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CES OF
DOMESTIC POULTRY

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Edward Brown, F.L.S.

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UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS
LIBRARY

SF

489
A1B7
COP. 2

c^«o

MB. EDWAB.D BSOWN'.S WOBKS.

POULTRY -KEEPING AS AN IN-
DUSTRY FOR FARMERS AND
COTTAGERS.

By EDWARD BPvOWN, F.L.S ,

Fifl/t Editinv. Fulln ilhiairnlnl. Crown iio.,
(is. net.

INDUSTRIAL POULTRY-KEEPING,

Fi(?ly ilhintrnlnl. Paper Imnrih Is.

EDWARD ARNOLD,
LONDON: 41 * 43 MADDOX STREET, W.

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

DAKK, OR COLOUKED, DOKKINGS.

RACES

Domestic Poultry

EDWARD BROWN, F.L.S.

SECRETARY OF THE NATIONAL POULTRY ORGANIZATION SOCIETY ; LECTURER ON AVICULTURE

AT THE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, READING; AUTHOR OF 'POULTRY-KEEPING

AS AN INDUSTRY FOR FARMERS AND COTTAGERS,' ETC., ETC.

WITH ILLUSTRATIONS

LONDON
EDWARD ARNOLD

41 & 43 MADDOX STREET, BOND STREET, W.
1906

[All rights reserved}

LIBRARY

UNIVERSITY OF

MAS^^C'IjCETTS

AMHERST, MASS.

C 3(^,r

PEEFACE

OF works dealing with the races of poultry there are many, but in the majority consideration is
primarily applied to external characters. Economic properties are relegated to a secondary
position, or, where that is not so, the number of races dealt with is limited, and no attempt is
made to include breeds of other countries, which, however little they are known at the present time,
may yet hold an important position in the future. The attention now paid to poultry-breeding all over
the civilized world is great, and rapidly increasing. To this we owe the development of distinctive races
evolved by the special conditions of each country, but which are frequently capable of improvement
when transported elsewhere. Hence it is necessary to constantly revise our ideas as to the relative
values of the different breeds of poultry, more especially by reason of the fact that the attention to
economic qualities which, has marked the last fifteen years has led to enhanced production, and may be
expected to do so to an even greater extent in the future. To this end new breeds, by which is meant
those existent in other countries, and such as are formed by original combinations, should be heartily
welcomed so long as they are of practical value. My object has been, therefore, to focus information
as to the races of poultry met with in all the countries where breeding is conducted upon advanced
lines, but to keep foremost the essential and profitable qualities, rather than to permit merely external,
and consequently secondary, characters to absorb attention. How far this objective is realized the
following pages will show. No attempt is made to deal with ornamental or purely fancy breeds.
I My own study of poultry-breeding has now extended over a period of more than thirty years.

During that time the progress made has been phenomenal, not merely in the development of commercial
poultry-breeding, as indicated in the companion volume, ' Poultry-Keeping as an Industry for Farmers
and Cottagers,' but also in respect to the number of breeds at our disposal. At the commencement of
the period named, the Langshan and the Leghorn, the Plymouth Rock and the Wyandotte, the Cam-
pine and the Orpington, the Ancona and the Indian Game, the Maline and the Faverolles, amongst
fowls, the Pekin and Indian Runner ducks, and the American Bronze turkey, not to mention many
others, were entirely or practically unknown to the greater number of British breeders, and it is
difficult to imagine what would be the position of affairs were these races swept out of existence. It
is not too much to say that they have contributed enormously to the success attained, and that they
. have done more, directly and indirectly, than all the older breeds to make profitable modern develop-
ments.

In the first edition of the work already referred to announcement was made that it was my inten-
tion to write a work dealing with the different races of poultry, but that promise has not been fulfilled
until now. One reason was that on approaching the subject it was found there was a large number of
breeds existent of which little was known, even in the countries to which they were indigenous, and
respecting which information was unavailable. Consequently, I determined, as opportunity offered, to
visit these countries, to examine the birds where they were common, in order to personally see them,
^ learn their characters and qualities, and thus be able to form a judgment as to their values. During
cr> the last few years, in fulfilment of this object, I have visited France, Belgium, Holland, Germany, Den-
'"^ mark, Russia, Austria, Hungary, the Balkan States, Italy, and Spain, and the results of these tours,
C7i V

vi PREFACE

covering the greater part of Europe, are seen in the following pages. Many races unknown before to
British and American breeds have been found, and the type of others, of which rumour had spoken,
determined. As might be expected, many races new to Western knowledge were thus revealed, for the
process of evolution of poultry is as varied as the conditions under which they are kept.

A more favourable time for these observations could hardly have presented itself. Throughout
Europe, as in other parts of the world, within the last decade there has been a great awakening to the
importance of poultry as a branch of farm stock, and in respect to the food-supply of our great and
growing populations. Hence they have received more attention than at any period of human history,
and one of the first steps is seen in the improvement of existing breeds and the introduction of newer
and more profitable stock. When this stage is reached, productiveness in respect to eggs and flesh
becomes of supreme importance, and a race is judged by what it will yield in either or both of these
directions, not what its colour of plumage or fancy points may be. Many of the breeds of poultry lack
much in respect to fixity of type, and the great majority, more especially those found in Mid, Eastern,
and Southern Europe, cannot compare favourably in productiveness with the best races met -ivith in
Western Europe and America. But they are capable of great improvement in these directions, and
some, at least, will doubtless ere long, when the principles of selection and breeding are applied to thenij
be equal to, and perhaps take the place occupied by, our more prominent breeds, -svhen the latter have
lost some, at least, of their present virility as a result of our intensive methods.

An attempt is made to trace the origin, history, and distribution of domestic poultry, and to show
the evolution of breeds and their classification. The question of distribution is of very great interest,
and certain great streams, following the migrations of man, the trend of political influence or commerce,
can be traced. Upon this point there is much to be learnt. The farther afield the student travels, the
more is the necessity for wider observation apparent. It is evident that one great stream passed by or
from China through Central Asia and Siberia to Eastern Europe, perhaps, following the great
Mongol invasion in the thirteenth century, but upon that we have no reliable information. Probably
many new races of poultry will yet be discovered in Asia, and there is no part of the world which
appears to offer the same results to the traveller in search of fresh forms of poultry as that continent.
Doubtless its treasures will be revealed some day.

In respect to classification, I have followed in Chapter II. the plan first adopted in the companion
volume, and which has since become general for utility poultry, but have greatly extended it by the
inclusion of tables, giving in a concise form leading characters and qualities. But in dealing with the
races of fowls I have been compelled, for simplicity of treatment, to divide them in accordance -with the
countries of their origin. As far as possible, the origin, history, and economic qualities of each breed
are given, as well as a description, and it is believed that this method will facilitate reference, and lead
to appraisement of their respective merits. It will be seen that I have not laid an undue stress upon
external characters, but given them their proper position, which is much lower than is generally
accorded to them by breeders for exhibition. And, further, as explained in Chapter XVII., I have paid
a lesser amount of attention to the colour of the females than of the males, believing that the fixing of
rigid standards for hens is wrong in principle and against Nature. The system here advocated is
antagonistic to all the previously-adopted canons, and I am prepared for very strong criticism upon this
point. It is, however, the result of wide and careful observation, and I believe that in process of time
it will be generally accepted by all who do not make ' fancy ' characters their chief object in breeding.
This work is not written for fanciers as such. I have no objection to them nor yet to their methods,
but their aim is not that of the practical poultry-breeder, and it is the latter I seek to serve. The
judging-table in the Appendix will not appeal to breeders of exhibition poultry, but may prove useful
where utility is the main object.

Special attention is called to the chapters dealing with external characters and their values, and
the laws of breeding and their application. The former, I believe for the first time, seeks to learn the

PREFACE vii

correlation between external characters and internal qualities. That every part of the fowl economy-
has some meaning or influence can scarcely be questioned. In the light of greater observation and
research some of this may need revision, but it is an earnest attempt to solve an admittedly difficult
problem. If we can appreciate the real value of the variations found in the races of poultry the work
of breeders will be greatly simplified. As to the laws of breeding, here, too, the extension of our know-
ledge must lead to great results — to that quicker attainment of our objective, and to the avoidance of
those errors which may hinder complete success.

Poultry-breeding is now an international pursuit, knowing no frontiers or arbitrary divisions. To
facilitate intercommunication, I have prepared a nomenclature of races and sub-races in several
languages, which is given in the Appendix, in which is also given a Scale for judging poultry on
utility lines.

As far as possible I have acknowledged all references in the text, and where illustrations have been
supplied in many cases these are named. But in other ways I have received assistance from many of
those who are interested in this subject. The Count de las Navas, Librarian to His Majesty the King
of Spain at the Royal Palace, Madrid, has kindly made researches as to the introduction of the turkey
into Europe, part of which reached me after the earlier pages had gone to press, and are given in
Appendix C ; Mr. F. R. Eaton, Secretary of the Black Sumatra Game Club, has supplied me with informa-
tion as to that breed ; Mr. R. Houwink junior. Secretary of the Dutch Poultry Society, has aff'orded
invaluable assistance as to the Dutch breeds ; and Mr. J. Pirkner, Chief Inspector of Live Stock, Ministry
of Agriculture, Budapest, has helped greatly in connection with the Magyar races ; M. Louis Vander
Snickt, of Brussels, has revised the chapter dealing with Belgian races ; Herr Wulf, editor of the
Geflilgel Zeitung, Leipsic, that upon German breeds ; and Mr. A. F. Hunter, of West Roxbury, Massa-
chusetts, U.S.A., that upon American races. I have received valuable aid in the preparation of the
nomenclature of races and s\ib-races from the Count de las Navas, of Madrid ; Mr. S. Spanjaard, of The
Hague ; Herr Wulf, of Leipsic ; Mr. W. A. Kock, of Copenhagen ; Mr. Endre Gyorgy, late Hungarian
Minister of Agriculture, and Mr. J. H. C. Rickehaus, of St. Petersburg and London. Translations
have been made for me by Mr. E. T. S. Dugdale from Italian and Spanish ; by Mrs. Bentley from
Dutch ; by Mdlle. Gzosy from Hungarian ; and by my son Mr. Will Brown, from German works. I
have to gratefully acknowledge permission to use the following illustrations and blocks : The editor of .
PouUry, Black Leghorn and Black Orpington ; Messrs. Vinton and Co., Limited, Silver Spangled Ham-
burgh cock, Aseel cock, and pair of Courtes Pattes ; Mr. R. Houwnk junior, of Meppel, Holland,
Dutch breeds ; Mr. J. Pirkner, of Budapest, Magyar fowls and White turkeys ; the Hon. Sybil
Amherst, Embden geese ; Dr. Wheeler, of the State Agricultural Experiment Station, Kingston,
Rhode Island, U.S.A., African and Chinese geese; and the Royal Agricultural Society of England,
Cambridge Bronze turkey, as well as others whose names are given below the respective blocks.

EDWARD BROWN.

The Chestnuts,
Thbale, Berks,

CONTENTS

VII.
VIII.

XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.

ORIGIN, HISTORY, AND DISTRIBUTION OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF BREEDS

BRITISH RACES OF FOWLS -----

ASIATIC RACES OF FOWLS . . _ -

ITALIAN RACES OF FOWLS -

FRENCH RACES OF FOWLS -

SPANISH RACES OF FOWLS -

BELGIAN RACES OF FOWLS -

DUTCH RACES OF FOWLS

GERMAN RACES OF FOWLS -

OTHER EUROPEAN RACES OF FOWLS

AMERICAN RACES OF FOWLS

RACES OF DOMESTIC DUCKS

RACES OF DOMESTIC GEESE - - - -

RACES OF DOMESTIC TITRKEYS

EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF POULTRY AND THEIR VALUES

LAWS OF BREEDING AND THEIR APPLICATION

1
11

23

.56
71
82
99
112
123
130

180
193'
203
210

APPENDICES

A. NOMENCLATURE OF RACES AND SUB-RACES OF POULTRY

B. JUDGING ON UTILITY LINES - . - -

C. FURTHER NOTES ON THE ORIGIN OF THE TURKEY -

218
227

INDEX

LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS

Dark, or Coloured, Dorkings

Gallus Ferrugineus -

External Characters of a Fowl

Various Types of Combs of Fowls -

Feather Markings of Fowls

Silver-grey Dorking Cock -

Silver-grey Dorking Hen -

White Dorking Fowls

lied Sussex Fowls -

Old English Game Fowls -

Modern Show Game Fowls -

Indian (Cornish) Game Fowls

Silver-spangled Hamburgh Cock -

Black Hamburgh Fowls

Redcap Fowls

Scotch Grey Fowls -

Black Orpington Cock

Buff Orpington Fowls

Light Brahma Cock (English type)

Light Brahma Cock (American typo)

Dark Brahma Fowls (English type)

Partridge Cochin Fowls

Bed Malay Cock -

Black Langshan Fowls

White Aseel Cook -

Black Sumatra Fowls

White Leghorn Fowls

Buff Leghorn Fowls

Black Leghorn Cock

Ancona Fowls

White Bresse Cock -

White Bresse Hen -

La Fleohe Fowls

Crevecoeur Fowls

Courtes Pattes Fowls

Houdan Fowls

Faverolles Fowls

Castilian Fowls

Minorca Fowls of 100 years ago

Black Minorca Fowls

Andalusian Fowls -

Prat Fowls -

Silver Campine Fowls

Silver Braekel Cock

Silver Braekel Hen -

Frontispit

85

77.

87

78.

89

79.

91

80.

94

81.

100

82.

103

83.

105

84

108

85

110
113

86.

87

115

88.

115

89

Brabant Fowls

Crested Dutch Fowls

Silver-laced Owl-bearded Dutch Fowls

Single-combed Friesland Fowls -

Rose-combed Friesland Fowls

Drente Fowls

Lakenfelder Fowls

White Ranaelsloh Fowls -

Mottled Schlotterkamm Fowls

Bergische Grower Fowls -

Silver Thuringian Fowls -

Silver Polish Fowls

White Magyar Cock

Barred Plymouth Rock Cock

Barred Plymouth Rock Pullet

White Plymouth Rock Cock

Buff Plymouth Rock Cock

Buff Plymouth Rock Pullet

Silver Wyandotte Fowls -

Golden Wyandotte Cock -

Golden Wyandotte Pullet -

White Wyandotte Fowls -

Silver-pencilled Wyandotte Fowls

Single-combed Rhode Island Red Pullet

Rose-combed Rhode Island Red Cock

Rose-combed Rhode Island Red Pullet

Bouen Ducks

Aylesbury Duck -

Pekin Ducks

Indian Runner Ducks

Huttegem Ducks -

Blue Swedish Ducks

Roman Goose

Embden Gander -

Embden Goose

Toulouse Geese

Pomeranian Gander

White Chinese Geese

Brown Chinese Geese

African Geese

Black Norfolk Turkeys -

White Turkeys

Cambridge Bronze Turkey

Bronze American Turkey Cook

Bronze American Turkey Hen

121
125
126
127
128
129
131
132
133
184
136
140
147
151
152
153
154
155
156
158
159
160
161
162
162
164
167
170
172
173
1.75
176
181
182
182

EACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

CHAPTER I

ORIGIN, HISTORY, AND DISTRIBUTION OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

Fowl — Duck— Goose — Turkey

IN endeavouring to trace the origin o£ our domesti-
cated breeds of poultry, it is essential at the outset
to remember that the first civilization of man was
Asiatic, which to a large extent explains why so many
(species of domestic animals have come to us from that
continent. When man lived in the primitive state, and
was a savage, as can be proved by the small number
of uncivilized races yet known, animals and birds
were wild also. He lived by hunting and shooting,
migrating to follow the supply of food, and increasing
— or decreasing — in numbers largely in conformity
with the number of animals and birds within his
reach, for he existed principally upon the flesh of
those creatures which could be trapped or killed.
Many of the earlier forms of arms were apparently
devised to assist him in his work.

Not until man began to realize the value of wealth
did he attempt to bring the lower races into direct sub-
jection. It is clearly shown in the Old Testament
Scriptures that the earliest developments were when
the ancients became owners of flocks and herds. As
Mr. G. L. Gomme * states : ' The Aryans, when they
entered India, were almost entirely a pastoral people,
whose wealth consisted in their cattle, and who looked
on agricultm^'e and trade as degrading.' It was not
until the need for mutual protection or increasmg
population had made the continuance of a nomadic
life almost impossible, which led to the establishment of
village settlements, that poultry of various species were
domesticated. Then the food-supply must be provided
near by. Cultivation of the land and domestication of
smaller animals and bu-ds naturally followed. How
this was accomplished need not delay us, but there is
a deep vein of truth in Rudyard Kipling's ' Just-so
Stories. 'f The animals received in return for sacrifice
of liberty comfort, protection, and food. In process of
time the greater requirements of growing numbers of

* ' The Village Community,' by G. L. Gomme (Londou,
1S90), p. 29.
t ' Just-so Stories,' by Budyard Kipling (London, 1902).

consumers led to the adoption of new methods, and
with fixed habitations food must be produced at or
brought to the villages. In so far as poultry were con-
cerned, domestication was comparatively easy, either
by capture of the parent stock, or by taking alive the
birds when young in the first place, and later by
securing eggs from the wild nests and hatching these
by means of specimens already tamed. It is known in
certain species how quickly the wild instinct can be
subjugated, and the progeny induced to accept new
conditions. It is therefore with these facts before us
that we approach the consideration of the origin of the
species of poultry.

FOWL.

Genus : Galli.

NoMENCLAi'UBE : English, Fowl; French, Volaille ; German,
Gefliigel ; Otitch, Hoender ; Italian, Pollame ; Spanish,
Gallidos; Danish, Honse ; Iiwuiarian,'Fa,]\ak; Russian,
Ptitsa domashni.

Considerable attention has been given to the study
of the origin of the domestic fowl. Naturalists are
agreed so far, but there are differences upon which
they are unable to agree. For a time the opinion of
the late Professor Darwin that our domestic fowls are
all derived from one stock— the Oallus BanMva, or
jungle fowl of India — found almost general acceptance,
but more recently doubts have been thrown upon that
view. The question is therefore still in a state of
uncertainty, and in the absence of clearer information
than has yet been obtained it is likely to remaiir so.
There is one thing certain, however, that the majority
of our breeds of fowl are derived from the wild-fowl
named above, and also that the fowl originated in
Eastern and Southern Asia.

Naturalists recognise four members of the genus
Gallus. These are as follows : (1) The G. Sonneratii,
which is found in the more southern districts of
India. At one time it was thought to be the parent

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

of our domestic breeds, but students have noted in it
marked differences. Tlie domestic fowl does not exhibit,
so far as has yet been seen, any of its peculiarities,
and there is now no one who accords it that position.
(2) The G. Stanleyii, which is only found in the
island of Ceylon. With the exception of the colour of
the comb, this genus resembles the domestic fowl so
closely that some naturalists were at one time inclined
to regard it as the parent species. It has, however, a
singularly different voice, which is unknown in domestic
fowls. (3) The G. furcatus. This variety inhabits
Java and the islands eastward as far as Flores, but
it is so different in many characteristics from the
tamed fowl that no one regards it as the parent of any
races. It has green plumage, an unserrated comb, and
a single median wattle. (4) The G. ferrugineus or
Bankiva (Fig. 1). Of this variety Darwin* says: 'It has
a much wider geographical range than the three pre-
vious species. It inhabits Northern India as far west
as Scinde, and ascends the Himalayas to a height of
4,000 feet ; it inhabits Burmah. the Malay Peninsula,
the Indo-Chinese countries, the Philippine Islands, and
the Malayan Archipelago as far eastward as Timor.
This species varies considerably in the wild state.
Mr. Blyth informs me that the specimens, both male
and female, brought from near the Himalayas are
rather paler coloured than those brought from other
parts of India, whilst those from the Malay Peninsula
and Java are brighter coloured than the Indian birds.
. . . The wild G. Bankiva agrees most closely
with the black-breasted red game breed in colouring
and in all other respects, except in being smaller and
in the tail being carried more horizontally ; but the
manner in which the tail is carried is highly variable
in many of our breeds. ... It is a significant fact
that the voice of both male and female G. BanMva
closely resembles, as Mr. Blyth and others have noted,
the voice of both sexes of the common domestic fowl,
but the last note of the crow of the wild bird is rather
less prolonged. Captain Hutton, well known for his
researches into the natural history of India, mforms
me that he has seen several crossed fowls from the
wild species and the Chinese Bantam ; these crossed
fowls breed freely with bantams, but unfortunately
were not crossed inter se. Captain Hutton reared
chickens from the eggs of the G. Bankiva; and
these, at first very wild, afterwards became so tame
that they would crowd round his feet. He did not
succeed m rearing them to maturity, but, as he remarks,
" no wild galhnaoeous bird thrives well at first on hard
grain." Mr. Blyth also fomid much difficulty in keep-
ing G. Bankiva in confinement. In the Philippine
Islands, however, the natives succeed much better, as
they keep wild cocks to fight with their domestic game
birds. Sir Walter Elliot informs me that the hen of

* ' Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,'
by Charles Darwin (London, 18S5), vol. i., p. 247.

a native domestic breed of Pegu is undistinguish-
able from the hen of the wild G. Bankiva, and the
natives constantly catch wild cocks by taking tame
cocks to fight with them in the woods. Mr. Crawford
remarks that from etymology it might be argued that
the fowl was first domesticated by the Malay and the
Javanese. It is also a curious fact that wild specimens
of the G. Bankiva brought from the countries east
of the Bay of Bengal are far more easily tamed than
those of India. Nor is this an unparalleled fact ; for,
as Humboldt long ago remarked, the same species
sometimes evinces a more tameable disposition in one
country than in another. If we suppose that the
G. Bankiva was first tamed in Malaya and afterwards
imported into India, we can understand the observa-
tion made to me by Mr. Blyth, that the domestic fowls
of India do not resemble the wild G. Bankiva of India
more closely than do those of Europe.'

We have given at length these particulars respecting
G. Bankiva, for whether the opinion that all our
domestic breeds do not owe their origin to this genus
ever becomes an established theory or not, it is certain
that the great majority of our varieties are its descen-
dants, and therefore it claims from us the greatest-
share of attention. That which has brought doubts
into the muids of students has been the habits of the
heavy feather-legged races from China — Brahmas and
Cochins — which are altogether different from most of
the other breeds of poultry. It is true that poultry-
breeders have held this opinion always, but then ideas
have been disregarded by naturalists as unscientific.
The differences of habit were described in the Field
newspaper by a writer as follows : ' After a year or
two of preliminary examination ' (this refers to fifty
years ago, when Cochins were first introduced), ' I
adopted this method of managing the Cochin Chinas :
As soon as a brood was as big as thrushes it was taken
with its nurse and put into a field. The hen was cooped
until she was settled to her range, after which the coop
was removed, and an ordinary tea-chest, laid upon its
side, was put in its place, an old door or some loose
boards being leaned over its mouth. "^Tien the bnds
got as big as partridges even this shelter was removed,
for it was noticed that, unlike other poultry, which in
similar circumstances seek the hedgerows and trees
for shelter, the Cochin Chinas preferred to "jug," as
partridges do in the middle of the fields. The habit
is in itself quite unlike that of any other variety of
poultry, all of which are, when free to choose, arboreal
in their habits. The next distinction was seen when
the pullets began to lay. If there were any coop
accessible which had been used as a lodging, they
would deposit their very abnormally coloured eggs
therein ; but if there were not, the descendants of some
imported bnds never sought for a place of shelter under
a bush or some hidden spot as other poultry do, but
always chose some heap of mould or small elevation.

ORIGIN OF THE DOMESTIC FOWL

and laid on the top of this, quite indifferent to the eggs
being exposed to sight, so they were above the ordinary
level of the land. This peculiarity is strongly marked.

' From these idiosyncrasies I have inferred that this
variety of fowl could not be descended from the tree-
roosting, bush-haunting ancestor of the game cock, etc.
All the indications, slight, perhaps, m themselves, yet
not without weight when taken together, go to show
that the ancestors of the Shanghai must have been
found by "the humans" who annexed them in
quarters unlike an Indian jungle, i.e., in some
scantily-vegetated desert, and watered — when watered
at all — by rivers fed at a distance by melted snow,
which came down in force when the bu'ds were sitting
on eggs. The extreme stupidity of the Shanghai
proves that it could have had, in its native habitat, few-
enemies to contend against, as does its readiness to
accept the protection of man. When both were free
to range at will, the game fowl always "cut" the
Cochin most persistently ; and for the most part the
game cock, when at liberty, will refuse to accept the
advances of the widowed Shanghai hen. He will
generally drive her away.'

It is evident from the tone of Darwin's works that
he was well aware of the somewhat slender evidence
in support of the theory that the domestic fowls are all
descended from one species, for he says :* ' We have
not such good evidence with fowls as with pigeons of
all the breeds being descended from a single primitive
stock. In both oases the argument of the fertility
must go for something ; in both we have the improba-
bihty of man having succeeded in ancient times in
thoroughly domesticating several supposed species^
most of these supposed species being extremely ab-
normal as compared with then- natural allies — all
being now either unknown or extinct, though the
parent form of no other domesticated bu-d [has been
lost.' The remarkable variations in many species led
the great naturalist to the belief that his opinion was
the true one, and that all fowls owe their origin to the
O. ferrugineus.

It has already been mentioned that poultry-breeders,
as such— that is, those who did not pretend to be
naturalists — have held the opinion that all our races
of fowls were not due to one species — at least, not to
one of the species now extant. Naturahsts, however,
have until lately accepted Darwin's theory, but in the
Field newspaper there appeared a letter from the pen
of Mr. W. B. Tegetmeier, F.Z.S., who was an asso-
ciate of Darwin in many of his researches, which is
an important acknowledgment that the generally ac-
cepted theory may after all be wrong. In this letter
Mr. Tegetmeier says :t 'It maybe regarded as most
presumptuous in me to dare to contest the conclusions

* ' Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,'
by Charles Darwin (London, 188.5), vol. i., p. 251.
t Field, London, September 26, 1885.

arrived at bj' the honoured master Darwin, with whom
and for whom it was for some years my privilege to
work ; but a careful and extended consideration of the
facts has led me to a different conclusion to that
arrived at by him. That the domesticated fowl in
India is derived from the first species is evident from
the fact that sportsmen occasionally confound the wild
and the tame birds.

' Last season (1884) at the Zoological Gardens,
numerous half-bred birds were reared from G. Stan-
leyii, and in former years many were bred from a
single specimen of G. furcatzis. There is no doubt
that the several wild Galh will interbreed and produce
fertile offspring as readily as do the corresponding and
closely allied pheasants, in which the three species —
the Chinese, the Versicolour, and the Colchican — have
become so mixed that pure birds are rarer than
mongrels. I have no doubt in my own mind that the
wild Galli have mtermixed in not a few instances, and
perhaps through not a few centuries, in producing our
domestic breeds.

' But it is with regard to the Eastern Asiatic type of
fowl (absurdly known as Cochins and Brahmas) that
my doubts as to the descent from the G. ferrugineus
are strongest. We have in the Cochin a fowl so
different from the ordinary domestic birds that when
first introduced the most ridiculous legends were
current respecting it. Putting these on one side, we
have a bird with many structural peculiarities that
could hardly have been induced by domestication.
Thus, the long axis of the occipital foramen in the
Cochin is perpendicular, in our old breeds horizontal,
a difference that could never have been bred for, and
which it is difficult to see could be correlative with any
other change. The same may be said respecting the
deep sulcus or groove up the centre of the frontal bone-
The extraordinary diminution in the size of the flight
feathers and that of the pectoral muscles could hardly
have been the result of human selection and careful
breeding, as the value of the birds as articles of food is
considerably lessened by the absence of flesh on the
breast. Nor is the extreme abmidance of fluffy, soft
body feathers a character likely to be desired in a fowl.
The vastly increased size may have been a matter of
selection, although, as the inhabitants of Shanghai
feed their poultry but scantily, and, according to Mr.
Fortune, mamly on paddy or unhusked rice, it is not
easy to see how the size of the breed was obtained if,
as is generally surmised, it arose from the little jungle
fowl.

' Taking all these facts into consideration, I am in-
duced to believe that the birds of the Cochin type did
not descend from the same species as our game fowl.
It may be asked what bird I would suggest as the
origin of these Eastern Asiatic breeds. In reply I
would suggest the possibility, or even probability, of
their being descended from some easily captured and
1—2

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

readily domesticated short - winged species that may
have entirely passed into a state of domestication, as
has the camel and the horse. I can see no inherent
impossibility in this suggestion, nor any fatal objection
to the theory I have advanced.'

We have, therefore, arrived thus far, namely, that
there is more than a doubt in the minds of naturalists,
for Mr. Tegetmeier is not alone in his opinion as to the
theory advanced by Darwin. The idea is that we must
go further back to find a common progenitor, one
which was the parent of all the four species of Galh

the fact that another feature of G. furcatus) not
usually found in the domestic breed most resembling
it still appears occasionally by reversion in that same
breed. Hence, we are disposed to think that the
original type can only be found still further back ; that
it diverged into various sub-types, including the four
wild breeds still known, and developed through the
Q. Bankiva into the Games, while other breeds were
reached through collateral branches, now either extinct
or possibly still further modified into the present other
three known races. It is possible enough that some wild

Fig. 1.— G.iLLDS Fbeeugineus

that have been named. It is very interesting to note
that the first advancement of this view was not from a
naturalist, but a poultry-breeder. In the first edition
of Wright's ' Book of Poultry ' the following appeared :*
' There are tendencies in some of our domestic breeds
which certainly are not due to the O. ferrugineus,
and which, as they are found in the (?. furcatus,
are probably the result of natural rather than artificial
development, a conclusion which is strengthened by

* ' Book of Poultry,' by Lewis Wright, first edition (London,
1874), pp. 500-501.

species or variety of greater size than any now known
may have either disappeared or become degraded.'

To sum up, therefore, it may be taken that with the
domestic fowl, as with many other natural forms of
life, we can go so far back, but no further. The proba-
bility is that, as in the case of dogs, aU the varieties of
fowls do not owe their origin to any one species, at any
rate of those now extant, and that wc must look to
another progenitor tlian the (I. ffrruginetis for
several of the later introduced races, more especially
those from China.

ORIGIN OF THE DOMESTIC DUCK

G-Exus : Anas bosclias.

NoirENCLATURE : EnfiHsh. Duck; Frenclt, Canard; German,

Enten ; /'«(r7(,Eenden ; Italian, hyiaXiie; Spanish, Ptxtos;

Vanisli, Mndev: Hunr/arian. Kucsa; Bussian,Vtka..

The suggestion has been made that the domesticated
duck known in Europe was originally imported from
Asia, which is probablj' true to some extent. It is
impossible, however, to come to any other conclusion
than that the majority of our breeds have descended
from the mallard, or wild duck, which is widely dis-
tributed, ranging from Eastern Asia to North America,
and is a regular Adsitor to nearly every part of Europe.
When and how such domestication first took place
it is difficult to say, but certainly before the Christian
era, for Columella, who lived in the first century and
wrote upon animal husbandry, says that ' when anyone
is desirous of establishing a duckery, it is a very old
mode to collect the eggs of teal, maUard, etc., and to
place them under common hens ; for the young thus
hatched and reared cast off their wild tempers, and
undoubtedly breed A\-hen confined in menageries. For
if it is your plan to place fresh-caught birds that are
accustomed to a free mode of life in captivity thej' will
be slow breeders in a state of bondage.' * He further
says that the places in which they are kept should con-
sist of high walls, covered in to prevent their flying
away. That is proof of the partial domestication, as it
could scarcely be expected that they would be tamed in
the first generation.

Dixon states t that he is inclined ' to consider our
race of farmyard ducks as an importation, through
whatever channel, from the East, and to point out the
discovery of the passage of the Cape of Good Hope
(1493) as the approximate date. The early voyagers
speak of finding them in the East Indies exactly similar
to ours, and the transmission of a few pahs would be a
much easier task than to subdue the shyness and wild-
ness of the mallard.'

It is possible that such importations took place
400 years ago, as they have within the last half
century, and may thus have introduced specific races ;
but the evidence of Columella given above shows that
prior to that time domestication had taken place in
Europe, and we are justified in assuming that the same
method was adopted in Asia. Mr. Dixon saj'S further: J;
' I know of no instance in which anyone has finally
succeeded in founding a permanent tame farmyard
race of ducks by breeding from the mallard.'

The late Mr. Edward Hewitt in 1862 § described his
attempts to breed wild ducks upon a pond or lake near
his residence. The eggs were taken from the wild

• Lib. VIII., cap. 1.5.

t ' Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,' by Rev. E. S. Dixon
(London, 1850), p 127.

I Ibid.,ip. 129.

I Journal of Hortindfure. vol. xxviii. (London, 13G2),
p. 773.

birds' nests and hatched under an ordinary duck.
' Until a month old we " cooped " the old duck, but
left the youngsters free. They grew up invariably quite
tame, and bred freely the next and following years.
There was one universal drawback, however. Although
not admitted when grown up to the society of tame
ducks, they always in two or three generations betrayed
prominent marks of deterioration ; in fact, they became
domesticated. The beautiful carriage of the wild mal-
lard and his mate, as seen at the outset, changed
gradually to the easy, well-to-do, comfortable deport-
ment of a small Eouen, for they, at each reproduction,
became much larger.' Mr. Hewitt made several experi-
ments of this nature with the same result, in some
cases white feathers appearing in the wings.

The conclusions arrived at by the late Professor
Darwin were that all the domesticated ducks have
descended from the wild duck. He says* that
'almost all naturalists admit that the several breeds
are descended from the common wild duck {Anas
bosclias) ; most fanciers, on the other hand, take, as
usual, a very different view. Unless we deny that
domestication, prolonged during centuries, can affect
such unimportant characters as colour, size, and, in a
slight degree, proportional dimensions and mental dis-
position, there is no reason whatever to doubt that the
domestic duck is descended from the common wild
species, for the one differs from the other in no impor-
tant character. We have some historical evidence with
respect to the period and progress of the domestication
of the duck. It w-as unknown to the ancient Egyptians,
to the Jews of the Old Testament, and to the Greeks of
the Homeric period. . . . The origin of the domestic
duck from the wild species is recognised in nearly every
language of Europe, as Aldrovandi long ago remarked,
by the same name being applied to both. The wild
duck has a wide range from the Himalayas to North
America, and the crossed offspring are perfectly fertile.
Both in North America and Europe the wild duck has
been found easy to tame and breed.'

And the great naturalist also calls attention to a
striking peculiarity,! that ' in the great duck family
one species alone— namely, the male of A. bosclias —
has its four middle tailfeathers curled upwardly. Now,
in every one of the above-named domestic breeds these
curled feathers exist, and on the supposition that they
are descended from distinct species, we must assume
that man formerly hit upon species all of which had
this now rmique character.'

Darwin, in the work referred to, gave a large
amount of interesting information showing the uni-
versal resemblances between the mallard and races of
domestic ducks, with such variations as would result

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

from changed conditions and the increased and de-
creased use of the limbs. With reference to what he
states as to the opinions of fanciers differing from
those of naturalists, this is explainable by the fact that
the latter think chiefly of the species, whereas the
former are concerned with breeds. The variations in
external characters are so uuportant to breeders that
they are disposed to unduly exalt their value ; but these
are secondary, and can be produced with comparative
ease. The one serious argument in favour of non-
relationship between the wild and tame races is that
the former are monogamous and the latter polygamous,
but that is insufficient to weigh against the mass of
evidence on the other side. We can accept, therefore,
the contention that the mallard is parent to all our
domestic ducks, but are equally convinced that some of
our breeds have been domesticated in Asia and others
in Europe.

Genus : Anser cinereus.

NoMENCLATUEE : English, Goose; French, Oie; German,

Ganse; Dutch, Ganzen; Italian, Oche; Spanish, Ocas;

Danish, Goes ; Hungarian, Ludak ; Rzcisian, Gus.

Unlike the domestic fowl and the turkey, neither of
which is indigenous to Europe, the former coming from
Asia and the latter from America, the goose in its wild
form is a denizen of Europe and North Africa, which
fact doubtless explains much in relation to it. But
members of the same family are known in other parts
of the globe. Hehn * indicates that references to the
goose are found in Sanskrit writings, and says that ' it
would be rash to conclude from this that the goose was
a tame domestic animal among the primitive Aryan
stock before the great migration. It was doubtless
well known and much sought after on the lakes and
streams and in the swampy lowlands, as it is nov.'
among the nomads and half-nomads of Central Asia.
Where it was still abundant and easy to obtain there
was no necessity for breeding it artificially in confine-
ment ; and so long as men's manner of life was un-
settled, a bird that takes thirty days to hatch and a
proportionate length of time to rear its young was un-
suitable to the economy of a pastoral people. But
when comparatively stationary settlements were found
on the shores of lakes, the young birds could easily be
fetched down from their nests by boys, have their
wings clipped, and be brought up in the households ;
if they died, the attempt was repeated until it finally
succeeded, especially as the wild goose is, compara-
tively speaking, one of the easiest birds to tame.'

The wild goose, commonly called the Greylag {Anser
ferus), is distributed all over Europe, but it conducts
its young to the shores of the JMediterranean, both

* 'Wanderings of Plants and Animals from their First
Home,' by Victor Hehn (London, 1S85), p. '27S.

northern and southern, there to rear them, breeding,
however, in the colder latitudes.

Of wild geese the varieties known in this country at
the present time are the Greylag, abeady mentioned,
the Bean, the White-fronted or laughing goose, and
the Pink-footed. It is very generally concluded that
our domesticated varieties are all descended from the
Greylag, which at one period bred extensively in the
fen districts of Eastern England ; but since the drain-
age of those areas it has been compelled to find a
location elsewhere. In Scotland, both on the main-
land and in the western islands, it is found, but to a
much greater extent in Ireland, especially in some of
the central counties. The Bean goose is much more
common, and large numbers of the White-fronted
geese arrive as soon as winter sets in on the Continent
of Europe. Between the Greylag and the Bean there
are resemblances which are apt to mislead. At one
time it was suggested that the Chinese goose %\'as of a
distinct species to the Greylag, but Mr. Blythe testi-
fied that the two breed together, and that their progeny
were fertile. His opinion was that the common goose
of India was a hybrid between these types. What has
led naturahsts to conclude that the domestic goose
owes its origin to the Greylag is not only that the two
will breed together, but that there are strong resem-
blances between them. In Wingfield and Johnson's
' Poultry Book '* Mr. Yarrell is quoted as saying that
' the Zoological Society of London, possessing a
pinioned wild Greylag gander, which had never as-
sociated with either Bean goose or White-fronted
goose, though both were kept on the same water
with him, a domestic goose, selected in the London
market from the circumstance of her exhibiting in her
plumage the marks which belong to and distinguish
the true Greylag species, was this season (1841)
brought and put down to him. The pair were confined
together for a few days, became immediately good
friends, and a sitting of eight eggs was the conse-
quence. These eggs were hatched, and the young
proved prolific. Some were hatched in two following
seasons, and some of their descendants still remain at
the Gardens.' And when at the Regent's Park the
Greylag and the domestic goose have been placed
side by side, the resemblances between the two proved
most apparent. It may, consequently, be taken as an
accepted opinion that the origin of our domestic varie-
ties is to be found in the Crreylag goose. The method
of domestication is not recorded, so far as we are
aware, but it would be either by securing eggs or
young birds from the nests of the wild parents.

Charles Darwin f writes : ' Although the domestic
goose certainly differs somewhat from any known wild

* ' The Poultry Book,' by Wingfield and .Johnson (London,
1853), p. 260.

+ ' Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,'
by Charles Darwm, vol. i., pp. 301-305.

ORIGIN OF THE DOMESTIC TURKEY

species, yet the amount of variation which it has under-
gone, as compared with that of most domesticated
animals, is singularly small. This fact can bo parti-
ally accounted for by selection not having come largely
into play. Birds of all kinds which present many
•distinct races are valued as pets or ornaments. No
one makes a pet of a goose ; the name, indeed, in
more languages than one is a term of reproach. The
goose is valued for its size and flavour, for the white-
ness of its feathers, which adds to their value, and for
its prohficness and tameness. In all these points the
goose differs from the wild parent form; and these
are the points which have been selected.'

One other distinct gain from domestication is the
increase of size, and this is noticeable in nearly all
birds and animals which have adapted themselves to
the altered conditions of life, and to the greater cer-
tainty of food resultant from domestication. And it
is also true that more eggs are produced by the tame
goose than by her wild sister.

TUEKEY.

Genus : Meleagris.

Nomenclature : English, Turkey ; French, Dindon ; German,
Truthiihner ; i?!(«c/(, Kalkoenen ; JfaZian, Taoohini ; iSyjanis/j,
Pavos ; Danish, Kalkuu ; Swedish, Kalkon ; Hangarian,
Pulyka; Turkish, la&i&n; fliissian, Indiukh.

The scientific name given to the turkey, Meleagris,
is accounted for by the fact that when first introduced
the race was not recognised as an altogether new
species, and was unknown in the Eastern Hemisphere
prior to the discovery of America by Christopher
Columbus. The Greeks and Romans called what
appears to be the guinea-fowl Meleagrides, or Gallince
Africance, and when the explorers of the West returned
from their voyages of discovery to the New World, it
was thought that the tm-key was of that species.

Belon, the French naturalist ^1553), is credited with
being the originator of the erroneous classification, but
Linnaeus followed him, and it is now universal. The
term Meleagris Gallvpavo reveals the fact that the
turkey was thought to be allied to the guinea and the
domestic fowls, but scientific names are as liable to
error as breed designations.

It is generally accepted by naturalists that the
domesticated turkey has descended from the wild
species found in Mexico and Central America {M. Mexi-
cana), which appears to be correct so far as the earlier
forms were concerned ; but it is undoubted that many
modern American turkeys, as the Mammoth Bronze,
own the race found in the United States and Canada
{M. Americana), for the introduction of wild blood
has been regularly resorted to in order to secure en-
hanced size. We are led to this conclusion from the
evidence that the turkeys imported from America into
Europe nearly 400 years ago were largely black in
plumage, thus closely following the Mexican, which

explains why so many European breeds are black,
wholly or partly ; whereas the later races are bronze,
which colour is characteristic of the wild American
turkey.

Darwin says * that ' F. Michaux suspected in 1802
that the common domestic turkey was not descended
from the United States species alone, but likewise from
a Southern form ; and he went so far as to believe that
English and French turkeys differed from having
different proportions of the blood of the two parent
forms.' There is, however, very great affinity between
the M. Mexicana and M. Americana, and Darwm
records f that ' in the United States wild male turkeys
sometimes court the domestic hens, which are de-
scended from the Mexican form, and are generally
received by them with great pleasure.'

The fact that these wild males have, since Darwin
wrote, been used much more freely for breeding is
further proof of their relationship, and it may safely
be accepted that the two forms are varieties of the same
race. Other species of turkeys are to be met with in
America, such as the Honduras and the crested turkey
of Mexico, but they do not appear to have been amen-
able to domestication.

That the turkey had been domesticated by the
aboriginal inhabitants of America would appear to
be certain. This view was held by Darwin, and it
is not unreasonable to suppose that it would be the
case, as in some of the nations thus revealed to the
Eastern world there was a considerable measm-e of
civilization. This opinion is supported by Prescott,
who says % that ' the Spaniards saw immense numbers
of turkeys in the domesticated state on their arrival in
Mexico, where they were more common than any other
poultry. They were found wild, not only in New
Spain, but all along the continent, in the less fre-
quented places, from the North-Western territory of
the United States to Panama. The wild turkey is
larger, more beautiful, and in every way an incom-
parably finer bird than the tame.' And, further,
speaking of the city of Mexico when Cortes first ,
visited the capital, 'no less than 500 turkeys, the
cheapest meat in Mexico,' were allowed for the feeding
of the vultures and eagles kept in the Eoyal aviaries.

A French writer § says : ' Oviedo spoke, in 1526, of
a species of Gallipavo (peacock) domesticated in New
Spain, bred in that country by the Christian colonists,
and which probably were embarked on the ships leaving
for Europe.'

Other writers have stated that it had existed under
domestication for centuries when the Spaniards con-

* ' Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,'
by Charles Darwin (London, 1885), vol. i., p. 308.

+ Ibid., p. 308.

■*: ' Conquest of Mexico,' by William H. Prescott (London,
187-2), pp. 44, 204.

§ 'Les Oiaeaux de Basse Cour,' par P^emy Samt-Loup
(Paris, 1895), p. 295.

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

quered Mexico. Kene de Laudonniere reports to have
found them on landing in North America in 1564, and
twenty years later they were discovered in Virginia.
As the North American continent was opened up,
travellers found the wild turkey as a denizen of the
woods and forests. Thus there is no doubt as to the
origin of this species, as it can be traced without
difficulty.

In size the wild turkey is much larger than those
found under domestication. Males have been shot
during recent years weighing up to 60 pounds, but
these were old birds. The largest we have seen among
tame specimens was 47 pounds, but it had been specially
fed up, and the general average of the best birds is not
more than half the last-named weight, and many others
do not exceed 12 to 15 pounds at nine or ten months old.
This decrease in size may be attributed to loss of vigour
as a result of changed conditions, probably to limitation
of exercise, but principally to the use of immature stock
for breeding, as these birds do not reach their maturity
until they are three or four years of age. At the
same time selections would be rather for medium than
very large size, as the huge specimens are not suitable
for ordinary farm purposes. ' In India the climate has
apparently wrought a still greater effect in the turkey,
for it is described by Mr. Blythe as being much degen-
erate in size, utterly incapable of rising on the wing, of
a black colour, and with the long pendulous appendages
over the beak enormously developed.'* Buffon mentions
that the turkeys found in China were not indigenous to
that country, but had been imported.

With the settlement of North America and the en-
closure of the open lands the number of wild turkeys
will gradually be reduced. Hence the source of supply
in that direction will probably be dried up, and breeders
be compelled, therefore, to depend upon our present
stocks. Fortunately, the distribution of the race is very
wide, and it has fully adapted itself to domestication.

The names given to the turkey vary considerably, as
shown above. The French name is derived from that
of the hen turkey, dinde — d'Indon, or of India —
which is practically that of most European countries.
But the English name arises in the way explained by
Helm :t ' At the beginning of the sixteenth century
"Turkish " only meant foreign, or come from over the
sea ; at that time geographic ideas were too indefinite
to distinguish exactly the West from the East Indies,
and both from the land of the Turks.' Merchants
trading abroad were called Turkey merchants, and
thus it is easy to see how the name came to be applied,
if, as we believe was the case, the earliest birds were
brought from Spain by ships calling there on returning
from the Orient.

* 'Variation of Animals and Plants nnder Domestication,'
by Charles Darwin (London, 1885), vol. i., p. 310.

f ' Wanderings of Plants and Animals,' by Victor Hehn
(London, 1885), p. 497.

In respect to the distribution of the turkey little
need be said. From Spain, where it was first brought
into Europe, it spread to Britain and France, supple-
mented by direct importations from America, and by
way of the Netherlands and Italy to other parts of
the Continent.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE DOMESTIC FOWL.

From the evidence which has come to us it would
appear that the sport of cock-fighting had as much
responsibility for the domestication of the fowl as
demand for food, and that, when once it was brought
into the service of man, sport was chiefly instrumental
in making the species popular. Cock-fighting has been
for many centuries followed extensively in Southern
and Western Asia, and in the islands of Sumatra,
Java, Borneo, the Philippines, etc. In India, among
the native Princes, it is yet a favourite pastime.
When it is remembered that* 'the first mention of
cook-fighting is said to be in the reign of Crcesus,
King of Lydia (a.m. 3426), and in India it is men-
tioned in the "Codes" of Mann, written 1,000 years
before Christ,' it will be realized how ancient is the
sport. At a period when war was the natural order
of things it can be understood how attractive these
warrior-like birds -would be to soldiers, who on their
return home would take back with them specimens of
such rare fowls. It is suggested that the Persians thus-
introduced the fo\\l into their own country after their
conquest of India by Cyrus about 537 B.C. Two-
hundred years later Persia was conquered by th&
Greeks under Alexander, and thus the fowl was-
brought to Greece, where it was called the ' Persian '
bird.

Upon this question there is, however, considerable-
doubt. Hehn states t : ' The original home of the fowl
was India, and it first migrated West with the Medo-
Persian invaders. In a work on the temple of the-
Damian Hera, Menodotus says, ' As the cock spread
from Persia, so the sacred peacock spread from the
temple of Hera to the surrounding districts.' In the re-
ligion of Zoroaster the dog and the cock were sacred
animals : the first as the faithful guardian of flocks and
herds, the second as the herald of dawn and the symbol
of light and the sun. The cock is specially dedicated to-
Craosha, the heavenly watchman, who, awakened by
fire, awakens the cock in his turn ; he by his crowing
drives away the Dievas, evil spirits of darkness, par-
ticularly the yellow, long fingered Bushyacta, the demon
of sleep. A passage in the Bundesesh runs : " Halka^
the cock, is the enemy of the devs and the magicians.
He assists the dog, as is written in the law. Among

* ' Old English Game Fowl,' by Herbert Atkinson (London,
1831), p. 10.

t ' 'W'anderings of Plants and Animals,' bv Victor Hehu
(London, 1885), pp. •241-'242.

UISTRlBUTIOxN OF THE DOMESTIC FOWL

ihe earthly creatures that plague Daruj, the cook and
the dog unite theu strength. He shall keep watch over
the world, even as if there were no dog to protect the
flocks and houses. When the cock and the dog fight
with Daruj, thej- weaken him, who, else, A\-ould torment
men and animals. Therefore, it is said, by him, the
cock, shall all the enemies of goodness be overcome; his
voice scatters the evil." Wherever a Persian settled he
took as inuch care to procure a cock as to pray and
wash before and during sunrise. As far as the limits
of the Persian dominion reached, there, no doubt, the
tame and useful, easily-transported, and at the same
time so pecuhar creature, found a welcome in the
households of non-believers. On the so-called Harpies
monument from the Acropolis of Xanthus, in Lycia
(now in London), there is the figure of a god to whom
a cock is brought as a gift or sacrifice. If this monu-
ment, as archaeologists suppose, really belongs to a
period before the taking of Xanthus by the Persians,
then the Lycians must indeed have been acquainted
with the cock before the spread of the Persian dominions.
If the domestic fowl had been familiar to the Lycians
long before the Persian time, the Greeks must have
shared in the knowledge ; but neither in the works of
Homer and Hesiod, nor in the fragments of the elder
poets, is there any trace of cock or hen. Surely among
people who had no clocks the prophet that proclaimed
the hours by night, the proudly strutting, winking,
crowing Sir Chanticleer, the supremely jealous sultan
(Salax gallus) surrounded by his harem, the hot, vain-
glorious champion armed with his comb, tassels, and
spurs, Dame Partlet announcing to the world her last
achievement — all this merry parody of a human family
and aristocratic manners could not fail to be a frequent
subject of description and comparison had the poets an
opportunity of observing it. It did not escape even the
ancients that Homer, though he used the proper names
Aleetor and Alestroyan, seemed to know nothing of
the fowl so called.

In the writings of Epicharmus, who flourished
during the Persian wars, and in those of Simondes,
jSilsohylus, and Pindar, we find the cock, already
mentioned, mider the proud name of Aleetor, as the
usual companion of man. The fights between cocks
became a striking example for poets as soon as the
fowl was a familiar object. ' In the " Eumenides "
of /Eschylus, Athena warns the Athenians against
civil war as resembling the combats of cocks. Pindar
compares the inglorious victories of a civil war to the
victories of a barn-door fowl. And it is stated that
Themistocles raised the courage of his army by remind-
ing them how two fighting-cocks risk their lives, not for
hearth and its penates, but for fame alone. When
afterwards the public cock-fights, which are repre-
sented on innumerable ancient monuments, were
supposed to be derived from the above speech of
Themistocles, it proves at least that cock-fighting

was not thought as older than the Persian wars. The
comic poets still call the bird the Persian bird.' *

Darwin states that the fowl figured on some of the
Babylonian cylinders, for Jlr. Layard had sent him an
impression of these dating from the sixth or seventh
centuries, and also on the Harpy tomb in Lycia about
600 B.C., from which fact he thinks that the fowl
reached Europe somewhere about the sixth century
B.C. The first actual reference in Western literature
to the fowl occurs in the writings of Theognis and
Aristophanes between 400 and 500 B.C. But fowls had
evidently gone Eastward at an earlier date. Mention
is made of the fowl in a Chinese encyclopceJia which is
said to have been compiled 1,400 years before Christ,
This earlier migration is to be easily understood from the
geographical positions of China and India, much more
favourably situated for intercommunication than was-
India with the Western nations. It is also surprising
that there is no mention on the Egyptian monuments
of the fowl, which fact may be taken as proof that it
was not then in that country, for these monuments are
otherwise so full of the detads of ancient housekeeping
on the Xile. There are to be seen flocks of tame geese
being driven home from the pastures. They and their
eggs are being carefully counted, but nowhere cocks-
and hens ; and when Aristotle and Diodorus say that
eggs were artificially hatched in Egypt by bm-ying
them in dung, they must mean the eggs of geese and
ducks, or refer to a later period than the Persian con-
quest, which Diodorus seems to hint, for he commences
his account of the hatching-ovens with these words ;
' The Egyptians inherited many customs relating to the
breeding and rearing of animals from their forefathers,
but other things they have invented, among which the
most wonderful is the artificial hatching of eggs.'

It is probable that by the time of the Christian era —
that is, during the interregnum between the closing of
the Canon of the Old Testament and the opening of
that of the New Testament— the fowl had spread itself
all over the western parts of Asia and the eastern parts
of Europe, at any rate, though it was known m several
parts of Western Europe. The reference to the crow-
ing of the cock at the time of Peter's denial of our
Lord cordd only have reference to the domestic fowl,
and this is made in such a manner as to show that
there was nothing remarkable in the crowing of
the cock, but it was a sound heard daUy. We can
assume, therefore, that the migration of the fowl
into Syria and Eastern Europe took place within
the six centuries prior to the advent of Christ, and
that by the commencement of the Christian era it
had become familiar, and one of the ordinary domestic
animals, not merely in Greece, but also in Italy, Gaul,
Spain, and Britain. Csesar found that cock-fighting
was known to the ancient Britons, probably intro-

* ' Wanderings of Plants and Animals,' by Victor Helm
(London, 1S85), p. '243.

10

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

duced by the Phoenicians, by which date in Italy
domestic birds were bred chiefly for their flesh
qualities.

In the chapters dealing with the various races of
poultry information is given as to distribution of indi-
vidual breeds in more modem days, but our difficulty
is as to ancient periods of the world's history. It
would be interesting to trace the wanderings of the
•different races of men, for by doing so we should be
better able to understand the passing of the fowl from
its original habitat to all parts of the earth, but that
cannot be done here.

Hehn says,* speaking of the domestic fowl :
' They may have come straight from Asia to the
kindred nations of the South Bussian steppes and the
Eastern slopes of the Carpathian Mountains, whose
religion agreed with that of the other Iranian races,
and some of whom already practised agriculture in the
time of Herodotus ; or by way of the Greek colonies on
the Black Sea ; or from Thrace to the tribes on the
Danube ; or from Italy by way of the ancient com-
mercial roads across the Alps ; or through Massilia to
the regions of the Rhone and the Ehine ; or, finally, by
several of these ways at once.'

Although it is very difficult to trace the distribution

* 'Wanderings of Plants and Animals,' by Victor Helm
^London, 1885), p. 247.

of fowls, as there are so few actual records, in the
following diagram we do so as far as our present know-
ledge enables us to do so.

Distribution of the Domestic Fowl.

(■ Central
r \ Asia

'.Japan

Smitl

i -Turkey
and
Balkans

Gurm=ih and ("Britain

Malayan \
Archipelago (.America

Britai

1 by Pluenioia

f Britain
Spain .^

I Netherlands-

.Pcrsia-Greece-

-Britain

France— Britain

Italy-

Germany— Netherlands

AuEtro-Hungary

• America- Britain

It will be seen that there were practically two great
streams, one by way of Persia and Greece to Southern
Europe, and the other by way of China, Central Asia,
and Siberia to Eussia, Turkey and Eastern Europe.

CHAPTER II

EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF BREEDS

Present characters largely artificial— Effects of use and disuse— Habits of life— Cor-
relative variability— Change of conditions— Food— Crossing— Other influences-
Natural selection— Artificial selection— Modern breeding— Results of domestica-
tion—Classification—Division of races— Choice of breed— Technical terms— Various
forms of combs— Feather markings

IN the previous chapter it is shown that originally
all the races of fowls, of ducks, of geese, and of
turkeys were respectively similar, and it is now
our purpose to consider the causes which have pro-
duced so large a number of races and sub-races. It is
desirable in this connection to realize that the special
■characteristics and qualities of the domestic races of
poultry are to a large extent artificial. The size of
body and prolificacy, the colouring of plumage and
special pecuharities met with in many varieties of
domestic poultry, are absolutely unknown amongst
wild birds. That being so, there must always be a
tendency towards the original type in the first place,
and in the du-ection of fresh developments in the
second. The same forces are at work even amongst
wild birds, though to a lesser degree. Later observa-
tions of naturalists have proved that the process of
evolution is one of continual change, and if this is true
when birds and animals are living under more or less
vmiform conditions, it is specially so with alteration of
habits and variation of food, when they are brought
into the service of man.

Effects of Use and Disuse. — One of the first
changes induced by domestication is due to the effects
•of use and disuse of parts of the body. By studying
the structure of our domestic animals it is found that
there are sections of the body which apparently have
no use at the present time, whilst there are others
which are larger and more fully developed than in the
wild progenitors. The explanation of these changes is
that under one set of conditions there was a demand upon
the system which is not needed under others, and it is
very clearly seen that unless an organ or limb is used
there must always be a tendency to diminution in size
and development. Whereas, on the other hand, if used
to a greater extent than had been the case before, the
organ or limb grows in strength and in size. It is

needless in this connection to give instances, for the
fact is so self-evident that it need only be mentioned
to be understood. The late Charles Darwin says : *
' It is notorious that increased use or action strengthens
muscles, glands, sense organs, etc., and that disuse, on
the other hand, weakens them. It has been experi-
mentally proved by Eanke that the flow of blood is
greatly increased towards any part which is performing
work, and sinks again when the part is at rest. Con-
sequently, if the work is frecjuent the vessels increase
in size, and the part is better nourished.'

Habits of Life. — The change of habits of life
tends also towards variation, and in this respect tliere
is a marvellous power of acclimatization in races of-
poultry. It must be remembered that these races
originated in a hot climate, and that distribution over
the more temperate zones is almost entirely due to the
action of man. Animals in their wild state have to
seek for their own food, and expend a large amount of
energy in so doing, which has the tendency to keep
down size of body. Under domestication their needs
are provided for, and thus there is always a disposition
to increase of size in certain parts of the body. The
question of acclimatization is one which has not been
fully explained, but it appears to be evident that under
new conditions the tendency is generally at first
towards enfeeblement, due to strain upon the system.
This may sometimes be scarcely discernible owing to
better food-supphes, but it is in many cases evident to
the observer. Nature, however, has a marvellous re-
cuperative power, and within a comparatively short
time the balance is restored, and frequently the change
is beneficial in many directions, as seen below.

Correlative Variability. — One of the most potent
induenoes making for these changes is what is com-

* ' Vaviation of Aiiioiiils and Plants under Domestication,'
by Charles Darwin, F.R.S. (London, 1SS.5), vol. ii., p. '285.

12

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

monly called ' correlative variability.' This is a most
difficult question. Why one part of the body should
be influenced by changes in another has never been
completely explained. As Darwin says : * 'In cases of
true correlative variation we are sometimes able to see
the nature of the connection ; but in most cases it is
hidden from us, and certainly differs in different cases.
We can seldom say which of two correlative parts first
varies and induces a change in the other, or whether
the two are the effects of some common cause.' In
this case mention need only be made of the relation
between the egg-organs and the comb in f o^\'ls. In the
wild bh'ds the comb is small, but under domestication
it has very largely increased, which would appear to
be due to the development of the egg-organs. This
question is discussed fully in Chapter XYI.

Change of Conditions. — Reference has already
been made to the question of changed conditions.
The bringing of birds under domestication means there
is not the same strain upon the system, nor yet so
great an amount of exercise, which undoubtedly have
a great influence in the direction of variability. The
material which would otherwise be utilized in main-
taining the body in health must be used in some other
direction, and the absence of need for exercise means
that modifications are largely induced. This is found
in every branch of animal and plant life, and if it were
not so the needs of man could not be met, for we can-
not forget that if we depended upon animals and plants
produced in the natural manner it would be impossible
for the present population of the world to be supported.
We do not know how many acres would be required
for the maintenance of each individual, but intensity of
cultivation is an absolute necessity.

Changes of climate are a very potent cause of varia-
tion. It would take a considerable amount of space to
give in detail all the observations made in this direction,
but those who have been concerned in the export or
import of fowls from one country to another know that
it is very difficult indeed to maintain the original
characteristics in different climates. Tliat is seen even,
say, in transferring birds from England to America or
Australia, where the climatic conditions, though dis-
tinctly different, are not extremely so. The effect of
climate and soil upon production receives consideration
in the companion volume,! and need not be discussed
further.

Food. — Food explains much in the way of variation,
and especially in these days, when the requirements of
each country means that foods have to be introduced
from other lands. It would be erroneous to say that
any grain was indigenous to Britain, for instance,

* 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,'
by Charles Uarwin, F.R.S.irjondon. 1S861, vol. ii., p. 312.

t ' Poultry-Keeping ns an Industry for Farmers and
Cottagers,' by Edward Brown, F.L.S. (London, lim),
pp. 36-42.

originally no grain was grown here, the
inhabitants living upon native fruits and such birds
and animals as they could shoot. But cultivation for
a long period of time, correlative with the acclimatiza-
tion of animals, would lead us to say that oats, wheat,
and barley are native to this country. Therefore these,
being employed as food for poultry, would probably not
have the same influence as when maize, which is not
grown in the United Kingdom, is used. There is also
the question of the richness of the food, and it cannot
be doubted that food has a very great influence upon
variations. If a family of fowls has been kept under
one set of conditions and fed more or less upon the
same class of food, and some members thereof are
removed elsewhere and fed upon diff'erent foods alto-
gether, it is only natm-al to expect that variations will
be accentuated.

Crossing. — One of the most important influences
which make for variation is crossing. Birds in which
there has been a cross always show a greater tendency
towards uncertainty of type, and as most of our breeds
have rightly or wrongly — we are bound to say more
rightly than wrongly — received an infusion of alien
blood within a few generations, this is liable to show
itself, especially when the conditions under which the
birds are kept are changed. Perhaps some reader may
say that this bears out the contention that when varia-
tions occur in chickens it is an indication that there is
impurity of race, but we must point out that it is-
wonderful how long an influence of this kind wiU re-
main present in the system, perhaps showing itself at
a most unexpected time. If any breeder of poultry
expects that m buying either birds or eggs he is securing
something that is absolutely pure, using this term in
the chemical sense, he is anticipating what cannot
be looked for. As Darwin says:* 'How long this
influence will last depends on the diff'erence in the
strength or prepotency of transmission in the two
parent forms, on their actual amount of difference, and
on the nature of the conditions of life to which the
crossed offspring are exposed. But we must be careful
not to confine these cases of reversion to characteristics
which were given by a cross with those in which
characteristics originally common to both parents, but
lost at some former period, reappear. For such char-
acteristics may recur after an almost indefinite number
of generations.'

Other Influences.— Other influences also have
increased the tendency to variation. The elevation of the
ground upon which a race is kept will affect the size of
body. We see in the case of cattle and slreep that the
larger and fleshier races are almost without exception
found upon the rich pastures of plains and valleys,
whilst the smaller, hardier animals are almost entirely

* ' Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,"
by Charles Darwin (London, 1885), vol. ii., p. il.

SELECTION AND BREEDING

13

met with in hilly districts. Were it necessary, proofs
could be given, but the fact is so fully recognised that
they are not required, more than to say that transfer-
ance of mountain sheep to the lower-lying lands will
modify them considerably in the course of a generation
or two, and vice versa. It may, therefore, be reason-
ably assumed that similar effects are produced with
poultry, except where counteracted by artificial selec-
tion. In respect to coloration of plumage, the law to
which the late Mr. Herbert Spencer gave the name of
' survival of the fittest ' has had a potent influence in
fixing the colour of races, owing to the fact that the
birds whose plumage most nearly conformed to their
surroundings, and consequently could avoid observation
by their enemies, would be perpetuated, and survive in
the struggle for existence.

Natural Selection. — From what has been stated
it is evident that the natural tendency to variation has
been, and is, much greater under domestication than
when the birds are in a wild state ; in fact, that a pro-
cess of natural selection has been at work throughout
the centuries, and is increased by change of conditions
and food. When the fowls had become acclimatized, had
adapted themselves to their new conditions, there would
be a strongly marked development of one type, deter-
mined to a considerable extent by the ' survival of the
fittest,' referred to above. This would not be restricted
to plumage, but would apply to size and structure of
body. Hence we have an explanation why at one time
nearly every country or district had in their fowls a
common type of remarkable uniformity. Were the
same chmatic and soil conditions applied to a wide area^
the variations from that type would be few, but in
diversified countries like Britain they are much greater.
The fowls called ' barn-door ' or ' commune ' served the
purpose until increase of population and of needs com-
pelled other methods, and man, for his own purposes,
adopted what is known as artificial selection. To the
former is due the similarity of types met with over
large areas in Asia, in Eastern and Southern Europe,
and in America.

Artificial Selection.— When fowls were brought
under the control of man a new influence came into play,
to which the name ' artificial selection ' is given— that is,
the arbitrary mating of birds with a view to perpetua-
tion of specific characters and qualities. In earlier days
such selection would be necessarily limited, and would
affect only to a slight extent coloration of plumage, as
the variations in that direction would be comparatively
few. But with changed conditions, as we have ah-eady
seen, marked differences would be speedily apparent,
and when the owners selected for killing those not
required as breeding stock, they would choose for that
purpose such as did not show the special characters or
•qualities required. In this manner a beginning was
made for the increase of distinct types. It is probable

that at first selection was in two directions : first, for
those qualities which made for success in fighting —
namely, courage, strength of bone, size of wing, and
general vigour ; and, second, quiet disposition, abun-
dance of flesh, egg production, and general acceptation
of the restraints of more civilized conditions. These
du'ections are antagonistic, and development would
not he equal. That named first was the earliest.

When breeding became more intensive, and there
entered into the question personal predilections for
specific forms, these changes would be accentuated. It
must, however, be recognised that natural selection
and the variations resultant from distribution into the
various countries of the world was the basis, and that
without such variations artificial selection would have
been practically impotent. It may thus be stated that
the former has produced a few general types, and that
from these the vast number of races and sub-races
were evolved, following upon minor changes due to
transference from the primary environment to others.

Modern Breeding.-^Whilst poultry, therefore,
have been known and kept for domestic purposes since
long before the Christian era, it is only within the
last century that there has been careful attention paid
to breeds, with the exception of Game fowls kept for
fighting purposes. These fowls were handed down
through long centuries.

Could we but trace the pedigree of our Game fowls,
it is probable that they could show a descent which
would put to shame the genealogical roll of the bluest-
blooded noble of Europe. A Saxon or Xorman an-
cestry would be as nothing to it. But that is without
our most careful research. With the exception of
these Game fowls, until a couple of hundred years ago
fowls were all classified together, and, save in one or
two instances, we find no attempt at description.
Even these are of the most meagre character. It is
true that Columella, the Koman writer, speaks of fowls
found in Italy with five toes, and gives a slight outline
of their appearance ; but even that leaves much to be
desired. Descriptive dealing with domestic animals in
bygone days does not seem to have been thought of.
Nor can we wonder at that state of things. Man
approached new species as we do new varieties, and
his mind was filled with other and, to him, more
momentous questions.

It is interesting to trace the advent of new breeds,
and fortunately, so far as these last two centuries are
concerned, the writings of those who gave attention to
domestic poultry enable us to do this to some extent.
But the absence of detail limits our powers, and there
is not nearly the same information afforded as in
pigeon literature. It would appear to be true that,
until ' fancy ' enters into any pursuit of this kind, such
questions as external characteristics do not seem to be
thought of, nor even internal qualities, so much as is

14

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

now the case. This question is dealt with in the
chapters treating upon the different Eaces of Poultry.

One of the earliest books dealing with fowls was
Sir Anthony Fitzherbert's ' Boke of Husbandry,' pub-
lished in 1532, but nothing is said as to breeds. A
hundred years later (a.d. 1631) was published Ger-
vasse Markhani's ' Cheap and Good Husbandry for
the Well-ordering of all Beasts and Fowls,' in which
prominence is given to domestric poultry, but only a
brief description is made of the Game and the ' dung-
hill cocke.' As to the latter, it is said that his colour
should be red. In Gent's ' Systema Agrioulturae,' pub-
lished in 1675, the keeping of fowls for profit is advo-
cated, and advice given as to management, but it
contains no description of breeds. In 1708 was issued
Mortimer's 'Whole Art of Husbandry,' wherein is
mentioned the fact that several sorts existed, but he
does not say what they were. Early in the eighteenth
century a French work was published, ' The Art of
Hatching and Bringing up Domestic Fowls of all
Kinds, at any Time of the Year, either by Means of
Hot-beds, or that of Common Fire,' by M. de Keaumur,
of the Eoyal Academy of Science at Paris, dealing
chiefly with artificial incubation. Our copy is an English
translation,* but whilst several distinct kinds of fowls
are referred to, no list is given.

In 1815 was published ' A Practical Treatise on
Breeding, Bearing, and Fattening all Kinds of Domestic
Poultry,' etc., by Bonington Moubray, which had prob-
ably more influence than any previous work in the
development of poultry-keeping upon regular lines.
Between 1815 and 1850 nine editions were published,
and a revised edition was issued in 1854. It was the first
attempt to give poultry anything like the prominence
deserved, and every praise is due to the author, though
his book leaves much to be desired, and is very
sparse in some of its details. The illustrations are
very crude, but give us an idea of what the birds were
like at that time. The races mentioned numbered as
follows, though it is evident others were known :
fowls, 12 ; ducks, 4 ; geese, 1 ; turkeys, 3. In ' The
Cocker,' by W. Sketchley,t upwards of twenty varieties
of the Game fowls are recorded. ' Poultry, their
Breeding, Bearing, Diseases, and General Manage-
ment,' by Walter E. Dickson, was published in 1838,
and marks a distinct advance on all works dealing
with this subject up to that date, although in respect
to breeds, information is very scanty. The races
named by him number : fowls, 19 ; ducks, 3 ; geese, 3 ;
turkeys, 3. Dixon's work was published in 1850, and
he was apparently the first to attempt a division of
the breeds, but entirely in respect to size of body.
He names the following number of breeds : fowls, 22 ;
ducks, 7 ; geese, 5 ; turkeys, 4. The year 1853 saw
the first attempt to deal with poultry in an exhaustive
and complete manner, worthy of the subject. This
* London, 1750. t London. 1811.

was Wingfield and Johnson's ' Poultry Book,'
which, though largely devoted to advocacy of the
Shanghais, other varieties are fully dealt with. The
number of breeds named are : fowls, 34 ; ducks, 8 ;
geese, 4 ; turkeys, 5. It will be seen, therefore, that
within fifty years the number of recognised races of
fowls had increased from twelve to thirty-four ; of
ducks from four to eight ; of geese from one to four ;
and of turkeys from three to five. The majority of
these additions were due to the importation of races
previously unknown in Britain, but existent elsewhere.
It was not until the rise of the exhibition system in
the fifties that the attempt to introduce new forms by
combination of existing breeds was made. The earlier
steps were in the direction of fixing and improving-
those races ah-eady known. As we see later, in the
doing so a great amount of harm resulted. Perhaps,
however, that was to be expected.

Results of Domestication. — Generally speak-
ing, the effects of brmging poultry under the control
of man are seen in four directions.

First : Size of Body. — The Jungle-fowl of India
(G. ferrugineus) is a small bird, weighing about
3i pounds, but becomes heavier when brought under
domestication, even though not selected for enhanced
size. It does now, however, develop much beyond
6 pounds, unless breeding with that object in view is
adopted. Nearly all our larger races of fowls have
come directly or indirectly from Eastern Asia, and it
is evident that breeding for size has been an objective
in China and the Malayan Archipelago. Small fowls
are also bred in those countries. As a result, we have
several breeds which reach 11 to 12 pounds in fuUy-
grown stock. In ducks and geese the same results are
apparent, but in turkeys, as explained already, size has
been reduced.

Second : Fecunditij. —The wild hen forms, as a rule,
two nests in the course of the year, producing from
twenty-two to twenty-six eggs. In aU domesticated
races there is a marked increase in prolificacy, more
especially in certain breeds. Individual hens are
known to produce upwards of 200 eggs per aimum,
and breed averages of 150 are by no means uncommon.
The influences which have led to that result are :
supply of food which stimulates the egg-organs, selec-
tion of those hens as breeding stock which have
proved the best layers, and removal of the eggs as
they are laid. The last named is probably the most
potent. The object of a hen in laying is to perpetuate
the race, and removal of the eggs postpones the
development of the brooding instinct, inducing her to
produce more eggs, as in the case of canaries and other
caged birds. It is further true that changed conditions
often induce increase of egg production, more especially
where birds are transported from South to North.
Nearly all migratory birds in Northern latitudes lay in

RESULTS OF DOMESTICATION AND CLASSIFICATION

15

the colder areas, and it is found that many breeds
brought from Southern Asia to Europe are more
productive than in their native habitat.

Third: Suspension of the Maternal Instinct. — A
considerable number of races of domestic poultry are
unreliable or non-sitters. It would appear that the
primary cause of suspension of the maternal instinct is
due to breeding from the most prolific layers, -with
retardment, in the first place, of broodiness, followed
by suspension. The disuse of any function or any
part of the body leads to its diminution.

Fotirth : General Enfeehlement, which is the penalty
we have to pay for breeding under unnatural condi-
tions, for inbreedhig to fix defined characters, and for
use as stock birds of those specimens which, in respect
to vigour of body, are the least fit, even though they
may show the racial type to the highest degree.

It should be realized that the first three results named
are added qualities of an arbitrary nature, and can only
be maintained by constant care in selection and breed-
ing. They are rapidly lost if artificial selection is not
continued. As the late Professor Drummond has so
well pointed out,* ' The highest part is the latest added
part, and the latest added part is the least secured part.'
This subject is discussed more fully when dealing with
the effects of reversion (Chapter XYII.).

Classification. — There are four methods which
may be adopted in classifying the races of poultry,
namely :

1. Size of body.

2. Coloration of plumage.

3. Country of origm.

4. Economic quahties.

The method first named is necessary to divide those
which are too diminutive for useful purposes from the
practical breeds, and to indicate + such as are valuable
for egg production and flesh properties respectively.
The second method is only essential to recognition of
external characters, and is of lesser importance. The
third is of interest as showing the origin and history of
breeds, and has been adopted in the following chapters
for purposes of effective division. The fourth is of
greatest value to the practical poultry-breeder, to whom
' handsome is as handsome does.' What he requires
to know is whether the birds are capable of yielding
the greater profit as egg-producers, as flesh-growers, or
by combination of the two. Excess in either direction
means reduction in the other, although it is possible, as
will be shown, that by sacrifice of a little on one side
substantial gain may be made on the other. Economic
qualities are the final court of appeal, and below the
races are classified in accordance therewith.

As already mentioned, the use or disuse of any part

* ' The Ascent of Man,' by Henry Drummond (Loudon,
1894), p. 173. t See Cliapter XVII.

of the body must have an effect upon the structure.
It is necessary, therefore, in classifying the races of
fowls in accordance with their economic qualities, to
consider how the body is modified as a result of special
developments. The method of lining a fowl — that is,,
determining its productive qualities by general type — is-
fully explained in the companion volume,* where are
given diagrams showing how the qualities are deter-
mined, and the reader is referred to that work. But
for our present purpose it is necessary to state the con-
siderations which help us to appraise the value of our
breeds of poultry. These must be mentioned briefly.

Egrj Production. — In this case the organs con-
cerned, the ovaries and oviduct, are in the postei'ior
part of the body, which is, as a consequence, large.
The influence upon the comb is explained in Chapter
XVII., but it may here be stated that big combs and
heavy sterns go with prolificacy. It is not enough,
however, to regard number of eggs produced, im-
portant though that is. Some recorded results are-
given in ' Poultry-Keepmg as an Industry.'t We must-
consider the time of year when they are laid. A hen
which yielded only 100 eggs per annum, if she laid
them from October to March, would be more profitable
than another laying 150, who did not commence opera-
tions until the last-named month. It may be here-
explained that whilst all breeds can be induced, more-
or less, to lay in winter, those which are best in that-
respcct are the General Purpose races, producing tinted-
shelled eggs. The next consideration is the size of egg.
Our market demands for the best trade that a dozen
eggs shall weigh not less than 24 ounces. Reference-
to the tables given in the above work \ will show that
in hens' eggs these varied from 19 j to 29 ounces per
dozen from adult birds, and the weights would be-
sUghtly less from pullets. Further, whilst there is a
difference in the flavour of eggs produced by the-
different varieties, apart from the influence of food and
soil, this has no appreciable value at present. And,
finally, the coloration of shell, which is discussed at-
lengthy in the previous work. Only one point need
here be mentioned, namely, that as a rule the smaller
hens of any given breed or variety are usually the-
better layers. The above remarks apply mainly to-
fowls, as the other species are not generally kept as
egg-producers.

Table Properties. — The edible portions of fowls-
consist chiefly of the breast and leg muscles. The
heart, liver, and outer muscles of the gizzard are used
for food, but need not concern us, as they do not vary
to the same extent as the motor muscles on the
sternum and thighs. In the wild species the breast
muscles are the greater, owing to the use of the wings
in flight, but under domestication the tendency is to

* ' Poultry-Keeping as an Industry for Farmers and
Cottagers,' by Edward Bromi, P.L.S. (London, 1904),
pp. 28-29. t Ibid; P- 23. J Ihid., pp. 23-24. § Ibid., p. 166.

