow.

Mr. J. Randall’s paper “On the Denudation of the Shropshire
and Staffordshire Coal-fields,” treated of the mineral character of
some of the coal-seams, and also showed how several of them had
been cut off by denudation. ‘The author believed these fields were
once continuous, but that they had been separated by denudation.

Dr. C. Le Neve Foster communicated a note on the occurrence
of the mineral Scheelite at Val Toppa Gold Mine, near Domodos-
sola, Piedmont. It is found associated with quartz, iron-pyrites,
zinc-blende, calc-spar, brown-spar, and native gold. Scheelite (or
tungstate of lime) is called ‘‘ marmor-rosso”” in Piedmont, and is
looked upon as a good indication of the presence of gold.

Mr. John E. Taylor noticed certain phenomena in the Drift
near Norwich. ‘The contorted, furrowed, and displaced condition
of the Boulder-clay and Drift beds, and the fractured and dislocated -
appearance of the Chalk along these lines of disturbance, could
best, Mr. Taylor suggested, be explained by the action of icebergs.

A paper “On the Water-bearing Strata in the Neighbourhood
of Norwich,” by the same author, followed. It dealt with the
origin of “sand-pipes” in the Chalk, and their action as natural
drains, and the author gave an interesting statement of the effect
of steam-power pumping in lowering the level of the wells around.

Mr. G. A. Lebour offered some Notes on the Denudation of
Western Brittany, and on the Granites of Lower Brittany.

Dr. H. A. Nicholson contributed an account of some new forms
of Graptolites from the Lower Silurian series.

Mr. Charles Moore’s “ Report on the Investigation of Veins con-
taining Organic Remains which occur in the Mountain Limestone

1869, | Geology. 601

of the Mendips and elsewhere,” showed that these fissures must have
remained open from a very early period, as they were found to con-
tain Liassic and Carboniferous fossils, together with teeth of fishes.
Mr. Moore had also discovered land and fresh-water shells, seeds of
Flemingites, and large numbers of Foraminifera and Entomostraca.
He considered that these discoveries must lead to an entirely new
theory to explain mineral veins, as neither segregation nor thermal
action could be reconciled with the presence of organic life in these
fissures.

Mr. H. B. Brady noticed the Foraminifera discovered by Mr.
Charles Moore, and especially referred to Involutina. The three
genera mentioned by him were all still existing.

Mr. C. W. Peach recorded the discovery of Orthoceratites,
Corals, &c., in the rocks between Nare Head and Porthalla Cove.
This is the nearest point to the Land’s End where Devonian fossils
have yet been met with.

Mr. H. Bauerman, in reporting on Ice as an agent to pro-
duce Geological change, gave instances of the grooving power of
ice as well as its ability to transport blocks and to form moraines.
He thought that it would be necessary to obtain international
scientific co-operation before accurate data could be brought
together.

Mr. R. Brown adduced evidence to show that the west coast of
Greenland was subsiding, and that points along the eastern coast
had been elevated.

Mr. George Maw recorded the occurrence of insect-remains and
fresh-water shells from the Lower Bagshot Leaf-bed of Studland
Bay, Dorsetshire, not heretofore observed.

Dr. Henry Hicks gave an account of the discovery of Fossil
Plants (?) in the Cambrian Rocks, near St. David’s. In these
Upper Longmynd rocks Dr. Hicks has met with many new species
of ‘Trilobites 1500 feet below the horizon at which organic remains
had hitherto been found. He had also detected plant-remains, but
they were doubtfully referred to plants, and were considered to be
the tracks of Annelids and Trilobites by Professor Phillips and Mr.
Etheridge. The importance of Dr. Hicks’s discoveries is neverthe-
less very great, and we cannot but deeply regret that he has, by
death, been deprived of the valuable co-operation of Mr. J. W.
Salter (our highest authority on palozoic fossils) in carrying on
these researches.

Dr. Mann gave a description of the Gold country of Natal, and
the localities where the precious metal had been met with.

Mr. W. Stephen Mitchell presented the “ Report of the Committee

602 Meeting of the British Association. [Oct.,

for investigating the Leaf-beds of the Lower Bagshot series of the
Hampshire Basin.” Of the Alum Bay plants, Mr. Mitchell observed
that the forms so abundant on the mainland were wanting here.
Aralias, Dryandras, Cussonias, Dalbergias, &c., had turned up in
great abundance, as well as Cinnamon plants. Although the last-
named leaves appear to agree with some of the Smilacex, he was
fully convinced that they were true Cinnamons. ‘The beds of
Whitecliff Bay give promise of a still richer harvest. Specimens
have also been obtained near Corfe. An accurate survey of these
beds is being prepared to ascertain the relative levels of the Alum
Bay and Mainland beds, under the superintendence of Mr. Mitchell.

Mr. Robert Etheridge described the occurrence of a large de-
posit of Terra-cotta Clay at Watcombe, Torquay. The clay, which
is almost identical with that of Etruria, occupies a depression in
the New Red Sandstone, which the author believed to have been
a fresh-water lake wherein the deposit was accumulated. The clay
is remarkable for its fine subdivision, and is of excellent quality for
the production of fictile wares. It contains more than 60 per cent.
of silica, 20 per cent of alumina, and 7 per cent. of peroxide of iron,
also soda and potash salts.

Mr. J. Logan Lobley presented a very elaborate paper “On the
Distribution of the British Fossil Lamellibranchiata,” containing
the results of a careful compilation of all the described species of fossil
Conchifera in Great Britain, which, when printed 7m eatenso, will
furnish important Tables for the paleontologist and geologist.

Professor James Tennant gave an account of the Diamonds
received from the Cape during the past year, the largest of which
weighed 834 carats. ;

Mr. John Edward Lee called attention to some remarkable
Glacial Strie exposed at Portmadoc, in North Wales. These
glaciated surfaces are by no means uncommon in Wales, but are
frequently concealed beneath beds of drift. The present glaciated
surface is very fine, but is beg rapidly quarried away.

Brotoey. (Section D.)

When the Committee of this Section met on Wednesday the
18th, irrepressible Anthropology again led to a warm and somewhat
personal discussion. A separate department of Physiology was
proposed, and acceded to; but when Dr. Hunt* proposed that a
department of Anthropology should also be formed, an objection

* Before the close of the meeting, Dr. Hunt left Exeter seriously ill, and it is
with great regret we hear that he died a few days afterwards.

1869. ] Biology. 603

was made that there were not papers enough, and it was deter-
mined “that there be no department of Anthropology.” Dr. Hunt
then demanded that the papers which he had given in to be read
before the department of Anthropology should be returned to him,
but it was decided that they could be given up only on the personal
application of the several authors. It was finally arranged that
Monday, and if necessary Wednesday, be devoted to papers on
Ethnology and Anthropology, and that the chief department of the
Section have its title changed to “ Zoology, Botany, and Ethnology.”
These arrangements were not however carried out, for on Tuesday
and Wednesday Ethnological and Anthropological papers were
read in a separate room, although the name of a “department” had
been refused.

In the department of Zoology and Botany Mr. Spence Bate
presided, and delivered a very interesting address “ On the Physical
Peculiarities of Devonshire and Cornwall.” He alluded chiefly to
the distribution of animals and plants; to the extreme mildness and
uniformity of the climate; and to the interesting archeology of the
district. The south-western peninsula was beyond the range of the
nightingale ; the glowworm might be seen shining in December ;
and strawberries were often gathered at Christmas. On the wastes
of Dartmoor and the uncultivated lands of Cornwall stood many an
unrecorded monument of antiquity. Year by year they were gra-
dually passing away, and it appeared to him to be the duty of
Ethnologists to explore all those which had not yet been accurately
studied, and to take such steps as were necessary to preserve them
all from destruction.

The business commenced with the “ Report of the Committee on
a Close-time for Birds,” which was read by Mr. H. E. Dresser, and
was followed by a paper by Rev. H. B. Tristram, “On the Effects
of Legislation on the Extinction of Animals.” The Report stated
that the recent Act for the Preservation of Sea-fowl was a first
step, and that it was advisable that it should be followed by legisla-
tion establishing a “ close-time” for all birds (with a few special
exceptions), as was the case in many countries of Europe and
America. Mr. Tristram showed the effects of legislation, or the
want of legislation, in causing the extinction of many animals. He
argued that if man did not interfere, a balance would be established
by nature which would be the best for all parties, and that by
destroying birds and other animals considered to be noxious, man
almost invariably produced greater evils than those which he tried
to obviate. As an example, he might mention that the persistent
raid of the gamekeepers against all birds of prey had led to such
an increase of wood-pigeons i in some parts of the country, that they
caused a serious injury to the farmer by consuming large quantities

604 Meeting of the British Association. [ Oct.,

of grain. The sparrow-hawk was the only bird which could cap-
ture a wood-pigeon on the wing, and the gamekeepers destroyed this
as well as kites and buzzards.

An animated discussion took place on both these papers. Pro-
fessor Huxley strongly opposed all protective legislation, except in
the one case of the salmon fishery, which he said was exceptional,
because by placing nets across a river you could catch every salmon
that was in it, and so exterminate them; but that this could not be
done in the case of any other animal. He ridiculed the idea of the
House of Commons adding to its other duties the protection of the
whole British fauna and flora, about which it was so utterly ignorant ;
and believed that their tinkering could only lead to evil results.
Sir John Lubbock, on the other hand, advocated such legislation,
which he thought was both safe and useful, and thought that, con-
sidering the immense increase of our population and the extension.
of our towns and manufactures, we ought to do what we could to
prevent the wilful and purposeless extermination by man of that
variety of living things which added so much to the beauty and
interest of our country. Mr. Wallace made some remarks on the
accurate balance of the powers of offence and defence in nature,
which led to all diseased or less perfectly organized creatures dying
or being killed off, and to that appearance of perfect health and
symmetry in all wild creatures, which was one of their charms as
contrasted with domesticated animals. When man interfered with
this balance, either by protection or extermination, imperfection and
disease appeared and rapidly spread; and he quite agreed with
Mr. Tristram that the grouse disease would probably haye been
stamped out on its first appearance, had not the sanatory police of
nature, the birds of prey, been so greatly reduced by man. Drs.
Hooker and Scott and Messrs. Hanbury, Newton, Norman, Dal-
rymple, E. Bowring, and Miss Becker, also took part in the dis-
cussion.

Mr. Hallett, the producer of the celebrated “ pedigree wheat,”
read a paper “On the Law of the Development, of Cereals ;” in
which he stated that, after twenty years of observation and experi-
ment, he had arrived at the conclusion that every fully developed
plant of wheat, oats, or barley presents one ear finer than all the
rest, and in that ear one grain superior in productive power to all
the rest. This superiority is transmissible, and thus we at last
arrive at and maintain a grain of the best quality and highest pro-
ductive powers.

Some Botanical papers of less general interest were afterwards
read.

On Friday the entire Section met in one room to hear papers
of general interest. Dr. Dickson first exhibited some abnormal

1869. | Biology. 605

Primulas, in which the style and stamens were either both long or
both short—a fact difficult to account for on the theory of reversion,
as both could not be the original form.

The Rey. A. M. Norman then read an account of the recent
successful dredgings in the ‘Porcupine,’ in a letter from Professor
Wyville Thomson, prefacing it with a sketch of what had been
already done in deep-sea dredging. In the first excursion this
season Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys had dredged in 1472 fathoms ; but Pro-
fessor Wyville ‘Thomson, finding the weather very fine, proceeded to
the deep water off the Bay of Biscay, and succeeded in bringing up
14 cwt. of ooze from the enormous depth of 2435 fathoms, with a
bottom temperature of 86°°5 Fahr. Subsequently, at 2090 fathoms,
2 cwt. of chalk-mud was brought up. These dredgings contamed
a fine Dentaliwm and other mollusca, crustaceans, annelids, crinoids,
and starfishes, demonstrating the existence of all the higher forms
of marine life in the deep abysses of the ocean. The dredge was
down three hours. From careful temperature observations it was
found that the effects of solar heat did not reach farther than 20
fathoms, while some other extraneous source of heat, probably that
of the Gulf-stream, was detected as far as 500 to 700 fathoms; after
-that the temperature decreased 0°'2 for each 200 fathoms, which was
probably its normal rate. The deep water was analyzed, and found
to contain an excess of oxygen and of organic matter, thus explain-
ing the source whence the living jelly of the ooze, Bathybius, derived
its nourishment.

In from 500 to 700 fathoms water Cidaris was abundant, as
well as vitreous sponges in great variety and of many new types,
and organisms allied to Ventriculites, thus exhibiting a series of
forms strikingly similar to those characteristic of the true Chalk
formation. As this chalky ooze was now known to extend over
the bed of all the great oceans, it was a fair presumption that
this peculiar substance had been forming continuously, somewhere
or other, from the Cretaceous epoch to the present day; and as
many of the characteristic forms of the chalk (although of dis-
tinct species) were proved to be still in existence, it was very
possible that some of the chalk deposits of the globe might be
of various intermediate ages between the Cretaceous and recent
epochs.