16

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

diminution of these and increase of the leg muscles by
exercise, as the birds walk more than they fly, which
explains why, in the races which have not been selected
for breast qualities, and more especially the heavier
Asiatic types, the leg flesh is highly developed. Where
l)irds do not use their wings, as is the case with the
great majority of our fowls — at any rate where cooks
are not used for fighting — the muscles upon the breast
can only be maintained and increased by selection. In
respect to quality, there is a considerable difference in
the flesh. The leg or thigh muscle is harder, closer
in texture, darker in colour, and contams j^ro rata a
greater amount of sinew, whereas the breast muscle is
softer, lighter in colour, and has scarcely any sinew, as
it consists of two layers worked by the clavicle, or
merry-thought. Hence those birds are better for table
purposes in which the breast has attained the highest
and the legs the least development. In addition there
is considerable difference in the nature of the flesh, as
in some breeds it is hard and close, in others soft, thus
determining the quality and flavour. On nearly all
European markets white-fleshed fowls are preferred,
but in America yellow is usually regarded with the
greater favour. A further point is the weight of bone,
which, together with the feathers, is the most expen-
sive part of the body to produce. Heavy-boned fowls
requu-e a longer period of growth to attain kilUng size
than if the frame and limbs are fine in bone. The
latter are, therefore, to be preferred. In ' Poultry-
Keeping as an Industry,'* a table is given showing
the relative proportions of meat and of bone and offal
on a number of races at six months old. And, finally,
quiet birds fatten much the better, producing a greater
increase of flesh than those which are active and rest-
less in temperament.

Maternal Instinct. — It is necessary to keep in view
whether a race can be depended upon as sitters and
mothers. The instinct is suspended, wholly or partly,
in many races, which fact must be recognised when
making selection of breeds for practical purposes. In
the majority of cases those hens which produce the
greatest number of eggs are such as are unreliable or
non-sitters, and with increased prolificacy in any breed
the tendency will be to delay or suspend the brooding
instinct.

Our method of classification, which we introduced
many years ago, and which has been largely adopted,
is to divide the races of poultry for practical purposes
in accordance with their economic qualities. The
, following is the division :

Fowls.

1. Laying or non-sitting (egg-producing) races.

2. Table (flesh-producing) races.

3. General purpose (egg and flesh) races.

4. Ornamental races.

* ' Poultry-Keeping as an Industry for Farmers and
Cottagers,' by Edward Brown, P.L.S. (London, 1904), p. 25.

1. Laying (egg-producing) races.

2. Table (flesh-producing) races.

Geese and Turkeys.

All are bred for meat properties and not for eggs.

The subjoined tables afford at a brief glance the
special qualities of each of the breeds noted in the
following chapters, in which, however, are not included
the purely ornamental races.

CLASSIFICATION OF FOWLS.

Laying or Non-sitting Breeds.

In these races the maternal instinct is almost, if not
entirely, suspended. They are generally medium in
size of body, active in habit, quick in growth, and,
without exception, layers of white-shelled eggs, which,
however, vary greatly in size.

Ancona. Landhen, Danish.

Andalusian. Leghorn.

Bearded Thurmgian. Magyar.

Bergische Grower. Minorca.

Brabant. Moeven.

Braekal. Pavloff.

Campine. PoHsh.

Gastilian. Kamelsloh.

Crested Dutch. Eedcap.

Du Mans. Russian Dutch.

Frieslaud. Schlotterkamm.

Hamburgh. Scotch Grey.

Herve. Spanish, Black.

Houdan. Transylvanian Naked Neck.

Lakenfelder. Voldarno.

Table Breeds.

The breeds which excel in table qualities are cliietiy
larger medium or large in size of body, and the softer
the flesh the less active are they in habit. In several
cases they are fairly quick in growth, but not so rapid
as the non-sitters, which are preferred as milk chickens
for that reason. They are in the majority of cases
good sitters and mothers, the exceptions being among
the French races. Nearly all save the Game, Indian
Game, JMalay, and Aseel, lay white-sheUed eggs.

Antwerp Brahma.

Aseel.

Black Sumatra.

Breda.

l^resse.

Caussade.
Courtes Pattes.
CreveccEur.
Dorking.

Du Mans.

Estanes.

Game.

Indian (Cornish) Game.

La Fleche.

]\Ialay.

Mantes.

Orloff.

Padovana.

Sussex.

General Purpose Breeds.

The definition here adopted is intended to designate
those races in which the qualities are equally balanced
without excessive development either for laying or

CHARACTERISTICS OF FOWLS

17

table purposes. As a rule they are large in size of
body, but are heavier in bone, and consequently slower
in growth, than either of the two previous classes.
What they lose in egg production, as compared with
the non-sitters, they gain in table qualities, and what
they lose in meat properties, as compared with the
table breeds, they gain in egg production. Almost
without exception they are good sitters and mothers,
and layers of tinted-shelled eggs, and also by nature
are good winter layers.

Ardenne. - Java.

Barbezieus. Langshan.

Bourbourg. Malines.

Brahma. Orpington.

Cochin. Owl-bearded Dutch.

Dominique. <^lymouth Eock.

Drente. Polverara.

FaveroUes. Prat.

Flemish Cuckoo. Ehode Island Bed.

French Cuckoo. Wyandotte.

Huttegem.

The following tables give in a convenient form the
characteristics of the different races of fowls :

Characteristics.

LAYING Tinted-shelled Eggs.

Yellow or Cream.

Antwerp Brahma.

Aseel.

Bourbourg.

Brahma.

Bruges (very light).

Cochin.

Dominique.

Estaires.

FaveroUes.

Flemish Cuckoo.

Game, English.

Huttegem.

Indian (Cornish) Game.

Java.

Langshan.

Malay.

Orlofi:

Orpington.

Plj'mouth Rock.

Rhode Island Red.

Wyandotte.

CoLOUK OF Flesh and Skin.

Antwerp Brahma.

Ardenne.

Barbezieux.

Bearded Thuringian.

Bergische Grower.

Black Sumatra.

Brabant.

Breda.

Bresse.

Caumont.

Caussade.

Courtes Pattes.

Crested Dutch.

Crevecoeur.

Dorking.

Du Mans.

Estaires.

FaveroUes.

Flemish Cuckoo.

French Cuckoo.

Game (some varieties).

Herve.
Houdan.

Huttegem.

La Fleche.

Lakenfelder.

Landhen, Danish.

Magyar, White.

Mahnes.

Minorca, White.

Moeven.

Orpington, Buff, White,

Spangled.
Owl-bearded Dutch.
Padovana.
Polverara.
Prat.

Eamelsloh.
Russian Dutch.
Schlotterkamm.
Scotch Grey.
Sussex.

Anoona.
Bourbourg.
Brahma.
Cochin.
Dominique.
Game (some varieties).
Indian (Cornish) Game.
■<rava.
Leghorn.

Magyar (except White).

Malay.

Orloff.

Pavloff.

Plymouth Rock.

Rhode Island Red.

Voldarno, White.

Wyandotte.

Grey or Greyish-white.

Andalusian,

Braekel.

Bruges.

Campine.

Castihan.

Drente.

Friesland.

Hamburgh.

Langshan.

Mantes.

Minorca, Black.

Orpington, Black.

Polish.

Redcap.

Spanish, Black.

Transylvanian Naked

Neck.
Voldarno, Black.

Colour of Legs and Feet.

Antwerp Brahma.

Dorking.

FaveroUes.

Game (some varieties).

Herve, Cuckoo.

Huttegem.

Magyar, White.

Pinly-ivhite.

Bourbourg. French Cuckoo.

Crevecoeur, White. Houdan, Mottled.

Minorca, White.
Orpington, Buff, White,

Spangled.
Prat (or light Slate).
Russian Dutch.
Scotch Grey, Mottled.

Flemish Cuckoo.

Bar!; or Slate-blue.

Andalusian.

Ardenne.

Augsburg.

Barbezieux.

Bearded Thuringian.

Bergische Crower.

Black Sumatra.

Brabant.

Braekel.

Breda.

Bresse.

Bruges.

Campine.

Castilian.

Caumont.

Caussade.

Caux.

Courtes Pattes.

Crested Dutch.

Crevecoeur, Black.

D'Herquies.

Drente.

Du Mans.

Friesland.

Game (some varieties).

German Creeper.

Hamburgh.

Herve, Black, Blue.

Java.

La Fleche.

Lakenfelder.

Landhen, Danish.

Langshan.

Minorca, Black.

Moeven.

Orpington, Black.

Owl-bearded Dutch.

Pavloff.

PoUsh.

Polverara.

Prat (or White).

Ramelsloh.

Schlotterkamm.

Spanish, Black.

Transylvanian Naked

Neck.
Voldarno, Black.
2

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

Ancona.

Aseel.

Brahma.

Cochin.

Dominique.

Game (some varieties).

Indian (Cornish) Game.

Leghorn.

Magyar.
Malay.
Orloff.
Padovana.

Plymouth Kock.
Khode Island Eed.
Voldarno, White.
Wyandotte.

Characteristics.

Colour of Flesh and Skin.

Shape of Combs.
Single.

Game.

Andalusian.
Ardenne.
Barbezieux.
Bearded Thuringia
Bergische Grower.
Bourbourg.
Brabant.
Braekel.

Campine.

Castilian.

Caussade.

Caux.

Cochin.

Courtes Pattes.

D'Herquies.

Dorking (except White).

Drente.

Estaires.

FaveroUes.

Flemish Cuckoo.

French Cuckoo.

Friesland.

Dominique.
Dorking, White.
Du Mans.
Hamburgh.

1
Antwerp Brahma.
Aseel.
Black Sumatra.

German Creeper.

Herve.

Huttegem.

Java.

Lakenfelder.

Langshan.

Leghorn.

Magyar.

Malines.

Mantes.

Minorca.

Moeven.

Orpington.

Plymouth Rock.

Prat.

Bamelsloh.

Rhode Island Red.

Schlotterkamm.

Scotch Grey.

Spanish, Black.

Sussex. [Neck.

Transylvanian Naked

Voldarno.

Redcap.
Russian Dutch.
Wyandotte.

Triple.
Brahma.
Bruges.
Padovana.

Augsburg.
Crested Dutch.
Crevecofeur.
La Fleohe.
Owl-bearded Dutch

Horned.

Pavloff.
Polish.
Polverara.
Houdan (Leaf).

CLASSIFICATION OP DUCKS.

Laying Breeds.

Indian Runner. Pekin.

Table Breeds.

Aylesbury. Huttegem.

Blue Swedish. Merohtem.

Blue Termonde. Muscovy.

Cayuga. Rouen.
Duclair-Rouen.

Aylesbury.
Blue Swedish.
Blue Termonde.
Cayuga.

Indian Runner.
Muscovy.

Duclair-Rouen.

Huttegem.

Merchtem.

Pekin.
Rouen.

Aylesbury.
Blue Swedish.
Indian Runner,
Merchtem.

Colour of Legs and Feet.
Orange or Ycllotv.

Muscovy.
Pekin.

Blue Termonde.
Cayuga.

Rouen.

Duclair-Rouen.
Huttegem.

Blue
Blue Swedish.
Blue Termonde.
Cayuga.
Duclair-Rouen.

Colour of Bills.
Oreen.

Huttegem.
Indian Runner.
Rouen.

Aylesbury.

Muscovy.

Flesh-coloured.

Merchtem.
Orange-coloured.

Pekin.

CLASSIFICATION OP GEESE.

Laying Breed.

Roman.

Table Breeds.

African. Embden.

Canadian. Russian.

Chinese. Saddleback.

Danubian. Toulouse.

Characteristics.

Colour of Flesh and Skin.

Yellow or Orange.

African.
Chinese.
Russian.

Saddleback (pale)
Toulouse.

Oreamy-white.

Canadian.
Danubian.

Embden.
Roman.

Darh Grey.

Egyptian.

CHARACTERISTICS AND TECHNICAL TERMS

19

Colour of Legs and Feet.
Orange.
African. Embden.

Chinese, Brown (dusky). Russian.
Chinese, White. Saddleback (reddish).

Egyptian (pinkish). Toulouse.

Grey.
Eoman.

Bed.
Danubian.

Blach.
Canadian.

Colour oi? Bills.

Chinese (dusky).
Embden.
Eoman (reddish).

Orange.

Russian.
Saddleback
Toulouse.
Bed.
Danubian.

(reddish).

Black or Pmyle.
Canadian. African. Egyptian.

CLASSIFICATION OF TURKEYS.
All races of turkeys are bred for table purposes.

Characteristics.

Colour of Flesh and Skin.
White.
American Bronze. Fawn.

Black. Narragansett.

Cambridge Bronze. Eonquieres.

Beddish-white.
White.

Colour of Legs and Feet.

White.

Fawn (bluish). Eonquieres. White (pinkish).

Grey.
Cambridge Bronze.

Blach or Slate.
American Bronze. Black.

Salmon or Brown.
Narragansett.

Colour or Beaks.

Flesh.

Cambridge Bronze. Ronquieres. White.

Horn.

American Bronze. Black. Narragansett.

Bluish-white.

Pawn.

Choice of Breed. — A question which must
appeal to every practical poultry-keeper is the choice
of breed. The stock-raiser, whose object is sale of
eggs or birds, must keep in view those races which are
most in demand, but in meeting ordinary market
requirements what is merely fashion may be ignored.
The determination of this question must be largely
fixed by the branch of poultry-keeping adopted. A
study of Chapters V. and VI. in the companion work*
wiU place the reader in possession of the leading con-
siderations, so far as they are known to us.

Technical Terms. — Before dealing with the
various races of poultry, it is necessary that the
technical terms used shall be explained. In Fig. 2
the various external characters are illustrated, and in
Fig. 3 the different forms of comb are shown in
comparison.

The following contains the leading technical terms
used in description of the various races and sub-races
of poultry. The numbers refer to Figs. 2, 3, and 4
respectively. That last named represents the different
forms of feather-marking, but does not attempt to give
aU the variations on different parts of the body.

Barred. — In fowls so designated there are transverse
but solid black or very dark bars across the feathers
(Fig. 4, No. 1).

Beak. — Horny protuberance from the mouth, con-
sisting of upper and lower mandible, with nostrils at
base of former (Fig. 2, No. 7).

Bean. — SmaU oval tip on beak of duck.

Breast. — The fJeshy part of body from the chest to
stern (Fig. 2, No. 11).

Breed. — The race or family, as Dorking.

Caruncled. — Fleshy protuberances on the head.

Chest. — The front of sternum (Fig. 2, No. 10).

Comh. — The ileshy growth on top of the skull,
larger in the male (Fig. 2, No. 1, and Fig. 3).

Crest. — Tuft of feathers forming a crown to the
head, in some cases very large and globular (Fig. 2,
No. 6).

Crop. — Food reservoir carried in recess lying be-
tween neck and body.

Earlohe. — Bare patch of skin below the ear, varying
greatly in colour and size (Fig. 2, No. 4).

Face. — Flesh around the eye, usually bare (Fig. 2,
No. 2).

Fifth Toe. — A superniunerary toe, found only in a
few races (Fig. 2, No. 17).

Hoch Feathers. — Stiff feathers above the leg-joint,
usually developed in feather-footed races (Fig. 2,
No. 15).

Horned Comh. — Formed by two or more spikes or
horns (Fig. 2, Nos. 11 and 12).

Laced. — Each feather is edged with a narrow band

* ' Poultry-Keeping as an Industry for Farmers and
Cottagers," by Edward Brown, F.L.S. (London, 1904),
pp. 28, 36.

2—2

20

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

of dark colour or black, or white surrounding the
ground colour, giving an even crescentic appearance
on the body (Fig. 4, No. 2). In some cases they are
double-laced— that is, the margin of black, etc., is
divided by a fine line of white, etc. (Fig. 4, No. 4).
Leaf Comb. — Like two large leaves opened out,

Muffs, or Beard. — Feathers found by the side of the
throat and under the head in some breeds (Fig. 2,
No. 5).

Neck-hackle. — Long, narrow feathers covering the
neck (Fig. 2, No. 9).

Pea or Triple Comb. — Usually like three fingers on

Fig. 2.— External Characters of a Fowl.

Comb.
Face.

Wattles.

Earlobe, or deaf -ear.

Muffs.

Crest.

Beak.

Whiskers.

Neck-hackle.

Chest.

11. Breast.

12. Back.

13. Saddle-hackle.

14. Thighs.

15. Hock feathers.

16. Spur of cock.

17. Fifth toe.

18. Inner toe.

19. Leg feathering.

20. Foot feathering.

21. Middle toe.

22. Outer toe.

23. Shank of leg.

24. Wing-bar.

25. Wing primaries.

26. Wing secondaries.

27. Outer sickles.
2S. Tail.

29. Inner sickles.

30. Tail coverts.

with a third protuberance in the centre (Fig. 3,
No. 10).

Leg and Foot Feathering. — An ornamental feature
found chiefly in certain Asiatic races (Fig. 2, Nos. 19
and 20).

Mottled. — The plumage is irregularly marked with
splashes or spots of darker or lighter colour, as in
Houdans.

top of head, the centre elevated above the others
(Fig. 3, No. 6).

Pencilled.— la this case there are bars or crescents
across the feathers, formed of masses of dark lines on
the ground colour, but not solid (Fig. 4, No. 6).

Primaries, Wing. — The outer flight feathers, but
hidden when wing is closed.

Bose Comb. — Of varied forms ; where flat, a long

COMBS OF FOWLS

1. Large single (cock).

I single.
4. Single (high at back).

Pig. 3. — Various Types of Combs.

6. Rudimentary.

6. Pea, or triple.

7. Flat rose.

8. Large rose.

9. Curved rose.

10. Leaf, or strawberry.

11. Wide horn.

12. Horn.

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

spike stands out behind (Fig. 8, No. 7), and is
carried well above the bead ; in the curved type
the comb is smaller and lies close to the sliuU (Fig. 3,
No. 9).

Saddle-JiacMe. — Long, narrow feathers, covering
the root of the tail in males (Fig. 2, No. 13).

Secondaries, Wing. — The inner flight feathers, on
outer side when wing is closed.

SicMes. — Long crescentic feathers of tail in males.

spot, usually oval or round, of a different colour from
the ground of the plumage (Fig. 4, No. 3).

Spur. — Sharp weapon for defence, on inner side of
each leg ; pronounced in male, rudimentary in female ;
increasing greatly with age (Fig. 2, No. 16).

Thighs. — The flesh-covered part of the lower limbs
(Fig. 2, No. 14).

Variety. — Division of family, as Dark Dorking.

Wattles. — Pendant fleshy growth from lower man-

FiG. 4.— Feather Markings.

Barred.
Laced.
Spangled.
Double laced.

5. Cuckoo.

6. Pencilled.

7. Chain mail.

Single Comb. — Narrow comb, usually longer than
the head and beak, carried well over the neck ; evenly
serrated on upper side, in large combs standing upright
in the cock (Fig. 3, No. 1), hanging over on one side
in hen (Fig. 3, No. 2) ; in smaller, upright in both
sexes ; sometimes the comb slopes sharply from front
to back (Fig. 3, No. 3), and in others is cut away
from the head at back (Fig. 3, No. 4).

i.^At the extremity of each feather is a

dible, usually conforming to the comb^in size ; larger
in the male (Fig. 2, No. 3).

Whiskers. — Feathers hanging below the lower
mandible (Fig. 2, No. 8).

Wing - bar. — Transverse markings on wings of
many breeds, chiefly in males (Fig. 2, No. 24).

Wing-bow. — Base of wings at shoulders.

The nomenclature of the races of poultry wUl be
found in Appendix A.

CHAPTER III

BKTTISH RACES OF FOWLS

Dorking

Sussex

Game

Indian or (Cornish) Game

Hamburgh
Redcap
Scotch Grey
Orpington

WHILST the fact is generally acknowledged
that the domestic fowl originated in Asia,
and from thence has been disseminated all
over the globe, it is equally true that this distribution
has had great influence in modifying the secondary
characters, and of evolving the varieties met with in
different countries. Hence in the association of any
breed with one country it is intended to denote that
its present form was first developed, so far as our
knowledge goes, in that land, not that the species itself
originated there. Mere acclimatization is not enough
nor length of time during which it has been bred.
The race or breed must, either by natural or artificial
selection or both, have then assumed its personal and
pecuhar characteristics.

As an example of our meaning may be cited the
Black Orpington. It was produced by an amalgamation
of three breeds of different nationalities — namely,
(1) Minorca (Spanish), (2) Langshan (Chinese), and
(3) Plymouth Eock (American) — although we must not
forget that the last named has a great amount of
Asiatic or Chinese blood in its composition. Yet the
Black Orpington is essentially British, in that the
mating and breeding which resulted in its production
took place in Britain. On the other hand, the
Minorca, which has been bred for more than 100 years
in South-Western England, is Spanish, in that it yet
retains to a large extent those racial characters which
were found when introduced. We therefore shall
endeavour to classify the various breeds in accordance
with the country to which they owe their special
development.

It would be foolish, however, to ignore the fact that
change of habitat in any race generally leads to con-
siderable modification. Here we have an explanation
why the same breed is found to vary when taken from
one country to another, and in some cases from one

district to another. Hence we should not expect that
the Langshan will retain exactly the same type and
character in Western Europe or America as in China ;
that Plymouth Rocks will be identical in England as in
the United States ; that Houdans will maintain exactly
the same characters in Australia as in France. Such
changes and modifications are seen in all branches of
livestock and plants, and we must expect these to con-
tinue with an even increasing ratio unless very close
attention is paid to selection. That the tendency
referred to is increased by breeding for exhibition pm--
poses, by reason of differing ideals, cannot be ques-
tioned, but without such artificial stimulus it would be
considerable.

The influence of changed conditions has been referred
to elsewhere,* but too often the question is ignored by
breeders in studying the races of poultry, more especi-
ally those introduced from other countries, and which
are found to differ considerably from their progenitors
or from imported stock. A familiar example is the
case of Jersey cattle. In spite of all the efforts of
breeders, animals of that race cannot be produced ia
the British Isles, on the Continent of Europe, or in
America, identical with those bred in the Channel
Islands. The latter are smaller, finer in skin and hair,
than those raised elsewhere ; and even where island-
bred animals are imported, the change noted is evident
with their first descendants. What is true respecting
that breed of cattle is equally so with poultry, which,
so far as the United Kingdom is concerned, very
speedily display a tendency to increase of size in body
and of enlargement of comb, due largely to the moist
conditions prevailing in the British Islands. To this
fact is due the predilection for size, which prevails to a
considerable extent, and which further emphasizes the

* ' Poultry-Keeping as an Industry for Fanners and Cot-
tagers,' by Edward Brown, F.L.S. (London, 1904), pp. 36-42.

24

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

prevalent notion in favour of selection of big stock.
Where meat qualities are the main object, striving for
greater bulk of body can be understood, though it is not
all gain, as explained in Chapter XVI., for with it there
is a strong tendency to coarseness of flesh and of bone ;
but in respect to egg production undue size of body is a
mistake. The best layers are not the largest birds,
even within the breed or race itself, and it has been
proved by practical experience that lighter-bodied hens
are usually the more prolific.

The effects of climatic and other conditions, as well
as the results of breeding for size, are seen in the races
named above, the majority of which are of a large size.
The exceptions are, first, the Game fowls ; but these
were bred originally for fighting purposes, and although
there was necessarily the need for abundance of muscle
and strong bone, it was recognised that oversized speci-
mens could not successfully meet their more compact
and agile contestants. But it is evident that the fight-
ing Game, as now represented by what are called ' Old
Enghsh ' or ' old-fashioned ' Game, are deeper in body
and more prominent in front, and heavier than the
flatter and shallower-bodied ' modern ' or ' show '
Game fowls. The latter have been produced in spite,
rather than as a result, of climatic conditions, due to
the skilful way in which they were and are bred ; and,
second, the Hamburghs, which are the smallest of our
economic races of poultry. These have been kept small
by rigid selection over a long series of years. It is a
well-known fact that there is ever present in Ham-
burghs a tendency to increase of size, unless close or
inbreeding is resorted to, and that where birds of that
race are given full liberty, and are not selected with the
exhibition-pen in view, they become heavier and larger.
Were it not for the exaltation of the fine, neat comb of
the Hamburgh into a leading feature for exhibition
purposes, we believe that the breed would be much
larger in body than is now the case. Had it been the
intention to deal with the smaller races of poultry —
notably bantams — the greater proportion of which are
essentially British, having been evolved and perfected
in the United Kingdom, the correctness of this conten-
tion would receive justification. They are diminutive
in size because breeding has largely been to that end.
The main difficulty is to keep them small, and what-
ever is unnatural in the way of breeding, housing,
hatching, and feeding is resorted to. Our object is
practical, and consequently we do not include the
purely ornamental races of economic poultry.

The breeding of pure races of poultry in Britain,
especially from 1850 to 1890, was largely on fancy
lines, with the result that extremes were sought for,
points of small value exaggerated, and variations
stimulated, whilst the world was searched for rare or
novel types, resulting in the introduction of alien races,
many of which have, deservedly, by then: valuable
qualities, attained a greater amount of popularity than

some of the native breeds. Undoubtedly there is a
greater diversity of fowls in Britain than in any other
country, but, in spite of this fact, the final court of
appeal is the economic value as food-producers, and
those which fail even comparatively in that direction
have only a hmited number of admirers. The influ-
ence of what is commonly termed fancy breeding
has not been beneficial in development of economic
qualities, and in several cases these qualities are lost as
a consequence of undue exaltation of external char-
acters, merely show pOLnts,useless for practical pm-poses,
and in many cases distinctly antagonistic to production
of eggs or meat. But, on the other hand, the enthusiasm
of fanciers has led to the introduction of some of our
most valuable breeds, without which they would never
have become known, and the publicity given to these
breeds by exhibitions has led to their wider dissemina-
tion. Eecognising the harm done in the directions
indicated, it is unquestionable that the benefit obtained
by exhibitions has more than compensated for the loss,
and that the balance is on the right side. But the
time has arrived when we have obtained nearly all the
benefit to be derived from the exhibition system, except
so far as it is a legitimate stimulus to the maintenance
of purity of race, and as an encouragement to new
breeds. Our object should be to devote attention,
whilst conserving and improving the racial characters,
to the development of economic qualities, both in the
native and imported breeds, with a view to the increased
production of eggs and table fowls.

DOEKING.

NosTENCLATUBE ; Dorking is used in all countries.
V.4BIETIES : Dark or Coloured, Red, Silver-grey,

White, Cuckoo.
Classification : Table.
CoLouB OF Flesh : Wliile.
Colour of Legs : White.
Colour of Egg-shells : White.

Origin. — It has been suggested that the Dorking
fowl originated in Italy, and that its introduction was
a result of the Boman occupation of Britain. The
basis upon which this theory is built is very slight
indeed, and circumstantial rather than direct, as the
earlier references to this race do not carry us back
further than the seventeenth century. In a work* pub-
lished in 1854, by Mr. G. Ferguson, ho states that
' from 1683 to the present time we have ample proofs
that the principal fowls of this description have been
bred at Dorking or its environments, and that they
have had for a considerable period, and do still retain,
the credit of supplying the market with Ihe finest speci-
mens both for appearance and the table.' What
authority the writer had for tracing back the Dorking

'■ ' Rare and Prize Poultry,' by G. Ferguson, Secretary to
the London Poultry Improvement Association (London, 1854),
pp. 86-87.

THE DORKING FOWL

25

■to 1683 is not stated, and consequently we are unable
to form any judgment as to its reliability. That, how-
•ever, does not carry us to the Eoman period, and it
may be briefly stated that Columella, a Roman writer
who lived about the beginning of the Christian era,
described a breed which was evidently in many respects
similar to the present-day Dorking. He stated that
* those hens are reckoned of the purest breed which
are five-clawed, but so placed that no cross spurs arise
from the legs.' He further says : ' Let them be of a
reddish or dark plumage, and with black wings. . . .
Let the breeding hens, therefore, be of a choice colour,
a robust body, square build, full-breasted, with large
heads, with upright and bright red combs. . . . Those
are believed to be the best bred that have five toes.'

Further evidence is given as to the fifth toe especially,
for Pliny, whose ' Historia Naturalis ' was published
A.v. 77, says : ' Superiority of breed in hens is indicated
by an upright comb, sometimes double, black wings,
ruddy visage, and an odd number of toes.' The evidence
here given is by no means sufiflcient, and we are com-
pelled to assume a great deal ; but in Ferguson's work,
already referred to, he states that from the southern
parts of Italy friends had procured three specimens
which were facsimiles of our Dorking fowls, with the
•exception of the size, which was smaller. During a
visit to Italy in 1903 we found birds bearing some
resemblance to the Dorking, although these may have
teen the descendants of fowls taken from Britain to
the Peninsula. From the ancient references quoted it
may be taken for certain that a breed of the Dorking
type was known in Italy at the period of the above-
named writers, and, judging the habits of the Romans
from our own. it is not unreasonable to assume that
when they held Britain they introduced into this
country animals from their own land. Be that as it
may, it is very evident that fowls of the Dorking type
have been known in Britain for a very long period of
time, far beyond any direct record that we possess.
It is urmecessary to give excerpts from English writers,
because many of these quotations would hardly help
us. It was not until the nineteenth century that we
iave any definite information as to the fowl under its
present name. We find from a work published in the
early part of the eighteenth century by the great
Frenchman, De Reaumur (the English edition being
issued in 1750)— but which does not deal much with
breeds— the following statement:* 'The hens of one of
these species I mean have five toes, viz., three fore and
two hinder ones; the second of these two hinder claws,
which is the supernumerary, is much larger than the
■other ; it seems not, however, to be the most useful
to the foot, as it keeps frequently off the ground. As
for the rest, this kind of hen is one of the largest,

* ' The Art c
by M. de Reaumur (London, 1750), p. 443."

and deserves, on account of their considerable bulk,
that we should endeavour to multiply them.'

History. — The first definite description of the
Dorking, or Darking, as it was then called, with
details enabling us to recognise it, is found in Mou-
bray's ' Practical Treatise,' which was first pubhshed
in 1815.*

' The Darking Fowl, so called from a town in SuiTey,
where probably the variety was first bred, and where,
and in its vicinity, they are to be found in great plenty
and perfection, is, in the third degree, the largest of our
fowls, well shaped, having a long, capacious body and
short legs, and is a plentiful layer. The genuine
colour entire white ; chief distinctive mark, five claws
upon each foot. The white is probably not so pure as
that of certain of the dunghill fowls, nor is the colour
of the flesh, that inclining to yellow or ivory shade.
The Darking are the species generally made into
capons. In a large agricultural survey of the county
of Sussex an attempt is made to deprive Darking of
the honour of originating this famous variety of fowls,
with what degree of success it would be a waste of
time to inquire ; it is sufficient we possess such a
variety, and know where it is in perfection. The
surveyor pretends that the Darking fowls are all
raised in the Weald of Susses, and that Horsham is the
chief market for them ; that their having five claws
is by no means their true and original characteristic,
such peculiarity being merely fortuitous, and, in fact,
objectionable ; and that those so marked are deemed
a bastard breed. No doubt it is probable that having
five claws accidentally brought into notice certain fine
and well-formed individuals ; but from those proceeded
a distinguished variety, and that variety bearing the
name of Darking, seems a suflicient proof in favour of
that town and its neighbourhood. In the meantime,
the appellation "Darking fowl" has been in use, I
apprehend, far beyond the memory of anyone now
living ; and it is not at all improbable the large
Sussex breed has originated from a Darking cross, the
peculiar mark of five claws employed, compared with
that of the Sussex or common cocks, which were not
so distinguished. Such is a common case in crossing
varieties of livestock , the home variety in the end
gets uppermost, as being the majority. In fine, five
claws form an original distinction in the common cock
and hen, adverted to by Buffon ; nor is there anything
inconvenient or injurious in it, the fifth claw being
seldom of sufficient magnitude to cumber the foot, or
cause it to scratch out the eggs, as has been appre-
hended.'

What Moubray here says as to the name being a
sufficient proof of the breed having been originated

* ' A Practical Treatise on Breeding, Rearing, and Fatten-
ing all Kinds of Domestic Poultry,' by IJonington Moubray
(Londou, 1324). pp. lB-18.

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTIIY

THE DORKING FOWL

27

around Dorking cannot be accepted, but at any rate it
is proof that it had been greatly developed in that
district, and there can be no question that at one time
the finest Dorking fowls, as we have since come to
call them, were bred largely in the Weald of Sussex.
There is, however, other evidence to show that fowls
of this type were not confined to the South of England,
for it is stated that in Cumberland birds having five
toes, and with a square body, were bred there, being
known as the Jew breed, and in other places as the
Silver Pheasant breed, whilst in Scotland they were

same year the first couple of Dorking fowls to the
banks of the Thames, and to the old camp at Amble-
side, or Castle Hill at Keswick.'

Economic Qualities.— Pre-eminently the Dork-
ing is valued for its meat properties. Whilst there is
a considerable ditferenee in the laying powers of the
varieties, and in families of those varieties, at the
same time we do not regard the Dorking as a first-
class layer. It produces large-sized, white-shelled
eggs, and is an early layer, which is always a distinct

Fig. 7.— White Doekings.

called the old Scotch breed. As one writer in the
Gardener's Chronicle in 1848 stated : ' This Jew
kind is said to be very ancient in Cumberland ; and
it is still very usual for the Lancashire men to
carry off any fine birds of this race which they see
among the mountain cottages. However, it would be
a vain attempt to trace the origin of a breed which was
accurately described 2,000 years ago by a Boman
writer; and, as Boman stations abound in Cumber-
land, it is quite possible that a poultry - fancying
prsetor, 1,500 years since, might send or carry in the

advantage in the production of table poultry, because
the chickens can be hatched out early in the year. It
would be a mistake, however, to unduly increase the
laying qualities of the breed, because this would be at
the expense of the table properties, and the Dorking,
by its fineness of flesh, its delicacy of skin, the white-
ness of the flesh and legs, and the abundance of meat
carried upon the body, must be regarded as one of the
best table fowls that it is possible to obtain. Birds of
this breed, however, do not fatten quite as well as when
crossed with some other varieties, and we are inclined

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

■to think that, so far as the fattening is concerned
several breeds which owe their origin to some extent
-to the influence of the Dorking look better when
finished off, though this does not apply so much in
the case of the younger specimens as in that of the
older birds. It is a fact undoubtedly, as can be proved
by observation at the Smithfield and other table-
poultry shows, that the Dorking seldom looks as
smooth and even as some of the cross-breds, and
a few other pure breeds. One great point to keep in
view, and it has not been as much regarded as might
have been expected, is fineness of bone. In order to
obtain huge size for exhibition purposes, there has been
a tendency to coarseness of bone, probably due to
eome extent to extraneous influence. This is a point
■which should be carefully avoided. "Whilst there must
be a substantial frame, at the same time we do not
desire any coarseness in the bone. The one great dis-
advantage which the Dorking has when bred pure is
that it is found unsuitable for heavy or clay lands, for
■under these conditions it does not thrive well, as it
appears to be unable to withstand such influences.
It is important to know this, because we always advise
those living upon clay lands not to go in for the pro-
duction of first-class table poultry, but rather to select
the yellow-legged varieties, and make egg production
the primary consideration.

Description.— It would require much more space
than can be afforded to discuss all the different in-
fluences that have been at work in making the Dorking
such as we know it to-day ; but from the evidence which
is obtainable we may accept the statement that the
Dorking, as bred 100 years ago and previous to that
time, was to a large extent white in plumage, although
there were many other colours. In an edition of
Moubray's ' Treatise,' published in 1854, the white is
there acknowledged as the pure Dorking, and the
writer goes on to say* that ' this, the genuine Dorking
breed, owing to the innumerable crosses to which they
have been subjected, is now becoming exceedingly
scarce, and can scarcely be met witli beyond a very
circumscribed district in Surrey.' It is interesting, in
connection with the discussion as to the colour of the
pure Dorking, that Columella said, speaking of the fowl
already referred to, ' Let the white ones be avoided,
for they are generally both tender and less vivacious,
and are also not found to be prolific' There is
further evidence also that a good many of the
fowls of this type which have been found in South
Italy during the last hundred years have been chiefly
■white in plumage. The question, however, is one
which is full of difficulties, and we can leave it as here
stated.

* ' A Practical Treatise on Breeding, Rearing, and Fatten-
ing all Kinds of Domestic Poultry," by Bonington Moubray,
eighth edition (London, 1854), p. 124.

Moubray's work gives the following subvarieties of
the improved Dorking :

(a) Greys : speckled, spangled.

(b) Beds : speckled or pied, pencilled.

(c) Black breasted : silver, golden, Japan.
{d) Cuckoo-breasted.

In Ferguson's work the Dorkings are divided into
the following subvarieties : white, coloured, grey,
mottled grey, spangled or speckled, brown, rubles,
cuckoos, virgils, bride-laced, Japans, Norfolk-fords,
grey-fords, and muffs. As to some of these we have
no present knowledge, and as descriptions are not
given in the works referred to, it is impossible to say
what they were like, more especially as the writer
suggests that they were either cross-breds, or that the
names were merely local distinctions.

The present purpose is to describe the Dorking as we
know it to-day. ]\Iany people are apt to exalt what-
ever belongs to the past, and to depreciate the present.
Whilst, therefore, we may accept the statement that
there were some good Dorkings fifty years ago, at the
same time it must be conceded that there was a great
uncertainty in type and in cliaraoter. That there were
first-rate birds is evident from an interesting letter
which appeared in the Live Stock Journal, nearly
thirty years ago, from Mr. A. B. Allen, of New York,
who said : ' I first visited England in 1841, and in
looking over the poultry there, this bird (the Dorking)
struck me as being the shorthorn of barn-door fowls —
that is, the best for general purposes — and I resolved
to take some of them back to America with me. I
accordingly selected two cocks and half a dozen
pullets, and got them safely to my farm in the State of
New York. They were of brilliant variegated plumage,
chiefly brown-spangled and partridge colours of the
darker shades, and the cocks black-breasted. They
had shortisli white legs, five toes, and botli single and
double combs ; the bodies were pheasant-shaped, long,
round, and full, with a deep breast, like a shorthorn
ox ; the head was fine, well-set on to a small, clean,
graceful neck ; they were thickly feathered, hardy and
thrifty, excellent layers, steady sitters, and careful
nurses. Well fatted, the hens weighed 6 to 7
pounds each, the cocks nine to ten pounds ; when
caponized they came up to 12 pounds. They were
the best table fowls I ever ate. They had white skins
and flesh, with little offal. So far as I have been able
to ascertain, I was the first importer of the Dorking
fowl into America. Subsequently many other im-
portations followed. Some of these were of larger
size than mine, but possessed the same characteristics.
They varied in plumage from light or silver to dark
grey, partridge colours to brown-spangled and almost
blacli. Pure White Dorkings were also imported ; but
instead of being small, like bantams, as suggested by

VARIETIES OF DORKINGS

29

a correspondent, they were nearly as large as the
coloured, but not quite so hardy.'

Recent breedmg has undoubtedly led to greater
fixity of colour, and, as we see below, the number
of varieties is considerably reduced. This, however,
is generally the case when attention is fixed more
especially upon certain types, and no attempt is made
to take advantage of variations in the formation of new
varieties. The main points in the Dorking are that
the head shall be large ; the neck thick, rather short,
and with full hackle ; the breast full and prominent,
with long, perfectly straight breast-bone ; the body
large, square, and deep; the back broad and rather
long, flat on the shoulders, narrowing slightly towards
the stern ; wings large and well carried up ; tail
large and flowing in the cock, carried moderately up,
and with long, broad, and well-arched sickle feathers ;
the thighs thick and stout, but covered by the plumage ;
the legs short and strong, but fine in bone, and the feet
large and broad, with five toes. In all the breeds of
Dorkings, without exception, the legs and feet are pure
white in colour, as also are the toe-nails ; the beak is
horn colour. Weight : males, 9 to 12 pounds ; females,
7 to 10 pounds.

Varieties. — It is very difiicult indeed to trace the
evolution of the varieties of the Dorking, which have
been reduced rather than increased in number. We
have seen that in the early fifties of last century eight
at least were named, but some of these are no longer to
be found, and were probably then merelj' slight varia-
tions of three or four leading types. It will have been
noticed that the Whites were not included, which
is surprising, as they were known long before that
time.

Dark or Coloured {Frontispiece). — Much con-
troversy has arisen as to Coloured Dorkings. The
editor of the 1854 edition of Moubray's ' Poultry Book '
stated that the Black-breasted Dorkings were produced
by crossing with Spanish, which statement is supported
by the testimony that about the period named Dork-
ings of this variety were decidedly flatter in front than
we are now accustomed to see. It would appear that
the variety, as we know it to-day, was really produced
by Mr. J. Douglas, then manager of the poultry-yard
at Clumber, and no secret was made of the fact that a
cross had been employed. Mr. Douglas selected hens
of a grey and brown Dorking tj'pe ; these he mated
with a male imported from India, and in the last
edition of Wright's ' Book of Poultry ' he gave the
following particulars with regard to that bird : *

' The bird was a model single-combed Dorking in all
but the fifth toe, which was absent ; and it is quite
wrong to say that he was of the Malayan type, for
there was not the least type of Malay about him ; he

* ' New Book of Poultry,' by Lewis Wright (London, 1902),

had white legs and all the characters of the Dorking,
except, as before stated, the fifth toe. I firmly believe
that he must have been a cross from a bird of the
Dorking tribe — taken out to India — with what cross I
could not say, but certainly not the Malay.'

There can be no question that for many years the
Dark Dorking was distinctly a coarser bird than we
know it to-day, but the advantage of the out-crossing-
was considerable, and its evil influences have to a large
extent been obliterated by breeding. The Dark Dork-
ing is the largest of the race. Taking the general type
already mentioned as the basis, the variations are that
there is a good deal of black upon a greyish -white or
steely-blue background. It has a single comb, with
red earlobe, though often this is slightly tinged with
white, and it has a black breast. The appearance is
very striking when viewed sideways, by reason of its-
square shape. The Coloured Dorking is the heaviest
in bone of all the difl'erent varieties, and special care
requhes to be taken in that direction. In flesh quali-
ties the Dark Dorking does not compare favourably
with the silver-grey, as it does not fatten so well,
nor is the breast so thickly covered with muscle as-
might be expected. An attempt has been made to
introduce a Dark Dorking with rose comb, but it has
not met with popular favour.

Bed. — A variety which would appear to have been
commonly seen in Kent and Sussex, but which is now
seldom met with, is the Red, although it has been kept
by a few breeders for at least sixty years. One of
these breeders, Mr. Harry Hamlin, of Edenbridge,
read a paper at Edenbridge, July 29, 1899, in which he
said :

' My own recoUeetion of these beautiful fowls dates
back some thirty years ago, when my father, the late
Mr. Henry Hamlin, of St. Piers' Farm, Lingfield,
Surrey, finding this good old breed becoming very
rare, decided to carefully preserve them, which he did
until his death, and which I have continued to do ever
since, with the greatest pleasure, profit, and satisfac-
tion. One great point in favour of the Red Dorkings
is that they have never been crossed with Asiatic
fowls, which gives coarseness of bone, thick yellow
skin, and looseness of feather. In viewing a pen of
Red Dorkings, the first thing that strikes us is the
beautiful red hackles of the cock, and his most
compact shape and general absence of all coarseness.
We also notice his well-formed single comb, which ia-
smaller than the present-day Dorking, and which, with
his face, earlobes, and wattles, are of a beautiful red.
We notice that his breast and tail are black ; his legs
are beautifully white, with some pink on the inside of
shank ; that the legs are very short indeed, and that
he has five well-developed toes on each foot. If you
take this fowl in hand you will be astonished at the
weight, owing to great quantity of meat on the
breast.'

30

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

Kespecting this variety Mr. Harrison "Weir writes :*
' The Bed Dorkings were at one time common in
Kent and Susses, and are not a new breed, as some
writing on the subject have stated. The Reds are
mentioned by almost every writer for over 300 years
as the best of all. They were quite common fifty
years ago. The late Mr. Hamlin, liking their appear-
ance, kept them pure, and those I had were the
descendants of them. Kept pure by his sons — Mr.
Hamlin, of Highfields, Speldhurst, Kent (selecting his
more for the lacing), and Mr. Harry Hamlin, of Haxted
Mill, Edenbridge (selecting his more for the richness
of the red colour) — I had a very fine Black-breasted Red
cock from him a short time ago. These birds are the
old Kent and Sussex five-toed breed, and their crow
has the ring of that we used to hear about our home-
steads fifty years ago and more.'

Mr. Hamlin very emphatically repiidiates the sug-
gestion that the Red Dorking is related to the Red
Sussex.

Silver-grey (Figs. 5 and 6). — The Silver-grey
Dorking may, without depreciation of other varieties
of that breed, reasonably be claimed as the hand-
somest of its family. Its beautiful gradations of
colour in both sexes, its conformity of size and
shape, the compact yet substantial build of body,
the pure whiteness of legs and feet in the best
specimens, offer an attractive combination. For
many years the efforts of some of the most skilful
breeders have been devoted to its perfection, and we
may claim that it is of a higher type of excellence than
ever before. We have only to read the descriptions of
Dorkings as bred thirty to forty years ago to see that,
whilst the birds then kept were good, they had not
attained the same quality as is now to be met with.
This has not been at the expense of size or flesh
qualities, for the birds are as large, if not larger, and
the external points have not been secured by either
coarseness of meat or of bone.

Whilst the Coloured Dorking frequently attains a
slightly increased weight as compared with the Silver-
grey, the latter has finer flesli and bone, and thus the
actual quantity of muscle found on the body is remark-
ably even between the two varieties. Weight is not
in itself a determining factor in all cases, for the rela-
tive quantities of bone and of flesh must be taken into
consideration. It is in this direction that the Silver-
grey excels. The French, who are nothing if not
practical, have adopted this variety in preference
to any other Dorking, and it has had considerable
influence in makmg some of the breeds, which are
specially favoured across the English Channel. Size
is not the first consideration with our French neigh-
bours, who look to quality, and several of their finest
races are not very large in frame, but when properly
fattened are found to carry a great quantity of flesh.
* 8toclhee]iev, March, 26, 1897.

It is essentially as a table fowl that the Silver-grey
Dorking excels. The fineness of bone, delicacy of
flesh, and large proportion of breast-meat, win for it
one of the first positions among domestic poultry.
To retain these should be the aim of every breeder,
who must remember that there is no antagonism
between external appearance and profitable qualities if
the true principles which underlie our livestock are
understood. The hens are by no means to be despised
as layers, and whilst they do not equal some of the
non-sitters in the number of eggs produced, they are
early layers — a most important quality in connection
with table poultry. The eggs are large, white in
shell, and of excellent flavour. There are many who
prefer a Dorking egg to one from any other breed,
and it is unquestionable that they are excellent. This
is to be expected when we remember the flesh qualities
of the fowls.

White (Fig. 7).— It is generally admitted, that the
original type of Dorking was chiefly white in plumage,
but it was allowed practically to become extinct
until resuscitated a few years ago for exhibition pur-
poses. The White is distinctly different from those
already named, in that it has a rose comb. But we
find* that at one time this feature was by no means a
fixed character. Further, it is scarcely so square in
body as either of the two former, more of the thighs
being seen. It is pure white in plumage, and upon
lawns or grass it is a very beautiful bird indeed.
Generally bred for ornamental purposes, it is not
nearly so widely kept as the two varieties before
named.

Cuckoo. — There is a variety of Dorking which has
now and again attained a measure of attention, but thus
far has not won much favour. In this variety the
plumage has a light bluish-grey ground, each feather
barred across with bands of darker grey or blue, and
uniform throughout, both m cocks and hens. It is a
hardy variety, and it is to be regretted that it is not
more developed.

SUSSEX.

NoMENCLATUKE : Sussex.

Vabieties : Bed or Brown, Light, Speckled.

Classification : Table.

Colour of Legs and Feet : White.

CoLOUK OP SiaN AND Flesh : White.

CoLOBB OF Egg-shells : Tinted.

One effect of the show system is to aggrandize the
position of the more popular breeds and varieties of
poultry, and to unduly depreciate those which are
Imown to a lesser extent. Experience has shown that
the efforts of a few determined breeders can, as a rule,
brmg any breed into prominence, and that, wanting
the advertisement afforded by classes at shows and

* ' Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,' byEev. E. S. Dixon
(Loudon, 1S50), p. 279.

THE SUSSEX FOWL

31

announcements in poultry journals, a breed either
passes into oblivion or has a very limited number of
supporters. But the efforts of breeders fail, or are
temporary in their results, unless the race of fowls has
sterling economic qualities. The ' survival of the
fittest ' is evident in poultry as in every other branch
of life. To the lack of advocacy and push may be
attributed the overshadowing of the Sussex by the
Dorking, as for the last half-century it was practically
unknown, except to the very few, until a few years
ago, whilst the Dorking was taken in hand by skilful
breeders in the early fifties, and grew in favour with
the exhibition system. The Sussex fowl has now the
advantage of a speciahst club, founded in 1903, and,
properly guided, that club should be the means of
giving the breed its rightful place among our races of
domestic poultry. It may be here explained that the
term ' Sussex ' or ' Surrey ' fowl, applied to dead
poultry, merely refers to the methods of fattening and
shaping, and not to the breed.

Origin. — The foundation of the Sussex fowl is, like
that of the Dorking, difficult to trace, and we cannot
avoid the conclusion that aU were originally the same.
"When distinctive breeding was adopted cannot be
stated. But we have already seen, in connection with
Dorkings, that varieties of many kinds were included
under that term which are now unknown. In the
early part of last century the great agriculturalist
Arthur Young made a distinction between the Sussex
and the Dorking, for he says : *

' The Dorking fowls, as they are called, are all raised
in the Weald of Sussex ; but the finest market for
them is Horsham. The five-clawed breed have been
considered as the best sort ; this, however, is a great
mistake, as it took its origin in some fowls with this
peculiarity that happened to be very large and fine,
which laid the foundation of what have been since
called the Darking, or five-clawed fowls, and considered
in other parts of England as the prime stock, but such
a thing is hardly known in Sussex ; it is a bastard
breed. The fowls at Lord Egremont's table, of the
Sussex breed, have very frequently astonished the
company by their size.'

Unfortunately, Arthur Young did not describe the
Sussex fowl of his day. The opinion here expressed
is controverted by Bonington Moubray, as already
quoted, and we are inclined to accept his views in spite
of all the authority of Arthur Young's name. The
evidence in the work referred to is that his uiformation
had been obtained from a breeder of Sussex fowls.

We have ah-eady seen that speckled birds were in-
cluded by Moubray, Ferguson, and others, as sub-
varieties of the Dorking ; and other evidence would
indicate that bnds with plumage of that nature were

* ' General Yiew of the Agriculture of Sussex,' by Rev.
Arthur Young (London, 1808), p. 392.

widely distributed. In fact, our personal observations
in the United Kingdom and many parts of the Con-
tinent of Europe are that hens with speckled brown
feathering are by no means uncommon, and that as
the common fowls {Anglice, barn-door ; French, poule
commune) usually foUow the original colour, which is
largely brown, many show specks or splashes of white.
We have met instances supporting this view in countries
as -widely apart as Russia and Spain, England and
Hungary. That the present-day Sussex owes some-
thing to other blood is shown by the fact that many
hens lay tinted-shelled eggs.

H istory. — Commg to later evidence, in a httle work,
undated, but published in the fifties, we find it stated*
that ' the varieties of Dorkings in which the fifth toe
is absent are known as Sussex or Surrey fowls' ; and
G. Ferguson says : f ' Old Sussex or Kent fowls are
closely allied to Dorkings, and bear strong afiinity to
them ; in fact, in many instances detection is impos-
sible. The original birds, bred in Sussex and Kent,
were longer in the body, and, moreover, possessed but
four claws, but being, in many instances, blended with
the Dorking and crossed, may be seen with four or
five in the very same clutch and hatch. . . . For
weight, flesh, and early maturity, they are equal to
the true Dorking, and may be regarded as no less
valuable as marketable fowls. They possess their
principal characteristics in feather and general appear-
ance, there being all colours, all shades, and an
innumerable diversity.'

Some time ago Mr. Harrison AVeir, the well-known
artist, who has been for upwards of sixty years a
breeder of poultry, wrote that ' the Surrey or Sussex
fowl was generally of a grey colour, often a sandy-
brown, and brown, like a Black-red Game hen. I have
put the colours in the order in which they were most
admired, and in which size was generally to be found.
They were large, strongly made, sprightly, good
flyers, excellent foragers, and fair layers of large
white eggs ; their legs and feet were of a clear, soft-
looking, pinky white ; breast more broad than deep,
with much flesh, and also good on the thighs, etc.
They were very close in feather, thereby not looking
nearly the size they actually were. Some of the breeds
were bearded, and these were somewhat smaller. I
never remember seeing any with top-knots. The
combs were single, and the earlobe a pinky white,
like the true Dorking.' Mr. Wen- further adds that
the majority were four-toed. No mention is made of
the speckled type of fowl.

In the Eeport of the last Eoyal Commission on
Agriculture, deahng with the Heathfield district of
s;, Mr. Haviland, of Warbleton, Sussex, says:l

* ' Domestic Fowl,' by H. B. Richardson, p. 67.

t ' Prize Poultry,' by G. Ferguson (London, 1854), p. 95.

X London : Eyre and Spottiswoode, C. 7,623 (1895), p. 5.

S2

RACES 01' DOMESTIC POULTHY

• I cannot help remarking what a great pity it is that
the old Sussex fowl, as it used to be found in the dis-
trict around Heathfield and Warbleton some fifteen or
twenty years ago, is being allowed to die out. As a
table bird and as a breeder of birds for the table it was
almost perfect, with its small white legs and heavy
body, with good breast meat. It may not have been
a prolific layer, but was very hardy, the chickens
coming to maturity early, and being easy to rear in

South-Eastern England, that both Dorkings and Sussex
have descended from the mixed races, and that their
divergences are due to selection — in short, that the
five-toed fowls became what we know as Dorkings,,
and the four-toed the Sussex. But, further, we believe
that the Surrey fowl, so called, became the former, and
the latter (inclusive of the Kentish fowl) remains imder
its old cognomen.

Mr. Lewis Wright* speaks of the Surrey as ' a kind

Fig. 8. — Bed Sussex.
Jhrd at the College Poultn/ Fan,,, Theale.

the early months of the year. In colour, no doubt, it
varied a good deal, the hens being most speckled or
brown, and the cocks either grey or red, with long
single comb. I have no doubt that it was to this good
old breed that Sussex owed her reputation for senduig
good chickens to the London markets.'

Our views are that, whilst the original colour of Dork-
ings was largely white, the variations induced were
due to mixing with the common fowl met with in

of Dorkingized barn-door,' and also f mentions that
the old Surrey fowl 'was one parent of the Dark
Dorking.'

Economic Qualities.— Whilst Sussex fowls are
not so heavy in body as Dorkings, they have the
decided advantage, as in the case of the French La

* ' New Book of Poultry,' by Lewis Wright (Loudon, 1902) ,
p. 118.
t IhuJ., p. :-!S-2.

THE SUSSEX AND ENGLISH GAME FOWLS

33

Bresse, of fattening well, laying on a large quantity of
flesh by the right method of feeding. They are light
in bone, a point of great importance to secure early
maturity, as bone takes longer and is more costly to
produce than muscle. Our experience is that they are
better as layers than the Dorking, but do not excel in
that direction, except in so far as they lay early — a
most important point where chicken-breeding is in
view. The flesh is beautifully white, juicy, and excel-
lent in flavour. That fact, combined with the white
legs and feet, makes them specially desirable for the
production of chickens for market, but they should be
well hung. They are hardy and easily reared.

Description. — Pre-eminently bred for meat pro-
perties, the Sussex is a deep-bodied bu-d, but does not
give the same appearance of size as the Dorking, more
especially in the hens, either in length, depth, or width
of body. But it is hghter in bone, and does not carry
so much feather, nor is it so large hi comb. The
breast is broad in front, and should be carried well
forward, the keel, and therefore the body, being deep.
The shoulders are wide, the back broad and flat, taper-
ing somewhat towards the posterior. The head is
medium hi size, with short, strong, and curved beak,
and surmounted by a medium single comb, erect in
both sexes ; eye full and bright ; face, comb, wattles,
and earlobes red. The neck is medium in length and
gracefully curved, with fairly fuU hackle. The tail is
medium in size, the wings carried closely. Legs and
thighs are stout, but not heavy, short and wide apart,
with four toes on each foot. The legs, feet, and toe-
nails are white, and the skin white, clear, and fine in
texture.

Varieties. — The Sussex Poultry Club has recog-
nised the three colours named below, but some breeders
regard only the red or brown and the speckled as the
true Sussex.

Bed or Brown (Fig. 8). — Cock : The plumage is dark
or chestnut-brown, with greater depth of colour on the
saddle and wing-bow, which should be glossy ; the
neck hackle is bright brown, striped with black ; the
wings a rich dark brown, with black flights ; tail
black ; wing-coverts a dark brown, changing to black
at tips. Hen : The neck-hackle is dark brown, striped
with black ; wings brown with black flights ; tail
black ; body brown. We do not find it desirable to
pay the same attention to coloration of the hen as
of the male, so long as she is bred from true stock.

Light. — Both sexes: Neck -hackle white, stripe
with black ; wings white, with black in flights ; tail
black ; head, taU-coverts, and body pure white.

Speckled.— Cock : Head, neck -hackle, and tail-
coverts rich reddish-brown, striped with black and
tipped with white ; wing and wing-bow red ; tail
white and black ; breast black, each feather tipped

with white ; remainder of plumage black with a slight
admixture of brown. Hen : Body black and brown, as
evenly speckled with white as possible ; other parts as
in cock.

ENGLISH GAME FOWL.

Nomenclature: English, Game; French, Combattants An-
glais, or Bace de Combat Anglaise ; German, Englische
Kampfer ; Dutch, Engelsch Veohthoenders ; Italian, .
Grande Combattente; S2Janish, Combatiente Inglis ;
Danish, Kamphons; Huncjarian, Kozonseges.

Vaeieties : Black-breasted Red, Bright Red, Brown-red,
Blue-red, Pile, Yellow Duckwing, Silver Duckwing,
White, Black, Spangled.

Classification : Table.

CoLOUB OF Legs and Feet : Various.

Colour of Skin and Flesh: Chiefly white, in a few cases

Colour of Egg-shells : Tinted.

It is a very interesting study, but one which has
never yet received a full measure of consideration, as
to tlie mfluence of pursuits, which no longer are met
with to the same extent as in former centuries, upon
modern life, and a great amount of space could be
devoted to this study. We are to a large extent the
inheritors of influences which, having fulfilled their
purpose, have passed into oblivion. Strife and fighting
are the normal condition of man. The world's history
is one of constant turmoil and conflict. To-day we see
the spectacle of nations armed to the teeth, ready for
war when caUed upon to show their prowess. Deadly
though modern wars have become, the intervals of
peace are longer than ever before, by reason of the fact
that the results, even to the victor, are increasingly
disastrous. In olden times war was the regular, peace
the exceptional, state of things, and to have a seven
years' war, as even so recently as 100 years ago, is now
almost an impossibility. No nation could provide
sufficient ' food for powder ' for such a conflict. The
story of all countries is an exemplification of that in-
exorable law of ' survival of the fittest ' — a law which
is potent now as ever, though in another direction.
Amongst the nomads only he could expect to live who
was able to defend his lite and property. Is not this
seen in the internecine conflicts of Britain, the frontier
struggles of America, and the defensive measures of
civilized communities on the threshold of ' Darkest
Africa ' '? The Pele Towers to be found near our
Scottish border speak volubly as to a time when life
was a succession of raids and forays, of dread alarms
and savage incursions. Under such conditions courage
could not help being the principal virtue. A ' mighty
man of war ' became the idol of his age, his deeds the
emulation of every rising youth. Nor is this spirit
dead. In most nations a successful General
the greatest honours his fellows can accord to him.

What wonder, then, that in days when fighting -n
the only defence of men and nations, everything v.

34

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

sought for that would stimulate courage and bravery.
A man's environment is generally the expression of his
nature, and thus the amusements of savages must be
brutal to civilized people. If it were not so there
would be no pleasure in them. Had we lived in
ancient Eome we should have joined in the excited
mob who witnessed the gladiatorial strife ; had we
lived in England five centuries ago we should have felt
our blood beat fast to see the tournaments in which
brave knights bit the dust ; were we Spaniards now we
might think the bloodthirsty and cruel bull-fighting the
finest of all sports. What we desire to show is that we
must not regard the practice of cock-fighting, as fol-
lowed by our fathers, from our own standpoint.
To-day it is rightly condemned by all civilized and
cultivated i^eople, except, perhaps, where ancestral
blood exercises its prepotency, but brute force, of
which this sport is simply an expression, is no longer
the necessity as was once the case.

Origin.— There appears to be little doubt that one
of the first objects of domestication in connection with
poultry was not to supply man with food, but rather to
meet the desire for recreation and to fulfil his craving
for sport in one form or another. Whilst, therefore, we
may by reason of our advance in civilization and re-
finement in nature no longer follow the lines of our
forefathers, at the same time we must acknowledge our
indebtedness to them in various directions. As a
consequence, therefore, of the fact that the Game fowl
is directly descended from the Gallus Ferrugineus (or
Bankiva), we should expect that it would most nearly
resemble the original type, as it was bred for fighting
purposes in Eastern and Northern Asia, which is the
habitat of the wild progenitor. Such changes as
occurred were the result of breeding to develop the
combative instinct. The late Charles Darwm presents
a large amount of evidence in support, and says :*
' From the extremely close resemblance in colour,
external structure, and especially in voice, between
Gallus Bankiva and the Game fowl ; from their fer-
tility, as far as this has been ascertained, when crossed ;
from the possibility of the wild species being tamed,
and from its varying in the wild state, we may confi-
dently look at it as the parent of the most typical of
all the domestic breeds, namely, the Game fowl.' One
diflSiculty, however, which presents itself is that the sport
of cock-fighting, and therefore fowls, was known to the
aboriginal inhabitants of North and South America ;
but, in the absence of authoritative records, it is possible
that the Spaniards, soon after the discovery of America,
conveyed fowls across the Atlantic, and that they were
bred on the Western Continent for some time before
careful and reliable observations were made as to the
fauna of the Western Hemisphere.

* 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestica-
tion,'by Charles Darwin, M.A., F.R.S. (ed. 1SS5), vol. i.,

History. — As to the origin of cock-fighting as a
sport, for the breed cannot be regarded apart there-
from, that need not delay us. Given, however, the
spirit to which reference has been made, and that
animals and birds in a state of nature must be possessed
of great powers of defence, it will be at once evident
that pugilistic tendencies were developed to a con-
siderable extent, and hence the material for exercisiag
such a sport as cock-fighting was at hand. These
tendencies did much to popularize cock-fighting, and to
bring about that desire for improvement which has
led to great modifications in the fowls themselves.
Domestication has not entirely destroyed the desire for
fighting, as can be seen in every poultry-yard. It is
easy to imagine how the presence of a couple of cocks
around the dwellmg or tent of Indian or Persian,
would offer the opportunity of a main without effort
or intent. Opportunity is responsible for many pm--
suits, and frequently stimulates desire. In this case
opportunity and desire joined themselves without much
effort ; all that was necessary for primitive man was to
select those birds which showed the greatest courage
and fighting qualities, breeding from them so as to-
increase and perpetuate these characteristics. The
general influence of cock-fighting in the domestication
and distribution of fowls is fuUy referred to in Chapters
I. and II.

When the diversion of cock-fighting came into
Western Europe it is impossible to determine, or how it
originated, but it is probable that it was due to the
natural instinct of the birds themselves. Mr. Pegge,
in the ' Archseologia,' states his inability to discover any
references showing it to be a recognised sport before
the time of William Fitz- Stephen, who wrote the Ufe
of Archbishop Becket some time during the reign
of Henry II. In this work cooking is spoken of
as the sport of school-boys on Slu-ove Tuesday, called
' Camilvaria,' in which the master was compelled to
allow the fight, receiving his fees for the privilege. From
that time onward it entered more or less into our Eng-
lish national sports. Upon this point Eees* says that
' by some cock-fighting has been called " a Eoyal diver-
sion," and much encouraged both by Henry VIII. and
James I. ; but it was forbidden by one of the Acts of
Oliver Cromwell, March 31, 1654. There are no
documents that we are acquainted with to inform us
in what state the Act of fighting-cocks existed prior to
the reign of Henry VIII., who, it is supposed, founded
the celebrated Cockpit at Westminster, afterward
renewed and encom-aged "by Charles II., whose pUe-
cocks, the introduction of this monarch, are in high
estimation amongst breeders at this day. From that
period annual mains have been fought at the Koj'al
Cockpit at Westmmster to the present time.'

Gervasse Markham devoted one section of his work

on ' The English Husbandman ' to ' The Fighting-

* 'Eees' 'EugUsh EucyolopEedia,' 1S15.

THE ENGLISH GAME FOWL

35

Cocke,' which was also published m separate form,*
and this quaint description, penned nearly three
centuries ago, is well worthy of reproduction. In it
he says :

' To speak then as to the choyee of the fighting-
cocke, you shall understand that the best characters
you can observe in him are the shape, colour, courage,
and sharpe heele ; for his shape the middle and in-
different size is ever looked for, for they be ever
matohable, strong, nimble, and ready for your
pleasures, whereas the huge one (which we term the
turne-pocke) is ever hard to find an equal, lubberly,
and affording small pleasure in his battell ; and so the
exceeding little cooke is as hard to match, and is com-
monly weake and tedious in his manner of fighting.
Hee would bee of a proud and upright shape, with a
small headj like unto a Spar-hawke, a quick, large eye,
and a strong, big erookt beake, and in colour suitable
to the plume of his feathers, as black, yellow, or
reddish. The beame of his leg would be very strong,
and, according to his Plome, blew, grey, or yellow ;
his spurs long, rough, and sharpe, a little bending and
looking inward. For his colour the grey pyle, the
yellow pyle, or the red with the black breast, is
esteemed the best ; the pyde is not so good, and the
white and dunne are the worst. If hee be redde about
the head, like scarlet, it is a signe of sioknesse and
faintnesse. For his courage, you shall observe it in
his walk, by his treading, and the pride of his going,
and in the pen by his oft crowing. For the sharpness
of his heele, or as the cocke -masters call it, the narrow
heele, it is only seen in his fighting, for that cocke is
said to be sharpe-heeld or narrow-heeld, which every
time he useth himself, and draweth bloode of his
adversary, guilding (as they tearme it) his spurres in
blood, and threatening at every blow to put an end to
the battell. And these Cockes are surely of great
estimation, for the best cocke-masters are of opinion
that a sharpe-heeld Cooke, though he be a little false,
is much better than the truest Cocke which hath a full
heele, and hitteth seldome, for though the one fight
long ho seldome wounds, and the other, though he will
not endure the uttermost hewing, yet he make a quiet
dispatch of his businesse, for every blow puts his
adversary in danger. But that Cocke which is both
assuredly hard, and also very sharpe-heeld, hee is to
be esteemed, and is of the most account above all
others, and therefore in your generall election, chuse
him which is of strong shape, good colour, true valour,
and of a most sharpe and ready heele.'

Buffon and other of the older naturalists do not
throw much light on the different varieties of the
Game fowl, and for these particulars we shall have to
look elsewhere. Monbray deals generally with it, and
makes a defence of cock-fighting on the ground that
the birds enjoy the sport, for "tis their nature to.'

* ' The Fighting-Cocke,' by Gervasse Markham (1615).

He even defends spurs, because they ' shorten the
period of their sufferings.' He says further* that
' their flesh is of the most beautiful white, and superior
to that of all other breeds of domestic fowls for rich-
ness and delicacy of flavour ; but the extreme diffi-
culty of rearing the chickens — for their natural pug-
nacity of disposition shows itself at the earUest
possible period — deters most breeders, excepting those
who breed for the pit. I have many times had whole
broods, scarcely feathered, stone-blind from fighting,
to the very smallest individuals, the rival couples
moping in corners, and renewing their battles on
obtaining the first ray of light.'

The same writer quotes a very interesting statement
as to the origin of the custom of throwing at cocks on
Shrove Tuesday, that may be true, but requires further
confirmation, which up to the present we have not
found. This states that whilst the Danes were
masters of England, and lorded it over the natives,
the inhabitants of a certain city, grown weary of
slavery, had formed a secret conspiracy to murder
their masters in one bloody night, when twelve men
had undertaken to enter the town haU by stratagem,
and, seizing the arms, to surprise the guard which kept
it, at which time their fellows, upon a given signal,
were to come out of their houses, and murder aU
opposers; but while they were putting this plan in
execution, the unusual crowing and fiuttering of the
cocks near the place which they attempted to enter
discovered and frustrated their design, upon which the
Danes became so enraged that they redoubled their
cruelty, exercising still greater severity over the
English. Soon after, however, the English, being
freed from the Danish yoke, instituted the custom 'of
throwing at cooks on Shrove Tuesday, the day of their
disappointment, from a stupid and barbarous passion
of revenge against the innocent cause of their mis-
fortune, instead of admiring the natural vigilance of
the birds. This infamous sport, although at first only
practised in one city, in process of time became a
national diversion.

So far as Western Europe and North America are
concerned, it may be taken as a settled fact that our
Game fowls owe their origin and their prowess largely,
if not entirely, to Asia. In the first place, fowls were
kept for fighting ; they were probably introduced
as part of the domestic animals of one or other of
our conquerors, and would fight as do members
of our poultry-yards to-day. If we are right in
assuming that these conflicts would be watched with
interest, and the birds encouraged in their conflicts,
the next step would be to obtain fowls bred for this
purpose alone so soon as they heard of them ; and the
Boman invasion afforded every opportunity for this
development.

■'•' ' A Practical Treatise on Domestic Poultry,' by Boning-
ton Moubray, fifth edition (London, 1824), pp. 12-13.
3—2

36

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

It has already been shown that cock-fighting has
been for long centuries a great sport in India and
Southern Asia generally, and much of our best blood
has emanated from the great dependency. A famous
old cocker, Mr. John Harris, of Liskeard, Cornwall,
some time ago -svi-ote a valuable letter* on the ' True
Indian Game,' which must not be confounded with
that seen under this title in our shows, for the latter
should rightly be called the Cornish Game. Speaking
of it, he says :

' The Indian Game cock has been known to English-
men ever since they have had communication with
India. There is a tradition that some cocks from
India were fought in the Koyal Pit, Newmarket, before
King Charles II., to whom they had been sent as
presents ; and that several were fought and beaten in
a main at Jlarket Drayton about 140 years ago, that
had been selected and sent home by the friends of
Clive. And a few years earlier Eeed, animal painter
to His Majesty King George, painted the portraits of
an Indian and an English cock doing battle. Another
painting by a native artist was brought to this country,
representing two cocks, belonging to rival Rajahs,
fighting for the large stake of ieiO,000. The fame of
these cocks induced Colonel Mordaunt to take a large
number of English cocks out to India, so as to settle
the question of superiority. A large engraving of this
main, containing portraits of many celebrated sports-
men, both English and native, is in possession of the
Game Cock Club. About eighty years ago one of the
keenest cockers then living brought home several
birds, selected from the best strains he had seen fight
in India, which were minutely described by the sport-
ing press, accompanied by a print, and represented as
quite distinct from the worthless Chittagongs and
Malay breed. Lord Cholmondeley, Admural Eous,
Lieutenant Lewis, and Colonel Gilbert, were also the
recipients of very good birds from India, many of
which came into my hands ; and probably no better
birds were ever sent to England than those selected by
my friends Captains Dickson and Astley, and occasion-
ally a few are exhibited in the variety class at shows,
many of which appear to have been selected for feather
and appearance in preference to pm-ity of breed and
sterling game qualities. Exhibitors, probably from an
idea that they are some new or fancy breed, frequently
call them Aseels. Surely the English language is sufli-
ciently comprehensive and explicit even for the fads
and whims of the fancier, without introducing the
Indian dialect. The well-known term of Indian Game
has always been used by Englishmen both in England
and India, in contradistinction to English Game,
frequently pitted against each other in the palmy days
of the Sod in England, and occasionally in India.
These contests failed to prove any superiority of the
one breed over the other, as each almost invariably
* Fancier's Gazette, April 15, 1892.

won in their native country, for the simple reason that
the long voyage and change of climate had such a de-
pressing effect on the migrants that they were half
beaten before being brought into the pit. Besides, the
Indian Game cock is bred solely for courage and en-
durance, the grand requisites for which are great
strength and deep game, whilst the English Game is
bred for sudden death. He must carry a deadly heel,
be quick and wary, for that cock is ever the best in
the EngUsh pit that wins quickest. Cocks bred from
a cross of Indian and English birds are as game as
possible, but I have never known it improve either
breed to the extent that might reasonably be expected.
Some time after Captain Astley's last return from
India a great main was fought, North v. South. I
was not present, but meeting JMoss, the clever cock-
setter, shortly afterwards at Manchester, I asked the
reason of his getting beaten so easily, and he rephed :
" Couldn't help it ; those half-bred Indians could not
fight fast enough to keep themselves warm." Again,
shortly before he returned to India, a main was made
for iljOOO, one side fighting birds crossed with Indian
Game, the other pure-bred English Game. The former
lost six out of the first eight battles fought, when a
gentleman who breeds as good cocks as anyone in
England made me this observation concerniug the
Indian Game cross: "They are very game, and can
fight for endurance, but they cannot kill," an opinion
which I fully endorse.'

From these facts it is evident that whilst we may
have originally had valuable Game cocks from the
Far East, centuries of skilful breeding devoted to the
English Game cock, and for the purposes of the cock-
pit, have made that fowl one of the best fighters in
the world. What the influence smce cock-fighting was
made illegal has been will be considered later on.

Many indications are yet to be found showing how
largely this pastime entered mto our English life, for
various places are named in respect to their connection
therewith. In London we have ' Cockspur Street,'
'Cock Lane,' etc. When it is remembered that it
was a national sport, no surprise at this need be ex-
pressed. The most remarkable connection was with
regard to school life. As already mentioned, school-
masters received a regular fee, a tax for permitting
cock-fighting in the schoolhouse on Shrove Tuesday.
This was the case as far back as the reign of Hem-y II.
As late as 1790, the income of the schoolmaster of
Applecross in Eoss-shire, Scotland, was made up by
salary, fees, and cock-fight dues, and Hugh Millar, in
' J\Iy Schools and Schoolmasters,' records the yearly
cock-fights in the grammar school of Cromarty, about
the year 1812. In a reference to Cartmel, near Grange-
over-Sands (North Lancashhe), given in 'The History
of Furness,' it is stated that ' A curious custom formerly
observed at tliis, as well as other grammar schools, was
the gratuitous payment which was expected from all

THE ENGLISH GAME FOWL

the scholars at Shrovetide. This gratuity differed in
amount according to the social position of the parents of
the pupil, and ranged, Mr. Baines tells us, at the begin-
ning of the nineteenth century from 2s. 6d. to £5. These
payments were called cock-pence, and probably origi-
nated in the barbarous amusement of cock-fighting
and cock-throwing which was indulged in on Shrove
Tuesday.'

It seems to have been a custom in all the old
grammar schools for each boy to make a payment
of one penny to the master for the privilege of cock-
fighting on that day. The boys brought Game cocks
to school, and amused themselves the whole morning
in watching their encounters. In Scotland the master
claimed the dead bird as his perquisite. The scenes
enacted were brutal in the extreme, and must have had
an injurious effect upon the minds of these lads.
Perhaps this accounts for the reason why cocking
has been so hard dying in the North -West of
England, or wherever the custom referred to was in
vogue.

The final Act of Parliament suppressing cock-fighting
as a recognised sport was passed in 1849, and provided
that a penalty of £5 may be levied on any person
keeping fighting-cocks, letting a cockpit, or otherwise
connecting himself with cock-fighting, for every day
that he shall so act, and this penalty is enforced when-
ever captures are made. This date is important, as it
practically is that of the beginning of our modern
show system, the first exhibition being held about
1848, and it marks an era in the history of the Game
fowl.

Before proceeding to trace the influence of shows
upon the Game fowl, it is necessary to learn what
were the varieties known to cock-fighters in former
days. Of course, it must be granted that colour would
not occupy the same position as is requisite for the
show-pen, for a good fighter could not be of a bad
colour, any more than a good horse. Still, it will be
found that colour was regarded as a sign of purity of
breeding. For instance, Gervasse Markham (1615), as
already quoted, says : ' For his colour the grey pyle,
the yellow pyle, or the red with the black breast, is
esteemed the best ; the pyde is not so good, and the
white and dunne are the worst.' Upon this point many
other references could be given, but these are needless
previous to 100 years ago.

In a work published in 1793, a copy of which is in
the British Museum, and ' Humbly Inscribed to those
Gentlemen who are AMATEURS of the GAME
COCK, that Prodigy of British Valour, by a Gentle-
man who has been in the habit of Breeding these
eight-and-twenty years,' as to the varieties the writer
says:

' The variety of cocks bred in this kingdom, and the
opinions of men being as various, it is difficult to say
what sort to recommend in preference to any other ; for

in one part of the country they are partial to piles, in

Black-red,

Silver Black-breasted

Ducks,
Dark Greys,
Spangles,
Blacks,
Polecats,

Cuckoos,
Gingers,
Birchen Ducks,
Mealy Greys,
Eed Duns,
Furnaces,
Custards,

in all of which good birds are to be found. But we are
all too prone to change, and our choice is frequently
attracted to make trial of cocks which are every now
and then exhibited to our view, without any regard to
similarity of feather, constitution, or any other con-
comitant to make the cross uniform ; for frequently
reds are put to greys, bu-chens to piles, and all contraries
imaginable, which produce the many-coloured fowls
you see in every match.' He gives the names of about
fifteen other varieties, in many cases slightly different
from those already mentioned.

In 1814 was pubUshed a work on ' The Cocker,' by
W. Sketchley, Gent.,* which deals very exhaustively
with the subject, and was evidently the work of a man
who knew his subject thoroughly. In this we find a
very complete list of the different varieties of Game
fowls. In addition to those mentioned in the book
published in 1793, there are several other colours,
namely, duns and smoky duns, and the author ex-
presses himself as to crossing as follows :

' It has always been a matter of surprise to me to
see the wonderful avidity, even in experienced breeders,
in expressing a wish of obtaming a single cock for a
day's fight, that has exhibited something out of the
common routine of play, in order to breed from, when
I have been sensible of the impropriety of the cross he
was destined to make — in fact, with hens that were as
dissimilar in feather and other necessary similarities as
possible. If uniformity in their general appearance is
absolutely necessary in forming a regular breed, I
cannot help expressing my wonder at well-informed
men running into an error so fatal to the welfare of
judicious breeding, and which must convince a reflect-
ing mind that from such unnatural, or at least incom-
patible, crosses we are indebted to the public for such a
strange medley of colours as we see in every main,
when a few years' attention would exhibit cocks of a
very different stamp. '

He then goes on to detail the ' incongruous ' mix-
tures, and carefully points out how they have been
produced, offering suggestions as to the true system to
be adopted in breeding.

The early editions of Moubray's ' Practical Treatise '
do not detail the different varieties of the Game fowl,
but in that published in 1854 a long list is given.
Various other works could be named, but these only

* ' The Cocker,' by W. Sketchley, Gent. (Biu-ton-ou-Trent,
1814), pp. 16-17.

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

^#^

i''iG. y. — Old English Game.

Fig. 10.— Modern Show Game.

THE ENGLISH GAME FOWL

39

give reproductions of Sketchley's tables, and do not
call for special mention. By 1848, the year, we
believe, in which the first poultry show was held,
many of the minor varieties appear to have been
weeded out or to have lost their prominence, for in
Dixon's book * only those subjoined are mentioned :

The Furness Game fowl.
Cheshire Piles.
Streaky-breasted Eed Piles.
White Game.
Black-breasted Beds (Derby).

But this list is evidently incomplete, for the author
throughout his work only refers to the more promi-
nent varieties.

The first Birmingham Show was opened December 9,
1851, at which there appears to have been a good dis-
play of Game fowls, and this is still regarded as the
great Game show of the year. Only two classes were
provided, and in a report of the classes before us it is
stated that there were exhibited Worcestershire Piles,
Black-breasted Beds, Duckwing Greys, Birchen Greys,
and Blacks. The year following 164 pens of Game
were displayed at this Midland exhibition. In 1853 the
First Metropolitan Poultry Show was held, opening at
-the Baker Street Bazaar on January 11, at which
seven classes were provided, but with only forty-eight
entries. The classes were for (1) Whites and Piles ;
(2) Black-breasted and other Beds; (3) Blacks and
Brassy-winged, except Greys ; and (4) Duckwings and
■other Greys and Blues.

The first attempt to deal at all exhaustively with
domestic poultry was the work entitled ' The Poultry
Book,' by Messrs. Wingfield and Johnson ; and though
this is manifestly incomplete in many points, being
prknarily written to advance the interests of the
Shanghai fowls, yet it offers material help to the
student of this subject.t

It may be here mentioned that ' The Poultry Book,
pubUshed under Mr. W. B. Tegetmeier's name some
years later, is practically a revised and enlarged
edition of this book. We believe this fact is men-
tioned in the first edition, issued in 1867, but the
second edition, published in 1873, does not bear any
explanation of its origin on the title-page or prefaces.
The authors of the first-named work, speaking of the
characteristics of the Game fowl, say :

' When we approach the question of colour, our task
hecomes more intricate [than that of general appear-
ance and style], since, from the anxiety to avoid any
deterioration either in figure or courage, crosses have
been constantly resorted to. But these mtermarriages
mot having been always regulated with sufficient judg-

AV * 'Omameutal and Domestic Poultry,' by Eev E S D

^' M.A. (London, 1848), pp. .S33-336. ' '

t ' The Poultry Book," by the Rev. W. Wingfield
G. W. .Johnson (London, 1853), j). 141.

ment, so as to retain the pecuUar points and colours of
the different varieties, a multiplicity of subvarieties
present themselves to our notice, many of which are
still further complicated by the use of synonyms of
merely local authority.'

After the abolition of cock-fighting, and with the
advent of exhibitions, came a change which has had
serious results. Gradually breeding for the show-pen
completely altered the type by lengthening the neck
and leg, refining the head, shortening the hackles and
tail, and reducing the depth of body in seeking for
what is termed ' reach,' until the modern show Game
became, except in colour, as divergent from the original
as the shire horse is from the hackney. The process
was comparatively rapid. In forty years (from 1850
to 1890) the points which had characterized the fight-
ing Game had given place to others of an ornamental
nature, with marked beauties of plumage, but useless
either for the cockpit or food-supply. The old Game
needed powerful wings and limbs, hence muscular
development was necessarily great, and as the wings
are worked by the muscle lying upon what we call the
breast, increase of power meant greater meat proper-
ties. The old cockers unconsciously made the Game
fowl one of the finest birds for table purposes, whereas
their successors weakened these qualities in seeking for
the merely ornamental. When cock-fighting was sup-
pressed, when the birds were no longer kept in exer-
cise, and breeding was general rather than special,
modifications were certain to follow, but exhibitors
du-ected these changes into forms which would other-
wise not have been seen. The show Game is no
longer of service for practical purposes, for which
reason, as our object is economical, we recommend
those who desire to utilize the undoubted fine qualities
of the English Game, especially in crossing, to select
the older type, leaving the modern Game to those
who breed for the show-pen. Figs. 9 and 10 represent
the Old EngUsh and the Modern Show Game respec-
tively.

Fortunately, all the Enghsh Game had not been
spoiled. In many parts of the country — more especi-
ally in Cornwall and Cumberland, where cock-fighting
was surreptitiously carried on — breeders retained the
old type, preserving them in their original purity. In
1883 classes were provided for Old English Game
fowls at shows in Cumbex-land, and ultimately breeders
were banded together in the Old English Game Club,
to which we owe the preservation of what may be
regarded as the most typical British race of poultry.

Economic Qualities.— It cannot be claimed that
the English Game has ever attained a large measure
of popularity, nor is it likely to do so, owing to its pug-
nacious nature. Cockerels and pullets will fight when
quite young, and the ordinary poultry-keeper prefers
a breed which gives less trouble in that dhection.

40

KACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

Mr. Herbert Atkinson suggests * that ' this inherent
quarrelsome disposition, so characteristic of the breed,
renders it unsuitable for those who have only a con-
fined space, or desire to keep a large number of fowls,
and confinement does not suit them ; the chickens
become weakly, and the hens become indifferent
layers. The Old English Game is essentially the
breed for the country gentleman, who desires fowls
and eggs for his own table.' But there is another
reason which has prevented their wider adoption,
especially for exhibition — namely, the custom of dub-
bing, or cutting off the comb and wattles. Dubbing
was a neoessitj' for the cockpit, but has no justifica-
tion in these days. As our purpose is essentially
practical, it is not requisite that we should discuss the
ethics of the practice to which reference has been
made.

' Old English Game,' says Mr. Atkinson, t ' stand in
front of any variety whatever as table fowls, carrying,
as they do, the largest proportion of white, delicate,
and nutritious meat, with the smallest amount of
waste, offal, or bone. Thej' carry more breast meat
in proportion to their size than any other fowl, and,
killed from a good run, they resemble the pheasant
in flavour more than other fowls. Many strams of
Game are excellent layers of good-sized and beauti-
fully-flavoured eggs, Hennies, Black-breasted Beds, and
Piles standing first in this respect. If checked when
wanting to sit, they will continue laying for some
time. I have had Game hens lay over sixty eggs
before becoming broody, and continue laying throughout
the greater part of the year. As sitters and mothers
they are invaluable : quiet on their eggs, close sitters,
regular in leaving and returning to their nest, and
when the brood is hatched they are the best of
mothers, not trampling and killing their chickens by
treading them under foot, as is often the case with
large and heavy breeds ; whilst against cats, vermin,
or, indeed, any enemy, they will defend them to the
last. Another recommendation is that, according to
their size and weight, they have smaller appetites, and
can subsist on less food than any variety ; indeed, on
a good run they wUl almost get their own living,
foraging everywhere, not standing idly about as in
the case of the Asiatic breeds, but ever moving. They
are very valuable for an unprotected place, whether it
be a wild run or near a road or a stable-yard, both
from their activity in avoiding danger themselves, and
their courage in defending their little ones. They will
not bear fattening, but are always full of meat if on a
good range, and with suitable food they are plump and
meaty from little chickens, while their quick growth
and hardihood are two other valuable points not to be
lost sight of. They -^vill roost in the trees throughout
the winter with impunity ; indeed, they never do so

" ' New Book of Poaltry ' (London, 1902), p. .350.

t ' The Old English Game Fowl ' (London, 1891), pp. 55-56.

well, nor show such splendid condition and plumage,
as when they roost in the trees or open sheds, etc., aU
the year round.'

The great value of this breed is for crossing, and if
mated with soft-fleshed races, such as the Dorking or
the Buff Orpington, the progeny is unsurpassable in
flesh qualities.

Description. —In body the Old English Game is
broad in breast, full and straight, of medium length,
firm and muscular, well rounded on the sides, wide at
the shoulders, and tapering well to the tail ; the neck
is rather long, powerful, especially near the shoulders,
and well covered with an abundance of long hackle
feathers, well on to the shoulders ; the head is narrow,
medium in length, beak strong and slightly curved,
eyes full, bright, and expressive ; the thighs are short
and stout, with rather long shanks, substantial in bone,
flat and unfeathered ; toes long and well spread, so
that the bird stands flat on the ground ; the wings are
long, and very strong ; the tail full, well expanded,
nearly upright, with abundant, broad, and well-curved
sickles, the saddle-hackle also full. The appearance
is that of a rather large, round, full-fronted, muscular,
but perfectly symmetrical fowl, active and sprightly.
Weight: males, 7 to 9 pounds; females, 5 to 7 pounds.

Varieties. — The varieties of English Game are
very numerous, and it would require a large amount
of space to deal with these in detail. For the reason
that the breed is chiefly to be recommended for cross-
ing purposes, it is unnecessary that we should do more
than briefly mention the principal colours.

Black-breasted Bed (Fig. 9) . — Those with white legs
are sometimes called Derby Beds, as they were largely
bred at Knowsley. The cocks have deep black breast,
thighs, and tail ; dark golden-red neck and saddle-
hackle ; deep red back and wings, the latter with a
dark blue bar. Some strains of Black-breasted Beds
have yellow legs, and others willow legs. They are
variations of the first named, but similar in other
respects.

Brown-beeasted Bed. — In these the cocks are
brown, laced or mottled, with light shades on breast
and thighs ; dark rich brown on back and shoulders ;
rich brown, streaked with black, on neck and saddle
hackles ; tail and wings black ; legs dark willow or
black.

Pile.— One of the prettiest varieties ; breast, thighs,
and tail white ; back deep red ; shoulders red ; wings
(when closed) bay ; neck and saddle haclde orange-
red and chestnut-red ; legs white, yellow, or wUlow.

DucKWiNG. — There are two colours, yellow and
silver. In both, cocks on breast, thighs, and tail are
black ; back, in yellow, deep gold ; in silver, sUver
white ; neck and saddle hackles, in yellow, straw
yellow; in silver, silver-white; wings, in yellows,
copper-maroon with a green-black bar ; in silvers.

THE INDIAN (CORNISH) GAME FOWL

41

shoulders and wing-bows silver-white with a bar of
steel-blue ; legs yello^^•, wUlow, olive, or blue.

White. — Plumage pure white ; legs white or yellow.

Black. — Plumage glossy black ; legs black or dark.

Spangled. — Body colour either black, red, blue, or
buff, evenly spangled with white ; legs ^lillow, yellow,
or black.

In addition to the above named are Cuckoos,
Hennies, Muffs, and Tassells. Full standards will be
found in 'The Old Enghsh Game Fowl,' by Mr.
Herbert Atkinson, already referred to, and in the
'Poultry Club Standards.'*

INDIAN (CORNISH) GAME.

NoMENCLATUEE : Enrjiish, Indian Game ; French, Combat-
tants des Indes; German, Indische Kampfer; Dutch,
Indische Vechthoenders ; Italian, Indiana ; Spanish,
Gran Combatienta de Indias; Danish, Indische Kamp-
hons ; Hicngarian, ludiai.

Vaeiety : One.

Classification : Table.

CoLOUK OF Flesh and Skin : Yellow.

Colour of Legs : Yellow.

CoLOUB OF Egg-shells : Dark brown.

The breed which is commonly called Indian Game
owes its present form to the county of Cornwall, where
it is largely bred, more especially in the eastern half of
the county. Around Launceston, Callington, Liskeard,
and Bodmin, the majority of chickens marketed are of
this type ; and in West Devon, as in Cornwall, Cornish
Game fowls are most infavourfor table purposes, com-
manding higher prices than the white, softer-fleshed
races. And the colour of flesh explains why Indian
Game were so warmly welcomed in America, where
yellow flesh is regarded as fuller in flavour and richer
than paler-hued breeds. The name, however, is a
mistake, as these fowls are not directly Indian, nor are
they, whatever they may have been at first, Game in
nature. A truer designation would be Cornish fowls,
but it is too late to secure so desirable an alteration.

Origin.— Statements as to the origin of the Cornish
Game are very conflicting. At one time it was sug-
gested that the breed was a direct importation from
the East Indies ; the only evidence of which we have
met with was by ' Game Cock ' (Mr. John Harris, of
Liskeard), who said:-}- 'A working man, who had
been in the army and had seen service in India,
visiting my yards, and on being shown the pens of
Indian Game, he said, " Why, I've seen lots of those
in India, and the natives fight them." ' The consensus
of opinion, however, is that, whilst undoubtedly the
breed owes much to Asiatic influence, it was produced
in Cornwall.

Mr. C. F. Montresor, several years ago, writing upon
the Aseel, another Asiatic breed, but of true Game

* London, 1901, pp. 50-53.
t Stockheejier, May 7, 18SG.

nature, said that Aseel is the name by which that
breed is known and styled in India, ' and has been
adopted in England for some years in order to dis-
tinguish it from that which is designated " Indian
Game" (a breed not known to the natives of India),
and originated in England by the late Sir Walter
Raleigh Gilbert upwards of sixty years since, when
he imported from India some red " Aseel" into Corn-
wall, and there crossed them with the Derby Black-
reds. Sir Walter (then General) Gilbert personaUy
gave me this information in 1846.'

But the Indian Game of fifty years ago were very
different from what they are to-day. Mr. Harrison
Weir quotes* a long letter from a Cornish corre-
spondent in proof of the claim that the breed is not
'Game,' referring to the older type, which is of no
moment, as they were not bred for the cockpit. About
the early seventies a cross was introduced, evidently of
Malay, or what Mr. Lewis Wright t calls 'Pheasant
Malay,' for he says: 'From this cross was derived a
solid black breast and darker colour in the cooks, and
greater richness of colour and more iridescence of the
lacing in the hens ; and we suspect the double lacing
also, which we never remember to have seen before.
What this Pheasant Malay itself really was we are at
the present date unable to say.' The following table
will give the composition of the breed :

Descent of the Indian (Coknish) Game.
Aseel English Game

Malay |

Indian Game.

History.— Mr. Harrison Weir states! that Indian
Game were exhibited at the Crystal Palace and other
shows in 1858-1859, but it was practically unknown out-
side Devon and Cornwall for nearly twenty years after
that date. Our attention was first called to the breed
about 1878 by the late Mr. James Dixon, who spoke
enthusiastically about its value for crossing to produce
table poultry, but Mr. Lewis Wright had seen a fine
display at the Plymouth Show of 1870. Breeders were,
however, slow in recognising the value of the breed
until about 1886, when Mr. John Martin, Mr. James
Dixon, and others, in the Live Stock Journal, called
special attention to the breed, and a year later
Mr. W. B. Tegetmeier, in the Field, advocated the
Indian Game and Dorking cross for its meat proper-
ties. In the same year (1887) the breed was intro-
duced into the United States. It is not too much to
say that the wider dissemination of the Indian Game

*■ ' Our Poultry,' by Harrison Weir, F.R.H.S. (London,
1903), vol. i.,p.255.
t • New Book of Poultry ' (London, 1902), p. 333.
+ ' Our Poultry,' vol. i., p. 250.

42

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

has been almost entirely due to its merits for crossing
with soft-fleshed races, and in the dead-poultry shows
the major part of the prizes have fallen to such crosses
when exhibited.

Economic Qualities, — The Indian Game fowl is
one of those races which as a pure breed is not to be
recommended for general adoption. In the first place,
it is a heavy-boned fowl, slow in growth, and making
too big a frame in relation to the quantity of meat
carried thereon to be profitable for marketing purposes.
What we want in table poultry is a lighter-boned bird,
quick in growth, and carrying a considerable amount
of flesh upon the frame. The most earnest advocate
of the Indian Game could not possibly claim these
qualities for the breed, and it is much better to recog-
nise whatever deficiencies it may have. It is true
that there is a large quantity of flesh upon the
Indian Game. This, however, is somewhat hard in
texture, close in grain, and is very yellow. In Corn-
wall, as already stated, where there is a large
amount of Indian Game blood, most of the market
fowls are very yellow, and as a consequence they do
not meet with much favour outside their own district.
Further, the Indian Game is a poor layer, and prob-
ably her tale of eggs would be as near the bottom in
number as any pure breed we have. The eggs are very
rich and fine in flavour, which explains why breeders
of Indian Game are often very enthusiastic about the
eggs produced by their birds.

It would be thought that this breed was of no
practical value, but its chief merits are seen when it is
used for crossing purposes, and we have had evidence
for many years that no breed has served a more useful
purpose than the Indian Game in this direction. It is
generally admitted, and we have obtained evidence of
this fact in other countries as well as our own, that the
introduction of yellow blood upon the male side, when
mated with lighter-boned and white-fleshed hens,
yields very fine quality of flesh. As far as our know-
ledge goes, the yellow-fleshed varieties are usually
hardier, and the introduction of this influence gives
that vigour which is always liable to be lost when we
are striving to press forward any one special quality.
It would appear that, taking the different breeds as a
v/hole, the white-fleshed varieties are less vigorous than
those with yellow blood, which fact needs to be recog-
nised in order that we may as far as possible counteract
the tendency to enfeeblement which is one of the
results of breeding under domestication. The cross
which for a long time was advocated was between the
Indian Game and the Dorking, and it is the general
experience that by the use of Indian Game male birds
with Dorking pullets chickens are secured carrying a
great wealth of flesh, with much lighter bone than met
with in the Indian Game, and that the majority of
these birds will come with white flesh and legs ; in

fact, many of the finest birds exhibited in dead classes
have been of this cross, large in size, and with the
meat well distributed. But it is undoubtedly true that
the Indian Game and Dorking cross-bred birds are not
very fast growers, and are more suitable for use when
six to seven months old than as young chickens. The
reason for this is not easily explained, but we have to
take facts as they are.

Another cross which for some classes of trade is
distinctly better to secure early chickens is between the
Indian Game and Buff Orpington or the Lincolnshire
Buff. This certainly yields a very fine quality of flesh,
and our own observations have shown that, as a rule,
the chickens are lighter in bone than the Indian Game
and Dorking cross, whilst they reach marketable con-
dition much earlier. A difficulty, however, arises in
that a distmctly larger number of the chickens come
with yellow legs and flesh, due to the fact that there is
a great amount of yellow blood in the Buff Orpington.
It is well known that this breed owes a great deal to
the Buff Cochin, and although the yellow tinge on the
flesh and legs has been bred out to a considerable
extent, yet the influence is only dormant, and when
the Indian Game is introduced this influence becomes
much more prepotent.

Indian Game are somewhat difficult to rear on damp
places, and should not be bred pure by those who must
keep their fowls in confinement, as they require plenty
of range for perfect health ; in fact, only those who
breed for exhibition or for sale as stock can be recom-
mended to keep the race.

Description (Fig. 11). — In appearance the head is
long and thick, not so fine or keen as in the EngUsh
Game, nor yet so thick as in the Malay, but with
beetle or heavy eyebrows, thus following the last-
named breed. The skull is broad, the beak very
strong, well curved, and stout where joining the
head, giving the impression of great strength ; the
beak is horn or yellow, striped with horn colour ;
the face is smooth and fine in texture ; the comb
is what is known as pea-shaped, closely cut to the
head, and very small, as are the wattles ; the neck
is medium in length and slightly arched ; the body
is very thick and compact, broad in the shoulders,
tapering well towards the tail ; the back is flattish, and
the breast is wide in front, sloping well, fahly deep,
but with a rather flat yet massive appearance ; the
wings are small and carried close to the body ; the
legs are very strong, the feet corresponding thereto,
and are widely set apart, and the thighs are thick,
heavy, and muscular ; the shanks are medium in
length and well scaled, and are not so long as in the
Malay or the modern Game. The size varies consider-
ably—in cooks from 8 to 11 pounds for adults, or even
more, and in hens 6 to 8 pounds. The carriage is
upright, commanding, and bold, and the general

THE INDIAN (CORNISH) GAME FOWL

4a

Fig. 11.— Indian (Cornish) Game.

44

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

appearance in both sexes is a powerfully-built bird,
very active, sprightly, and vigorous. The plumage
should be close to the body — in fact, it cannot be what
is called too hard. In colour the male bird has on the
breast, underbody, and thighs a glossy green-black ;
the neck-hackle is glossy green-black with brown-
crimson shafts to the feathers ; the back, saddle, and
saddle-hackle are a mixture of rich green, whilst the
wing-bow is chestnut with a glossy black bar. The
hens are of a chestnut-brown with lacing of medium
size, in some cases double, the markings being a
metallic green or glossy black. The legs and feet, as
already stated, are yeUow, and the deeper the better.
Taking it altogether, this is a handsome fowl, which at
once strikes the onlooker with its vigour and carriage.

Variety. — As already explained, there is only one
variety, although two types are met with, one much
shorter on the leg than the other.

HAMBUKGH.

NoMENCLATUBE : EiifjUsJi, Hxmgarian, Hamburgh; French,
Hambourg; German, Hamburger; J3m<c/(, Hamburger ;
Danish, Hamborgerne ; Italian, Ambnrgo ; Sjianish,
Hamburgo.

Vaeieties: Gold-spangled, Silver-spangled, Black, Gold-
pencilled, Silver-pencilled.

Glassitication : Non-sittiDg.

CoLOUK OF Flesh and Skin : Grey.

CoLOUE or Legs: Leaden-black in black, leaden-blue in
other varieties.

CoLoUE OF Egg-shells : White.

Origin. — It may be accepted as unquestionable that
the varieties of Hamburghs, as we know them to-day,
are traceable to two distinct sources. The two Spangled
and the Black varieties were evolved in Britain, and
have been bred in the North of England for a couple
of centuries, if not longer, whilst the Pencilled came
from the Netherlands, though they have been altered
considerably, as we shall see, since their introduction.
When inquiring as to the origin, we must deal separately
with the Spangled and Blacks and the Pencilled.

The first mention, however, which has been traced
of a fowl bearing any resemblance to the Spangled
Hamburgh is from Italy. The great Italian naturalist,
Aldrovandi, in his work, the first volume of which was
published in 1599, described a class of fowl which he
called ' Turkish,' and which certainly had many re-
semblances to the Spangled Hamburgh, more especially
in markings and colour of plumage. The illustration in
that work has had more to do with the recognition of
the so-called Turkish cock than the letterpress. In
respect to the comb, the resemblance is remarkable,
for not only is it what we call ' rose,' but also the spike
behind is prominent. Hence, as this peculiarity is not
found in any other race which can be traced back, it is
not unreasonable to assume that the British Spangles
were descendants of the fowls described by Aldrovandi,

although there is no other evidence in support. WTiat
connection these fowls had with Turkey, and why
Aldrovandi gave them the name of Turkish, or how
they passed to Britain, if they did so, is buried in
oblivion. Ferguson * says that ' Hamburgh appears
but the medium by which they were originally im-
ported (in the way of commerce) into this country from
Turkey or some other Eastern climate,' but gives no
proofi of their importation. The description given by
the same writer t from Buffon resembles the Hamburgh
of to-day only in name, whilst the quotation from
Chaucer's ' Nonne's Preeste's Tale ' needs a strong
imagination to connect it with that bred. In fact, it is
very evident that earlier writers often confounded it
with the Polish, as both crests and tufts are refen-ed
to. Dickson i states that ' the Hamburgh is evidently
a variety of the Paduan (Polish),' and such an opinion
appears evident in the earlier editions of Moubray.
These references had no connection with the Spangled
or Black Hamburgh. Mr. Harrison Weir suggests §
that the Spangled Harnburgh was produced by crossing
the old Spotted-breasted Game with the Dutch Ever-
lasting Layers, but offers no evidence in support, and
it is difficult to discover how the rose comb would be
produced by such a mixture of races.

So far as the Pencilled varieties are concerned, we
are on safer ground. In the earhest edition (fifth) we
possess of Moubray's work '] it is stated that ' There is
a small variety now imported from Holland, called
Everyday hens, which are everlasting layers.' Many
references are made in older books and publications to
birds under this or similar names, but the best we have
seen is by Mr. B. P. Brent,1[ in which he says that the
Dutch Every-day Layer ' is widely spread over England,
and is much esteemed for the production of eggs. It
has been long known among us, and various districts
have various names for it. . . . These fowls are rather
small, but neat and nicely made ; they have rose combs,
which should terminate in a single point, directed
backwards. . . . They are the best sort for laying I
know of, though their eggs are smaller than those of
some other kinds — stiU, not smaller than of those of the
generality of common fowls. It is very rare for true
birds of this breed to want to sit, but they continue to
lay throughout the summer ; from this reason, and
also that they are imported from Holland, thej' have
received the name of Dutch Every-day Layers.' He
further names what he regards as a cross between them
and the Spanish fowl, of which ' some are single.-
combed, but most of them have a peculiar-shaped

■-■ ' Rare and Prize Poultry,' by G. Ferguson (London,
185i), p. 267.

t Ihid., p. 270.

+ 'Poultry,' by "W. B. Dickson (London, 1838), p. 15.

§ ' Our Poultry,' by Harrison Weir, F.Z.S. (London, 1903),
vol. ii., p. 528.

II ' A Practical Treatise on Domestic Poultry,' by Bon-
ington Moubray (Loudon, 1824), p. 19.

U Cottarje Gardener (London 1852), p. 422.

THE HAMBURGH FOAVL

45

comb, appearing like two single combs united at the
extremities.'

That the Pencilled Hamburgh originated in the
Netherlands would appear certain. Mr. Harrison
Weir* speaks of purchasing, over fifty years ago,
specimens of Gold and Silver Pencilled at Leaden-
hall, freshly brought over, but makes no mention as
to whether they were rose-combed. It is evident,
however, that the breed at that period was very simOar
to the Friesland and the Campine, which we have known
for more than twenty years in Holland and Belgium,
and which latter has recently attained a measure of
popularity in Britain, save that it has a single comb.

Rose-combed specimens of this race are bred in the
Low Countries, as shown later. Our view is that the
Pencilled Hamburglis came thence, and that the rose
comb was fixed by breeding after they were imported,
thus bringing them into conformity with the Mooney
or Pheasant fowls, with which in general character
they had so much affinity. This view is supported by
Mr. W. B. Tegetmeier, who says : f ' The Pencilled
birds formerly were, and still are, imported in con-
siderable numbers from Holland, under the names of
Pencilled Dutch and Dutch Every-day Layers ; but
the Spangled birds appear to be exclusively EngUsh
fowls, and are essentially distinct varieties, differing in
size, plumage, and in formation of the skull.'

History. — Many are the names under which the
Hamburghs have been known. The designations
have included : Moonies, Pheasant, Bolton Grey,
Bolton Bay, Creoles, Creels, Chittepratts, and Moss,
in addition to those common at the present time, or
which have already been mentioned. Of these the
Spangled were variously called : Moonies, Pheasant, and
Moss ; the Blacks, Black Pheasant ; and the Pencilled,
Bolton Grey, Bolton Bay, Creoles, Creels, Chitte-
pratts, and Dutch Every-day Layers. It would
appear that they have been bred in the border districts
of Lancashire and Yorkshire for at least two cen-
turies, for a writer in the early years of the eighteenth
century % says :

' One of my pleasant reminiscences of this county
(Lancaster) is the pleasure with which I regarded
their pretty fowl, the Black Pheasants, as they called
them, and which furnished me with many a delicious
fresh egg for my breakfast. . . . The stout peasants
regard them with much favour, and point with pride to
their white ears and flat combs.'

Here we have evidence of the peculiarities of the
breed clearly defined as we know them to-day. It
would appear that the Moonies, as they were called in
Lancashire, and the Pheasant, the term used in York-

* ' Our Poultry,' vol. ii., p. 520.

t'The Poultry Book,' by "W. B. Tegetmeier, P.Z.S.
(London, 1873), p. 176.

J 'A Trip to the North of England,' by Thomas Sutlief
(London, 1702).

shire, were bred equally with Golds and Silvers in both
counties ; but as intercommunication was limited in
those days, and exhibitions unknown, there were slight
differences between the two, yet only very slight, and
the type was practically the same.

Spangled Hamburghs are, therefore, really the old
Lancashire Mooney or Yorkshire Pheasant breed,
and ov.'e their perfection to the careful way in which
they have been bred in these two counties. Long
before the era of modern shows there were small
village exhibitions at which the colliers, hand-loom
weavers, and others of the industrial population com-
peted with each other's fowls. In those days only
the hens were shown, for the cooks were regarded as
too ugly. It was by the introduction of a cross be-
tween the Yorkshire and a Mooney cock that the
gentlemen were made fit for the show pen. It was
the custom for the exhibitors to take their birds under
their arms to a room and show them on a table, each
exhibitor arguing for the good points of his birds, whilst
his rivals pointed out their defects. The judge stood
at one side of the table and heard all that was said ^jiro
and con for each bird, of which two were on the table
at one time. The worst of these was taken away, the
one left having to face the next competitor, and so on.
That left at the conclusion of the contest was declared
the winner. This system, which would be utterly im-
practicable nowadays, doubtless had much to do with
the perfection to which the breed was brought, for
each breeder learnt just in what way his bird was de-
ficient, and he could seek to remedy the defect. In
the show-pen at the present time — in this country at
least — he has usually to be content with the fact that
he is beaten, and must find for himself why.

When poultry shows became common in the middle
of last century, it is small wonder that exhibitors
were most numerous in Lancashire and Yorkshire,
where even now shows are more popular than in any
other part of the country.

The fixing of the name ' Hamburgh ' would appear
to have been largely due to the Rev. E. S. Dixon, M.A.,
a prolific writer in the Gardeners' Chronicle and Agri-
cultural Gazette, and whose book on poultry was
published in 1850. He — upon what grounds we know
not — appropriated the name, securing its adoption by
the Birmingham Show, and so it remains, although
the breed has no connection with the great port on the
Elbe. From that time onwards it has been given to
the breed, which with varying fortunes has remained,
though no longer with the same popularity for practical
purposes. It is yet the best layer we have, and, were
the size of eggs produced equal to their number, it
would he facile princeps among the non-sitting races.

Economic Qualities.— At first sight the Ham-
burgh would appear to be among the most useful of
o\ir breeds of poultry. It has been bred for a long

46

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

time, and is certainly one of tlie most beautiful of our
domestic fowls, whilst its prolifioacy as a layer is
unquestionable. No other breed can be depended
upon to produce as many eggs, and hens laying 200 to
230 per annum are by no means uncommon. If we
could, therefore, disregard all other considerations, and
merely take the combination of striking external
characteristics with great egg production, the con-
clusion we should arrive at would be that this breed of
fowl should be universally popular. It is, however.

section of domestic poultry. It is well known that
eggs under 2 ounces, if we except the very scarce
periods of the year, are not saleable upon the markets
for breakfast purposes. They can, of course, alv/ays
be sold for cooking, but cooking prices are not
satisfactory to the producer. The varieties of the
Hamburgh which lay the largest eggs are the Blacks,
Silver-spangled, and Gold-spangled, and their position
would be about the order named. As a rule, however,
the eggs from hens of these three varieties do not

^^M€l/oa^\'^

Fig 12 — &il\ er spangled H«ibuegh Cock

seldom that we find Hamburghs upon farms, either
pure or crossed, for which there must be some explana-
tion. It is not sufficient to remember that the Ham-
burgh is a small-bodied fowl, and therefore not of
much value for table purposes, because this in itself
would be more than compensated by the productive-
ness in egg fruit. The fact is that the Hamburgh, as
a practical fowl, does not meet market requirements,
so far as size of egg is concerned, and in our judgment
that explains why the breed has, to a large extent at
any rate, been almost entirely relegated to the fancy

scale more than 19 ounces to 20 ounces the dozen, and
if one of these were placed in an ordinary egg-cup it
would be nearly hidden. Consequently, the consumer
would feel that he was not getting a fan' share of the
breakfast, and instead of the dish of eggs being an
attractive feature of the table, it would seem as if the
egg and its cup were not in keeping. Further, from
the buyer's point of view in purchasing Hamburgh
eggs, these seem to be dear, and if we take those
produced by other breeds which weigh 25 and 30 per
cent, more, it will at once be seen that, to pay for

THE HAMBURGH POWL

what is being received, Hamburgh eggs should be
bought at a corresponding reduction in price per
dozen.

These facts are stated with a view of drawing the
attention of producers to a very important question.
We cannot alter market requirements, and in the
general interest of the poultry industry it would be
inadvisable to do so. Of course, a solution of the diffi-
culty, partial at anj' rate, would be to sell eggs by-
weight, but in that case small eggs would suffer con-
siderably in demand, if not in price, and if Hamburgh
eggs were sold by weight the bulk would be used for

For every poultry-keeper who is a fancier, there are
probably fifty who do not care about exhibition points
at all, and they look to practical results. Any breed,
therefore, which fails so seriously as the Hamburgh is
greatly handicapped in the race for popularity.

It is generally admitted that Hamburghs thrive best
where they have plenty of scope and are not kept in
confinement, although large numbers are maintamed
in that manner. They are splendid flyers, and can
easily clear a 10-foot fence. One of the greatest diffi-
culties with regard to the breed, more especially of the
Gold and Silver spangles, is the necessity for keeping

Fig. 13. — Black Hambukghs.

cooking purposes rather than upon the breakfast-table,
though to some extent they might be poached or fried.
The Hamburgh, therefore, as a pure-bred fowl, is not
one which can be recommended to utihtarian poultry-
keepers. From its prolificacy it is very useful for
crossing purposes, only we must bear in mind that such
crosses be made with a breed which lays a much larger-
sized egg. It is for this reason that many breeders of
Hamburghs have crossed them with the Minorca, and
with manifest benefit. There is no reason, however,
why the Hamburgh should not in future, even as a pure
breed, become much more popular. We cannot expect
this to be so, however, until the eggs are larger in size.

separate pens in order to breed exhibition cocks and
hens. That is, as we explain elsewhere, a very serious
drawback to any race of poultry for practical purposes,
and has the effect of relegating them to the ornamental
class, as the poultry-keeper for profit, whilst he may
desire to keep pure races, has no wish to adopt methods
of this kind. We, however, deal with the question m
another place.

The most serious hindrance, however, after the lack
of size in eggs, is the fact that many of the best
exhibition Hamburghs are trimmed — that is, the comb
is carved into the proper shape. We are inclined tO'
think that careful breeding has to some extent obviated

48

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

the necessity for this, but it must be recognised that
there is still a great deal of it, and any breed which
requires cutting in this way must be limited in the
number of its adherents. In spite of the fact that the
custom is more or less recognised, there are many — we
hope very many — who would refuse to descend to such
a method. Of course, for non- exhibition purposes the
system is absolutely to be deprecated.

Description. — There can be no question that the
Hamburgh is one of the most beautiful of our races of
poultry in that it combines perfection of form, com-
pactness of structure, brilliance of plumage, with
graceful, active habit of body. The size is, as already
indicated, small, the Pencilled cocks weighing about
4i pounds, and Pencilled hens 3h pounds ; the Spangled
and Black cocks are .'5^ pounds, and hens 4i- pounds.
The flesh is greyish in colour, and whilst young
chickens are very delicate in meat qualities, their
lack of size makes them useless for ordinary market
demands ; moreover, the flesh is a little too compact.
The head of the bird is short and smart, and is sur-
mounted in the cocks by a large comb, which is square
and broad in front, although in conformity with the
general size of the fowl, gradually tapering towards
the back, and ending with a long spike extending in
a straight line with the upper surface of the comb,
which should be firmly set upon the head. That
upper surface is very level, and is covered with fine
points. In hens the comb is the same, only much
smaller. The face and eyes are red, and the earlobes
are pure white, smooth, and as round as possible ; in
fact, a large amount of importance for exhibition pur-
poses is laid upon the earlobes. The neck is medium
in length, and well arched ; the neck -hackle, as also
the saddle-hackle, is full and long, and the plumage is
very profuse. The breast of the bird is prominent and
round, and the body is medium in length ; the thighs
are slender and short, and the legs small in bone and
medium in length. The wings are large and carried
well up, whilst the tail is long and the sickle feathers
broad, a good tail being most important. A great
point with regard to this fowl is the excellence of what
is called its style — that is, gracefulness of carriage.

Varieties. — As already explained, there are five
varieties of Hamburghs — Gold - spangled, Silver -
spangled. Blacks, Gold-pencilled, and Silver-pencilled.

Spangled (Fig. 12). — In the Spangled the Golds have
a ground colour of rich golden bay, and in the Silvers
of silvery white. Each feather in the hens, and on
certain parts of the body in cocks, is tipped with a round
spot or sapngle, which should be green-black, and it is
that which gives the beautiful appearance to these
birds. It is usually found in the greatest perfection in
the hens. In the cocks the spangle is found on the
breast and thighs, and at the end of the sickle
feathers and tail coverts. The shoulders, wing-bows,

and back have small black, dagger-shaped tips to each
feather.

Black (Fig. IS). — This variety is of a beautiful
soft green-black over the entire body, also the tail and
wings, and the more perfect and brilhant the plumage
the better is the bird for ornamental purposes.

Pencilled. — In the Pencilled varieties we have the
ground colour as in Spangled, namely, golden bay
and silvery white, and the markings are found in the
same parts of the body, except that each feather is
evenly and distinctly pencilled across with fine parallel
lines. When this pencilling and the intervening ground
colour are of the same breadth, the effect is very striking
indeed.

REDCAP.

NoMENCLATUEE : Enfjliali, Eedcap ; Frendi, Chapon Eoiige;
<r'('i»u»M, Kothkappen; Dnti-li, Roodkapjien ; Jhingarian,
Veresbobitas ; the English name is usually adopted in
other countries.

Vakieties : Derbyshire ; Yorkshire.

Classification : Non-sitting.

CoLODB OF Flesh and Skin : Grey.

Colour of Legs : Slate colour.

CoLouK OF Egg-Shells : White.

Origin. — It is generally admitted that the Redcap
is closely related to the Gold-spangled Hamburgh,
but the relationship is not easOy determmed, and we
are unable to trace direct connection between them.
Various suggestions have been made with respect to
the two breeds. The late Mr. Henry Beldon, more
than twenty years ago, expressed to us his opinion that
Redcaps were coarsely -bred Gold -spangled Ham-
burghs, in which size of body and of comb had been
striven for in contradistinction to the sprightly carriage,
neat body, and finer comb of the last-named breed.
That view cannot be supported by any facts obtainable
at the present time. Our own view is that in the Red-
cap we see the original type of the Gold-spangled
Hamburgh. The differences are what might be ex-
pected by breeding on opposite lines. It is generally
thought that there has been a cross introduced of Old
English Game blood. This view is held by Mr. Albert
E. Wragg, who has bred the Redcap for many years,
in the last edition of "Wright's ' Book of Poultry,'* and
Mr. Thos. Watchorn holds the same opinion, in that he
says :\ ' I have long since come to the conclusion that
the Redcap was produced by crossmg the Gold-
spangled Hamburgh and the Black-red Game fowl,'
by which we suppose is meant the Old Enghsh Game.
In support, the pugilistic nature of the breed would
show a connection therewith, and also the occasional
tendency to tint in the shells of the eggs.

History. — At one time these fowls' were very
common in Yorkshire, more especially among the hills

'" ' New Book of Poultry,' by Lewis Wright (London, 1902),
p. 421).

t Poiiltnj, July 13, 18S3.

THE REDCAP FOWL

49

in the southern part of that great county, and in Derby-
shire. Thirty years ago at shows in the Sheffield district
well-filled classes of Kedcaps were regularly seen.
But for reasons which have not been explained that is
no longer the case, and the Derbyshire breeders almost
alone have remained true to their old favourites.
Probably the finer quahties of the Hamburgh, and the
fact that classes are provided for the latter at exhibi-

its merits as an economic fowl. Amongst the hills of
Derbyshire it is bred to a considerable extent, and is
there regarded both for eggs and meat properties as a
most valuable fowl.

Economic Qualities.— This breed is remarkable
as an egg-producer, in which respect it equals the
Hamburgh so far as number is concerned, whilst the

Fig. 14.— Kedcaps.

tions all over the kingdom, and the less attractive
appearance of the Redcap, led fanciers to substitute
one breed for the other. In the eighties it appeared
as if the Eedcap would become extinct for practical
purposes, but the efforts of a few breeders have pre-
vented so undesirable a result, and it has won a fair
amount of attention, by no means, however, equal to

eggs are much larger, averaging 2 ounces each. Even
among birds bred for exhibition fecundity is highly
developed, as we have record of a pullet which in 107
days produced 106 eggs, and during twelve months
laid 220 eggs. The eggs are rich in flavour, thus sup-
porting the suggestion that Game mfluenee is present.
They are capital winter layers if bred early and well
4

50

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

housed. The birds are light in bone and carry a con-
siderable amount of flesh for a non-sitting breed. The
chickens are hardy and easily reared, feathering
quickly, and very self-reliant, as they are excellent
foragers. But hardihood is a very striking quality of
the Redcap, and we have seen specimens among the
Derbyshire hills when there were several inches of
snow on the ground actively scratching about wherever
a bare patch was visible, and in full lay at the time.
Our experience has shown that these fowls, by nature
mountaineers, thrive better in hilly districts than on
the plains, which fact should be remembered by those
who are disposed to select the breed. It is essentially
a practical fowl, in which economic qualities are
highly developed, and but for the coarse comb would
doubtless have attained a much greater degree of
popularity.

Description. — The most prominent feature of the
Redcap, and the one which suggested its name, is the
comb. That is rose, as in the Hamburgh, but very
much larger, and distinctly coarser — in fact, frequently
the comb is so large that it hangs on one side, and
when such is the case the appearance is certainly not
attractive. It is full of points on top, and has a spike
behind, but the latter is short. This breed has the
largest rose comb seen on any fowl. In size of body
the Redcap differs greatly from the Hamburgh, as
males weigh from 6i to 7i pounds, and females from
5S to 6i pounds. But for the fact of this larger size it
is probable that the breed would have been merged
in the Gold-spangled Hamburgh. In plumage the
ground colour is red, and thus differs from the golden
bay of the last-named variety, lacking the sharp con-
trasts found in that breed, as the black does not show
so clearly owing [to the deeper body colour. In the
cook the hackles are striped with black, and both in
cocks and hens there are the moon tippings or spangles,
but in the cock the underparts and the tail are black.
The beak in both sexes is horn colour ; the eye red ;
the comb, face, wattles and earlobe red ; and the legs
and feet slate colour.

Varieties. — There are two recognised varieties of
the Redcap, namely, the Derbyshire and the York-
shire, although breeders frequently divide them into
three classes— that is, the large, medium, and small-
combed respectively. For our purpose it wiU be
enough if we omit the last named, as they are nearly
allied to the Gold-spangled Hamburgh.

Derbyshire Redcaps (Fig. 14) are medium in comb,
the measurements of which are 5^ inches long and
3| inches wide, and deep in proportion. In many of the
best specimens the comb is almost round, whilst in
others it is broad in front and tapering behind, though
never to a fine point. The former is generally preferred.

The Yorkshire Redcap is larger and coarser in
comb, which naturally is higher, with a decided
tendency to one side. The effect is by no means

pleasing, and so long as external characters are re-
garded, which we hope will always be the case,
excessive development of any point is undesirable.
Moreover, the discomfort of so large a comb is very
great, and the production and support of a huge mass
of flesh means waste of vigour and of effort.

SCOTCH GREY.

NoMENCLATUEE : Engllsli, Scotch Grey; French, Cocou
d'Ecosse; German, Graue Sehotten ; J)>itc!i, Schotsch
Grey; Italian, Coucou de Scozia ; Sj)aniiih, Coucou de
Escooia; Bungarian, SzUrke Skdt.

V.iEiETY : One.

Classification : Non-sitting.

CoLouK OF Flesh and Skin : "WTiite.

Colour op Legs : Mottled.

Colour of Egg-shells : White.

Origin. — The foundation of the Scotch Grey is
buried in oblivion, and inquiries made carry us back
upwards of half a century, but not beyond. In a work
by Mrs. Fergusson Blair, published nearly fifty years
ago, it is stated that * ' in Scotland this breed is much
valued. It is of great antiquity, and still to be found
in the most remote districts. . . . Some assert that it
is a mere modification of the Dorking, fine specimens
of which occur of similar colour, which I have heard
styled the " Blue Mottle," and it cannot be denied that
it is largely imbued with the blood of these.'

Other writers support the suggestion that the breed
has been established for a long period of time, but no
definite information can be obtained as to its origin.
Several years ago a writer + said that 'it is thought to
have originated from the old barn-door fowl of Scot-
land, and has been raised to its present state of per-
fection by careful breeding and selection.' There is
certainly no evidence that the Dorking was used in its
production, although that breed has been long known
in Scotland ; and the fact that the shape is very differ-
ent, and that the fifth toe — a tendency to which is
always apparent where Dorking blood is present — is
never met with in the Scotch Grey. Mr. Harrison
Weir 1 says that during visits to Dumfriesshu'e in
1862-1864 he found the ordinary fowl of the country
largely grej' in body colour, which fact would support
the contention that the Scotch Grey, as we know it
now, has been evolved from the barn-door fowl found
in North Britain, but which may in its turn have been
influenced both by the Dorking and the fighting Game
centuries ago.

History. — We have always held the opinion that
this breed has never received full justice even in its
native country. Thirty years ago it was kept to a much
greater extent than is now the case. At that period
the breed was widely distributed around Melrose and

* ' The Henwife,' by Mrs. Fergusson Blair, of Balthayock
(Edinburgh, 1862), pp. 128, 129.

t Lire Stock Jcmrnal AlmanacI:, 1895. p. 199.

J ' Oui- Poultry,' by Harrison Weir, P.Z.S. (London, 1903),
p. 352.

THE SCOTCH GREY FOWL

51

Kelso, iu Lanarkshire, and in the Carse of Gowrie, to
our personal knowledge, and the display of Scotch
Grej's at the Edinburgh Poultry Show in 1877 was
remarkable both for numbers and quality. But a de-
cline set in, doubtless owing to the introduction of
other races, which has continued. The fowls met with
upon farnas are no longer of this type, in spite of efforts
■ — very spasmodic, it is true — to regain the ground lost.

of large white-shelled eggs, and it is a fact that during
later years the enormously increasing demand for eggs
has led to the substitution of other races, such as the
Minorca, the Leghorn, and the Plymouth Rock, for the
Scotch Grey. And, further, in these days the market
demand is not for very large eggs, but rather those of
a medium weight. What is lost in number of eggs is
more than gained by the excellent flesh properties of

Scotch Gbeys.

Economic Qualities.— The Scotch Grey might
almost be classed as a General Purpose breed but for
the fact that many hens do not, as a rule, show any
■desire to sit, and such as become broody are very un-
reliable indeed, often deserting their nests after a few
days. They are very hardy indeed, and the chickens
are easily reared, as might be expected, coming as
they do from Scotland. They are fairly good layers

this fowl. The meat is well placed, abundant and of
good flavour, partaking of that juiciness when cooked
which is preferred upon our markets, more especially
in a country like Scotland, where fattening is not
practised. These birds are not so long in body as
several of the table breeds, and could not be placed in
the front rank ; but where the demand is both for eggs
and poultry, combined with vigour of constitution, the
4—2

52

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

Scotch Grey deserves attention, and it is to be regretted
that the breed is not better known. Even in poultry-
keeping fashion has a potent influence, and cannot be
ignored. The Scotch Grey lias proved an excellent
cross, and with the white-fleshed races especially is
able to give that hardihood so essential where the con-
ditions are less favourable, or a measure of forcing is
employed.

Description (Fig. 15).— The plumage in this breed
is peculiar to itself. The ground-colour is of a pale
bluish-grey, and each feather is clearly and evenly
barred with a dark metallic blue. The barring on the
body, thighs, and wings is straight across the feathers,
and should be equal distances from each other ; whilst
on the hackles, saddle, and tail it has a slight angle
from the edge to the centre. In the hens, however, the
markings are larger and more clearly defined than in
the males. One difficulty in breedmg, found with all
fowls having cuckoo plumage, is that some birds are
very light and others dark, almost black. In chickens
generally the lighter birds prove to be cockerels and the
darker pullets. The beak is white, or white streaked
with black ; the eye is red ; the comb, face, ear-lobes
and wattles bright red ; and the legs and feet mottled
black and white ; the comb is single, fine in texture,
and medium in size, firmly set on the head ; the head
and neck are long ; the breast broad and full ; the
back broad and short ; and the legs long ■\\'ith strong
bone. Weight : males, 9 to 11 pounds ; females, 7 to 9
pounds. At one time there was a distinct tendency to
the Dorking type, and in some strains there had been
crossing with the Cuckoo Dorking. In a letter written
by the Hon. Miss Hubbard under the cognomen ' Hen-
wife,' * it was stated that many of the birds bred came
with soft feather and Dorking shape ; but that is no
longer the case, thanks to the Scotch Grey Club, as a
more upright, sprightlier bird is preferred, following
more after the Game type.

ORPINGTON.

NosiENCLATURE : Orpingtoii is used in all countries.
Varieties : Black, Buff, White, Spangled.
Classification : General Pui-pose.
CoLOUK OF Flesh and Siqn : in Blacks, grey ; in other

varieties, white.
Colour of Legs : in Blacks, black ; in other varieties, white.
Colour op Egg-shells : Medium brown.

Origin. — The varieties which are designated by
the name Orpington must be dealt with separately in
respect to their origin, as they have no relationship
whatever. But the plasticity of the domestic fowl is
evidenced by the way in which the differing characters
and tendencies have been brought into unison.

Black.— This variety was originated by the late
* Live Stoch Journal, December H, 1SS5, p. 564.

Mr. WiUiam Cook, then Uvmg at Orpington, Kent, and
he gave that cognomen to the new fowls, as he was
perfectly justified in doing. It will be better to
describe the process of evolution in his own words.*

' I . . . commenced mating Minorca cocks with
black Eock hens, then Langshan cock to the above
hens.f I may mention that I used birds which
exhibitors would have termed useless — Minorca cocks
with red in their earlobes, which caused them to be
unsuitable for breeding pure birds ; the black Plymouth
Rock hens thrown on one side by exhibitors as being
sports only from the grey ; and the clean-legged Lang-
shans, of no use whatever to breed birds such as were
required by the standard of the Langshan Club at that
time. Such birds as these were put on one side for
laying purposes or for the pot.'

Mr. Cook goes on to claim that these rejected speci-
mens are generally admitted to be the best layers, and
therefore that the mating produced a finer fowl than
any of the parents. It can readily be admitted that
by crossing a greater amount of vigour is obtained,
which is all to the good, and the combination resulted
in a large, useful fowl, specially suitable for residents
in towns and manufacturing districts. The following
table shows the descent of the Black Orpmgton.

Black Minorca Black Plvmouth Eock

Clean-legged Langsha

Black Orpington.

It would be erroneous to state that all Black Orping-
tons have descended in the above manner, and in some
strains there has evidently been a considerable infusion
of Cochin blood ; in fact, many more nearly resemble
in brilliancy of plumage and shape the Black Cochins
exhibited about twenty-five years ago, differing merely
by absence of heavy hocks and leg feathers.

Buff. — The origin of this variety is a disputed
point, one which has not been satisfactorily settled.
The Buff Orpington undoubtedly owes its popularity in
the first place to the late Mr. WiUiam Cook, who
claims that he originated it by an admixture of Gold-
spangled Hamburghs, Dark Dorkings, and Buff Cochins,
the descent being stated as follows :

Gold-spangled Hamburgh Buff Cochin

Buff Cochij
I

Daik Dorking

Buff Orpington.

Be that as it may, what is here assumed to be a new
breed had been in existence for a long period of time in

* Fanciers' Gar^ette, May 2, 1S90, p. 361.
t We understand this to mean that Langshan cocks were
mated with the Minorca Kock heus. — E. B.

THE ORPINGTON FOWL

53

the county of Lincoln. Birds of a similar type have
been personally known to ns for more than twenty
years, especially in the Spalding, Boston, and Louth
districts, under the local name of Lincolnshire Buff.
They were, however, more of the Cochin type, due to
veant of definite aim in breeding and to careful selec-
tion, but were, as a rule, white skinned and legged, and
the great majority had feathers down the leg. Hence
what Mr. Cook states he had accomplished by specific
matings was already in existence, only needing the
a,ttention of breeders to secure uniformity and refine-
ment of type. Lincolnshire breeders regard the breed
as having been formed thus :

Dorking

Common Fowl

Lincolnshire Bufi.

Even if we accept the statement that some of the
Buff Orpingtons were produced in Kent, there is
abundance of evidence that the great majority of
present-day Buffs are directly bred from Lincolnshire
Buffs without the slightest relationship to Mr. Cook's
strain ; or, as Mr. R. de Courcy Peele says : * ' The
foundation had beea laid many years previous to
Mr. Cook's time in the shape of the Lincohishire Buff,
a variety, if it may be so called, which has for many
years been the acknowledged farmers' fowl in and
about Spalding and the neighbouring towns.'

The White is said to have been produced by a
•compound of White Leghorn, White Dorking, and
Black Hamburgh. If so, where is the tendency to rose
combs, as might be expected by only one of the three
breeds not having a rose comb ? The whole appear-
ance indicates a sport from the Blacks.

Spangled. — Here the origin is said to be a cross
between the Spangled Old English Game and the
Dorking. Again, the affinity with the Speckled Sussex
is so striking as to make the two practically the same.

History. — The Black Orpington was introduced
in 1886, and was boomed for all it was worth. A
black fowl, it had special recommendations for resi-
dents in suburban and manufacturing districts, whilst
its useful qualities and undoubted hardihood were
greatly in its favour. At that period large numbers of
new breeders were taking up poultry both for exhibi-
tion and productive purposes. Thus a new variety
appealed to them. A few enthusiastic breeders carried
all before them. At that time breeding was most
uncertain. We have seen half a dozen distinct types
in one show, and two, if not three, types shown by one
exhibitor. Perhaps that fact added to the zest, as it
did to the chances of breeding. The fact is that the

variety was introduced whilst its type was by no
means fixed, and in a very crude state, certainly not
worthy of naming as a breed. But that condition of
things passed in process of time. Whilst its great
popularity only lasted a few years, it is bred to a con-
siderable extent.

Around the Buffs a fierce contest arose, not in
respect to the qualities or the characteristics of the
variety, but the name. It is not om- purpose to go
over this ground, as the doing so would be futile.
Apart from all questions as to the claims put regarding
the origin, as to whether — which is our belief — the
Buff Orpington is a refined Lincolnshire Buff, as to
whether Mr. Cook did not buy Lincolnshire Buffs
before he introduced Buff Orpingtons, as to whether
he did not sell Lincolnshire Buffs as Buff Orpingtons,
and as to whether birds identical and bred from the
same parents have not been, and are still, sold under
both designations, there is an important question as to
name. When Mr. Cook brought out the breed in
1894 the Orpington Club protested strongly against
the use of the name Orpington, and others did the
same. The question was ably summed up by Mr.
Lewis Wright :*

' A breeder might justifiably use any name he likes
really open to him ; but when a man has already
appropriated the name of his own residence to one
breed, of which he tells us the components were
A, B, and C, there are the gravest objections to his
giving, years afterwards, the same name, for merely
trade and advertising purposes, to another " breed,"
which, according to his own account, has no particle
of A, B, and C, but was built up of X, Y, Z.'

With these observations we absolutely agree, and
the Poultry Club failed lamentably in recognising the
name under these conditions. But the thing is done,
and cannot now be altered. The ' canniness ' which
designed the coui] has had its reward. But we feel
that a grave injustice has been done to Lincolnshire
breeders. The advantage they would have reaped has
gone elsewhere. Fortunately, ' a rose by any other
name would smell as sweet,' and nothing could injure
the economic qualities of the Buff Orpington, which
proved to be very great. No breed of fowl has
attained so universal a popularity, in spite of the many
disappointments met with. The demand for these
birds grew so rapidly that it was impossible to meet it.
Large numbers of half-bred Buff Cochins and Dorkings
were sold as Buff Orpingtons. We have seen the
progeny of high-priced birds sold as pure stock, of
which 75 per cent, were yellow-legged and feather-
legged. Anything bearing the name ' Buff Orpington '
was saleable, or, as a Lincolnshire breeder wrote us,
' If I call my birds Lincolnshire Buff, I cannot get
more than 4s. each for them; if I call them Buff
Orpington, they seU readily at 10s. each.'

* Featliered n'orld, December Ifi, 189S.

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

Fig. 16.— Black Orpington Cock.
Bred hy W. M. Bell, St. Leonard's, liinywood.

Fig. 17. — Buff Okpingtons.
Bred hy Edward A. Cass, Buryh, Lines.

THE ORPINGTON FOWL

55

But that stage has passed. At first the resemblance
between the Blacks and Buffs was more imaginary
than real. Now the latter are longer in leg and more
upright. But the types have been brought nearer
together. Even yet there is a tendency to yellow and
feathered legs, but not nearly to the extent met with
formerly. As to Whites and Spangled, they have no
history.

Economic Qualities.— The tendency of those
who advocate the adoption of any breed is to exaggerate
both characters and quahties, and no breed has suffered
more than the Orpingtons in this respect. If one
tithe of what has been said respecting them were true,
they would deserve to be canonized. Such statements
are very misleading, but the devotees of almost every
breed appear to be subject to the same contagion at
one period, generally that of infancy, when proportions
are by no means true. All breeds must be judged
practically, and their qualities carefully and calmly
considered in the light of experience.

The Black Orpington is a big, bulky fowl ; hardy, but
not very rapid in growth, as it is somewhat heavy in
bone. It carries a fair amount of flesh, which is
greyish-white in colour, but is fine and delicate in skin.
There is too much flesh upon the legs to regard it as a
first-class table fowl, though that flesh is juicy and
decidedly superior to what is found upon more active
fowls. The bird fattens fairly well, but its gi-ey
flesh detracts from its appearance when dead. The
breast meat is not very abundant, considering the
size of body. The hens are good layers, especially in
winter, and the eggs are medium in size and in tint.
For general purposes, and especially for birds which
must be kept in confinement, in towns and manu-
facturing districts, its black plumage is a great
recommendation. All varieties of Orpingtons are good
sitters and mothers.

Buff Orpingtons have a combination of qualities
which is rarely found, namely, white skin and legs and
the production of tinted-shelled eggs. To that fact is
due the rapid growth of popularity of the variety.
Not only do we thus secure the colour of egg-shells
so much in demand, but such birds as are killed for
market command a good price. We have found
these birds hardy upon dry soils. The amount of
yeUow blood in then- composition enables them to
be kept on heavy soils more profitably than other
white-legged races, though they grow more quickly upon
lighter soils. The chickens develop faster than Blacks,
as they are much lighter in bone, but cannot be re-
garded as very rapid in attainment of maturity. The
flesh upon the body is well distributed, and chiefly upon
the breast, where it is plump and thick upon the keel ;
it is good in flavour, and white, the birds fattening well.
The hens are excellent layers, and if bred early are very

productive in winter ; the egg-shells are of a light buff
tint. This combination of qualities makes the Buff
Orpington one of the best varieties for general purposes
we have at present, and we were interested to find,
during visits to Hungary in 1902 and 1904, that it has
been introduced into that country as a most suitable
race for improvement of table qualities and securing
coloured-shelled eggs.

Whites and Spangled are not much kept by practical
poultry-keepers.

Description. — In appearance the Buff Orpington
is a large-bodied fowl, standing on rather short legs,
more especially in Blacks. The body is broad and
deep, the breast carried well forward, with a long,
even breast-bone ; the shoulders are broad, and the
back short and cmrved ; the wings are of good size,
and carried close to the body ; the head is small and
neat, the beak strong, and the comb of medium size —
where single carried erect, where rose formed close to
the head ; the wattles are medium in length, and
round ; the neck gracefully curved, and covered with a
full hackle; the tail is of medium length, with well-
curved sickles in the cock, and carried fairly upward
in the hen ; the thighs are short, and legs short and
strong, rather longer in the Buffs than the Blacks ;
four toes on each foot ; there should be no signs of
feathers on the legs and feet ; the general appearance
is that of a short, compact, cobby fowl. Weight :
males, 9 to 10 pounds ; females, 7 to 8 pounds.

Varieties. — Black (Fig. 16) has greenish-black
plumage, with a bright sheen ; the beak is black, as are
the legs and feet ; the eye is black, with a dark brown
iris ; the comb, wattles, face, and earlobes red ; combs
are generally single, medium in size, but a rose-combed
variety is bred to a limited extent.

BnFF (Fig. 17). — The colour of plumage varies con-
siderably from a lemon to deep buff, and is generally
deeper in the cocks than the hens. Originally black
feathers were found in the tails in both sexes, but by
careful selection this feature has been greatly improved.
It should not, however, be carried to an extreme, and
it will frequently be found that the black-tailed birds
are the more vigorous and the better layers. White
feathers in the wings are often met with, and to these
sports there will ever be a tendency, as buff is an un-
natural colour for fowls ; the beak is horn colour, or
white ; the eye, red or brown : the comb, wattles, face,
and earlobes, red ; and the legs as pure white as
possible.

White in all respects the same as Buff, except the
plumage and beak, both of which are white.

Spangled follows closely after the Spangled Game-
that is, the ground colour is black and red, the latter
predominating, spangled or splashed with white ; less
white ; other points as in Buffs.

CHAPTErv, IV
ASIATIC EACES OF FOWLS

Brahma
Cochin
Malay
Langshan

IT is generally recognised that the domestic fowl
originated in Southern Asia, and that the breeding
of poultry has for many centuries been followed
very largely throughout the eastern and southern sections
of that great continent, and in the islands from Japan to
the Malayan Archipelago. As a result, there are found
races of decided individuality. In some directions, more
especially in China and Japan, peculiar forms have
been developed, largely of a diminutive or bantam
character, and in what are known as the .Japanese and
Booted Bantams and the long-tailed Yokohama the
abnormal is very strikingly manifest. With these
ornamental races it is not our purpose to deal, as they
are of small economic value, and are chiefly bred for
exhibition. But among the larger races several of the
best known have been imported directly from Asia,
although considerable modifications have followed their
introduction into Europe and America. These races are
of a distinctive tj'pe, and as a rule they are large in size
of body, have long necks and legs, are somewhat heavy in
bone, and,witb one exception, produce tinted-shelled eggs
— in some cases the shells are very deep in tint. These
breeds have, without exception, been obtained from the
countries adjacent to the sea-coast of Asia, or from the
islands where Europeans have settled, and possibly, as
the central States of the continent are open to foreign
trade and travel, we shaU learn of other forms or varia-
tions of those abeady known to us. Pioneers in the
opening up of any country are seldom interested in the
study of animal and plant life, and it is not often that
we learn much as to these until traders or others have
been settled for some time.

Some of the breeds named below are not now of
practical value, but they have exercised, directly or in-
directly, great influence upon the evolution of newer
races, and are capable of doing so in the future, for
which reasons they are included.

Java
Aseel
Black Sumatra

BRAHMA.

WoMEScLATUEE I 111 all coiuitries, Brahma or Brahma-
pootra.
Vakieties : Light, Dark.
Classification : General Purpose.
CoLOUB OF Flesh and Skin : Yellow.
CoLouB OF Legs : Yellow.
CoLouB OF Egg-shells : Medium brown.

Origin. — Respecting the origm of the Brahma
there has been much controversy, and the facts were
for a long time buried beneath a very mountain of
misstatements, designed in many cases to deceive the
unwary. It is needless for us to go over this well-
trodden ground. Those who are sufficiently mterested
to study the subject can find an excellent summary in
Wright's ' New Book of Poultry.' It may be accepted
that the Brahma originated in India, where fowls of the
original type are to be met with, under the name of the
Grey Chittagong, in the Brahmapootra district. The
division into two colours is the result of breeding and
selection in America and England, as the first birds
were distinctly light in plumage. Mr. Lewis Wright*
is inclined to accept the suggestion that the Dark
Brahma was originated by the late George P. Burnham,
of Boston, U.S.A.

History. — The first Brahmas appear to have been
imported into America in September, 1846, brought
direct from the port of Lukipoor, which is some dis-
tance from the mouth of the Brahmapootra River.
The birds were purchased by a man named Charles,
living in Connecticut, and the first brood were hatched
in May, 1847. In the autumn of that year they were
sold to a gentleman called Mr. Virgil Cornish, of
New Britain, Connecticut, and were bred by him.
These birds commanded a great deal of attention by

' New ]

264.

: of Poultry,' by Lewis Wright (London, 1902),

THE BRAHMA FOWL

57

./ '

V 1^

%t'.,j

HACES OF DO:\IESTIC POULTUY

their great size, some of the adult cocks weighing 12
to 14 pounds. They varied a good deal in type, had a
small comb, and many of the earlier specimens did
not show the pea comb which is now a fixed character.
The name Brahmapootra was given to them by a
committee at Boston in 1850. Three years afterwards
a pen of these birds was sent by Mr. G. P. Burnham,
who was then pushing the breed for all it was worth,
to the late Queen Victoria, and that, so far as is known,
was the primary introduction into Great Britain. They
were taken up here with a good deal of energy, and
for a long time held the place as one of the most
popular breeds, rivalling the Cochin in that respect.
"Unfortunately, many changes have resulted from the
adoption of different ideals, and to-day the American
Brahmas are distinctly different from the EngUsh. On
this side, especially with Dark Brahmas, too much
attention was paid to the
penoOling in the hens,
nearly everything being
sacrificed in that du-ec
tion, but both with Lights
and Darks the greatest
amount of evil has re
suited from excessis e
development of hocks
and leg and foot feathei
ing — in fact, following
more upon the lines of the
Cochin type. In America
as will be seen by the
illustration (Fig. 19), the
development of hocks has
not been carried to the
same length.

If we compare the
earlier Brahmas with
those seen to-day, it will
be noted that the former,
whilst feathered on the

legs, were only so to a comparatively small ex-
tent, whereas to-day long feathers are regarded as
important. The result has been, from a utilitarian
point of view, most disastrous. Feather is the most
expensive material to produce, and hence the birds are
slower in growth, greater eaters, and distinctly inferior
in productiveness to the original type. For these
reasons the Brahma is now practically a fancy fowl,
and except in the direction noted below, they are
seldom kej^t for practical purposes in Europe.

Economic Qualities. — When first introduced
the Brahma was undoubtedly a good layer, the eggs
being deeply tinted in shell, although somewhat small
in size, as is the case with most of the Asiatic breeds.
The younger stock were very good upon the table for
a General Purpose variety, carrying a considerable

amount of flesh, and they were fairly quick in growth.
That, however, has been greatly altered. Although it
must be recognised that the breed is no longer of the
same value as formerlj', there is in it a great amount
of reserve strength and virility. It is a striking fact
that some of the best breeds recently introduced have
had an infusion of Brahma or Asiatic blood, more
especially from the Light Brahma.

In Europe we have two breeds, brought out in
France and Belgium respectively, namely, the Fave-
rolle and the Coucou de J\Ialines, which owe a great
amount of their value to the Light Brahma influence
used in the making of these races. For crossing pur-
poses that variety is very valuable indeed, and there is
a multitude of ways in which crosses can be made,
giving splendid results. The point which we should
like to bring forward is that those who desire to retain
the good qualities of the
Brahma, and there are a
few strains in this country
of the older type, should
boldly discard the heavy
specimens which are
chiefly in favour. If
they could obtain from
breeders birds of a slighter
build of body, with com-
paratively little leg and
foot feathering, they
would find them amongst
the best for this purpose.
As a pure race, bred upon
present lines, the British-
bred Brahma is not to be
recommended, and the
American is decidedly
superior.

Fig. 20. — Dark Br.\hmas (English Type).

Description. — The

Brahma is a large-bodied
fowl, with full, broad, and deep breast, cai-ried well in
front ; the back is broad, but short, and the tail, which
is medium in length, rises sharply from the back and
nearly upright, being almost as high as the head ; the
head is small, rather short, well rounded, surmounted
by a triple or pea comb, which is very small, the centre
ridge being higher than that on either side ; the beak
is yellow, and the eye orange-red ; the bird is lieavy
in bone, with strong, powerful legs and feet, thickly
covered with feathers, and English Brahmas are bred
with stifl' protruding hock feathers, generally propor-
tionate to the foot and shank feathering. The general
appearance is that of a large-bodied fowl, with good
carriage, the body being profusely covered with
feathering, which is not quite so soft as in the Cochin.
The skin is yellow, as are the legs and feet. Weight :
adult cock, 11 pounds and upwards ; cockerel, 9 pounds.

THE COCHIN FOWL

59

In America, as already indioated, there has not been
the same development of hook, leg, and foot feathering,
and it is scarcely surprising that the economic qualities
of the breed have been maintained to a greater extent
than in this country.

Varieties.— Light (Figs. 18 and 19). — The plumage
is of a silvery-white, densely and sharply striped with
black in the centre of each feather on the neck and
saddle hackle ; the primary feathers on the wings are
black or black edged with white, and the tail and tail-
coverts ar6 glossy black ; the other parts of the body
are silverj' white.

Dark (Fig. 20).— The head, beak, and shoulder-
coverts are silvery- white, as are the wing-bows ; the
neck and saddle hackles are silvery-white, striped with
black in the centre of each feather ; the breast and
under-parts of the body, thighs, and fluff, the primary
feathers, legs, and leg feathering, are of a deep, intense
black, although sometimes this is slightly laced with
white. In the hens each feather is pencilled with
silver-white upon a dark ground.

COCHIN.

Nomenclature : In all countries, Codiin or Cochin

Cbina.
Vakieties : Buff, Partridge, White, Black, Cuckoo.
Classification : General Purpose.
Colour of Flesh and Skin : Yellow.
Colour of Legs and Feet : Yellow.
Colour of Egg-shells : Deep brown.

The race which passes under the above name, and
was at one time known as the Cochin China, has prob-
ably exerted greater influence through its importation
than any other breed which has ever been intro-
duced. The importation of the Cochin fowl caused
a boom in poultry-raising which lasted for a con-
siderable period of time. This breed, which was
first known rmder the name of Shanghai, was
vaunted to the skies as the best, the most prolific,
the handsomest bird that ever was seen. Largely
owing to the demand for specimens and the desire to
see the best birds, the exhibition system arose, and but
for these influences would never have attained its
present dimensions. The possession of a pen of these
birds meant a fortune, so it was said. The hens were
claimed to lay several eggs per day, the flavour and
colour of the richest, and fabulous prices — fabulous
even when compared with those now realized for first-
class exhibition stock — were given for specimens :
i;50 for a cock or £5 for a setting of eggs was no
uncommon figure. Poultry shows became the resort
of fashionable folk, and crowds attended, struggling
almost for the right to be there. But in process of
time the bubble burst, and the vaunted merits of the
fowl were found to exist only in the imagination of
those who puffed up the breed.

Origin. — So far as is known, the original specimens
came from Shanghai, in China, and had never been
near Cochin China. It was under the name of
Shanghai they were first described, and for a long
time in America it was the object to retain the iirst
name ; but Cochin was certainly a more euphonious
title, and was generally adopted. The first birds
seen in England were purchased from a ship in the
West India Docks in 1845, and as they were distinctly
different from anything known at that time, they
became popular. "We have never been able to trace
that birds of this type are common even in the
Shanghai district. It would appear that the earliest
Cochins were largely buff in plumage, although by no
means even in colom-, as is now the case, many of them
being much darker.

H istory .— The first recorded importation, as already
stated, took place in 1845, though it is said that about
two or three years before specimens of the breed had
been seen by officers of both the British Army and
Navy in China. In 1845 Her Majesty Queen Victoria
received several birds of this breed, and exhibited these
at the show of the Eoyal Dublin Society in the April
of 1846. At a show held in the Zoological Gardens,
London, in 1845, prizes were given to Malays and
other Asiatic breeds, but none of the Shanghais or
Cochins were exhibited.

As already stated, when once imported they rapidly
advanced in popular favour. The example of Queen
Victoria had much to do with this, together with their
novel appearance. The large size was greatly magni-
fied, and the hoarse crow was said to be nearly as loud
as the roar of a lion. When first introduced the breed
was very uncertain. As already mentioned, the earlier
birds were largely buff in colour, but sports were soon
produced, which ultimated in the different varieties as
seen to-day. The earlier specimens, whilst more
heavily feathered than the Brahmas, were not nearly
so profuse as is now the case. Breeding has led to an
enormous development of hock, leg, and foot feather-
ing. The fowls, however, were always thickly
feathered, and the plumage was soft in texture, whilst
there is a rotundity of shape which is almost peculiar
to this breed. When the Cochin mania came to an
end, and it was recognised that the breed was not
nearly so good in economic properties as had been
claimed, ordinary poultry-keepers soon abandoned
them, and for thirty years they have been practically
in the hands of a comparatively few fanciers. In
America they have ne attained the same favour as
they did in this country.

Economic Qualities, — Probably one of the
causes which led to the first popularity of the Cochin
was the fact that it is a remarkably good layer in
winter, and at a time when few eggs are obtained
any breed showing this quality is necessarily much in

60

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

favour. The hens, however, lay few eggs, taking the
whole period of the year, and when about fifteen to
twenty are produced generally desire to sit — in fact,
they are very intense sitters, and where number of
eggs is an important consideration this is greatly
against them. The eggs are small in size, very rich
in flavour, with a highly-coloured shell. Young
chickens are tender and fairly good on the table, but
when older they cannot be regarded as even possible
in that respect. The flesh is at all times very yellow,
and more largely developed on the thighs than the
breast. This is due to the fact that they are not flyers,
having small wings, and with such heavj' bodies large
wings would be necessary. As it is one of Nature's
rules never to develop that which is not needed, the
muscles of the breast are small, whilst those of the
thighs and legs are large.

They are very hardy, and —

can stand almost anyplace
and soil, but for exhibition
specimens they must be
kept on short, level grass,
as the foot feathering is
broken and spoiled if the
grass is long or the ground
rough. The chickens are
easy to rear, but slow in
coming to full growth,
and the cocks cannot be
relied upon as breeders
after they are three years
old, at which age hens
are very poor layers
indeed. Another point
which militates greatly
against this breed is the
amount of food required
to maintain them. We
find that this was recog-
nised even at the very first. In 1853 an account* was
given of an experiment as to the amount of food
required, from which it is shown that the average cost
of feeding the birds amounted to about 4d. per week,
which is confirmed by the experience of M. Lemoine.f
It was shown by this gentlSman that Cochins con-
sumed 17 ounces 296 grains of food per day, as against
7 ounces 31 grains for Langshans and 4 ounces 398
grains for Leghorns.

Description. — The general appearance of the
Cochin is a strong-bodied fowl, broad, deep, full in front,
and thickly covered with feathers. The back is short
and broad, rising to the tail, which is small and full,
and free from sickle feathers ; the head is small and

■» 'The Poultry Book,' by Messrs. Wuigfleld and Johnson
(London, 1S53), p. 37.

t ' Poultry-Keeping as an Industry,' by Edward Brown
(London, 1904), p. 26.

riOr 21. — PiETEIDGE Coo

neat in respect to the general proportions of the breed,
and the comb is single, small in size, standing perfectly
upright, and evenly serrated ; the legs and thighs are
short, widely set apart, and thickly covered with
feathers, as are the hocks, the latter often curled round
the joints ; the appearance is bold and massive ; the
bone is very heavy, giving an appearance of great
strength, whilst the beak, flesh, and skin are yellow.
Weight : males, 10 to 12 pounds and upwards ;
females, 8 to 10 pounds.

Varieties. — The number of varieties is five —
namely. Buff, Partridge, White, Black, and Cuckoo.

In the Buff, of which there are two shades —
namely, lemon and cinnamon — the plumage is of an
even shade, varying from a lemon-buff to a rich buff,
perfectly uniform through-
out, except that there is a
-i little deeper tinge on the

hackle and saddle feathers,
and in the case of the cock
on the wing-bow.

Partridge (Fig. 21). —
These are beautiful birds,
rich in colour. The head
ib dark red or orange,
and the hackles orange or
golden red, with a black
stupe in the centre of
each feather. The breast,
under - parts, tail, leg
feathers, and parts of the
w mgs are black ; whUst the
back, shoulders, coverts,
and wing-bow are a rich
duk red.

White. — In these the

plumage is a pure glossy

white all through.

Black. — In young specimens the plumage is of a

rich glossy black, and the more metallic in appearance

the better.

Cuckoo. — In these the ground colour is a hght bluish-
grey, each feather barred across with bands of darker
grey or blue.

MALAY.

NojiEXCLATUBE : Eiiglisli. Jliiiiiioiitiii, Ma'ay ; FreneJt,
Malais; German, Malajeii; Jliitch, Waleier; Banish,
Malajere; Italian, Malese; SpanisJi, Malay a..

Vabieties : Red, Black-red, White, Black.

Classification : Table.

Colour of Flesh and Skin : Yellow.

Colour of Legs and Feet : Yellow.

Colour of Egg-shells : Dark brown.

The older works on poultry gave greater prominence
to the Malay fowl than is the case in more recent pub-
lications. At that time this breed was the giant

THE MALAY FOWL

61

amongst domestic fowls, and for crossins purposes it
was often used. Its influence, as already seen, is
traceable in the Indian or Cornish Game, which breed
has, however, taken its place in popular favour.
Although it cannot be regarded as a breed desirable
for other than ornamental purposes, it has quahties
which cannot be ignored. Also, it is one of our few
pure races.

Origin. — The evidences are that the Malay origi-
nated in South-Eastern Asia, whence it was imported
directly to England, and where fowls of this type are
common. Moubray* calls them the Chittagong or
Malay, and describes them as an Indian variety ; but
India meant in those days practically all Southern
Asia. Dixon t quotes from the ' Penny Cyclopsedia '
that this is an Indian breed, called by Europeans the
' Kulm ' cock, but gives no evidence in support of that
opinion. Ferguson % says that the term ' Kulm ' is but
another name for the Malayan class of fowl, and states :
' From the Peninsula of Malay, situated on the southern
point of the continent of India, § where this fowl still
abounds, have been imported magnificent specimens of
the Malay kind. To Mr. J. Nolan, of Dublin, a man
of great experience and sound judgment, we are in-
debted for the extensive propagation of this very noble
family. He was one of the earliest Malay breeders,
having obtained his stock from the London Docks, to
which place they had arrived direct from Malay. . . .
That they were the aborigines of the Peninsula of
Malay is unquestionable.' He also calls attention to
the fact ] that they were the largest known fowls until
the arrival of the Shanghai or Cochin.