P Professor Huxley, Dr. Hooker, and Dr. Percival Wright took
part in the discussion, the former adverting to the immense interest
of the discovery that the direct descendants of chalk fossils were
now in existence almost unchanged ; and Dr. Hooker claiming that
Captain Ross’s Antarctic dredgings had first demonstrated the
variety and abundance of deep-sea life, and had disproved Edward
Forbes’ celebrated theory even before it had appeared.

606 Meeting of the British Association. {Oct.,

The greater part of Friday was occupied by Archdeacon Free-
man, Rey. F. O. Morris, and Dr. McCann, who read papers opposed
to Darwinianism and Evolutionism. ‘The Archdeacon’s paper was
simply a sermon, treating every statement in the Mosaical account
of the Creation as a fact of equal value with the facts observed
by naturalists, and dwelling mainly on “those mysterious four-
footed creatures, the cherubim,” which it was maintained were
the antitypes of all created things. Mr. Morris brought for-
ward the usual old objections to Mr. Darwin’s views, such as the
assertion that varieties only last so long as artificial culture is con-
tinued; and the supposed inextricable dilemma that immigrants
into a new country must be either adapted or not adapted to their
new conditions; if adapted, why should they change? if not
adapted, how could they exist till they changed? Dr. McCann’s
paper was a vigorous and able attack on Professor Huxley's cele-
brated article “On the Physical Basis of Life,” which, as it will no
doubt be published in full, it is unnecessary to say more about here
than that it contained some very hard and telling hits at the weak
points in the Professor’s philosophy. Great interest was manifested
in Professor Huxley’s reply, which consisted, however, more of sar-
casm than of argument. Dr. Hooker, Messrs. Vivian, Wallace, and
others also spoke, and much surprise was expressed that the time of
the Section should have been occupied by papers which ought never
to have been admitted, since they either transgressed the limits of
scientific inquiry or contained nothing original.

‘When the Section again descended to the level of Natural His-
tory science, Professor E. Percival Wright described a new shark
of a monstrous size, which he had discovered at the Seychelle
Islands, and which he named Rhinodon typicus. He saw speci-
mens which he computed to be sixty feet long, although he could
only obtain smaller ones for examination, and these appeared to
subsist entirely upon sea-weed.

Miss Lydia Becker read a paper “On Alteration in the Struc-
ture of Lychnis diwrna observed in connection with the Develop-
ment of a Parasitic Fungus.” This was a curious case of the
occurrence of bisexual plants of which the anthers were attacked
by a fungus which gave them a purple colour; this fungus only
attacking the hermaphrodite and not the male plants, Miss Becker
supposed that the fungus was the cause of the development of the
pistil in what would otherwise have been unisexual male plants.
Professor Balfour and Drs. Dixon and Wilks took part in the dis-
cussion, and while they all admitted the value and interest of Miss
Becker’s observations, did not agree with her interpretation of the
facts. They could not, however, offer any more satisfactory expla-

1869. | Biology. 607

nation of the phenomena, and waited for further observations to
clear up the difficulty.

Mr. T. Blandford read a paper “On the relations of the Fauna
of British India to that of the Ethiopian and so-called Indian
Regions.” He showed that the Indian peninsula could be divided
into several districts characterized by the predominance of African,
Malayan, or purely Indian types.

Mr. W. F. Webb gave his “Five Years’ Experience of Artificial
Fish-breeding, showing in what waters Trout will and will not
thrive.” He believed it was a question of the temperature of the
water, which required to be cool and equable.

Mr. Frank Buckland then gave an account of “The Salmon
Rivers of Devon and Cornwall,” in his usual humorous and impres-
sive style, offermg many suggestions for their improvement by puri-
fication, clearing away obstructions, forming spawning beds, and by
artificial hatching.

Mr. Antonio Brady exhibited some specimens of Gum Anime
from Zanzibar, containing insects and a lizard. It was found in
sandy deposits where there are now no trees, and is probably of
high antiquity.

Mr. Spence Bate read an elaborate report “On the Marine
Fauna and Flora of the South Coast of Devon and Cornwall,”
describing the new and rare species which have been recently
obtained.

Other papers read were, “On a Variety or Hybrid of Perdix
cinerea,” by Dr. Scott; “On Initial Life—Infusoria,” by Mr.
C.S. Wake; “On the Remains of a Whale washed ashore at Bab-
bicombe, South Devon,” by Mr. Pengelly; “On the Mammalian
Fauna of North-West America,” by Mr. Robert Brown, F.R.G.S. ;
“On the Land and Fresh-water Shells of Nicaragua,” by Mr.
talph Tate, F.G.S.; and “On some curious Fossil Fungi from
the Black Shale of the Northumberland Coal-fields,’ by A.
Hancock, F.L.8., and Thomas Atthey.

Tn the department of Anatomy and Physiology, Mr. Busk pre-
sided. The first paper was Dr. Richardson’s Report “ On the Phy-
siological Action of the Methyl Series,” a subject whose chief
interest was medical.

Mr. E. Ray Lankester read a report “On the Spectroscopic
Examination of Animal Substances.” He first explained the
methods of studying absorption spectra, and the value of the eyi-
dence they afforded in physiological research. He then discussed
the distribution of Heemoglobin (the red oxygen-condensing matter
of the blood corpuscles) in the animal kingdom, showing it to be

608 Meeting of the British Association. [ Oct.,

present in certain Molluscs, aquatic insect larvae, a Phyllopodous
Crustacean, many Annelids, and in all Vertebrata, as well as in the
muscles of Mammals, Birds, and Fishes. The action of reagents on
Hemoglobin was then described, and the various derivative spectra
obtained by other observers were compared, and their place in the
spectrum scale fixed. Chlorocruorin, the green blood-stuff dis-
covered by Mr. Lankester in Stphonostoma and Sabella, and Chon-
driochlor, the chlorophyl-like body obtained from Spongilla jluvi-
atilis, were also fully described.

Dr. Wilson’s paper “ On the Moral Imbecility of Habitual Crimi-
nals,” exemplified by Cranial Measurements, attracted a considerable
audience. The author maintained that the majority of such crimi-
nals were devoid of all moral sense and principle, and could rarely
distinguish between right and wrong. They exhibited a tendency
to revert to the types of the uncivilized races, and cranial deficiency
was associated with real physical deterioration. The habitual
criminal was the victim of inherited proclivities to which he must
yield, and of a course of training which had so warped his nature
that he was incapable of appreciating any code of morality which
did not harmonize with his own vicious tendencies. Dr. Wilson
had examined and measured about 460 heads, and had arrived at
the conclusion that habitual criminals were cranially deficient, espe-
cially in the anterior lobes of the cerebral portion of the brain.

The Rev. W. Caine, chaplain of the county gaol of Manchester,
maintained that ignorance and defective intellect was by no means
a universal or even general characteristic of criminals; and he
startled the meeting by the statement that at one time, out of 700
Protestant criminals in the gaol, 81 were Sunday-school teachers,
besides clergymen and their sons, solicitors, schoolmasters by the
dozen, commercial travellers, and others. From very recent obser-
vation, he found that out of 649 criminals in that gaol 593 had
been Sunday scholars, on the average between six and seven years
each. This state of things arose from the bad example of parents
and companions, and the temptation of drink.

Mr. Busk, Professor McClellan, and Mr. Prideaux also took part
in the discussion, which turned much upon the cranial measure-
ments; and it appeared, from the contradictory opinions held by
the speakers, that all our collections of crania, their measurement
and delineation, have yet led to very little result. We had thought,
that however much the details had been disputed, the basis of Phre-
nology, that the brain is the organ of the mind, and that its anterior
portion is the seat of the intellect, was pretty generally admitted.
Mr. Busk and Prof. McClellan, however, assured the audience that
there was much to be said on the other side, and that they inclined
to the belief that the intellectual faculties had their ceat in the back

1869. | Biology. 609

part of the head, and that the broad expansive forehead had nothing
whatever to do with the supremacy of human intellect.

Dr. Henry Blane, Staff Assistant-surgeon. Bengal Army, read
a paper “On Human Vaccine Lymph and Heifer Lymph com-
pared.” He believed it was an established fact that certain skin
diseases and syphilis were transmitted by humanized lymph, and
that such humanized lymph in time lost its power as a preventive
of small-pox. He supported these positions by copious references
to facts and authorities, and proposed vaccination direct from the
heifer as the only remedy for these evils. By this alone could they
render vaccination efficacious, and restore the usefulness and prestige
of Jenner’s great remedy.

Other papers were, a “ Report on Chloral,” by Dr. Richardson ;
“On the Occasional Definition of the Convolutions of the Brain on
the Exterior of the Head,” by Dr. T. 8. Prideaux ; “On the Inter-
pretation of the Limbs and the Lower Jaw,” by Professor Cleland ;
and “On Voltaic Electricity in relation to Physiology,’ by Mr.
Bridgman.

Mr. E. B. Tylor presided over the Ethnological and Anthropo-
logical meetings. Sir John Lubbock’s paper on “The Primitive
Condition of Man ; bemg some Remarks in answer to the Specula-
tions of the Duke of Argyll,” attracted a crowded audience. This
was an elaborate essay, of which it is impossible to give a brief
abstract. Its main object was to show that man had steadily pro-
eressed from an early state of moral and mental as well as social
barbarism, and that knowledge meant civilization, ignorance bar-
barism. The Duke of Argyll, on the other hand, had maintained
that there was no necessary connection between a state of childhood,
as regards knowledge, and a state of barbarism, and that some of
the worst savages were the descendants of more civilized races.
Sir George Grey was inclined to support Archbishop Whateley and
the Duke of Argyll. He had witnessed in London scenes of bar-
barism such as he had never met with among savage nations. He
believed civilization was inseparable from religious feeling, and this
did not depend upon material progress. Mr. Howorth gave
instances of nations in Eastern Asia which had undoubtedly de-
generated. Mr. Wallace admitted that the evidence was over-
whelming for a steady advance in knowledge and intellect, but
doubted if there was any similar evidence of an equal advance in
moral feeling. Savages possessed a moral sense which influenced
them just as much as it influenced civilized people. Knowledge
and civilization gave to morality a wider sphere of action, but the
sense or feeling itself did not appear to be more generally diffused
or more active in civilized than in savage man. Dr. Blanc, Sir

VOL. VI. wen

610 Meeting of the British Association. [Oct.,

Walter James, Messrs. Evans, Boyd Dawkins, and others also took
part in the debate.

Dr. P. M. Duncan read a paper “On the Age of the Human
Remains in the Cave of Cro-Magnon, in the Valley of the Vezere.”
In this cave four distinct layers of charcoal or ancient hearths had
been found, containing bones of the mammoth and reindeer mixed
with human bones; and Dr. Duncan argued that the circumstances
were such as to indicate that this case did not prove man to be
contemporary with the mammoth, since the bones might have been
brought to the cave by hunters at a later period.

Col. Lane Fox then described his discovery of flint implements
at Acton and other places in the valley of the Thames, in gravels,
a hundred feet above the present river, at which level it had un-
doubtedly flowed when the gravel was deposited.

A Crannoge or lake-village in South Wales was described ina -
ves by the Rev. Mr. Dumbleton. It was situated in the Lake of
langorse, and was very similar in construction to some of the
Swiss lake-villages. Some of the piles were exhibited, as well as
bones of the horse, ox, sheep, and wild boar, which were found there.

Mr. Lewis read a paper “On the Builders and Purposes of
Megalithic Monuments.” He said there existed a practically un-
broken chain of megalithic monuments extending from India to
Great Britain. Who were their builders? Imdentity of place and
other traces of affinity led to the conclusion that there must have
been at least a great common influence at work, though possibly
not an absolute community of race. He held that they were pro-
bably constructed under Celtic influences—that the single upright
stones were used as memorial pillars, the circles and alignments
primarily as places of sacrifice, and the dolmens or table-stones, of
which there were two well-marked varieties, in one view as places
of sepulture, and in the other for purposes of sacrifice or memorial.