Doyle ^ calls it the Gallus giganteus, or large Kxilm
fowl, and says it is found in the Deccan country as well
as the Malay Peninsula. This is confirmed by Colonel
Sykes, ** who found the Kulm cock domesticated on the
Deccan ; but he believed it was there introduced from
Sumatra by the Mussulmans. In a French work tt a
very wide distribution is given to this race, for it is
stated that it is indigenous to the Malay Archipelago,
to the Philippine Islands, that it is common in India,
in Burmah, in the islands of the Indian Ocean, and on
the eastern coast of Africa.

Mr. B. Whitfield writes : |J ' Some years ago I had a
conversation with one Captain Williams, who told me
that he had brought many birds of this breed (Malay)

* 'Practical Treatise on Domestic Poultry,' by Boniugtou
Moubray (London, 1824), p. 21.

f ' Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,' by Rev. E. S. Dixon,
M.A. (London, 1850), p. 299.

X ' Ears and Prize Poultry,' by G. Ferguson (London,
1854), pp. 182-183.

§ Malay is the southern point of Siam, not India.— E. B.

II ' Eare and Prize Poultry,' by G. Ferguson (London, 1854),
p. 183.

If ' Domestic Poultry,' by Martin Doyle (London, 1854), p. 2.

*-■ Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 1832.

tt ' Les Oiseaux de Basse-Cour,' par Oh. Oornevin (Paris,
1895), p. 157.

tX Feathered World, October 11, 1895, p. 322.

to England, and that he had been all through India
and the Malay Archipelago, but saw only a few speci-
mens of them until he reached Singapore, where they
were somewhat plentiful. He stated that the birds
bred and fought in those islands were principally a
shorter-legged, longer-bodied and feathered bird than
the Malay, and would fight lilse demons ; still the
Malay was bred and fought largely.'

It may be accepted that the Malay origmated in
South-Eastern Asia, and that, when found elsewhere,
it has travelled from its original habitat. Further^
Mr. C. F. Montresor says * that he believes ' the Malay
is no other than a cross from the Indian Game cock
and Chittagong hen,' which he has bred on many occa-
sions, and produced several that have been bought in
Calcutta by stewards of ships and sailors, and have no'
doubt found their way to the dealers in the neighbour-
hood of East London, and there sold as Malays.

History. — We have no record as to when the first
importations were made, but that these took place more
than a hundred years ago is evident from the fact of
the breed being mentioned by Moubray. No dates are
given to the purchases made by Mr. Nolan. Colonel
Sj'kes is said to have imported his first specimens in
1831, but they were known before then. Mr. Lewis
Wright quotest from notes supplied by the late Mr,
Edward Hewitt, one of the most careful of the earlier
poultry-breeders, whose recollections of the breed
went back to 1830. In 1833 he purchased a pen of
Malays at Liverpool. An explanation is afforded why
the Malay was at first best known in Cornwall, where,
and in Devon, there are still many breeders. J 'The
western districts of Cornwall, especially around Fal-
mouth, abounded some few j'ears since with fowls of
good RIalay blood. Many of these had been landed
there from the East Indiameu that were accustomed
to make that town their port of call on entering the
English Channel.'

It cannot be claimed that the Malay ever became
popular, but at one period it was more used for
crossing than has been the case of late years. More-
over, a great change came over the fowl. When first
introduced, and for several decades afterwards, it was
not nearly so long in the leg as now, and the feathers
throughout were very narrow, in some cases barely
covering the flesh. The modifications which took
place have been in some measure due to change of
conditions, but were probably rather the result of
differing ideals. It would appear that crosses were
introduced, and hence the type was greatly changed.
To some extent breeding and fresh importations have
brought the bird a little, nearer to its original form,

^^ Lire Stoch Journal Almanach, 1888^. 189.

t ' New Book of Poultry,' by Lewis Wright (London, 1902),
p. 326.

J ' The Poultry Book,' by Wingfield and Johnson (London,
1853), p. 169.

62

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

but, as is the case with nearly all races of poultry, the
chief advantage has been in the fixing of one type,
even though it is not the same as that found at first.

Economic Qualities. — The appearance of the
bird tells against it, and its pugnacious qualities— for
it is cruel by nature — have made it a bird very difficult
to keep in large numbers. It is also a poor layer,
which lack has not been made up by any special suit-
ability for table purposes. It is true that the flesh is

its admirable crossing qualities. Its flesh is a httle
high in flavour for an uneducated taste, but when
properly hung it makes a very fine dish. When crossed
with some other suitable breed, the progeny forms a
splendid table fowl. The eggs produced by this race
are very rich indeed, and have thick shells. The hens
do not make good mothers, and on that account are
not generally trusted with maternal duties, though
they make admirable sitters. The chickens should not
be hatched much before May, for they are slow in

Fig. 22. — Red M.ii.vY Cook.

good in flavour, though a little strong, and wonderfully
abundant, considering the appearance of the fowl, but
the heavy yellow shanks are not a recommendation
upon the poulterers' stalls. These considerations have
all combined to keep the breed in the background, and
we question whether, under any circumstances, it is
likely to become a really popular variety. But the
breed has its admirable points, and it is a satisfaction
to know that it has been maintained pure through all
these years. The utilitarian value of the Malay is in

feathering, and if hatched too early appear to feel the
cold very keenly. They bear confinement well, and
unless they did so it would be impossible for anyone to
keep them, as only three or four will live peaceably
together.

Description. — The Malay is one of our largest
birds, and looks large in spite of its somewhat sparse
amount of feather. It is broad and square m front of
the shoulders, tapering to the tail, giving a wedge-Uke

THE LANGSHAN FOWL

appearance ; the breast is deep and prominent, and the
breast bone is usually bare, in which respect it differs
from all other fowls ; it is also often bare at the
shoulders, which are very wide ; the back is sloping
and round ; the wings are large and powerful, carried
close to the body, and the tail short, drooping, and
sickles very narrow ; the neck and saddle hackles are
narrow and scanty ; the head is large and broad, with
deep-set eyes and heavy overhanging brows, thus giving
a very ferocious appearance ; the comb is small and
well in front, and shaped like a half-walnut ; the neck
is long and strong, and is bare on the throat ; the legs
and feet are heavily boned, giving the aspect of great
strength ; the thighs are muscular, and scantily
covered with feathers. Weight: males, 9 to 11 pounds;
females, 6i to 8 pounds. The general appearance is
that of a big, gaunt, powerful and pugnacious fowl.

Varieties — Bed (Fig. 22). — These are generally
red all over the body, with darker reflections.

Black-ked. — The head, hackles, back and wing-bow,
are rich dark red ; the wing-bar, breast, under-parts,
and tail, glossy black.

White and Black are self-coloured.

LANGSHAN.

NoMEXCLATUKE : Id all countries, Langshan.

Vableties : Black, White, Blue.

Classification : General Purpose.

Colour of Flesh and Skin : Grey.

CoLouB OF Legs and Feet : Verj' dark grey, pink

between the toes.
Colour or Eog-shells : Dark brown.

Around this fine breed much controversy has arisen
and a great amount of bitterness has been engendered,
due to causes which it would be unprofitable to
enumerate. On the one hand, supporters of the Lang-
shan have claimed for it a combination of virtues
which it has never possessed, and which are to be met
with in no existent fowl, and have made ridiculous
statements respecting it, ignoring even the very basis
of natural development, whilst they have shown a
sensitiveness to criticism which was most unfortunate.
On the other side, for a long time opponents did not
accord it justice, and blundered grossly by refusing to
accept evidence which ought to have been sufiicient,
even though it was tainted by untenable assumptions.
On both sides personalities were far too freely indulged
in, and more lately breeders have destroyed its pre-
eminent qualities by modifications which have ruined
the type and made it little more than a monstrosity.
Hence the Langshan has been unfortunate both in its
friends and opponents, more especially the former. As
we have to accept the fowl as it is to-day, it would be a
waste of time and serve no good purpose to go over the
controversial points, and attempt to summarize the
acres of print which have gathered around this breed.

Origin. — The Langshan is undoubtedly a native of
the Celestial Empire. Upon that point there can be
no question, as the first importation, so far as we have
records, was in 1872, sent directly from Northern
China by a relative of the late Major Croad. It would
appear from evidence which has gathered since that
time that these birds are found in the Langshan
district, to the north of the Yangtsze-Kiang River. A
writer many years ago* quotes a letter from Mr. Jensen,
of the Astor House Hotel, Shanghai, who had had a
great deal to do with fowls and animals in China, in
which he says :

' They [the Langshans] were not known in Shanghai
before the opening of the Yangtsze to foreign trade
(1862). The people who know them know nothing of
their antecedents. There is nothing strange in this.
Almost every district in China has its peculiar breed of
domestic animals. Sometimes villages only a mile
apart will have different kinds of goats, different kinds
of pigs, different kinds of chickens. If you ask why it
is so, they merely stop you with, " I don't know ; it
was always so." And thus it is with the black fowls
from Langshan. No one knows when they came there
or how they came there ; they are peculiar to that
district, and have been from time immemorial.'

This is to some extent contradicted by another-
writer,t who says that he met with them 600 miles up
the Yangtsze at Hankow, and simUar birds further
north. That, however, does not disprove the place of
origin, for the late Miss Croad stated 1 that ' the Lang-
shan was strictly limited to the district of that name,
and only found in other parts of China by importation.
One gentleman with whom we opened a correspon-
dence told us he had been in the Imperial Service'of
China ever since 1859, that he had travelled thousands
of miles in the interior in all directions, and had never
come across the Langshan in any other part.'.except by
importation. ... He added that he and other resi-
dents in North China well remembered the introduction
of the Langshan to the European community. Its
date was fixed by the placing of a lightship outside the
Langshan crossings in 1862. § The officers and crew of
the lightship, landing to explore and forage, came across
this fine breed of fowls, and, as occasion offered, would
send presents and birds to their friends in Shanghai.'

That Langshans have been purchased in other parts
of China after the opening of that country to traders is
evident, but the consensus of evidence is that they had
been taken there, and is no more a proof as to actual
origin than would the purchase of a Plymouth Rock in
England or an Orpington in Hungary indicate that
these were the native countries. A further letter may
be cited in proof of the place of origin, written in 1877

* Poultrij, Ai^ril 16, 1886, p. ISO.

•I- Jlr. G. W. Gedney, ihid., June 11, 1886, p. 270.

X ' The Langshan Fowl,' by A. C. Croad (London, 1889),

g These crossings are at a wide part of the lower river.

64.

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

by Mr. Annatoyn, inspector of the Langshan Light-
house, who says ;*

' The Chinese keep no record of stock of any kind,
and of all my inquiries of the Chmese they tell the
same story : that the fowls are a breed peculiar to that
one particular place, and that the breed is dying out
very fast. . . . They are only to be found in the Lang-
shan district, and only in a small section of that.
They are not known South in Canton, Foochow, or
Ningpo, or North in Chefoo, Tientsin, or Pekin, nor
were they known at any part on the Yangtsze as far up
as Tchang. If they had been brought up from Cochin
China or Burmah, it is more than likely they would
have been brought up in the trading junks, and, of
course, would have been known round those ports and
bred there ; or if they had been brought overland, they
•would most surely have been known in cities on the
route or important trading places.'

"With these facts and others of a similar nature we
must necessarily be content, as there is no proof as to
•when or how the Langshan originated. At first it was
confounded with the Black Cochin, for which there was
some excuse, as there was a great sunilarity between
the Cochins, or Shanghais — as they were at first called
when introduced — and the Langshans in 1872. This is
clearly proved by the illustrations given by Mr. Lewis
AVright t representing the Cochin in 1853 and the
original Langshans. Both were upright birds, with
single combs, somewhat fully feathered, and with
feathers on the legs, the last-named feature being as
much developed in one as in the other. But in respect
to an importation made by Mr. Thompson, of Aber-
deen, in 1877, it is stated I that about a quarter of the
birds were clean legged, the rest being very light
feathered. The excessive feathering now found on the
Cochin is the result of breeding in this country.
"WhOst the external differences were, however, slight,
there were considerable variations in other respects,
more especially that the Langshan showed a tighter
feather, a fuller tail, and the skin was white or grey
instead of yellow, as in the Cochin, which, so far as we
know, never had the dark legs of the Langshan or the
pinky colour of skin between the toes.

We cannot personally remember the original Black
Cochins, our first knowledge of them being about the
same time as the Langshan \-\as imported ; but we
have always held the view that as the Langshan was
crossed into the Black Cochin, with manifest advantage
to that variety, it is more than probable the first Black
Cochins were probably either pure or half bred Lang-
shans, but crossed with Cochins here, and bred to that
ideal. Further back we are unable to go. The Rev.
C. W. Hamilton has suggested § that Temmick's Gallus

* Foultni, April IC, 1886, p. 179.

t ' The New Book of Poultry,' by Lewis Wright (London,
1902), pp. 243, 283.
t Poultrn, June 18, 1S86, p. 287.
§ Ibid., March 5, 1880, p. 107.

morio, or Negro fowl, •which -was black, with silky-
feathers, and had been domesticated for generations,
was crossed with the bronzed jungle-cocks found in
China, and from that mating came the Langshan.
That is pure speculation, and it is just as possible that
both the Cochin and the Langshan have a common
ancestrj', for the differences are not greater than might
be looked for if the progeny were bred for a long period
of time with different ideals and under different condi-
tions. The two breeds, however, are now absolutely
distinct. That the Langshan has been bred as a pure
race for a long time is unquestionable. Its prepotency
is remarkable.

History. — As already mentioned, the first recorded
importations of Langshans were in 1872, followed by
many others, for they soon became popular. These
early importations varied very considerably, and were
not in the hands of skilled breeders, who would have
selected one type and bred to it. For a time there was
a distinct tendency to the Cochin type, and birds from
the same flock were shown as Black Cochins and
Langshans. Gradually the question resolved itself
as a distinct form was selected, giving scope to the
special characteristics of the breed. This was round
in body, fairly tight in feather, brilliant in plumage,
and slightly feathered on the legs and feet ; in fact,
with a close resemblance to the Black Orpington of
to-day, save that the latter is clean on the leg. It was
this form which won it so much favour with exhibitors
and practical poultrj'-keepers alike. For a time it
appeared as if it would become the leading General
Purpose fowl, both at home and abroad, as it was-
received most favourably in France and the United
States of America.

Then came the introduction of the Black Orpington,
which was acknowledged to be half Langshan, and
was frequently called a ' clean-legged Langshan.' With
the exception of being a little rounder in body and
shorter in the leg, the differences were few. But,
unfortunately, the exhibitors of Langshans began,
about 1889, to change the type, with the object of
getting away from the Orpington, and bred for length
of leg to such an extent that the exhibition Langshan
is now a leggy monstrosity, stilty, often weak-legged,
but naturally heavier in bone and smaller in body than
of yore, more following the Indian Game. It has been
claimed that the blood of the last-named breed has-
been introduced, but of that we have no evidence.

The result has been disastrous in Britain. For
practical purposes it is scarcely ever bred, and we
could not advise anyone— in spite of the quahty of the
egg, to be afterwards noted — to adopt the modern show
Langshan as an economic fowl. Fortunately, a few
breeders have refused to be led away from the older
type, and as -we write an attempt is being made to-
bring forward again what is known as the Croad

THE LAiNGSHAN FOWL

Langshan. In America, also, breeders have adhered
more closely to the form first introduced, and there
should be plenty of material on both sides the Atlantic
to work upon.

Economic Qualities. — Without committing our-

land. Hence, upon rich pastures, where there is plenty
of sunshine and shelter, it does well ; whereas on the
bleak hills and wind-swept tablelands of the North it
has not won the favour extended to it in the Southern
and Western portions of Britain.

It is important to remember that fowls must be

selves to all the claims which have been made on behalf adapted to their conditions as must larger stock.

A/.

Fig. 23. — Black Langsha>

of the Langshan, there can be no question that it is a
most valuable breed for practical purposes. It is very
tame, adapts itself to either confinement or full liberty,
and under favourable conditions thrives very well.
But experience has shown that it is more suitable to
sheltered positions and to kindly soil than to the colder
and more exposed districts, as it lacks the vigour and

More especially is this seen in the chickens, for the
difficulties of rearing may be greatly increased if the
environment is unfavourable. But given suitable con-
ditions the Langshan thrives well, though it cannot
be regarded as a quick grower. The hens are splendid
sitters and mothers, and they are most faithful in
attention to maternal duties. They are good winter

activity

y to

piercing winds or harsh layers, but, taking the total number of eggs produced

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

per annum, they will not nearly reach the average of
many other breeds. The eggs, however, are very rich,
and although, lilce those from all Asiatic fowls, they
are not large in size, yet they meet the market re-
quirements, more especially when we bear in mind the
beautiful tint of shell— a dark rich brown. Some years
ago the manager of a large London dairy company said
that he could sell Langshan eggs at 6d. per dozen more
than those from any other fowls. We doubt whether
that is true now ; but these eggs are always sought
after for table purposes, and as the shells are strong,
they keep well. The skin is fine, and the flesh fine in
texture, though grey in colour, but for first-class table
poultry they carry too large a proportion of flesh upon
the thighs. The meat is, however, good in quality.
Apart from the number of eggs produced, this is one of
the best of our General Purpose breeds. Keference
has been made to the remarkable prepotency of
the breed, which stamps its characteristics upon the
progeny when crossed with other races to a remarkable
extent.

Description.— Those who desire to breed modern
exhibition Langshans can study the points accepted
by fanciers, and see for themselves the type adopted
for the show-pen. But as our object is to develop the
economic qualities of the different races, we prefer to
describe the older form, and fortunately specimens are
still available. It is to be noted, however, that the
Langshan was always an upright fowl, tail, without
showhig too much of the leg, but large in body, fairly
long and wide, yet without the massiveness met with
in the Cochin, Brahma, and Plymouth Eock ; breast
deep and long, carried well forward ; back rather long
and sloping, with the tail rising sharply therefrom ;
the head small in comparison with the size of body,
full over the eye, and carried well back ; beak light to
dark horn, the latter for preference ; comb medium in
size, single, carried upright, evenly serrated, and fine
in texture, which with the face, earlobes, and wattles
— the latter small— are a brilliant red; eyes large,
bright, and sparkling, brown to dark hazel, with black
pupil ; neck long and well arched, covered fully with
long hackles ; ^\ings medium in size, generally carried
well up; tail full, with abundant sickles— m which
respect the Langshan differs essentially from the Cochin
and Brahma — and carried high ; legs medium in length,
standing wide apart, well feathered on thighs, but with
no sign of vulture hocks, and the shanks shghtly
feathered on the outer side and also the outer toes,
which are four in number on each foot, and are long
and straight. It is most important that the bone
should be fine; the shape of the bird is graceful,
sprightly, and active, giving the appearance of nervous-
ness ; the feathers are close to the body, and very
brilliant in sheen. Weight : males, 8 to 10 pounds ;
females, 6 to 8 pounds. Many of the modern type

are coarse in comb and bone, betokening a loss of that
fineness of skin and flesh which should be sought for.

Varieties.— Some of the advocates of the Langshan
have claimed that the single-combed Blacks alone are
pure, but that statement is not supported by the evi-
dence obtainable. At any rate, it would be compara-
tively easy to occasionally find white sports. The
Eev. C. W. Hamilton* states that in Langshan there
are three classes of Black fowls — the single-combed, the
rose-combed, and the crested. Mr. Harrison Weir
sayst that he had met with Mr. Frank Saunders, who
had lived in the Langshan district for over two years.
' I asked him if he knew the breed in China, when he
said that he not only knew the Black Langshan, but
kept no others when there.' This gentleman said that
he had seen large flocks of White Langshans, and also
that some strains had small topknots, thus confirming
what has been quoted from Mr. Hamilton.

Black (Fig. 23). — This has remarkable brilliancy
of plumage, with a beetle-green, almost iridescent
gloss. The legs and feet are of a dark slate colour,
tending to a lighter shade as the birds become older,
with the skin between the toes, and feet pink.

White. — The first Whites in this country were a
sport from the Blacks. The plumage is a pure white,
with a silvery sheen ; the legs and feet are a light
grey, and the toenails and beak white. They are very
beautiful, but scarce.

Blue. — This appears to have been produced by
crosses between the Black and White Langshans in
America, but as this is an unnatural colour in fowls,
they are very difficult to breed. The plumage is a
slaty-blue, each feather laced with a darker hue of the
same colour ; the legs are a medium grey, darker on
the front ; beak horn colour ; toenails white.

JAVA.

NojiEKCLATUEE : The term Java is used in nearly all
countries; Dutch, Zydehoen ; Hungarian. Javai.

Vaeieties : Black, White, Mottled.

Classification : General Purpose.

Colour op Flesh and Skin: Yellow.

Colour of Legs : Black, with a tendency towards -vvillow- in
Blacks ; willow in Mottles, and blue-yellow in Whites.

Colour of Egg-shells : Brown.

In this case also we have a breed which has not
attained great popularity, but it has proved useful in
other ways, and for that reason must be included.

Origin.— Considerable discussion has taken place as
to whether the Java is an Asiatic or an American breed.
A writer in an American journal J stated: 'The stock

-■ PouJtn/, May 28, 1886, p. 240.

t ' Our Poultry,' bj Harrison Weir, F.E.H.S. (London,
1902), vol. i., p. 424.
J l-'arm I'otiJtri), November 1, 1903, p. 418.

JAVA AND ASEEL FOWLS

67

I had forty years ago was hatched from eggs coming
from Java, which I knew were imported from England ';
and further that ' the Java fowl, as bred forty years ago
from imported stock — ^known to have been imported,
and also known to have come from the East Indies —
was, and is, about the same fowl as bred to-day.' As
against that statement must be placed one which
appeared twenty-two years previously,* in which it was
claimed that ' the Java fowl is not a Java fowl at all,
but another product of American fanciers — an Ameri-
can breed.' As to the Blacks and Whites, there is no
evidence of origin ; but that the Mottled Javas were
produced in America is clear. Taking, therefore, the
Blacl: and White Javas as an existent fact, it would not
be difficult to obtain Mottled specimens by crossing.
Other influences, however, appear to have been intro-
duced, for it is stated f that they were produced by
crossing a Black Java' cock on White Brahma hens.
But it is evident that given Black and White Javas it
would be easy to produce Mottled specimens ; in fact,
an old breeder J claims that they were thus obtained.

History. — It is claimed that the Black Java was
first known in America in 1850, and that i; they were
bred to a considerable extent in one section of New
York State forty years ago. The first importations
mto Britain, so far as we can trace, were in 1885 ; but
on neither side the Atlantic have they secured anj'
measure of popularity.

Economic Qualities. — Breeders claim that the
Java is an excellent winter layer of rich brown eggs,
but no comparative figures have been given. We
should, however, from the appearance of the fowls, be
prepared to accept this statement. They are fair on
the table, in which respect the evidence is not strongly
in their favour. The hens are excellent sitters and
mothers, and the chickens, whilst hardy, active, and
easily reared, do not grow very quickly. We have
here an explanation why the breed has not attained
greater popularity.

Description, — The Javas are large-bodied fowls,
with a deep and full breast, broad back of medium
length, and abundant saddles ; head of medium size,
with black or nearly black beak, and dark brown eyes ;
face and earlobes red ; comb small, smgle, and carried
upright, and well cut ; neck of medium length, and
well arched; wings medium in size, and well folded ;
tail carried rather upright, with long sickles m the cock ;
the legs are large, strong, and of medium length, stout in
bone, unfeathered, with fom: toes on each foot. Weight :
males, 8h to 10 pounds ; females, 6i to 8 pounds.

Varieties — Black.— The chief characteristic of
the Blacks is the brilliant sheen on the plumage,

*" American Poultry Bulletin, May, 1881.
t Ibid.

t Farm Poultry, November 1, 1903, p. 418.
g Ibid.,]}. 418.

which is of a bright black. This led to the opinion
that either the Langshan was the progenitor of or a
descendant from the Java. But there is no evidence
in support of such a theory. The legs and feet are
black or nearly black, with a tendency to willow, and
the bottoms of the feet yellow.

White. — In these the colour is pure white through-
out. The legs and feet are willow, and the bottoms of
the feet yellow.

Mottled. — These birds have not been bred carefully
enough to secure the evenness of mottling desired. The
wings, tail, and sickles are broken black and white ;
the body plumage and hackles should be black and
white evenly mixed ; legs and feet bluish-yellow, mth
the bottoms of the feet yellow.

ASEEL.

NojiENCLATUEE ; Assel iu nearly all countries ;

Hunqanan, Aseelsi.
Varieties : Several.
Classification : Table.

Colour op Skin and Flesh : Wiite or yellow.
CoLouK OE Legs and Feet : Various.
CoLOUB OF Egg-shells : Tinted.

This breed is not to be recommended to practical
poultry-keepers, but, as we have seen in connection with
the Indian Game, it has considerable value for crossing
and out-crossing, and it is probably one of the oldest
races we have. Hence it must be included.

Origin. — From such evidence as is obtainable, the
Aseel has been bred in India for many generations,
chiefly by the rulers of that country, for fighting pur-
poses, as it has practically no other use. As to the
process of development we have no definite account.
Mr. Lewis Wright says ;*

' There can be little doubt that the birds whose
battles are alluded to in the " Institutes " of Menu,
1,000 B.C., if not the Aseel, as now known, were at
least their ancestors, and that the present race has
been either maintained or gradually evolved, with
express reference to combat, during a period of almost
3,000 years.'

Mr. C. P. Montresor, late of His Majesty's Bengal
Civil Service, thus refers f to its cognomen :

' This is the name by which the breed is known and
styled in India, and has been adopted in England for
some years in order to distinguish it from that which
is designated " Indian Game" (a breed not known to
the natives of 'India), and originated in England by
the late Sir Walter Raleigh Gilbert upwards of sixty
years since, when he imported from India some Eed
Aseel into Cornwall, and there crossed them with the

'■'■ ' The New Book of Poultry,' by
1902), p. 330.
t Poultry, December 27, 1895, p. 66,

Lewis Wright (Loudon,
5-2

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

Derby Black-reds. Sir Walter (then General) Gilbert
personally gave me this information in 1846. The
word " Aseel " (Arabic) is an adjective, signifying
thoroughbred, high-caste, pure, original, and has no
plural, as in our English vi^ord "Game." ThusAseels

than 100 years ago.* ' Several well-known men have
imported them — notably Lord CUve — and certainly on
one occasion they have been considered a worthy present
to an English monarch, for a cock was sent to
George III., who had him depicted on canvas by

and Games are a perversion of grammar and nomen-
clature.'

History.— Bred in India for many
these birds became known to our countrymen after the
occupation of that dependency by the British. It is
stated that they were introduced into Europe more

Eeid.' About sixty years ago the late Sir George
Gilbert made further importation into Cornwall. For
reasons afterwards stated, they have never become
popular, nor is that result likely to be achieved, as they
are like the Killjenny cats, and will fight until hardly a
feather is left.

* SfoiUxepei; October 9, 1891, p. 330.

ASEEL AND BLACK SUMATRA FOWLS

69

Economic Qualities. — The Aseel could not be
regarded as a first-rate table fowl, due to the hardness
of its muscle, but excellent results are obtained by-
crossing -with soft-fleshed races. The hens are poor
layers, though the eggs are rich, and they are splendid
sitters and mothers. This breed is a fighter, that is
all, and their courage is remarkable.

Description. — The body is small, short, and broad,
the breast broad and flat, and the back slopes from the
shoulders, which are very wide, to the tail ; the flesh
consists of hard, wu-y muscle ; the head is broad

Montresor ;* ' With regard to colom-, no estimation is
or has ever been placed, and on the reasoning that "no
good horse was ever a bad colour," so no preference has
ever been given or dependence placed on it.' There
are Blacks, Black Spangles, Beds, Bed Spangles,
Duckwings, Greys of all shades. Piles, Whites, Speckles,
and Mottles. Mr. Montresor says that all the White
Aseels in England are descendants of a Black hen he
imported, mated with a Black-red cock presented to
him by the late King of Lucknow, and that the Whites
are better in colour here than in India, in great i
owing to their not being exposed to a hot sun.

Fig. 25. — Black Sumatra.
Bred hj 3fr. F. B. Eaton, Nonoicli.

between the eyes, and deep, with strong beak, slightly
curved ; the eye pearl-white or pmk, very prominent,
lustrous, and clear ; the comb is small, and pea in
shape; the wattles small and hard; the neck is
shortish, thick, strong, and almost devoid of flesh ;
the wings are carried very close ; the legs are stout,
the shanks flat, and the feet firm, with four toes ; the
plumage is scanty, hardy, and smooth, and the tail
feathers tapering to fine points, and carried low. Weight :
males, 6 pounds ; females, 5 pounds. The sprightly
carriage is the leading characteristic of this breed.

Varieties (Fig. 24).— There are many colours,
but we cannot do better than again quote Mr. C. F.

BLACK SDMATEA.

NoMENCLATUBE : In all countries, Sumatra.

VAKtETY: One.

Classification : Table.

Colour of Flesh and Skin : White.

CoLOUK of Legs and Feet : Dark olive or black.

Colour of Egg-shells : White.

Origin. — In this instance we have satisfactory
evidence as to the origin of the Black Sumatra, which
proves that the nomenclature is correct, for Mr. J. A. C.
Butters, writing to Dr. John C. Bennett, one of the
first breeders of the variety in America, states, under
date of March 20, 1851 :

^•' Live Stoch Journal AhiianacJc, 188S, p. 191.

70

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

■• I received two hens and one cock of this breed
direct from Angers Point, island of Sumatra, India,
April, 1847. These fowls are found there in flocks of
twenty or more, and Qy across from the island of
Sumatra to the island of Java. The natives call them
"pheasants," and are very choice of those they capture
and breed. They are kept almost exclusively for fighting.'

It is explained that the reason given for calling
them ' pheasants ' is their resemblance, in the length of
the taU and the horizontal manner in which it is
carried on a line with the body, to the common
pheasant. The statement here made is confirmed in
other ways. Mr. Lewis Wright,* in the first edition
of his well-known work, describes the breeding of
fowls for cock-fighting in the Eastern Archipelago,
and gives a plate, after a native Chinese artist, of
what is called the Ayam Jallak fowl, meaning Green
fowl, which is in all points except colour of plumage,
for there is a good deal of silver white, similar to the
Sumatra as we know it. He quotes from Mr. Mont-
resor that this type of fowl ' springs largely from the
Jungle-fowl, wliich abounds in the Malay Peninsula,
and also ui Sumatra.' It is not improbable that the
Sumatra and the Malay both own the same ancestry,
but have been bred on different lines, more especially
as to length of neck and leg. It may fairly be assumed
that the Sumatra is a pure race, and that its habitat
was the islands of the Asiatic Archipelago, not merely
Sumatra itself.

History. — As already seen, the Sumatra was im-
ported into America in 1847, where it met with a
moderate amount of favour, more especially amono-
devotees of the sport of cocking. Perhaps, but for the
fact that about the same period cock-fighting was
made Ulegal in the United Kingdom, it might have
received attention here. Our connections with India
Jiave been so intimate that when fresh blood was
desired it was obtained direct. At first the breed was
known under various names — Sumatra Pheasant
Game, Sumatra Game, Sumatra Ebon Game, Java
Pheasant Game, Malacca Game— but gradually that
placed above was adopted. It was known and bred
sufficiently to be included in the Standard published
by the American Poultry Association. Until 1902,
so far as we have been able to trace, no specimens
had been introduced into Britain ; but in that year
Mr. P. R. Eaton, of Norwich, imported a pen, since
which time they have been taken up by several
breeders, and a club formed in support, more, how-
ever, as an exhibition fowl.

Economic Qualities.— Wherever a breed of fowl
is bred for fighting, we may assume forthwith that it
will be good in meat qualities, due to the development
of the muscles upon the sternum for the movement of
the wings. That is the case with the Sumatra, which

* 'Book of Pouhry,' by Lewis Wright (London, IST^I),

carries a large amount of flesh, although rather hard,
requiring to be well hung after IdllLng. The hens are
good layers of somewhat small, white-shelled eggs.
The latter point is most interesting and suggestive.
We have seen that all the Asiatic races of recent
importation, together with the breeds produced there-
from, lay tinted-shelled eggs, in some oases the shells
being deep brown. The Sumatra is an exception for
which there is no explanation. It would appear to
confirm what has been suggested by naturahsts,
namely, that the wild Jungle-fowl laid white-shelled
eggs, and there has neither been the protective in-
fluence at work or artificial selection to cause change
in that respect. The hens make splendid sitters and
mothers, most faithful in defence of their offspring.
The chickens are hardy and easily reared, but are
somewhat slow in reaching maturity. It is yet too
early, and our opportunities of observation are too
limited, to determine the value of the breed for utility
purposes, but our opinion is that they are milikely to
come into general use, and that their great benefit will
be found in crossing for table properties. At present
the body is rather small, probably due to inbreeding,
but that can be remedied by selection as the number
of breeders increases.

Description.— The following is taken from the
Standard recently issued by the Black Sumatra Game
Club, and follows closely on the hnes adopted in
America : Body long, firm, and very muscular ;
breast broad, fuU, and rounded, with straight keel ;
back of medium length, broad at shoulders, and very
slightly tapering to the tail ; wings strong, large, and
long, carried close to body ; neck rather long, well
arched, and abundantly covered with long hackle, the
saddle-hackle also full ; head small, rather short, and
round ; beak of medium length, very strong, and
slightly curved, dark olive or black in colour ; eye,
large and very bright, dark red in colour ; comb of
pea shape, low in front, fitting close to head; face
smooth, fine in texture ; wattles small, red in colour,
as are the earlobes ; the tail is very long and drooping,
with a large number of sickles and coverts, which
should rise slightly above the stern and then fall
streaming behind m the cock, almost touching the
ground ; thighs of medium length, thick, strong, and
muscular ; shanks also medium in length, strong in
bone, and straight, set well apart, and dark olive or
black in colour. A peculiarity of this breed is that the
cocks are often double spurred ; feet broad and flat,
four long toes, and with the legs dark olive or black ;
the plumage is of a very rich, glossy beetle-green or
green-black, with bright sheen ; in general shape and
carriage they are long, straight, and upright, giving a
forward and stately appearance. Weight : males 5 to
6 pounds ; females, 4 to 5 pounds.

Varieties (Fig. 25). — There would appear to be other
colours, but the Black is generally preferred.

CHAPTER V

ITALIAN EACES OP FOWLS

Leghorn
Ancona
Valdarno

FOE nearly twenty-five centuries the domestic
fowl has been known in Italy, and it is
probable that the. ancient Bomans were among
the earliest peoples to recognise its value for food pur-
poses. Cicero, Varro, Columella, and Phny refer to it
in their various works, the two last named specially
mentioning its practical value. The suggestion is
made, as we have already seen with a considerable
amount of probability, that the Romans uatroduced
the Dorking into Britain. In the neighbourhood of
Florence we have seen fowls which in coloration of
plumage and shape had greater affinity with the
Dorking than those met with elsewhere, but even these
could not with the gi-eatest stretch of imagination
be regarded as related to the English Dorking. In
ISTorthern Italy larger birds are to be met with than
elsewhere in the Peninsula. They are due to importa-
tions of other races, for that is the most progressive
portion of Italy. Generally speaking, the Italian fowl
of to-day is light in body, sparse in flesh, longish in
leg, and partaking largely of what we know as Leg-
horn or Mediterranean character. This is due to
-the conditions of the country, which, with its intense
heat, is not conducive to the production of flesh, and
•during our visit to Italy we did not see a really good
table fowl, though the birds were scarcely so small or
tasteless as in Spain.

In the rural districts, with one or two exceptions,
hreeding upon scientific lines is practically unknown.
Italian farmers pay little attention to their fowls, and
there is consequently a great lack of uniformity. Such
as there is may be due to natural influences rather
than to careful selection. At the same time, on both
«ides the Apennines, from the Adriatic to the Mediter-
ranean, from the Campagna almost to the Alps, whilst
the variety of colours is very great, nearly all the fowls
met with partake largely of the same character. And
it is a very interesting fact that the Leghorns, taken in

Polverara
Padovana
Maggi

the first place to America, the Italians carried to Den-
naark nearly twenty years ago, and the vast numbers
which were imported annually from Italy into Belgium
as layers, are all equally of one form, differing in some
respects, more especially in colour of plumage, but
recognisable as of the same family.

^¥e have already referred to the great uniformity of
type met with in the countries on the northern shores
of the Mediterranean Sea. It is not improbable that
the fowls met with in Spain, France, Austria, and
Hungary, originated in Italy, as intercommunication
either by land or sea since the time of the Eoman
Empire has been constant between the last -named
country and the others. We shall note other breeds
than the Leghorn met with in Italy, but they are com-
paratively few. From a poultry position there is much
land yet to be explored, and it may yet be found that
other varieties exist unknown beyond a limited circle.
With the exception of Piedmont, Lombardy, Venezia,
Emilia, and Ancona, very little attention is paid to
fowls, and even in those provinces the methods adopted
are very crude.

LEGHORN.

NoMEXCLATUEE : English, French, Spanish, Leghorn; Ger-
man, JJtitch, Italiener ; Danish, Italieuere ; Italian,
Italiana ; Bohemian, Leghornky ; Hungarian, Olasz.

V-iBLETiEs: White, Brown, Black, Buff, Cuckoo, Pile, Duck-
wing, Mottled.

Classification : Non-sitting.

CoLOUB OP Flesh and Skin : Yellow.

Colour of Legs .and Feet : Yellow.

CoLOUB OF Egg-shells : White.

Origin. — So far as we have been able to trace, there
is no definite information obtainable as to the origin
of the Leghorn fowl, as we call it, or the Italien, as
it is named in several continental countries, except
that this is the common fowl of Italy. But its
1

TZ

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

characters have been fixed in America and Britain by
selection, and modifications have taken place in the
last-named country. A suggestion has been made
that the Leghorn is the old Boman fovi^l, but upon
what evidence is not stated. Fortunately, records are
available which prove the place of origin, and the fact
that birds of this race are to be met with throughout
Italy confirms our knowledge. When Leghorns were
first imported it was commonly stated that they were
produced by crossing Black-red Game with "White
Minoroas, and nearly thirty years ago a well-known
authority said to the writer that he could breed as
many as were required. When he was invited to do
so, he wisely refrained from further observations of a
like character. Had he made inquiries in Italy, he
could have proved that the Leghorn or ItaUan fowl
was known, and had been for generations.

So much is true as to the general origin of the Leg-
horn. It would appear that Whites, Browns, and Blacks
were taken direct to America from Italy, and that
these colours and Yellows were exported to Denmark,
for aU of them, and also Cuckoos, may be seen in their
native land. During a visit to the Leghorn district in
1903 we met a gentleman, Signer Boshart, who at
one time owned a considerable poultry establishment.
He stated that whilst all colours of Italian fowls are
to be met with, very little attention is paid to colour,
but if there is any preference on the part of the
Tuscan peasants, it is in favour of Blacks, as they are
thought to be the most profitable. At the same time,
the majority of fowls kept are more in the direction of
Browns and Whites, with such intermediate colours as
might be expected. The majority of Leghorns in Italy
have yellow legs, but by no moans the whole of them,
as we have seen many with slate-coloured legs. One
point upon which we were anxious to obtain informa-
tion was with respect to the maternal instinct. With
us the Leghorn is a non-sitter, but in Italy that is not
the case to the same extent. It is only a moderate
sitter, and the statement made was that not more than
20 per cent, of the hens become broody. Still, those
twenty out of every hundred are sufficient to contmue
the race. Selection would speedily eliminate the ten-
dency, sUght though it was, to maternal duties.

It is evident, therefore, that White, Brown, Black
Cuckoo, and Yellow Leghorns are to be found in
Italy; but since their introduction into Britain the
White Minorca has been outcrossed into the White
Leghorn, Black-red Game into the Browns, and Black
Minorcas into the Blacks. In respect to these crosses
we speak below. But the Buff's now seen have had
a different origin, owing their colour largely to Cochin
blood. Mrs. Lister Kay, the most successful breeder
of Buffs in this country, in 1888 imported several
Yellows from Denmark, but they were faulty in colour.
The cock was crossed with Yellow hens and also with
Buff Cochins, and the latter gave the desired colour.

A full account of the matuigs are given by Mr.
Harrison Weir,* but may be summarized in the follow-
ing table :

Yellow (Danish) Buff Cochin

,sh)

Buff Leghorn.

It may be explained that care was taken to select
as good-coloured bhds as possible, that there was a
measure of inbreedmg, and that it required four years
to secure satisfactory results, by which time there was
only Jtt of the Cochin blood remaining. From that
time onward no alien blood was introduced.

Pile Leghorns were produced by Mr. George Payne,
of Woking, by crossing Whites and Browns. The
production of this pretty fowl took four years, but Mr.
Payne's accountf of his ringing the changes between
the two varieties is very interesting. His success was
all the more satisfactory as it was achieved without
the use of alien blood.

Duckwings were also bred in Britain, but the actual
origin has never been revealed. The name, as in
Game similarly termed, is given because the wing-bar
is the same as in the Mallard, or wild duck. It would
appear that Pile-bred pullets of a slaty body colour
were bred to a Phoenix (Japanese) cook, but how they
were mated we cannot tell. This is the explanation
why Duckwings have been less true to Leghorn type
than any other variety, good though they are as
layers.

History. — As already explained, the Leghorns were
talien in the first instance from Italy to America, and
it was through the last-named country that they
became known to British breeders. The earliest
record is that % ' about 1835 (the exact date is not
known) Mr. N. P. Ward, of New York Citj', received
from Italy a few Brown Leghorn fowls, which in his
hands undoubtedly proved their claims to superior
merit ; for, though he wrote nothing which has been
preserved about them, he gave eggs and fowls to his
friends, one of whom was Mr. J. C. Thompson, of
Staten Island. ... At a subsequent period Mr.
Thompson, who seems to have been a most enthu-
siastic fancier, sent by his son-in-law, who was a sea-
captain, for an additional supply of the fowls, and
received birds that had the same markings as those
first imported, and exhibited the same precocity.'

In the first edition of Wright's ' Book of Poultry '§

* 'Our Poultry,' by Harrison Weir, P.E.H.S. (London,
1902), pp. 512-51S.

t Fancier.^' tlar.ette, November 12. 1888, p. 689.

J ' The Brown Leghorn,' by H. H. Stoddard, Hai'tford,
Connecticut, 1885, pp. 10-11.

g ' Illustrated Book of Poultry,' by Lewis "V^'right (London,
1874), pp. 425-426.

THE LEGHORN FOWL

73

is quoted a letter from Mr. F. J. lunney, of Worcester,
Massachusetts, who says :

' The first [Brown Leghorns] I ever owned I bought
on board a ship in Boston Harbour in the spring of
1853. This was the first trio I ever saw, and I believe
them to be the first ever brought to America. I have
since had two other small lots from the city of
Leghorn, in Italy, and expect more soon from the
same place. The first trio weighed 9J pounds, and
were yearlings. Their combs and wattles were very
large and coarse ; earlobes enthely red, same as face,
comb, and wattles. They were not Black-red Games
nor Black-red Leghorns, but Brown-red — i.e., the
cock's breast was dark brown, spotted with lighter
brown, the dark brown running up the under side of
the neck ; his hackle was light brown, striped with
black.'

Mr. I. K. Felch, the well-known American breeder,
says* that the first importation took place in 1853,
but that subsequently crosses were made with Spanish
and Black-red Game, and that it was owing to the
Spanish influence the white earlobe was secured.
That may be correct of some strains, but is denied as
to others. It may be explained that our inquiries in
the Leghorn district showed more variety in the type
of fowls met with around that city than in the centre
of Tuscany, and the name was given because it was
the port of shipment. A ship's-captain would be un-
likely to care whence they were obtained. In the
same way Leghorn hats are so called; they are not
made there, but about forty miles away.

With regard to White Leghorns, it was supposed
that these were simply sports from the Browns, but,
as stated above, they are to be met with in Italy.
Further evidence has recently been given by Mr. A. C.
Acker, of Mount Kisco, New York, U.S.A., who writest
that his father was a fruit and produce dealer in New
York in 1840, living outside the city. When he saw
fowls that he thought would please his wife, he bought
and sent them home. His business was such that
most of the sea-captains had dealings with him, and
he with them. The last fowls he obtained from one
of the captains of a tea ship, between 1840 and 1845,
and he sent home one White cock and several hens.
They were layers from the start, in size near a
Minorca. Finding them such layers, the other breeds
were sacrificed, and only the white birds kept. From
the few specimens procured came what are known as
the White Leghorns. Mr. Acker says :

' They were so named by mj' mother, from their
drooping combs when in good condition and laying,
after what was then known as the Leghorn straw
[hat], a straw imported from Leghorn, and greatly
worn by both ladies and gentlemen.'

* ' Poultry Culture.' by I. K. Feleh (Chicago, 1886), p. 232.
t Beliable Poult ni .Joivnal, Quincey, Illinois, U.S.A.,
November, 1893, p. 835.

It is stated by Mr. L. C. Verrey,* on the authority
of Mr. H. H. Stoddard, that Black Leghorns were
introduced into America, in the autumn of 1871, by
Mr. Beed Watson, of East Windsor HiU, Connecticut,
and that 'in 1878 he got from Italy a cock near to
perfection, from which he bred a fine flock, the best
he ever had.'

The first Leghorns seen in Britain was a pen of
Whites imported by Mr. W. B. Tegetmeier, and a
little later a further lot were sent over for portraiture
in the ' Illustrated Book of Poultrj'.' In 1872 came
the first lot of Browns, imported by Mr. Lewis Wright
for the same piu-pose. Our first acquaintance with the
Leghorns was in 1875, when we obtained some eggs
from Mr. A. Kitchen, who had taken up the breed
with great enthusiasm. Later in that year we im-
ported a trio from America, winning a cup at the
Crystal Palace Show the following November. Very
speedily the fowl commanded a large amount of
favour, both for exhibition and practical purposes, and
in 1876 was established the Leghorn Club, the first
specialist poultry club in this country. Since that
time the breed has held its position, but more in the
latter than the former direction, and it has been dis-
tributed in all parts of the earth. English-bred birds
have been sent to Italy to improve the native races.

In the early eighties the Danish Poultry Society, as
part of the movement for the improvement of agricul-
ture, and with the definite object of egg production in
view, promoted an inquiry as to the breed most suited
to the conditions of the country, and as a result the
Italien, or Leghorn, as we call it, was chosen. The
results are seen in the remarkable development of the
Danish egg trade. In 1885 we attended an exhibition
at Copenhagen, where we saw colours and varieties
unknown to us before. It was that exhibition which
led to the efforts to secure Buff Leghorns, already
referred to. There were on display Browns, Whites,
Partridge, Blacks, Cuckoos, Dappled Greys, and
YeUows or Buffs — upwards of 500 Leghorns in the
pens, probably the largest collection of one breed ever

Economic Qualities. — The qualities of the
Leghorn are great precocity and excellent laying
properties. The breed is excellent in egg produc-
tion, but, taking weight of eggs into account, it is
excelled by the Minorca. It is, however, superior
to the Minorca in quickness of growth, adaptability
to conditions, and vigour of constitution. This is
greatly in their favour, as it enables them to be kept
under conditions where they are exposed, and their
active habits mean that they keep themselves com-
fortable even in unfavourable weather. The Leghorn
appears to have adapted itself equally well to the heat

■•■■ ' The Leghorn Fowl,' by L. C. Verrey (London, 1887).

74

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

of Italy, to the extremes of Korth America, and the
variability of the ohmate in the British Isles. We
have only found one country where the Leghorn is not
in favour, and that is North Russia, due to the intensity
of the cold in winter, and the fact that they require
smaller- combed birds, as the combs are very hable to
be frost-bitten. So far as meat properties are con-
cerned, the warmest friend of the Leghorn cannot
claim that they are good upon the table. They are
yellow in flesh and stringy in texture ; hence, except
when they are very young, they cannot be recom-
mended for this purpose. A great mistake has been
made of late years in breeding Leghorns too large in
body, and we are sure that this has had a bad influ-
ence upon the laying properties of the breed. It must
be borne m mind that the best layers are those shghtest
in body, and in this respect we think that the Americans
and Danes have been better advised than our breeders,
in that they have kept the small character, and not
gone in for that depth of body and rotundity of shape
which have been so evident here of late years. Of
coru'se, much of this is due to Minorca influence, but
at the same time it is well to bear in mind that in
a soft climate such as we have in Britain there is
always rather a tendency towards rotundity ; which
fact should cause breeders to be careful lest there is
any increase in this tendency. If those who keep
Leghorns would carefully observe their birds they
would see that the birds which are the best egg-
producers usually have not the prominence of breast
seen upon many of our modern Leghorns. Many
instances could be cited as proof in the breed under
review, and other varieties as well, and a note of
warnmg is desirable in that the shape of fowls now
60 much seen, especially in exhibitions, is not the best,
and is distinctly different from what was the case when
these fowls first came into the country. The Leghorn
is a non-sitter, the chickens are very rapid in growth,
and the pullets lay early. One of the great points in
favour of Leghorns of all races is their activity, which
enables them to withstand adverse influences of climate
and position. They can keep themselves warm during
atmospheric conditions when some other breeds would
be huddled up in a corner vainly seeking for shelter.
They have a great reserve of vigour, which is essential
in the exposed parts of the country, and it is this
which has popularized the breed in many districts.
They are also excellent layers, and especially where
the size of body has not been unduly developed. We
must bear in mind that to secure fecundity there
should not be too large a frame, and thus the food
taken is turned into eggs. It is greatly to be regretted
when exhibitors adopt any point which is antagonistic
to the economic qualities, and the sooner they recog-
nise the necessity for studying economics the better
it will be for them and for any breed which they
take up.

Description. — The Leghorn type may be de-
scribed as follows : The body should be of medium
size, wedge-shaped, wide at the shoulders, but rather
narrower at the tail, yet full behind, especially below
the tail, to allow scope for the egg organs ; the back is
round, and the breast fairly full ; the wings are of a
good size, and carried close to the body ; the neck is
medium in length and well arched, covered with long,
profuse hackle ; the head is small, with stout horn-
coloured beak ; comb large, though not disproportionate,
long and round, carried well down at the back to the
hackle and in front over the beak, deeply serrated,
the spikes broad at the base ; it is upright in the cook,
falling over in the hen ; the wattles are long, and,
with the comb, are fine in texture ; face bright red
and clean ; earlobe creamy white. The Poultry Club
Standard says ' white preferred,' but that is a mistake.
We agree with Mr. L. C. Verrey, who says :*

' Though the white lobe is ornamental and showy,
yet it is not natural. The original and natural tint
was cream ; by this I do not mean yellow, but the
colour of ivory. It is simply the breeder's art that has
produced the pure white. When the legs, beak, and
flesh are yellow, it is contrary to nature for the lobes
to be pure white.'

Therefore, the practical poultry -keeper should select ,
birds with creamy or even yellow lobes ; the tail is
fairly full, and should be carried upright from the
body, though not squirrel-tailed, to which this breed
has always a tendency. We were interested to see in
Italy that nearly all the birds of this class had upright
tails ; legs of medium length, showing the thighs
very little ; the legs and the feet, upon which are four
toes, are always in pure Leghorns yellow in colour,
but must not be heavy in bone ; the carriage is
upright, showing good action and great activity, but
not like the Game fowl, leggy and with sloping breast.
Weight : males, 5i- to 7 pounds ; females, 4i- to 5-J-
pounds.

Of late a great amount of harm has been done by
breeding birds too large, and for that the Poultry Club
must be held responsible to some extent. In the
Standard published in 18S6 it was said, ' The larger the
better.' No greater mistake can be made than in
increasing unduly the size of a breed the main object
of which is egg production. In the 1901 Standard this
is modified to read, ' Size medium, rather large to be
preferred,' but that is also a blunder. Eight-pound
cocks and six-pound hens should be thrown out, as
they are too large for an egg-laymg fowl. Increase of
size of body and of comb have done much to injure
the Leghorn for practical purposes. In America the
former type has been maintained with advantage,
and Leghorns in that country are better as layers than
the big specimens seen here. Nor are the combs as
coarse.

» ' The Leghorn Fowl,' by L. C. Verrey (London, 1SS7), p. 40.

THE LEGHORN FOWL

75

Varieties. — As already explained, the number of
varieties has greatly increased since the breed was first
introduced.

White (Fig. 26). — This variety may be named as the
leading member of the Leghorn family, although it is
probable that some of the others have attained a greater
measure of popularity at one time or another. We
think, however, that the White holds the first position
amongst all the Leghorns. Of course, any white-
plumaged fowl is less suitable for keeping in towns

where Leghorns are chiefly kept, we are bound to say
that they have more of the business type than in
exhibition stock, which is all to the good. The real
explanation of the introduction of the White Minorca,
which has practically merged itself into the Leghorn,
was to secure greater purity in the plumage. The
tendency to straw colour in the feathers was great, and
there can be no question that this tendency must
always be apparent with a yeUow-fleshed fowl. We
regard the dead white so often sought for as un-

FiG. 26. — White Leghoens.

than if it had coloured feathers, but in rural districts
the White Leghorn is very popular indeed, which
popularity has been maintained for many years. The
original Leghorns, whilst round-bodied fowls, were by
no means so round as we see them to-day ; in fact, to
poultry-breeders who can remember the former fowls
those at the present time are more like Minorcas than
Leghorns. Fortunately, however, utility breeders
liave not followed slavishly upon exhibition lines, and
having had the opportunity of visiting large numbers
of the poultry-breeders in those parts of the coimtry

desirable, and think that the plumage should have a very
slight creamy tinge. Hence breeders who had ideahzed
the pure white of the Minorca and desh-ed to engraft
it upon the Leghorn thought that the best way to do
so was by introducing the cross named. Fortunately,
in this case it has not been antagonistic to the laying
qualities of the breed, otherwise it would have been
very serious. It is known that the Minorca is an
excellent layer, and hence no serious harm has been
done so far as that is concerned.

Brown. — When first introduced the Brown Leghorn

76

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

was different from what we see to-day. At that time
they were shorter in the leg and rounder in body,
whilst in plumage they were not nearly so brilliant as
most of the Leghorns have been during the last fifteen
or eighteen years. Many of the males were not so
black in the breast as now, and there was always a
tendency towards reddishness in the wings, whilst the
hens had not that fine pencilhng which seems to be the
aim of many breeders. We can testify to their remark-
able vigour, and may mention that they gave the
appearance, at any rate, of bemg larger in body than
is the case now, though this is partly due to tightness
of feather. About twenty years ago several breeders,
with a view to improvement of colour of the plumage,
were iU-advised enough to introduce Black-red Game

hackle. The Brown Leghorn is a bird of colour, and
its similarity in this regard to the Black-red Game was
undoubtedly the reason why crossing was resorted to,
as that appeared to present the most rapid way of
improving the colour of the fowls. Briefly stated, the
colour of the male bird should be as follows : Neek-
haekle abundant, the ground colour of which Is of a
golden bay ; each feather has a double broad stripe of
black running down the centre, though the feathers
that are near the head are without the black stripe.
Undoubtedly the desire to perfect this feature has led
to a good deal of crossing, and, if we were looking at
the matter merely from the show point of view, there
has been a manifest improvement in this dh'ection of
late years. The feathers upon the back are a deep red.

TUt. 27. — BlFF LtLxHOKNb.

blood; and there is no question that, whilst that
influence has gone to a considerable extent, for many
years it wrought much evil to the breed. That the
plumage was improved from the exhibition pouat of
view cannot be questioned, but the fecundity was
lessened, there was a tendency towards greater length
of legj and to older breeders the whole contom: of the
fowl was absolutely spoiled. Another injury which
resulted from this crossing was reduction in the size
of the egg. The egg of the Brown Leghorn was never
quite so large as that of the White, but the tendency
undoubtedly was to differentiate still further between
the two. Another mistake has been made in laying
too great stress upon the size of comb, upon promi-
nence of earlobes, and upon the striping of the cock's

Fig 2b — Bl*.civ Leghorn Cock
Bred hy H. B. Melbourne, South Godstone.

nearly crimson, as are the shoulder-coverts and wing-
bows. The wmg-coverts are of a bluish- violet, forming
a distinct band crossing the wing ; the primary feathers
are brown, and the secondaries a deep bay outside and
black inside. When the wing is closed it is the bay
colom' that is most seen. The saddle-hackle is of an
orange-red, and sometimes we see the black stripe as
in the neck-hackle ; the breast, thighs, and under-
parts are black, though in the early days many of the
birds had a slight tinge of brown. There can be no
question that, in respect to appeai-ance, a perfect black
breast is preferable, but this may be carried too far.
The tail is of a greenish-black, and rich in colour. In
Denmark, in addition to Browns, there are partridge-
coloured, which are very rich in hue.

LEGHORN AND ANCONA FOWLS

77

Buff (Fig. 27).— A good-coloured Buff is difficult
to obtain, and especially so in the male bird. Most
of the specimens show that patchiness which is due
to the presence of lighter colour here and there upon
the body. On the other hand, there is a tendency
in the cocks to a much redder tone. We are of
opinion that breeders have made a mistake in attempt-
ing to get too much of the gold tinge on the male
birds, and that the yeUow Buff would be prettier.
However, this is a matter which relates to purely
fancy poultry rather than for practical purposes.
There is no question that most of those who have
gone in for this variety of Leghorn have thought more
about exhibition points than economic qualities. At
the same time, Buff Leghorns, by their activity and
good laying qualities, are worthy of the attention of
poultry-breeders.

Black (Fig. 28). — This variety has never been bred
to the extent which its qualities deserve. Probably
this is owing to the difficulty of maintaining bright
yellow legs with black plumage. It is a very hardy
fowl and an excellent egg-producer, and yet at the
same time retains a great deal of the Leghorn char-
acter. It is very well suited to the industrial districts,
where the lighter-plumaged birds soon lose their beauty
by reason of the smoke.

Pile. — This variety is purely a fancy fowl, taking its
name from the pile markings, the same as found in the
variety of Game with that designation. There can be
no question that a really good Pile Leghorn is a very
pretty variety, but, as already stated, it has more
attractions for the exhibitor than for the practical
poultry-keeper, although it is fairly good in its egg-
producing qualities.

Ddckwing. — We have never yet been able to recog-
nise the Duckwing Leghorn as having what older
breeders regard as the Leghorn type ; in fact, it is
generally acknowledged that the originals of these birds
did not carry much real Leghorn blood, and that the
peculiar markings were obtained from different races
altogether. Breeding this variety has brought out
two distinct colours, to one of which the name
Silver Duckwing has been given, and the other the
Golden Duckwing, the difference being that the latter
have a golden-bay ground colour, the former a steely
grey.

Cuckoo. — This, as the name indicates, has cuckoo-
coloured plumage — that is, blue and white. It is, as
a rule, somewhat smaller than the other varieties ;
and though bred for several years, it is not at all easy
to produce good, evenly marked specimens. Many
birds of this class are met with in Italy, and there has
been less crossing than in several of the other varieties
named. These birds are good layers, but show from
time to time signs of other influences, especially in the
colour of the legs, which are not so clearly yellow as
could be desired. Of course, this is often the case with

a cuckoo-plumaged bird, as there is always a tendency
to mottling in the legs.

Mottled. — These are similar to the Aneona in many
respects, which breed is displacing them.

ANCONA.

NoMENCL.iTUKE : English, German, Danish, Italian, A.-acon&;

French, Ancone ; Sungarian, Anconai.
Vabiety: One.
Classification : Non-sitting.
Colour of Flesh and Skin : Yellow.
CoLouB OF Legs and Feet : Yellow, mottled with black.
Coloue of Egg-skells : White.

Origin. — It cannot be questioned that the Ancoaa
is a variety of the Italian fowl, or Leghorn, as we term
it, although it has succeeded in securing a separate
classification out of its native land. At the Rome
Show of 1893 no classes were offered for Anconas,
which were included in the variety class for Italians.
It would appear that fowls of this type were known
in England more than twenty years prior to the
appearance of the Leghorn, for Mr. Harrison Weir
states* that specimens were exhibited in 1851, 1852,
1853, and 1861, in the latter year at Birmingham, and
from the description which appeared of that showf it
is evident that they were similar to the birds with
which we are now familiar. The name has been
given owing to the fact that birds of this type appear
to be common in the district of Eastern Italy around
the port of Aneona, whence they were probably shipped
in the first mstance, for large numbers of eggs are
produced in that part of the Italian peninsula. Mr.
A. P. Tomassini, the British Consul at Aneona, states
that birds of this type are common in the district,
and he suggests that they are due to a cross of what
he calls the Valdano, or Leghorn, upon the common
fowl of the district. As to what that common fowl
was we have no evidence, but it is more than probable
that the introduction of the black Italian fowl from
Tuscany would produce such results as are here met
with, and would satisfactorily indicate the one differ-
ence— that of temperament — between the Leghorn and
the Aneona. In the earlier editions of Mr. Lewis
Wright's ' Book of Poultry ' '[ it is suggested that ' the
origin is to be found in accidental sports of this colour
from crossing Black and White Minorcas.' But that
suggestion was based upon incomplete evidence. In
the last edition $ acknowledgment is made that it was
erroneous, and that the earlier birds were Mottled
Leghorns.

That there were at one time bk-ds to which the
name Aneona was given which were produced by

* ' Our Poultry,' by Harrison Weir, F.E.H.S. (London,
1903), p. 499.
t Journal of EorticuUure, 1862, vol. ii., p. 325.
t Edition 1875, p. 357.
§ Edition 1902, p. 412.

78

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

crossing Black and White Minorcas is undoubted, but
their plumage was cuckoo. They were bred in the
home of the Minorca — Devonshire — as shown by the
following quotation:*

' Mr. W. Beard, of Tiverton, seems to have culti-
vated them largely, and they are described as re-
sembling Scotch Greys, with black and white mottled
legs. Mr. Harewood, of Tiverton, distinctly remembers
specimens being shown in 1874 ; they were common,

plumage, was called Ancona. But, as we pointed out
in 1895,* ' in the first place, an Ancona has not>
cuckoo marking, as would be produced by crosses
between the Black and White Minorca ; and, in the
second place, no crossing between the breeds named
would give the yellowish legs and skm which ar&
features of this breed. We must, therefore, look else-
where for the origin, and we think that the explana-
tion will be that the Leghorn is either its

Fig. 29.— Anconas.

he says, but Uttle trouble was taken to breed them to
one type, and consequently they did not attract any
great amount of attention.'

From the sparse mention made by Mr. W. B.
Tegetmeier.t it is evident that almost any bhd of
the Mediterranean type, if mixed black and white in

* Feathered IVorld, September 23, 1S9G.
t 'Poultry Book,' by W. B. Tegetmeier (London, 1873),
p. 166.

that both Leghorns and Anconas have come from the
same stock.' Later observations personally made in
Italy have confirmed that opinion, which is generally
accepted.

History. — AVe have already seen that what would
appear to have been pure Anconas were imported
about the middle of last century, but by whom we

*• Live iStoch Jonrnal Almanac!; (London, 1S95), p. 201.

ANCONA AND VOLDARNO FOWLS

79

have no record. About 1880, so far as can be traced,
other birds were brought over bj' a Captain Kowse,
but they were gradually becoming extinct, when Mr.
A. W. Geffcken, then living at Southampton, obtained
in 1886 other birds direct from Italy. The birds bred
true to type ; they differed from the Leghorns in that
many had mottled yellow legs ; they proved hardy
and prolific layers even in the most exposed positions ;
and they were taken up by a few breeders, amongst
whom was Mrs. Bourlay, of Frankley, near Birming-
ham, who, living in a cold, high, and exposed position
immediately north of the Lickey, found them a
valuable breed for egg production. Visiting that lady
in June, 1894, we were so struck with their value as a
utility fowl that we called special attention to them in
the Live Stoch Journal Almanack of 1895, and else-
where. The result was a great accession to the
number of breeders ; further importations took place,
and in 1898 a club was formed. Unfortunately, how-
ever, this passed into the control of fanciers who cared
little for the economic qualities, and who were ready
to sacrifice the latter in order to secure perfect ex-
ternal characters. Or, as one of those chiefly respon-
sible for the change made, said,* ' The profits accruing
by breeding a bird that can win a pocketful of money
in the season are far greater than a basketful of eggs
at a penny a piece.'

Such may be true of one individual, but is fatal to
the general position of any race, and by the latter will
its value be determined. It is the fancier run mad
who advocates such a com'se. The changes adopted
by the Ancona Club have been from the exhibition
point of view, and were it not that there are many
breeders who adhere to the older type, and have re-
fused to improve external characters at the expense of
economic qualities, but have kept the latter always to
the fore, the breed would be of smaller use as an egg-
producer. Such divergences have retarded the popu-
larity of the breed, and purchasers of mere exhibition
stock have found they lacked the vigour and prolificacy
expected. Moreover, crossing with the Minorca has
been resorted to in order to enhance size of body and
of comb ; also to fix the white earlobe, which ought
not to be found on the Ancona.

Economic Qualities. — Like the Leghorn, the
Ancona is preeminently an egg-producer, and it is one
of the best layers we have. In size the eggs approxi-
mate to the Leghorn, those from adult hens weighing
well over 2 ounces each ; these are white in shell.
The chickens are very precocious, and are speedily able
to look after themselves. They are vigorous, active,
rapid in growth, and good eaters, though by no means
heavy food consumers. Maturing quickly, the puUets
commence laying early, if hatched at the right season
of the year, and are found to be good winter layers if

* Mr. E. Cobb, Feathered World, October 7, 1898.

properly cared for, due to their activity and foraging
propensities, which keep them hardy. Their table
properties are only mediocre, except as mUk chickens,
but we cannot expect all the talents in any variety.
They are non-sitters. The Ancona is most active in
habit, does not thrive so well in confinement as at
liberty, and is very nervous m temperament, especially
when disturbed by strangers. For that reason they
are often spoken of as wild.

Description (Fig. 29). — In type of body the Ancona
resembles the Leghorn, with one exception — namely,
that they are not so deep or so prominent in breast,
thus having a somewhat slighter appearance. That
may be due to the fact that Leghorns have been bred
ua England for a longer period, as the tendency is
to increase of thickness of body in this climate. The
legs of the imported birds were yellow mottled with
blacky which is to be looked for in birds having so much
black in the plumage ; but there has been a tendency to
eliminate the black upon the legs, which is to be re-
gretted, as those specimens so marked are generally
the more vigorous. The beak is long and fine, and
yellow with horn-coloured shadings ; in the original
stock the earlobes were red or creamy, but in exhibi-
tion specimens white is insisted upon. We have seen,
in connection with Leghorns, that to insist upon white^
eaiiobes with yellow-fleshed birds is against nature,,
tending to the keeping of fowls under unnatural con--
ditions with a view to purity of lobe. The same is
true with Anconas, in which this feature should be-
cream coloured, never white. In fact, red-lobed birds
are generally hardier than those with white or cream
lobes. Further, the lobes should be small ; in colour
the entire plumage of both sexes, excepting the cock's
tail, should be brown-black, each feather tipped with
creamy white, and it is that which gives the mottling.
The cock's sickles are white with black tips. The tips-
should be small and V-shaped, not spangled or laced
or barred. The later standard adopted provides for
beetle-green plumage, but that is undesirable at this
stage of development. Weight : males, 6 pounds ;
females, 5 pounds. For a laying breed increase of"
these weights is objectionable, and should be resisted.

VOLDAENO.

NojiEXCLATUBE I Italian, Voldarno.

Vaeieties: Black, White.

Classification : Non-sitting.

Colour of Flesh and Skin: Iu Blacks, grey;

in Whites, yellow.
Colour of Legs and Feet : In Blacks, dark grey ;

iu Whites, yello-w.
Colour of Egg-shells : White.

Origin. — At the great Exhibition held in Eome in
1903 classes were given for a breed which we had never
seen before, called the Voldarno, but respecting which
we were able to obtain very little information. The

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

Marquis Trevisani, President of the Italian Poultry
Society, thus speaks of it : * ' The brothers Grilli, of
Florence, and other Tuscan poultry -breeders have
launched this breed, which, in my opinion, is merely
the common fowl of Tuscany selected and made
uniform in coloration.' From their appearance we
should not be surprised to find that the original Italian
fowls, or what is now known as the Leghorn, own the
same ancestry as the Voldarno.

History. — We have not been able to obtain any
direct evidence as to their history, more than that they
are kept to a very limited extent.

Economic Qualities.— The birds are small in
size, adult cooks weighing about 5 pounds. They are
stated to be very hardy, and the hens remarkable
layers. It is also claimed that they fatten well, but
table poultry in Italy is generally poor.

Description. — In general appearance they re-
semble the Leghorn, but are fuller in front, more like
the English Leghorns than the Italian. The combs
are smgle, but smaller in size. The Blacks have dark
legs, and the Whites yeUow. Probably our Black
Leghorns are directly descended from these Tuscan
fowls.

Varieties. — Two colours were shown at the Rome
show, namely, Whites and Blacks, but the majority
were of the latter colour. As already stated, the
Wliites have yellow legs and the Blacks dark grey.
In other respects they are alike.

POLVEEAEA.

or Pado

NoMENCLATUKE : Italian, Polv

Polverara.
V.iBiETms : Black, White, Cuckoo, Gold, Silver.
d-iSsiFiCATioN : General Purpose.
Colour or Flesh and Skin : White.
CoLouE OF Legs and Feet : Dark green.
CoLOUE or Egg-shells : White.

Origin. — It is evident that this race is allied to
what we call the Polish, which is very widely dis-
tributed upon the Continent of Europe, but whether
a direct descendant or not does not appear to be
known. In shape, crest, and softness of feather, it
has many points of resemblance to the Crevecosur,
and we learnt in Italy that it is supposed to be related
thereto.

History. — 'The Polverara is indigenous to the
province of Padua, which for the production of eggs
and poultry is one of the most important of Itahan
provinces.' + Until recently pure specimens of the
race were very scarce, as they could only be procured
from four or five breeders at Polverara, a village near

* ' Pollicoltuva,' del Marchese G. Trevisani (Milan, 1900),
p. 83.
i lhid.,v.-A-l.

Padua; but they are now in more hands, and the
strain has been improved by careful selection.

Economic Qualities. — The Polverara is very
hardy, tame, and precocious, but the chicks feel cold
considerably. The hens are prolific layers, sitting only
about twice in the year. The feathers are soft, and on
that account highly esteemed.

Description. — The body is long, deep, and round;
the back short, standing upon legs of medium length ;
the neck thick, well covered with abundant long
hackle; head neat, surmounted by a full crest, well
divided and almost straight ; the comb, which consists
of two little horns, stands out prominently in front of
the crest ; wattles small, and, like the comb, bright
red ; earlobes white ; tail small and forked ; toes four.
Weight : males, 6 pounds ; females, 4i pounds.

Varieties. — Blacks are most common, and are
generally preferred. They are of a brilliant colour,
with blue-bronze reflections. Whites are rare, as are
Cuckoos. The Golds and Silvers are met with in some
places, probably due to crosses, but have not received
much attention.

PADOVANA.

sclatuee : Italian, Padovana, or Giant Pado-

No

Vaeiety: One.

CLASSiFic.iTioN : Table.

CoLOUB OF Flesh and Skin : White.

Colour of Legs and Feet : Rosy-yellow.

Colour of Egg-shells : Tinted.

Origin. — According to the Marquis Trevisani, this
breed was created in Italy by a cross in 1850 between
a Cochin cock and a hen of the common Polverara
race. At first, as might be expected, the results were
not seen in uniformity of plumage, and it required
many years of selection ere it attained anything like
purity of race, eliminating excessive features of both
parents. ' It was only in the year 1875 that the
breed could be considered as properly established, and
from thenceforward perfected.'*

History. — From what we have been able to learn,
the progress made by this breed is considerable, more
especially where table poultry is in demand, as it is the
only fowl native to Italy which has good flesh quah-
ties and size of body. It camiot be regarded as a first-
class table fowl, but is a distinct improvement upon
the type generally met with.

Economic Qualities. — As seen above, these
fowls are large, carrying an abundance of flesh, which

* 'Pollicoltura,' del Marchese G. Trevisani (Milan, 1900),
pp. 3, 5.

PADOVANA AND MAGGI FOWLS

is said to be good in quality. The writer already
quoted states that ' the ease with which they are
fatted renders the breed still more valuable, for the
fat, which forms in great abundance, is very delicate,
and in many dishes it is used as a substitute for the
best Lombardy butter.'* The bens are said to be
splendid layers of large-sized eggs, commencing in
November, and sitting but seldom. They are very
hardy, quiet, and not given to stray, whilst the
chickens grow moderately. Our opinion of the breed
as seen in Italy is that they are very useful birds, of
the General Purpose type, but we should not expect by
the weight of bone that they mature quickly. For
autumn fowls they should prove excellent.

Description. — The body is large and well pro-
portioned, showing robustness ; breast large, well de-
veloped, and fleshy ; back broad ; neck long, massive,
and well arched ; head light ; beak dark, strong, and
curved ; comb triple, with a knob rising at the back,
medium in size ; wattles long and pendulous and fine
in texture ; earlobes creamy white ; wings very strong
and large ; tail short ; legs long, but not heavy in bone,
with short feathers on the outside, and the skin rosy-
yellow ; the plumage is of a metallic black, except on
the hackles and wings, which are often golden-yellow,

* ■ PoUieoltma," del Marchese G. Trevisant {llilan, HIOO),
p. -10.

though entirely black plumage is preferred. Weight :
males, 9 to 11 pounds ; females, 7 to 9 pounds.

This race, of which we saw several specimens at
Piome in 1903, is not yet fixed, and we cannot do
more than refer to it, without attempting to indicate
its characters. Those seen by us were like Black-red
Game, but splashed upon the breast. They had a
strange-looking comb, not unlike that of the Houdan,
except that the two parts are closer together. One
Itahan writer thus speaks of them :*

' This breed is tlie outcome of some fortunate
crosses made by Cardinal U. Maggi between the large
Voldarno hens and Birahma, Cochin, and Dorking.
After a long period of patient and careful selection
the breed has become extremely valuable from every
point of view, especially as good sitters. The hens,
when well nourished and properly kept, give from
130 to 160 eggs in the year. The flesh is good up to
the age of ten months, but after this it becomes like
that of the large foreign breeds from which these
fowls are descended.'

They are large in size, and said to be very hardy.

CHAPTER VI

FEENCH EACES OF FOWLS

Bresse
La Fleche
Du Mans
Crevecceur
Caumont

Caux

Courtes Pattes

Houdan

Faverolles

Mantes

Caussade
French Cuckoo
Bourbourg
Estaires
Hergnies

IN no country with which we are famihar is there
so great a number of breeds and varieties of
fowls as in France. This is explainable by the
fact that until the last twenty or thirty years a greater
amount of attention was paid by the French farmers
and peasants to poultry than elsewhere. For cen-
turies the flesh of poultry has been regarded with
favour to an extent not then found in colder regions,
and eggs have entered into the food consumed in
many ways. Probably nowhere else — except, perhaps,
Belgium— was the same attention given to the breed-
ing and management of the domestic fowl by the
farmers of the country, who found in it a steady
source of income equally in the sale of eggs and
chickens. Selection of birds as breeders upon
definite lines appears to have prevailed all over the
land. Such variations as would be produced without
the help of man, but which would soon disappear with-
out his aid, have been fixed, and there is scarcely any
part of France where, in one direction or another,
breeds suitable to the district are not found. Nor
must it be thought that in a breed the external
characters were everything, for it is to the credit of
the French that economic qualities ever stood first, as
should always be the case. Hence the majority of
French fowls, even though the type is well defined,
appear somewhat mediocre to the eye of a fancier.
The main object was to conserve and improve the
fecundity and the table properties, and fixity of
external characters was adopted because it was found
that by doing so the perpetuation of such properties
was secured. Hence we find that there is considerable
divergence between the different districts of France in
the class of fowls kept, but that in each district the
birds are remarkably uniform. In the United Kingdom
we have only a few similar instances — notably in

Surrey and Sussex, in Devon and Cornwall, and in
Lincolnshire with fowls, and in Buckinghamshire with
ducks, although with other branches of livestock there
is no country where loyalty to the local type is more
manifest — notably in horses, cattle, and sheep. The
advent of breeding for exhibition in France — that is,
the growth of poultry-keeping as a recreation — is
modifying methods to a limited extent, as it is to
fanciers rather than to practical poultrymen that we
owe the lack of uniformity in accordance with local
traditions. Also, our intensive methods lead to more
rapid exhaustion of breeds.

BRESSE.

NoJiENCLATUKE : 111 all countries, Bresse or La

Bresse.
Y>\B,mirES: Black, White, Grey, Blue.
Classification : Table.
CoLOUE OF Flesh and Skin : White.
CoLODB OF Legs and Feet : Blue-grey.
CoLOUK OF Egg-shells : 'VSTiite.

Origin. — The breeds of poultry which are met with
in the countries on the northern shores of the Mediter-
ranean Sea have much in common so far as shape is
concerned, and this is true of the La Bresse as of the
Italian and Spanish varieties, so much so that probably
all have a common origin, although we have no definite
records as to when or how the migration took place.
Mr. Verrey suggests* that 'the Dorking played a
rather prominent part in the manufacture of the La
Bresse,' but we have been unable to trace anythmg in
support of such a view. Even among French writers
there is considerable difference of opinion. In the last

'French Breeds of Poultry,' by L. C. Verrey (London,

1891), p. a.

THE BRESSE EOWL

83

edition of M. La Perre de Eoo's work he says : * ' It is, in
all probability, the result of a cross between the common
fowl and the Andalusian,' which also lacks confirma-
tion, even though the same view is held by M. Cor-
nevin.t If we accept the evidence of structure, size
and shape of body, together with vigour of constitution
and general activity, the Italian influence is apparent ;
and we therefore agree with M. Eemy Saint-Loup, who
says : J ' In form these birds are related to the Leg-
horn.'

Considering how easily fowls could pass from
Italy to Southern France, it may be accepted that
the Bresse was due to the crossing of what we call
Leghorns upon the common fowl of the country.
"Why this type should be restricted to the Bresse
country, immediately to the south of Burgundy, of
which Bom-g is the chief town, cannot be explained,
nor yet why they apparently stopped at that point, as
the type is not found further north.

properties, that it has become known, and it is not
bred at all except with a view to meeting market
demands. Yet we have found by personal observa-
tions in the Bresse country, having traversed the
district from one end to the other, attended the local
markets, and visited several of the leading producers,
that extreme care is taken in maintaining the race
pure. Several crosses have been tried, but the result
was not satisfactory.

Economic Qualities. —Whilst this breed is
medium in size — small for a table fowl when in lean
condition — it fattens remarkablj' and increases greatly
in flesh, and its fineness of bone is to the advantage of
producer and consumer. Gourmets generally admit
that it occupies the first rank amongst table poultry.
The birds are hardy, good layers of fair-sized white-
shelled eggs, and excellent foragers. In the 1894-1895
laying competition of the UtiUty Poultry Club a lot of

Fig. 30. — White Bkesse Cock.

Bred ly T. B. Wood, Pehmarsh.

History. — So far as our inquiries have gone, fowls
of this type have been bred in the Bresse country for
something like a hundred years, and the district has
been famous for its table poultry during the greater
part of that time. Upon the Paris and other great
French markets these birds hold the premier position,
both for quahty of flesh and price, and vast quantities
of the dead birds are distributed over Southern Prance,
in Switzerland, and Northern Italy. High prices are
obtained for the best specimens in the district itself.
It is purely as a utility fowl, by reason of its meat

* ' Monographie des Races de Poules,' par V. La Perre de
Eoo (Paris, undated), p. 45.

f ' Les Oiseaux de Basse-Cour,' par Ch. Cornevin (Paris,
1895), p. 140.

I ' Les Oiseaux de Basse-Cour,' par Eemy Saint-Loup
(Paris, 1895), p. 119.

Fig. 31. — White Bkesse Hen.

Sred by T. E. Wood, Pehmarsh.
White Bresse held second place. The flesh is most
delicate, very abundant, and well distributed over the
body, and, when roasted properly, eats with a short-
ness we have not met with in any other breed. In a
weU-fatted bu-d the thickness of meat on the breast is
remarkable, whilst in colour of flesh and deUcacy of
skin it has no superior. The hens are not early sitters ;
in fact, we have had birds that never sat at aU, but they
make excellent mothers. For several years we kept
a flock of Bresse, finding them very good winter
layers and hardy, the chickens growing very rapidly,
which quality proves that they are nearly allied to the
Leghorn and not to the Spanish races.

Description. — The body of the Bresse fowl is of
medium size, well built, long, the chest carried pro-
muiently forward, moderately deep and broad, but
6—2

84

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

giving the appearance of lightness rather than a
massive form ; the neck is short, full, and well covered
with hackle ; the head long and fine ; beak short and
strong ; the comb is single, carried upright in the cock
and falling over in the hen, high and long, reaching
well over the beak in front and over the neck behind —
in fact, resembling closely that of the Leghorn, but
very fine in texture, as are the wattles, which are also
long ; the face is clean and red, the eye red, and the
earlobe white and rather large ; the legs are of medium
length, and dark blue in colour, with four toes on the
feet ; the bone is fine and very light ; tail in cook large
and ornamented with long sickles ; the carriage is
graceful and very active — in fact, the birds are rather
excitable. Weight : males, 5 to 6| pounds ; females,
4J to 5i pounds. The appearance of the Bresse fowl
is very like the Leghorn so far as shape is concerned.

Varieties. — The leading subraces are Grey and
Black, but, in addition, pure White and Blue are also
met with.

Geey {Variete de Bourg). — This is generally re-
garded as the original type of Bresse fowl, but upon
what authority we have not been able to discover. In
the male the head, neck, and breast are white ; the
back is white, ticked with grey, more especially close
to the neck, and these markings are often hidden by
the neck-hackle ; the wings are white, with two very
dark grey or black bars on the primary and secondary
feathers ; the tail proper is black, but the sickles have
a broad white edge on both sides ; comb, face, and
wattles bright red ; earlobes creamy white ; legs and
feet blue-grey.

White (Figs. 30 and 31). — By selection a white
variety has been obtained, having earlobes and legs as
in the Grey. This variety we have found a true
breeder and very prolific in this country.

Black [Variete de Loulians). — Chiefly bred in the
district around the town of Louhans, where we have
seen large numbers of these fowls ; colour a deep
metaUic black ; earlobes snow white ; legs and feet
deep blue.

Blue. — Of more recent production, but as to its
breeding we have no evidence. It ma5' be the result
of crossing between the Grey and Black varieties, or
perhaps Andalusian blood has been used, thus explain-
ing statements by French writers as to Spanish in-
fluence in the Bresse fowl.

LA FLECHE.

Nojienclahire : In all countries, La Flfeclie.

VABrETiEs: One.

Classujication : Table.

CoLotJB OF Flesh and Skin : White.

CoLOUE OF Legs and Feet : Dark slate or black.

CoLOTjK OF Egg-shells : 'Wliite.

Origin. — This race is found almost exclusively in
the Valley of La Sarthe, north of the river Loire, in the

Department of that name, of which La Fleche is one
of the leading towns. The fowl has been bred there
for a long period of time. JI. Jacque states that* it
has been known since the fifteenth century, but that it
is believed to be much older. M. La Perre de Boo
says :t

' Its origin is very obscure ; but by its high carriage,
its action, the white and large earlobes, the original
shape of the comb, and the trace of crest which crowns
the head, it may be supposed that it has issued from a
cross between the Spanish fowl and the Polish or
Crevecoeur.'

Other writers support that opinion, which has every
probability in its favour, even though the whiteness
and quality of the flesh are far in advance of any of
the breeds named. But these may be due to the rich
pastures of La Sarthe, upon which the fowls have been
kept for many generations, and to the system of
feeding adopted, to be afterwards described. We
incline to the Creve rather than the direct Polish
cross, and may accept the following table of descent :

Black Spanish

Black Polish
CreveccEur

La Flfeche

The peculiar comb, noted below, follows that of the
Creve, which, however, may have descended from the
Polish. Darwin classes both Creves and Houdans as
sub-breeds of the Polish.

History. — We have practically told all that is
known of the La Fleche fowl. At one period it would
appear to have had a wider distribution than is now
the case in its own country. From personal observa-
tions in France, we learn that out of La Sarthe they
are scarcely seen at all, except where kept by amateurs.
But m La Sarthe they are regarded as the finest of all
table poultry, which view is supported by the position
they take in the great exhibitions, more especially in
the dead classes. It is some forty years ago since
they were introduced into Britain, but whilst there
have always been a few breeders and exhibitors of
La Fleche, they have never won a position for practical
purposes. What is the case here is true in America
and other countries. The reason is explainable by the
fact that, although they are good layers and make fine
table poultry, they are slow growers, and do not
mature quickly enough for our markets.

In France the La Fleche is not eaten until it is
from eight to ten months old, when they fatten splen-
didly, and the flesh is very tender and fine in flavour.
In this country the demand for dead fowls weighing

* ' Le Poulailler,' par Ch. Jacque, seventh edition (Paris
892), p. 152.
f ' Monographie
Roo (Paris), p. 65.

1892), p. JL&-.i.

f ' Monographie des Races de Poules,' par V. La Perre de

LA FLi:CHE AND DU MANS FOWLS

85

9 to 11 pounds is comparatively small, and the prices
obtainable much below those secured in Paris. Hence
breeders would not find them profitable, and that is
the final test. It is noteworthy that at one time in
France the La Fleche fowls had a small crest behind
the comb, but that -has been bred out in England, and
is less seen across the English Channel than formerly.

Economic Qualities. — In this country the La
Fleche has proved delicate, more specially upon
heavier soils, and the chickens are very subject to
leg weakness. We believe that it will be found that
these results are due to breeding and keeping the birds
in confinement, and if they were maintained under
more natural conditions they would be much hardier.
To obtain the best results they should be given rich
soils. But even in France it is recognised that they
require special treatment.
M. Lemoine says :*

' The chickens are easily
reared during the first few
days, but there is a critical
time forthemtopass atthe
time of their first moult ;
the down falls rapidly, and
the feathers do not grow
quickly ; this results in
their little bodies not being
defended, and they are
very susceptible to cold
and rain.'

He adds that they must
be sheltered during the
first six weeks, and that
they are most suited to
high ground', where there
is plenty of sunshine.
Speaking of the qualities
of the La Fleche, the
same author sayst that

' it is remarkable for the fineness of its flesh ; both
poulardes and capons are very renowned : they are
distinguished above all for their quality of fattening,
and for the increase of flesh. . . . The hen is a good
layer, producing 140 eggs per annum ; the weight of
each egg is upwards of 2^ ounces, but they sit rarely. '
This is confirmed by the experience of our own breeders.
In La Sarthe great attention is paid to the feeding of the

ground maize or oats mixed with milk, until they
reach the age of seven or eight months, because it is
at that age and onwards they are submitted to the
fattening process.'

Description (Fig. 32). — French La Fleche are
bred carefully, and on similar lines to English, except
that in some cases the rudimentary crest is met with.
The body is large^, long, and deep, with broad breast,
and back sloping well to the tail ; the neck is long and
graceful ; the head fine and long, with a corresponding
beak, which is dark horn in colour, full red eye, and
surmounted with a large horned comb, having two
even but somewhat satanic spikes in front, and a small
blunt protuberance immediately behind. It is regarded
as important that the comb should be fine in texture,
as that indicates the flesh qualities ; the wattles are
large ; face bare, and with
the comb and wattles
bright red ; earlobes large
and white ; the legs are
long, not heavy in bone,
and dark slate or black ;
toes four ; the tail is long
and full, and the sickles
in the cock carried well
back ; the colour of the
entire plumage is a beau-
tiful black, with metallic
green and violet reflec-
tions. Weight : males, 8
to 10 pounds ; females,
6 to 8 pounds. In France
these weights are often
exceeded. The whole ap-
pearance, excepting the
comb, is stylish and at-
tractive.

DU MANS.

NoMENcLATUKE : 111 all countries, Du Mans or Mans.

Variety: One.

CLASsiricATioN I Table.

Colour of Flesh and Skin : "White.

CoLOUB OF Legs and Feet : Dark slate or black.

CoLouii OF Egg-shells : White.

Origin. — The Du Mans fowl is met with chiefly

growing birds. M. La Perre de Eoo, in his work abeady around the town of Le Mans, capital of the old French

mentioned,!; says :

' During the first eight to fifteen days which follow
their hatching they are fed on breadcrumbs steeped
in milk, or upon bread finely crumbled, and soup ;
after fifteen days upon this diet, they feed upon whole
buckwheat or a paste made of buckwheat flour, or

* ' La Basse-Cour Pratique,' par E. Lemoine (Paris, 1902),
pp. 7-2-73.

f Ibid., pp. 71-72. J Page CG.

Department of Maine. The records of it are very
few, and it is diftioult to discover the origin. That it
is closely allied to the La Fleche is evident ; in fact, as
to shape, colour of plumage, and qualities, they are
very similar, the chief difi'erence being found in the
comb. One French author* suggests that the La
Fleche were first bred around Le Mans, which is by

• ' La Poulailler,' par Ch. .Jacijue, seventh edition (Paris,
1S92), p. 152.

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

no means improbable ; and it is reasonable to suppose
that the two breeds were at one time the same, and
that different out-crosses and breeding to different
ideals have made them sufficiently distinct to receive
separate recognition. As to how the rose comb was
obtained we have no direct indication, but it is believed
that feature is a result of Hamburgh influence. It
may be so, but among fowls bred without strict ad-
herence to type variations would frequently appear.
Our opinion is that the Du Mans is the older fowl of
the district, that it was fixed by the introduction of a
modicum of Spanish blood, and that the La Fleohe is
the variation owing to a cross with the Crevecceur.

History. — These birds are bred essentially for
practical purposes, and are seldom met with outside
the Le Mans district. So far as we are aware they
have not been introduced into any other country.

Economic Qualities.— At Le Mans there is an
important industry in fattening poultry, and the Du
Mans fowls are famous for their fine flesh qualities.
Some years ago we were informed by the English
Consul in that city that large numbers of dead birds
were exported to Russia, and that he could not buy
them upon the spot at less than 20s. each. The birds
are large, fattening well, and laying on a large quantity
of beautifully white, fine-flavoured flesh. They are
very hardy, easily acclimatized and reared, and have
fine bone. The hens are only moderate layers, and
the eggs, whilst well over 2 ounces each, are a shade
smaller than those of the La Fleche. They are non-
sitters.

Description. — The particulars given as to the La
Fleche will suffice for the Du Mans, with two or three
exceptions. First, the comb is rose, very similar to
that of the Hamburgh, having the long spike behind,
but it is somewhat coarser and larger. There is, how-
ever, no indication of crest on the head, which is to
be expected from the absence of Crevecceur blood.
Second, the plumage, whilst black, is duller than that
of the La Fleohe, without the metallic sheen ah-eady
referred to. And, third, the body is heavier when the
birds are in a lean condition.

CEEVECCEUE.

Nomenclature : In all countries, Crevecceur.

VAitiETY : Black, White, Blue.

Classification : Table.

CoLouE of Flesh and Skin ; White.

CoLOUK OF Legs and Feet : In Black and Blue, very

dark slate or black ; in AVhite, pinky-white.
Colour op Egg-shells : White.

Origin. — It is generally admitted that theCrevecceur
owes some of its special characteristics to the Polish,
but, as is usual with races existing prior to the middle
of last century, there are no definite records upon
which we can rely. This is supported by a statement

made in 1852 in an interesting article on ' Normandy
Poultry,'* in which it is stated that around Caen and
in the Department of Calvados Polish fowls were in the
majority. It is curious to find, in view of the fact that
the Crevecceur has been primarily a Normandy and
Picardy breed, that some of the earlier writers, notably
Wingfield and Johnson, f stated its habitat to be
Burgundy; but they all regarded it as of PoUsh
descent, and the birds of that period certainly were
nearer in type to the Polish than is now the case. The
same error was made in the 1854 edition of Moubray.
As we have already seen in connection with the La
Fleohe, Darwin classes both Creves and Houdans as
subvarieties of the Polish. JI. La Perre de Roo says : %
' There is very little known as to its origin. It is sug-
gested that it originated in Normandy or Picardy, and
that it is named after the village of Crevecceur, situated
between Lisieux and Caen, where we find, however,
more Caumont fowls and other varieties .approaching
more or less to the Crevecceur than of pure-bred
specimens.'

The fact that other classes of fowls predominate
at Crevecceur no more indicates that the breed did
not originate in the district than that Dorking is
no longer the great centre for our premier race of
poultry. Mr. Lewis Wright j mentions that at the
Birmingham Show of 1855 Black-crested Black Polish
were exhibited, and, from other evidence, we conclude
that the Crevecceur is directly descended from the Black
Polish, which, bred for generations on the rich lands
of Normandy with a view to the improvement of table
qualities, is modified greatly, and has resulted in the
breed as we now know it.

History. — We have not been able to obtain any
definite information as to when the Creve began to
assume an individuahty, nor yet when it was first recog-
nised under a distinct name. We have, however,
learnt that the name is derived from the village of
Crevecceur, and that in the middle of last century
black fowls of this type were common in the Depart-
ment of Calvados, where the breeders of larger stock
are well known for their skill. Birds of the type
named were known in England about 1852, if not
before, but some of these were black and white, not
unlike an irregularly marked Silver Polish.] Even
then they were recognised as Crevecceurs, and not
Polish. Many of these earlier birds had white feathers
in the crest, and some displayed yellow feathers in the
hackles. The size of body was much less than is now
found both in France and England. At that time both

* Cottafic. Gardener, vol. ix., November 11, 1852, p. 111.

+ ' The JPoultry Book,' by Wingfield and Johnson (London,
1853), p. 226.

J ' Monographie dos Races de Poules,' par V. La Perre de
Roo (Paris), p. 70.

§ ' New Book of Poultry,' by Lewis Wright (London, 1902),
p. 442.

II ' The Poultry Book,' by Wingfield and Johnson, p. 226.

THE CREVECGEUR FOWL

'87

"Whites and Blues were known. Mr. Tegetmeier men-
tions * that ' some idea of the value attached to this
breed by oiu- French neighbours may be gained from a
statement of the fact that at the first great Agricul-
tural Exhibition in Paris, in 1855, there were two equal
sets of prizes offered for the poultry exhibited — the
first for Crevecosurs, the second for all other varieties
taken together.' In Britain the breed secured a
moderate amount of favour, more especially among
exhibitors, reaching the maximum about twenty years
ago. Since that time it has lost ground, but in France
it is still bred to a considerable extent.

Economic Qualities.— The Crevecceur is essen-
tially a table fowl, though not equal to the Bresse
or the La Fleche. At the great Paris Exhibitions it is
generally well represented and the specimens excellent.
But, like our Dorking, it
has not so fine a skin, and
it is seldom that these
breeds appear smooth,
having an unfilled ap-
pearance. The hen is a
fairly good layer, and the
•eggs are very large and
■white in shell. They be-
come broody very seldom,
and can generally be
classed as jjon-sitters.
M. Lemoine thus speaks
•of the breed : t 'It is
easily fatted, and in all the
district around Lisieux,
Saint - Pierre - sur - Dives,
andMezidon, the farmers,
market - gardeners, and
others, breed and fatten
this fine Crevecoeur fowl ;
also the markets of these
localities are largely sup
plied by them, and the e
considerable figure. It is there the agents go to buy
some of the best fowls for the Paris poultry dealers.'
Although the breed has never secured popularity in
Britain, those who keep them claim that they are
quick in growth, fatten well, and make splendid
birds on the table, both as to size and quality. The
chief reason why they have not been received with
greater favour is that they are usually regarded as
dehcate ; and almost aU writers, both French and
Enghsh, accept this view. M. Lemoine recognises
this fact thus : J ' Either by reason of the crest or the
conformation of the nostrils, Crevecoeurs are very sensi-
Tegetmeier, F.Z.S.,

of these birds attains

tive to cold mists. Koup is the malady which frequently
attacks them ; to avoid the consequences it is necessary
every night to place them in the centre of the poiiltry-
yard.' If this be true in France, it is much more
likely to be so in a moist climate like that of the
United Kingdom, and more especially with a crested
variety. For breeding and practical purposes gene-
rally there is no reason why the crest should not be
cut off.

On the other hand, it is claimed by Mr. S. W. Thomas *
that, if given a good range, they are hardy. He says :
' I have had pullets laying in snow and frost at five and
a half months old, and have killed cockerels weighing
nearly 4 pounds, ready for the table, at fom- and a half
months. . . . Their value as a cross cannot well
be overstated. They give size, productiveness, and
quality of flesh to any breed that they may be required
to be crossed with.' Mr.
Thomas lives in South
Wales, on a cold soil, in
an exposed position; but
we should prefer more
favourable conditions for
keeping the Crevecceur.

Description. —The
body of the Crevecceur is
large and square, with a
broad breast, carried well
forward, a long, straight
keel, a broad back, and
large wings ; the neck is
long, and well covered with
hackle ; the head is long
and strong, as is the
beak, which is very dark
horn ; the comb is horned,
medium in size, the two
EVECOEUES. points well apart, carried

in front of crest, and fine
in texture ; the eye is full ; the wattles medium ;
on the head is a large crest, not too globular, and
rather flat in front ; below the face on either side are
full muffs of soft feathers ; earlobe small and white,
but covered by the muffs ; the tad is large, and the
sickles rather high ; the legs are shortish, but firm and
strong and clean, and the feet have four toes. Weight :
males, 7 to 9 pounds ; females, 5h to 7 pounds. The
entire appearance is bold and the gait graceful.

* 'The Poultry Book," by W.
(London, 1873), pp. 121-122.

t ' La Basse-Cour Praticjue,' par
pp. 64-65.

J Jbid., p. 66.

Varieties. — As already mentioned, there are three

varieties of the race — namely, Black, White, and Blue.

Bl.\ck (Fig. 33). — This is the most common. The

plumage, including the crest, is bright black, with a

good sheen and violet reflections; the beak is dark

Lemoine (Paris, 1902), horn, and the legs and feet black or slaty blue.

- Fancier's Gazette, Summer Number, 1891, p. 16.

88

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

White. — Less known, but we have seen some very
pretty specimens in France, where they are regarded
with favour for ornamental purposes. Over the greater
part of the body, the neck, and the tail, the plumage is
velvety white, the under-parts dead -sv-hite ; beak almost
white ; legs and feet pinky-white. Doubtless a sport
from the Black.

Blue. — Seldom met with, and we only remember
having seen a few specimens. In plumage, the crest,
muffs, neck-hackle, back wings, and tail are dark
blue-grey, the rest of the body slate-blue ; beak and
legs as in Blacks. Obtained by crossing Blacks and
Whites.

CAUMONT.
This breed is regarded as a variety of the Creve-
cceur, and is sometimes called Pavilly, taking its name
from Caumont, in Normandy, on the left bank of
the river Seine, below Bouen. We have personally
met with few specimens, but quote the following from
M. La Perre de Eoo :*

' The Caumont fowl is a variety of the Crevecoeur
differing only in the crest, which is smaller, and by
the absence of a cravat (muff). . . . The Caumont is
vigorous, does not need any particular care, is never
ill, is active, alert, and has no rival as a layer. The
frame is as large and the flesh as delicate as the
Crevecoeur, from which it is descended, and it inherits
all the quahties of that breed. The chickens are easily
reared, are extremely vigorous, very precocious, fatten
well, and are ready for the table at the age of three
months.'

The legs are fine in bone, and dark blue-grey in
colour. The hens seldom become broody.

It is also claimed that this breed is a variation from
the Crevecoeur, from which it differs distinctly in that
it has no crest. M. La Perre de Eoof says that
' its plumage is of a brilliant black from one end to
the other. It has a small head, single comb, upright,
finely serrated, large in proportion to its size ; the ear-
lobes are white, bordered \\-ith a blue line ; the feet
blue, clean, with four toes on each foot. The hen is an
excellent layer and very hardy, but she sits seldom
and badly. The raising of the chickens does not
require any particular care. They are fed in Nor-
mandy on bread steeped in cider during the first fort-
night, after which age they are given the same food as
adults.' The Pays de Caux is on the right bank of
the Seine, near the town of Duclair, and M. Lemoine
says that they are bred largely on both banks of the

* ' Monographie des Races de Poules,' par V. La Perre de
Koo (Paris), p. 77.
t Ihid., p. 7G.

C0UETE8 PATTES.

NoME^"CLATx:EE : In most countries, Courtes Pattes ;

^rVr?»a?i, Kriiper ; Simnislt^ Paticorta.
Yaeiety: One.
Classificatiox : Table.
CoLouK OF Flesh and Skin : Wliite.
Colour of Legs and Feet : Dark slate or black.
Colour of Egg-shells : White.

Short-legged fowls are met with in various countries,
but as a rule they receive a very limited amount of
attention, although their quaintness is attractive.
They are chiefly regarded from the ornamental or
exhibition point of view. It is not so, however, ^^■ith
the Courtes Pattes, which are bred in France by
reason of their meat qualities.

Origin. — Many suggestions have been put forward
in explanation of the origin of the Courtes Pattes-
(Anglicc, short feet), but there is nothing definitely
known. In a letter which appeared some years ago*"
it was stated that these birds are to be met with in
Brittany, Normandy, on the south of the Pyrenees,
and on the sea-line of the North of France, and that it-
is first-cousin of the La Bresse, ' with a strong infusion
of Dorking blood.' The Dorking influence is very
doubtful, but in shape, except for the short legs, the
resemblance to the La Bresse is apparent. M. Lemoine
says thatt it originated in Maine, in which La Sarthe
is situated, and that it has been known there for a
long time, but that to-day it is widely disseminated.
Another French writer saysl that 'perhaps they are-
related to a short-legged race of Camboge,' but of the
latter we ha\-e obtained no further information. As it-
would appear that fowls with this peculiarity hav&
been known from time immemorial in several parts of
Europe, and certainly in Normandy and Brittany, we
may conclude that the Courtes Pattes bred in La
Sarthe are descended from these, but that by selection
the colour has been fixed. At one period blacks,
whites, and yellows were met with, but now black is
the only colour bred pure. From the fact that crested
specimens were seen, either the Crevecoeur or Polish
were probably crossed with them.

History.— It would appear that for at least thirty
years black Courtes Pattes have been bred with a large
measure of purity, and the favour with which they
are regarded is due to their fine flesh qualities.
We have known the fowl in France for more than
twenty-five years, but they have always, as now, been
in few hands. Courtes Pattes were first introduced
into England in 1879, but they have never become
popular.

Economic Qualities.— The chief quality of the
Courtes Pattes is in the flesh, which is very deli-

* ' Henwife ' in Lire Stoch Journal, June 13, 1879, p. 474.
t 'La Basse-Cour Pratique,' par E. Lemoine (Paris, 190'2),

t ' Les Oiseaux de Basse-Cour,' par R. Saint-Loup (Paris,.
1-895), p. 127.

COURTES PATTES AND HOUDAN FOWLS

cate and beautifully white, so much so that they are
used in the best Paris cafes and restaurants for a dish
nayaed pculets n la reine — a favourite with gourmets.
The fowls are verj' hardy, the chickens precocious and
quick growers under favourable conditions, but the
small size is against them on markets where a larger
body is demanded. The hens are fair layers of fair-
sized, white-shelled eggs, and make excellent sitters
and mothers.

Description (Fig. 34).— Inbody theCourtes Pattes
cock is large, long, and deep, the breast prominent,
with large, powerful wings carried rather low ; the

and the general aspect is vigorous and haughty.
Weight : males, 3 to 4 pounds ; females, 2i to 3i
pounds.

HOUDAN.

NoMExcLATUHE : 111 all countries, Houdan.

Vaeeety : One.

Classification : Non-sitting.

CoLouB OF Flesh and Skin : Creamy-white.

Colour of Legs and Feet : Pink-white, mottled with

blue or black.
Colour of Egg-shells : Dead white.

The Houdan, both in its native country — France —
and in Britain, appeared as if it would step into the

neck is short and thick, well covered with hackle ;
head long and neat, ornamented with a large single
comb, regularly indented, upright in the male and
falling over in the female ; beak short, slightly hooked,
and brown in colour ; wattles large and long ; eye
bright red and bold ; earlobes large, white in colour ;
tail large, well furnished with sickles in the male, and
carried high ; legs are very short, giving an almost
duck-like appearance to the bird ; four toes on each
foot, and legs and feet dark slate in colour ; the
plumage is entirely black, with bright green reflections ;

first rank of domestic poultry, as measured by general
distribution and universal popularity for utility pur-
poses, but it has failed to reach the position antici-
pated for it, and has lost ground considerably of late
years. In the United Kingdom a reasonable explana-
tion can be found, as seen below.

Origin. — Many suggestions have been put forward
as to its descent, some of which were due to character-
istics found in other breeds, and the inference was-
accepted that these breeds had been used in makmg

90

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

■the Houdan as we know it to-day, but without a
particle of direct evidence. From the fact that it has
five toes on each foot the Dorking has been claimed as
one of its ancestors, and the crest has suggested
descent from the Polish.* But later observations have
■shown that we cannot fully accept these statements.
That the fowl originated in the Seine-et-Oise depart-
ment of France seems to be undoubted, and at one
period it was almost universal there. M. La Perre de
Boo says -f ' that some authorities suggest that it has
descended from the Padoue (Polish), from which it has
■inherited the crest ; and also the Dorking, from which
it has taken the peculiaritj' of the fifth toe. But all
is pure conjecture without any positive proof, and its
relationship with the Dorking is very doubtful, because
it has neither the comb, the plumage, nor the form of
body of that breed. It is certain that the Houdan has
■existed in Beauce for centuries, taking its name from
the httle town of Houdan, chief of the canton, arrondisse-
ment of Mantes, Department of Seine-et-Oise, where
large quantities of fowls of this race are raised and
fattened for the Paris and London markets.'

Although M. La Perre de Eoo adduces no evidence in
support of the claim for the antiquity of the breed, it is
not improbable that bu-ds of this type have been known
for more than a century in the Houdan district, where
poultry-breeding has for long been an important in-
dustry. We have already seen that the PoUsh fowl
was at one time common in Normandy,J and doubt-
less was distributed over a wide area ; also that the
late Charles Darwin classed the Houdan as well as the
Crevecoeur as sub-races of the Pohsli. Our view is
-that the descent was through the Creve, not direct.
That Creve influence has been used m later years is
undeniable, both in France and England, but our pre-
sent purpose is to learn the prior origin. It should be
remembered that French authorities claim that the
Dorking was received into the South of England from
Normandy, that it has been bred there since the time
of the Eoman occupation of Gaul, and that five-toed
fowls of this type have been known in Northern France
for many centuries. In support of this statement
M. La Perre de Eoo speaks § of the ' race commune a
cinq doigts ' (common fowl with five toes) as follows :
'The breed is characterized by the peculiarity of a
fifth toe which she carries on each foot, and is found
in the neighbourhood of Courtrai, Bruges, Ghent, and
other Belgian towns, and also in the northern depart-
ments of France, where it has a high and well-merited
reputation.'

So nearly allied does this author regard it with the

* ]'ide 'The Houdan Fowl,' by Chas. Lee (LoudoQ, 1874),
pp- 9-10 ; and ' Practical Poultry-Keeper,' by Lewis "Wright
(Loudon, 1885), p. 190, etc.

t ' Monographie des Races de Ponies,' par V. La Perre de
Eoo (Paris, 1902), p. 79.

J See Crfevecceur.

§ ' Monographie des Races de Ponies,' par V. La Perre de
Roo (Paris, 1902), p. 39.

Dorking that he uses the same illustration for the
Silver-grey Dorking hen and the common five-toed
hen. Perhaps this may explain the striking preference
in France for Silver-greys, as Dark Dorkings are
seldom seen ; but we must confess that in our pere-
grinations in France we have not met with the type to
the extent here suggested, although fowls more or less
of this shape and colour of plumage are found in all
countries. It is impossible to decide whether the
Dorking came to Britain from France, or was brought
direct by the Eomans, but we do know that large
numbers of Dorkings have been sent to France from
this country in recent years. M. Megnin, in ' Elevage
et Engraissement des VolaUles,' mentions the common
five-toed fowl as one of the progenitors of the Houdan.
Taking the evidence so far as obtained, the foUowing
table of descent may be accepted :

Black Polish
„ I

Common five-toed fowl

Houdan.

Since 1878 there has been further infusion of Creve-
coeur blood, as shown by the darker plumage which
for a time prevailed, and M. Lemoine* says that
Light Brahma mfluence has been used to increase
the size of body. This may be true in France, but in
Britain the Creve and the Dorking have alone been
employed.

H istory. — It may be accepted that the Houdan was
widely distributed over Southern Normandy in the early
part of last century, but would appear to have been
introduced into Britain about 1850. At first they were
known as the Normandy fowl, of which Wingfield and
Johnson thus speak : j ' The old birds are enth-ely
speckled in black and white ; they have a small erect
top-knot, not drooping backwards like a lark-crest.
The plumage of the male bird is much darker than
that of the hen. In shape they are lengthy, but be-
come contracted towards the tail. The cock's tail is
of great length ; his comb and wattles are also of large
size. The chickens are very peculiar, having at first
perfectly black backs and white breasts, J but they
gradually become speckled, like the old birds. They
have five claws, and the skin of the leg is pied black
and white.' They are mentioned under the same name
by Moubray (edition 1854), Ferguson, and other writers
of that period. No reference is made to the shape of
the comb, which is characteristic of the breed, but
descriptions were not very precise. They were first
brought prominently forward by Mr. Geylin in 1865,
in a pamphlet entitled ' Poultry-breeding from a

' ' La Basse-Cour,' par E. Lemoine (Paris), p. 69.

t ' The Poultry Book,' by Wingfield and Johnson (London

THE HO UD AN FOWL

91

Common Point of View,' in whioli it is stated that
they have a triple comb, 'the outsides opening like
two leaves of a book, and the centre having the appear-
ance of an ill-shaped, long strawberry' — the first
reference to this peculiar form we have been able to
trace In the first edition of Wright's 'Book of

Thirty years ago, taking its economic qualities into
consideration, it was anticipated, and not without
reason, that the Houdan would become almost uni-
versal in this country, and for a few years it obtained
a large measure of popularity ; but, for reasons given
below, that has not proved to be the case neither as an

. le 35 — HouD iNb

Poultry ' (1874) it is stated that ' when first imported
the fifth toe was very uncertain,' and in the last edition
<1902) Mr. S. W. Thomas says that ' twenty years
ago a leaf - comb was quite the exception ' ; but we
bred Houdans in 1875, and then the leaf-comb was
general, as also the fifth toe, as proved by the illustra-
tions published about that period.

exhibition or utility fowl. With a few exceptions, it is
only bred to a limited extent, and in France also other
breeds — notably the FaveroUes — have taken its place.
But it has yet considerable value for crossing purposes.

Economic Qualities. — The Houdan in this
country has always been recognised as a most useful

92

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

fowl, and had it not been for the crest, we beheve that
it would have attained a much greater amount of
popularity, more especially amongst utilitarian poultry-
keepers. It is a good layer of large-sized eggs, and
makes an excellent table fowl. In neither direction
does it compare with what may be termed specialized
breeds, but with the combination of these two qualities
it is specially suited to farmers, and also from the fact
that the chickens are precocious. The one drawback
to the breed has undoubtedly been the crest. In a
moist climate such as we have in the United Kingdom
crested fowls need special care in that they should be
sheltered during wet weather, otherwise the rain, pass-
ing between the feathers of the crest, makes them
more liable to cold. All this involves trouble, and
although some breeders, as a matter of course, cut the
feathers from the heads of Houdans, still, the majority
of people cannot trouble themselves in this way. To
some extent the same is found in France, and it is
suggested by some writers that Houdans do better in
a dry climate and upon dry soils. There can be no
question that, for practical purposes, with the excep-
tion just referred to, the Houdan is a most valuable
breed, and as the smaller-crested birds are found the
better for practical purposes, anyone going in for
Houdans would be wise to select these in preference
to the larger-crested show-birds. M. Lemoine* thus
speaks with regard to this breed :

' At Houdan a large portion of the eggs are hatched
by turkeys, and breeders regularly compel the turkey-
hens to hatch when required. The Houdan chicks
are very precocious, and they take fattening well at
the age of four months. The food employed is gener-
ally barley-meal mixed with milk, but the fattening is
jiot pressed to a very high extent. The poulterers
seek, above all^ what they call the " soft pullet," which
is sold very easily.'

In the Houdan district large numbers of chickens
are raised in winter for the spring markets, and at one
time— to a greater extent formerly than now— the
Houdan was chiefly depended upon for this purpose,
as its quickness of growth, light bone, and excellent
flesh qualities, make it very suitable for that special
trade. Hatching usually commences in October,
and continues until March—that is, the hatching of
chickens intended to be killed — but birds bred to be
used as breeding-stock are not usually brought out
imtil March and April, and the pullets are depended
upon to produce the early eggs in the autumn. These
young puUets are mated with two or three year old
cocks in October, to minimize as far as possible their
immaturity, to which the measure of loss of vigour
noted in recent years can be attributed. As already
stated, hatching is largely by means of turkeys. The
eggs of Houdans are of a dull white colour, and are of
a good size, averaging in adults nearly 2| ounces.

* ' La Basse-Cour Pratique,' par E. Lemoine (Paris), p. 6S.

The following description of the method of feeding
chickens will be read with interest :*

' The food employed for chickens consists of stale
breadcrumbs mixed with hard-boiled eggs and cooked
rice, and plenty of boiled milk, which, however, is
often given with bread alone. This food is continued
for eight to ten days, when the eggs and rice are
stopped, and after that time fine barley-meal mixed
with skim-milk is given alone. Boiled mUk, however,
is continued several times per day during the next
three or four weeks, which is found very appetizing
and beneficial. ... At the age of three and a half to
four months the birds are fatted.'

For crossmg purposes the Houdan is found very
useful, and some of the best layers we have known
were Leghorn-Houdans, and excellent table chickens
are produced by mating the Dorking or Indian Game
or Wyandotte with this breed. Unfortunately, in con-
finement the Houdan is very prone to the objectionable
habit of feather-eating. It is desirable to note that
the smaller-sized hens are usually the better layers.

Description (Fig. 35). — In describing the Houdan,
we must not forget that considerable modifications have
taken place in birds bred in England. This is not
pecuhar to the Houdan, nor yet to fowls, as it is seen
in other directions also, but more has been done in
this case to change the type than is usual. Of late
years the French Houdans have been brought more
into character with the English than was formerly
the case. The following description of the French
Houdan is taken from M. Lemoine's work :t

' The Houdan cock has a fine presence, somewhat
proud, carrying the head high ; beak is a little curved ;
the breast large ; the feet short, strong, carried widely
apart, and with five toes, of which the three anterior
rest upon the ground, and the two hind-toes are
well separate ; it carries a crest of fine feathers, falling
backwards ; the whiskers are fully furnished, the beard
standing well out ; the comb is fleshy, and represents
the shell of an open mussel, a little serrated at the
edges ; in the middle of the two parts of the comb
which compose it there is a third rudimentary comb ;
the wattles are long and red ; the earlobes white,
short, and covered by the whiskers ; the plumage is
black and white mixed, regularly marked, some of the
feathers being white and some black, but they are
black and white, not grey.'

The legs are pinky-white, mottled with black. The
Houdan hen is in ail respects similar to the cock, with
the differences of sex. When we examine the English
Houdans it is to find that the type, as already stated,
has been considerably modified. In the first place,
the comb is much more defined, and the crest very
large in comparison with those bred in France. In all

* ' La Basse-Cour Pratique,' par E. Lemoine (Paris),
p. 71.
t iJ-i(/.,pp. ec-67.

HOUDAN AND FAVEROLLES FOWLS

93

cases there is the tendency to inchne backwards, and
thus to fully expose the comb ; but, instead of the
more scanty crest seen generally upon French Houdans,
there has been a large increase in size, and, without
giving it the shape of the Polish crest, making it a
more prominent feature. This has undoubtedly been
arrived at by crossing the Creve into the Houdan.

A further point is seen in that the majority of
English Houdans are much darker than those met
with in France. At one time there was the same
tendency across the Channel, but this has been
abandoned, and the lighter-plumaged birds are pre-
ferred.

We think that there has been an improvement in the
colour of the legs, which at one time were rather in-
clined to be too dark ; but now it is recognised that
pinky-white, mottled with blue or black, is much
more in accordance with the birds themselves. The
general shape and carriage of the bird is bold and
active. Weight : males, 7 to 9 pounds ; females,
5 to 7 pounds. But as Houdans have always been
recognised as good layers, considering their table
quahties, an undue increase in size would be un-
desirable.

FAVEROLLES.

NoMENcLATCKE : In all countries, PaveroUes.
Vabieties : Salmon, Light, Black.
Classification : General Purpose.
Colour of Flesh and Skin : White.
CoLOUB OF Legs and Feet : White.
Colour of Egg-shells : Dark cream.

For more than twenty years we have been familiar
with a fowl in France bearing some resemblance to
the FaveroUes, but which was regarded as a mongrel,
the result of indiscriminate crossing. About 1886
the name began to be given in the Paris markets to
birds having a distinctive character to the Houdan. In
that year the late Mr. Alexander Comyns, B.A., the
editor of Poultry, went on a quest, but his account*
confirmed our own observations, namely, that no
fowls could be found deserving separate recognition.
Since that time, however, much has been done both in
France and England.

Origin. — Some of the leading French writers on
poultry do not recognise the FaveroUes as worthy of
notice, but we are fortunately able to obtain infor-
mation from other sources. It is generally accepted
that the breed owes its existence to a variety of crosses
made upon the common fowls of the Seine-et-Oise
and Eure-et-Loir districts of France, where poultry
production is a most important industry. M. Cornevint
says that it has been formed by crossing either
between the Dorking and the Cochin, or the Houdan

* Pnullni, May 21, 1880, p. 235.

t ' Ijes Oiseaux de Basse-Cour,' par Ch. Cornevin (Paris,
1895), p. 215.

with the Cochin and Langshan. iSTeither of these
crosses would account for the FaveroUes, which has
characteristics due to none of the breeds named. In
the article by the late Mr. Alexander Comyns referred
to above he says, speaking of the fowls found in the
Houdan market, that (1886) ' they are cross-breds,
showing a trace of Houdan, Dorking, Brahma, and
sometimes Cochin,' with indications of what he terms
Cossacks, but which we believe from other evidence
to have been single-combed Creves, and he adds that
he ' saw a great many black, single-combed, bearded
birds of good size.' In a work published about twelve
years ago M. Eouillier-Arnoult, of the Poultry School
at Gambais, says* that ' to get a true explanation of
the breed it is necessary to go back about forty years.
FaveroUes then possessed a common race of fowls and
Houdans. When the great feathered races of Coohuis,
Brahmas, and Dorkings appeared, the infatuation for
these fine-looking birds was excessive, and cocks were
used of these breeds to cross with the common fowl,
particularly with that of Houdan. From these crosses,
made without method, came mongrel fowls, but with
the size and strength of the males, whUst keeping
that delicacy of flesh which contributes to the success
of any fowl in France.' Here we have, as far as can
be traced, the origin of the FaveroUes, shown in the
subjoined table of descent.

Polish

Five- toed common fowl

Dorking \

I Houdan

Light Brahma j

FaveroUes.

It will be seen that to the Dorking and Houdan
influences are due the white flesh and legs and the
fifth toe ; to the Dorking the single comb ; to the
Creve and Houdan the whiskers and beard; to the
Brahma the feathering on the legs and the tinted-
sheUed egg. Mr. J. P. L. Marx points outt that
when first imported into Britain the single, comb and
beards were difficult to breed, and we should expect
from the ancestry that there would be considerable
variation.

History. — The name is obtained from a viUage
called FaveroUes, in the Department of Eure-et-Loir,
about midway between the towns of Houdan, Dreux,
and Noyent-le-Eoi, and in a district where poultry-
raising is carried on extensively, supplying a large
portion of the fowls sold on the Houdan market, one
of the most important in France. FaveroUes were

* 'Artificial Incubation and Rearing,' par Eouillier-
Arnoult (Paris), p. 33.
t ' New Book of Poultry ' (London, 1902), p. -157.

9i

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

gradually evolved without any definite desire on the
part of breeders to establish a new breed, who bad in
view the production of good table chickens and winter
eggs. It was stated by a visitor to that district in
1896 * that ' out of ten farmers [in the Houdan
country] nine keep Faverolles and one Houdans ; also,
98 per cent, of the fowls on the central markets of
Paris under tlie name of Houdans arc Faverolles,

cannot, however, be said that they are satisfactory
to breeders, due to the uncertainty in colour, bub
that is always the case with new races produced by
such a mixture as found in FaveroUes. That is in
process of correction, and the tj-pe will ultimately be
fixed. We can only hope that in so doing the sterling
economic qualities of the breed will not be spoiled, of
which there is always a danger.

which weigh several pounds more than the former.
About 1895 an Irish lady, who had attended the French
Poultry School at Gambais, imported a number of
specimens into the Green Isle, where they were found
most valuable; but in the previous year they were
introduced mto England, since which time they have
won a large amount of favour among practical poultry-
keepers, due to then' hardihood and prolificacy. It
* Feathered World, October 23, 1896, p. 438.

Economic Qualities.— The Faverolles is essen-
tially a business fowl, bred by reason of its hardi-
hood, prolificacy, rapidity of growth, and fattening
quality. A French writer has said that 'as idea,
farmyard fowls they started unrivalled, their superiority
being uncontestable, having large size, early maturity,
excessive hardiness, good laying properties, superior
quality of flesh, splendid sitters and mothers. No
fowls, either, are better adapted for cold countries-

FA\EROLLES AND MANTES FOWLS

95

owing to their small combs not being liable to be frozen,
and on account of their downy and warm feather
clothing.'

These claims have been fully supported by our ex-
perience in all parts of the United Kingdom, and the
absence of crest, which has been so fatal to the Houdan
in our moist climate, makes the FaveroUes the most
suitable French fowl for our conditions yet produced.
The chickens are quick in growth, and very fleshy.
As crosses they are excellent. In the spring of 1904,
in an experiment made at the College Poultry Farm,
Theale, the FaveroUes Bufi" Orpingtons made the most
rapid growth out of sixty birds. Five cockerels of this
cross attained an average weight of 2-9375 pounds and
eight pullets an average weight of 2-.3203 pounds in
twelve weeks. The hens are very prolific layers, more
especially in winter, of medium-sized eggs, and make
excellent sitters and mothers.

Description. — In body the FaveroUes is large,
broad, and deep ; the breast is broad, prominent, and
with a deep keel ; the back broad at tlie shoulders, flat,
and square ; wings rather small and carried well up ;
the neck is short and thick, well covered with hackle ;
head short and broad, with no crest, and a short stout
beak, horn in colom- ; comb single, moderate in size,
evenly serrated, and fine in texture ; wattles smaU and
fine ; it has thick, full beard and mufl's, short, and
standing well out ; earlobes white and small, hidden
by the whiskers ; the tail is full, with broad medium
sickles ; legs medium in length, wide-set, and strongly
buUt, but not heavy in bone ; toes five, firmly placed ;
the outer sides of the legs, which are pinky-white, and
the outer toe on each foot, are sparsely covered with
soft feathers, but there should be no appearance of
hock feathers on the thighs ; the carriage is sprightly
and active, but the birds are very tame, and can be
kept easily in confinement. Weight : males, 6i to Si
pounds ; females, 5 to 7 pounds. At first birds of all
colom-s were met with — partridge, salmon, red, ermine,
black, and white — but selection is graduaUy eliminating
aU but those named below.

Varieties. — As already stated, there is great di
vergence of plumage, but the foUowing are now
attaiuing greater evenness of colour. In all the beak
is horn, the legs and feet pinky-white, combs and
wattles red.

Salmon (Fig. 36). — In the cock, breast, wing-bar,
primary feathers, thighs and under-fluff, and tail black ;
beard and muffs black, ticked with white ; hackles ajid
wing-bows straw ; back and shoulders a mixture of
black, white, and brown. Hens largely wheaten-brown.

Light. — Like the light Brahma, namely, silvery-
white, but with striped hackles, and wing feathers and
tail edged with black.

Black.— Self-coloured.

MANTES.

NoMENCLATuitE : Maiites.

V.utiETY : One.

Classification- : Table.

Colour of Flesh and Skin : White.

Colour of Legs axd Feet : Pinky-grey, mottled

with black.
Colour of Egg-shells : White.

Origin. — The origin of this breed is difficult to
trace. In appearance its affinity with the Houdan
seems to be unquestionable ; but, excepting the plumage,
there are considerable difi'erences. M. Yoitellier, who
had the honour of first bringing it before the public,
says* that it was not derived from the Houdan, in
which statement he is supported by M. La Perre de Roo,
who says f that it has been known for a long period in
the Department of Seine-et-Marne, around the little
town of Mantes. Our opinion is that it owes its origin
to the same progenitor as the Houdan, but has been
bred on different lines for the purpose of meeting the
demand for a non-crested fowl, and that at some period
another breed — probably the Bresse — was introduced
as a cross. Upon that question, however, we have
no definite information.

History.— The Mantes fowl was brought to the
notice of the public in 1878, since which time more
careful selection has been made, and it is now largely
met with in the district giving it the name. So far as-
we know, it is not bred elsewhere.

Economic Qualities. — M. La Perre de Pioo thus
speaks of the Mantes fowl -.1

' Hardier than the Houdan, lively, alert, with- a
handsome appearance, beautiful plumage, of a good
size, a good layer, excellent as a sitter and mother,
the Mantes fowl has in the highest degree all the
qualities necessary for a farm fowl. It thrives well in
nearly all climates, and those who have tried it speak
weU of it. With light bone and a square form,
breeders who are known as producers of large quan
titles of flesh of the first quality are favourable to it.
With a remarkable precocity and a surprising adapt;
bUity for fattening, at the age of three months a
Mantes fowl, bred at the right season, can be brought
in a few days, without much effort, to a perfect con-
dition for kiUing. Its flesh is of a beautiful whiteness,,
fine, delicate, and as highly esteemed by gourmets as
the best Houdans or Crevecceurs. It is not surprising
that this breed has been placed among the first by
gourmets and breeders as one of the best for the
table.'

A fowl is met with in some parts of Normandy to
which the name De Gournay has been given. It

* ' Incubation Artificielle,' par Yoitellier, eleventh edition
(Paris, 1894), p. 190.

+ ' Monographie des Races de Ponies,' par V. La Perre de
Eoo )Paris, 1902).

t Ibid., pp. 84-85.

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

would appear to be an offshoot from the Mantes fowl,
but smaller in size, and does not require separate
description.

Description.— In shape, size, weight of body, and
colour of plumage, it closely follows the Houdan,
except that it is rather longer in the neck and leg, and
more upright in carriage. There is no crest upon the
head, and the comb is large and single, standing
upright in the male and falling over in the female.
It has large beard and whiskers, as in the Houdan. The
legs and feet are pinky-grey, mottled with black, and
only four toes are found on each foot. The absence of
crest is a distinct advantage in a moist climate.

CAUSSADE (OR GASCOYNE).

NoiiENCLATUBE : Caussadc.

Vabiety: One.

Classification : Table.

CoLOUB OF Flesh and Skin : White.

CoLOUB OF Legs and Feet : Blue-grey.

CoLODB OF Egg-shells : "White.

Origin. — Upon this point we have no evidence, but,
with the exception of size of body and short legs, these
birds bear considerable resemblance to the general
type of fowl found on the northern shores of the
Mediterranean Sea.

History. — The breed is found in the Department
of Gaud, in the province of Languedoc, in the South
of France, west of the Rhone Valley. It is said to be
bred there to a limited extent.

Economic Qualities. — A good layer, but a poor
sitter and mother ; flesh white and good in quality.
It is hardy and precocious.

Description. — Small in size of body, with very
short legs and neck, the Caussade is peculiar in appear-
ance ; plumage entirely black ; comb small and single,
standing upright in both sexes, though it frequently
hangs a little on one side in hens after they have
passed the second year ; wattles somewhat long, and,
with the comb and face, are bright red ; earlobes white
.and long ; legs and feet blue-grey.

FRENCH CUCKOO,

No:menclatuke : Coucou de France, Coucou de

Bretagne, or Concou de Keunes.
Vaeieties: Bretagne, Eennes.
Classification : General Purpose.
Coloub op Flesh and Skin : White.
Coloub op Legs and Feet: Pinky-white.
Coloub OP Egg-shells: White.

"In the north-western provinces of France is found
:a fowl which goes under the various designations
given above. The two varieties are often described
separately, but that they are the same is unques-
tionable. Some French authorities deal with them

separately, or mention one variety only, but others
recognise both. M. La Perre de Roo says :*

' There exists two varieties, which are only different
in that the comb is rose in both sexes of one, and
single, upright, and extremely well developed in both
sexes of the other.'

Origin. — We have no authoritative information
as to the origin of the French Cuckoo, but it is
claimed as one of the oldest races of France. From
what may be termed the natural conservatism of the
Brittany people, who are very little affected by ex-
ternal changes, and adhere firmly to their ancient
customs and animals, this opinion would appear to be
very reasonable. The peculiarity of cuckoo plumage
is, however, by no means rare, and among fowls in all
countries birds so distinguished are to be found. In
France, in Britain, in Belgium, and in America, recog-
nised breeds are well known, and have attained con-
siderable popularity. As has been pointed out, in
general cuckoo-plumaged fowls are very hardy, and the
coloration is very persistent. Frona its appearance,
there does not appear to have been any recent crosses
introduced into the Coucou de Bretagne.

History. — Whilst cuckoo fowls are by no means
unknown in other parts of France, this variety is
met with almost entirely in Brittany, where it is
regarded with great favour by the peasantry. The
rose-combed variety, generally called ' Coucou de
Bretagne,' or ' Coucou de France,' is chiefly found in
the northern part of the province, whilst the single-
combed variety is bred almost entirely in the southern
districts around the city of Rennes.

Economic Qualities.— The fowl is very hardy,
vigorous, a good forager, loving to seek for its food,
and to wander widely afield. The hens are excellent
layers, producing fine large eggs, but they are very
unreliable sitters and mothers, and do not become
broody early. The chickens are fairly precocious, and
can be reared without difficulty. They find a large
amount of natural food, and are accustomed to very
plain diet. The birds fatten well, and the flesh and skin
is very delicate and white, whilst the weight of bone
is small. One special feature of the breed is that both
males and females remain in profit longer than is
usual, showing great vitality. The Bretons regard it as
one of the most useful breeds of poultry.

Description. — In body the fowl is of medium size,
with a good frame, well developed in front, much
slighter behind, with hmbs very fleshy; the neck is
short and thick, well covered with hackle ; the head
and beak are thick and rather short, surmounted by a
large comb ; the wattles are of medium length, and

* ' Monographie des Eaces de Poules,' par V. La Perre de
1^00 (Paris, 1902), p. 5e.

BOURBOURG AND ESTAIRES FOWLS

97

bright red, as are the comb and face, which latter is
bare ; the earlobes are small, usually white splashed
with red ; the tail in the male is well furnished wth long
sickles ; the legs are short and strong, without giving
the bird a dumpy appearance, and are pinky white in
colour ; there are four toes on each foot, and the legs
and feet are clean ; the whole of the feathers in both
sexes have a ground colour of steel-grey, barred across
with blue-black. Weight: males, 5i to 7 pounds;
females, 4 to 5h pounds.

Varieties. — The difference between the two
varieties is entirely that of the comb.

Couoou DB Bkbtagne has a large rose comb, carried
well in front over the beak, and with a spike behind.
It is set firmly on, and covers the top of the head.

Coucou DB Rennes has a large single comb, upright,
carried well in front and behind, and evenly serrated
with deep cuts.

BOUEBOURG.

NoMENcLATUBE : BourbouTg.

Vaeiety : One.

Classitication : General Purpose.

CoLouB OF Flesh and Skin : Creamy-white.

CoLOUB OF Legs and Feet : Pinky-white.

CoLouB OF Egg-shells : Salmon-tinted.

Origin. — Although we have no direct evidence as
to the origin of this breed, which is acknowledged to
be the result of a cross, it is undoubtedly true that
much is due to the Light Brahma, as shown by the
colour of plumage, shape of body, and leg feathering.
From the appearance of the fowl we should deduce
that the Brahma was crossed upon single-combed,
small-bodied birds of the type common in the border
districts of France and Belgium, similar in many
respects to the Braekel and Campine.

History. — The Bourbourg fowl is now increasingly
bred in the Pas de Calais — that is, the part of Northern
France lying between the port of Calais and Belgium,
in the neighbourhood of Bourbourg, Bergues, Ardres,
Saint-Omer, and Hazebrouck, where it is very popular,
and nearly all the fat fowls supplied in the Lille and
Dunkirk markets are of this variety. Essentially a
bird for practical purposes, it has secured its present
status by its sterling economic qualities.

Economic Qualities. — It is claimed that this race
of fowls is very hardy, tame, yet a good forager, and
especially suited for farms. The hens are good layers
as a rule (but in this respect there is considerable
variation) of pretty salmon-tinted shelled eggs, which
are of medium size. Of late years there has been
a large increase in the supply of tinted-shelled eggs of
fine quality from the Pas de Calais, and they appear to
be produced largely by the Bourbourg fowl. The hens
sit early, are very faithful as mothers, but only become

broody about twice in the year. The chickens are pre-
cocious, quick in growth, and produce a considerable
amount of flesh, fattening well ; but as the prices for
chickens in that district are not so high as elsewhere,
the birds are not fatted nearly to the extent common
in other parts of France. The Bourbourg fowl meets
a demand for second and third quahty poultry, giving
large size without extreme flesh development, which
can only be obtained by careful fattening, but for
which any General Purpose breed is unsuitable. In
order to profitably meet such demand a vigorous,
quick-growing fowl is necessary, and in the Pas de
Calais this appears to be principally met by the
Bourbourg.

Description. — The Bourbourg is a full, medium-
sized fowl, with longish body, standing on rather short
legs, following the Asiatic type in that it is somewhat
upright and flat in breast ; the back is flat and large ;
the neck is medium in length, stout, well arched, and
abundantly covered v/ith hackle ; head large and short,
with a short, strong, well-curved beak, which in
colour is pinky-white, with several lines of pale
brown ; comb single, upright, well serrated, and rather
large, following the lines of the skull ; wattles mediiim
in size and bright red, as are the comb and face ; eyes
large and bright ; there is a small beard of fine
feathers growing upwards; the tail is of moderate
size, carried closely, furnished with sickles of medium
length ; thighs stout, well feathered, but not hocked ;
legs strong and stout, covered on the outer side with
short feathers, and pinky- white in colour ; the toes are
long, and four in number ; in colour of plumage the
Bourbourg closely follows the Light Brahma, namely,
the head, back, saddle, breast, chest, abdomen, and
thighs are silvery-white ; the hackles are white striped
with black ; the primary and secondary feathers of the
wings are black, with outer feathers white, and the
tail is black, on the outer sides touched with white.
Weight : males, 6f to 9 pounds ; females, 6 to 7
pounds. The constant tendency in these birds is to
follow the Asiatic type, more especially in shape of
body, in comb, and in colour of legs.

ESTAIRES.

NoMENCL.wuEE : French, D'Estairea.

Vabiety: One.

Classification : Table.

CoLOUB OF Flesh and Skin : White.

CoLOUE OF Legs and Feet : Blue.

Coloub OF Ego-shells: Brown.

Origin. — In this case we have the same basis as in
the breed above described — the Bourbourg — but it
would appear that both the Game and the Langshan
have been employed, and the prepotency of the last-
named fowl is evident, as in body, shape, and colour of
plumage it is closely followed. Among the poultry-

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

breeders of the Estaires district, with a view to the
improvement of table qualities, the Game was intro-
duced and crossed with the common fowl of the
district, and afterwards the Langshan, so that the
descent of the race may be shown by the following
table :

Game Common fowl

Langshan

History. — The breed is not bred over so wide an
area as the Bourbourg, and is found chiefly around
Merville, La Gorgue, Estaires, and Laventie, where
are produced the finest table fowls sold on the Lille
and other markets of the Department du Nord. These
are the birds which are afterwards sold there under the
names of ' poulardes de Bresse ' or ' chapons du Mans,'
and in appearance tliey resemble closely those races
when dead, more especially the last named. So far as
we are aware, they are not met with elsewhere, and
have been produced within the last ten to fifteen
years. That they are a recent production is proved
by the frequent appearance of gold-coloured feathers,
especially in the hackles.

Economic Qualities.— The birds of this race are
hardy, but tame and not disposed to wander far. The
hens are good layers of brown eggs, of fine quality
but somewhat small, as might be expected from the
Langshan influence ; they make good sitters and
mothers. The chickens are fairly precocious, very
easily managed, and produce a fine quality of flesh,
which is very savoury, and they fatten remarkably
well. The pullets come into profit at an early age.

Description. — The body is large and long, with a
prominent breast, short tail, and giving the appearance
of a thick-set, meaty fowl ; the neck is of medium
length, with close hackle ; head moderate in size,
rather long, as is the beak ; comb single, large, well
serrated, and falHng over in the hen, but upright in
the cock, with wattles in unison, and both are fine in
texture ; the eye is not very prominent ; earlobe small
and red ; legs medium in length, stout, but not heavy
in bone, and slightly feathered down the outer side, as
are the outer toes ; in colour the legs and feet are dark
blue ; the plumage is bright black, with metallic
reflections, like its progenitor the Langshan, but of
the older type, as the long-legged modern Langshan
would be regarded as useless in France. Weight :
malesj 7 to 8 pounds ; females, 6 to 7 pounds.

HERGNIES.

In the last edition of M. Lemoine's work he refers
to a breed which we do not remember to have seen,
but which, from the description, is evidently related to
the Campine or Braekel. "We therefore translate the
following particulars -^

'The cock has a short beak, colour horn; comb
single, large, and upright ; eye black ; earlobes white ;
wattles round; wings white, marked with two black
bars ; throat white ; breast white, with circular pen-
cillings of black and grey ; abdomen white and black ;
hackles white ; sickles black, with bars of clear grey ;
legs dark grey.'

It is stated that the hens are good layers, and the
fowl breeds very true ; but as we have no further par-
ticulars, this notice must sufiice.

* ' Li Basse-Cour Pratique,' par E. Lemoine (Paris), p. 81.

CHAPTER VII

SPANISH EACES OF FOWLS

Castilian
Black Spanish
Minorca

Andalusian
Barbezieux
Prat

AT one period it was usual to designate as
Spanish nearly all animals and products
brought by sea from beyond the Baj' of
Biscay, and traders who imported goods from the
Mediterranean were termed ' Spanish ' merchants, as
the traders who imported from the Orient were named
' Turkish ' merchants. Hence the fact of certain races
being called by Spanish names was no proof of the
place of origin. But in this case the designation is
largely correct, for the races which have been usually
called Spanish undoubtedly originated in the Peninsula.
It must be remembered in this connection that Spain
was at one time the dominant Power in the world,
that she was mistress of the seas, that great portions
of the earth owed her allegiance, and her influence
was greater than that of any other nation. As a con-
sequence, intercommunication between Spain and
other countries was very great, increased by her
geographical position.

From what we have seen by personal observations
in Spain that country is scarcely Kkely to be specially
suitable for poultry, except around the sea-coast,
where the conditions are more favourable than is the
central tableland and among the Sierras. The fowls
found in the country, however, are almost entirely
of the light-bodied, egg-producing type. During our
stay in the country we never saw, either alive or dead,
a fowl worthy of the name for table purposes, and
those met with both in the rural districts and the
markets of the great cities were small and poor in
flesh properties. The better birds found in hotels
near the Pyrenees are almost entirely imported from
France.

It is interesting to note the remarkable uniformity of
type found along the northern shores of the Mediter-
ranean Sea. Our observations have extended from
Spain to the Balkan States, and we are informed that
a similar form of body is met with as far as Greece.

The Spanish fowls, the Bresse in France, the Leg-
horn in Italy, the common fowls of Austria, and the
Magyar in Hungary, have remarkable resemblances
varying in minor details as well as coloration of
plumage, but with uniform characters and qualities.
Nor is this surprising, as the conditions are very similar,
and intercommunication was easy between one country
and another. Even the great natural barrier of the
Pyrenean Mountains would not hinder interchange or
spread of animals, for the sea was at hand. Moreover,
for a couple of thousand years the relationships between
Italy and Spain, commercially and politically, have
been very close indeed, which fact may explain why
the Spanish and Italian fowls are more nearly ahke
than is the case of either with the French. We have,
however, deemed it more satisfactory not to classify aU
the Mediterranean races together, but to group them
nationally. The fact that they have a close aflinity
should, however, be kept constantly in mind.

CASTILIAN.

Nomenclature : Spanish, Castilian ; German,

Castellana.
Vabieties : Black for choice.
Classification : Largely non-sittiug.
CoLOUB or Flesh and Skin : Grey.
CoLOUK OP Legs and Feet : Black.
Colour of Egg-shells : White.

Although it is generally admitted that the difference
between this breed and the Minorca, as it has been
called in Britain, are slight, and that the two are
practically the same, yet, as the Castilian appears
to be the original type, not only of the Minorca, but
other breeds to be noted, we must accord it separate
consideration. It is probable that in the future, as
greater attention is paid to poultry in Spain and
more care is taken in the selection of stock bu-ds, the
tendency will be to the Minorca type. In fact, during

100

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

our visit to Spain we had evidenoe that EngUsh-bred
birds were being introduced to rejuvenate the native
fowls, and at the great exhibition lield at Madrid in
1902 the advertisements of the show and the medals
awarded at it displayed a fowl which differed but
slightly from those with which we are familiar, a
smaller size of comb and more upright body marking
the only apparent variations. But what was manifest
duruig our travels in that country is that this is the
common class of fowl met with, the great majority of
birds being black in plumage, dark in leg, and having
a single comb.

Origin. — We have no direct evidence as to the
origin of this fowl, but in Spain it is believed by many
that it was first introduced during the time when the
Moors held that country, and it is often called the
' Moorish ' fowl. It is widely distributed throughout
Old Castile, which
comprises a great
part of the table-
land to the north of
Madrid, as well as
Andalusia ; and Don
Salvador Castello,
Director of the
Poultry School at
Barcelona, says*
that it was formerly
known in the pro-
vince of Ciudad Real
and Zamora. In
the last named it
is frequently known
under the name of
' Zamorana.' But,
as already noted,
birds more or less of
the same type are
very widely distri-
buted, and may be accepted as the common fowl of the
country. Whilst the majority are black in plumage,
there is considerable variety m coloration and markings,
as is customary where care in selection is not made.

History.— PracticaUy nothing can be said under
this head. That birds of this race have been bred
for centuries in Spain is evident, but without any
special attempt, so far known, to fix qualities, though,
as a rule, the presence of one type indicates that a
measure of selection has taken place. We shall pre-
sently see how far the Castilian fowl has mflueuced
other races.

Economic Qualities. — The Castilian is essentially
an egg-producer, but, whilst in its native land the claim

* ' Avicultura,' par Salvador Castello (Barcelona, 1S99)>
p. 110.

is made that it is the most prolific of all races, we
have not been able to obtain any definite figures as
to the number produced per amrum. That it is a good
layer is evident, but whether by natural or artificial
selection this faculty has been developed we cannot
tell. Mr. Lewis Wright suggests* that the develop-
ment of egg qualities is due to ' the prevalence of the
Roman Catholic religion, which permits the use of eggs
when flesh is forbidden,' but that statement is hardly
borne out by the fact that in France, Belgium,
Southern Germany, and Austria, where Roman
Catholicism is preeminent, the production of table
poultry of one form or another is extensive. The
eggs, however, are not of first-rate quality, which is
explainable by the dry, arid soil m Central Spain.
They are large in size. The meat quahties of the
Castilian fowl are very mediocre, as the flesh is scanty,
dry, and poor in quality. The hens rarely sit, and
they are unrehable

,> i A

mothers. In fact,
as we have shown
with regard to the
Leghorn, in Italy,
only a moderate
percentage of the
hens evince the
maternal instinct.
Considerable im-
provement has
taken place by the
mating of Enghsh
Minorca cocks with
CastUian hens. It
is stated that the
fowls are hardy, but
are evidently slow
in feathering, a
characteristic of
the races descended
from the Castilian.
The fowls, more especially males,
body, flatish in front, with rather
long legs, and very active. They are, like their owners,
proud m carriage ; the comb is upright in the male,
falling on one side in the female, but small-medium in
size ; the face is red ; the earlobes are white, some-
times tipped with red, but, so far as we saw in Spain,
white-faced specimens are unknown ; the cocks have
large, well-shaped and carried sickles ; the legs are
well set, and the feet have four toes. Weight : males,
6 to 7 pounds ; females, 5 to 6 pounds.

Varieties. — Black (Fig. 37) is preferred, and vnll
doubtless become predommant, but Blues, Whites, and,
in short, nearly all the darker hues, are met with.

* ' New BookTof Poultry,' by Lewis Wright (London, 1902),

BLACK SPANISH FOWL

101

BLACK SPANISH.

KoMENCLATUBE : English, Spanish ; French, Espagnole ;
German, Spanier ; Butch, Spaantch Witwang ; Danish,
Sorte Hvidkinvede Spaniere ; Spanish, Cara Blanca
negra ; Italian, Spagnole ; Hungarian, Fekete Spanyol.

Vabiety : One.

Classification : Non-sitting.

CoLOUB OF Flesh and Skin : Grey.

CoLoCE or Legs and Feet : Dark slate.

CoLOUB OF Egg-shells : White.

For a long period of time this breed of fowl was
regarded as the representative of Spanish poultry, but
the result of our inquiries and observations is to show
that it is unknown in Spain, except in the hands of
breeders who have imported specimens. That it is of
the same family as the Castilian and Minorca races we
have no doubt whatever, but the evolution has been con-
siderable since leaving its native land, and its leading
feature — the white face — has been developed at a later
period.

Origin. — Many suggestions have been put forward
as to the origin of this fowl. Mr. Harrison Weir says*
that it ' might possibly be the breed alluded to by
Columella as having large white ears, and more given
to laying than sitting and bringing up their young 'i
but that ancient writer, S9 far as we know, does not
refer to white on face, and his remarks would equally
apply to the Leghorn or Italian fowl, to the Castilian
and to the Bresse. Probably the fowl referred to
by Columella was the progenitor of all these breeds,
which were conveyed along the Mediterranean shores
into France, and across the Gulf of Lions into Spain,
there to assume the different forms we now know.

In the earlier works on poultry the name Spanish is
given to fowls which had no relationship with the
present-day breed. Dickson -|- confounds it with a
crested race related to the Polish, and speaks of ' a
black tuft that covers the ears,' and says it had broad
round black spots on the breast, the rest of the body
being velvety black. And Dixon, a dozen years later,;
refers to birds imported from Spain in 1846 which
were ' in shape and carriage very much like the
Spangled Pohsh (except being much longer in the leg),
having topknots and a tuft of feathers hanging under
the throats'; but, as he says, the recognised Spanish
at that time were entirely black, with white faces.
Moubray, however, early in the century,^ speaks of
them as ' aU black, black legs, large red comb and
gOls,' but does not mention the white face. In the
crude illustrations accompanying his work that feature
is distinctly represented. Don Salvador Castello [| says :

'Our Poultry,' by Harr

F.R.H.S. (London,

14.

1902), p. 471

X ' Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,' by Kev _
Dixon, M.A. (London, 1850), p. 273.

g 'Practical Treatise,' by Bonington Moubray (London,
1824), fifth edition, p. 23.

II ' Avicultura,' par Salvador Castello (Barcelona, 1899),
p. 116.

' This [the "White-faced Spanish] is an extremely
rare breed, upon whose origin it is difficult to give an
opinion. It appears in aU foreign works as a Spanish
breed, and naturalists in old days seem to have been
under the same impression when they baptized it
Oallus hispaniensis. . . . Some say that before the
discovery of America the breed existed in Spain, and
the fact that it is found in Cuba and certain Repubhcs
of South America has given reason to suppose that the
Spaniards exported them there. Everything is pos-
sible, but it is very curious that there is no trace of
this breed either in drawings or in histories.'

He adds that he has no doubt that it must have
originated from some Castilian birds which had very
white earlobes and the defect of a white face. With
this information we must be content, but certainly it
may be accepted that the race, as we know it now,
originated in birds which came in the first instance
from Spain.

History. — It is evident that both in England and
Holland White-faced Spanish have been known for
centuries. Nor is this at all remarkable. Trade be-
tween the Peninsula and the United Kingdom has
existed for nearly 2,000 years. Spanish ports were
often the last points touched by ships ere they reached
our shores. And at one time both in England and
Ireland Spanish wines were imported freely. Further,
for a long period the Netherlands were subject to the
Spanish Crown, and intercommunication as a conse-
quence was frequent, whilst the large number of
Spaniards who lived in the Low Countries would
naturally be the means of introducing thereto what-
ever was rare or of value.

Mr. Lewis Wright, who remembers the older Black
Spanish, says* that they were bred in this country
' to a somewhat rough or cauliflower type of face,' but
that ' a second introduction of birds with smaller and
smoother faces came from Holland, precisely that
district of Europe which had been most overrun by
the Spanish armies under the Duke of Alva.' The
revised edition of Moubray, pubUshed in 1854, and
Wingfield and Johnson's ' Poultry Book,' published in
1853, both speak of the races being imported from
Holland. And Mr. Harrison Weir confirms this
view thus : f 'Its home for a lengthened period, as a
fancy fowl, has been in the Low Countries and Nether-
lands, though some say Holland only (sic). Yet cer-
tain it is that, within the last half-century at least,
the best bhds were imported either from one or the
other ; but the breed was for many years well known
and valued in England, especially among the silk-
weavers of Spitalfields,' who, be it noted, were de-
scendants of refugees from France and the Nether-
lands.

* ' New Book of Poultry,' by Lewis Wright (London, 1903),
't ' Our Poultry," p. 472.

102

KACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

Within the last fifty years the history of the Spanish
fowl has been one of steady decadence. In the fifties of
last century the classes were largest of all in the great
exhibitions. We believe at one Birmingham Show
upwards of SOO specimens were displayed. But no
race has suffered more from excessive breeding for
fancy points. Everything was sacrificed to the size
and texture of the white face ; to secure the smoothness
of face trimming became common, and to obtain pure-
ness of v/hite the birds were coddled to an extreme,
and protected from sun and rain, just as if they were
the most tender hothouse plants. Never a hardy fowl,
delicacy of constitution became general, and, although
the Spanish hen remains a remarkable layer of large-
sized eggs, the chicks are difficult to rear, slow in
feathering, unable to stand exposure, and of small
value to the practical poultry-keeper. Seldom seen
except in shows, they form a monumental example of
the folly of excessive development of arbitrary points.
The lesson is a severe one. We deal with the Spanish
not merely for its historical interest, but as proving
the necessity for avoiding undue exaltation of external
characters at the expense of vigour and economic
qualities.

Economic Qualities.— Spanish are very poor in
meat properties, as the flesh is scanty and dry. The
hens are excellent layers of large white-shelled eggs,
but these are produced almost entirely in the spring
and summer, as the fowls cannot be depended upon
for winter laying. Chickens should not be hatched
early — not before May— as they are long in feathering,
and do not seem able to withstand cold, more especi-
ally east winds. The old birds also are slow in moult-
ing, and sometimes may be seen almost entirely
denuded of feathers. At all ages they are tender
and soft ; and even when the race was bred on more
sensible lines they could not be regarded as hardy.
But we have known cases where they were hardened
by roosting in the trees all through the autumn, and
the result was a great enhancement of natural vigour.
Unfortunately, the tendency to weakness has been in-
creased by the fact that Spanish are almost exclusively
kept and bred in confinement, in order to protect the
purity of AN-hite on the face. Practical poultry-breeders,
if they desu-e to keep Spanish, should select the smaller-
faced birds, and rear as naturally as possible.

Description.— The Spanish is a small-bodied fowl,
of medium length, and full behmd ; the neck is long
and fine, surmounted with a large, broad head, upon
wliich is a deeply-serrated, tall comb, fitting close to
the neck at tlie back ; the wattles are correspondingly
long; as already mentioned, the great feature is the
white face, which in exhibition specimens not only
completely surrounds the eye, but extends well behind,
and, joming with the earlobe, hangs down lower even
than the wattles. The skin is like the finest kid in

texture, perfectly free from folds, but the smoothness
is only secured by plucking the small black hairs which
appear naturally. The smaller-faced birds are hardier
and, in our judgment, look better, as large faces are
abnormal in appearance ; the legs are long, giving a
' reachy ' carriage ; the plumage is rather scanty, fitting
close to the body, and the ^-ings short and carried close,
whilst the tail is of medium fulness, with large sickles
in the male ; the plumage is black throughout, with a
rather dull sheen ; the beak dark horn, and the legs
dark slate. Weight : males, 6 to 7 pounds ; females,
5 to 6 pounds.

Varieties.— Although White Spanish have occa-
sionally been seen, the Blacks alone are now recog-
nised. We have found references that nearly fifty
years ago many pure White Spanish ^^ere kept in the
Exeter district. In the 1854 edition of Moubray it is
stated that ' the first White Spanish were imported in
1846,' but the proof of this statement is not stated.

MINOBCA.

NojrENCLATUEE : Enqlifsh, Italian, Dutch, HiiaffaHan, Minorca;

French, Spanish, Miuorqae; German, Minorka; Danish,

Minorkser.
Vakietles : Black, White.
Classification : Nim-sitting.

Colour of Flesh akd Skin : Blacks, grey ; '^Tiites, white.
Colour of Legs and Feet : Blacks, very dark slate ; 'WTiites,

white.
Colour of Egg-shells : 'WTiite.

Origin. — Evidence has already been given showing
that the Minorca as we know it is descended from the
old Castilian breed indigenous to Spain. But, as
shown below, it would appear that birds of this type
were obtained from Minorca, which is one of the
Balearic Islands off the east coast of Spain. As those
islands are owned by the Spaniards, we inight naturally
expect the same class of fowl as on the mainland.
Don Salvador Castello* makes a very interestmg
suggestion as to the name. ' The two breeds [Castilian
and Minorca] are in my opinion identical, and whether
or not the English were the first to bring them into
notice on the other side the Pyrenees, we may suppose
that the first birds were taken from Andalusia, and
thence to Gibraltar, and that then, through a misunder-
standing, the English imagined that they had been put
on board at l\Iahon,t where possibly the vessel may
have touched, and gave them the name erroneously.
At any rate, it is a fact that this breed was exported,
and that the English, past-masters of the art of
improving a breed without destroying any of its
characteristics, have succeeded in transforming it in
such a manner that, although the characteristics of the
two breeds are identical, yet they are instantly dis-

* ' Avicultiira,' pax Salvador Castello (Barcelona, 1899),
p. 113.

+ The capital of the island of Minorca.

THE MINORCA FOWL

103

tinguishable. The theory here put forth might be
accepted from its probability were it not that we have
evidence which controverts it. Mr. Lewis Wright,
who has known the race for more than fifty years,
says:* ' The late Mr. Leworthy, of Barnstaple, who had
bred it since about 1830, told us that several lots had
come from Minorca, and that a friend and townsman
of his, a Mr. Willis, had been familiar with similar
birds in the island itself.' And also that Sir Thomas
Dyke Acland ' brought birds from Minorca direct in
1834 or 1835, from which a strain had been bred at
Holnioote for many years, and distributed through the
neighbourhood.' The Acland family believed that the
introduction of the fowl into the West of England was
mainly due to this importation. Further, Mr. John
Harwood, of Tiverton, one of the oldest living breeders

it may be accepted that, whilst the Minorca originated
in Spain, and possibly some of the importations came
direct from that country, perhaps brought by our
armies after the Peninsular War of last century,
importations were received from the island of Minorca.
Hence the designation given to them. It would be
well if we had as satisfactory an explanation for all
poultry names.

These remarks apply to the Black variety, which
was the true type, but the Whites were due to a
sport, by no means uncommon in breeding black-
plumaged fowls. One writer* says that in 1851 he
produced a pure white bird from Blacks with which
Blue Minorcas (now called Andalusians) were running,
and it is probable that others had succeeded in the
same way.

3.— Minorca Fowls of 100 Years

[Fi-om an old paintinfj.)

of the Minorca, and for many years honorary secretary
of the Minorca Club, sayst that he has been able to trace
the breed in the Tiverton district as far back as 1780,
when many Spanish and French prisoners of war were
interned there, several of whom, after peace was
declared, became naturalized Englishmen, and he
believes that it was by them Minorcas were imported.
In the same communication Mr. Harwood reports
meeting at Plymouth nearly forty years ago a sailor
who stated that he was a native of Minorca, and
always liked to see these old friends of his. An old
breeder in 1876 showed him a picture of Minorcas
painted in 1810, of whic4i a reproduction is given in
Fig. 38, showing a very pure type of hen, but the cook
represented is badly formed, too high in tail, and with
an ill-shaped comb. From what has been here stated

* ' New Book of Poultry,' by Lewis Wright (London,
1902), p. 391.
t Poultry, February 10, 1899, p. 68.