Many other papers were read before this department, which we
have only space to mention. Sir Duncan Gibb had three,—“ On
the Paucity of Aboriginal Monuments in Canada,” which he im-

uted chiefly to the severity of the climate; “On an Obstacle to
bongerity beyond Seventy Years,” which he found to be pendency
of the epiglottis; and “ On a Cause of Diminished Longevity among
the Jews,” namely, eating too much fat and oil: “On the Primeval
Status of Man,” by Mr. W. C. Dendy, was a somewhat vague
essay on the origin of man, opposing the views of Huxley and
Darwin, and leading to a long and rambling discussion; “ On
the Westerly Drifting of Nomades from the Fifth to the Nine-
teenth Century,” by Mr. H. H. Howarth; “The Origin of the
Tasmanians,” by Mr. J. Bonwick; “The Natives of Vancouver’s

1869. | Geography. 611

Island and British Columbia,” by Dr. King; “On the Esquimaux
considered in their relationship to Man’s Antiquity,” by Capt. W. S.
Hall ; “On Human Remains in the Gravels of Leicestershire,” by
Mr. Francis Drake, F.G.S.; “On the Method of forming Flint
Flakes by the early Inhabitants of Devonshire,” by Mr. F. M. Hall;
“On the Frontier Line of Ethnology and Geology,” by Mr. H. H.
Howarth ; “On the Brain of a Negro,” by Mr. R. Garner; and
“On the Race Elements of the Irish People,” by Mr. G. H. Kinahan.

GrocrapHy. (Section E.)

Ethnology having this year been transferred to Section D,
Section E was devoted exclusively to Geography. The meetings
were held in the new Victoria Hall, and were presided over by Sir
Bartle Frere, who, as Sir Andrew Waugh said during a discussion
on one of the papers, proved his capacity not only to govern a great
empire, but also to worthily fill Sir Roderick Murchison’s chair.
Though the Ethnological papers and discussions did not offer the
attractions which had marked the proceedings of previous years,
though the veteran President of the Royal Geographical Society
was not present to add to its prestige, and though there were no
Bakers, nor Palgraves, nor Livingstones present to give it addi-
tional éclat, the Section yet maintamed its usual popularity, and
was daily attended by a large and attentive audience. Papers were
read by both English and foreign geographers, whose renown is
more than European ; and the discussions were often carried on by
men distinguished not less for their statesmanship than for their
scientific accomplishments. The papers were generally purely
geographical; they were not merely descriptive, but frequently
partook of a truly scientific character. Now and then, however,
the political element could not be altogether repressed, and on
these occasions the discussions turned on questions which are
regarded by the general public with more than ordinary interest.

Though Sir Bartle Frere, in his opening address, disclaimed the
intention “to attempt any systematic summary of the progress,
present state, or prospects of Geographical science generally,” he yet
showed what was beimg done by geographers in all parts of the
world, but dwelt, as might be expected, more on Asia than on any
other continent. After referring with satisfaction to the presence
at the meeting of more than one geographer who would represent
that vast Russian empire which is gradually extending its borders
in Central Asia, Sir Bartle pointed out that this magnificent region
is little changed, save in political condition, since it was a nursery
of great nations and a centre of civilization. “ Here se nurtured,”

a pe

612 Meeting of the British Association. [Oct.,

he said, “not only kings and founders of empires, but trains of
thought and vast systems of moral and political philosophy, which
have largely subdued and influenced the richer regions of the
South and West. What,’ he asked, in continuation, “has in-
flicted on countries once so famous such a curse that the solitary
traveller who passes through them, as Vambery did, in disguise, 1s
welcomed among us as one just escaped from almost certain death,
who has during his whole sojourn carried his life in his hand?” . He
then expressed an opinion that nothing but good could result from
the attention of English and Russian statesmen being directed to
the condition of those countries and peoples which intervene
between the boundaries of the two empires. The character of the
papers relating to Asia which would be read by Mr. Douglas For-
syth, Mr. Trelawney Saunders, and others, were then explained,
and a brief sketch given, with a summary of results, of the various
attempts which have been made during the year to explore the
central portion of the vast continent under consideration. The
whereabouts of Dr. Livingstone was also naturally discussed ; but Sir
Bartle said that since the last meeting the evidence received has been
purely negative; and “we still only know that, up to December,
1867, he was alive and well, and in good spirits, travelling west-
ward from the neighbourhood of Lake Nyassa, and that he disap-
peared in the obscurity of the regions beyond.” Further than this
all is conjecture—whether we shall hear of him on the Nile, on the
Congo, or at Zanzibar, is at present a pure subject of speculation.
Mr. Erskine’s explorations on the Lower Limpopo, Mr. Winwood
Reade’s journey towards the sources of the Niger, Mr. Chandless’s
explorations on the tributaries of the Amazons, and other interesting
subjects were successively referred to; aud Sir Bartle concluded
his address with the expression of his satisfaction at the presence
among them of such eminent foreign geographers as M. Khanikof,
M. Pierre de Tchihatchef, and Chevalier Cristoforo Negri, the
‘Murchison of Italy.”

The first paper read in the Section after the President’s address
on Thursday, was by Dr. R. J. Mann, “ On the Position of the
Mouth of the Limpopo.” ‘In this paper Dr. Mann explained that
his friend, Mr. St. Vincent Erskine, the son of the Colonial Secre-
tary of Natal, had settled a point which had long been disputed
about by geographers, and by a remarkably adventurous and dan-
gerous journey had shown what really was the outlet of the great
African river into the ocean. ‘The mouth of the stream at full
tide was found to be 300 yards wide; and a succession of small
rollers which broke over the shore indicated a shoal coast. There
was a broad lagoon, shut in by a bar of dry sand, except where the
river ploughed through it in a comparatively narrow channel, Mr.
Erskine took an observation of the’ altitude of the sun at noon,

1869. | Geography. 613

and found the position of the mouth of the Limpopo to be 25° 15’
South, but was unable to get the longitude, owing to the difficulties
of transit having compelled him to abandon his instrument. The
value of a “Small Altazimuth Instrument for the use of Explorers”
—a description of which by Colonel Strange concluded the day’s
proceedings—was here made manifest, as by its means Mr. Erskine
would have been enabled to fix his position with the greatest ease
and accuracy.

‘The second paper was by Dr. Beke, and was entitled, “Plan
of a Canal to unite the Upper Nile with the Red Sea.” The
idea conveyed in this paper is not new, a sovereign of Ethiopia
having, several centuries ago, threatened to carry out a similar
“plan,” in order to be revenged on the ruler of Egypt. The notion
is that a canal might be formed along a natural watercourse, and
that the Atbara—the black mother of Egypt,” as Sir Samuel
Baker calls the river—might be diverted to the Red Sea. The
Nilotie fertilization beg thus turned in another direction, Egypt
would speedily become a desert. Sir Bartle Frere thought the
paper did not contain such an impracticable suggestion as might
at first sight appear; but Dr. Blanc, one of the late captives in
Abyssinia, considered the difficulties in the way of the construction
and navigation of the canal to be insuperable.

“A Visit to the Holy City of Fas, in Morocco,” by Mr. J.
Stirling, was next read. The author visited Fas in the suite of
Sir J. Drummond Hay, the British Minister, in November last ;
the party being, it is said, the only Europeans, with the exception
of Lord St. Maur, the eldest son of the Duke of Somerset, who
have visited the city in modern times. ‘The place once served
Moorish pilgrims as a substitute for Mecca, hence probably the
term “holy.” Fas is fortified, and well situated on a tributary
of the river Sebu. The population of the city could not be ac-
curately ascertained, but Mr. Stirling estimated it at somewhat less
than 100,000.

Captain T. P. White, R.E., furnished a paper on a “ Bifurcating
Stream in Perthshire ;” and Captain C. Dodd gave some “ Notes on
a Recent Visit to the Suez Canal.”

The second day’s proceedings commenced with a description, by
the President, of “The Runn of Cutch and the Countries. between
Rajpootana and Sinde.” Sir Bartle had visited this singular tract
of country in the exercise of his official duties. It forms a great
belt, with neither mountain ranges nor river systems; yet it cannot
be called a plain, for it is ridged into sand-hills, nor can it be
designated a desert, since it is everywhere inhabited, and in some
parts supports a considerable fixed population and numerous herds
of cattle. Cutch is a district about 600 miles long, its breadth

oO?

614 Meeting of the British Association. [ Oct.,

varying from 70 to 150 miles. It is divided into two great portions,
the southern portion, generally marked as a morass, being the
“Runn;” the northern part consisting of sand-hills, which the
people consider to have been formed by the wind, but which Sir
Bartle Frere considers to have been formed by subterranean forces,
by the upheaval of the earth during an earthquake. The people
inhabiting this district are much attached to their sand-hills, and
possess a lowly kind of civilization. The Runn is not a bog, as
seems sometimes to be considered, but a perfectly flat, hard plain,
formed of sand and clay, the surface being so hard that the hoofs
of a horse galloping over it would scarcely leave their impress
behind. If rain falls, it finds no outlet, but remains until evaporated,
and becomes salt through the extreme saline nature of the surface.
No animals, vegetables, hollows, nothing that might be expected to
be seen on any part of the earth’s surface, can be found in this
curious district. It is also destitute of landmarks, and travellers
perform their journeys by night, guiding themselves by the stars,
and in one part, by a fire which is lighted and kept burning on a
hill by a family residing near the spot. The Runn is subject to
periodical inundations by the waters of the Indian Ocean ; several
rivers also discharge themselves into it on the eastern side, but the
water is seldom more than three feet deep. The character of the
mirage in this district is extraordinary during the dry season, and
the deceptive resemblance to a large and magnificent city with its
palaces and towers is often seen. Sir Bartle Frere said he would
not pretend to solve the problem how this peculiar table-like district
was formed, but would “hazard the conjecture that it was some-
how connected with the constant vibration caused by the very
active and persistent volcanic action, evidence of which was found
in the country around the basin, formed on the one side by the
Thurr, and on the south by the semicircular land and Cutch
proper. There could be no doubt that volcanic action all around
there was more active than in any other part of the world.” In
attributing the peculiar geological phenomena to volcanic action,
Sir Andrew Waugh agreed with the President; but Sir Charles
Trevelyan thought with the natives that the sand-hills in the north-
western part were more or less connected with the wind.

A paper, entitled “On the Latitude of Samarcand,” and read
in French by M. Nicholas de Khanikof, followed. M. de Khanikof
visited the famous capital of Tamerlane in 1841, being, next to his
companion, Lehmann, the first European who had seen it since
Gonzales Clavijo, envoy of Henry VIII., of Castile, entered the
city in 1404. He was not able himself to fix either the latitude or
the longitude of Samarcand, but M. Struve, who was there on a
scientific mission last year, has proved the latitude to be 39° 38’ 45”,
and the longitude 64° 38' 12”,

1869. | Geography. 615

“Central Asia,” by M. Pierre de Tchihatchef, Conseiller d’Etat,
S.M. ’Empéreur de Russie, attracted much interest and attention.
The author first referred to the intended publication of a new, com-
plete, and correct edition of Humboldt’s Asie Centrale. Such a
work would, at present, be peculiarly important and strikingly
opportune, for it would dispel for ever the threatening clouds which,
durimg so many years, were gathering on those regions as gloomy
forebodings of a dreadful contest. While our knowledge of Central
Asia remained scanty and vague, the mysterious country must have
appeared, not only to the ignorant crowd, but also to many of the
most enlightened and sagacious statesmen, as the natural battle-
field where, sooner or later, England and Russia had to meet in a
dogged, exterminating struggle. “The danger seemed so unavoid-
able and so urgent, that no expenses, no sacrifices were spared, in
order to postpone the disastrous crisis. Now, thanks to the exertions
of geographers, the ominous crisis, so positively prophesied and so
unanimously feared, turned out to be nothing more than a fantas-
tical dream ; for nothing, surely, could be more fantastic, nothing
more fitted to remind one of the Thousand and One Nights, than to
see a large army with heavy artillery, not only hover like ghosts
during two or three months over dense clouds and eternal snows,
but even after such an exhausting gymnastic feat, descend into the
country of the enemy, and defeat the English troops quietly and
comfortably expecting their curious visitors.” This, however, is
precisely the fact, which must be admitted by the advocates of a
Russian invasion of India; for M. de Tchihatchef says we possess
numerous trustworthy documents which prove most positively that
even in the very probable case of the whole of Turkestan becoming
a Russian province—whatever might be the starting-point of the
Russian army intended to reach the Punjab—no less than two, or
perhaps even three, months would have to be spent amidst snowy,
desert mountains, before such an army would be allowed to put its
frost-bitten feet on English territory. M. de Tchihatchef admitted
that amongst the advocates of Russian invasion there are men of
deep science and unquestionable good faith ; but they all start from
two very arbitrary hypotheses, vz. that what has been done once
may be performed again, and that what is now impossible may be-
come possible. Alexander the Great and certain Mogul conquerors
may have crossed the mountains and marched victoriously onward ;
but the conditions under which they performed these feats were
widely different to those which would be imposed upon an invading
Russian army. The Abyssinian expedition brilliantly proved that
a European army might drag its ponderous artillery over large,
snowy, mountainous tracts; but the result of that expedition might
not have been so glorious had the army of resistance been composed
of French, Russian, or Prussian soldiers, instead of those of Theo-

616 Meeting of the British Association. [ Oct.,.

dore. M. de Tchihatchef declared the Russian invasion of India to
be a bugbear ; but intimated that both England and Russia have a
peculiar mission in Central Asia, which can only be successfully
carried out by a combination of their exertions, and by their placing
their moral and material interests under the mighty safeguard of
peace, mutual sympathy, religious toleration, and justice.