History. — It would appear that for a considerable
period Minorcas were known generioally under the
name of Spanish fowls, and afterwards as Red-faced
Spanish, when the White-faced became more common.
In the earlier editions of Moubray, as we have already
seen,T the description would stand for the Minorca, but
the illustration distinctly represents a Black Spanish.
By the middle of last century these distinctions had
become recognised. In Dixon's workj this is to some
extent so. He says in the chapter on Spanish : ' In
North Devon they call the Spanish fowls "Minorcas ";
others call them " Portugal fowl," ' and his description
is evidently that of the true Minorca, although White-
faced specimens are mentioned. ' The combs of both
cock and hen are exceedingly large, of a vivid and

* PouUrii, October 22, 1S8S, p. 523.
i" See Black Spanish.

t 'Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,' by Rev. E. S.
Dixon (London, 1850), p. 271.

104

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

most brilliant scarlet ; that of the hen droops over on
one side. Their most singular feature is a large white
patch, or earlobe, on the cheek, which in some speci-
mens extends over a great part of the face.' In 1853
classes were given at the Bristol Agricultural Show
for both Spanish and Minorca fowls, which is the first
instance we have found of prizes offered for the two
breeds distinctly.

The editor of the Cottage Gardener* replying to a
correspondent, said that 'the Minorca fowl of the western
districts of England is a bird somewhat lower on the leg
and of a rounder form than the Spanish ; and the white
cheek, the peculiar characteristic of the latter, is absent,
the earlobe alone being of that colour.' The 1854
edition of Moubray also refers to the Minorca as a sub-
variety of the Spanish, and it should be remembered
that the last-named breed was at that time in the hey-
day of its popularity, when Eed-faced specimens would
be regarded as untrue or inferior to the White-faced.
Thence the difference was recognised, and all later
works deal with the two breeds as distinct from each
other.

For more than half a century the Mmorca was bred
only in the south-western counties of England, chiefly
in Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset, whence it
gradually extended, until by 1870 it was almost universal
west of the Quantock Hills, only the Indian Game
dividing the preeminence where table poultry was
deshed. Around Barnstaple, Tiverton, Crediton,
Exeter, and Tavistock, it was bred largely and care-
fully. In 1875 and 1876 letters in the 'hive Stock
Journal brought the race prominently forward, and
the efforts of a few determined breeders, together with
the proof of its great value as an egg-producer, won it
a host of friends all over the country.

Early in 1882 the writer first called attention to the
Minorca in the columns of the Preston Guardian, and
within a few years it became by far the most popular
breed in the Fylde district of Lancashire, not for its
fancy qualities, but by reason of its wonderful pro-
lificacy and the large size of the eggs. Iji the manu-
facturing and urban districts it had no compeer until
the advent of the Black Orpington, and it entirely
displaced the Black Spanish under the conditions
which had given that race its popularity. The first
classes for Minorcas at the Crystal Palace Show were
provided in 1883. Abroad it has had a considerable
clientele, but never to the same extent as in the home-
land. Much has been done to improve the breed by
careful selection, but some of the changes have not
been beneficial, as noted below. The evidence is fairly
trustworthy that a certain amount of out-crossing has
taken place, chiefly by means of the Langshan and the
Black Orpington. The result is seen in the mainten-
ance of vigour, although for a time the racial characters
were adversely affected. The tendency to exaggerated
* Cottage Gardener, May 19, 1853, p. 129.

comb, to wliich many breeders have been prone, has
been counteracted to some extent by this means.

Economic Qualities. — The Mmorca is2par excel-
lence an egg - producer, and it is generally admitted
that, taking the weight as well as the number of eggs
laid, it occupies the first position ; in fact, whilst it
has several rivals, so far as the number of eggs laid is
concerned, there are only two, or at any rate three,
breeds which yield as large eggs. In another place*
we have shown that eggs from adult fowls of this breed
average 28i ounces per dozen, which figures were
obtained from several breeders. In fact, many strains
average more than this weight. But large size is
characteristic of aU the Spanish type of fowls, although
our observations have shown that the fowls met with
in Spain do not produce nearly so large eggs as their
descendants bred in our hands. How the increased
weight of eggs has been secured we have no evidence,
but we may fairly assume that it was due to selection
following upon change of conditions. The rich lands
of the south-western counties of England and of the
Netherlands would doubtless explain such increase both
in the Spanish and the Minorca, if followed by careful
breeding for this quality. For home consumption a
big egg would naturally be preferred, but the fact is
that for marketing purposes eggs from this breed are
rather too large, and those weighing 2 or 3 ounces
per dozen less are preferred. That is a fault on the
right side, however, for in many breeds the eggs
are much too small. But, further, these very large
eggs are of no greater value as food than those a Uttle
less in size. Our experience is that in nearly all eggs
from fowls of medium size of body the yolks are very
much the same ; and where eggs are very large, it is
due to the white or albuminous portion bemg thinner.
Hence the size is not a question of nutriment, but of
appearance. We recognise that the quality of an egg
must be largely influenced by the food supplied and
the nature of the soil upon which the fowls are kept ;
but where the conditions are equal it will be found
that a larger size does not necessarily mean an in-
creased food value. But, allowing for this, the Minorca
is one of, if not the most valuable, breed for egg pro-
duction. Upon the table it is fair, which is all that can
be said. The flesh is of a grey colour, but not very
abundant, and it does not fatten well. But we do not
expect a non-sitter to be strong in that direction.

Breeding for perfection of external characters has
not been altogether beneficial. AVe have already noted
the effect of excessive development of comb and ear-
lobe. The injury to the breed in this direction was
pointed out many years ago by the late Mr. W. J.
Nichols, who wrote : t ' It has been laid down by most

* Poultry - Keeping as an Industry for Farmers and
Cottagers,' by Edward Brown, F.L.S., fifth edition (London,
1904), p. 24.

f Stochkeeper, February IS, 1SS7. p. 92.

THE MINORCA FOWL

105

breeders that the lobes should be almond-shaped, rather
large, smooth in surface, and a pure white. To get
this clearness of lobe it is necessary that the birds
should be protected from cold winds and sun — in fact,
they have, to be shut up and kept in an artificial state.
Directly this is done the combs commence to spring,
and if long confined they grow to an enormous size,
eventually becoming so large and unwieldy that the

proved in otherrespects the Minorcas have lost somewhat
in hardiness, for they turn out to be of far less all-round
practical use than our Castilians. By running Minorca
cocks with Castilian hens I succeeded in obtaining some
valuable birds, which avoid the exaggerations in the
shape of the English Minorcas, and at the same time
are an improvement on our Castilian breed. Thanks to
the importation of this new strain, I have improved it

Fig. 39. — Black Minorcas.
{Bred hy Mr. A. G. Pitts, Highlrichje.)

base is unable to support the abnormally large growth,
and then over it goes.'

But the result is not merely seen in the softness of
the comb, but in general reduction of the vitality. It
is generally admitted that the Minorca is by no means
a hardy breed, which is equally true of the Spanish and
the Andalusian. Upon this point Don Salvador Castello
says :* ' My experience has taught me that although im-

* ' Avicultura,' par Salvador Castello (Barcelona, 1899),
p. 114.

without diminishing its hardiness, in this way perfect-
ing the external qualities without injuring in the very
least the purity of the breed.'

This is undoubtedly true, for we have found that the
Minorca is, compared with other breeds, more especi'
ally of the Italian type, unable to withstand cold,
exposed situations, and that it is slow in feathering,
generally a sign of weakness of constitution. It should
therefore, be selected where the conditions are favour-
able and there is plenty of shelter, more especially

106

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

against cold winds. It might be of great service for
practical purposes if Castilian fowls were imported
and crossed into it. But, at any rate, the utility poultry-
keeper should select birds of both sexes which are
medium in size of comb and with small earlobes. In
fact, if the latter are red it wiU be all the better, for the
fowls are almost certain to be hardier than those with
large white lobes. At the present time the Minorca is
more suited to the Western and Southern counties of
Britain than to the east coast.

For crossmg purposes the Black Minorca is very
valuable indeed, more especially where increase of size
in eggs is desired. Care should, however, be taken
not to cross with the slower-feathering races, such as
the Langshan or the Black Orpington, but to mate
with more vigorous breeds.

Description.— The Minorca is a full-bodied fowl,
with a well-rounded breast, giving a square, compact
appearance ; the shoulders and back are broad, and
the back long, sloping well to the tail ; wings are
medium in size, carried close to the body ; the neck is
long, well arched, and thickly clad with long hackles ;
the head is long and broad, surmounted by a large
comb, single, carried upright in the cock, and falling
over in the hen. Both by breeding and methods of
treatment the size of comb has been greatly exagger-
ated, and many judges and breeders have sacrificed
everything for size of comb and earlobe. This is a
mistake. Up to a certain degree in a laying breed
a large comb is a necessity, as there is a direct connec-
tion between the comb and the generative organs.
But if carried too far, a reactive influence is exerted,
and the strain upon the system reduces the vitality,
and consequently the productiveness. In fully-grown
cooks, 4 inches high by 5 from back to front is
large enough, and in hens 3i inches deep by 4i inches
long is as much as any hen can profitably support.
We cannot too strongly condemn the rage for excessive
size in comb, although a Minorca should have a large
one in relation to her body. Combs should be well
serrated ; the wattles are long in proportion to the
comb ; the beak is stout and long ; the eye full and
bright ; the face is bright red, without any sign of
white. As Mr. Harwood has well said:* 'The face
of a Minorca is its emblem of purity, the very
foundation of the breed. . . . Red is red, the harder
the better, and it extends to all parts of the face—
from comb to wattles and beak to where the lobe
adheres to the face.' Any sign of white is a blemish
which ought to be stamped out. A few years ago
many birds failed in this respect, and had it not been
fought strenuously, the distinctive mark of the Minorca
would have disappeared. Earlobes should be medium
in size, and almond-shaped. It must be conceded that
a pure white lobe is pleasing in appearance, but for
practical purposes that is of small moment. It is
* Fanciers' Gazette, March 19, 1897, p. 209.

merely an arbitrary point, and we believe that fowls
with red or reddish earlobes are more vigorous than
those which are pure white. To secure the latter,
birds are often coddled to a degree, to the weakening
of their constitutions. Even if we admit the white
earlobe, it should be of small size, and the huge
hanging folds sometimes seen in old exhibition stock
ought to be avoided. The tail is full, with long,
broadish sickles, carried well back ; legs are inediurQ
in length, giving the appearance of a somewhat low
fowl, although many birds, especially young cockerels,
look stilty ; the feet are well set, and the toes four in
number. The Minorca is a graceful, weU-proportloned
fowl, unless the comb is too heavy, and the hens are
full behind, as we should expect from such prolific
laj'ers. Weight : males, 6 to 7 pounds ; females, 5 to 6
pounds. Seiior Salvador CasteUo says,* m comparing
the Castilian with the Minorca, ' English breeders
have taken special pains to obtain bu-ds with large
combs, in some cases immensely spread out ; they
have made the shape more slender, and increased the
brilliancy of the plumage ; they have obtained greater
bulk and weight, and have, in fact, created a type
quite distinct from the Castilians of this country.'

Varieties. — The two colours are the Blacks and
the Whites, for, strange to say, a Mottled Minorca
has not been produced, an indication of the prepotency
of the black pigment in the plumage. Such a varia-
tion would be very welcome.

BL.iCK (Fig. 39). — The plumage is of a rich, glossy,
dead black, without the metallic appearance seen in
some breeds ; the beak is dark horn in colour, and the
eye is dark ; legs and feet are very dark slate ; earlobes
are preferred if white, but, for reasons already stated,
this is a point of no moment for practical purposes, and
they are better if small in size.

White. — Very few are now to be seen, and we
believe that they are less hardy than the Blacks.
Many have the appearance of almost albinoism in the
white plumage, which gives them a washed-out look.
They should be glossy white, with a white beak, and
the legs and feet are pinky- white ; the earlobe is white,
but the fowl would look better if, like the comb, face,
and wattles, this was blood-red.

ANDALUSIAN.

NoMENCLATDBE : Euglisli , Andalusian; French, Andalonse;

German, Dutch, Andalusier; Danish, Audaliisiere ;

Italian, Andalusa bleu ; Spanish, Andaluza ; Hunganan,

Andalnsiai.
Yaeiety : One.
Classification : Non-sitting.
Colour of Flesh and Skin : Greyish-white.
CoLouK OF Legs and Feet : Dark slate.
Colour of Egg-shells : White.

During our visit to Spain we saw throughout Castile
and the northern provinces many birds which differed
* 'Avicultura,' par Salvador CasteUo (Barcelona, 1899), p. 113.

THE ANDALUSIAN FOWL

107

considerably from the Black Castilian in colour of
plumage. These included speckled and blue, the
latter in most respects very similar to what we know
as the Andalusian. But such variations are common
in every land ^^-here black fowls are to be met with.
Unfortunately, our peregrinations did not extend into
Andalusia itself. Mr. Harrison Weir paid a visit to
Southern Spain in 1879,* ' and when there made every
inquiry respecting the blue variety round about Cadiz,
Gibraltar, Algesiras, Malaga, etc. ; but although I
visited several places where choice fowls were kept,
the so-called Andalusian appeared to be quite un-
known.' But upon this point our observations are
confirmed by Don Salvador Castello, who says if 'It
is quite possible that this breed came originally from
Spain, for it is found throughout our country.' We
do not, however, think that it has any special connec-
tion with Andalusia. That was a name probably given
because it was imported into England from the port of
Cadiz.

Origin. — This question does not present many
dif&culties. Given black fowls, from which whites
would come as occasional sports, the crossing of these
two colours would give blue or slate coloured plumage.
There is plenty of evidence hi support of that fact. It
is well known that in Devon and Cornwall fowls with
this peculiar cast of plumage were to be found before
any Andalusiaus were imported, bred from Minorcas.
Some years ago a writer, signing himself 'Devonian, 'J
said : ' In the summer of 1849 1 fell in love with one of a
brood of Black Minorca chickens — one I fancied the
owner called a " Blue Minorca." It was agreed that I
should have this one when old enough to be taken
away, and then my poultry-keeping began with a Blue
Minorca pullet (afterwards I found she was entitled to
be called Andalusian).'

A writer in the Cottage Gardener^ says that he
had made 'a cross between a White Andalusian
(? White Spanish) cock and a Black Spanish ; the
progeny are all blue— the colour of a blue pigeon.'
And another writer in the same journal says : || ' The
Black Minorca will often sport a white chick, and a
blue one also, however carefully bred.' Ferguson
says If that ' in Holland, previous to the naturalization
of the Spanish fowl, a domesticated bird, in colour a
dun or bluish-slate, though much inferior to the
Spanish, prevailed.' This writer has a very novel
suggestion with regard to the origin of the Andalusian,
stating that it was introduced into Spain from the
West Indies, and that** 'the Manx is the original

* 'Our Poultry,' by Harrison Weir, F.E.H.S. (London,
1902), p. 492.

+ ' Avicaltura,' par Salvador Castello (Barcelona, 1899),

J Poullrii, October 22, 1886, p. 523.
§ November 22, 1859, p. 119.
II Cottage Gardener, January .3, 1860, p. 218.
'i -Rare and Prize Poultry,' by G. Ferguson (London,
1854), p. 66. .-OK,

** Ibid., v. 69.

domesticated species of Spain. We have seen but
one specimen of the class, and believe it to be extinct.
They are of a bluish-grey cast of colour, and do not
present a white face, but possess white earlobes, which
are rather full compared to other varieties of domestic
fowl, although less than in the Black Spanish. They
have large combs and wattles ; are somewhat short
about the leg, both in shank and thigh-joint.'

We have not been able to trace any other reference
to this Manx fowl, but if the statement is correct that
it was the common fowl of Spain centuries ago (as the
supposed importation from the West Indies is clearly
untrustworthy), and that upon it was engrafted what
is termed the Castilian, either brought from the East
or by the Moors from Africa, we should have an
explanation of the special variations of Spanish fowls.
It is clear from many references which could be given
that grey, grey-speckled, blue, and slaty-plumaged
birds have been common in Britain, and under such
conditions the production of the present-day Andalusian
would be comparatively easy, for, as Mr. R. T.
Thornton has well said :* ' Take away the white face,
and the Spanish would become to all intents and pur-
poses a good Minorca ; go a step fru'ther, and eliminate
the black from the feathers except round the edges,
put blue in the place of black, and you would produce
a good imitation of the Andalusian ' — nay, the Andalu-
sian itself. It is interesting to note that at one time
an attempt was made to call the Minorca by the term
Andalusian, but the former retained its rightful cog-
nomen. Mr. Le^vis Wright saysf that the earlier
imported Andalusians had a small comb, which in the
hens stood upright, and that these were crossed with
Spanish, resulting in enlargement of the comb. Later
the Minorca was used, thus counteracting the tendency
to white on the face which was so much seen about
twenty years ago.

History. — The first recorded importation took place
in 1851, when a number of birds Were bought from
a ship's captain at Portsmouth. White fowls had been
known some years previously. ' Mr. John Taylor, who
has obtained many prizes for his Andalusians, found
great difficulty in procuring pure specimens of them in
Spain, where they are extremely scarce. Out of twelve
of the best that could be obtained for him and brought
to England, there were but three possessing the true
colours and indications of pure blood. By uniting
these with his original stock a vigorous and improved
progeny was raised.'J At first these birds were called
Blue Spanish or Blue Minorca, but the term Andalu-
sian was speedily adopted and retained. Since that
time a great change has taken place in the type of
fowl, and it would appear that the earlier specimens

* Stoclken'er, April 19, 1889, p. 230.

t 'New Book of Poultry,' by Lewis Wright (London,
1902), p. 399.

X 'Domestic Poultry,' by Martin Doyle (Loudon, 1854),
pp. 57-5S.

108

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

■were very gamey in type, so much so that many
believed they were a sort of Blue Game fowl.
The modern Andalusian has decidedly more reach
than the Minorca, and in respect to length of neck and
legs follows the Black Spanish, but the Minorca
influence is seen in the compact shape of body, as well
as in the comb. Formerly the latter was not so full
at the back, standing up more from the head, in
which respect it differed from that of the Minorca, and

Economic Qualities.— The Andalusian, like Black

Spanish and Minorcas, is remarkable as an egg-pro-
ducer, both as to the size and number of eggs laid.
In fact, it is claimed that they excel either of the
breeds named. Messrs. Abbot Bros., the well-known
breeders, record as to their merits in the following
eulogistic terms :* ' We have kept them entirely for
egg production, and found them such wonderful egg-
producers, of both size and quality, that we discarded

Fig. 40.— Andalusi

it was also finer in texture. But now we have the
rounder, heavier comb, though not so thick and large.
A further change is that the birds first imported were
not laced either in cocks or hens, or only to a very
slight extent, but that is regarded as a sine qua non in
a pure specimen. In spite of their good qualities, noted
below, Andalusians have not become popular in anj'
country, and they are chiefly bred for exhibition
purposes.

the common farmyard fowl kept before. We took six
pullets, hatched in April, and mated them with a
cockerel on August 1, and kept them until July 31
followmg, and the result of this experiment was
an average of 234^, or a total of 1,407 eggs. They
were kept under favourable conditions _— almost un-
limited grass run, with plenty of shade and shelter.'

" ' The Anclahisian Fowl," by L. C. Verrey (London, 1S93),
p. 15.

ANDALUSIAN AND BARBEZIEUX FOWLS

109

The eggs are large, frequently reaching 30 ounces the
dozen. These burds are good foragers, and yet bear con-
finement very well — in fact, the majority are so kept —
but they are rather prone to feather-eating and comb-
peckiag. What has been stated regarding the Minorca
applies equally to the Andalusian, namely, that they
are best suited to a Idndly soil and sheltered positions.
Like the other Spanisli varieties, they are scanty and
slow in feathering, and consequently unable to stand
cold winds. They make moderate table fowls, except for
the production of petiis 2^oussins, or ' milk chickens,'
for which they are very suitable, as they grow quickly.

Description (Fig. 40). — The differences between the
Minorca and Andalusian are that the latter is not quite
so long in body, which tapers rather more towards the
tail ; the wings are longer, and carried close to the
body; the neck and legs also are somewhat longer,
giving the appearance of a more ' reaohy ' fowl ; the
comb is of a good size, upright in the male and falling
over in the hen, evenly serrated and fine in texture,
the wattles being long and broad ; face bright red, free
from white ; earlobe moderate size, carried close to the
face, and white ; the head, hackle, back, and saddle in
the cock are bright, clear black, as are the shoulders,
wing-bows, and tail ; the breast and thighs have a
ground colour of silver-blue, with black edging or
lacing, which is sought for in the hen, except that the
head is black and the neck-hackle has black tips ;
beak dark slate, and legs also, or leaden blue. Many
of the birds are much lighter in colour, and others
almost black, for the Andalusian is a very uncertain
breeder. Weight : males, 6 to 7 pounds ; females,
4vr to 5^ pounds.

BABBEZIEUX.

NojtENCLATUEE : 111 all countries, Barbezieux.
VABiEiY: One.

Classification : General Piurpose.
CoLOUB OF Flesh and Skin : White.
CoLOUK OF Legs and Feet : Dark grey.
CoLOUK OF Egg-shells: White.

Although this race is generally included among the
French breeds, as it is chiefly found in the Charente,
the department to the north and north-west of
Bordeaux, for reasons given below we are compelled
to include it among the Spanish breeds. In fact, it has
been called the French Minorca.

Origin. — It is easy to conceive that the Castdian
breed would cross the Pyrenees into the South- West of
France, but we have no direct evidence of such
migration having taken place. The appearance of the
Barbezieux is, however, sufficient warrant for that
assumption. Evidently that is the opinion of French
breeders, for M. E. Lemoine says:* 'The race was

* ' La Basse-Cour Pratique,' par E. Lemoine (Paris, 1902),
p. 77.

created in the Charente, perhaps the result of a cross
probably it is descended from the Gascon fowl and the
Spanish.' If so, it may be accepted that the Spanish,
or Castilian, blood predominates, as the Gascon fowl
is small in body, very short in the leg, and differs
distinctly in type, although, like the CastUian, it has
black plumage and a single comb. That there has
been a cross used is indisputable. Probably the
following scale of descent will truly represent its
origin :

Castilian Gascon

Castilian

History. — So far as we have been able to learn by
personal inquiries in the Charente, the Barbezieux has
been bred there for a very long time, but we were
unable to obtain information as to actual importations
from Spain. Throughout the Medoc, and from
Bordeaux to the Spanish border, fowls of this class
prevail, although they vary considerably in colour of
plumage. In the Charente, however, there is greater
uniformity, due to more careful selection and breeding.
The changes to be noted from the Castilian, chiefly as
to quality of flesh and greater development of maternal
instinct, may be attributed to the rich soil of the
district in which they are kept, and to breeding.

Economic Qualities.—' The Barbezieux hen is a
good layer ; she produces at least 150 eggs per annum,
each egg weighmg nearly 2J ounces. She is also a
good sitter and mother, but she is very lively, and
does not like being distm-bed. She looks well after her
progeny when she sits in a place chosen by herself,
but does not care for confinement. The rearing of
the chickens is easy, and they develop in a short time.
They grow quickly, but must be supplied with very
nutritious food from an early age.'* The flesh is
delicate, fine, and white, and for table purposes they
are regarded with great favour. The muscle is not so
abundant as on many other races of fowls, and that
is to be expected from the ancestry, but it is very fine
in quality.

Description. — The Barbezieux is a large, long-
bodied fowl, rather long in the neck and leg, following
closely in shape and carriage the Castilian, in that it
is not so full in front as the Minorca ; it has a long
head, surmounted by a single comb, upright in the
male, falling slightly over in the hen, well serrated, but
not very large, and fine in texture ; face red, as are
the comb and wattles ; earlobes white ; the legs are
strong, and, with the feet, are of a very dark grey
colour.
*■' ' La Basse-CouT Pratique,' par E. Lemoine (Paris, 1902),

110

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

Variety.— Only one, that already described, is
recognised, although there are many speckled birds
in the district, evidently of a similar class.

disappearance of the other characteristics of the breed
which caused this increase in size.'

History. — As the breed has yet to prove its value
and to win general acceptance, it has no history to
record.

Nomenclature : Prat.
Vabieties: Uncertain.
Classification : General Purpose.
CoLOUB OF Flesh and Skin : White.
■ Colour of Legs and Feet : White, or light slate.
Colour of Egg-shells : Pinkish-white.

During a visit to Spain in 1902 we met with a
variety called the Prat, coming from a district of
Catalonia, near to Barcelona, which was distinctly the
best class of fowl in that country for table purposes.
We had no oppor-
tunity, however, of
studying it in its
native district.

Origin. — Don

Salvador Castello
thus accounts for
it:* 'Twenty years
ago the Cochin
China breed,
which commanded
such attention
abroad on account
of its exceptional
size — larger than
had been seen
before, especially
in hens, began to
be largely intro-
duced into the
Peninsula ; and it
is supposed that it

must have crossed with the old indigenous breed, then
still good, which was to be found in greater perfection
in the Prat than in other districts of Catalonia, and
where it was not subjected to so much attention or so
much crossing. The result was a hybrid of greater
size than the ordinarj', usually tawny in colour, with
feathered legs, which had never been a distmctive or
dominant characteristic of the Southern breeds. Then,
by a law of Nature, the above-mentioned characteristics
began to disappear in order to return to the type of
the hardiest breed, namely, the Catalan, whilst the
great size alone remained, being preserved by selection
on the large farms in the Prat. In this way we can
■explain the existence in Catalonia of a breed much
larger than is usually found in our Peninsula, and the

Economic Qualities.— 'The ben of the Prat
breed unites the quality of a pretty good egg-producer
with that of a perfect mother, which makes her of
great value on a farm. She lays between 100 and 130
eggs annually. Although she is not one of the greatest
egg-producers, this is compensated for by the quality,
for the eggs weigh on an average 2-4 ounces ; they are
very large and white, and have a reddish yolk, which
makes them all the more valuable. The chicks rear
easily ; they are rather bare in the earliest stages, but
at three months
are fully feathered
and very strong.
The flesh of the
Prat breed is the
best among all the
Spanish breeds.
It is white in
colour, takes fat-
tening well ; the
cockerels and pul-
lets are very for-
ward in their
growth, and may
be ready for eat-
ing in four or five
months, since they
put on the proper
amomit of flesh at
this early period.
In the year, or
even at eight
months, the Prat
produces really notable specimens both for size and
weight, and on this score need bear no grudge, as
has been said, against foreign breeds, which in this
respect enjoy greater celebrity. There are, perhaps,
certain limitations to bs considered in counting the
Prat among the pure breeds, for its colour has not
yet become a constant factor ; but, still, the charac-
teristics and general lines of the breed are sufficiently
defined to admit of its being considered a pure
race.'

Description (Fig. 41). — We quote from Don Salva-
dor Castello : * ' A good size ; weight, 6^ to 9 pounds in
cocks of a year old, and 54 to 7i pounds in adult hens.
The breed possesses a single comb, erect in the cook,

Fig. 41.— Prat Fowls.
(Fiviii'Avicultura:)

* ' Avicultiu-a,'
pp. 106-107.

Salvador Castello (Barcelona, 1899),

* ' Avicultura,'
pp. 105-100.

par Salvador Castello (Barcelona, 1899).

THE PRAT FOWL

111

and rather drooping in the hen ; colour buff, plain
or golden breast, greenish in the cook, and tawny
or partridge in the hen. The cock often has a showy
red and metallic sheen, red face, white earlobes ; the
hackles and sickles very prominent in the cock ; the
tail held high and erect, generally tipped with black in
the hens. The legs are free from feathers, are white or
slate-coloured and pinkish, and at the base darkish
horn-coloured. The hen has a deep body ; the posterior
appears very large owing to the feathers. The cock is

handsome and large. The hen carries much flesh, and
lays very large pinkish-white eggs. The preceding is
the most usual variety in the Prat, a district not many
miles distant from Barcelona, whence it derives its
name. But there are found a considerable number of
varieties differing from the description given, but never
black or white ; some have slightly feathered legs.
These varieties, however, are seldom much appreciated,
seeing that they recall the defects of one or other of the
breeds that contributed to form the Catalana del Prat.'

CHAPTER VIII

BELGIAN EACES OF FOWLS

Campine

Braekel

Ardenne

Malines

Bruges

THEKE is no part of Europe wliere the peasantry
have shown greater skill in the production of
valuable races of animals and birds, or have
given more intelligent attention to their improvement
upon practical lines, than in the Low Countries, more
especially — as a result of favourable conditions — in
what is now known as Belgium. The inhabitants of
that land are essentially practical. Their industry
and thx'ift are proverbial. The aesthetic appeals to
them to a very limited degree, or in other ways
than found among neighbouring peoples. Almost
every foot of soil under the control of the peasants is
utilized by them profitably. The land is hmited in
extent, and is very thickly populated, so that it is only
by intensity of cultivation that so large a production is
attained. We cannot forget that among small races of
bu-ds the Homing pigeon and the Belgian canary, as
well as several races of fowls, originated in that country,
where, more than in any with which we are familiar,
domesticated animals and birds have been employed
to maintain the balance of Nature between animal
and plant life. In all respects the Belgian peasants
equal the French for their industry, skill, and attention
to detaO, and we feel that in respect to knowledge of
the art of breeding they may be given the first place
among the nations of Europe. The amount of know-
ledge they possess is remarkable, considering their
lack of education and home-staying procli\'ities.

They are essentially self-contained, reserved, even
suspicious. Our friend M. Louis Vander Snickt
States that it is almost impossible to induce them to
reveal this knowledge, which takes the form of tradi-
tion handed down from father to son for generations.
If he is unable to obtain it, who can ? His explanation
is that during the days of the Spanish dominion, more
than 300 years ago, when the struggle for freedom

Flemish Cuckoo
Herve
Huttegem
Brabant
Antwerp Brahma

extended over eighty years, they had enemies on every
hand and a traitor in every stranger, so that they
became reserved and suspicious. The instinct of self-
preservation was so developed as to become part of
their character, and yet remains. We have had
evidence of this when travelhng through the rural
districts of Belgium.

From what has been stated it might be expected
that the races of poultry met with in Belgium would
primarily possess economic qualities, and that is found
to be the case. Although in later years breeding for
external character has grown to a considerable extent,
as shown by the large poultry exhibitions held there,
this branch is confined to amateurs, and has not been
taken up by farmers. As in France, the line of sepa-
ration between fanciers and practical poultry-breeders
is more sharply defined than is the case in Britain,
America, or any other country with which we are
acquainted. It is strange, however, that the Belgian
races have not found acceptance to any great extent
outside their own land, although, as we have already
seen, the Campine, or a similar breed met with in
Holland, was the basis upon which our Pencilled
Hamburghs were made, but modified considerably.
As to the Dutch breed common in Friesland, more is
said below.

CAMPINE.

NoMExcLATUEE : 111 all countries, Campine; except German,
Campiner Mijrven ; Danish, Kampiuere ; /Jmigarian,
Kampiue.

Vameties : Gold, Silver.

Classitication : Non-sitting.

CoLouK OF Flesh and Skin : Greyish-white.

CoLouB or Legs and Feet ; Slate-blue.

CoLOUB OF Egg-shells : White.

Origin.— It is generally admitted that the race
we now know as the Campine is of great antiquity,

THE CAMPINE FOWL

113

having been bred in the Low Countries for centuries.
One authority says:* 'They exactly answer to the
G. turcica, or Turkish fowl of Old Androvandus ' ;
whilst another states f that 'by tradition it dates as
far back as 1206.' It is probable that fowls of this
type were common over a great part of Europe, and,
as our poultry came from the East to the West, the
suggestion as to the 6f. turcica has much to be said in
its favour. Such divergences of type as are met with
even in Belgium, where both rose and single combed
fowls of Campine character are found, are to be ex-
pected in the absence of fixed standards, and where the

Antwerp and Hasselt, in the provinces of Antwerp,
and Limburg, a district where activity of habit is
essential to any breed, as the amount of natural food
available is comparatively small. Under such condi-
tions small size of body would be expected. At one
period the Campine was almost universal, but of late
years, to meet the demand for table poultry, another
and larger race has been introduced — the Malines.

Our first personal knowledge of the Campine was in
1885, during a visit to Belgium, but they did not offer
any special attraction, appearing very inferior to Ham-
burghs, and although reputed to be splendid layers.

Fig. 4'2. — Silver Campines.

economic qualities are the primary object. In this
instance we have a breed which can claim purity of
race for a very long period — one of the few to be met
with. Practically, that is all we know of it.

History. — The name given to the race is derived
from the fact that it is so largely bred in the Campine
country — that is, the dry, sandy plam lying between

* ' New Book of Poultry,' by Lewis Wright (Loudon, 1902),
p. 465.

t 'Our Poultry,' by Harrison Weir, P.E.H.S. (London,
1902), p. 588.

the eggs were small, very much below the require-
ments of our markets. In 1897, during a further tour
in the Low Countries, we were surprised to find that by
careful selection the size of egg had been greatly
increased, and that greater attention had been given
to purity of type. Our notes published at that time
led English breeders to import Campines, and the
breed has attained a fair measure of success, but
chiefly in the hands of exhibitors. Our interest in the
breed is by reason of its prolificacy, and we regret to
see that the merely external characters are unduly
8

114

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

exalted. In fact, it is being bred as a ' fancy ' fowl,
whicli is most undesirable. Abeadj' changes can be
noted which are unnatural, although the testimony as to
its wonderful egg-laying is universal. A further point
to be kept in view is that many so-called Campines in
this country are really Braekels, whilst in others the
Hamburgh influence is evident.

Economic Qualities. — The Campine is hardy
under favourable conditions, precocious, a small eater,
and an excellent forager, but it does not easily adapt
itself to confinement, more especially when it has
little to do in the way of scratching for food. The
chickens are very rapid growers, and at an early age
carry a considerable quantity of flesh, which is wonder-
fully delicate. For this reason they are largely used
in Belgium as milk chickens (poulets de lait). But,
like all the non-sitting races of that type, with increased
age the flesh becomes hard and is fibrous. It is as an
egg-producer that the breed excels, and high averages
have been secured, certainly well over 200 per annum.
As already mentioned, the eggs are of a good size, in
the case of adult hens weighing over 2 ounces each.
We believe that these birds are more successful upon
lighter lands than on heavy soils, which is to be ex-
pected from their habitat in Belgium.

Description. — The body of a Campine, whilst
small, is long, with a fuU, round, breast, as in the
Hamburgh, but it is neither wide or deep ; the prin-
cipal point of difference, except plumage markings,
is the comb, which is single in both sexes, large, and
falling over in the hen, evenly but not deeply serrated,
and with the wattles and face of a bright red ; earlobes
are bluish-white, and inclined to almond shape, but
small in size ; legs and feet dark slate-blue. Weight :
males, 4^ to 5 pounds ; females, 3i to 4 pounds. The
carriage of the Campine is scarcely so proud or graceful
as that of the Hamburgh, and the markings of the
plumage less regular and are coarser.

Varieties. — As in the Pencilled Hamburgh, there
are two varieties, the Gold and the Silver. In each of
these the markings are the same. The neck-hackle in
both sexes and the saddle-hackle in cocks is of the
ground colours named below, whilst the rest of the
body has broad bars of black, not so fine as in Pencilled
Hamburghs, and less regular. The sickles in the cocks
are black, with a bar of the ground colour.

Gold. — The ground colour in this variety is of a
golden yellow, but not brilliant — in fact, rather dulL

Silver (Fig. 42). — Here the ground colour is silvery-
white, but tending more to white.

BE,AEKEL.

NojiENCLATUKE : In all countries, Braekel.
Vabieties : Gold, Silver, Black-headed, White,

Chamois, Black, Blue.
Classification : Non-sitting.
CoLouK OF Flesh and Skin : Greyish-white.
CoLOUK OF Legs and Feet : Slate-blue.
CoLouB OF Egg-shells : White.

Origin. — What has been already said regarding the
Campine is equally true of the Braekel, which, from
the evidence obtainable, is descended from the same
stock, such variations as are noted below being due to
the different conditions under which they have been
bred. The name was probably given to them because
they were bred extensivelj' in the neighbourhood of
Nederbraekel, in Flanders. M. Vander Snickt suggests*
that these Belgian breeds, together with others found
in Germany, Italy, France, and Spain, came from the
East, by way of Bussia; but, whilst it is undoubtedly
true that the races of poultry met with in Russia
migrated there from Asia, as did the European breeds,
we have no evidence in support of the view that it was
by way of Eussia, and think the course of travel
was further south. Whether such modifications as
exist between the Campine and the Braekel are due
to Asiatic blood, which has increased the size of
body, cannot be decided, but that is not the view of
M. Vander Snickt, who regards both breeds as
originally the same, and, in a letter to the writer
says : ' We call Campines the Braekels that became
smaller on the arid sands of La Campine, where, as you
know, it is so warm.' The effect of soil and chmate in
the evolution of races is very great. As the same
careful authority says :t ' The Campine remains small
upon the poor Campine sand, upon which it wanders to
seek food. It deviates into the Braekel — that is to say,
becomes larger — upon the rich Flemish soQ, where the
farmers provide the birds with succulent and abundant
nourishment.' The two breeds are fed on the same
food, he explains, but the Braekel grows larger among
the rich crops, and the Campine wanders freely upon
the dry soil which exclusively supports it. Nearly
all the French authorities regard these breeds as the
same, and in point of origin that is true, but they are
now sufliciently apart to warrant separate classification.

History. — The Braekel is chiefly met with in the
West of Belgium — that is, the province of Flanders —
where it is extensively bred, and has been kept for a
long period. It is also met with in Northern France.
Until recent years it was scarcely known outside
that area, but regarded as a common fowl of no special
value. Fortune favoured the Campine, in that it was
more within the range of observation, and bred near
to Brussels, Malines, and Antwerp. Hence it was
taken up by amatem-s, written about by students of

• Chassc et Peche, February 26, 1899, p. 348.
t Ibid., August 21, 1898, p. 683.

THE BRAEKEL FOWL

115

poultry culture, and obtained classification at exhibi-
tions. We had paid several visits to Belgium, seeing
the Campine each time, but not a Braekel until 1897
Had our friend M Vander Snickt m tlie last nimed

Fig. 43. — Silver Braekel Cock.

year, conducted Mr. A. F. Hunter (then editor of Farm
Poultry, Boston, United States of America) and the
vpriter to the Braekel country, instead of that of the
Campine, probably the former would have been intro-
duced into Britain rather than the latter. Since that
time we have had Campines, but laany bearing that
name are really Braekels. Our first importation of
the Braekel was in 1898 ; but whilst we found them
splendid layers, they did not prove to be as vigorous
as could be desired.

Economic Qualities.— The following particulars
are taken from Chasse et Piclie :* ' Its large eggs are
so much sought for upon the markets, and the chickens
bought for farms, that attention has been attracted to
this fine old race. All the farmers, large and small,
breed them in preference to any other. The Braekel
has, further, the speciality of producing the finest
poulets de qrains in the world. This precocity is
not due to chance : it has been bred for during a long
period. The chicken is no sooner out of the shell
than the comb is developed; at three weeks the
cockerels commence to crow ; at six weeks they begin
to drive about the hens. This unheard-of precocity
is needed. . . . The Braekel chicken is as much
developed at six weeks as a Coucou de Malines at six

months. It can be killed as an ordinary poulets de
grains ; it can be fed in eight days, in order to give
it the appearance of a fat fowl, to which it is inferior
in size, but superior in quality.' Like all the non-
sitting races, at a greater age it loses flesh qualities.
The breed is fairly hardy, and is remarkably prolific
as a layer, which latter quality may be attributed to
its great activitj', but also to the early maturity secured
by breeding. In this direction the sport of cock-crow-
ing has contributed greatly. Pullets have been known
to begin laying at three months and three days old,
and, as mentioned above, the eggs are large, those pro-
duced by adult hens weighing about seven to the pound.

Description. — The body of the Braekel is large
and square, following the Dorking shape, but it is
never found with white legs or five toes ; the breast is
prominent and carried well forward ; the neck is full
and of medium length ; the head is large and sur-
mounted by a tall, long, single comb^ carried well
before and behind, and with several not very deep
indentations. In the cock it is upright, but in the
hen falls over ; the wattles are medium in size ; ear-
lobes large and bluish-white ; eye should be black ;
the tail is full, with large sickles in the cock ; legs
medium in length ; feet with four toes, and slaty-blue,
with white toenails; the carriage is alert and active.
Weight : males, 5 to 7 pounds ; females, 4i to 6 pounds.

Varieties. — The leading varieties are the Gold and
the Silver (Figs. 43 and 44), in both of which the mark-

* July 31,

, p. 631.

Fig. 44.— Silver Braekel Hen.

ings are coarser and broader than in the Campine, and
are less regular. They need no other description, except
that in the Silvers the ground colour is creamy-white,
not silvery -white. Other than this the description given

1](

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

of the Campine will apply. Black and Blue Braekels
are ofBcially recognised in Belgium.

Pure White Braekels, as might be expected, are
sometimes found, and will probably be fixed. These
are due to the failure of black pigment in the Silvers.
On some farms in Belgium all the animals and birds
are white, but the White ]3raekels keep their black
eyes, blue bill and legs.

Specimens with Chamois plumage have been bred
successfully, obtained by crossing the Gold and the
White. In these there [remains the yellow ground
colour, but instead of black markings these are
white. They have evidently resulted from natural
influences, as they were not produced by selection.
This is a very pleasing variety, but difficult to obtain.

Another variety is called Black-headed, in which
the head and neck feathers are black or very dark
grey. These are stated to be among the most vigorous
and precocious of all the Braekels. Upon this in-
teresting race M. Louis Vander Suickt writes :

'The Black -headed Braekel was derived, I thmk,
from a cross with the Owl-bearded Dutch.* The
beard has been bred out, but the characteristic mark-
ing returns by reversion. The Black-headed cockerels
are very precocious, and assert their position very early.
As soon as the ornamental feathers are grown, the
Black-headed cock is the same as the barred, except
that the tuft of hair on his ears remains grey, and that
he is marked on the breast with round marks or
spangles, as in the Owl-bearded and the Hamburgh.
The three varieties and others are continually mixed,
when separately bred for the show-pen, to secm-e the
practical qualities and vigour of constitution.'

Of the Braekel there is a short-legged variety, called
the ' Braekel Courtes Pattes,' probably due to a cross
with the Courtes Pattes of France. Bespecting this
variety, we again quote from M. Vander Snickt :

' There is no need for making short-legged Cam-
pines, as they must wander at liberty ; but in the
land of Braekels, where population is very dense, the
legs are shortened in order to prevent them scratching
in the neighbouring gardens. For the same reason
the feet of these creepers are almost like those of ducks.
Specimens of the race have partly lost that character,
and become smaller, and that is why they are some-
times called Campine Courtes Pattes or Creepers.'

AEDENNE.

NoMENCLATUBE I Ardeiine or Ardennaise.
Vablety: One.

Classitication : General Purpose.
Colour of Flesh and Skin : white.
CoLouB OF Legs and Feet : Blue-grey.
Colour OF Egc.-shells: White.

Origin. — This breed is distributed throughout the

Ardennes, on the southern borders of Belgium. We

* See chapter on Dutch Races of Fowls.

have no information as to its origin, but from its
appearance and wild nature we should suppose that it
has descended from a race given full liberty, crossed
with one or other type of Game fowl.

History. — Here again we are without information,
but the breed is kept to a considerable extent in the
well-wooded Ardennaise, where the somewhat sparse
population would be able to breed it in a natural

Economic Qualities. — The Ardennaise fowl is
very hardy when kept under natural conditions, but
does not bear confinement well. It is an excellent
forager, wandering far in search of nourishment. The
flesh is abundant, the skin delicate, and it makes a good
table fowl if hung long enough to soften. The Arden-
naise poultry, when pure, has the reputation of very
fine flavour, as have the hams produced in that dis-
trict. The hens are fair layers of medium-sized eggs.
The breed has adapted itself to the cold, rocky Arden-
naise situation, 1,200 to 1,500 feet above the sea-
level.

Description. — The breed is of medium size, with
compact body, flat in front as in the Game ; the neck
short and thick ; head long and fine, but with a short,
strong beak ; comb single, medium in size, regularly m-
dented; wattles long and round ; eye red; face covered
with fine feathers ; wings large and carried low ; tail f uU,
with large sickles ; legs medium in length, fine in bone,
and five toes on feet ; the plumage in the cocks is very
similar to our Black-red Game ; the tail feathers are
so close that they appear almost as if there were but one
feather ; the hens as a rule are very dark in plumage ;
very active and nervous, as shown when approached
by a stranger. Weight : males, 5 to 64 pomids ;
females, 4 to 5 pounds.

M. Vander Snickt informs us that in the Liege
country is a common breed called Rumpless {la poiile
sans queue), which much resembles the Ardennaise,
embracmg all possible colours. It has black eyes, with
grey or red earlobes. These hens, kept on isolated
farms, are also called xmidcs dcs haies (hedge fowls).
They are very good layers, hardy, but shy, and escape
easily where there are many foxes.

MALINES.

Nomenclature: English, French, MaJines; Gei-man,
Danish, Meohelner; butch, Meohelsche ; S^ianish,
Malines.

Vabieties : Couoou, White.

Classification : General Purpose.

Colour of Flesh and Skin : Cream.

Colour op Legs and Feet : Bosy-white.

Colour of Egg-shells : Pale brown.

Origin. — It is generally admitted that the Malines
fowl is due to a cross between the Antwerp Brahma and
the common fowl of the country, which, as we have
already seen, is now the Campine, but at one time was

THE MALINES FOWE

117

the Flemish Cuckoo. From such evidence as we have
been able to obtain, it is more than probable that
twenty years ago and upwards, when this cross was
made, there had not been such careful selection as at
present, and that the fowl of the country partook more
of a Braekel character, so far as markings on the
plumage are concerned, which would explain to some
extent the cuckoo colour, though that is by no means
uncommon where birds with black and white feathers
are mated together. M. L. Vander Snickt suggests* that
other influences are apparent, and that the Langshan
has been employed as well as the Brahma. This is
supported to some extent by the tendency to black in
the plumage and by the single comb. It is probable,
however, that the Coucou de Flandre has also been
used, but upon that point direct evidence is wanting.
We may accept the following table of descent as ap-
proximately correct :

Langshan
Antwerp Brahma

Campine (or Flemish Cuckoo)

Coucou de Malines.

The first type was the Cuckoo, from which the
Whites are sports.

History. — The breed appears to have been existing
in one form for centuries, but the modern type was
introduced by M. de Winter from 1850 to 1860 in the
Mahnes district of Belgium — that is, the province of
Brabant, to the north-east of the city of Brussels —
and has extended to the borders of the Escaut, near
Termonde. During a visit to these districts we found
it almost as popular as with the Campine, more es-
pecially where the production of table poultry is
specialized. It is with a view to meeting the demand
for large-bodied, well-fleshed birds that it is raised,
and the birds which are known as poulets and pou-
lardes de Bruxelles are entirely Malines. This race
has not extended much beyond the country of its
origin, but where tried has proved very useful for
utility purposes.

Economic Qualities. — In spite of the fact that
the Malines fowl is bred primarily for its table quah-
ties, we are compelled to include it in the General Pur-
pose class, by reason of the fact that it is heavy in bone,
and that it is consequently not a rapid grower, though
superior in this respect to most of the races embraced
in the same category. The flesh produced, which is
creamy-white, is also more upon the thighs than in the
purely table breeds, but it is good in quality, and the
fowls fatten rapidly, due to their quiet, indolent nature.
For table purposes these birds must be killed before they
are six months old, and they are said to grow at the
rate of 2i pounds per month after the first few weeks.
* Chasse et Peclie, August 7, 1898, p. 652.

It is a very hardy fowl, as might be anticipated by its
origin, and the chickens can be raised with very little
trouble. The hens are good sitters and mothers, com-
mence to sit after they have laid twenty eggs, but, like
the Brahma, they are rather clumsy. The hen is an
ordinary layer, giving eggs which vary considerably in
size, but often small in comparison with the size of hen
producing them, or chickens emerging therefrom, as is
usual with all the Asiatic breeds ; the eggs are nicely
tinted, and are usually very round. These birds, as a
rule, are satisfactory winter layers.

Description. — The Malines fowl is essentially of
the Asiatic type, following more closely the shape and
feathering of those races, such as the Brahma and
Cochin, than does the Plymouth Eock. It is large
in body, and we have seen an adult cock weighing
nearly 13 pounds, but that was exceptional. The body
is long, deep and massive, with a prominent breast
and straight keel ; the neck is short, well curved, and
thickly covered with feathers ; the head strong, well
proportioned to the size of the bird, with a reddish-
white beak pencilled with black ; eye orange ; comb
single, small in size, standing upright, and partaking
of the Langshan character, not deeply serrated ;
wattles long and, like the comb and face, red, as are
the earlobes ; the wings are short, small, and carried
close to the body ; thighs and shanks are long, the
former covered with a soft cushion, the latter and the
feet are feathered on the outer side, but should not be
heavily covered ; the feet are strong and the toes four
in number ; the legs and feet pinky-white m colour ;
in the cock the tail sickles are short. Weight : males,
9 to Hi pounds; females, 8 to 10 pounds. In tem-
perament these birds are very quiet, and do not
wander much.

Varieties. — The two leading varieties are those
named below, but, as might be anticipated from a
cross of this kind, there are many variations, black,
yellow, etc., some of which may by selection become
fixed, though that is not the case as yet. Blacks are
well spoken of when found, as they are vigorous and
hardy. We have seen birds with triple combs, thus
following closely the Brahma ancestry, but it would
be undesirable to perpetuate varieties only differing to
that extent.

Cuckoo. — In colour the plumage throughout is what
we call cuckoo — that is, the ground is blue-grey,
each feather marked with bars of dark blue, shading
into pale blue. The clearer the distinction between
these the better. The neck-hackle is more even than
the body plumage. Sometimes the tendency is in the
direction of greater density of colour. That, however,
is a mistake, and the paler ground colour should pre-
dominate, but show the markings clearly, giving the
appearance of a light-coloured fowl.

White. — In these the feathers are entirely white,

118

KACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

and they look very pretty indeed. The number of
Whites is much smaller than of Cuckoos. They are
preferred by fanciers, but the fatteners do not like
them, as they do not feed up well. The latter choose
for preference two-coloured birds, as they are regarded
as hardier than the self-coloured.

BRUGES, OK COMBATTANT DU NORD.

Nomenclature : JEnfilisJi, Danish, Bunganan, Bruges; French,
Combattant de Bruges and Combattant du Nord ; German,
Belgische Kaampfer; Dutch, Brugsche; Spanish, Brujas.

Varieties : Red, Black, White, Blue.

Classification : Table.

Colour of Flesh and Skin : White.

Colour op Legs and Feet : Leaden.

Colour of Egg-shells : Light tint.

Origin. — Fowls of the type known as Bruges are
common in the Netherlands and in the North of
Prance, but there is a great amount of uncertainty
as to their origin. It is claimed by some authorities
that the race has been known for centuries, and is
indigenous to the districts named, whilst others state
that it is due to a cross between the Malay and fighting
Game fowl formerly known all over Europe. That it
has many indications of Malay influence cannot be
questioned, but in respect to size of egg — which is very
large — we have signs of some other influence.

History. — Nothing is definitely known in respect
to the Bruges fowl, which is bred chiefly by amateurs.
Of late it has received more attention than was at one
time the case, but is little known outside its own
district, where its excellent table properties are fully
recognised.

Economic Qualities.— The chief value is for
table piirposes, as these birds carry a wonderful amount
of flesh, chiefly upon the breast, which, however, is
like that of all corresponding races, very firm and hard,
and birds require to be hung a long time after killing.
Eor that reason they are most serviceable when crossed
with softer-fleshed breeds. As might be expected, they
are somewhat slow in growth. The hens are very
moderate layers, but, as already stated, the eggs are
very large and fine in flavour. They make good sitters
and mothers. Both old and young are very hardy
indeed, splendid foragers, but require full liberty. The
chickens are v/onderfuUy precocious, and the cockerels
commence to fight when two months old, as a conse-
quence of which they cannot be easily kept by the
ordinary farmer.

Description. — In appearance this race clearly
indicates its connection with cock-fighting, as it has
powerful limbs and wings, with long reach and hard
muscle ; it is very large, with a well-developed breast,
massive in front ; neck long and strong, well covered
with hackle ; head large and long, very strong ; eye
bright and large ; comb and wattles small, the former

Tmeven ; earlobes small, red ; tail rather fuU ; legs long
and strong, well furnished in the male with black spurs ;
feet large and well spread, four toes on each foot.
Weight : males, 9 to over 11 pounds ; females, 8 to 9
pounds. The breed follows closely the shape of the
Indian Game, but is larger and heavier in body.

Varieties. — As in the English Game, there are many
colours, which we need not fully describe. The prin-
cipal varieties are named at the head of this section.
A favourite is the Blue, so-called, which is not very
pure in colour, but the Blacks are stated to be the
largest and most vigorous.

FLEMISH CUCKOO.

NoMENCL.ATURE : Eni/Ush, Flemish. Cuckoo; French, German,
Dutch, Coucou de Flandre; Hitngarian, Flandriai Ken-
dermagos.

Vakiety: One.

Classification : General Purpose.

Colour of Flesh and Skin : White.

Colour of Legs and Feet : Pinky-white.

Colour of Egg-shells : Medium yellow.

Origi n . — Very little is known as to the origm of this
fowl, which is met with to a hmited extent in Belgium
and on the French border. As we have previously noted,
fowls with cuckoo plumage are common not only in
Britain and America, but in various districts of Europe,
and the modern Coucou de Flandre has apparently
been evolved from this general type. What other
influences have been brought to bear are described by
our friend M. Vander Snickt, of Brussels, who states*
that ' the Coucou de Flandre is the ancient Coucou de
Malines, which existed for more than fifty years before
it was increased in size by orossmg with the large Light
Brahma of Antwerp.'

History. — In Belgium the Coucou de Flandre is
not very well known, and is chiefly in the hands of a
few breeders. It has been brought forward by the
efforts of MM. A. Detroy and Edouard Labbe, who
sought for and carefully selected typical specimens
over a series of about twelve years.

Economic Qualities.— The race is very vigorous,
and is especially suitable for heavy soils and upon low-
lying lands where fogs prevail, such as are common in
many parts of the Low Countries. The hens are
excellent layers of large eggs, which are tinted in] shell
and fine in quality, laying commencing when the birds
are about seven months old. They are good egg-
producers in winter, and make rehable sitters and
mothers. The chickens grow quickly, and can be
killed when three to four months old. The flesh is
delicate, fairly abundant, and white in colour, and
relatively to the size of body they are light in bone.

Description. — The Coucou de Flandre has a large
but not heavy body, very round, prominent in breast,
* Chasse et Peche, July 15, 1900, p. 673.

HERVE AND HUTTEGEM FOWLS

119

-with, a short back and wings ; the neck is of medium
length, covered thickly with neck-hackles, which just
touch without covering the shoulders ; head short and
thick ; surmounted by a large single comb, well ser-
rated, and carried low behind without touching the
neck ; beak short, strong, either white or lightly
ticked with pale horn colour ; the tail is short and
carried high ; legs strong and of medium length, yet
fine hx bone and pmky-white in skin, sometimes ticked
with blue-black, or in chickens with grey ; there are
four toes, which have white or clear horn nails.
Weight : males, 6| to 9 pounds ; females, 4i- to 6
pounds. The colour of the plumage in both sexes is
clear or silver grey, each feather crossed by bars of
blue-black, but generally there is a good amount of
white at the root of the tail.

the neck is of medium length, well covered with
hackle ; face clean and red ; comb singls and small in
size, the spikes thin and narrow ; wattles small ; ear-
lobes red ; it has well-spread toes, of which there are
four ; the tail in the male is carried high, with not very
abundant sickles. Weight : males, 3 to 4^ pounds ;
females, 2A- to 3i pounds.

Varieties. — Black. — The most common is gene-
rally called Bene. It is entirely black in plumage,
with black legs and feet, and white toenails. It has
black iris on the eyes.

Manheid. — This is similar to the Herve except in
plumage, which is blue, each feather tipped with
black.

Cdckoo. — Called ' Cotte de fer,' in which the
plumage is cuckoo, with legs and feet white.

HERVE.

Nomenclature: EiniHsh, French, Danish. Spanish,
Herve ; Oe.rman, Selfkanter ; Huncjanan, Liegei.

Vaeieties : Black, ISlue, Cuckoo.

Classification : Egg Production.

Colour of Flesh and Skin : White.

Colour of Legs and Feet : Black and Blue, dark ;
Cuckoo, white.

Colour op Egg-shells : "White.

Origin. — We have not been able to obtain any
satisfactory information as to the origin of this race of
fowls, which is bred to a limited extent in the eastern
districts of Belgium. It has a good deal of Hamburgh
character, but is longer in the leg.

History.— Whilst fowls of this type are to be met
with in the Liege district, the better specimens are
chiefly in the hands of amateurs. It does not appear
to be much known elsewhere, and is not likely to win
favour except among exhibitors.

Economic Qualities.— The chief quality of these
fowls is egg production, as they are very prolific, but
their eggs are small. They are very hardy, excellent
foragers, and thrive well on the high plateaus of the
Herve country, in the province of Limbourg, to the
north of Liege. On these rocky hills the cattle as well
as the poultry must be smaller than on the rich
pastures of the west. For instance, the cows kept
there are of the same race as the Dutch, which latter
are half black and half white, and weigh upwards of
2,000 pounds, whilst those of Herve are nearly black,
and do not weigh more than 1,200 or 1,300 pounds.
The same is true with the fowls. The chickens are
very precocious, and are largely used at that stage as
milk chickens {poulets de lait), for which purpose they
are excellent, but when older do not carry much flesh,
which, however, is white.

Description. — It is a small, active breed, almost
as diminutive as some races of Bantams ; long in
body, rather flat in front, showing the thighs clearly ;

HUTTEGEM.

Nomenclature : In all countries, Huttegem.
Varieties : Gold Cuckoo, Ermine, and many others.
Classification : General Purpose, and for brooding

of ducklings.
Colour of Flesh and Skin : "White.
Colour of Legs and Feet : Bluish- white.
Colour of Egg-shells : Tinted.

Origin. — The common breeding-fowl {race cou-
veuse), known probably for centuries on the meadows
of the Scheldt in Belgium, has been considerably
modified, and the modern breed called Huttegem
greatly differs from it. The introduction of the Coucou
de Malines has changed its character, but it is sug-
gested* that the Golden Braekel,the Buff Cochin, and
the Bruges fowl have also been used in its production.
Upon this point, however, there is a great amount of
uncertainty, and no definite records appear to have
been kept as to its origin. The appearance of the
fowl justifies these opinions, but we have not yet dis-
covered any actual statements which can be regarded
as reliable. The Audenarde district is very moist, and
its evolution has been in response to a need for a hardy,
vigorous fowl, able to bear the local conditions, in
which respect it appears to be successful.

History. — In the district bordering on the Escaut
River in Belgium large numbers vi ducks are bred ia
winter, and as the soil is very humid, a hardy fowl is
necessary for the duty of hatching and rearing the
ducklings. It is the need of rearing ducklings on the
ice and in the snow from October to mid- April which
has led to the development of the Huttegem fowl, as it
is vigorous, able to withstand the moist conditions, is a
reliable sitter and mother, and large in size of body.
As might be expected under such conditions, small
attention was paid to external characters at first, but
in process of time the two types named below have
* Chasse et Fechc, December 4, 1898, p. 158.

120

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

been evolved, which types are produced by MaUnes in-
fluence, and the old breed is recognised with both single
and rose combs.

Economic Qualities. — The maternal instinct
has received special attention, and the hens are very
ardent and early sitters, continuing broody for nearly
three months. They cover seventeen to nineteen duck
eggs with a successful result. The chickens are some-
what slow in growth, but fatten well both as chickens
and when older. The flesh is reported to be excellent
in quality, and the eggs are large in size and of a
medium tint.

Description.— The body of the Huttegem fowl is
large, so that the hens may cover as many eggs as
possible, and follows largely that of the Cochin, except
that cushion is not desired, but plenty of flufl: on the
sides, modified to some extent by the Bruges influence
already mentioned. The neck is very thick, with a
well-developed throat, and the head large. The legs
are short, and are well covered with feathers, thus
following the Asiatic parents, and the body feathers
are soft. Pour toes on each foot is the accepted
number. Weight : males, 9 to 11 pounds ; females,
7 to 9 pounds.

Varieties. — There are single and rose combed
varieties, in both of which the plumage is what is
known as gold ; that is, very similar to the Partridge
Cochin, but the markings are different.

Gold Cdckoo. — In this the neck-hackle is barred,
giving a cuckoo marking, and on the back, thighs, and
under-parts also; the comb is generally single, but
sometimes rose ; the earlobe red and ticked with
white ; the legs and feet bluish-white.

Ermine, Buff, or Gold. — Here we have more of the
Brahma character, for whilst the body colour is the
same as in the other variety, the hackles have black
markings, as in the Light Brahma. The comb is small
and rose, and the legs and feet pmk ticked with blue.

BEABANT.

NoMENCLATUEE : Beljiimi, Danish, Brabanconue ; Gennan,

y)»^cA, Brabanter ; l-Junijanan, Brabauti.
Vabieties : Black, and others.
Classipication : General Purpose.
Colour of Flesh and Skin : White.
Colour of Legs and Feet : Light slate-blue.
Colour of Egg-shells : White.

Origin. — How long this type of fowl has been
known in the south-east districts of Belgium cannot be
told, but it is claimed that it is a very ancient race,
spread to a considerable extent in the Walloon Pro-
vinces, from Brussels to Luxembourg. It is very strong
in its individual characters, and has decided relation-
ships with the breed which we call White-crested
Black Polish, but which on the Continent of Europe

is Imown as Hollandais — that is, ' Dutch ' — as the
last-named breed undoubtedly is a native of Holland.
M. Louis Vander Snickt says* that the Brabant is
' very common, not produced by crossing ; it is, on the
contrary, an ancient race preserved pure for a long
time, but which, after having been neglected certaiuly
for more than a century, persists by atavism in return-
ing to its original type. Its success is due to its
remarkable qualities.' Beyond this we have been
unable to proceed. There are those who believe that
the type has existed in Belgium for hundreds of years,
and we have seen that fowls of what we call the Polish
race have been known for a long time in Northern
France. t When we deal with that class of fowl it will
be found that the so-called Polish have a much wider
distribution than is generally supposed. In the absence
of more authoritative details we can merely state that
what is now called the Brabant fowl has been fahly
general in the south and south-eastern districts of
Belgium for a longer period than the memory of man,
and that so far as we know records do not exist which
will materially help us. It has been said by a careful
observer that this class of fowl was universal in
Southern Belgium in the eighteenth century.

History. — The name Brabanconne was given to
the race by M. Louis Vander Snickt, who had spent
many years in studying the various races of fowls met
with in the Low Countries, and to whom is largely due
their preservation from extinction, and the adoption of
definite lines upon which breeders can proceed to secure
some measure of uniformity. That gentleman ever
keeps the economic qualities in view of any fowl or
bird which he breeds or induces others to breed ; and,
whilst regarding the adoption of fixed standards as
essential to progressive aviculture, he places foremost
the productiveness in one direction or another. Our
attention was first called to this fowl in 1897, but it
had been undergoing the process of selection for some
years prior to that date, and the improvement is most
marked, but it will take some time ere all the influences
introduced as a result of indiscriminate breedmg are
eliminated.

Economic Qualities.— The vigour and hardi-
hood of this race is greatly in its favour, as it is
specially suited for farm purposes, more especially
upon land where it can find a considerable amount of
its own food. It is a remarkably good layer of large-
sized eggs, which are white in shell. As a rule, the
breeds which produce tinted shells lay eggs smaller in
size. The hens are non-sitters, which evidently means
that they are poor sitters, and cannot be depended upon
for maternal duties. The chickens are hardy and fairly
precocious. The hens are early layers, and excellent
egg-producers in winter. The males are very virile,

+ See Cre

, August 21, 1S9S, p. 683.
, p. S6.

BRABANT AND ANTWERP-BRAHMA FOWLS

121

and will serve as many as eighteen hens, whilst they
are small eaters. Pullets often commence to lay when
five months old, and the shells of their eggs are thick
and strong, so that they travel well. In respect to
table properties the race compares favourably with
many others, for when the birds are young they carry
a good quantity of flesh. It is, however, somewhat
hard when older. Keeping in view the importance of
increasing the output of eggs in the winter season, and
of supplying the market with what it desires, the
Brabant fowl is a race worthy the attention of practical
poultry-keepers.

Description (Tig. 45). — This fowl is very large in
body, giving the appearance of a strong, hardy bird,
but it is not equally heavy in bone. That it is evidently
a good layer can be determined by the shape of body.

the best specimens is black throughout, but there are
specimens which have a good deal of red in the
feather. Black, however, is preferred, and is de-
cidedly the most pleasing in appearance. The eyes are
black ; the legs and feet are of a light slate-blue.

Discussion has arisen as to the colour of the earlobe,
which must be white. There is no reason why that
should not be the case, but we cannot agree with the
suggestion that white-eared hens are better layers
than those with red earlobes. Some of the best layers
we have known had red or yellow earlobes, and we
regard this as to a large extent an arbitrary point of
no practical value, but which ought to be in accord-
ance with the colour of flesh and skin. A. yellow
earlobe in the Brabant would indicate a cross with
the Leghorn, as there has been a large number of that
breed in the district, but which is undesirable. One

FiL 4o — Be\bint Fowls.

which thickens considerably from breast to stern, and
there is great development in the region of the egg
organs. The posterior part of the body is carried
low, without the legs being short, and in the case of
the hens almost touching the grovmd. The neck and
legs are of medium length, and are as thin as pos-
sible. The comb is small, single, folded, and hanging
over the beak, and the head is surmounted by a small
crest, more in the females than the males, as the head
feathers are fiat in the cocks and not so apparent ; the
comb of the cock is erect. In fact, the latter, even
though of the purest strains, are often bred without
crest, that feature being dormant, for it is found in
their progeny fully developed. This crest should not
be as large or globular as in Polish ; as in that ease
the economic qualities and the natural vigour of the
fowl are correspondingly weakened. The plumage in

breeder* states that he obtams the largest eggs from
medium-sized hens, which confirms our own experi-
ence, and would indicate that it is an error to breed
for large size of body in a fowl which is designed for egg
production, as a smaU hen is more active than a large
one, and has, therefore, less frame and muscle to support.

ANTWEEP BBAHMA.

Nomenclature: Belgian, French, Jirainna.d'Anvexs; German,

Antwerpener Brahma ; Hungarian, Auversi Brahma.
Varieties : Ermine, White.
Classification : Table.
Colour of Flesh and Skin : White.
Colour of Legs and Feet : White.
Colour of Egg-shells : Tinted.

Origin. — This breed was imported directly from

China many years ago to the Antwerp Zoological

* Chasse et Peche, April 23, 1900, p. 479.

122

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

Gardens as a single-combed fixed breed, growing
•wonderfully the first five months. It is evidently a
pure Shanghai, and thus differs from both the EngHsh
and American Brahma and Cochin.

History. — The race has been bred for many years
in Belgium, but it is within the last decade that it has
received greater attention. Its influence is seen in
many directions throughout the country.

Economic Qualities.— A hardy, vigorous fowl of
large size^ it is said to lay an astonishing number of
eggs, is good as a winter layer, and the hens make

excellent sitters and mothers. It is good in flesh
qualities, and the chickens grow fast.

Description. — In general character the Antwerp
Brahma follows very closely the Light Brahma, but has
white skin, legs, and beak. It is feathered on the
legs and feet, the chief difference being that it has a
single comb.

Varieties.— Ermine, following the Light Brahma,
and White, the latter a sport due to failure of the black
pigment in the plumage.

CHAPTER IX
DUTCH EACES OF FOWLS

Breda
Crested Dutch

Owl-Bearded
Dutch

Friesland
Drente

It has already been shown that the Low Countries, in
which term is included both the modern kingdoms of
Belgium and Holland, the date of whose separation
was 1830, have been celebrated for poultry-breeding
for centuries, and that one at least of our British races
— the Hamburgh — owes much to Dutch influence.
The same is true in respect to a greater number of
German breeds of fowls. As might be anticipated, it
is somewhat difficult to determine in some cases which
breeds belong to Holland and to Belgium respectively.
For instance, the Brabant fowl is met with in both
countries, and may be claimed equally by each. It is
included among the Belgian races for convenience, due
to the geographical fact that the province from which
it takes its name is included in that kingdom, without
any attempt to suggest that it exclusively belongs
thereto. In fact, it appears to be met with as much
in Holland as in Belgium.

There is, however, one important point which should
be kept in view — namely, that when the Low Countries
were united the generic terms Holland or Dutch were
applied as much to Flanders and Brabant as to Fries-
land, and consequently the name ' Dutch everyday
layers,' given at one time to Pencilled Hamburghs,
might also refer to fowls imported from what is now
Belgium. But from the natural conditions of the
country, the more southern parts of the then kingdom
of Holland wouldbe more favourable to poultry-breeding
than the low-lying lands forming the Dutch country.
Even now it is evident that the Belgians are more
disposed to practical poultry-keeping than the Dutch-
men, and the latter have found greater attraction in the
development, of external or fancy characters.

BEEDA.

Nomenclatuee: Dutch, German, i'K'/Zj's/f, Breda or Gueldre;

French, Poule de Breda or Poide a bee de Corneille;

Spanish, Breda.
VABiETrES : Coucou, Black, Blue, White.
Classification : Table and Eggs.
Colour of Flesh and Skin : White.
Colour of Legs and Feet : Slate-blue.
Colour of Egg-shells : White.

Origin. — The Breda is generally acknowledged to
have originated in Holland, where formerly it was
bred to a considerable extent. From the appearance
it would seem to owe much to Asiatic influence, but we
have no definite records as to the basis upon which it
was formed. It is also said to have been used for
crossing with Cochins in later years. The Low
Comitries have had for centuries direct commercial
intercourse with the Far East, more especially when
Holland was a great colonial Power, and it is reason-
able to assume that frequent importations then took
place, which were used in improvement of the native
races.

History. — From such evidence as is available, the
Breda was at one time largely kept in Holland, but the
introduction of other breeds, which were either more
attractive in character or, as a result of changed con-
ditions, more profitable, lessened their number, and
they were almost displaced. Within recent years the
breed has regained a portion of its former position. It
has, however, not found many adherents elsewhere,
except to a limited extent in Northern France and
Germany.

Economic Qualities. — The Breda is very hardy,
a good forager, and the chickens are easily reared,
except when feathering, when they must be kept
from taking cold. The hens are prolific layers of large-
sized eggs, which are white in colour of shell, and they
sit rarely. The chickens grow somewhat slowly, as is
usual with heavy breeds, but the flesh, which is white,
is well placed on the breast, and is good in quality. At
a suitable age the birds fatten very well indeed, and
increase greatly in weight by this process. The Breda
fowl thrives well in confinement if supplied with an
abundance of green food.

Description. — The Breda is a large-bodied fowl,
weU developed, with prominent breast, strong thighs,
and rather long legs ; back broad and slightly sloping
to the tail ; the neck is short and well arched, covered

124

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

with an abundant hackle ; head strong and long, with a
stout, well-curved beak, which is dark at the base and
of a light horn colour at the tip ; the comb is rudimen-
tary, broad, covering only the front of the skull, and
having a depression in the centre which is unique :
behind is a very small crest of short feathers which lie
towards the back ; face and wattles, which are round
and long, red ; earlobes generally white ; the cheeks
are full and bare of feathers ; the iris of the eye is red
and the pupil black ; the toes on the feet are of medium
length, and on the outer side, as also the legs, slightly
feathered, thus showing affinity with Asiatics ; the
colour of the legs and feet is slate-blue ; the tail in the
male is very abundant, and carried well up. Weight :
males, 6^ to 9 pounds ; females, 5 to 7^ pounds. In
appearance these fowls are very upright, active in
habit, and sprightly in carriage.

Varieties.— The Cuckoo Breda is often called the
Gueldre. The feathers in both sexes, with the excep-
tion of the sickles in the cock, which are black with
grey grain-hke markings, have a ground colour of grey
■with transverse semicircular bars of black, giving what
is known as cuckoo plumage.

Black and White are each self-coloured, according
to the colour named. The Blacks are brilliant, having
metallic violet reflections.

Blues are much less common, and the plumage is a
mixture of blue and black, presenting all the difficulties
found in fixing this colour on any race of fowls.

CEESTED DUTCH.

NrorENCLATUEE: Dutch, HoUandsche Kmihoeniei;' English
(one variety), White-crested Black Polish ; French, Hol-
landaise Hunpe ; German, Hollaudsch Kuiilioen; Italian,
Olandese a Cuiffo ; Spanish, Holandesa Crestada.

Vaeieties : Black with White Crest, Blue with White Crest.

Classification : Non-sitting.

CoLODB of Flesh and Skin : White.

Colour of Legs and Feet : Blue-grey.

Colour of Egg-shells : White.

The race which is designated under the above title is,
so far as concerns one of the varieties, usually called
White-crested Black Polish in English poultry books
and exhibitions, and is well known under that name.
Many writers classify all so-called Polish fowls
together, regarding them as of the same race, which
plan is followed by the English Poultry Club in its
Standard of Points. Some of the most careful students,
whilst using the general nomenclature, recognise that
the Crested Dutch are distinct in several important
characteristics from the Gold, Silver, and Chamois
Polish, or, to use the Continental name, Padoue.
After careful study of the question we have come to
the conclusion that the latter view is correct. Hence
another name is adopted to that under which this race
is commonly known. In doing so we are acting in
accordance with the custom generally followed else-

where, and especially in Holland itself. It may be'
thought that in a work which does not consider the
exhibition or ornamental aspect of poultry-keeping
breeds like the Crested Dutch or the Pohsh should
hardly find a place. But considering the influence of
these races upon other breeds and their widespread
distribution, it is essential that they be included.

Origin. — The Crested Dutch has been known in
Britain for more than 100 years. Bewick refers to it
in his ' British Bhds,' and Moubray thus speaks of it
under the name of ' Poland ' :* ' The Poland fowls, as
they are generally called, were chiefly imported from
Holland. Their colour shining black, with white tops
on the head of both cock and hen. The head is flat,
surmounted by a fleshy protuberance, out of which
spring the crown feathers on top, white or black, with
the fleshy King David's crown, consisting of four or
five spikes. They are not so thickly covered with
feathers as some other breeds, and stiU less so with
down. Theh form is plump and deep, and the legs of
the best species not too long.' From which it is
evident that the Crested Dutch were well known.
Buft'on mentions that this type of fowl was known
in France in the eighteenth century. Wingfield and
Johnson state | that ' if we are content to trace the
countries through which we have received these fowls
it appears highly probable that they were introduced
into the Netherlands by the Spaniards dm-ing then-
occupation of the Low Countries ; and from Germany,
Holland, Belgium, and latterly Marseilles, we have
been in the habit of receiving our best specimens. To
all who are acquainted with the pictures of the Dutch
school the bearded Poland is known as a frequent
feature.' This is supported by another writer of about
the same period, :f who says: ' Polands, from what
information I can gain, appear to have been brought
by the Spaniards from the East, by them taken into
the Netherlands, and thence we received them.' What
the East here means is difficult to trace, for every
trading country at that time, if beyond Spain, was
regarded as East or West. From the peculiar charac-
teristics of these fowls, explained when dealing with
the Polish races proper, it is probable that they came
from Italy to Holland, and that they own the same
ancestry as the Polish or Padoue, but were bred in
Holland on different hnes. At this point it is unneces-
sary to trace the descent further. The Dutch and
Belgians for centuries have been skilled breeders of
poultry, and whatever came into their possession was
modified in accordance with their own ideals, of which
fact a striking instance is the White-faced Black
Spanish. Further, at the period referred to the inter-

* ' Practical Treatise,' B. Moubray, fifth edition (London,
1824), pp. 18-19.

t ' The Poultry Book,' Wingfield and Johnson (London,
1853), p. 167.

t Mr. B. P. Brent, in Cottar/e Gardener, August 26, 1852,
p. 343.

THE CRESTED DUTCH FOWL

125

commiinication between the Netherlands and Italy,
political and commercial, was very great. As already
seen, there is a breed in Italy at the present time, the
Polverara, which has several features in common with
the Crested Dutch, and by breeding could in a few years
be made to resemble it.

History. — There is very little to add in respect to
the history of the fowl. Bred first to a measure of
perfection in the Netherlands, the Crested Dutch was
distributed over Western Europe, and, so far as we can
tell, was introduced into Britain about the close of the
eighteenth century, probably at the time of the Napo-
leonic Wars, when so many English were in the
' Cockpit of Europe,' but possibly a century earlier, for
during the Stuart period many political refugees from
this country resided in Holland. At first they were
called Poland fowls, but as early as 1838* the term

feathers absorbing rain during unfavourable weather,
and the mistake made has been undue development of
that feature. Otherwise the Crested Dutch, as also
the Polish, would have proved one of the most valuable
of the egg-producing breeds. For that reason it can-
not be recommended to practical poultry-keepers. To
keep specimens in good form they must be protected
against rain, and during the growing stage, when the
crest feathers are forming, the chickens are difficult to
rear. Moreover, such a mass of feathers is useless,
and the food required to produce and support them is
wasted. That the Crested Dutch is one of the hand-
somest fowls we possess is generally admitted. It is,
however, more valuable for exhibition or ornamental
purposes than as an economic breed.

Description. — The standards issued in this
country have erred on the side of attempting to

Fig. 46. — Ckested Dutch.

Polish was used alternatively, and in 1850 came into
more general favour. They have always had a limited
number of admirers, but have never become popular,
for reasons stated below.

Economic Qualities. — There can be no question
that the Crested Dutch has excellent qualities, in that
it is very gentle and thrives weU in confinement on dry
soil and in a favourable climate. The hens are good
layers of large white-shelled eggs, which are fine in
flavour. They sit very rarely indeed, and can be
classed among the non-sitting races. The flesh upon
the body is more abundant than usual with this class
of fowl, especially on the breast, and is very delicate.
Any race, however, which has so large a crest is sub-
ject to cold in a moist climate, as a result of the head

• ' Poultry," by Walter B. Dickson (London, 1838).

make the Crested Dutch and the Polish into one
breed. We therefore prefer the description adopted
on the Continent. M. La Perre de Boo says:* 'At
the first appearance we find a striking analogy of
conformation between this race (Crested Dutch) and
the Padoue (Polish) ; but this analogy is more ap-
parent than real, and there exists between them
marked differences which warrant our not confound-
ing or identifying the two races. Smaller, but more
active and alert, a better forager, and more prolific
than the Polish, the Crested Dutch has the wattles
extremely developed in the cock and reduced to the
smallest proportions in the hen, and they differ in the
absence of a beard or muff. As a laj'er the hen is
more prolific and more prolonged than the Polish ; and

* ' Monographie des Races de Ponies," par V. La Perre de
Boo (Paris, 1902), pp. 266-267.

126

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

Dutch farmers, who recommend them warmly for the
formation of a laying flock, attribute to them all the
merits of the common fowl.' The body is deep and
short, with large shoulders and a prominent breast ;
the wings are of medium length, carried close to the
body; the neck is short and strong, fully furnished
with long, narrow hackle ; the earlobe is white ; the head
is short and large, with a bright horn-coloured beak ;
the comb is rudimentary, consisting of two or three
small spikes ; the crest is large, covering the head, but
falling from the centre all round in the cook, and
globular in the hen ; there is no beard, whiskers, or
cravat ; the legs are short and strong, with fine feet,
upon which are four toes, and of a dark slate-blue
colour ; the tail is very full, and in the cock abundantly
furnished with sickles. Weight : males, 5 to expounds ;
females, 4 to 5 pounds.

Black-ceested White Dutch. If so, they are extinct,
as we have never seen any specimens, much as we
have sought for them. Breeders have tried in vain to
produce what would be a very striking variation from
the general type.

OWL-BEARDED DUTCH.

NoMENCLATUEE : EnriHsJi , Owl-bearded Dutch; Dutch,
Uilebaard; i<'rc)!c7(, Barbes Neerlandais ; German,
Niederlandisch Pausbaokchen.

Vakieties: Black, Gold-laced, Silver- laced, "WMte.

Classification : General Purpose.

CoLOUB OF Flesh and Skin : White.

Colour of Legs and Feet : Slate-blue.

CoLOUE OF Egg-shells : White.

Origin.— It is very evident that the race under
review owns the same ancestry as the Bearded

Fig. 47.— SiLVEE-L.iCED Owl-beakded Dutch.

Varieties. — Of these there are two, as already
mentioned, but the best known is the White-ckested
Black (Pig. 46), in which the body plumage is black,
frequently with metallic reflections ; the crest in both
sexes should be entirely white, but it is diflicult to
obtain this in perfection, and as a result a great amount
of trimming is resorted to in show specimens, which is
a further explanation of the non-popularity of these
fowls.

Blue with AVhite Crest is a variety found in the
Low Countries, but to a much less extent than the
former, which it resembles in all respects except
colour of body plumage. That should be slate-blue,
marked with dark grey— one of the most diflicult
colours to secure in domestic fowls. Our remarks
above as to the white crest apply in this case also.

At one time it is said that there existed a race of

Thuringians described among the German breeds.
M. Houwink, Secretary of the Dutch Poultry Society,
suggests that it is probably a cross between the Ham-
burgh and the Brabant, but acknowledges that the
Owl-bearded Dutch is most frequently met with in
Thuringia and the Hartz Mountains. If that cross
gave rise to the breed, we should expect some record
showing that it originated in Holland ; but, as stated
below,* the more probable explanation is that it has
come from Eastern Europe in the first instance, and
been modified in accordance with local conditions.

History.— Upon this point very httle evidence is

forthcoming. The race is bred to a limited extent in

the Low Countries. If the relationship with the

Bearded Thuringian is accepted, it may be assumed

* See Bearded Thuringian, Chapter X.

OWL-BEARDED DUTCH AND FRIESLAND FOWLS

127

to have received the greater attention in Germany,
where a large number of variations are to be met
with. The chief difference between the German and
Dutch are that the former has a large single comb,
whereas the latter is small and horned.

Economic Qualities.— This race is very hardy,
easily reared, a good forager, and lays well if given
plenty of exercise. The hens are excellent layers of
medium-sized eggs, which have the peculiarity of
being nearly round, and are good sitters and mothers.
The flesh, which is white, is well distributed, but in
size of body they are small, and it is, therefore, not
very abundant.

Description. — In carriage these birds are very
graceful; breast full and body round; back short;
neck of medium length, well covered with hackle ;
head small, with short horned comb; beak strong

bow and flights, showing a broad bar across the
wing ; the tail is blaek, beak light horn, and beard
black.

SiLVEE-LACBD (Fig. 47). — In this case the ground
colour is silver -white, but ia all other respects
resembles the Gold-laced.

FKIESLAND.

NoMENCLATUKE : Eni/linh, Friesland; Dutch, Priesche
Hoenders ; French, Poules Frissones ; German,
Friesisohe Hiihner.

Vabieties : Gold-pencilled, Silver - pencilled, Yellow-
pencilled, White, Black, Cuckoo.

Classification : Non-sitting.

Colour of Flesh and Skin : Greyish-white.

Colour of Legs and Feet : Slate.

Colour of Egg-shells : White.

Origin. — These fowls appear to have been bred for
a long period of time in Holland and Western Germany,

Fig. 48. — Single-combed Feieslands.

at the base and short ; the wattles are very small,
and together with the earlobe, which is pinkish, almost
entirely hidden by the full beard, standing well out
from the cheeks and around the throat, giving the
breed its distinctive character ; the tail in the male is
carried high, with sickles of moderate length ; legs
of medium length, fine in bone, clean, slate-blue in
colour ; four toes on feet, and white toenails. Weight :
males, 4tV to 5i pounds ; females, about 1 pound less.

Varieties.— In the Black and White respectively
the plumage is self-coloured throughout, including
the beard, showing a glossy black in the former, which
has a dark horn beak, and silver-white in the latter.

GoLD-LACED.— The ground colour is golden bay,
with black lacing, usually found to a greater extent
in the hen than the cock. The latter has a dark
breast, slightly laced, striped hackles, bright bay wing-

and were formerly known as Assendelfters. Definite
information as to their origin is unavailable, but from
the appearance of the Friesland fowl it would appear
that these and the Campine own a common ancestry.
Such variations as have manifested themselves may be
attributed to the different conditions met with in North
Holland and the Campine districts respectively, m the
first place, and to the different ideals in breeding in the
second. But the resemblances are so great that any
slight variations do not affect the evident fact stated.

History.— Dutch breeders claim that the Friesland
fowl is the progenitor of our Pencilled Hamburghs,
and there is much to be said in favour of that opinion,
though, as previously stated, as much may be said for
the Campine. The pencilling of the Friesland hen,
however, more nearly resembles our Pencilled Ham-
burghs than does that of the Campine, in that it is

128

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

finer and more delicate. It is interesting to note in
this connection that there has existed in Holland for a
long period rose-combed Friesland fowls, called by the
generic name Hollanders, and it is more than probable
that some of these were imported and were incorporated
into the Hamburgh family, although it is equally true
that many of the ' Dutch everyday layers ' had single
combs when imported. As a result of breeding in
Britain modiiieations have resulted, as might be ex-
pected, and the Friesland is not built upon so fine lines
or is so perfect in plumage, but it is claimed to be
hardier and more prolific. On the other hand, there
has not been the improvement in size of egg noted in
the Campine during the last twenty years, the result
of careful selection with that end in view. It is only
within recent years that this and several other Dutch
races have received the careful attention necessary to

of the year. Their qualities as table fowls are mediocre,
except when very young, at which time they make
excellent milk chickens.

Description (Figs. 48 and 49).— The Friesland fowl
is similar in shape of body to the Hamburgh and
Campine, but larger in size ; they have fairly abundant
hackles, and large sickle feathers in the cock's tail ;
head small and neat, surmounted by a single comb,
standing upright in both sexes, rather large, reaching
from the beak to the back of the head, with shallow
serrations. In the Hollanders the comb is rose ; the
wattles are slender and fairly long ; earlobe small and
pure white ; eyes large, dark brown ; beak light horn
colour, or blue with white tip ; the body is short and
round ; legs fine, clean, slate in colour ; four toes on feet.
Weight : males, about 5j pounds ; females, 4-J- pounds.

Fig. 49. — Eose-combed Frieslaki

fixity of character, but the Dutch Poultry Club is doing
excellent work in that direction.

Economic Qualities.— These fowls are specially
noted as egg-producers ; hence the German name ' Todt-
leger ' and English term ' Dutch everyday layers '
given to them. Then* eggs are smallish in size, more
especially during their first year. They very seldom
evince any desire to sit, and when broody — like all
fowls of this type— are easily broken off. They are
very lively, thriving best when given fuU liberty, and
enjoy foraging for food, when they need but little
in addition to what they can pick up. If kept in runs
these must be covered over, for, like the Hamburghs,
they fly very readily and can surmount a very lofty
fence. They are shy of strangers, but tame with those
who attend to them. Hardy in constitution, they can
withstand all weathers, and it is by no means un-
common for them to roost in the trees the greater part

Varieties. — As in Hamburghs, Campines, and
Braekels, the Gold-pencilled and Silver-pencilled
are the leading varieties, and the description of plumage
of that first named may be accepted as equally applic-
able to the Friesland, so far as those two varieties are
concerned.

Yellow- pencilled. — Upon these M. Houwink says*
that ' besides the Gold-pencilled and Silver-pencilled
there is a Yellow-pencilled variety, which is a cross
between the two. They are of a dull lemon colour.
This is not frequently met with, and much patience is
required to secure colours thoroughly blended. Some-
times specimens are seen of a deeper yellow, which are
obtained by crossing White upon Gold-pencilled, and
it appears that black is more easily affected in crossing
than any other colour. In the above cross the black
becomes white, whilst the gold ground colour becomes
a trifle lighter.'

* ' De Nederlandsche Hoenclerrassen ' ( Jleppel, 1900), p. 23.

THE DRENTE FOWL

Whites and Blacks are uniformly self-coloured,
whilst the Cuckoos are pencilled black on a light blue-
grey ground.

In what are called the Holland fowls the same
description will apply, except in respect to the comb,
and the varieties are identical, save that in these are
found two others, namely, Gold-laced and Silver -laced.

DEENTE.

NoMENXLATUEE : English, French, Dreute; Dutch, Drentsohe;
German, Drentische.

V..a!iETiEs : Gold-laced, Silver-laced, Gold-pencilled, Silver-
pencilled, Black, Speckled, Partridge, Cuckoo, Blue,
Yellow, Black, White.

Classific.\tion : General Purpose.

CoLOCB OF Flesh and Skin : Greyish-white.

Colour of Legs and Feet : Slate.

CoLouE OF Egg-shells : White.

Origin and History.— M. Houwink says :* ' The
Drentsche fowl appears to have been left alone.

they know to be good, it speaks well for the utility of
this breed that they are still most frequently found
in that part of Holland.'

Economic Qualities. — The same writer says*
that ' these fowls are accustomed to the poor and meagre
land of Drente, and make the best of it. Considering
the size of body, the Drente fowl makes a fine bird
for the table, as well as a good layer, although it
cannot compare \\ith the Breda, which is of a bigger
build. But for ordinary peasants they are valuable,
as they are quite able to pick up their living and
require very little attention.' They are hardy, good
layers of fair-sized eggs, white in colour, good flesh-
producers, thrive equally in confinement as at liberty,
and make good sitters.

D esc r I pt I o n (Fig. 50) .—The Drente is a long-bodied
fowl, fairly long in neck and legs ; head small, sur-

FiG. 50.— Deente Fowls.

and remains, therefore, the nearest to the original
type, the G. Bamkiva, which, according to Darwin,
is the progenitor of all classes of fowls, the varieties
found in various countries being due chiefly to selec-
tion and crossing. That they are certainly an old
race is proved by a piece of needlework made in 1805
by a girl, then eighteen years of age, in which a
cock appears exactly the same as now. As the Dutch
peasants are well known to adhere to anything that

* De Nederlandsche Hoenderrassen ' (Meppel, 1900), p. 15.

mounted by a large single comb, well serrated ; eye
orange in colour ; beak light horn colour ; wattles,
long and slender ; earlobe white, almond-shaped ;
legs strong, clean, four-toed, slate-grey in colour ;
the males have fair-sized sickles carried well up.
Weights : males, 5| pounds ; females, 4J pounds.

Varieties. — As these are as yet very uncertain and
abundant, detailed description is scarcely possible.

* 'De Nederlandsche Hoenderrassen ' (Meppel, 1900), p. 23.

CHAPTER X

GEEMAN EACES OF FOWLS

Lakenfelder
Ramelsloh
Schlotterkamm
Bergische Grower

CONSIDEEING the extent of the German
Empire, the number of races of fowls which
have originated there is comparatively few.
Such as do exist are very much of the same type,
owing their characteristics in large measure to breeds
introduced from surrounding countries. This paucity
may be partly owing to the great uniformity of con-
ditions prevailing over many portions of Germany, but
may also be attributed to the fact that in that country
fowls have not entered into the food requirements to
the same extent as in Britain, France, or Belgium,
and eggs have been largely imported to supply the
needs of the population. Further, the Germans
have not given much attention as a people to stock-
raising, with the exception of one or two branches,
of which geese form a case in point. Within recent
years poultry-keeping has proceeded largely upon
fancy lines, and English methods followed in that
direction ; but there are evidences that a change is
taking place, and it is not at all improbable that there
are races of fowls in remote districts of which we have
heard nothing as yet.

LAKENFELDER.

NoMENCLATUBE : Dutcli^ Lakeufeller ; in all other

countries, Lakenfelder.
Vabiety: One.
Classification : Non-sitting.
Colour of Flesh and Skin : White.
CoLouK OP Legs ^wd Feet : Slate-blue.
CoLOUE OF Egg-shells : White.

Origin. — There is a great conflict of evidence as to
the origin of this race of fowls. Statements have been
made that they came originally from Jerusalem, and,
in fact, specimens have been displayed under the name
' Lakenf elders de Jerusalem,' but they own no direct
connection with the Holy City or with Asia, and are of
Western creation. So far as we have been able to

Moeven

Bearded Thuringians

Creeper

Augsburg

discover, they originated m West Hanover, and, it is
stated, they owe a good deal to Campine influence,
which can readily be believed from their shape and
general type ; but with what other race they were
crossed to secure such strDving modifications in the
coloration of plumage we have been unable to trace.
The name is thus explained :* ' It is said that the breed
took its name from the appearance of its plumage,
resembling white linen {laken) spread over a black
field {feld).' The word 'Lakenfelder' is plural as well
as singular.

H istory. — The first mention of the breed was about
seventy years ago. ' According to reliable authorities
it existed (in Westphalia or West Hanover) as early as
1835, and was then exhibited by Mr. Wirz, a collector
of Customs, at Haldem. It originated most probably
from the Campine, a breed largely kept in the same
district, which was bred with dark taU, and frequently,
also, very dark hackles. At present many splendid
birds are produced in Ost-Friesland (East Friesland,
Germany). The Lakenfelder was very popular in
Hanover about fifty years ago, but the introduction of
foreign breeds destroyed its popularity, and it almost
became extinct. Fortunately, it has been rescued from
oblivion, and restored to a measure of its former posi-
tion.'f Cm' first acquaintance with the Lakenfelder
was at the International Poultry Exhibition at St.
Petersburg in 1899, where were several specimens,
since which date we have seen others at various
Continental shows. The first specimens were imported
into Britain in 1901, and the breed has received a
certain measm-e of favour amongst exhibitors, but as
yet it has not been taken up by practical poultry-
keepers. These small-bodied, egg-producing races have
never attained great popularity in this country, where

LAKENFELDER AND RAMELSLOH FOWLS

131

size of body, rightly or wrongly, is given a more impor-
tant place than is accorded to it by foreign breeders. A
change may come in process of time, but as yet no
evidences are apparent of such an alteration in opinion.

Economic Qualities. — The Lakenfelder is built
for laying purposes, in which quahty it holds a good
position, though not equal to the Hamburgh, Campine,
or Minorca, so far as number produced is concerned,
as 150 eggs per annum is the maximum recorded up
to the present time. But the eggs are of an excellent
size, and are pm*e white in shell. It is not in any
sense a table fowl, though, like all the lighter-bodied
varieties, it is excellent for milk chickens, due to its
quick growth. When older the flesh is scanty and
rather fibrous. Discussion has arisen as to its sitting
instinct, and the claim is made by some breeders
that it is a sitter, and by
others a non-sitter. Probably
a few hens become broody, as
in all other breeds of a like
class, and by selection their
number could be increased,
but the consensus of experi-
ence is sufficient to warrant
our placing it in the non-
sitting category. The birds
are very hardy, active, ex-
cellent foragers, small eaters,
and of rather a wild disposi-
tion. They are much more
suited for keeping under con-
ditions where they can have
full liberty than in confined
runs. We hope that the good
qualities of this race may not
be spoiled by increasing the
size of body, or by
for huge fleshy combs.

The following description appeared in Gejiiigel Zei-
tung, of Leipzig, and is quoted from a translation
given in one of our poultry papers :* ' The plumage is
pure white, with black tail and neck-hackle. Thus
apparelled, the breed is of striking appearance, but it
naust by no means be assumed that perfect colouring
is easily attainable, considering that black should be
strictly confined to certain parts only. Cooks, in par-
ticular, are apt to show black inarkings in the centre of
saddle feathers, and if the neck is sound black right up
to the nape this defect is passed over, whilst if accom-
panied by white in neck-hackle it must certainly be
condemned.

If we wish to preserve the black pure in neck
and tail we must look to under-colour, which should
be greyish rather than white, for the whiter it
is the more will it tend to expel black from the
plumage. Rather permit (in
breeding) the greyish under-
colour to slightly penetrate
to the surface plumage,
provided there is not too
much black showing on the
back, than the appearance
of white in tail or neck-
hackle. Some breeders con-
sider white edging of the
_ cock's sickles typical ; in
our opinion, however, this
counteracts the proper breed-
ing tendency, which should
aim at black tail without
any white.' In breeding it
is found that the saddle-
hackle is generally lighter
than the neck- hackle and
the tail ; but often the ends
of the saddle-hackle are tipped
with black.

Description (Fig. 51).—
The Lakenfelder is small in

body, which is narrow in front,with back rather long, but
deep and broad behind, as should be the case with a
bird well developed in the region of the egg-organs,
both as to breadth and depth. The body is carried
almost horizontally. The neck is of medium length,
with a small head, surmounted by a good-sized single
comb, upright in both sexes, but larger in the male ;
the wattles are small, and the earlobe, which is well
developed and almond in shape, white in colour ; the
thighs are short and strong, and the legs, which are
slate-blue, are of medium length, with four toes on
each foot ; the wings are small and carried high ; the
tail is carried well, and the sickles fully furnished in
the males. The special feature of this breed is the
coloration of the plumage, which differs from that
upon any other fowl with which we are acquainted.

Fig. 51. — Lakenfelders.

No

RAMELSLOH.
In all countries, Eamelsloh or

vrEXCLATUEE :

Kamelsloher,
Vabu;ties : "White, Black, Speckled.
Classification : Egg Production.
Colour of Flesh and Skin : White.
Colour of Legs and Feet : Slate.
Colour of Egg-shells : White.

Origin. — There is a great amount of uncertainty
about the origin of this, the premier utility breed of
Germany, with which we first became acquainted at
the St. Petersburg Exhibition of 1899. M. Vander
Snickt f claims it as a "White Braekel, for which the
only point we can find in support is the colour of the
legs and feet, as the shape is much more upright than
* Poultry, May 23, 1902, p. 229.
t Chasse et Peehe, September 3, 1899, p. 789.
9-2

132

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

that of the Braekel, and the general style follows
very closely the Italian or Leghorn. It cannot be
questioned that at one time there must have been a
considerable stream of Italian fowls into Germany,
and we have come to the conclusion that the poultry
of the Fatherland owe more to Italy than any other
country until the last twenty years, during which time
importations of English breeds have been constant and
considerable. But what may be regarded as the native
German breeds were in existence long prior to that
period, and apparently before sufficient attention was
paid to the keeping of records. With the exception of
the colour of the legs, feet, and beak, the Ramelsloli
fowl might be classed with large numbers of Italian
fowls, where, as we have previously seen, yellow flesh

lished about twenty years ago* an account was
given of the breed, accompanied by an illustration,
and since that time it has attained a fair amount of
popularity, due to its economic qualities. It has not,
however, secured a place of any importance else-
where, and for exhibition purposes does not meet
with the same amount of favour as certain English
and American breeds.

Economic Qualities.— The chief quality is egg
production, but the Ramelsloh can hardly be classed
as a non-sitter, and the hens are prolific layers of
good-sized, white-shelled eggs. But, as is the case
with nearly all the lighter breeds, the chickens grow
rapidly, and are consequently valuable for milk

2. — ^White Kamelslohs.

(After Kmmer.)

and legs are by no means universal. In Italy we
have seen many fowls with slate-blue legs and whitish
skin which would have passed for the German
variety in every way. For these reasons we have
come to the conclusion that the Ramelsloh originated
in the South of Europe, but from the fact that it has
attained its present characteristics in Germany it must
be treated separately. Probably crosses have fixed the
variations between the two races.

H istory. — The Ramelsloh received very little atten-
tion even in its native country until the last few
years, due to the fact that poultry-breeding was in a
very primitive state in Germany. In a work pub-

chickens or broilers. "When older the flesh is harder
and less abundant. They are hght in bone, very
active and hardy, excellent foragers, and especially
suitable for farmers.

Description (Fig. 52).— As we have already men-
tioned, the Ramelsloh follows very closely the Italian
type, not so much the English Leghorn as that bred in
Italy and America, which is more upright in caarriage
and flatter ui breast than is found in the United
Kingdom. The body is slight, with back sloping to
the tail, and thicker behind, and the tail is carried

* 'Die Gefliigelzuoht,' Bruno Durigeu (Berhu, 1S86),
pp. 63-72.

THE SCHLOTTERKA]VtM FOWL

high ; the neck is long and slight, the head small, and
surmounted by a medium-sized single comb, upright
in the male, falling over in the hen, and well serrated ;
wattles long ; the face is red, but above it are two
lines of feathers looking like heavy eyelashes ; the
eyes are dark red, and the beak pale blue or slate ;
earlobes bluish- white ; the legs are of medium length,
giving the body a compact appearance, and, with the
feet and toes — of which latter there are four on each
foot — slate-coloured ; the males have a well-furnished
tail. Weight : males, 5 to 6i pounds ; females, 4i to 5i
pounds. The plumage is bluish-white, but we have
seen traces of straw colour — a characteristic of Leg-
horns.

History. — The name means 'loose or flabby comb,'
as that decoration is large, somewhat coarse, and falls
over in the hen. The breed would appear to be widely
distributed, but has only recently been regarded as a
pure race. From the description it is very similar to
the Elberfeld described in French books on poultry,
which suggestion is supported by the fact that
Kramer* does not mention the last-named breed in
his work.

Economic Qualities.— The Schlotterkamm is
stated to be the best layer of all the German races,
the eggs of which are white in shell and large in size ;
the flesh is delicate, but not very abundant. It is stated

-Mottled Schlottbrkamms.

(After Kramer.)

SCHLOTTERKAMM.

NoMENCLATUKE : GeiTOaK, ScUotterkauime ; French,

Elberfeld; Duteli or Flemish, Schlotterkamm.
Vabieties : Mottled, Black, CucUoo.
Classification : Egg Production.
CoLODB OF Flesh and Skin : White.
CoLoxjE OF Legs and Feet : Dark blue.
Colour of Egg-shells : White.

Origin. — We have not been able to obtain any
definite information as to the origin of this and
cognate German races of poultry, but from the fact
that they are chiefly found in Western Germany, on
the Lower Ehine, and towards the Dutch border, we
may, from their shape and general character, assume
their descent from either the Italian or Netherland
breeds.

to be hardy, active, an excellent forager, and the
chickens grow quickly and are very precocious.

Description.— Body long, carried well in front, but
somewhat shallow; back sloping a little to tail;
breast broad and full ; neck of medium length, carried
well up, with full hackle ; head long and strong ;
coinb sinple, large, long from front to back, well set
on, arched behind, deeply serrated ; wattles long and
rounded ; face dark red and clean ; eyes large and
chestnut-red ; earlobe rather long, rounded, and white ;
beak horn coloured, long, and sUghtly curved ; wings
long, carried high and close ; tail full, broad, and with

* 'Taschenbuch der Rassegeflugelzucht,' Von Rudolf
Kramer (Wiirzburg, 1899).

134

KACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

long sickles ; legs strong and clean, light blue in colour,
rather short ; toes four, with sharp, flesh-coloured nails.
Weight : males, 5 to 6 pounds ; females, 4j to 5
pounds. In general appearance the race is light,
active, and well developed behind.

Varieties— Mottled (Fig. 53). — The ground
colour of the male is black, evenly mottled with silver
grey ; the primaries and secondaries of the wings silver
grey, with a spotted wmg-bar and a darker grey wing-
bow ; the hackles are of silver grey with a narrow
black stripe, and the tale black. In the hen the body
follows the male, except the under-parts, which are
black, and the neck is darker.

Black. — In both sexes the entire plumage is metallic

Schlotterkamm, and might be regarded as a variety
thereof. In fact, M. Louis Vander Snickt says* that
' it is a sport from the common race known as the
best egg-producer in Germany, called Schlotterkamm '
and without further consideration of the question that
statement may be accepted, as it is fuUy borne out by
the appearance of the two races.

History. — The name is derived from the fact that
it competes greatly in crowing matches, and that the
voice of the fowl has that clearness which is more
common in mountainous districts than on the plains.
It is chiefly bred in the hill districts of Rhenish Prussia,
but more by reason of its sportive than for its economic
qualities.

Fig. 54.— Beegische Chowees
[After Kramer.)

black, very brilliant in sheen, without any spots or
markings.

Cuckoo. — The ground colour of the plumage is of a
light grey, each feather diagonally marked with dark
grey bars. It is probable that both the Black and the
Cuckoo have been obtained by variations from the
Mottled.

BEECtISCHE CBOWER.

NoHENcLATUKE : (rf.n»an, Bergische Eriiher ; French,

Cbanteur du Berg; Dutch, Bergkriiher.
Vabiety: One.

Classification ; Egg Production.
CoLOUK OF Flesh and Skin : White.
CoLouE op Legs and Feet : Blue-grey.
CoLOUB OF Egg-shells: White.

Origin.— Although separate designation is given to
this race, it is evident that it is closely allied with the

Economic Qualities. — This variety is also a very
good layer of large-sized, white-shelled eggs : the flesh
upon the body, whilst not very abundant, is good in
quality and fine in texture, having a nice white skin ;
the chickens are precocious and quick in growth, and
are said to be easily reared ; the fowl is hardy, except
where it is kept under unnatural conditions. As ah-eady
stated, it is chiefly bred for the crowing competitions
which are frequently held in Western Germany and
Belgium, and the males are capable of remarkably
prolonged crows.

Description (Pig. 54). — The shape of body nearly

resembles that of the Schlotterkamm, showing great

length, with upright carriage and elegant appearance ;

breast well rounded and carried high ; back long,

» Chnssc ct FCchc, September 3, 1899, p. 789.

MOEVEN AND BEARDED THURINGIAN FOWLS

135

broad, a little arched, sloping sharply to the tail, which
is carried rather low, and showing fine sickles in the
male ; neck of medium length, carried well forward
and not upright, covered %vith rich-coloured hackle,
rather scanty ; head lengthy, broad at back ; beak
long, strong at the base, well curved, of a light horn
colour ; face bright red ; eye large, red-brown ; comb
small, single, carried well over beak and neck, not very
deeply serrated ; wattles small and well rounded ; ear-
lobes medium size, almond shape, smooth and pure
white ; wing long, tightly carried ; thighs stout and
very short ; shanks medium, stout in bone, clean,
and blue-grey in colour ; toes four in number, long
and strong, with sharp nails. Weight : males, 4 to 5
pounds ; females, 3|- to 4i- pounds. The ground colour
of the male is black, but spotted on breast and under-
parts with rich golden bay ; tail black with bright green
reflections ; the head, neck-hackle, saddle-hackle, and
wing-bow, rich reddish-brown, except that the neck-
hackle has black spots ; the back and outer wing
feathers are lighter brown, and on each wing are two
greenish-black bars. The hens are dark in body colour,
"with golden-bay markings, except the wings, which are
the same as in the cock so far as primaries, secondaries
and bar are concerned.

MOEVEN.

NoMENCLATUEE : (rtrwrtn, Ostfriesische Movcu ; French,

Prise Oriental.
Vabieties : Gold, Silver.
Classification : Non-sitting.
CoLOUK OF Flesh and Skin : White.
CoLouB OF Legs and Feet : Slate-blue.
Colour OF Egg-shells: White.

Origin. — This race owns the same ancestry as the
Braekel and Campine, with which it is practically
identical, but being bred in the districts of Germany
near to the borders of Belgium and Holland, it has
received separate classification. It apparently stands
between the two races named, and is not quite so fine
in body as the Campine, nor yet so large as the Braekel.

History as to the Moeven is silent. All the
evidence we have been able to obtain is that it has
dominated the district named for a long time, but
has only obtained attention from breeders during recent
years.

Economic Qualities Exceedingly proHfic layers

of somewhat small eggs, in which respect they have not
been improved as have the related races in Belgium.
Otherwise all we have said as to the Campine and
Braekel can be equally apphed to the Moeven, which
is hardy, very active, and precocious.

Description. — Body small, short, prominent in
breast ; back broad, well sloping to tail ; neck medium
in length and carried well up, abundantly covered with
hackle; head medium in size, round and narrow;

beak short, slightly curved, flesh-coloured ; comb
small, single, well serrated, and long ; face red and
clean ; eye large, dark brown ; wattles almost round, of
medium size ; earlobes small, obUquely round, pure
white ; wings long, carried well up ; tail carried well
back, full sickles in cock ; thighs short ; legs medium
in length, clean, fine in bone, slate-blue in colour ; toes
four, fine, not long. Weight : males, 4 to 5 pounds ;
females, 3-i to 4-J- pounds.

Varieties— G-OLD. — In the cock the breast, under-
parts, hackles, back, wings, and thighs, golden bay,
except that the outer feathers of wmgs are edged with
black, and there is a slight wing-bar ; tail black with
metaUic green reflections. The hen has a golden-bay
neck-hackle and pale breast, but the rest of the body
is golden bay pencilled with black.

SiLVEE.— Here the ground colour is silver-white
in both sexes, marked with black, as in the Gold
variety.

BEARDED THURINGIAN.

Nojienclatuee : Gei-MiOH, Thiiriuger Pausbaokchen ; English,

Bearded Thuringian French, Barbue de Thuringe;

/ hitch, Thiiiinger Baardhoen; Spanish, Turingias Bar-

badas.
V.1BIETIES : Gold, Silver, Black, White, Blue, Yellow, Cuckoo,

Chamois.
Classific.\tion : Egg Production.
CoLOUB OF Flesh and Sion : White.
Colour of Legs and Feet : Slate-blue.
Colour of Egg-shells : White.

Origin. — Upon this question very little information
is available — none, in fact, of a direct nature. It is sug-
gested that it is descended from the Owl-bearded Dutch,
which has a measure of justification from the fact of a
similarity of certain characteristics, more especially in
the head and beard. But the name indicates that it
is bred in the district of Thuringia, m Central Germany,
and we lack evidence of breeds passmg to any extent
from North to South, although there is no reason why
that should not be the case. The trend, however, is
rather in the other direction. Bearded fowls are well
known in Russia and in Eastern Europe, and we
should be disposed to the view that these birds origm-
ally passed from the east by way of mid-Germany to
the district which gives it the name recorded above.
That is a matter of pure conjecture, for bearded races
are widely distributed. We have no knowledge as
to the common fowls found in Central and Eastern
Germany, and it is possible that a further examination
would afford an explanation. All suggestions as to the
origin of the Bearded Thuringians at present are
doubtful, and we must so leave the question for more
complete inquiry.

History. — From the number of varieties it may be
assumed that this race has been bred for a considerable
period. That their racial characters are well fixed is
evident. They have however, been bred chiefly for

136

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

their economic qualities, and only within recent years
has careful selection taken place. They are now great
favourites, and have been described as 'the pets of
German fanciers,' and they certainly warrant the
attention of breeders. We have never seen them out
of Germany.

Economic Qualities.— As is the case with all the
German races with which we are acquainted, these
fowls are specially kept for egg production, as there
does not appear to be a breed of fowls in the Father-
land which is strong in meat qualities. Our observa-
tions have extended from the extreme north to the
south, and we have never seen a second, much less a
first class table fowl, either in the markets or on the
tables of the hotels. The Bearded Thuringians are

hidden by the beard ; wings medium in size, and
carried well up; back short and broad; tail in the
male very full and broad, with long sickles, carried
low, and plenty of saddle-hackle ; thighs short and
close-feathered ; legs of medium length, clean, slate-
blue ; toes four in number, fine and well spread,
whitish toenails ; the plumage is tight. Weight :
males, 5 to 6 pounds ; females, 4 to 5 pounds.

Varieties. — It would be an interesting inquiry as
to the reason why so many German breeds are spotted
or spangled in plumage. In the absence of any other
satisfactory explanation, we can only assume that in a
country where enemies abound the protective influence
has given prominence to these races.

Gold. — In the male the hackles, back, and wings

55.— Silver Thukingians.
(After Kramer.)

fair layers ; the eggs are small and pure white in
colour of shell. They are very hardy and excellent
foragers.

Description. — Of medium size, upright in carriage,
light and active, with a compact form ; body of medium
length, with fuU, well-rounded breast, and full develop-
ment of stern ; neck shortish, arched, and carried
backwards, well covered with hackle ; head small, with
round skull; comb small and short, fine in texture,
round behind, and with short spikes ; wattles very
small, partially hidden by the beard ; eyes full, light
colour, pupil edged witli reddish-brown ; beali short,
strong at the base, slightly curved, horn-coloured ;
beard full from back of head and under the beak,
covering the lower part of the face, the head being
embedded in it ; earlobes red or bluish- white, but

are of a rich golden-red, but on the wings are two
black bars ; the breast and sides of abdomen are chest-
nut, each feather having-a black point or spangle ; the
beard, front of neck, and tail, are black with a bright
green sheen. The hen, excepting the beard, which is
black, and the wings, has a ground colour of golden-
brown, each feather tipped with black.

Silver (Fig. 55). — The ground colour is silver- white,
with black spangles, as in the Gold variety.

Black. — The entire plumage has a metallic green-
black lustre, and the beak and legs are somewhat
darker than in the Gold and Silver varieties.

White. — Pure white plumage, white beard, shanks
pale slate, inclined to flesh colour.

Blue. — Ground colour steel blue, with hackles of a
lustrous blue-black in the cock, tail dark blue ; hen
light slate blue.

GERMAN CREEPER AND AUGSBURG FOWES

137

Yellow.— Yellow all over body of botli sexes, with a
ight beard of the same colour.

CncKoo. — Pale greyish blue, barred with dark blue
on each feather, except beard and tail in male.

Chamois. — The ground colour is light buff, spotted
on body with black, as in the Gold and Silver.

It will be evident from the above that this race
presents many features of considerable interest to
breeders, and varies considerably from any breed with
which we are famUiar in England and America.

GERMAN CREEPER.

NojiENCLATUBE : (rer?»a7i, Krupsr ; Eiu/lish, Cveeper;

i<>e?!cA,CourtesPattes; Flemish, 'Kx-ajj)er; Dutcli,

Kruiper, or Bolstaart.
V.utiETiES : Several.
Classification : Uncertain.
CoLOUB or Flesh and Skin: White.
Colour op Legs and Feet : Slate-blue.
Colour OF Egg-shells: White.

Origin. — Short-legged breeds of poultry are to be
met with in several countries, and are probably most
common in France and the Netherlands. In Holland
and Belgium some of the native races are also seen with
abbreviated lower limbs. ^Vhy and how this peculiar
feature has been perpetuated it is difficult to trace, but
we are inclined to the view that the shortness of leg is
a natural variation which has been fixed by selection,
and that probably the Dutch or Flemish are chiefly
responsible for it, and that the Ki'iiper is a decendant
of birds exported thence into Germany.

History. — Comparatively few of these birds are
bred, and chiefly as a question of rarity. They
are seen in the yards of amateurs especially.

Economic Qualities. — The hens are excellent
layers of large white-shelled eggs, and in flesh quali-
ties they are regarded as very good, fattening well.

They are very tame, and hens are specially suited as
pets to be kept in gardens. They are moderate in
vigour, and should not be permitted to wander in long
and damp grass, as they easily take cold.

Description. — Inbodythe Kriiper is very long and
cylindrical, almost duck-like, owing to the shortness of
legs; the back is long and somewhat sunken ; neck short,
rounded, carried well forward ; head of medium size,
somewhat elongated ; beak strong, slightly curved ,
dark horn colour ; eyes dark red, with black pupil ;
comb single, medium in size, long, well serrated ; ear-
lobes perfectly round, small, and white ; wings long
and broad; tail fully developed, broad, ornamented
in the male with broad but slightly curved sickles ;
thighs very short and strong, as are the shanks, which
are clean and slate-blue in colour ; toes four, well
spread, whitish toenails.

Varieties. — There are several varieties— namely.
Black, "White, Partridge, and Cuckoo. The best
known are Blacks, which have a metallic green
sheen.

AUGSBURG.

In Bavaria of late years a good deal of attention
has been paid to poultry, and a breed introduced under
the above name for utility purposes. With it, how-
ever, we have no personal acquaintance. It is said to
be due to a cross between the Leghorn and La Fleche,
combining good egg-production with excellent table
qualities, and is very hardy, as might be expected
In type it follows the La Fleche, though smaller and
not so massive, but retains the length of leg seen'in
that breed. The plumage is entirely black, with
brilliant greenish lustre, and the legs are very dark —
almost black. The comb is horned, as in the La
Fleche.

CHAPTER XI

OTHEE EUKOPEAN EACES OP FOWLS

Polish, or Padoue
Russian Races :

Orioff

Pavloff

Russian-Dutch

Siberian Feather Footed

Ushanki

Russian Races {continued) :

Russian Crested

Russian Rose Comb
Hungarian Races:

Magyar

Transyivanian Naked Necks
Danish Landhen

POLISH, OE PADOUE.

NoMENCLATUEE : JJn.f/?is/(, Polish ; Frencli, Padoue; German,
Paduaner; Dutch, Padua; Danish, Paduanere; Italian,
Padovana; Sjjanish.'Pa.dm.s,; Hunr/arian, 'Painai.

Vabxeties : Gold, Silver, Wliite, Chamois, Buff.

Classification : Non-sitting.

CoLOUK OF Flesh and Skin : Greyish-white.

Colour of Legs and Feet : Slate-blue.

CoLouB OF Egg-shells ; White.

IN England, and Anglo-Saxon countries generally,
a name has been given to this race which is, to
say the least, misleading, and how it came to be
applied is difficult to trace. Until a visit paid to
Russia, we regarded it as entirely of Western or
Southern European extraction, having no connection
whatever with Poland or with the Empire of Russia,
in which country portions of the old Polish Kingdom
have been incorporated. As afterwards explained,
this opinion was modified. It may be that at one
time, in the seventeenth or the early part of last
century, specimens were imported from Eastern
Europe, either direct or via Hamburgh, said to have
come from Poland, and hence the term Polish was
given. A hundred years ago, as shown in Moubray's
' Practical Treatise,' the Crested Dutch were called
' Poland,' but in Dickson's work, published in 1838,
the name Paduan-Polish was applied to all the large-
crested varieties. By the middle of last century the
last term was general, and when Wingfied and John-
son's ' Poultry Book ' was issued in 1853, it was adopted
alone, and has so continued. Many explanations have
been put forward for the use of both ' Poland ' and
'Polish.' It has been suggested that the title is
derived entirely from the crest or head-covering, which

in some districts is called a ' poll.' Compare, anyone
having a thick and heavy crop of hair, he is told that
he has a ' big poll.' Thus it is not improbable that
what was a local colloquialism has graduated into the
present name. Thus, if called 'Polls,' then 'Polled,'
afterwards ' Poland,' and, finally, ' Polish.' As stated
above, on the Contment the other than the Crested
Dutch are named Padoue.

Origin. — An attempt to trace the descent of the
Polish fowl is attended with many difficulties, which
have not diminished as a result of fuller inquiry.
Aldrovandi, a Bolognese gentleman, who died in 1605,
in one of his works describes the Padua or Patavinian
fowl of his day as follows : ' There are kinds of Galli-
naceous birds, larger than ours^, which are commonly
called Patavinians. . . . The cock is exceedingly beau-
tiful, being richly decorated with five colours — viz.,
black, white, green, red, and ochre ; the body black,
the neck covered with white feathers, and the ■s\Tngs
and tail partly black and partly green ; the tail of the
same hue, but the roots of the feathers whitish, and
some of the flight feathers also white. The eyes are
surrounded by red circles, the comb is very smaU, the
bill and feet yellow, and the head is adorned with
a beautiful crest. In the hen there is no white except
the white pellicle at the opening of the ears. She is
altogether of a greenish-black colour, with yellow feet,
and a very small comb, shghtly tinged with red.' This
description by the old writer was accompanied by
illustrations of a cock and hen, reproduced in Teget-
meier's ' Poultry Book,' * from which the above trana-
* 'The Poultry Book,' by W. B. Tegetmeier, F.Z.S.
(Loudon, 1S73). p! 205.
138

THE POLISH FOWL

139

lation is quoted ; and the plate shows more affinity
with the present-day PoUsh than the description. It
is a striking fact, in view of the evidence produced
below from Italian sources, that Willughby, com-
menting on this description, says that Aldrovandi
describes a Paduan cock and hen which ought rather
to be called a Polverara, from a village near Padua,
where they are found ; but they differ in no part from
the common fowl, except in being larger and finer.*
The Polverara fowl is known in Italy to-day, and has
already been described.

Coming to later writers, we find that Charles Darwin f
classifies all the races with top-knots under the term
' Crested or Polish breed,' but does not offer any evi-
dence as to their origin, which he evidently regarded
as common. As sub-breeds he includes the Saltan,
Ptarmigan, Ghoondook, Creve, Horned fowl, Houdan,
and Guelderland, or Breda, some of which owe their
crested character to Polish blood, but in others it is
very doubtful if such is the case. French writers are
very imcertain in their views, although some classify
the Crested Dutch and the Polish as one race, whilst
others recognise their distinctive differences. Among
the latter is M. Cornevin, who points out the variations
as a reason for regarding them as separate breeds. As
to the latter he says : J ' The origin of the Padoue is as
uncertain and obscure as that of the Dutch, which
they much resemble. At first the origin was probably
common, but some special characteristics show a
different conclusion. There are those who regard the
Padoue as a sub-race of the Dutch, but if we look into
these two groups there are no more reasons for making
them one than two.' As we have already indicated, it
is more than probable that at first, which would be
several centuries ago, they had the same ancestry, but
that fact does not determine their present position.
Some evidence is obtainable from Italy, for in a little
work by the Marquis Trevisani, who has given careful
study to Italian poultry, we find it is stated, speaking
of the Polverara :§ ' The Polverara is indigenous to
the province of Padua, which, for the production of
eggs and poultry, is one of the most important of
Italian provinces. It is impossible to say whether
it is the Polverara which has produced the Polish,
classified by Darwin as a separate breed, or whether
the Polverara is the product of the Polish.' But here
a difficulty arises. At the Exhibition of the Itahan
Poultry Society, held at Rome, April, 1903, were classes
provided for what were called Padovana, which were
simply Pohsh or Padoue, and when it is remembered
that in some of the Italian works on poultry the

* 'Domestic Poultry,' by Martiu Doyle (London, 1854),
pp. 98-99.

f ' Animals and Plants under Domestication,' by Charles
Darwin, P.R.S. (Ed. 1885), pp 249-2.51.

I 'Lea Oiseaux de Basse-Cour,' par Ch. Corneviii (Paris,
1895), pp. 200-204.

§ ' PoUivoItura,' dei Marchese G. Trevisani (Milan, 1900),
p. 32.

Polverara are called ' Padovana Polverara,' it is evident
that the relationship is regarded as pretty close. All
the evidence points thus far in the direction of an
Italian parentage for the Pohsh, were it not for what
we saw in Russia in 1899. The breed referred to —
namely, the Pavloff — is dealt with when treating upon
Eastern European races, but there are marked indica-
tions that here is an influence which cannot be ignored.
The ' Pavloff,' as it is called, is very varied in the crest
formation, as can be seen from the description, and has
in many cases feathered legs ; but there are marked
resemblances with the Polish type. In the absence of
information as to the races of poultry to be met with
in Central and Northern Asia no definite conclusion
can be formed, but Hehn, speaking of the domestic
fowl, says * that ' they may have come straight from
Asia to the kindred nations of the South Russian steppes
and the eastern slopes of the Carpathian Mountains,
whose religion agreed with that of the other Iranian
races, and some of whom already practised agriculture
in the time of Herodotus.' What may be regarded
as probable is that the PoHsh, or Padoue fowl, is a
descendant of the Polverara, and that both have come
from the Pavloff, or a kindred breed, but that the
Crested Dutch has also been influenced by the races to
be met with in Russia. All, however, is uncertain,
and we have no actual evidence in one direction or
another. As an indication that there was a stream of
fowls from East to West of the type named, it may be
mentioned that the name Hamburgh was given in the
eighteenth century and the earlier part of the last
century to crested fowls, as shown in the ' Natural
History of Birds,' by R. Brookes, M.D., published in
1763, in which he says : ' It has a rosy comb, but that
does not reach half-way on the head, the hinder part
covered with dark-coloured feathers,' and in Rees's
' Cyclopedia' (1820) is a plate of so-called Hamburghs
which would pass, but for the fact that they are cleans
legged, for the Pavloff we saw in Russia. Further,
Mr. R. P. Brent, using the same name, says : ' Ham-
burghs come from Germany, many coming direct from
Hamburgh, from which circumstance they derive their
name. They are tufted like the Pole, but the tuft is
smaller, does not come so forward, and, consequently,
leaves the eyes more exposed, and is fronted by a small
comb of curious shape, generally consisting of a very
small double comb, terminating in two sprouts or
horns.'t In Russia is a breed called ' Russian-Dutch,'
very like the 'Crested Dutch,' and a clean-legged
crested variety. Hence the indications are that the
original habitat of all these varieties was Eastern
Europe or Western Asia, but how and when they
passed to Italy cannot be traced at present, and the
question must be left for further observation.

* 'Wanderings of Plants and Animals,' by Victor Helm
(London, 1885), p. 247.

t CoUaf/e Gardener, 1852, vol. viii., p. 343.

]40

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

History. — "What is called the Padoue — that is, the
Polish — has been known in France for a long period,
and it is bred more in that country than elsewhere. In
the United Kingdom and America it is essentially an
exhibition fowl. In Italy and Enssia the races which
appear to be its relatives are kept to a considerable
extent for practical purposes. From what we have
learnt previously, the Polish had a large share in the
formation of the Crested French races, and we believe
that its qualities can be utilized to an even greater
extent in the formation of new breeds.

Economic Qualities.— Polish hens are exceed-
ingly good layers of large-sized, white-sheUed eggs, and
they sit very rarely as a general rule, with the exception
of the Chamois variety, according to M. Jacque, who
says : * ' The Chamois
Padoue presents thispecu-
Uarity that some hens are
good sitters.' It is note-
worthy, however, that this
breed are not early layers,
which is to be expected
from their susceptibility
to cold, and are slow in
growth of feathers — a sign
of weak constitution. The
flesh is well- placed on the
breast, and, though not
very abundant, is excel-
lent in quality and very
fine in flavour. The
chickens are somewhat
difficult to rear, as they
need special care when
casting their first down.
That is more so when
they are bred entirely in
confinement, for we have
known cases where very
little trouble was taken
and the results were
surprisingly satisfactory ;

but the birds were treated in a common -sense
fashion, and hardened from the first. With adult
hens coddhng is generally resorted to m order to
keep the plumage in good condition, and they have to
be provided with special fountains, to prevent the crests
getting wet. They are, in fact, birds of feather, and it
cannot be questioned that there is no handsomer fowl
than the Polish when in good form.

Description. — Before describing the general
appearance of Polish fowls, we note a peculiarity in
the skuU, found equally in Crested Dutch, wliich
sharply defines these races from others — namely, a
bony tuberosity on the forepart of the skull. At one

♦ ' Le Poulailler,' pax Ch. Jacque (Paris, 1892), p. 225.

Ik

time this was thought to be caused by disease, but, as
pointed out by Mr. Tegetmeier :* ' The crest in both
sexes arises from a globular tuber, situated on the fore-
part of the skull ; an intimate connection exists between
the size of the swelling and that of the crest. In all
cases where the swoUing is not largely developed, there
cannot exist a good crest. . . . The young, when first
hatched, show the prominence most distinctly, each
little chick running about with a head that looks as if
half a marble had been thrust under the skin of the
skiill ; and by the size of the tuberosity, even at this
early age, the birds can be selected that will have the
best developed crests.'

In body the Polish is long and deep, with shoulders
standing weU up ; the back is flat and also long ;
breast prominent, and wings large ; the neck is long,
broad where it joins the
body and narrowing to-
wards the head, which is
of medium size and com-
pletely covered by the
crest. The crest in the
male is bred as large as
possible, smooth and high
in front, and whilst there
should be no actual
division or parting, the
long narrow feathers of
which it is composed fall
all around, but in the
female the crest is globu-
lar, as the feathers do not
hang at all. The eye is
briglit and fuU, but can-
not usually be seen, and
the earlobe, which is
bluish-white, is also hid-
den ; the beak is dark
blue or horn colour ; the
comb, if any is present,
consists of two small
horns. The distinctive
difference between the
Crested Dutch and the Polish is that the former have
wattles, whilst in the latter these are absent, and the
place is taken by a very fuU beard, or mufl's, extending
right over the face on both sides and over the throat ;
the legs are long, fine in bone, and clean, and four
toes on each foot ; the tail is full, and in the male
well spread and furnished with long sickles, but not
carried high. Weight : males, 5-i to 6i- pounds ; females,
4 to 5 pounds. The general appearance is of a tall,
graceful, slightly-built bird, with a pleasing carriage,
active and alert, and when that is so the crest does not
detract from the imiformity.

— SlL\LR P( LISII lo^\Ls

* 'The Poultry Book,' by
(London, 1873), pp. 208 and 211.

Tesjetmeier, F.Z.S.

RUSSIAN RACES OF FOWLS

141

Varieties — Gold.— In this variety the ground
colour is golden bay. All the feathers on the body
and the tail are laced or edged with a narrow band of
deep black, excepting the back, saddle, and primary
feathers of the wings, which have black spangles at
the ends ; the hackles are golden bay, tipped with
black, and the crest is black at the roots, golden-bay in
the centre, and tipped with black at the extremities ;
the legs and feet are dark blue.

Silver (Fig. 56).— In this variety the markings are
exactly the same as described above, but the ground-
colour is silver-white.

White. — Not many of these are met with, but excel-
lent specimens are often seen at Continental exhibitions,
and the effect is very pleasing, as the whole of the
plumage is of a bluish- white.

Chamois. — Here is a ground colour of buff, except
that in the hens it is lighter than in the cocks, but
there is none of the black marking, the place being
taken by silver-white, which gives the effect of white
lacing and spangling. Mr. Tegetmeier explains this by
saying :* ' It is a singular circumstance that when a
variation of colour takes place in the plumage of birds
the change from black to white appears to be much more
easily eiifected than from any other colour to white.
Thus, when black-red and white Game fowls are
crossed Piles are produced, in which the black dis-
appears, but the red of the saddle and hackle remains.
By crossing a Golden-spangled and "White Polish,
these Spangled Buffs or Chamois Polish are produced,
in which the black spangle of the golden bird is changed
into the white spangle of the Buff, the ground colour
remaining almost unchanged.

Buff. — In this case the entire plumage is buff, with-
out any white or black markings.

Russian Races of Fowls.

Orloff
Pavloff

Eussian-Dutch
Siberian Feather-footed

Ushanki
Bussian Crested
Eussian Eose-comb

Until recently very little has been known as to the
races of fowls to be met with in European Bussia, and
our knowledge is still very limited indeed. Older
poultry-books speak of Russian or Varna fowls, but
there is no direct evidence to connect such breeds with
the country. For instance, Dickson thus speaks of
what he calls the Eussian or Siberian fowl :t

' This breed seems to differ chiefly from others in
having considerable tufts of brown or dark, loose
feathers springing from each jaw, and others, longer or
fuller, from the lower mandible, like a Jew's beard.
In the hen there is an upright tuft, spreading out from
the hind-head, of the same silky texture. Independent

* 'The Poultry Book,' by W. B. Tegetmeier, F.Z.S.
(London, 1873), p'. 221.

t 'Poultry,' by Walter B. Dickson (London, 1S38), pp.
21-22.

of these, the cock has the usual comb and wattles,
and the hen a small comb likewise. This sort is said
to have come from Moscow, and varies in colour, one
variety being white, with the ends of the feathers
glossy blue or black, givmg it a spotted appearance,
and the legs being covered with fibrous or downy
feathers. Another has the plumage of the Game fowl
— a fine, tawny orange, spotted with black. This sort
is much esteemed m Scotland for prohfic laying.'

It is seen later that there are several points of
resemblance between the fowl described above — now
unknown in Scotland — and those found at the present
time in Eussia, and, in spite of the doubts expressed by
writers upon the supposed source, we are disposed to
think that they must have originated in that country,
between which and North Britain commercial relation-
ships have been constantly maintained for a long
period. Miss Watts,* speaking of the Eussian fowl,
stated that ' at the Eoyal Dublin Society's Show,
April, 1846, some specimens were exhibited by Mr.
Nolan. It appears that they are sometimes gold and
silver spangled, resembling the Spangled Hamburghs,'
by which is meant the crested birds called by that
name at one period. But further information as to these
birds is given below.

As to the general character of Eussian poultry, we
quote from an interesting report upon the Russian
races of domestic poultry presented by M. Houdekow
to the International Congress held at St. Petersburg in
May, 1899, in which he says :t

' The domestic fowls of which we cannot define the
breed are very widely distributed in Eussia ; they are
very mixed, the result of crossing species of the moat
diversified character coming into the country from
Europe or Asia. These birds are, as a rule, small and
poor layers, their external characters without end, to
the extent that it is very difficult to find in the same
nest birds of the same type, having identical qualities
either in appearance or economic properties. Never-
theless, we can notice between them some points of
resemblance, depending, without doubt, upon local con-
ditions, soil, and food. Under the influence of these
factors, nearly always unfavourable to fixity of type, our
domestic fowls surprise us by their wildness, coarseness
of body, and fighting qualities. We can call them
half domestic and half wild. Taking into considera-
tion the low degree of development in which we find
Eussian aviculture, from the point of view of the
breeder's art, it would appear difficult to find any
local races well known and of individual character ;
but the contrary is the case : we have breeds of fowls
and geese well estabhshed. The origin of these breeds
is unknown, and as they are not to be met with in the
rest of Europe, or in America, or in Asia, we may call

* ' The Poultry Yard,' by Miss E. "Watts (London, 1854
[about]), p. 85.

f Travaux du Conr/ris International d' Aviculture, 1899
(St. Petersburg, 1901), 'pp. 1-2.

142

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

them Eussian, because from the most remote times
they have been bred in Eussia, where we find them in
their pm'ity, with typical qualities and characteristics.'
Probably further and more careful observations will
reveal other breeds than those named above, for
poultry-breeding is in its infancy in that country.

ORLOFF.

NojiENCLATUKE : Orloff.
Vabieties : Ked, Speckled, White.
Classification : Table.
Colour of Flesh and Sktn : Yellow.
CoLOUB OF Legs and Feet : Yellow.
CoLouB OF Egg-shells : Brown.

Origin. — That this breed has been bred for a long
period in Eussia is undoubted, and it is surprising that
it had never been heard of by Enghsh or Western
European breeders prior to 1899, when we visited the
International Exhibition at St. Petersburg. Nothing
definite is known as to it. M. Houdekow thus speaks
of its origin : *

' The Orloff fowl has received this name by reason
of the fact that it is supposed that Count Orloff-
Techesmensky imported the breed ; that is not
probable, because it was known already to Eussian
amatem-s before his day. We have found a descrip-
tion in a work of an unknown author, published
in 1774, where it is named, not Orloff, but " Chhan-
skaia." Amateurs, however, knew the breed under
that name much later. In our days it is usual, with-
out any reason, to call these fowls Orloff. The most
general supposition is that specimens were imported
by our celebrated horse-breeder, Count Orloff-Teches-
mensky, from Persia, and principally from the province
of GhOan. But he did not himself give them the
name. We may ask if there exist any races of
domestic poultry yet unknown in Central Asia.
That country has been explored to a very limited
extent in many of the different parts, and it is not
improbable that we may have many surprises in
reserve there. In fact, this breed has a definite char-
acter, and may not have originated in Eussia. But
the Eussians have first made known to Europe and
America the remarkable fowl Orloff.'

Our opinion is that probably the Orloff owns the
same ancestry as the Malay.

H i story. — All that is known as to the history of the
Orloff is given above. We are informed that birds
of this type are to be met with in mid-Eussia, but
they have not generally been bred with much care,
and the supply of pure stock is small. As previously
stated, we first saw the Orloffs at the St. Petersburg
Exhibition in 1899, where were several excellent
specimens. After considerable difficulty, we secured

* Travaux du Congris Internntiondl d'Aviculttire, 1890
(St. Petersburg, 1901), p. -1.

a Speckled cock and two hens, but, unfortunately, the
hens died soon after their arrival in this country,
and we were unable to obtain any more. W^e have not
heard of any Western breeder being more fortunate.
How far the Orloff is receiving the attention of Eussian
breeders is not known, but it would be a distinct loss if
a race with such striking characteristics was not pre-
served.

Economic Qualities, — Upon this point very
little direct evidence is obtainable, but it is generally
acknowledged that the hens are poor layers, which
is indicated by the structure of the body. The de-
velopment of the breast is considerable, but the meat
is hard, and the bone is very heavy ; consequently, it
may be assumed that it is slow in growth, and — like
our Indian Game— more valuable for crossing with
soft-fleshed races to improve the meat qualities than
when pure. It is said to be very hardy, capable of with-
standing the rigours of the Eussian climate ; but there
has probably been a large amount of in-breeding with
a view to fixing the type and colour.

Description. — The following description is taken
from the standard issued by the Eussian Poultry
Society : Head medium in size, but very wide in the
forehead ; beak short and curved at the base ; eye
bright amber-coloured, and with prominent eyebrows ;
comb like a raspberry cut lengthwise, covered with
small points, and carried close to the head ; wattles
small in the males, none in females ; beard and
whiskers well developed and full, especially in the
hen ; earlobes very small in cock, and not seen in the
hen ; neck rather long, carried proudly, and well
covered with hackles, but narrowing at the base of
the neck and carried close to the body ; body short,
compact, and very wide ; back short, wide, and flat ;
wings moderate m size, and carried well up ; tail
medium, carried erect, and in the male ornamented
with narrow sickles of moderate length ; legs rather
long and very stout, the shanks being bright yellow
in colour, but absolutely clean ; toes four in number
and well spread.

M. Houdekow says that the best models of this
race are of a large size ; in general the adult cocks
weigh about 9 pounds, but in some cases 11 pounds
or more ; the hens about 2 pounds less. In appear-
ance the Orloff is a tall, powerfully-bmlt fowl, capable
of defendmg itself to the extreme. The male we
imported refused to associate with other birds after
the death of his hens, although he was retained for
two seasons.

Varieties. — Of the three varieties the Eed is said
to be most rare, and the Speckled most general.

Red. — These are of a dark reddish-brown, like
mahogany, very even in colour, but brighter in the
hackle. The effect is verj' strfliing, and we have never

THE PAVLOFF FOWL

143

seen fowls with so brilliant a plumage, as it shines like
satin in the male. The hens are rather sombre, but
have the same coloration, except that lighter tints are
found in the centre of each feather.

Speckled. — These are what may be termed black-
red in colour, having black breasts and tails, speckled
with white, like our Spangled Game, which they re-
semble greatly in plumage, except that the body
colour of the hens is darker.

White.— The entire plumage is pure white, with
a brilliancy of sheen which we have seldom seen
equalled.

PAVLOFF.

NOITENCLATUEE : Pavloff.

Vabieties : Gold, Silver, Blue, Black.
CL.issiricATioN : Egg Production.
CoLOUK OP Flesh and Skin : Cream.
Colour of Legs and Feet : Slate-blue, but in

some cases Yellow.
Colour op Egg-shells : White.

This breed must not be confounded with the
Cosaque, which is sometimes met with in France, and
which is evidently related to the Owl-bearded Dutch ;
but from the description it would appear to be the same
as the Russian, or Siberian, or Varna fowls described
in older poultry books, as already indicated. Our first
acquaintance with it was at the St. Petersburg
Exhibition of 1899, where were a large number of
specimens, varying greatly in their secondary char-
acteristics, but all evidently of the same race. The
opinion held in Russia is that they are closely related
to the Polish, or Padoue, and we are unable to come
to any other conclusion than that the last-named breed
has descended from the Pavloff, but when and how it is
impossible to trace. The one difficulty which presents
itself in the acceptance of this theory is the peculiar
conformation of the skull of the Polish, which, so far
as we are aware, is not present in the Pavloff. But it is
a well-known fact that external developments lead to
changes in the structure of the body, and breeding for
excessive size of crest through long generations would
doubtless cause enlargement of the skull and produce
the cranial tuberosity referred to, even though that
might not be present in the fowls retaining the original
type. In this connection it is essential to remember that
the distribution of fowls has been from East to West,
and that even hundreds of years ago intercommunica-
tion between the various countries was fairly con-
stant. Within our own experience it is realizable how
the introduction of a new race into a country, even
in comparatively small numbers, may be followed
within a few years by its wide extension and the
displacement of existing breeds. As an instance may
be mentioned the Leghorns in America, for the many
million members of that family are descended from
the few birds imported from Italy about forty years

Origin.— Upon this point there is very little infor-
mation—in fact, nothing at all reliable. M. Houdekow
states that * ' these fowls are so novel and have so
fixed a type in their different characters as to give
them the right of being accorded a distinct race. They
have received the name " Pavlovsk " because they have
been bred principally in Pavlovsk, at the Government
(or Department) of Nijni-Novgorod, where, it is said,
they were imported by the Empress Catharine II.'
Whence they were imported is not suggested, but from
the description of the Siberian Feather-footed fowls we
shoidd imagine that both probably came from Nor-
thern Asia. They are, however, widely spread in
Russia, and are to be met with on the Russian-Ger-
man border country — that is, the ancient Idngdom of
Poland.

History. — Until recently the breeding of poultry
was not at all systematic in Russia, and selection for
purity of race practically unknown. All that we have
been able to learn is that fowls of this type are
generally bred in many districts, and that the race is
common over a wide area. Under these circumstances
it says much for the prepotency of the special char-
acters that they are to be found to so great an extent.

Economic Qualities.— The Pavloff fowl is chiefly
regarded for egg production, as it is said to be good
in that respect, although not equal to other races in
which the quality has been developed by breeding and
selection. So far as we are aware there are no records
as to actual production, and from information received
very few hens would reach 100 eggs per annum ; but
that it is capable of great improvement in this respect
is certain. It is chiefly a spring and summer layer,
and the eggs, which are white in oolomr of shell, are
small in size, as, in fact, are all Russian eggs. The
breed is very moderate in flesh qualities, but the
chickens are quick growers, and very hardy.

Description.— The body is short and wide, with a
broad, straight back ; neck short, slightly arched, and
well covered with hackle ; head round, and beak nearly
straight, horn-coloured, with prominent nostrils ; eye
full, nearly black ; the comb consists of two fine
horns, carried well forward ; crest good size, in cocks
composed of narrow upright feathers, in hens round.
Of the specimens at St. Petersburg there were great
differences in the crests. In some cases the feathers
stood upright on the head ; in others there was
a transverse line on top of the head, part of the
feathers falling back and others forward, with well-
defined division ; in the third form the feathers
formed a fringe in front, a few standing up behind ;
and a fourth had the main part of the feathers falling
back like a lady's veil ; wattles only in cocks, and
small ; beard and whiskers very thick, covering the

* Travaux du Congr^s International d'AviciUture, 1S90
(St. Petersburg, 1901), pp. 4-5.

144

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

earlobes, a large portion of the throat and face ; tail
large, full, carried upright, and with long and broad
sickles ; legs short, and with the toes well feathered.
Weight : males, 4 to 5 pounds ; females, 3 to 4 pounds.

Varieties. — Although there is a great divergence m
the Pavloff fowls, and coloration of plumage is very
variable, the varieties named below are those generally
accepted as pure, the others being a result of indis-
criminate breeding. An exception is in the White-
crested, evidently a cross with the Crested Dutch, from
which they differ in that they are heavily bearded.

Gold. — In these the ground colour is golden-bay, as
in Gold Polish, with black spangles, but the specimens
we saw were by no means evenly marked.

Silver. — Here the ground colour is silver-white,
with spangles as in the Golds.

Blue and Black. — Evidently sports from the above,
and are not often seen.

BUSSIAN-DUTCH.

NoMENcL.\TUKE : Busso-HoUandaise.
Vabiety : One.

Classification : Egg Production.
CoLouE OF Flesh and Skin : White.
Colour of Legs and Feet : White.
CoLOCE OF Egg-shells : White.

Origin. — As will be seen from the description
given below, these fowls are evidently descended from
what we caU Hamburghs — that is, the pencilled variety
of which were named formerly 'Dutch everlasting-
layers.' In Russia itself the source is recognised, and
such differences as may be noted can be attributed to
different climatic conditions and to less careful methods
of breeding.

History. — It is claimed that this breed has been
known in Russia for a long period of time, as stated
by M. Houdekow :* ' It is a very ancient race, which
was already in existence at the time of Tsar Alexis
Mikhailovitch,t from the evidence of historical docu-
ments of that period.' And he adds that ' they are
called Dutch because, without doubt, they were imported
in the first instance from Holland ; nevertheless, it is
not difficult to see that some peculiarities have an
Asiatic origin.' These fowls are bred only to a very
limited extent, and are chiefly in the hands of
amateiKS.

Economic Qualities. — The Russian-Dutch are
medium in size of body, and are stated to be prolific
egg-producers. They are distinctly above the average
of Russian fowls for table qualities, and are fau'ly sup-
plied with flesh, which is white and of good quality.
No evidence has been given as to their vigour, and we
should be mclined to the view that they are not hardy.

* Travaux du Coniiirs Jnlenmtional iVAvifiilture, 1S99
(St. Petersburg, 1901). pp. 5-G.
t A.D. 1645-167C.

Description. — Head small, rather long; beak
long, stout, slightly curved, white with light horn-
coloured points ; eye red ; comb flat on top, firmly
placed on the head, and well covered with small points ;
face smooth and red ; earlobes and wattles small and
red ; neck long, carried erect, scantily feathered ; back
wide at shoulders, narrowing to the tail, sUghtly
rounded ; breast full and prominent, and round ; body
stout and long ; wings medium in size, and carried
close to body ; tail moderate in size, compact, rather
inchned backward, in cooks fully furnished with long,
narrow sickles ; legs and shanks long and stout, free
from feathers, and white in colour ; toes four in
number ; the plumage is bright and glossy, not very
thick, and in cocks is dark red marked with black, in
hens chestnut. Weight : males, 7 pounds ; females,
5i pounds.*

AVith the following breeds we have no personal
acquaintance, and quote descriptions issued by the
Russian Poultry Society, as it is stated that they are
the best-known varieties of the domestic fowl in that
country, by which is evidently meant that birds of
these types are to be met with in different districts.
During our visit to that country we did not see any,
or if so did not recognise them as having individual
characteristics.

SIBERIAN FEATHER FOOTED.

Description. — Head large ; beak short and stout;
eye full and red; comb rose, small, and moderately
developed ; crest : behind the comb is a small mass of
feathers, which stand up well from the head ; face
red, but bordered with bushy whiskers, which enthely
cover the small earlobes: there is also a thick beard
under the lower mandible ; wattles small in the cocks,
and rudimentarj' in the hens; neck short, stout,
slightly arched, and well covered with hackles ; back
wide, flat, and almost straight ; breast wide and full,
carried fairly forward, but not prominent ; wings large
and powerful; tail large, full, carried wide : m cocks
the tail-coverts are abundant, and the sickles long and
well curved ; legs of medium length, well feathered
with thick, short quills, right up to thighs, from which
grow hard vulture hocks ; the plumage is generally
white, whilst others have cuckoo plumage. Weight :
males, about 6 pounds ; females, 4 to 4i pounds.

From the appearance, with the exception of the
wliiskers and beard, here is a race largely Asiatic in
type, in affinity with the breeds introduced in the
earlier part of last century. If, as has been suggested,
the Siberian Feather-footed fowl is of ancient lineage,
it may be the progenitor of several of the modern
Russian races, and also of the fowls we have seen in
South-Easteru Europe. As om- information is so
scanty, at present it is impossible to form a satis-

Standard i

by Russian Poultry Society.

RUSSIAN AND HUNGARIAN FOWLS

145

factory opinion upon that question, and a further
exploration of Siberia and Western Asia may reveal
races of fowls as yet unknown to us, and solve prob-
lems which at present are difficult, if not impossible of
solution.

USHANKI.

Description. — Head large, round, with broad fore-
head ; beak moderate, slightly curved ; eye full, bright,
and red ; face red, but hidden almost entirely by the
beard ; comb single, well developed, regularly serrated,
carried straight and erect ; earlobes very small indeed,
entirely hidden by whiskers ; wattles red in colour,
small in males, and rudimentary in females ; beard and
whiskers well developed, more especially in the hens,
very full and bushy ; neck short, nicely arched, but
carried backward, in males the neck-hackle thick, and
falling well over the shoulders ; back wide, flat, and
straight ; breast prominent, carried well forward, broad,
well rounded ; wings long and wide, and carried some-
what low ; tail large, nicely expanded, inclined back-
wards, and the males have long, well-curved sickles ;
legs short and stout, but perfectly clear of feathers ;
colour generally black, but sometimes Silvers, Keds,
and other colours are met with ; the plumage is close
and tight. Weight : males, 6 pounds ; females, 4
pounds.

In this case we have a race which appears to possess
distinctive characters, and to be clearly defined from all
the other types of Russian fowls. With the exception
of the whiskers and beard it stands alone, although in
some respects an affinity with the Orloff is indicated.
Without, however, further information, or seeing any
of these birds, it is impossible to classify them. The
fact of their being clean-legged is suggestive, and we
should not be surprised to find that they emanate from
the same districts as the Orlofl's, and that they are con-
nected, more or less remotely, with that breed. This
is pure conjecture, which might have to be revised in
the light of wider knowledge.

RUSSIAN CRESTED.

Description. — Head rather long, of conical form,
with a straight beak, slightly curved at the end ; eye
red ; face smooth and red ; comb smaU, generally
single and upright, serrated only to a slight extent ;
earlobes and wattles red in colour, and well developed;
crest inclined backward, much fuller in development in
the hens, consisting of long hackle-like feathers hang-
ing over the back of the head : in the cocks the crest
partakes of the character of a broad ribbon ; neck short,
slightly arched, inclined backward, in the males
abundantly covered with long hackles, which fall over
the shoulders ; back wide, flat, and straight ; breast
full and wide ; body long, deep, and wide ; wings large,
strong, and carried somewhat low ; tail large, fuU,
well spread, carried high, and in the males supplied

with large and long sickles, which are well curved ;
legs short, and with the feet entirely clear of feathers ;
the plumage is very thick and abundant ; colours vary
greatly, having no fixity. Weight : males, 6 pounds ;
females, 4 pounds.

It will be evident that this is a race different
from any named before, and the absence of whiskers
and beard is suggestive, in that these features may be
accepted as indicative of racial affinity, which would
also be true in the case of leg feathering. The peculiar
crest may be due to a chance cross, or show some
remote connection with the Pavlofi. Further observa-
tions may prove that the Russian Crested is deserving
of a separate position, and we should think that if
carefully bred the race would evolve more distinctive
characters. At the present time it apparently does not
receive much attention, probably due to the fact that
in Russia as yet the selection of fowls for utility pur-
poses is in its infancy, and that attention is devoted to
a very few native and foreign breeds.

RUSSIAN ROSE-COMB.

Description, — Head large; beak of medium size
and short ; eye red ; face clean and red ; earlobes and
wattles moderately developed ; comb square and rose-
shaped, of a medium size, with a pointed spike behind,
the top flat and covered with small points, as in the
Hamburgh ; neck moderate in length, thickly covered
with hackles ; back wide, flat, and straight ; breast fuU
in front and broad ; body stout, wide, and of medium
length ; wings large, strong, and carried rather low ;
tail large, full, slightly expanded, and in the males
well furnished with sickles, which are long and per-
fectly curved, and provided with an abundant supply
of coverts ; legs short, and with the feet entirely
free from feathers ; there are several colours, none of
which appear to be definitely fixed. Weight : males,
6 pounds ; females, 4 pounds.

It will be seen that this breed more nearly approxi-
mates to the Hamburgh, from which it is probably a
sport ; but the Russians have not yet adopted that
definiteness of description which is necessary in order
to discriminate between the different races. That,
however, will be remedied as time goes on, and the
secondary characters are more clearly defined by breed-
ing to standards. In a country where there has been
little attempt to adopt the principles of artificial selec-
tion such a condition of aft'airs must always be looked
for at first. Within the next few years we may expect
a great change in that respect.

Hungarian Races of Fowls.

IMagyar Naked Necks

In a country which is so diversified as Hungary in
physical features it might be expected that there
would be considerable variation in the types of animals
10

146

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

and birds. It is not improbable that with more careful
study of the common fowls such variations might be
met with, unless it is too late, due to the importation
of foreign breeds, chiefly the Buff Orpington, for the
improvement of the economic properties, as a result of
that great movement now in progress for the develop-
ment of the poultry industry in Hungary. At present,
however, those named above are alone given a distinc-
tive position.

MAGYAR.

NojmNCLATUBE : English, Hungarian, Magyar ; German,
Ungarische Landhiilmer ; Dutch, Majgyaar; Spanish,
Magiar.

Vaeieties : Black, Red, Yellow, White, Speckled.

Classification : Egg Production.

CoLOCB OF Flesh and Skin : Yellow, except In Whites.

Colour of Legs and Feet ; Yellow, except in "Whites.

CoLOUB of Egg-shells : White.

Origin. — In the absence of definite records as to
the origin of the Magyar races of fowls, which are
largely bred in the great valley of, and plain bordering,
the Danube River, and having paid two visits to that
country, we have no hesitation in attributing to Italian
influence the type of bird known as the Magyar. The
differences between the Leghorn and the Magyar are
very small indeed, only what might be expected where
fowls are bred for a considerable period of time under
two sets of conditions — not nearly so great as between
the English and Italian members of the same family.
As we have already endeavoured to explain, political
and national movements, wars of conquest, and com-
mercial intercourse, have had much to do with the dis-
tribution of animals over the earth. Centuries ago
the Roman legions penetrated as far east as Hungary,
and at a later period a large part of the Italian Penin-
sula was subject to the Austrian Crown. Even now
the countries are contiguous, and it is not long ago
that the great stream of commerce was from the
Adriatic ports to Austro-Hungary. Hence the same
stream of influence which can be traced from Italy
by the Mediterranean to Spain, across the Alps to
Southern France and Germany, and reaching right
down the Rhine Valley, may be found to have passed
across the Styrian Alps into Austria, and through the
valleys of Croatia and Slavonia to the land of the
Magyars. The interesting point in this connection is
that Hungary appears to be the limit of the Italian
races on that side, for when we pass the Lower
Danube we find another type, more following the
Asiatic races on the one hand, and the South Russian
breeds on the other. We have no hesitation in attri-
buting the origin of the Magyars to Italian fowls, as
they have all the type which is characteristic of the
latter, and follow them closely in economic qualities.

History. — Until recent years comparatively little
attention was paid to the scientific breeding of poultry
in Hungary, but the realization of the fact that poultry

means profit where the races and methods are satis-
factory led to study of the native breeds, with a view
to improvement of type and economic qualities. As
profit depends upon productiveness beyond the actual
cost of maintenance, selection is essential to success.
Hence careful observation has been made as to the
Magyar races and definite standards adopted. Pro-
bably these may lead to modifications, but it is
desirable that the general character should be main-
tained.

Economic Qualities. — The Magyar fowl is
essentially an egg-producer, thus following on the
same lines as the Leghorn, which it so closely resembles.
The result of inquiries has shown that it is prohfic,
often producing 150 eggs per annum, which will be
increased as careful selection is made. In that respect,
however, there are very great differences to be found.
Very little attempt has been made to induce winter
laying by the JMagyar breeds, and they are chiefly
profitable in spring and summer. The eggs are small,
as in Italy, and uniformly white in shell. The hens,
with the exception of Whites, are poor sitters and
mothers, so much so that they may be termed non-
sitters, as only a small percentage show the maternal
instinct, and are not very reliable. The chickens are
ver5' precocious, hardy, and quick in growth, and at an
early age fair in flesh, but, like all the Italians, when
older are poor in table properties. These fowls are
hardy, splendid foragers, and able to obtain the greater
part of their food, and when accustomed will sleep in
the open during the severest winter. They are very
lively and alert, and are clever at finding food even
when it is very scarce. Few insects are left where
these fowls are kept. The flesh is scanty, yet fine in
flavour ; they are small in bone, and can be fed up
well, but the flesh is yellow in colom-.

Description. — In general character, as already
explained, the jMagyar follows closely the Itahau or
Leghorn character, but with one exception, the White,
is not so round in body. The body is small,
compact, and broad, and upright in carriage ; the
neck and legs are of medium length, the former
well curved; the head is long, surmounted by a
single comb, much smaller than in English and American
Leghorns, and varying much in shape, as in some
cases it is short and carried well off the head at the
back, whilst in others it is low. With increase of egg
production the tendency wiU be for the combs to
become larger. As a rule the earlobes are red, but we
have seen cases where white was very apparent : that,
however, is unnatural ; beak short, and ivory-white ;
W'ings short and strong ; the tail is carried high,
especially in the cock; legs are strong, but fine in
bone ; all except Whites have yeUow flesh and legs,
but an attempt is being made to breed that variety,
and also the yellow, with white flesh and legs, which

TRANSYLVANIAN NAKED NECK EOWL

147

I

cannot but be regarded as a mistake. There are four
toes on each foot. Weight : males, 4 to 5 pounds ;
females, 3i to 4i pounds.