In the discussion which followed the reading of this remarkable
paper, Lord Halifax said it was undeniable that the advance of
Russia towards the northern frontier of India caused some uneasi-
ness; but when he was Secretary of State he gave his attention to
this important question, and came to the conclusion that the alarms
which existed in many minds were utterly unfounded. These alarms,
he believed, M. de Tchihatchef’s paper would in a great measure
dissipate. Lord Houghton was a little more cautious in expressing
unqualified satisfaction at the advances of Russia, though he con-
sidered the objects of Russia to be similar to what our own have
been, viz.—“in a certain degree to promote its own power, but in
a greater degree to extend civilization.”

Mr. Trelawney Saunders considered the question was not a mili-
tary one, but one of commercial and administrative competition.

A paper “On the Encroachment of the Sea on Exmouth
Warren” was next read by Mr. G. Peacock, and was followed by
one, entitled “On the Kitai and Kara Kita,” by Dr. G. Oppert.
The Kitai Dr. Oppert described as a people who once ruled over
Central Asia and China, and who gave their name to Asia. He
also said that the famous Prester John was Emperor of this people,
who now live in a humble condition in the Russian Government of
Derberd, and in the Siberian district of Ih.

The Section did not meet on Saturday in consequence of the
excursion to Plymouth; and on Monday the proceedings com-
menced with a paper by Captain R. C. Mayne, R.N., on “ Recent
Surveys in the Straits of Magellan.” Captain Mayne alluded to
the history of the discovery of the Straits, and described their
geographical position. He pointed out their use in avoiding the
troublesome passage around Cape Horn; and gave some particulars
respecting the size and appearance of the Patagonians and Fuegians.
The former are not such giants as have been represented, their
average height being from 5 feet 10 inches to 5 feet 11 inches,
though he measured one man who was 6 feet 104 inches high.

Admiral Sir Edward Belcher read a paper “On the Distribu-
tion of Heat on the Sea Surface throughout the Globe,” and was
followed by Mr. A. G, Findlay “ On the supposed Influence of the
Gulf-stream on the Climate of North-Western Europe.” The
author demurred to many of the theories that have been advanced

on this subject, and accounted for the phenomena of our warm winter

1869. | Geography. 617

climate as follows :—* The great belt of south-west winds called the
Anti-trade, or Passage winds, passes over the North Atlantic
throughout its breadth, and drives slowly the whole surface of the
water to the northward of an easterly course or towards the shore
of North-West Europe. From the particular configuration of the
land, this north-west drift is allowed to pass into the Polar area.
This south-west wind infuses into high latitudes the temperature
and moisture of much lower parallels, and by its greater rate of
travelling passes over the warmer water to the southward, and this
brings to Exeter in one day the warmth of the centre of France.
By its variation from westward or eastward of a southerly direction,
we find all the variations or moisture which is induced by this wind
passing over land or sea.”

“On the Best Route to the North Pole,” by Captain RB. V.
Hamilton, R.N., and “The Upper Amazons,” by Mr. F. F. Searle,
were the concluding papers of the day.

The Section met for the last time on Tuesday morning.
“Cooper’s Attempt to Cross from China to India” was read by
Mr. Trelawney Saunders. Though the details of Mr. Cooper’s
adventures were very interesting, Mr. Saunders pointed out that he
had been unable to contribute anything of value in a geographical
pot of view, and his enterprise was fruitless and unsuccessful
through the jealousy and cupidity of the Chinese mandarins.

A lengthy and important paper on the “ Trade Routes between
Northern India and Central Asia” was next read by Mr. Douglas
Forsyth. ‘This distinguished member of the Indian Civil Service
said that he had no geographical discoveries to make known, but he
intimated that the work of applying to practical purposes the
knowledge acquired by scientific men ought to receive some share
of general approval. Having described the two great outlets for
trade from Northern India, and given a history and description of
the country north of the Himalayas, Mr. Forsyth showed that
Central Asian trade is not a myth, as has been asserted, but is very
yaluable and capable of immense development.

Mr. Trelawney Saunders then read a paper “On the Hima-
layas and Central Asia,” and explained that the difficulties in
passing the mountains are not insurmountable to trade and inter-
course. The vast countries beyond the Himalayas constitute the
ereatest pastoral region in the world; and as there is such a field of
raw material, there would doubtless be found an equally important
market for manufactured articles. In the discussion which fol-
lowed the reading of these three papers, Sir Harry Verney, Sir
Stafford Northcote, Dr. Thomson, and the President took part.
Sir Harry Verney said our duty is to give every facility for the
opening up of trading intercourse with Central Asia, but we should.

618 Meeting of the British Association. [ Oct.,

not endeavour to obtain any monopoly, and should speak in unmis-
takable language to prevent the distrust of any other power.
Sir Stafford Northcote deprecated the idea that our duties to com-
merce and civilization should be regarded in the nature of rivalry
with Russia. We must consider the question as bearing on the
interests of the great masses of people committed to our charge
in India, and consider also that whatever is for the advantage of
India must be for the advantage of adjacent peoples. We must be
careful not to engage in any enterprises likely to bring us into
collision with the frontier tribes, and must not put our arm out
farther than we could draw it back again.“ Sir Stafford declared it
to be for our interest, as far as possible, to surround our empire
in India with independent, flourishing States, which would feel it
to be their interest to be on good relations with us, and that their
prosperity was bound up with ours.

A “Scheme for a Scientific Exploration of Australia,” by Dr. G.
Neumayer ; a paper by Mr. W. P. Blanford “On Northern Abys-
sinia;” and one “On Raleigh’s El Dorado,” by Dr. C. Le Neve
Foster, concluded a by no means unimportant or uninteresting, if
not a brilliant, meeting.

MecuanicaL Science. (Section G.)

This Section met in St. John’s Hospital, under the Presidency
of Mr. C. W. Siemens, C.E., F.R.S., by whom a very excellent
and instructive opening address was delivered. Including the
Presidential address, the reports from committees, and papers from
members, there were altogether twenty-five communications made
to the Section, if we likewise include four papers which were taken
as read at the last sitting of the Section. As Saturday was set apart
for the excursion to Plymouth and Devonport, and as the subject
of the Patent Laws naturally attracted the engineers to the Statis-
tical Section on the ensuing Wednesday, the last day of the Exeter
meeting, Section G had only four sittings—on Thursday, Friday,
Monday, and Tuesday.

The President’s address embraced some remarks on the somewhat
hackneyed subject of technical education, and specially commended
Mr. John Scott Russell’s lately published volume treating on this
subject. Almost as a matter of course, Mr. Siemens dwelt at some
length on the system of Letters Patent, on which he can certainly
speak as “one having authority.” He put the question of the ©
theory and practice of Letters Patent in a very clear light by the
following brief statement. “ According to modern views,” he said,
“a patent is a contract between the Commonwealth and an indi-
vidual who has discovered a method, peculiar to himself, of accom-

1869. | Mechanical Science. 619

plishing a result of general utility. The State, being interested to
secure the information, and to induce the inventor to put his
invention into practice, grants him the exclusive right of practising
it, or of authorizing others to do so, for a limited number of years,
in consideration of his making a full and sufficient description of
the same. Unfortunately, this simple and equitable theory of the
patent system is very imperfectly carried out, and is beset with
various objectionable practices which render a patent sometimes an
impediment to, rather than a furtherance of, applied science, and
sometimes involve the author of an invention in endless legal con-
tentions and disaster, instead of procuring for him the intended
reward. ‘These evils are so great and palpable that many persons,
including men of undoubted sincerity and sound judgment on most
subjects, advocate the entire abolition of the patent laws. They
argue that the desire to publish the results of our mental labour
suffices to ensure to the Commonwealth the possession of all new
discoveries or inventions, and that justice might be done to meri-
torious inventors by giving them national rewards. This argument
may hold good as regards a scientific discovery, where the labour
bestowed is purely mental, and carries with it the pleasurable
excitement peculiar to the exercise and advancement of science
on the part of the devotee; but a practical invention has to be
regarded as the result of a first conception, elaborated by experi-
ments and their application to existing processes in the face of
practical difficulties, of prejudice, and of various discouragements,
involving, also, great expenditure of time and money, which no
man can well afford to give away, nor can men of merit be ex-
pected to advocate their cause before the national tribunal of
rewards, where, at best, only very narrow and imperfect views
of the ultimate importance of a new invention would be taken, not
to speak of the favouritism to which the doors would be thrown
open. Practical men would undoubtedly prefer either to exercise
their inventions in secret, where that is possible, or to desist from
following up their ideas to the point of their practical realization.”

Mr. Siemens also referred to Watt's invention, patented 100
years ago; to recent progress and prospective efforts in railway
and telegraphic engineering ; to the engineering progress in respect
of offensive and defensive warfare ; to the newest methods of making
steel for constructive purposes ; to Mr. Whitworth’s experiments,
the results of which seem likely to render the steam-hammer and
rolling-mills obsolete in the process of forging steel; to scientific
economy in generating heat from coal; and to the production of
refrigeration at an extremely moderate expenditure of fuel and
labour. On the motion of Mr. Bidder, a hearty vote of thanks was
awarded to Mr. Siemens for his interesting, mstructive, and very
appropriate address.

620 Meeting of the British Association. [ Oct.,

At the first day’s sitting there were read papers by Mr. Fair-
bairn, Col. H. Clerk, R.A., and Mr. R. Eaton. Mr. Fairbairn’s
was a “Further Report on the Mechanical Properties of Steel.”
It was very elaborate and highly statistical. A point of consider-
able importance in connection with the communication was the
reliable details given regarding the properties of the Heaton steel.
Mr. Fairbairn’s experiments referred almost exclusively to the
Heaton steel, and to the Barrow Company’s haematite steel. The
last-mentioned substance has very great “ductility combined with a
tensile breaking-strain of from 32 to 40 tons per square inch.
With these qualities,” said Mr. Fairbairn, “I am informed that the
proprietors are able to meet the requirements of a demand to
the extent of 1000 to 1200 tons of steel per week, which, added
to a weekly produce of 4500 tons of pig-iron, enables us to form
some idea of the extent of a manufacture destined in all probability
to become one of the most important and one of the largest in
Great Britain.”

The paper by Colonel Clerk, entitled “ Description of the Hy-
draulic Buffers and Experiments on the Flow of Liquids through
Small Orifices at High Velocities,” gave rise to a very interesting
discussion. ‘The author of the paper being desirous of applymg
some method of checking the recoil of heavy guns, consulted Mr.
Siemens about two years ago, and suggested magnetism as the
form of force to be employed; but the “magnetic doctor,” as
Mr. Siemens has been styled, suggested hydropathic treatment
rather than magnetic, and in Col. Clerk’s hands it has proved to
be most valuable, so valuable, indeed, that the hydraulic compressor
or buffer invented by Col. Clerk is now being tried in a modified
form by railway engineers. The buffer has been used on shore
with guns up to 25 tons weight, and at sea with light guns of
15 cwt. and 8 cwt. i boats, and with 9-inch guns of 12 tons on
board H.M.S. ‘ Prince Albert,’ and in all cases with great success. —

Mr. Eaton’s paper was “On Certain Economical Improvements
in obtaining Motive Power.” It contained an account of a modifi-
cation of the steam-engine recently made and brought into use in
Nottingham by Mr. George Warsop, the son of an air-gun maker,
born with aérial ideas, educated at a Sunday-school, and sent to
work at ten years of age. Later in life he was a working mechanic
in the employment of Kricsson, in New York, and had an oppor-
tunity of noting the weak poits of that eminent engineer’s air-
engines, and profited by the experience gained. More recently
Mr. Warsop has devised, in the words of Mr. Eaton, “a marvellously
simple system of mechanism, which, as far as present experience goes,
promises complete success by means which, happily for the cause of
economy and progress, are compatible alike with physical science

1869. | Mechanical Science. 621

and mechanical construction.” The piece of mechanism is known
as the Aéro-Steam Engine, and, as may be inferred from the name,
the motive-power is a mixture of air and steam. Before a very
decided opinion can be given regarding this invention, it will be
requisite to wait for the results of the experiments which are in
progress, or in prospect, by Professor Tyndall and others.

Professor W. J. M. Rankine, C.E., F.R.S., read two reports
from committees of which he is a member. One was “On the
Laws governing the Flow and Action of Water containing Solid
Matter in Suspension,” and the other was an “Interim Report
from the Committee on Agricultural Machinery.” It was stated
that a full and satisfactory report on agricultural machinery would
be ready for next year’s meeting.

“On the Laws determining the Fracture of Materials when
Sudden Changes of Thickness take place,” formed the subject of
a somewhat technical paper by Mr. F. J. Bramwell, C.E.; and
Admiral Sir Edward Belcher communicated a paper “On a Navi-
gable Floating Dock ;” but the chief point of interest at Friday’s
sitting of the Section was the very elaborate paper “ On the Chan-
nel Railway,” giving an account of the method by which Mr.
J. F. Bateman, C.H., and M. Revy, C.E., Vienna, propose to
connect England and France. The paper was too long for us to
make anything like an intelligible abstract of it. Suffice it to say
that Messrs. Bateman and Revy’s scheme embraces a cast-iron tube,
thirteen feet in internal diameter and four inches thick, with
additional strengthening in the way of ribs, flanges, and annular
discs or diaphragms, and that railway trains are to be worked through
this tube by pneumatic pressure. In an animated discussion which
followed the reading of the paper, Messrs. Bidder (father and son),
Vignoles, the President, and other gentlemen took part.

At Monday’s sitting no fewer than four reports were read from
committees, the reporters beng Mr. L. E. Fletcher, C.E.; Mr. C.
W. Merrifield, F.R.S.; Professor Rankine, and Mr. R. B. Grantham,
C.E.; and the reports being, respectively: on Boiler Explosions ;
on the State of Knowledge of Stability and Sea-going Qualities of
Ships; on the Analysis and Reduction of Observations in the
Report of the Steamship Performance Committee, and on Sewage.
The following are the conclusions arrived at by the Boiler Ex-
plosion Committee :—1. That a lamentable loss of life is annually
caused by steam-boiler explosions, which urgently calls for public
attention. 2. That these explosions, as a rule, are not accidental,
but may be prevented by the exercise of “common knowledge and
common care.” 93. That the present investigations conducted by
Coroners with regard to steam-boiler explosions are eminently un-
satisfactory, and call for immediate improvement. 4. That Coroners

622 Meeting of the British Association. [ Oct.,

should, when conducting inquiries on boiler explosions, be instructed
and empowered to avail themselves of competent engineering advice,
so that the cause of every explosion may be fully investigated,
while the information acquired should be widely circulated. 5. The
committee entertain a sanguine hope that. this course alone would
do much towards the prevention of the present recurrence of steam-
boiler explosions, without any further governmental action. The
report was signed by Mr. Fairbairn, the Chairman of the com-
mittee. By way of supplement to the report, and for the purpose
of raising a discussion, Mr. Fletcher submitted a short paper “On
Government Action with regard to Boiler Explosions.” The dis-
cussion took place on the following day, and it may be referred to
at this stage. Mr. Alcock, Mr. Bramwell, Mr. Longridge, Captain
Galton, Mr. Webster, Q.C., Professor Rankine, the President, and
others took part in it, and all deprecated Government interference
in the way of inspection. Various suggestions were made in refer- .
ence to the stamping of boiler-plates by the makers; to the persons
employed as boiler-tenters; to the qualifications of boiler-makers ;
and in reference to the way in which boiler inspection should be
conducted. It was strongly urged by several of the speakers that
efforts should be made to strengthen the hands of the Coroner,
and render his court of inquiry a reality instead of a sham, and
that persons using steam-boilers should be made responsible for the
consequences caused by explosions. In the course of the discussion
Captain Galton stated that he had.induced the Government to place
some hundreds of boilers under the inspection of the Association for
Guaranteeing Steam-boilers against Explosion.

The report submitted by the Steamship Performance Committee
was a very full and valuable paper, but notwithstanding its fulness
it only claimed to be a first report, treating of only a portion of the
subject, namely, the resistance which ships offer to propulsion, and
to their behaviour in respect of rolling. The value of the report
“On the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage” can scarcely be
overrated. It had previously been submitted to the Chemical Sec-
tion by Dr. B. H. Paul, who compiled it. Its value did not depend
upon the opinions expressed by the Committee, inasmuch as they
did not express any, but upon the facts which it brought together
regarding the efforts at treatment and utilization of sewage both at
home and abroad. Through the Home Office the Committee ob-
tained information from Hamburg, Saxe-Coburg Gotha, Holland,
Bavaria, Baden, Saxony, Prussia, Switzerland, Austria and Hun-
gary, Belgium, Sweden, Denmark, Turkey, Greece, Russia, the
United States of America, and Wurtemburg; and by means of
schedules sent out to 338 local, sanitary, and sewer authorities, the
committee obtained replies from 107 places to the queries con-
tained in the schedules. Those queries referred to the population,

1869. ] Mechanical Science. 623

area, number of houses, and rateable value of the places applied to ;
the nature, source, and extent of the water-supply ; the disposal of
the excretal refuse; and to the total quantity and amount of the
liquid sewage and its treatment. The committee is re-appointed,
and therefore we may expect that next year’s report will prove a
valuable supplement to the one read at Exeter.

Some interesting facts were mentioned by Mr. Thomas Login,
C.E., in his paper “On Roads and Railways in Northern India,
as affected by the abrading and transporting power of Water.”
This paper was followed by one of great value from Mr. Joseph
Whitworth, C.E., F.B.S. It was “‘ On the Penetration of Armour-
Plates with Long Shells haying Large Bursting Charges, and fired
obliquely,” and was a sort of supplement to the paper read by Mr.
Whitworth at the Norwich meeting last year. The author claimed
that the experiments detailed in his paper showed that the Palliser
projectiles failed to penetrate when striking at an angle, solely on
account of the form of the head,—the Whitworth projectile, which
resisted the shock, and did not break up, being deflected in pre-
cisely the same manner as the Palliser projectile which was shivered
into fragments. Almost all the speakers who joined in the discus-
sion excited by the paper, spoke very favourably of the flat-headed
projectile, and urged that trials should be instituted with it by the
Government.

Of the papers read at the last sitting of the Section, that by Mr.
Thomas D. Barry “ On the Utilization of Town Sewage” produced
the greatest amount of discussion. It was not much else than a
glorification of the ABC process as practised at Leamington.
Neither the paper nor the resulting discussion did much.good in
the way of throwing light on this vexed question. .

A rather abstruse paper by Mr. Latimer Clark “On the Bir-
mingham Wire Gauge” was 1ead in the absence of the author.
One by Mr. 8. A. Varley was of much more general interest: it
was “On a New System of Communication between Guards and
Passengers on Railways.” Mr. Varley’s system is one of great
ingenuity and is thoroughly efficient. At the request of the Board of
Trade it was fitted up in a train running daily from London to
Wolverhampton—a distance of 250 miles. The train was started
from all stations at which it stopped by means of the apparatus, and
its working reported by the guards in their daily reports. The
apparatus was tested twenty-two times, and its performance, as
shown by those reports, was marked by the most unvarying regu-
larity. It is desirable to mention that Mr. Varley’s system is an
electrical one, but it does not require any electrical knowledge in the
person working it. In closing the discussion upon the paper, the

624 Meeting of the British Association. [ Oct.,

President remarked that his own idea was that the electrical system
was the only one which would work satisfactorily.

Mr. E. Froude read a paper, in which he detailed some curious
and successful efforts to clean the internal surface of the Torquay
water-main, an iron pipe fourteen miles long. In the year 1864
the delivery of water from the main was reduced to 320 gallons
per minute, or only about one-half the amount due to the size and
fall of the pipe. After trymg several expedients for scraping off
the oxidized material in the pipe by hydraulic pressure, Mr. Froude
was able, in April of this year, to increase the discharge to 660 gal-
lons per minute. To keep the pipe m a satisfactory condition it is
necessary to scrape it at least once a-year. The cost of scraping
is very trifling, and the whole fourteen miles can be done at one
time.

In concluding this brief notice of the proceedings in the
Mechanical Section, we are bound to admit that a fair amount of
interesting work was done; but when we have said this we have
almost said all. Of this we feel assured, that the British Associa-
tion Meeting of 1869 will not be marked in the calendar with a
“ved letter” in so far as mechanical science is concerned. ‘The
meeting of 1870 in Liverpool ought to bring forth something that
will be much more worthy of being put on record.

1869. ] ( 625 )

Quarterly List of Publications received for Webiew.

1. The Scenery of England and Wales; its Character and Origin :
being an attempt to trace the Nature of the Geological Causes,
especially Denudation, by which the Physical Features of the
Country have been produced. With 86 Woodcuts. By D.

Mackintosh, F.G.S. Longmans.
2. Wrought-Iron Bridges and Roofs. By W. Cawthorne Unwin,
B.Sc., &e. E. & F. N. Spon.

3. Entozoa : being a Supplement to the Introduction to the Study of
Helminthology. By T. 8. Cobbold, M.D., F.R.S.
Groombridge & Sons.
4, Sound: a Course of Hight Lectures delivered at the Royal Insti-
tution of Great Britain. By John Tyndall, LL.D., F.RS.
Second Edition. Longmans.
5. The Substitution of Similars: the True Principle of Reasoning.
By W. Stanley Jevons, M.A., London, Macmillan & Co.
6. The Transactions of the Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club.
_ Illustrated with Photographs, Lithographs, and Woodeuts.
Times Office, Hereford.
7. The True Theory of the Earth. By Research.
Bell & Bradfute.
8. The Birds of Sherwood Forest. By W. J. Sterland.
L. Reeve & Co.
9. The Geometry of the Circle and Mathematics. By James Smith.
Simpkin, Marshall, & Co.
10. Latitude and Declination Tables. By Major-Gen. R. Shortrede.
Strahan & Co.
11. Abolition of Patents: Recent Discussions in the United Kingdom

and on the Continent. Longmans.
12. Practice with Science. Vol. II. A Series of Agricultural Papers.
Longmans.

13. How to keep the Clock Right, by Observations of the Fixed Stars
with a small fixed Telescope. By T. Warner. Williams & Norgate.

PAMPHLETS AND PERIODICALS.
The Economie Geology of Devonshire and Cornwall in 1868. By
R. Hunt, F.R.S. Clowes & Sons.
On Geological Dynamics. By Sir William Thomson, LL.D., F.RS.
VOL. VI. 20

626 List of Publications [ Oct.,

On some Fossils found in the Eophyton Sandstone at Lugnas in
Sweden. By J. G. O. Linnarsson.

Figures of Characteristic British Fossils. By W. H. Baily.
Van Voorst.

Notes on the Flora of Manbhuim. By V. Ball, B.A.
On the Copper Mines of Singhbhtim.—(Geological Survey of India.)
Same Author.
On Hydrofiuoric Acid. By G. Gore, F.R.S.
Ofversigt af Kongl: Vetenskaps-Akademiens Férhandlingar.
Stockholm: P. A. Norstedt & Soner.
The Thames Gold Fields, Province of Auckland.—( Geological Survey
of New Zealand.)
Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections—
Land and Fresh-water Shells of North America. By W.G. Binney
and 'T’. Bland.
Ditto ditto Catalogue of the Orthoptera of North America.
By 8. H. Scudder.
Report of the National Academy of Sciences. —(Smithsonian

Report.)

Observations on the Genus Unio. By Isaac Lea, LL.D.,
Philadelphia.

Descriptions of Twelve New Species of Unionidae, &. Same
Author.

Memoirs of the Peabody Academy of Science.

Revision of the large Stylated Fossorial Crickets. By 8S. H.
Seudder. Salem, Mass.
Description of a New Instantaneous Wet Collodion Process, &c. By
Thomas Sutton, B.A. J. W. Green, Paternoster Row.
Colorado (U.S.A.): its History, Geography, and Mining. By R.
Old. London : Brit. and Colorado Mining Bureau.

A Guide to the Study of Insects. By A. 8. Packard, jun., M D.
Salem: Essex Institute.
Arithmetical Exercises for Chemical Students. By C. J. Woodward,

B.Sc.

Ira Connell, or the Evils of Vaccination. London :F', Pitman.
Despotism. Longmans.
Quarterly Notes on Books. Longmans.

The Dietetic Reformer and Vegetarian Messenger. Pitman.

1869. | recewved for Review. 627

Revue Bibliographique Universelle. Paris.
The American Naturalist.

Van Nostrand’s Engineering.

The Chicago Medical Times.

The Westminster.

The Geological Magazine.

Scientific Opinion.

The Popular Science Review.

Cosmos. Edited by Victor Meunier. Paris.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES, &c.
The Journal of the Ethnological Society. Triibner & Co.
Proceedings of the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field Club for 1868.
First Annual Report of the Bournemouth Meteorological Society.
First Annual Report of the Trustees of the Peabody Academy of

Science. Salem, Mass.
Proceedings of the Royal Institution.
3 » Royal Society.
- 5 Royal Astronomical Society.

20 2

NOTICE TO AUTHORS.

* * Authors of Ortamnan Papers wishing Reprints for private ©
circulation may have them on application to the Printers of the
Journal, Messrs. W. Crowres & Sons, 14, Cuartxe Cross, 8.W.,
at a fixed charge of 30s. per sheet per 100 copies, including a
Conourep Wraprer and Trrtz Pace, but such Reprints will
not be delivered to Contributors till Onn Monvru after publication
of the Number containing their Paper, and the Reprints must be
ordered before the expiration of that period.

Oct., 1869.]

( 629 )

INDEX TO VOL. VI.

A.

Axsporr on the Transit of Mercury, 417.

Acetic Acid, Testing of, 273.

Action of Water on Lead, 275.

of Chloride of Lime on Aniline, 279.

Apams on Fossil Tooth of Elephant, 123.

Address of Dr. Sroxss, President of the
British Association, 579.

Prof. SYLVESTER, 587.

Dr. Dests, F.R.S., 593.

Prof. Harkness, F.R.S., 595.

—— Sir Barrie Frere, 611.

—— Mr. C. W. Sremens, F.R.S., 618.

Mr. Bentoam, President Linnean
Society, 525.

Adulteration of Glycerine, 273.

Agates, History of, 304.

Agriculture, Chronicles of, 80, 246,
408, 508.

Chambers of, 246.

Agricultural Labourer, the, 83, 408,

Societies, Proceedings of, 84.

Air, Presence of, in Coal Gas, 106.

Akazea, an African Ordeal Poison, 267.

Aucock on Preservation of Animal
Specimens, 316.

Alizarine, Graebe and Liebermann on,
427.

ALKALINE Lakes of California, the, 14.

Alkaloids, Production of, in Sugar Fer-
mentation, 276.

American Storms, 303.

Anesthetics, Action of, on the Blood,
475.

Aunelids of the Bay of Naples, 321.

Anthropological Society's Proceedings,
255, 414, 510.

Antiquities, Pre-historic, of Lough
Gur, 388.

Archeology (Pre-historic), Chronicles
of, 85, 249, 410, 510.

Argentiferous Sand in the Hartz, 556.

ARTIFICIAL Production of Ice and Cold,
the, 196.

Asteroids, Kirkwood on, 263.

Astronomical Society (Royal), Proceed-
ings of, 95, 258, 417.

Astronomische Gesellschaft, Meetings
of, 917,

Astronomy, Chronicles of, 90, 256, 416,
516.

Atlantic Cable, the French, 537.
Atmosphere, Movements of, 121.
Aveyron, Geology of, 119.
Auroras of 1869, 547.

B.

Batty’s Characteristic British Fossils,
544,

Balani, Impregnation of, 474.

Barrow at Chatham, Lincolnshire, 256.

BaverMan on Turquoise Workings of
Arabia Petreea, 250.

BecquEret on the Influence of Forests
on Climate, 446.

on Electro-capillary Action, 319.

Brcquere.’s Electro-pyrometer, 150.

Beet-root Sugar, 247.

Belemnites, Phillips on, 289.

Bermuda, Floating Dock of, 284.

Bickmore’s Travels in the East Indian
Archipelago (Review), 165.

Brassy, J., Thesaurus Siluricus (Re-
view), 28.

Birt on the Lunar Crater Linné, 263.

Bisulphide of Carbon, Deodorization
of, 273.

Bleaching Wood-pulp, 422.

Blood Corpuscles, Rouleaux of, 569.

Brioxuam on the Rubi of Plymouth, 266.

Boiler Explosions, Fletcher on, 621.

Botanical Exchange Club, the, 528.

Botany, Chronicles of, 98, 264, 422, 523.

of Malvern Hills, 265.

Brachiopoda, Lobley on, 120.

Davidson on, 289

Bridges, New, 112.

Bristol Naturalists’ Society, 179.

Bririso ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCE-
MENT OF SclENCE—Meeting at Exeter,
1869 :—

President’s Address, 579.
Section A, Mathematical and Phy-
sical Science, 587.

B, Chemistry, 593.

— C, Geology, 595.

D, Biology, 602.

EK, Geography and Btlmo-

logy, 611.

G, Mechanical Science, 618.

Broca on Cayemen of Perigord, 88.

630

Bronze, Patina on, 462.

Brownin@ on Sun-spots, 419.

Bucks, Flora of, 103.

Butyro-Salicyl and Butyro-Coumaric
Acid, 277.

C.

CALIFORNIAN Gold-fields, Phillips on,
121.

Calymene, Woodward on, 121.

Canal, Plan of, to unite Upper Nile
and Red Sea, 613.

Canaiiba Wax, Maskelyne on, 280.

Carbolic Acid, a Cure for Snake Bites,
109.

Carbon, Chemical Changes of (Review),
405.

05
—— Determination of, in Cast Iron,
430.
CARPENTER, Dr., and THompson on Sea
Temperature, 299, 543, 605.
Cave-Men of Périgord, 88.
Caucasus, Remains of Salt Mines of,
251.
Central Asia, Tchihatchef on, 615.
Cerium, Woehler on, 105,
CHABRIER on Oxidation of Nitrogen,
274.
Channel Schemes, 433.
Chemistry, Chronicles of, 103, 270, 425,
529.
Chemical Society, Proceedings of, 277,
429, 534.
Chlorine, New Process for Preparation
of, 103.
— Manufacture of, Weldon on, 59+.
—— Application of, to Gold Refining,
277.
Chloride of Potassium, Effect. of, on
Radiant Heat, 132.
Curisty and Larrer’s Reliquize Acqui-
tanice, 87, 411.
Chromium Steel, 313.
Chromyl-Dichloride, Gravity of, 278.
CHRONICLES OF SCIENCE :—
Agriculture, 80, 246, 408, 508.
Archeology ( Pre-historic) and
Ethnology, 85, 249, 410, 510.
Astronomy, 90, 256, 416, 516.
Botany and Vegetable Physiology,
98, 264, 422, 523,
Chemistry, 103, 270, 425, 529.
Engineering, Civil and Mechanical,
110, 282,433, 536,
Geology and Paleontology, 117,
288, 488, 542,
Meteorology, 124, 298, 444, 547.
Mineralogy, 130, 304, 450, 553.
Mining and Metallurgy, 138, 308,
454, 557,

Index.

[ Oct.,

CHRONICLES OF SctENCE—continued.
Physics, Light, Heat, and Elec-
tricity, 144, 315, 464, 564.
Zoology and Animal Physiology,
152, 320, 473, 568.
Cuurcu on the Analysis of a South
African Meteorite, 279.
Citric Acid, New Sources of, 273.
CLAPAREDE’s Writings, 571.
Clover, Effects of Depasturage of, 80.
Coal in Colorado, 310.
Washing, on, by F. C. Danvers,
488.
— Utilization of Small, 539.
Statistics, 456.
— Gas Flame, Frankland on, 147.
Cocoa Extract for Cattle, 248.
Comet II., 1868, Huggins on, 148.
Comets, Tyndall on, 517.
—— and Meteors, Connection between,
95.
Condition of the Agricultural Labourer,
Report on, 83.
Copal, Sources of, 526.
Corals of Chalk and Greensand at
Hunstanton, 288.
Crannoces on Lake Ballyhoe, 89.
CromBiz, Rey. J., on New Lichens,
269,
Cromlechs at Veerajpett, India, 86.
and Crosses in India, 86.
Cro.t on Geological Time, 117.
Crookes, W., F.R.S., on the Great
Solar Eclipse of 1868, 50.
— on the Spectrum Microscope,
464.
— on the Spectral Phenomena of
Opals, 481,
Cutch, the Runn of, 613,
Cystidean, a Living, 272.

D.

Danvers on Coal-washing, 487.

Dawkins und Sanrorp on Pleistocene
Felid, 289,

Deep-sea Dri dgings, 322.

De 1a Rve on Photographs of Transit
of Venus, 261,

on Solar Prominences of August,
1868, 417.

DeLAvrier on a Method of Destroying
Fire-damp, 141.

Depths of the Sea, Wyville Thomson
on, 543.

Diatomacez, Reproduction of, 101.

Diatomaceous Frustule, Structure of,
268.

Diamond Districts of South Africa, 132.

Drxon on the Geology of Woolhope,
118,

1869.

Docks and Harbours, New, 110.

Dorrine’s Rock-boring Machine, 139.

Dumesnit on Preserving Wine, 108.

Du Noyer on Flint Flakes from Car-
rickfergus, 249.

Dunoan, Dr. P. M., on Corals of Chalk
at Hunstanton, 288.

E.

Earthenware Manufacture, Ancient In-
dian, 88.
East Indian Archipelago, the (Review),
165.
Eclipse, the Great Solar, of August 18,
1868, 50, 90, 257.
Eclipse of the Moon, 95.
{jector Condenser, Morton’s, 285.
Electricity, Chronicles of, 151, 319, 470,
566.
Electrical-apparatus Keys, 157, 319.
Electrical Phosphoroscope, an, 567.
Electro-capillary Action, 319,
Elliott, A., on Carbon in Cast Iron, 430.
Engineering, Chronicles of, 110, 282,
433, 536.
Works on, 114, 287, 437, 541.
Engineers, Proceedings of Institution of
Civil, 286, 434.
Proceedings of Institution of Me-
chanical, 286, 436, 540.
Proceedings of Institution of Scot-
land, 287.
Proceedings of Association of Glas-
gow, 436.
Erpmann, Dr., on the Quaternary
Formation of Sweden, 86.
Erxercan Hypothesis of Light, the, 1.
Ethnological Society, Proceedings of,
255, 413.
Journal, the, 413.
Ethyl Iodides, Action of, 274.

F.

Farrparrn, Dr. W., Experimental Re-
searches on the Mechanical Proper-
ties of Steel, 21.

Farmers’ Clubs, 249.

Fauna of Victoria Docks, 323.

Felidx, British Pleistocene, 289.

Fertilization of Scarlet Runner and Blue
Lobelia, 98.

of Gramineze and of Salvia, 524.

Frracson on Tree and Serpent Worship,
410.

Fire-damp in Coal-mines, Mode of de-
stroying, 141.

Fish, Transport of Live, 154.

Flames, Hofmann on, 565.

Index.

631

Flames of Gases, Frankland on, 147,

Flax-bleaching, Kolbe on, 108.

Flint-flakes from Carrickfergus, 249,

in Norfolk, 412.

Floating Dock of Bermuda, 284.

Flora of Middlesex, 102.

of Bucks, 103.

of the Sandwich Islands, 527.

of Manbhiuim, 527.

Fiowrr, J. W.,on Flint Implements in
Norfolk, 412,

Fluorine in the Brain, 427.

Foorer on Stone Implements in Southern
India, 123.

Forsus, D., on Welsh Gold, 451,

— on Babingtonite, 452.

Forests, Influence of, on Climate, 447.

Fossil Botany, 293.

Fossils, Characteristic British, 544.

Fox, Sir Cuas., the projected Mersey
Tunnel, 180.

Col. Lane, on Oghams at Aglish, 89.

FRANKLAND on Gas-flames, 147.

Fraser on Etfects of Rowing on Cireu-
lation, 157.

French Atlantic Cable, the, 537.

Fungi, new Mode of Preserving,
425,

Freezing Mixture, new, 469.

G.

GaALts, Sidebotham on, 272.

Gas Lamp for heating Crucibles, 317.

Gas-works at Canton, 113.

Geological Society of London, Proceed-
ings of, 121, 294, 442, 546.

of Glasgow, 294, 402.

— of Edinburgh, 441.

Quarterly Journal of, 442.

—— Magazine, the, 291, 544,

Time, Croll on, 117.

Classification, a, 353.

Geology and Paleontology, Chronicles,
117, 288, 488, 542.

of Devonshire and Cornwall, 542,

of Woolhope, 119.

GinperT and Lawes on Statistics of
Wheat, 81.

GLADSTONE on Combining Proportion of
Metals, 591.

Glass-rope Sponge, 155.

Glycerine, Adulteration of, 273.

Gopwin-AUsTEN on the Devonian Group,
597.

Gold, 459.

in Nova Scotia, 312.

Welsh, Forbes on, 451.

Gold-field, Sutherland, 510.

Gore on Electrolysis of Hydrofluoric
Acid, 319.

632

Grauam on Hydrogenium, 270.

Grain, Transmutation of, 85.

Graptolitidee, Nicholson on, 120,

Gravyels of Aire Valley, 295.

Gravehills of Cleveland, 255.

Gregory on Diamond Districts of South
Africa, 132.

Ground-Fluke, the, in England, 154.

Gun-Cotton, Explosion of, by Detona-
tion, 318.

H.

Harkness, Prof., on the Pre-historic
Antiquities of Lough Gur, 388. _
Harrwie’s Polar World (Review),
397.

Havpt's Rock-boring Machine, 140.

Hawaiian Islands, Voleanic Phenomena
of, 438.

Heat, Chronicles of, 149, 317, 468,
565.

— of Voltaic Arc, Leroux on, 149.

Heaton, Prof., on the Future Water-
supply of London, 225.

Process of converting Iron into
Steel, 142, 313.

Herrter on the Culture of Opium,
266.

HerscueL on Nebula round 7 Argis,
257.

Himalayas, the, and Central Asia,
617.

His on Early Development of Verte-
brates, 153.

Hormann, Dr., Experiments with Flame,
565.

Hott on the Older Rocks of South
Devon, 124.

Holland, Meteorology in, 125.

Hveerns, W., on Recent Spectroscopic
Researches, 209.

on the Light of Comet II., 1868,

426.

on the Solar Prominences, 258.

Heiz, Ep., on a Ternary Geological
Classification, 353.

Human Remains in Cave of Bruniquel,
510.

Hunstanton, Corals of Chalk, &e., at,
288.

Hent on Geology of Deyonshire and
Cornwall, 542.

Husson on the Action of Iodine on An-
timony, &e., 106.

Houxury, Prof., his Address to the Geo-
logical Society, 443.

Hyarr on American Polyzoa, 155.

Hydraulic Buffers, 620.

Hydrogenium, Graham on, 270.

Hydrochloric Acid, Fumes of, 276.

Inde«.

| Oct.,

I.

Ice and Cold, Artificial Production of,
196.

Indian Shell-banks, 253.

Ocean, Charts of, 303.

— Roads and Railways, Login on, 623,

Injectors, New, 285.

Intellectual Work and Temperature of
the Head, 156.

Iron, Chemical Nature of Cast, Conver-
sion of, by Heaton Process, 142.

— and Zine, Alloy of, 429.

—— Disposition of, in Variegated Strata,
121

Ore, Magnetic and Titaniferous,
Association of, 553.

Refining Process, 463,

Iodine, Action of, on Antimony, 106,

J.

JANSSEN on Red Solar Flames, 91.

Jargonium, Sorby on, 425, 450.

Jaya, Stone Implements of, 253.

JONES, Dr., on Snake Bites, 157.

JoRDAN on Vis Inertise of Ocean Cur-
rents (Review), 301.

Journal of Anatomy, 477.

Jurassic Deposits of the Himalayas, 123.

K.

Kinanan, G. H., on the Sea-weeds of
Yar-Connaught, 331.

Kincar on an Automatic Transit In-
strument, 263.

Kinpr on Phosphorescence by Heat in
Minerals, 150.

Krrxwoop on the Meteor Shower, 262.

on the Asteroids, 263.

Kose on Flax-bleaching, 108.

KoscHKULL on Remains in Salt-mines
of Caucasus, 251.

L.

Lakes, Cause of Blue Colour of, 456,

LamBeEtH OpservaTory, the. By J. R.
Mann, M.D., 342,

Lanxester, Dr., on Teaching of Natural
Science in Schools, 378.

Larvrer and Curisty’s Reliquie Aqui-
tanicse (Review), 87.

Lawes and GiLBert, Wheat Statistics,
81.

Lea, the Valley of, 598.

Leaves, Oblique, 266.

Leech, the Green, 474,

Lerron on Fossil Man, 90,

1869.]

Levy on the Preparation of Nitrogen,
272.

Leroux on Heat of Voltaic Arc, 149,

Levernrier’s Atlas of Atmospheric

e Movements, 125.

Lichens, the, of New Grenada, Repro-
ductive Organs of, 268.

— Culture of freed Gonidia of, 269.

— Nev, 269.

— Cephalodia of, 424.

Licut, the Ethereal Hypothesis of, 1.

— Chronicles of, 144, 315, 464, 564.

— Tyndall's Lectures on, 144.

— Chemical Reaction of (Morren),
592.

Lirowitz on Tests for Adulteration of
Olive-oil, 275.

Lisrnsko on Action of Ethyliodide,
274.

Losey on Vesuvius, 119.

on Brachiopoda, 121.

Lockyer on Red Solar Flames, 91.

Lunar Committee of British Association,
Report of, 589.

— Crater, the, Linné, 263.

Plato, Birt on, 590.

—— Tints, Birt on, 590.

Luteine, Dr. Thudicum on, 467.

a

M.

Magnetic Iron Pyrites, Sidot on, 151.

Matay ARcHIPELAGO, the (Review),
165. ;

MA.uet on the Preparation of Oxygen,
104.

Malleable Iron, Phosphorus in, 281.

Malvern Hills, Botany of, 265.

Mammalian Remains at Norwich, 252.

Man, Fossil, 90.

and the Mammoth, 254.

Mann, Dr. R. J.(and Colonel Strange),
on National Institutions for Scientific
Research, 38.

on Lambeth Observatory, 342.

on the Transit of Mercury, 417,

Manures, Analysis of, 248.

Effect of, on Clover and Grass,
409.

Mars, Opposition of, 93, 262.

Proctor on Rotation of, 420.

Marra on Mars in Opposition, 262.

MASKELYNE on Canaiiba Wax, 280.

Maxwe.tt Masters on the Malvales,
265.

Matches, on Poisonous and Innocuous,
469, 470.

Mechanical Engineering, 113, 536.

Merk and WorrHEeN on Fossils of
Illinois, 291.

Index.

633

Me.tprum’s Charts of Indian Ocean,
303.

on Cyclones, 444.

Mercury, the Transit of, 94, 417.

Mersry TunneEL, the Projected, 180.

Metallurgy, Chronicles of, 142, 312,
461, 563.

Meteor Shower, the, 262.

Meteoric Iron, Meunier on, 271.

Meteorite from South Africa, Analysis
of, 279.

Meteorites, Stanislas Meunier on, 554,

of Iceland, 550.

Meteorological Office, Work of, 125.

Work in Europe, 125.

— in America, 130,

— in India, 130.

Society, the Scottish, 445.

Meteorology, Chronicles of, 124, 298,
444,

Meteors, Luminous, 592.

Microscopic and Molecular Science
(Review), 403.

Microscopical Journal, the Quarterly,
New Types described in, 321.

Society, the, 161.

Middlesex, Flora of, 102.

Minter, Dr., on Connection between
Comets and Meteors, 95.

F. B., on Application of Chlorine
to Gold Refining, 277.

Mills and Millwork, Rankin on (Re-
view), 541.

Mineral Statistics of Victoria, 141.

Oils, 457.

MINERALOGICAL RESOURCES OF IRELAND,
on the, 500.

Works, New, 135.

Mineralogy, Chronicle of, 130, 304, 450,
553.

Minerals, New, 131, 450, 556.

Miners, Underground Life of (Review),
313.

Mining and Metallurgy, Chronicles of,
138, 308, 454, 557.

—— Classes and Schools in Cornwall,
141, 457.

Moa, Hon. G. Mantell on, 513.

Morratr on Oleographs, 276.

Molluscs, Auditory Organs of, 321,

Monnikr on Sugar-refining, 107.

Moon, Heat of the, 518.

Moors, C. H., on Going to Sleep (Re-
view), 401.

Morant, G., on Crannoges on Lake
Ballyhoe, 89.

Morphology, Chronicle of, 153.

Mound Builders on the Mississippi
Valley, 515.

Mt iHerAN on Crosses and Cromlechs
in India, 86.

Muscular Homologies, 473.

634

N.

NATIonAL InstTITUTIONS FOR PRACTICAL
ScrENTIFIC REsEARCH, 38.

Natural Selection in Man, alleged
Failure of, 151.

NaTvuRAL Science TEACHING in Schools,
378.

at the Universities, 497.

Naval Architects, Proceedings of Insti-
tution of, 135.

Nebula, the, around 7 Argis, 257.

New British Plant, 100.

Seaweed, 100.

Minerals, 131, 450, 556.

Ney’s Electrical Apparatus, 151.

NicHo.son on Graptolites, 120.

Nitrogen, Levy on Preparation of, 272.

different Degrees of Oxidation of,
274.

Norwich, Discovery of Mammalian
Remains at, 435.

O.

Oblique Leaves, 266.

Op.ineG on Chemical Changes of Car-
bon (Review), 405.

Ocuam on Roovesmore Fort and Stones
at Aglish, 89.

Oils, Mineral, 457.

Older Rocks, the, of South Devon, 124.

Oleographs, Moffatt on, 276.

Olive Oil, ‘ests for Adulteration of,
275.

Opals, Crookes on Spectrum of, 464,
481.

Opium, Culture of, 266.

Opposition of the Planet Mars, 93, 262.

Ordeal Poison Nut of Madagascar, 100.

Poison (African), the Akasga, 266.

Organs of Taste in Man, 571.

OrIGINAL ARTICLES :—

The Ethereal Hypothesis of Light.
By James Samuelson, Editor, 1.

The Alkaline Lakes of California.
By J. Arthur Phillips, 14.

Experimental Researches on the
Mechanical Properties of Tron
and Steel. By Wm. Fairbairn,
LL.D., F.R.S., 21.

The Treasures of Siluria, 28.

On National Institutions for Prac-
tical Scientific Research. By
Lieut.-Col. Strange, F.R.S., and
Dr. Mann, F.R.A.S., 38.

The Great Solar Eclipse of Aug.
18, 1868. By Wm. Crookes,
F.R.S., 50.

The Scientific Year, 72.

The Malay Archipelago, 165.

Index.

| Oct.,

ORIGINAL ARTICLES—continued.

The Projected Mersey Tunnel and
Railway. By Sir Chas. Fox, 801.

Vesuvius, 188.

The Artificial Production of Ice
and Cold. By Dr. B. H. Paul,
197.

On some recent Spectroscopic Re-
searches. By Wm. Huggins,
F.B.S., 209.

The Future Water-supply of Lon-
don. By C. W. Heaton, F.CS.,
225.

The Sea-weeds of Yar-Connaught
and their Uses. By G. H. Kina-
han, M.R.1.A., 331.

The Lambeth Observatory. By
Dr. R. J. Mann, 342.

On a Ternary Geological Classifi-
cation. By E. Hull, F.R.S., 353.

The Transit of Venus in 1874.
By R. A. Proctor, F.R.A.S8., 370.

On the Teaching of Natural Science
in Schools. By Edwin Lankes-
ter, F.R.S., 378.

The Pre-historic Antiquities of and
around Lough Gur. By Prof.
Harkness, F.R.S., 388.

On the Spectral Phenomena of

Opals. By W. Crookes, F.R.8.,
481.

Coal-washing. By F. C. Danvers,
M.S.E., 487.

On the Teaching of Natural Science
at the Universities, 497.
On the Mineralogical Resources of
Treland, 500.
OsreR on Production of Alkaloids in
Sugar Fermentations, 276.
OwEN on Fossil Reptilia, 289.
— Human Remains in Cave of
Bruniquel, 510.
Oxyzen, Mallett on Preparation, 104.

1?

Pacific Railroad, the, 537.

Paleontographical Society, Publications
of, 288.

Paleontology, Chronicles of, 177, 268,
438, 542.

Parkes and FrRANKLAND on Action of
Water on Lead, 275.

Pawn, Dr., on the Artificial Production
of Ice and Cold, 196.

on Phosphorus in Malleable Iron,
281.

PENGELLY on Kent’s Cavern, 599.

Periodic Comets, the, 97.

Perky, W. H., on Action of Chloride of
Lime on Aniline, 279.

Petrological Works, New, 136.

1869. ]

Puarures, J. A., on the Alkaline Lakes
of California, 14.

—— on Californian Gold-fields, 121.

Dr. John, on Belemnites, 289.

on Vesuvius (Review), 188.

Phono-electroscope, 471.

Phosphorescence in Minerals, 150.

new Phenomena of, 471.

Phosphoric Acid, Separation of, from
Bases, 106.

Phosphorus, Effect of, on Malleable
Tron, 281.

as a Reagent for Metals, 106.

Physics, Chronicles of, 144, 315, 464, 564.

Physiology, Chronicles of, 156, 324, 475,
068.

Prat, Dr., on Stellar Cluster of Perseus,
95

Pilot Charts of the Atlantic, 299.
Pine Leaves, Uses of, 267.
Pitch Lake of Trinidad, 142.
Plants, Action of Cuticle in, 424.
Curvature of Leaves in, 422.
—— Excretion of Carbonic Acid in,
423.
Respiration of Aquatic, 423.
—— Sleep of, 423.
without Roots, 101.
Platinizing Fluid, 428.
Polar World, the (Review), 397.
Expedition, the North, 551.
Polyzoa, Hyatt on American, 155.
Portland Cement, Manufacture of, 116.
Potash Salts, Manufacture, of from Rock
Salt, 132.
Potassium, Effect of Chloride of, on Ra-
diant Heat, 132.
Potentilla Norvegica in Cambridge-
shire, 100.
Pre-historic Antiquities of Lough Gur,
the, 388.
Precious Stones, Sorby and Butler on,
45].
Proceedings of the Metropolitan Learned
Societies :-—
Anthropological, 255, 414.
Astronomical (Royal), 95, 258, 417,
o19.
Chemical, 277, 429, 529. 3
Ethnological, 255, 413.
Geological, 121, 294, 442, 546.
Institution of Civil Engineers, 286,
434,
— Mechanical Engineers, 286,
436, 540.
Naval Architects, 435.
Meteorological, 444, 549.
Proctor, R. A., on Transit of Venus in
1874, 370.
— on Rotation of Mars, 388.
Putnam on Indian Shell-banks, 252.
Pyrometer, Electric, 150.

Index.

635
Q.

Quaternary Formations of Sweden, the,
86.
Quinine, Reaction of, 431.

R.

Railway Signals, 283.
Railways, new, 111, 282.
the Pacific, 537.
Ray on Ancient Indian Earthenware,
88.
Recent SPECTROSCOPIC
Huggins on, 209.
Record of Zoological Literature, the
(Review), 158.
Reep on Shipbuilding in Tron and Steel
(Reveiw), 114.
Rem on Manufacture of Portland
Cement, 116.
Reliquize Aquitanicz (Review), 87, 411.
Reproduction of Diatomaceze, 101.
of Lichens, 268.
Reptilia, Fossil, of the Kimmeridge
Clay, 289.
Reviews oF Recent Screntiric Works.
‘Thesaurus Siluricus. By J.
Bigsby, M.D., 28.
‘The Malay Archipelago. By
Alfred R. Wallace, 165.
‘Travels in the East Indian Archi-
pelago. By <A. S. Bickmore,

165.
‘Vesuvius’ By John Phillips,
Byes i:

RESEARCHES,

F.RB.S., 188.
‘Mount Vesuvius.’
Lobley, F.G.S., 188.
‘Vis Inertiz in the Ocean.’ By
W. L. Jordan, 301.
‘Underground Life ; or, Mines and -
Miners. By L. Simonin, 313.

‘The Polar World’ By Dr. G
Hartwig, 397.
‘On Going to Sleep. By Ch. H.

Moore, 401.

‘On Microscopic and Molecular
Science. By Mrs. M. Somer-
ville, 403.

‘Six Lectures on the Chemical
Changes of Carbon. By W.
Odling, F.R.S., 405.

‘On Tree and Serpent Worship.’
By J. Ferguson, F:B.8., 410.

‘The Scenery of England and
Wales” By D. Mackintosh,
E.G.S., 575.

‘On Spectrum Analysis.’
E. Roscoe. 576.

Respiration, Movement of the Chest in,
569,

By H.

636

Reynes on Geology of Aveyron, 119.

Reynoups, Dr. J. E., on Isolation of
Sulphur Urea, 280.

Riviere du Loup, Ashe on, 519.

Rock-boring Machines, 139, 140.

Rouleaux of Blood Corpuscles, 569.

Rov tr on Javanese Stone Implements,
253.

Rubi, the, of Plymouth, 266.

8.

Samvrtson, James (Hditor), on the
Ethereal Hypothesis of Light, 1.

Sand, Argentiferous, in the Hartz, 556.

Sandwich Islands, Flora of, 527.

Sacnpers, [TRELAWNEY, on the Hima-
layas and Central Asia, 617.

Scumip on Phosporus as Re-agent for
Metals, 106.

Scientific Year, the, 72,

Works (Notices of), 397.

Scorpion, Experiments with, 326.

SEA-WEEDS, the, of Yar Connaught. By
G. H. Kinahan, 331.

Sepsin, Sulphate of, 109.

Sewage Utilisation at Liverpool, 247.

— at Barking, 247

Shell-mounds, Artificial, 88.

Shipbuilding in Iron and Steel, Reed
on, 114. .

Shooting Stars, the November, 92.

SrpesoTHamM on Galls, 273.

Srpor on Magnetic Iron Pyrites, 151.

Siluria, the Treasures of (Review), 28.

Silver, Wet Process of Estimating. By
Stas, 272.

Sitvestrri on New Sourcesof Citric Acid,
273.

Simmonps on Uses of Pine-leayes,
267.

Smonrn’s Underground Life of Miners,
313.

Sleep, on (Review), 401.

Smoke, Effects of, on Vegetation, 524.

Snake Bites, Jones on, 157.

Poison, 325.

Sonar Ecuirse, the Great, of Aug. 18,
1868, 50.

— Flames, Lockyer on, 91.

Janssen on, 91, 315.

— Prominences, Huggins on, 258.

De la Rue on, 417.

SomervitLr, Mrs., on Microscopic and
Molecular Science (Review), 403.

Sorsy on Jargonium, 425, 450.

and Butter on Structure of Pre-
cious Stones, 451.

SrEecTRAL PHENOMENA OF OPALS, on thie.
By W. Crookes, F.R.S., 481.

Spectroscopic Researches, Recent, 209.

Index.

[ Oct.,

Spectrum Microscope, Crookes on, 464.

—— of Uranus, Secchi on, 464.

Sponge, Glass-rope, 155.

— a New Vitreous, 573.

Stannary Court, Changes in, 308, 455.

Sras on preparing Sulphuric Acid, 105,

Sras on Wet Process of Estimating
Silver, 272.

Steel, Chronium, 313.

SroticzKy on Jurassic Deposits of the
Himalayas, 123.

Stoxes, Prof., on Reaction of Quinine,
430.

Stone, Mr., on Transit of Venus in 1769,
259.

— Implements of India, 123.

of Java, 253.

StrancE, Col., and Dr. Mann on Na-
tional Scientific Institutions, 38.

Sugar Refining, Monnier on, 107.

Wallace on, 281.

Sulphur in Pyrites, Wéhler on, 105.

— Urea, Isolation of, 280.

Mines, Sicilian, 142.

Sulphurie Acid, Stas on, 105.

Sun Spots, Browning on, 419.

Sylvine (Chloride of Potassium), 132.

fl i

Taste, Organs of, in Man, 571.

TCHIHATCHEF on Central Asia, 615.

Teaching, the, of Natural Science in
Schools, 378.

at the Universities, 497.

Trpsutts on the Star 7 in Argus,
97.

Telegraphic Weather Intelligence, 125.

Telegraphs, Government and the, 536.

Temperature of the Sea, 299.

ier of Head and Intellectual Work,

Ms

— of Human Body, 568.

— Underground, 590.

TrnNANt’s Party to view Solar Eclipse
of August, 1868, 90, 257.

Ternary Geological Classification, Hull
on a, 353.

Thermo-electric Battery of Galena, 567.

THomrsoN WyYVILLE on Sea Depths,
543. ;

THoRPE on Specific Gravity of Chromyl-
Dichloride, 278.

Ashes of Diseased Orange Tree,
278.

Tuupicum on Luteine, 467.

Tin Mines of Siam, the, 311.

Tomiinson on the F'uming of Hydro-
chlorie Acid, 276.

Transit of Mereury, the, 94.

Instrument, an Automatic, 263

1869.]

Transits of Venus, 96, 259, 370, 522.

Transmutation of Grain, 85.

Transport of Live Fish, 154.

Trappean Conglomerates of Middle-
town Hill, 599.

Tree and Serpent Worship, Ferguson
on (Review), 410.

Trinidad, Pitch Lake of, 142.

Turquoise Workings of Arabia Petrea,
250.

Tyxor on Quaternary Gravels of Aire
Valley, 295.

TynpDALL's Lectures on Light, 144.

on Comets, 577.

U.
Uranus, Spectrum of, 464.
Utilization of Sewage Committee, Re-
port of, 622.
Ve

Venus, Transit of, in July, 1769, 96,
259.

Proctor on, 370, 522.

Transits of, 259.

Vertebrates, Early Stage of, 152.

Vesuvius, Lobley on, 119, 188.

Phillips on, 188.

Victoria, Mineral Statistics of, 141.

VIELLE on the Seychelles, 474.

Vis Inertize of Ocean Currents, 301.

Vitrified. Fort near Inverness, 511.

Vortcrer, Dr. A., on Effects of De-
pasturage of Clover, 80.

on Manures, 248, 409.

on Searcity of Sulphate of Am-

monia, 248.

Index.

637

W.

Wat.ace’s Travels inthe Malay Archi-
pelago (Review), 165.

Dr., on Sugar-refining, 281.

Water Supply of London, the Future,
225

Weather
125.

Intelligence, Telegraphic,

Wheat, Home Produce, Imports and

Consumption of, 81.
Wine Preserving, Dumesnil on, 108.
Wings of Insects, Movements of, 570.
Wos ter on Cerium, 105.
— on Separation of Phosphoric Acid
from Bases, 106.
— on Sulphur in Pyrites, 105.
Wolf, New Species of Tasmanian, 154,
Woopwarp on Calymene, 121.
— on Man and the Mammoth, 254.
— on Merostomata, 288.
— on Valley of the Lea, 598.
Woolhope, Geology of, 118.

¥:
Year, the Scientific, 72.

Z.

Zandr, the, or Pike-perch, 474.

ZIRKEL on Microscopie Nepheline, 131.

Zoological Literature, the Record of
(Review), 158.

Zoology, Chronicles of, 152, 320, 473,
568.

END OF YOL. VI.

London: Printed by W. Clowes & Sons, Stamford Street and Charing Cross.
y g

( 638 ) [Oct., 1869.

LIST OF PLATES IN VOLUME VI.

PAGE

Microscopical Objects to illustrate the article on the Ethereal Hypothesis
of Light... Sc 14
Bieta to illustrate article on the ‘Great Solar Eclipse 3: ee |
Proposed Tunnel under the River Mersey from Liverpool to Woodside .. 180
Spectra to illustrate article on Some Recent Spectroscopic Researches .. .. 209
Ideal Sketch of Submarine Garden on the Coast of Yar-Connaught .. .. 331
Table to illustrate article on a Ternary Geological Classification .. 353

The Earth as seen from the Sun during the Transit of Venus in 1874 (two
Illustrations) 5 1 2500, Gein
Sketch Map of Lough Gur and the surrounding country ono he) oe
Spectra of Opals... .. : + =) *%. See
The Binocular Spectrum Microscope ae ae Gah = List Teer ead se a
Coal Washing Apparatus 2... is< 0 20.5) Ge ae i eae

LIST OF WOODCUTS IN VOLUME VI.

Diagram to illustrate probable Mode in which ign ee Hrenes & various

Substances (three Woodcuts) .. } 10
Path of the Eclipse of August 18, 1868 .. ia sy <Se
Eclipse of August 18, 1868, showing § Solar Prominences.. .. .. .. «55
Another view of the same .. . 5 Ge. oahy nee eee
PAMOGHER VIOW ty, «2% boss kes ceipeths . 200 gan gdae ia Se) eee
ATIOUDOT: VICW) Soy. scr xex! Bel eel fos |-~ ate sig sae. ee Va 2 re
Another view .. Pe ce emer Coe OL
Solar Protuberance, after Lockyer ee ee eee ee se
Oar OM MATS 2s) irsct” se. set's. we” Yen mower Teiny oa wean tee utero
Another view of Mars .. Spies. wisi. wets Nee 66) Raa
Vignette (Palm Tree and Head Hunter) i ae, Mah Seewis See been aie:
Vignette (Shooting the Bird of Bem) iepe heh gp ei tena tsa: ee
Harrison's Tee-making Machine 3.0 ., ae wer poe) cs Ye an) usa em
Carré’s = 3 ve Cm ee eee aE
Kirk’s 33 sic) ues. a cle. a died mney wl jen site se cee Sn nO
Reece’s is Fo eed <T-8eC ea RG tae es | See
Spectrum of Sirius .. see Sar See Gan | oe ee ec
Spectroscope used by Mr. Huggins oe. “sev, caw Caw Vidie® Reg ess) Aiegl ee
Another do. ,, 3 dic jew ay” owls Gaertn
Morton’s Ejector Condenser .._. ie ese ie a
Collecting Sea-weed on the Coast of Yar-Connanght ch Mice Giel Oa oA ae
Diagram illustrating a Transit of Venus .. Eee ek rt ee fe

Fy loon 1874. 372
Human Skull and Lower ok discovered near Monolith, Lough ‘Gur r (two

Woodcuts) .. te 391
Coal-washing Mapbitih:i.) 1 40%, Sawa eke en hg

another formof is as eae ee

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