Varieties.— Whilst the general type of the Magyar
races is very uniform, there are more variations than is
usually found in a breed, doubtless due to absence of
careful breeding and selection.

Black. — These are entirely black in the plumage,
and have dark-coloured legs, in which latter respect
they follow the Black Italians we have seen in their
native land. They are said to be good layers and
hardy, but have not received much attention, owing to
the colour of the feathers, as light plumage is pre-
ferred. They are decidedly narrow in body.

Red. — Here is practically the Brown Leghorn,
having the same plumage and bright yellow legs.
They have red earlobes,
and but for that difference
might be regarded as
Brown Leghorns. They
are great favourites by
reason of their prolificacy
and vigour of constitution,
and are extensively kept.
Our impression is that the
Reds and Whites have re-
ceived the greatest amount
of attention, as they are
certainly the best from
the breeder's point of
view.

Yellow. — These vary
very considerably ; m some
cases the colour is even all
over the body, but in others
with white marking almost
like Piles, from which fact
we assume that they are a
variation from the Browns.
They have yellow legs and flesh and red earlobes,
and are very similar to the Yellows which we first saw
in Denmark nearly twenty years ago. An attempt is
being made to make the legs white.

White (Fig. 57).— In this variety the bone is small,
and the body rounder than in the above, indioatiag a
cross with a heavier breed. The legs are white, and
the hens are said to be good sitters and mothers,
from which fact we regard them as the least pure of
all the Magyar races. What influence has been intro-
duced appears to be unknown. They are pleasing
in appearance, and not unlike small White Minorcas.

Speckled. — Here the plumage is very similar to
that of the Silver-grey Dorking, except that the body
is speckled with white. The body is larger than in the
other varieties, and has certainly more distinctive
character. The legs are yellow and the earlobes
red.

TEANSYLVANIAN NAKED NECKS.

NoMENCLATUBE : BnglisJi, Naked Necks; French, Con
Nu de Transylvanie; (?en)ia«, Nachthiilse; Spanish,
Cuello desnudo de Transllvania ; Hungarian,'Eiy:dte\yi
Kopasz Nyaku.

Varieties : White, Coloured.

Classification : Egg Production.

Colour of Flesh and Skin : Greyish-white.

Colour of Legs and Feet : Leaden-grey.

Colour of Egg-shells : White.

Origin.— This fowl is said to have been produced
in Eastern Hungary, but no evidence is forthcoming
as to the causes which have led to its peculiar features.
We have seen specimens in several districts of Mid
and Eastern Europe, showing that they are strong in
prepotency.

History. — The first examples were seen in
England about thirty years ago, but, whilst bred by
those who desire rare
or peculiar breeds, they
are not, so far as we are
aware, kept for practical
purposes.

Fig 57 —White Mi&yar Cock

adult cocks weig
pounds.

Economic Qualities.

— In Eastern Europe the
Naked Necks are regarded
as the most vigorous of all
poultry, and never appear
' to have suffered from any

form of disease ; the hens
are excellent layers, com-
mencing production early
and laying right through
the winter ; the chickens
ire precocious, and the
flesh excellent in quality ;
they are splendid foragei s,
needing no food during the
greater part of the year.
In size they are medium,
5^ to 6 pounds ; hens, 4 to 5

Description. — The body is short, well rounded,
and fully developed ; legs and neck rather long ; head
medium size, with a single comb, and wattles moderate
in length ; tail full in cock, and carried horizontally ;
wings long and strong for flying ; thighs short ; toes
four. The great peculiarity is that the head and neck,
for about 3 inches, are entirely denuded of feathers,
except that on the lower part of the neck there is
a small collar of feathers ; the comb , wattles, face,
and neck are bright red.

Varieties. — As stated above, there are two varieties,
of which the White is most common, and in this the
contrast between skin of neck and body plumage is
very striking. The Coloured vary considerably, many
being largely red.

10—2

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

DANISH LANDHEN.

NoMENCLATUBE : DaJHs/i, Landhon.
Vakiety: One.

Classification : Egg Production.
CoLOUB OF Flesh and Skin : White.
CoLOUK OF Legs and Feet : Dark grey.
CoLouK OF Egg-shells : "White.

Origin. — The common type of fowl met with at
one time in Denmark was that generally found in
Northern Europe, and evidently a direct descendant of
the G. BanMva. It was kept under natural conditions,
and very little attention was paid to it, as fowls were
formerly regarded as of small importance.

History. — Until 1875 this fowl was universal in
Denmark, but the introduction of the Italian races
displaced it, as they were more profitable, laying
larger eggs. Recently, however, efforts have been put
forward for securing a measure of fixity and improving
it by selection, which have proved successful. The signs
are that it will be regarded with a greater amount of
favour.

Economic Qualities. — The Landhen s a small-
bodied fowl, lacking in flesh qualities, moderate as a
layer, especially in winter, and producing small-sized
eggs, but very hardy, and the chickens precocious. By
selection it has considerably improved both in the
number and size of eggs. They are excellent foragers
and small eaters.

Description. — The body is short and broad, both
in breast and stern ; back sloping well to tail ; wings
small and carried well up ; neck medium length, very
thick ; head of medium size, with strong beak, dark m
colour ; comb single, upright, moderate in size, with
four to six serrations, well over the neck, but not
curved ; wattles good size and rounded ; earlobe white ;
legs stout and short, dark grey La colour ; tail fuU in cock,
with large sickles ; colour of breast, wings, and tail,
black ; back dark red ; neck-hackles bright red in cock ;
in hen, breast salmon, back brown with dark markings,
neck-hackle straw with dark markings. Weight: males,
4 to 45 pounds ; females, 3 to 3^ pounds.

CHAPTER XII

AMEEICAN EACES OF FOWLS

Dominique
Plymouth Rock

Wyandotte
Rhode island Red

WHILST the Western Hemisphere has given us
the turkey and one race of ducks, it owes
the fowl to Europe, from which the early
settlers obtained specimens soon after they had fixed
their habitations in the New "World. Probably the
first importations were of Game fowls, which by their
pugnacious nature would be specially capable of self-
defence, and fall in with the humour of the pioneers.
As to that, however, we have very httle information.
But the development of poultry-breeding as we now
know it would scarcely be found untU the question of
food-supply became pressing, and men were fixed in
their habitations. For a considerable period, as in
Europe, little attention was paid to breeds, but in the
first half of last century attempts were made to secure
types specially adapted to American conditions, and to
introduce races unknown in the Old Country. It has
previously been seen that the Shanghai and the
Leghorn, or Italian fowl, were transported direct from
Asia and Europe respectively to America, and were
unknown in Britain until they had been bred for
several years across the Atlantic. These, however,
were not enough, and ere long special breeds were
produced, built upon lines suitable to the climate and
conditions, and meeting the ideals of breeders. Briefly
stated, they largely followed the Asiatic type— that is,
large in body, hardy, with yellow skin and legs, and
layers of tmted-shelled eggs, but clean in the leg and
more active in habit of body than the Cochin and
the Brahma. American ideals have differed distinctly
from European, in that for table purposes yeUow flesh
and skin are preferred, whilst we regard as finer in
flavour the white-fleshed races. Such a fact should
be kept in view when considering those breeds to
which the name ' American ' is given. That these
have proved most valuable additions to our stock is
unquestionable, and their wide distribution and uni-
versal recognition is a great tribute to American
breeders, who have ever kept prominently forward the
general economic qualities and not exaggerated special

points to the extent met with in Britain. "Whether
that will be so in the future remains to be seen, for
present signs are in the direction of an exaltation of
fancy points, which would be regrettable.

DOMINIQUE.

NoMENCLATUEE : Eiif/UsJi, French, Dutch, Dominique ;

German, Dominitauer ; Danish, Dominikanere ;

Spanish, Dominicana.
Vabiety: One.

Classification : General Pui-pose.
CoLOUK OF Flesh and Skin : "bellow.
Colour of Legs : Yellow.
CoLOUK OF Egg-shells : Tinted.

This breed is not much found in America at the
present time, consequent upon the fact that its place
has been taken by the Plymouth Kock, in the produc-
tion of which it had considerable influence. Our notes
respecting it wUl therefore be brief.

Origin. — "We have been unable to discover any
definite evidence as to the origin of the Dominique.
In one work* it is stated that 'this old-fashioned
breed is said to have been brought over by the early
Puritans,' but no proof in support of the statement is

History. — Specimens of the Dominique appear to
have been bred for a long time, and as much as 100
years is named. Prior to the introduction of the Ply-
mouth Eock it was steadily increasing in favour in
New England, but from that time onwards the number
kept has decreased, and although it is still included in
the Standard issued by the American Poultry Associa-
tion, few specimens are met with.

Economic Qualities. — They are said to be very
hardy, are good layers, and make reliable sitters and
mothers ; for table purposes the flesh is fairly well
distributed, and has the yellowish tinge preferred on
the American market.

* ' Profits in Poultry' (New York, 1886), p. 172.

150

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

Description. — The body is broad and deep, and
the breast full, standing upon strong legs of medium
length ; the neck is of medium length, well arched,
and covered with an abundant hackle ; the head is
medium in size, surmoiinted by a large rose comb,
firmly placed, square in front, well covered with small
spikes on top, and terminating in a spike behind, the
point turning slightly upwards ; the comb, face, wattles,
and earlobes are bright red, the eye bright bay ; the
body colour of plumage is greyish-white, each feather
regularly crossed with parallel bars of blue-black ; the
legs and feet are yellow. Weight : males, 7-J- to 85
pounds; females, 5|- to 6i pounds.

PLYMOUTH EOCK.

NoMExcLATUBE : The term ' Plymouth Eock '

is adopted in all countries.
■Varieties: Barred, White, Black, Buff.
Classification : General Purpose.
Colour of Flesh and Skin : Yellow.
Colour of Legs : Yellow.
Colour of Egg-shells: Brown.

Origin. — It is commonly accepted that the Plymouth
Bock as known to-day originated in a cross between
the American Dominique and the Black Cochin or
Java, for in regard to the latter it would appear that
the term ' Java ' was applied equally to the Cochin. But
later investigations indicate that the influences were
much wider, and that four lines of breeding were
followed. If that is correct, and there is much weight
behind the statement, we have an explanation of the
great variations of type which have marked the breed.
It is stated that these four crosses were united about
the year 1878, producing the modern fowl known under
the above name. The origin would appear to be
described by the following tables of descent :

Asiatic (? Cochin)

White Brahma

inique Coloured Male

Black Java (or Cochin)

In this case we might expect that the single comb
would be clearly defined, and, whilst retaining the
shape of body and colour of legs and flesh of the
Cochin, there would be a tendency to barred marking
in the plumage.

Plymouth Rock, No. 1.
The White Brahmas, or Birmingham Whites, as they
are called by Mr. I. K. Felch, were probably birds of a
Brahma type, white in plumage, with slightly feathered
legs.

as they had feathered legs.

Plymouth Rock, No. 1

Plymouth Rock, Nc

Dark Brahma Hen

Plymouth Rook, No. 4 (Drake).

The colour and type was finally fixed bj' in-breeding
members of the last-named family and the introduc-
tion of Rock No. 1, thus producing the famous Essex
strain, which from 1878 onwards carried all before
them, as shown in the full table of descent.

Plymouth Rock, No. 2.
It is evident that the male was not a rose-combed
Dominique, and that the hens were of the Cochin type.

Black Java Asiatic (Cochin)

1 1

Brahma

1

1

Minorca Cochin Cross

1 !

No.l

1

No. 3 Dark Brahma

1 1

No. 4
1

Plymouth Book.

The above remarks apply to the Barred variety, from
which the Whites and the Blacks are sports, but which
— the former especially — have been improved, by cai-eful
selection.

Buffs have no relationship with the Barred Eocks,
as they do not descend from them. But the plasticity
of the domestic fowl is here shown by the way in which
these birds, without a trace of the Eock blood, have
been moulded to Rook character. From records avail-
able it is evident that the Leghorn, Cochin, and
Brahma have aU been employed, and the following
table will show the descent :

' Leghorn

Buff Cochi:

Light Brahma

Plymouth Rock, No. 3.

Buff Rock.

At first the Leghorn and Cochin influence was very
manifest, but these special tendencies have largely
been bred out. These remarks apply to American
Buff Rocks rather than to English. Many Buff Eocks,
so-called on this side, are yellow-legged Buff' Orping-
tons, and birds bred from the same stock have been
sold as of both breeds. If white-legged they were called
Buff Orpingtons; if yeUow-legged, Buff Eocks. A large
proportion of English Buff Eocks have originated in
this manner. One strain of American Buff Eocks is
largely composed of single-comb Ehode Island Eeds.

THE PLYMOUTH ROCK FOWL

151

They have been bred to Eook type, and by careful
selection and breeding for fine buff colour have become
Buff Plymouth Rocks in shape and general character.

History. — A fowl to which the name Plymouth
Rock was given was introduced about 1849 by Dr. J. C.
Bennett, and was composed of Cochin, Dorking, Malay,
and Wild Indian blood, but it soon passed into oblivion.
The present stock have no relationship or connection
with it. The first specimens of No. 1 type, as above,
were exhibited by Mr. D. A. Upham, of Wilsonville, Con-
necticut, at Worcester,
Massachusetts, in 1869.
They were originated
by a Mr. Joseph
Spaulding, of Putnam,
Connecticut. Much in-
terest was manifested
in them, and led to the
steps which ultimated
in the Essex strain nine
years later. From the
first they caught on
both with exhibitors
and practical poultry-
keepers. Something
must be allowed for the
fact that the breed was
an undoubted Ameri-
can production. It is
not too much to say
that the great develop-
ment of the poultry
industry in America
owed much to this
breed. The Whites
were introduced about
1880, and the Buffs
were admitted to the
Standard in 1893.

Barred Rocks were
introduced into Britain
in 1879, and they
speedily won a wide-
spread popularity. For
some years at exhibi-
tions classes of Rocks were by far the largest, and
competition was very keen indeed. The rewards of
successful breeding were great, as high prices were
realized for first-class specimens. Breeders had no
easy task, as the difficulty of securing first-class
specimens was enormous, due to the great diversity
of the progeny. As one breeder stated nearly twenty
years ago, he did not expect to obtain more than 2 or 3
per cent, of his chickens fit for the show-pen. But it
•was not only among exhibitors that the breed secured
favour. Its undoubted economic c[uahties caused it to

Fig. 58,

Bred hj W. E. B,

be spread very widely throughout the kingdom and
on the Continent, and until the advent of the Buff
Orpington its influence was more in evidence as a
farmers' fowl than any other. Its position, both
for utility and exhibition purposes, has lately been
challenged^ but it is a fowl which yet retains a high
position.

Economic Qualities. — Much of the popularity of
the Plymouth Rook has been due to their vigour of
constitution and adaptability to almost all conditions.
WhUst they are essen-
tially farmers' fowls,
by reason of their
activity and foraging
instincts, and ability
to withstand even the
more exposed situa-
tions, they thrive excel-
lently in confinement.
They are large in body,
and, as was said to us
in their favour soon
after their introduc-
tion, they both look
and carve well where
the number of eaters
round the table is by
no means small. The
chickens are quick
growers for a General
Purpose breed, and can
be reared to a killing
age in about fifteen
weeks, which is much
more rapid than is
usual with fowls of the
same class. In Euro-
pean markets the Ply-
mouth Rock cannot be
regarded among high-
class poultry, as they
are too heavy in bone,
and the flesh, whilst
well distributed and
fairly good in quantity
and quality, is yellow, as is the skui. The last-named
feature is one great recommendation in America, where
broilers are preferred so tmted, and for that trade the
Plymouth Rock is largely bred, producing plump birds
about 2i pounds in weight in nine to twelve weeks.
Even in Europe it has been proved that the breed
fattens well, and that the creamy or orange tinge in
the flesh can be greatly minimized if milk is freely
used. In what may be termed the second-class markets
they occupy a good position, and they have been largely
used for crossing purposes. As layers they are decidedly

Plymouth Rock Cock,

'altliani, Massaeltusetts, U,^

152

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

above the average of the heavier breeds, more espeeially
in winter, and the eggs, vehich are of a fair size, are
deeply-tinted in shell — a great recommendation with
both traders and consumers. They make reUable
sitters and mothers ; in fact, the chief complaint made
respectmg them is that they are too prone to maternal
duties, though we fail to see that this is to be any
serious drawback, and it can be altered by selection of
eggs for hatching from hens in which the brooding
instinct is less highly developed. The tendency to
exalt too highly markings in the Barred variety, more
especially in hens, is to be deprecated, as that is calcu-
lated to weaken the

economic qualities.

Description. —

The Plymouth Eock
is a large, deep-bodied
fowl, squarely built,
and yet with a com-
pact appearance, due
to the absence of
leg, foot, and hock
feathering ; the breast
is fairly prominent,
medium in length,
and well rounded ;
the back is broad,
short, and rising up
to the head and tail ;
the neck is strong and
thick, well arched,
and thickly covered
with hackle ; the
head is medium in
size and length, the
face, comb, wattles,
and earlobes crimson-
red, and the eyes full,
with a bright bay iris ;
the comb is single,
small medium in
size, straight, and
carried upright, with even serrations ; the wattles are
of smallish size ; the thighs are short and wide apart ;
the legs are stout, strong, and firmly set, and are yeUow
in colour, as are the feet, with four toes, but entirely
free from feathers ; the wings are small and carried
close, and the taQ is small and short, with absence of
curved sickle feathers in the cock. The whole appear-
ance of the bird is that of a large, well developed and
proportioned fowl, with strong bbne and good frame,
but compact and close-feathered. Weight : males, 8 to
11 pounds ; females, 7 to 10 pounds.

Varieties. — "When first introduced there was only
one variety, that which is called the Barred Plymouth

l''l(j. J9. — BaKKLJl) I'L\MuLiH lioeK i'LLLh.
red by G. H. LatJiam, Lancaster, MassacMisettSt U.

Rock, but the number has since been largely in-
creased.

B.uiEED (Figs. 58 and 59). — The original type was
what is now known as the Barred variety. The
meaning of that term (which is an American one) is
that the ground colour of the feathers has bars directly
across. Such marking is by no means peculiar to
Plymouth Eocks, but it differs considerably. When
this breed was first introduced the bars were broad
and a little indistinct, yet at the same time they gave
that cuckoo appearance which is characteristic of the
variety, and this form of barring is still maintained
in America. Our
breeders, however,
used to the narrower
bars in the marking
of such varieties as
the Pencilled Ham-
burghs, have un-
doubtedly made the
bars sharper, and in
some way tended to
change the plumage
of the fowls. Happily,
however, there has
been a reaction
against this extreme
change, and it is now
recognised that the
appearance should be
somewhat broad, and
breeders will wisely
adhere to this class of
marking. It must be
remembered that the
Plymouth Rock is not
what is commonly
called a pencilled
fowl. One peculiarity
in the breed is that
the marking is, or
should be, the same
all over the body
in both sexes. It is here where the difficulty is met
with in breeding.

The tendency in all varieties of poultry, more especi-
ally in the males, is towards variation ; for instance,
blackness in the tail, deeper marking in the breast, and
to a lesser extent upon the back, whilst wings and the
hackles generally have an inclination towards lighter
marking. To maintain, therefore, the even colour
throughout is bj' no means easy, and in this direction the
difficulty of the breeder generally arises. It is certainly
a tribute to the influence of skill in selection that so
many Plymouth Eocks have been met with even in
colour. At the same time, however, it is well to
remember that, although not so much so as formerly,

THE PLYMOUTH ROCK FOWL

153

wherever a coloured variety is thus antagonistic to
the general tendency there must be a goodly number
of inferior specimens so far as the plumage is con-
cerned, which is certainly true in the case of Plymouth
Eocks.

Breeders find that the variations are considerable.
In some cases the birds come far too light, with
either failure of bars or too narrow bars. In other
cases they come much too dark from the reverse
influence, and Blacks and Whites respectively have
been produced in that way. Breeding, however, and
careful selection tend to i educe the numbei of failureb
so far as colour is

concerned. There is '' ^

another point in
which the Plymouth
Eock differs distinctly
from, say, the Pen-
cilled Hamburgh,
namely, that the bar
colour I'uns into the
ground colour gradu-
ally, and not with the
sharpness which is
characteristic of pen-
cilling.

With regard to the
colour of the plumage,
the ground of the
feathers (in this
country, at any rate)
is usually accepted as
greyish-white, with
the grey very dis-
tinctly in evidence.
If the ground were
pure white the ap-
pearance of the bird
would be very
different from what
it is, making the
difference between a
good - looking fowl
and one that is
medium in quality. Some of the earlier birds showed
the white ground very distinctly ; and, of course, there
are plenty bred in this country that are now the same,
but they have not the pleasing appearance which is
given when the colour is greyer. The markings in
the English Standard are said to be bluish -black,
whereas in the American they are dark blue, and,
from what we have seen, the transatlantic fowls have
a distinctly greater contrast between the ground and
bar colours than in any English varieties ; in fact, it
is this which largely explains the whiter ground
appearance of the American fowls.

There can be no question that since the introduction

of the Plymouth Rook into this country it has greatly
improved in appearance. At first the specimens were
decidedly homely, but with the improvement of colour
and evenness of marking the bird has now a striking
look, which was not seen in the early days. Whether
this improvement in colour has in all cases been for
the economic benefit of the breed is questionable.
Some breeders disregard all such questions as econo-
mics, and in their haste to secure better external
characteristics they sacrifice that which is of greater
value. We are inclined to think, however, that this
his tiken place in the Plymouth Rock perhaps less
than in most breeds ;
and it is for that
reason that the Rock
is yet found one of
the most valuable
breeds for utility
purposes, but, also,
from the fact that
during the last twenty
years it has been
more and more im-
pressed upon the
minds of breeders
that in order to main-
tain the position of
any variety of fowls
it is necessary to keep
in view economic pro-
perties, less harm has
been done than might
otherwise have been
the case.

White (Fig. 60).—
The White Rock has
not won any consider-
able popularity in this
country. It is a very
strange study, and
one which presents
difficulties, why cer-
tain fowls become
great favourites and
are widely spread, whilst others which appear to have
equal qualities never seem to gain that measure of
favour which is so desirable. There are two or three
white varieties of fowls which are amongst the most
popular, but this is not true of the White Plymouth
Rock. This breed is a sport from the Barred variety.
It is easily seen that a failure of pigment, so far as
the black marks are concerned, would yield white-
plumaged fowls, and wherever we have the mixed
marking, which is sometimes known by the term
' Cuckoo,' there will occasionally be specimens which
either show pure white on the one hand, or are
entirely black. It is in this way that many of the

A^HiTB Plymouth Rock Cock

Giaies, Hif/f/anum, Connettuut, I .,S.A

154

RACES OF DOMESTIC POUETRY

varieties have been secured, and the tendency to
variation is very great in every kind of poultry. The
White Plymouth Eock lias now been bred for nearly
twenty years, and may be taken as well fixed. In the
early days there was a strong tendency to reversion,
and many of the White Plymouth Rocks came with
black feathers, more or less numerous, but fewer
of these sports are now seen. So far as we can learn,
the White Plymouth Eock is quite equal to the
Barred in all economic qualities, and the external char-
acters are entirely
the same, with the
one exception of the
plumage. Some of
those who breed the
White Plymouth
Eock have declared
it to be one of the
best egg-producers of
the family. This,
however, is merely a
matter of opinion,
upon which there is
no definite testi-
mony. One can quite
reaUze that in a sport
there will be a mea-
sure of greater vigour
than in a perfectly
pure va.riety, because
that sport would
seem an expression
of striving for some
more remote type,
and thus indicates
that certain dormant
factors are exerting
their influence.

Black.— The Black
Plymouth Eock is
very little met with,
and its nearness in
type to another breed,
which also upon this
side is scarcely seen
— namely, the Black
Java — means there

is great probability that in some cases these two
varieties have been taken one from the other. We
have never yet seen a Black Plymouth Eock whose
plumage had that sheen which is so desirable, and in
the majority of cases they were a little bit dull in
colour.

were likely to become popular. We have, therefore,
what is called the Buff Plymouth Eock, though the
peculiarity of this is that birds may be Buff Plymouth
Eocks or Buff Orpingtons in accordance with the
colour of the legs and flesh. This is a very unsatis-
factory state of things, but it is none the less true that
many breeders say that they find a considerable
number of their Buff Orpington chickens come with
yellow legs and flesh, and if they have a good colour
of plumage they can scarcely be recognised as in any
sense different from
the Plymouth Eock.
Thus the breeder of
Buff Orpingtons in
whose stram there
is a considerable
amount of yellow
blood has two strings
to his bow, and he
can sell either one or
other race in accord-
ance with the colour
of the flesh and legs.
In process of time
this matter will un-
doubtedlyright itself,
but it shows how
intermixed breeding
undoubtedly is. A
true Orpington could
hardlj' be mistaken
for a PlymouthEock,
and vice versa, but it
is the want of charac-
ter and of fixity and
the exaltation of one
or two minor points
which lead to this
confusion. There are
strains of Buff Ply-
mouth Rocks which
never produce Buff
Orpingtons, and from
what we can learn
birds that have been
bred for a fewgenera-
tions upon the Ply-
mouth Eock type do not produce white-legged birds
at all. Hence the danger is not from the intro-
duction of the Plj'mouth Eock into the Orpington,
but from the introduction of the Orpington into
the Plymouth Eock. It would appear that the breed-
g of Buff Plymouth Eocks is more easy than the

Buff (Figs. 61 and 62). — With the fad evident during breeding of Buff Oipingtoas, for the reason that the

the last few years, both in America and England, it is not flesh and legs of the former are more in keeping with

surprising that birds with buff-coloured plumage have the plumage than is the case in the latter. There

spread into several varieties, especially those which can be no doubt that, as a rule, the colour of the

THE WYANDOTTE FOWL

155

plumage in the Buff Plymouth Bock is more even and
richer than in the other variety. "What is chiefly to be
avoided is that patchiness or mealiness which more or
less characterizes all buff breeds of poultry. Breeders
of this variety state that for winter egg production it is
one of the best breeds
known, and there is
considerable truth in
this statement. The
birds are large and
handsome in appear-
ance, and the un-
doubted infusion of
Cochin blood has
given a vigour of
constitution which is
very desirable. It is
generally admitted
that the colour of the
plumage is largely
owing to Buff Cochin
influence, and those
who have studied the
different races of
poultry will be. able
to realize this fact.
The influence, how-

largely bred out, be-
cause there is no
very great tendency
in the Buff Ply-
mouth Eock towards
feathered legs, and
we aU know that the
Buff Cochin has very
heavy feathering on
the legs and shanks.

WYANDOTTE.

NoMENCL.iTUEE : The term ' Wyandotte ' is used

in all countries.
V^EiETiEs: Silver, Gold, White, Black, Buff,

Partridge, Silver-pencilled, Buff-laced.
Classification : General Purpose.
CoLouK OF Flesh and Skin : Pale yellow.
Colour of Legs : Yellow.
Colour op Egg-shells : Tinted, varying from

buff to brown.

The useful properties of the Plymouth Eock, first, as
it was, of the purely American varieties to command
widespread favour, predisposed poultry-keepers to
accept the Wyandotte when introduced about thirty
years ago. But its plumage, entirely novel among
the larger races, was also a recommendation. At first
progress was slow, but afterwards at a greater rate.
But for the fact that the eggs produced by the earlier
Wyandotte varieties are small we believe it would
command a much wider adoption.

Origin. — When first introduced there was only
one variety, the Silver, and the primary idea was not
in the direction which was attained, but rather to pro-
duce an improved Cochin Bantam, to which end a
Sebright Bantam was crossed with a Cochin hen.
The Bantam idea had
to be given up, as
there was too much
in the way of size
to be got rid of,
and they were called
Sebright Cochins.
The following ac-
count will describe
some of the diffi-
culties to be met
with in the evolution
of a new breed :*

' It was, without
doubt, the intention
with the first cross
to produce an im-
proved Cochin Ban-
tam, the cross being
a Sebright Bantam
cook and a Cochin
hen. When the size
proved too large they
were offered andillus-
trated as Sebright
Cochins. This sug-
gested the cross of
Silver - spangled
Hamburghs with
Buff Cochins. These
two crosses, mingled
with another cross,
a half of Buder and
Cochin hen, became
the blood mixture of the early birds offered to the
American Poultry Association as American Sebrights.
Their friends could not agree as to the comb being so
suggestive of an American Bantam ; the request was
refused, and the matter referred back to a committee.
About the same time a cross of a Silver Hamburgh with
a Dark Brahma hen produced a still more desirable
type, having pea combs. Mr. Kidder, of Northampton,
contended earnestly for this characteristic being ac-
cepted as the regulation. But these crosses, while
being bred by themselves, presented troublesome
features of both feathered and smooth legs, single
and rose, also pea and rose, combs. The best birds
were called Eurekas. When these two wings, or
original crosses, were brought together, more uniform
specimens were produced, the Hamburgh blood being
in the greater proportion. The combs, in the majority

* 'The Wyandotte Fowl' (Albany, New York, U.S.A.,
1884), pp. 5, 6.

I

1

' ^ Jm

h

1

1

K'«.'.;;u;.i,;. ^

.~,A^

Fig. 62. — Buff Plymouth Eock Pullet.
Bred hij F. C. SJiepherd, Toledo, Uldo, C.S.A.

156

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

of cases, assumed a more rose appearance, though
smaller and closer to the head ; the feathers disappeared
from the legs, yet the golden colour of skin and legs
remained. The males, in coloui-, reverted strongly
to Dark Brahma, and the females gave evidence
of their Hamburgh ancestry by presenting a laced

From which it wiU be seen that the Asiatic influence
accounts for three-fifths of the breed.

The exact origin of the Golden Wyandotte is difficult
to trace, as there is a great lack of direct evidence.
Of the earlier specimens it is stated that Silver Wyan-
dottes vpere crossed with Partridge Cochins, Golden-

FiG. 63. — SiLVEK Wyandottes.

plumage.' So far as can be traced, the following is the
descent of the Silver Wyandotte :

Silver-spangled Buff

Hamburgh Cochin

Dark
Brahma

I

American Sebright

Eureka
I

Silver ■Wyandotte.

spangled Hamburghs, or Brown Leghorns, but that
the most successful strain was evolved as follows :

Ehode Island Red Silver Wyandotte

I Silver Wyandotte

Golden Wyandotte.

The descent of the Silver Wyandotte is shown in
the previous table, and need not be introduced to
complicate the above. But we have always felt
that the Golden Wyandotte shows signs of other

THE WYANDOTTE FOWL

157

influences, and that at least Partridge Cochin and
Golden-spangled Hamburgh blood are present, though
we cannot tabulate them.

White Wyandottes and Black Wyandottes are sports
from the Silvers, iixed by careful selection.

In the Golden Wyandotte, and to a lesser extent in
the Whites, was found a distinct tendency to buff colora-
tion, but the process of elimination would be slow, and
hence alien blood was introduced by means of the Buff
Cochin, which explains the inclination to leg feather-
ing frequently met with.

Below we give the table of descent of Buff Wyan-
dottes :

Golden Creamy-white Golden Creamy-white
Wyandotte Wyandotte Wyandotte Wyandotte

Buff Golden

Cochin Wyandotte

Buff Golden

Cochin Wyandotte

Buff Wyandotte.

By this it is shown that on the male line of descent
first a Buff Cochin cock was mated with a Golden
Wyandotte hen ; that a Golden Wyandotte cock was
mated with a Creamy-white Wyandotte hen, and one
of the cockerels produced by this cross was mated with
Buff Cochin hens ; and that the hens from the latter
were mated with a cockerel from the first cross, and
from this mating came the cock which was the father
of the first Buff Wyandottes. On the female side, first
a Golden Wyandotte cock was mated with Creamy-
white Wyandotte hens, and the pullets so produced
mated with a Golden Wyandotte cock ; a cockerel
from this mating was crossed with Buff Cochin hens,
and the hens obtained became the mothers of the first
Buff Wyandottes.

Thus the great-grandsire and great-grandam on the
male side were Buff Cochins, and the grandam on
the female side also. Whilst the above statement
appears to be correct in respect to some strains, it
does not apply to all. Mr. A. F. Hunter writes : ' The
American Buff Wyandottes are largely from Bhode
Island Red stock. It is accepted over here that the
Ehode Island Eeds were used largely in making both
Buff Wyandottes and Plymouth Eocks, and I have
been assured by Mr. K. G. Buffington, the well-
known judge, that there was little out-crossing to
get the buff colour for the earlier Buff Books and
Wyandottes — that they were nearly pure Ehode Island
Beds.'

The Partridge Wyandotte owes its origin both to the

Cochin and the Hamburgh, as is seen in the table of
descent ; in colour it resembles the Partridge Cochin :

Golden Wyandotte Partridge Cochin
Golden Wyandotte |~

Partridge Cochin

Gold-pencilled
Hamburgh

Partridge Wyandotte.

In this case the evidence of evolution is not clear,
as the final introduction of Partridge Cochin and of
Hamburgh blood respectively is recorded^ but without
exactness.

Silver-pencilled Wyandottes have been bred with
the plumage of the Dark Brahma, a type neglected
of late. As a consequence we have the influence of
that breed, as seen below :

Dark Brahma

■-pencilled Hamburgh

Silver Wyandotte

I
I

Silver-pencilled Wyandotte.

One of the latest Wyandottes to be introduced is that
known as the Buff-laced, pretty for ornamental pur-
poses, but that is all. It has been formed thus :

Golden Wyandotte Violette

White-laced Buff
Wyandotte (a sport)

Golden
Wyandotte

Buff -laced Wyandotte.
The Violette is a fowl of which little is known.

History. — At one time the SUver Wyandottes were
designated by various names. They have been called
Eureka, American Sebright, Hambletonian, Colum-
bria, and Ambright, but finally the term Wyandotte
was adopted. The Silvers were brought forward in the
seventies of last century, the Golds early in the eighties ;
the Whites were admitted to the American Standard
in 1888, the Buffs and Partridge varieties were
introduced about 1894, whilst the Silver-pencilled
and the Buft'-laced are of later introduction. From
the time the Silvers were brought before the American
public they commanded a considerable amount of
attention, though they did not secure that wide popu-
larity which was anticipated, due, doubtless, to the
difficulty in breeding to the recognised type. The
Golds have never caught on, and it was not until
the advent of the Whites that the breed secured reoog^

158

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

nition as a valuable utility fowl. The excellent laying
and table properties of that variety, combined with
the advantage accruing from a one-oolour plumage,
speedily won for it a leading position, and it now ranks
in America as one of the three first fowls, so far as
marked by popular favour, amongst practical poultry-
keepers.

Silver Wyandottes were first introduced into England

The Whites were introduced in America by Mr. B. N.
Briggs in 1885, and they have found a much wider
circle of friends. They are extensively bred, more
especially where the combination of egg production
with meat quaUties is desired. Amongst other varie-
ties, the Buffs are the most promising at the present
time, and they lay the largest eggs of all members of
the breed.

Fig. 64.— Golden Wyandotte Cock.
Bred hy I. C. Killer, Prosi>ert, Ohio, U.S. A

in 1881, and they soon began to win their way, chiefly
because of their great prolificacy, more especially in
winter, when eggs are so valuable. It is true that in
point of size of egg there is much to be desired, but
something has been done in the way of improvement.
The eggs are nicely tinted in shell and of good quality.
Still, their position has not been so good as might have
been the case otherwise. Neither Silvers or Golds have
attained great popularity.

Economic Qualities.— The Wyandotte has a
strong look, which shows that it is built for work. It
is active, an excellent forager, very tame and hardy,
thriving well in exposed positions and on the heavier
soils. The chickens mature well, and we have had
cockerels weighing upwards of 3 pounds when twelve
weeks old. The pullets commence laying, if bred at
the right seasons of the year, when between five and
six months old. Practically, their great value is as

THE WYANDOTTE EOWL

159

winter egg-producers, in which respect they stand out
preeminent. The testimony which comes to us from
all parts of the kingdom is that no breed can be relied
upon for winter eggs to the same extent, and especially
is this true of Golden and Buff Wyandottes. That is a
great point in their favour, as the need for increasing
our supply of eggs during the colder months of the
year must be apparent to everyone. For table purposes
colour of flesh varies somewhat. Silvers are good in

below our market requirements. Buffs lay the largest
egg of any of the varieties, and the Whites come
next, as more attention appears to have been paid
to this important point with those varieties — which are
yet capable of improvement, however — than with the
Silvers or the Golds, for which reason many who kept
the latter by reason of the large number of eggs pro-
duced have been compelled to give them up. An egg
weighing under 2 ounces is unsaleable in the best trade

Fig. 65. — Golden WY-iNDOTTE Pullet.
BredhtjI. C. Keller, Prospect, Ohio, U.S.A.

this respect, the Whites better than either Silver or
Golden, but all have yellowish meat. When in lean
condition they do not carry much flesh, but we have
found them fatten better than was at first thought
likely, and the flesh whitens considerably, leaving only
a creamy or golden tinge. As sitters and mothers
they do not become broody early, but are faithful
when engaged in that work. As already indicated, the
great drawback to the breed is the small size of egg,
which in the case of pullets especially are distinctly

for breakfast purposes. Breeders can do much to
improve the size of egg, but it needs persistent selec-
tion of the larger-sized eggs for hatching, and the
use of hens as breeding stock rather than of pullets.
The colour of the shells varies considerably. Buffs,
Whites, and Golds give the deepest tints.

Upon European markets a yellow-fleshed fowl does
not realize nearly so good a price, other things being
equal, as one with white flesh. As a case in point, we
recently placed upon the market two lots of chickens of

160

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

equal weights, and the white-fleshed realized sixpence to
ninepence each more than the Wyandottes. In America
the reverse is the case, so that it is important to study
these questions in relation to local conditions ; but
with the exception named, that of size of egg, the

are moderately tight. There is an indication of the
Asiatic origmin the build, but it has not the Y-shape
suggested by the Brahma, Langshan, and even the
Plymouth Kock, inclining, however, to the Brahma type,
although the absence of feathers on the legs and feet

Bred by Mi
Wyandotte is one of the most useful practical fowls we

Fig. 66.— White Wyaxdottes.

1. F. Hunter, South ^'afifl:, JIassachusetts, V.&

Description. — In appearance the Wyandotte is
short and cobby, compact in body, and the feathers

and of hocks gives it a cleaner and more blocky look
It is very well balanced and graceful in carriage. The
body is short and square, the back broad and short,
with neck rising sharply ; the breast is full and well
rounded, and the keel, or breast-bone, fairly weU defined;

THE WYANDOTTE FOWL

161

the posterior part of the body is well developed, show-
ing good egg qualities ; the wings are small and carried
close to the body ; the neck is of medium length,
fully covered with hackle, and well arched ; the head
is short and broad, surmounted by a rose comb peculiar
to this breed, in that, whilst covered with rather blunt
points on top, square in front and tapering behind, it
follows the curve of the head, and is not flat. jMany
of the European Wyandottes are coarse in comb, which
stands above the head and is flat on top, but that is

black lacing ; in the hen the whole body is marked in the
same way. In the cock the head and neck are silvery-
white, except that the neok-haokle has a clear black
stripe through the centre of each feather ; the saddle-
hackle marked in the same manner ; the back and
wing-bow are silvery-white ; the tail feathers, coverts,
the thighs, and fluff are black. Evenness of marking
is the great desideratum, but in that respect a great
number of birds fail. The beak is horn colour, the
shanks and feet bright yellow, and the eye bright bay.

Fig. 67. — Silver-pencilled Wyandottes.

Bred hy John Wharton, Hames.

not typical ; these are coarse in flesh, and should
tie culled out ; the wattles are small ; the comb,
wattles, face, and earlobes are bright red ; the tail is
wide and thick, but the sickle feathers in the cock are
short ; the legs are of medium length, strong, but fine
in bone, and the toes are four in number. Weight :
males, &h to 8 pounds ; females, 5i to 7 pounds.

Varieties— Silver (Fig. 63).— The body colour is
silvery-white. In the cock the breast and under-parts
ihave each feather on the outer edge marked with jet-

GoLD (Figs. 64 and 65). — Marking as in the Silver,
but the ground colour is of a rich golden-bay. Many
of the earlier specimens were dull in the ground
colour, which gave them a dowdy or dull appearance,
and it is scarcely surprising that the efforts of breeders
have been largely to secure greater brightness in the
plumage, and sc long as economic^' qualities are not
sacrificed such efforts are commendable. As a rule,
the lacing is not very even, which is' to be expected in
fowls with that peculiarity of marking.

WniTE Pig. 66). — The plumage should be pure
11

DOMESTIC RACES OF POULTRY

THE RHODE ISLAND RED FOWL

163

white, without any tendency to straw colour on the
one hand or to albinoism on the other. The points
chiefly to be avoided are coarseness in comb and a
tendency to yellowness in the feathers. The beak is
bright yellow. This variety is very handsome, more
especially upon grass and among trees.

Black. — Very few are seen, and birds are uncertain,
as they are apt to have pm-ple bars, especially in the
neck-hackle, back, and wings. The beak is dark, and
the legs and feet black, shading to willow, but the
bottoms of the feet must be yellow.

Bdff. — As with all fowls having buff plumage, the
colour question offers many difficulties, as there is
always a tendency to unevenness and patchiness. On
the one side many birds are reddish (which trait may
be attributed to the Rhode Island Eed ancestry), and
on the other many birds are very pale. Any shade can
be accepted so long as it is even, from lemon buff to
rich buff. Black in wings and tails is a very common
fault, and in many cases the under colour is almost
white. Whilst, therefore, it is desii-able to secure even-
ness of tone, care is necessary that the undoubted good
qualities of the variety are not sacrificed.

Partridge. — For richness of colour this variety
stands first among the Wyandottes. It is what is
generally known as black-red — that is, in the cook the
head, neck, back, and 'ivings are rich orange or golden
red, the neck-hackle striped with black, and the breast,
fluff, and tail glossy metallic black ; the beak and toe-
nails horn colour-, and the legs and feet bright yeUow.

Silver- PENCILLED (Fig. 67). — In this variety the
ground colour is silvery-white, where in the Partridge
we find orange or golden red, and the breast, etc., black.

Buff-laced. — On the neck and saddle hackle the
feathers have a white stripe down the centre, and on
the breast and thighs in the cook each feather is laced
with well-defined white lines ; the under colour and
tail are white.

RHODE ISLAND RED.

Nomenclature ; Emjlisli, Rhode Island Red ; German,
Rhode Island Rote; Spanish, Rhode Island Rojo;
Hungarian, Rhode Island Barna.

Vaeiety Rose-combed, single-combed.

Classification : General Purpose.

Colour of Flesh and Skin : Yellow.

Colour of Legs and Feet : Yellow or reddish-yeUow.

Colour OF Egg-shells; Deep browu.

Origin. — This breed was the result of crossing by
farmers living on the shores of the Narragansett Bay in
New England, who had no idea of producing a new
breed, but of securing strong, vigorous, and profitable
fowls. Under these circumstances it is difficult to
trace the exact origin, but according to an article which
appeared in an American journal * it is stated that the
basis of the Rhode Island Red was laid about fifty years

* Commercial Poultry (New York, October 5, 1901), p. 18.

agOj when some Eed (partridge ?) Cochins and Malays
were introduced by sea-captains to Westport, Massachu-
setts, and Little Compton, Rhode Island. The cross-
ing of these on the ordinary fowl of the country, which
at that period would appear to have been of a very
ordinary character, gave a type of fowl which specially
suited the conditions prevailing. Later on further
crosses were made with Wyandottes and rose-combed
Brown Leghorns, but at what stage it is difficult to
say. The breed, however, owes its character to other
crosses of the same blood, for Mr. H. S. Baboock, of Pro-
vidence, Rhode Island, who has taken a great interest in
the breed, writes : * ' A Mr. William Tripp, late of Little
Compton, had a number of the old-fashioned Malay
hens (buff). He got from a neighbour a rose-combed
Brown Leghorn cockerel, and put with his Malay hens,
and found the cross to be a most excellent one for eggs
and market poultry. As long as he Hved he bred them,
selecting each year a buff rose-combed cockerel to
breed from ; but stiU they came mixed, rose and single
combs, and most of them showed the Leghorn mark-
ings more or less, especially in hackles.' So far as can
be told the descent of the Rhode Island Red is as
follows :

Buff or Partridge Cocbui Common Fowl

Rose-combed
Buff Leghorn

I !

Wyandotte

Malay

Malay

Rhode Island Red.

It is apparent that the Asiatic blood predominates, and
that the Malay has had considerable infiuence, further
evidence of which is given below.

History. — The following interesting letter, vrritten
by Mr. W. P. Shepherd, of South Swansea, Massachu-
setts,tis worth reproduction : ' At one of the first exhibi-
tions of the South Massachusetts Poultry Association,
Mr. Jenney presented some buff birds for entry, a trio
alive and a number dressed, saying that in his judgment
they were the coming birds for both eggs and poultry.
He was asked what they were called, and rephed they
had no name. Then someone suggested he should give
them one. "Well," said he, "suppose we call them
Rhode Island Reds." And so they were entered pn the
book by that name. That was in', 1879 or 1880.'. . .
Their good qualities induced the poultrymen of Little
Compton and Tiverton, Rhode Island, Westport and
Dartmouth, Massachusetts, and other towns in the
vicinity, to take hold of them and breed them in large
quantities.' In the winter of 1891-1892 they were ex-
hibited at Philadelphia imder the name of Golden

* Country Gentleman (Albany, New York, November 26,
1896), p. 911.

164

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

Buffs, and as both single and rose-combed birds were
bred, it is stated that they were exhibited both as Buff
Plymouth Books and Buff Wyandottes, into the after-
composition of which breeds it is stated that the Bhode
Island Bed has largely entered. In 1888 a club was
formed for the breed, and in 1901 a Standard was
adopted by that club. The Bhode Island Bed has, up
to the present, received a very small amount of atten-
tion in Europe.

Economic Qualities.— The breed is very hardy,
which quality is greatly in its favour, as it is thus suitable
for the more exposed
places and where land
is heavy. It is said
to be fairly quick in
reaching maturity,
and to make a well-
fleshed, meaty fowl ;
but the flesh is deep
yellow, more like
that of our Indian
Game, as might be
expected from its
Malay parentage, to
which may be attri-
buted the deep tijit
of the egg-shell, for
they are darker than
any produced, except
by Malay and Indian
Game. It is reported
to be a good layer,
but in the absence
of actual records we
should imagine that
it will not be very
prolific, though the
Wyandotte and Leg-
horn blood in its com-
position may have
greatly improved this
quality ; and as it is
a medium-sized fowl
we expect it will lay
more eggs than if it

for we look to the smaller races to be better in this
respect. It is an excellent sitter and mother, active,
and a good forager. Taking it aU round, the Bhode
Island Bed appears to have great possibilities, and to be
worthy the attention of practical poultry-keepers, espe-
cially where a desire is manifested to secure greater
colour in the shells of eggs, for which purpose it should
be of service for direct or indu-ect crossing. The
secretary of the Bhode Island Beds Club says of tion • of tail and wing flights, which are black. We
the breed : have no breed which is solid red, and the only one

' They make early broilers, excellent soft roasters at we have met with is the Bussian Orloff, of which

Fig. 70.— Bose-combed Bhode Island Bed Pullet.
Bred by 1'. B. Parle, Beadin;/, Ulassacliusctts, U.S.A.

3 or 4 pounds heavier,

four to six months, and the females hatched in the
natural season lay at from twenty to twenty -four
weeks from hatching. They are very persistent year-
round layers, eggs are large, mostly of a good reddish-
brown colour, and they maintain this colour through-
out the year. A dozen eggs selected for exhibition, no
double yolks, weighed 34^ ounces, and by the case they
averaged 25 to 28 ounces to the dozen.'

Description. — For several years it was doubtful
whether the Bhode Island Bed would be recognised as
a separate breed. In fact, at one time, as we have
seen, specimens were
exhibited in the
States as Buff Ply-
mouth Books and
Buff Wyandottes,
and the want of a
sufficiently distinct
type was evident.
In 1901 a Standard
was adopted, which
clearly gives it an
individuality of its
own. In that Stan-
dard it was provided
that the shape be
distinctly American,
by which is meant
that it shall conform
to the type of the
Plymouth Bock and
the Wyandotte ; but
the portraits of exist-
ing bu-ds show a good
deal of IMalay cha-
racter, especially in
the head and neck,
as the breast is flatter
and the body longer
than in either of
those breeds, more
especially the Wyan-
dotte. The keel is
long, and carried
well forward ; the comb and wattles of medium size,
both single and rose being recognised, though there
is a strong disposition to prefer the latter ; the
legs are stout, rather heavy in bone, medium in
length, and free from feathers ; but until the type
is more firmly fixed many of the birds have feathered
legs. It is in respect to coloration, however, that
the breed holds a special position. The aim is to
make it a brilliant red throughout, with the excep-

-^ 4.m.-

THE RHODE ISLAND RED FOWL

165

one variety is remarkable in this respect. The speci-
mens we met with in Russia in 1899 were brUliant
dark red, almost mahogany, and burnished like copper.
What has been accomplished in that country is within
the power of breeders elsewhere, and would prove
a great acquisition to cur races of domestic poultry ;
the tail is low, and the sickle feathers short ; the comb,
wattles, face, and earlobes bright red ; the shanks and
toes yellow, or reddish-yellow ; beak yellow or horn (Figs, 68-70).

colour. Weight : males, 6 to 7^ pounds ; females, 4|
to 6 pounds. The elimination of black in the body
plumage, or of white feathers, wOl be the main objec-
tive of breeders.

Variety. — There is only one in aU respects except
comb, for we can scarcely at present divide it merely
by reason of the single or rose comb respectively

CHAPTER XIII

EACES OF DOMESTIC DUCKS

Rouen

Duclair-Rouen
Aylesbury
Pekin

Indian Runner
Merchtem
Blue Termonde
Huttegem
Blue Swedish

Cayuga
Russian
Penguin
Muscovy

THE domesticated races of the genus Anas are
to be met with in almost every part of the
habitable globe where man has passed from
the primitive to more settled conditions. There is a
very large number of varieties, differing greatly in
size, shape, and colour of plumage, in some cases with
wonderful brilliancy of feather marking. Many of
these breeds, however, are small in size and purely
ornamental, so that they do not enter into our present
consideration, which is to deal with poultry of various
kinds which, in one form or another, are domesticated
and contribute to the food- supply of man. It is in-
teresting to note that Europe, Asia, and America have
each secured tame members of this species ; but the
greater number of our present races, if we include the
ornamental varieties known to us, are Asiatic. In
China duck-breeding has been carried on for centuries,
and it is not improbable that further observations in
that country would reveal many more types than those
already recognised, as may also be the case in Siberia
and Central Asia. The adaptability of the duck to
change of environment, and the ease with which it
can be domesticated, has led to its breeding in captivity
at a very early stage in the world's history. Below
are given the most important members of this valuable
species.

BOUEN.

NoMENCLATUBE : In all countries, Eouen ; except

Dutch, 'Ron&a.n; Spanish, 'Rn&n.
Vabeety: One.
Classification : Table.
CoLOUE OP Flesh and Skin : Dark yellow.
Colour of Legs and Feet : Orange.
CoLOUE OF Bgg-sbells : Pale green.

Origin.— There is practically no doubt that this
variety of duck is the result of direct breeding from
the Mallard, or wild duck, which it resembles closely in

colour of plumage. The evidence obtainable indicates
that it is a native of France, although upon that point
French writers do not make any special claim. M.
Cornevin * says : 'If it is only probable, but not
demonstrable, that this race was created in Nor-
mandy, it is certain that in that region it is bred
largely for sale in Paris and for exportation to England.'
Our view is that coloured ducks have been bred in all
parts of Europe, inclusive of the British Isles, but that
this race was more carefully selected in Northern
France, whence specimens were imported to Britain, for
the improvement of coloured ducks for reasons which
are now given. Moubray t says : ' The only variety
of the common duck among us is the Ehone duck,
imported from France, generally of a dark-coloured
plumage, larger size, and supposed to improve our
breed. They are of darker flesh and more savoury
than the English duck, but somewhat coarse. Rhone
ducks have been so constantly imported for a great
number of years that they are very generally mixed
with our native breed.' In the edition of the same
work, revised by L. A. MeaU, published in 1854, it is
stated that ' the Eouen variety is known by several
names — as Ehone, from that department in France ;
Eohan, after the Cardinal of that name ; and Eoan, a
word signifying (according to BaUej',) a bay, black,
or sorrel colour, intermixed with grey, the derivation
he gives being the French word rouen, which not
inaptly describes the shades of brown and grey
plumage in which ducks of this variety are almost
uniformly clothed ; and will not this last at once ex-
plain the origin of the name of Eouen, by which it is
more correctly, or at least more generally, designated?

• ' Les Oiseaux de Basse-Cour,' par Ch. Cornevin (Pai-is
1895), pp. 50-51.

+ ' Practical Treatise,' by Boniiigton Moubrav, fifth edition
(London, 1824), p. 31.

THE ROUEN DUCK

167

Although, from the fact of our receiving the principal
suppHes of this stock from France, many writers have
supposed that its application is taken from the town of
Eouen.' Dixon scarcely does justice to the subject,
in that he says:* '1 am even uncharitable enough to
suspect that incorrect names are purposely given to
unusual varieties by a few poultry merchants, in order
to conceal the source from wliich they were originally
derived. My notion is that the title Eouen and its
aliases is only a trade name, intended to elevate the
common sort into a choice and more marketable
variety.' Wingfield and Johnson t show that a brown
duck was common in the fifties of last century, perhaps
owing something to the influences mentioned by
Moubray earlier in the century, and that birds had

French neighbours for their share in the modern Eouen,
if not its actual creation.

History. — From what has already been stated it
can be assumed that the name Eouen has been given
for at least seventy years, for Dickson says :* ' The
tame variety most in request is the dark-coloured
Eouen, or Ehone, duck, originally from France,' but it
is equally probable that the designation is a variation
of the last name. Its value was soon recognised as
greater than that of the common brown duck, more
especially as to size of body and briUiancy of plumage.
It is equally true that it has attained its greatest
perfection in Britain, where breeding is, generally
speaking, on lines of greater fixity. To that extent the

Fig. 71.— Eouen Ducks.

been received from France. Mr. Harrison Weir J
refers to importations in the forties, suggesting that the
reason why Eouens were so common last century in
the South of England was that they were brought over
from France ' to the coast farms, either by fishermen,
or, what is more probable, by some of the numerous
bands of smugglers that used to land and run their
cargoes on many of the available places on the Sussex
coast.' We may, therefore, fairly give credit to our

* ' Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,' by Rev. E. S.
Dixon, M.A. (London, 1850), p. 134.

t ' The Poultry Book,' by Wingfield and Johnson (London,
1853), p. 291.

t 'Our Poultry,' by Harrison Weir, F.E.H.S. (London,
1902), p. 681.

value of poultry exhibitions may be recognised, as they
have led to the adoption of defined characters, and
stimulated the improvement of the race in other
directions. So far as we are aware, no importations
have taken place from France for several decades. In
fact, the best Eouens we have seen in France and
other Continental countries were either imported from
Britain or descendants of imported stock. Strange
to say, within recent years the Rouen has lost groimd,
due to its slowness of growth and the fact that other
races have more completely met the market require-
ments. As a show duck it is facile jprinceps.

* 'Poultry,' by Walter B. Dickson (London 1838), p. 241.

168

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

Economic Qualities. — The Eouen duck in flesh
qualities is the finest of all the domestic races, in that
the meat is not only abundant, but fine in flavour, and
decidedly fuller in quality than any other breed. The
perfection of duck flesh is a well-grown Kouen duckling
of five to six months in, say, September to November.
But the chief and most profitable demand is for
ducklings in the spring and early summer, for which
purpose it is practically useless. Hence it is kept
only to a limited extent by utility poultry-breeders,
who must regard cost and returns. The production of
autumn ducks is much more expensive than spring
ducklings, due to the longer time they must be fed, and
when we take into account that such a bird, weighing
7 pounds, will sell for much less than a spring duckling
of half the size, no further explanation need be given
as to the reason why Kouens are so little kept. From
the colour of the plumage, however, they will look well
when white birds would soon become soiled. They
are naturally hardy, thriving well where there is
plenty of water and wood, are very tame, and attain a
large size when fuUy grown, frequently reaching
11 pounds in the male and 10 pounds in the female.
The ducks are excellent layers of large-sized eggs, and
if kept under natural conditions the eggs are usually
very fertile. The youngsters can be easily reared, but,
as we have already seen, are somewhat slow in growth.
They are scarcely ready for fattening until sixteen
weeks, and do not then lay on flesh nearly so well as
is the case eight or ten weeks later, when they can be
fatted up to 7 and 8 pounds, and even more. We have
seen eight-months- old ducks which scaled at 11 pounds,
but that is exceptional.

Description (Fig. 71). — ThePiouenis a big, massive
bird, very long and wide in frame, deep from back to
keel, and full in front, showing a broad, deep breast ;
the back is long and broad; wings large and powerful,
can-ied well up, the ends resting on the stern ; the
neck is long and very graceful, with a curve but not
arched ; head massive and broad, with a long, wide,
and flat beak, built in a direct line with the eye. It is
bright green-yellow, with a black bean at the tip ; the
eye is bold and full ; the tail is short, with stiff
feathers, two or three of which are curled in the male ;
the legs and feet are medium in length, very stout in
bone, and set midway on the body, whilst the toes are
straight and well webbed, and both are brick-red in
colour ; the plumage is very brflliant indeed in the
male during the breeding season, but afterwards
changes to that of the female, as in the Mallard ; the
head and neck are a rich green, below which is a clear,
broad white band about 1 inch above the shoulders ;
the breast is of a deep claret, forming a clear plate, but
the flanljs, stern, and abdomen are a blue French grey,
the flanks and sides clearly marked with black, as are
the small coverts of the wings ; the back and rump are

a rich green-black, and the tail slaty-black ; the flight
feathers of the wings are slaty-black with a brown
tinge, and across the wings are broad purple bands,
outside which are narrow bands of black, and then
an outer bar of white. The female has a ground
body colour of golden chestnut or brown, each
feather pencilled with rich black, like chain armour ;
the wing-bar is the same as in the male, and the head
and neck a dark chestnut brown, the head showing a
wide dark line from beak to neck ; the general appear-
ance is of a large, massive, strong duck, deep in body
and very long. Weight: males, 9 to 11 pounds;
females, 8 to 10 pounds.

French writers refer to a white Rouen, but we have
no acquaintance with it.

DUCLAIE-ROUEN.

NoMENCLATUKE : Duolah, or Duclair-Eouen.

Variety : One.

Classitication : Table.

Colour of Flesh and Skin : White.

CoLouE or Legs and Feet : Reddish-brown.

Colour or Egg-shells : White to pale green.

Origin. — It is generally admitted that this breed
originated in the lower regions of the river Seine, in
France, but we have no evidence as to how it has been
produced. It is parti-coloured, having some resem-
blance to the Rouen ; but as brown ducks were common
at one period all over Western Europe, it is probable
that it has been selected therefrom.

History. — Our first knowledge of the Duclair duck
was obtained from an article which appeared in the
Live Stock Journal * followed by others. From this
information it was evident that the duck was exceed-
ingly prolific and good in flesh qualities. Miss May
Arnold, writing in the same journal, stated thatt it is
' the remains of an old Norman duck, preserved by
special circumstances from being crossed out by the
wild duck into that duck which we have magnified into
the English Rouen.' It has not been taken up for
exhibition purposes, and therefore is not much known
outside its own district, although it is found in other
parts of France.

Economic Qualities.— This duck is very quick
in growth, in that respect quite equalling the Aylesbury,
as ducklings are ready for killing by the time they are
nine weeks old. The flesh is abundant and of good
colour. They fatten very well indeed, and are very
hardy, thriving in cold weather, as they are reared
under rough conditions. The ducks are excellent
layers, and reports have been published showing that,
for practical purposes, they have proved most successful
in the United Kingdom.

* November 14, 187!), p. 401.

t Lice Stock Journal, October S, ISSO, p. 343.

THE AYLESBURY DUCK

169

Description. — These birds are similar to the Eouen
in shape, as is the body colour, except that it is less
brilliant in hue ; but it has a white neck and breast,
which gives it a distinctive character. The beak of the
drake is dark green, and of the duck nearly black. The
legs in both sexes are reddish-brown. Weight : males,
8 to 9 pounds ; females, 7 to 8 pounds.

AYLESBUEY.

Nomenclature : lu all countries, Aylesbury.

Vabiety: One.

Classification : Table.

Colour of Flesh and Skin : "White.

Colour of Legs and Feet : Briglit Orange.

Colour of Egg-shells : White, or greenish- white.

Origin. — White ducks appear to have been known
for centuries, and the fact that white-plumaged birds
are occasionally produced by dark or rich hued races in
our own day explains the origin of the Aylesbury.
The most recent instance of this was given in the
Standard, February 15, 1899, by Mr. John Titterton,
who said : ' Five years ago Mr. Charles Ambrose, of
Ely, discovered two white ducklings in a brood of pure
wild birds. These were caught and isolated, the result
being that out of a team or flock of wild ducks every
bird is now hatched pure white. Nothing can exceed
the elegance of these birds, either in their movement
on the water or in their flight, which, by the way,
seems to be rather more quick than that of their
darker - coloured progenitors.' Mr. Harrison Weir,
F.B.H.S., as quoted in ' Our Poultry,' made further
inquiries as to these birds, which, after several years of
selection, bred almost entirely white ducklings ; and
from the fact, also, that the eggs were white, he came
to the conclusion that it was in this way the Aylesbury
was produced. The changes which distinguish the last-
named breed, apart from coloration of plumage, from
its wild ancestor are the result of breeding upon
definite lines, on changes of condition or of food.
We need, therefore, look no further in respect to its
origin.

History. — Some of the older writers upon poultry
termed this race the White English, but in the early part
of last century the name Aylesbury was given, doubtless
due to the fact that duck-breeding was extensively prac-
tised in the vale of Aylesbury, in Buckinghamshire,
where the soil was and is specially suitable for this in-
dustry, producing the finest specimens, and that the best
ducklings came thence. The first reference which we
have been able to trace where the name Aylesbury
was given is in the work by Bonington Moubray, first
published about 1815, in which he says : ' The English
duck, particularly the white variety, and when they
chance to have very light-coloured flesh, are never of so
high and savoury flavour as the dark colours. . . . The
White Aylesbury are a beautiful and ornamental stock,

matching well in colour with the Embden geese.
They are said to be early breeders.'* In Eees'
' Cyclopfedia,' published in 1819, there is a paragraph
dealing with ducks, but this is chiefly as to the manage-
ment, and does not treat upon the different breeds.
However, in the early part of last century a variety was
known as the Aylesbury, owing to the fact that at the
period named this variety was kept to a large extent
in' the vale of Aylesbury, in Buckmghamshire. Since
that time the name has been universally adopted.
The breed has proved one of the most valuable for
early maturity, which explains its popularity, not only
in this country, but elsewhere, whilst it has always had
a strong clientele among exhibitors. About thirty
years ago the appearances were that the race was
losing both size and vigour, probably owing to the fact
that nearly everyone obtained their stock birds from
Buckinghamshire, and that in that county inbreeding
was almost universal. Since that time the injury thus
done has been overcome, for which we may thank an
out-cross of Pekin blood, which has restored the
virility of the Aylesbury. At the same time much is
owing to these birds being bred in many parts of the
country, and thus the choice of stock is greatly
increased. Mere change of conditions is in itself often
beneficial.

Economic Qualities.— For marketing purposes
the Aylesbury stands easily at the head of domestic
ducks, the reason for which is because of its rapid
growth and early maturity. Ducklings can be pro-
duced ready for killing within seven to nine weeks
from the day of hatching, weighing from 4 to 5^
pounds. In fact, to be sold as ducklings and thus
command the best price they must be marketed by the
time they are nine weeks old, for then they begin to
assume adult plumage. As the season when prices for
these dainty birds rule high in the English markets is
from February to June, quickness of growth is an
important factor in respect to the profit attained, as
the birds are heavy feeders. They are light in bone,
and carry a considerable amount of white or creamy-
white flesh, which is well placed on the breast. As
layers they are excellent, and when bred at the right
season commence production early, often in October or
November. We have known flocks of Aylesbm-y
ducks producing an average of 150 eggs in the course
of twelve months, and trustworthy evidence is forth-
coming of individual ducks laying between 80 and 90
eggs without a break. They seldom sit, and are not
much relied upon for that purpose. If one drake be
kept with three ducks, or two drakes with five ducks, it
will seldom be found that eggs are infertile, provided
that they have plenty of water for swimming and a fail-
amount of liberty. Kept under proper conditions they
are very hardy. As mature stock they do not attain
' ' Practical Treatise,' by B. Mouliray, p. 34.

170

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

the size, nor has their flesh the flavour, of the Eouen,
but for the duckhng trade they have no rival.

Description (Fig. 72). — In appearance the Ayles-
bury is boat-shaped, in that the line of body is level
with the ground, the legs being placed about midway
between breast and stern. One of the characteristics
of the Aylesbury is the delicate colour of the bill and
legs, the former being pinky or like flesh. It has been
claimed that this delicate colour of the bill can only
be obtained in the vale of Aylesbury. Undoubtedly it

the size of the body in the Aylesbury, and also to
deepen the keel. Up to a certain point this is bene-
ficial, but at the present time there is a tendency to
exaggerate, and some of the heavy-keeled birds have
proved to be uncertain breeders. In weight the
Aylesbury should be, for drakes, 9 to 10 pounds, and
for ducks a pound lighter, though if the frame of
the bird is large at the beginning of the breeding
season, the birds will be none the worse if they each
weigh a pound less. Of course, we should not breed from
small birds, but mere weight is in itself a minor

Fig. 72. — Aylesbury Duck.
Bred hy John Gillies, Chiniside, N.B.

cannot be maintained upon strong soils, but wherever
gravel is abundant in the streams or bottoms of the
ponds, there the same colour of bill can be secured as in
the vale of Aylesbury. It may be thought that the colour
of the bill is merely a fancy point, but that is in-
correct. Frequently these external characters are con-
nected with economic qualities, and one of the results of
our later study has been to show, to some estent at any
rate, the correlation between characteristics and quali-
ties. It is found that the colour of the bill indicates to
a large extent the colour and quality of the flesh. Of
late years there has been rather a tendency to increase

consideration. What we want is a strong, large frame.
The plumage is pure white, and in this there must be
no sign of yellowness. Some of the specimens ex-
hibited are almost too white — that is, the plumage has a
washed-out appearance. This is frequently due to the
fact that the bh-ds are kept under unnatural conditions
and protected from sunlight. That plan, however,
should only be carried out when birds are intended
for exhibition, and even then we think that the slight
bluish tinge which runs through white plumage when
the white is a combination of colours rather than due
to an absence of pigment adds greatly to the appear-

THE PEKIN DUCK

171

ance of the bird. The beak is fine, and the head and
bill long and perfectly straight, whilst the legs are of a
light orange colour. For breeding stock it is important
that the bones of the leg should be stout without being
heavy — in fact, one of the great features of the
Aylesbury is their light bones— but at the same time
there must be sufficient bone to indicate vigour.
The only difference between the male and female
birds is that the former have two or three curled
feathers in the tail.

PEKIN.

Nomenclature : In all countries, Ptkin, or Peking.

Vakiety: One.

Classification : Egg Production.

Colour of Flesh .ind Sihn : Yrllow.

CoLOUB OP Legs and Feet : Dnrk Orange.

CoLouB OF Egg-shells: White.

Origin. — This race of ducks is a native of China,
whence it was imported direct to England and America.
Duck-breeding is extensively followed in certain dis-
tricts of China, but we know comparatively little as to
the breeds to be met with there. Mr. Harrison Weir
states that he had* ' made inquiries of travellers who
have visited Langshan, and learned that there is a
white breed of ducks there that are not only distinct
from ours, but larger and more beautiful.' In the
absence of definite information as to the distribution of
the Pekin in China, we can accept that country as the
place of origin. Whether the Penguin duck had any
share in its formation is probable, but not provable.

History. — The first Pekins were imported into Eng-
land in the year 1872, by Mr. Eaymond Harvey, of
Coomb End, near Cheltenham, who brought them
direct from Pekin.t The following year a trio were
imported into the United States, respecting which the
late Mr. Mason C. Weld records the story as follows,
under date of January, 20, 1874 4

' Mr. Jas. E. Palmer, of Stonington, a seaboard town
of Connecticut, returned last year from a journey in
the East, having visited China and its capital. He
saw at Pekin some large ducks, which he at first took
for geese on account of their large size, the length of
their necks, and their large heads. A large number
were secured and placed on board the ship in which he
returned. All died except one young drake and two
ducks, which landed in New "York, March 14, 1873,
and were successfully taken to Palmer's farm, near
Stonington. They were indeed alive, but dwarfed by
the voyage, and not larger than good-sized Aylesburys.
They recovered rapidly, and . . . the ducks laid con-
stantly until the end of July, the number of eggs
averaging considerably more than one hundred each.'

* 'Our Poultry,' by Harrison Weir, P.B.H.S. (London,
1902), p. 690.
t Live Stock Journal, vol. i., 1874, p. 97.
t Ibid-, p. 9.

The Pekin very rapidly won a large amount of
favour. In England its vigour, prolificacy, and hardi-
hood were special recommendations, as there can be
little doubt that, owing to inbreeding, the Aylesbury
was showing signs of rapid exhaustion, and there were
no means of obtaining fresh blood at that time. In
spite of the differences between the Aylesbury and
Pekin, the latter was largely used as an out-cross, and
contributed much to the restoration of the former as
the premier duck for table qualities in this country.
The signs of this cross have largely passed away, but
the influence remains in the renewed vigour of the
Buckinghamshire breed. In America the Pekin won
an even greater amount of popularity. For some
unexplained reason the Aylesbury has never found
favour in America, but the Pekin has attained great
success both in the United States and Canada, where
yellow or cream coloured flesh in poultry is preferred to
white. There its hardy nature has enabled it to meet
the extremes of the climate. The great duck ranches
in North America have been almost exclusively created
by the development of Pekin ducks for market pur-
poses, in spite of the fact that they are not so rapid in
growth as the Aylesbury. What is true across the
Atlantic is equally the case in several European
countries, more especially Southern Germany, Austria,
and Hungary, where the Pekin is regarded with special
favour, as it is thought to be the hardiest of white-
plumaged races. Frequently a breed adapts itself -to
one set of conditions more than to others, and in that
fact we have an explanation of the differing ways in
which races of birds are accepted. The experience in
the United Kingdom is in favour of the Aylesbury, as
previously explained. The chief value of the Pekin is
as an egg-producer, and as an out-cross for maintaining
the virility of the English duck.

Economic Qualities.— The leading quality of
the Pekin is egg-laying, in which respect it stands
easily at the head of the larger races of ducks. It
is wonderfully hardy, bearing both cold and heat
extremely well, and is an excellent forager. The ducks
seldom sit, and cannot be rehed upon as mothers. In
appearance this breed would seem to be a large bird,
but the frame is smaller than might be expected,
owing to its thiok covering of feathers. Adult ducks
grow to a good size, and are fairly meaty ; but the
ducklings are somewhat lean, requiring ten to eleven
weeks to attain a killing age, whereas the Aylesburys
are ready two to three weeks earlier, when they will
weigh more and be fleshier. This result is to be
anticipated in all cases where egg-laymg is highly
developed, as that must be at the expense of the flesh
properties. Pekins do not fatten well, and, having
yellow flesh, they have not won any great amount of
popularity for practical purposes, except when used
for crossing, in which respect they are very valuable.

172

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

Description (Fig. 73). — The body of thePekinis of
medium length, but very broad, with a wide breast,
which is carried well forward, and a full paunch.
The body does not appear very deep, in that there is no
sign of keel. It is carried upright — that is, the breast
is much higher from the gromid than the tail, giving
a suggestion of penguin shape, due to the legs being
set well back ; the neck is thick and moderately long,
well arched, and carried in front of the body ; the
head is very broad and large, and the skull prominent,
sharplj' rising from the beak, which is short, broad
and thick, and slightly curved upwards to the tip. It
is in colour bright
orange ; the eye is
dark leaden blue ;
the wings are short,
carried well up, and
the tail full and
carried high ; the
legs are of medium
length, very straight
and stout in bone,
and dark orange in
colour. Although
the Pekin is re-
garded as a white
duck, it is not really
so, as there is a
creamy or canary
tinge running
through the entire
plumage, and the
appearance of such
a tinge in the Ayles-
bury is an evidence
of Pekin blood.
The birds are active
and alert, moving
freely. Weight:
males, 7i to 9
pounds : females,
6 to 7-^- pounds.

Fig. 73. — Pekin Ducks.

INDIAN EUNNEK.

NoMENCLATUBE : Enr/Usli, Indian Runner; Fi-encli,
Coureur Indieu; German, Indisohe Laufenten;
Dutch, ludische Loopeend; Daniih, ludische
Lbeander; Italian, Corritrici Indiane; Spanish,
Corredor Indio ; Hun;iarian, ludiai f uto.

Vabiety: One.

Classification : Egg Production.

Colour or Flesh and Skin : Orange, or rich cream.

CoLouE OF Legs and Feet: Deep yellow.

Colour of Egg-shells : White.

Origin.— The story as to the mtroduetion of this
breed is that about sixty years ago* ' a drake and trio

* ' The Indian Runner Duck,' by J. Donald, pamphlet
undated, ii. 1.

of ducks were originally brought from India by a sea-
captain to Whitehaven, and presented to some friends
who at that time followed the occupation of farming in
West Cumberland. . . . Another consignment was
imported by the same gentleman some years later, and
from these two importations it is probable that the
present-day Piunner ducks are either directly or in-
directly descended. They were not known to their
introducer by any special or distinctive name, having
simply attracted his attention when ashore by their
active habits and peculiar penguin carriage.' A further
importation was made by the late Henry Digby in
1898, which is the
only actual date we
have been able to
obtain. An interest-
ing contribution was
made by Mr. F-
Finn, B.A., F.Z.S.,
to this question in a
weekly journal,* in
which he says : ' The
true Indian Eunner,
with semi - erect
carriage, active gait,
straight profile, and
the accompanying
indifference to water
and great laying
power, does exist in
India somewhere,
but is rare and in
few hands, and con-
sequently difficult
to obtain. ... I
am, however, of
opinion that ducks
of the Indian
Eunner type or form
can stUl be ob-
tained from several
Eastern localities
outside India.' He
further indicates
that ducks of this type have been seen near Zanzibar
and Suez, and he hints as to their affinity with the
Penguin duck. The name was given in connection
with their action when in motion.

History. — Introduced about the middle of last
century, as ah-eady stated, although Mr. Harrison
Weir suggests an earlier importation in the thu-ties,
they soon became popular in Cumberland by reason of
their remarkable powers as laj-ers, as they commence
production early and continue well on to the time of
moult. It was not until about 1893 or 1894 that they

* Feathered World, September 25, 190.3, p. i46.

THE INDIAN RUNNER DUCK

173

became known elsewhere, since which time steady
progress has been made in popularity. The display
made at Kendal in 1896 brought them prominently
forward, and they have been introduced with consider-
able success both into Ireland and America.

Economic Qualities. — As indicated above, these
ducks are wonderful layers, in some cases producing
nearly 200 eggs per annum, and continue in profit until
they are sis or seven years old. The eggs are smaller

reared,
bird.

the Indian Eunner is essentially a utility

Description (Fig. 74). — Body long and narrow,
well elevated in front, and without any sign of keel, but
with a well-rounded breast ; the neck is long and
fine, and carried erect ; the head is fine, rather fiat,
with a broad, strong, nearly straight bill, which is
wedge-shaped ; the eye is placed high in the head ;
wings are carried well up, and the tail rather high ;

Fig. 74.— Indian Eunner Ducks.

than is usual with ducks, and they can thus be mixed
with hen's eggs, to the advantage of the vendor. Their
flesh is very fine in quality, juicy, and well flavoured,
but not very abundant, as they are small birds. If a
demand could be created for small ducklings they
would be very useful. In America the size has been
considerably increased. The ducks are practically
non-sitters, and cannot be relied upon for maternal
duties. They are splendid foragers, and find the greater
portion of their food, so that they are inexpensive to
maintain if given a free range. Hardy and easily

the legs are long and well set back, and the general
appearance is sUght and racy-looking. In colour the
head is a greyish-fawn in the duck and bronze-green
in the drake, with narrow bands of white dividing the
base of the bill from the head and along the cheek ;
the neck, wing-flights, and fluff are white, and the rest
of the body fawn, or in some cases even grey ; the bUl
is green in adult birds with a black bean, in ducklings
yellow ; the legs and toes a bright, deep orange red.
Weight : males, 4 to 4i pounds ; females, 3^ to 4
pounds.

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

MEKCHTEM.

Nomenclature Merchtem.

Vabiety: One.

Classifkation : Table.

Colour of Flesh and Skin : "White.

Colour of Legs and Feet : Creamy.

Colour OF Egg-shells: White.

Origin. — The descent of this breed of ducks appears
to be very uncertain. The general opinion is that it is
a sport from the Blue Termonde, but smaller in size.
In appearance it greatly resembles the Aylesbury,
except that it is not so large, and the bill often has
a blue bean ; also, the legs are blue. These differences
give it a distinct character, and all suggestions that
the Aylesbury and Merchtem are one and the same
may be dismissed as incorrect, although there are
floating traditions that white birds were formerly
exported to England.

History. — This duck is largely bred in the Merchtem
district of Belgium, to the north-east of Brussels,
where the duck industry is extensive and apparently
lucrative. It is bred entirely for practical purposes;, in
order to supply the Brussels markets dm-ing the early
summer. In that part of the eoimtry the soil is light,
suiting these birds very well, as they cannot be reared
under the conditions adopted elsewhere, as stated
below. So far as can be learnt, these Merchtem ducks
have been bred for a long period of time in that district.

Economic Qualities.— The Merchtem duck is
famous for its flesh qualities, as it makes rapid growth,
and produces a satisfactory quantity of flesh, which is
very white and most delicious in flavour, with that
mellowness which is preferred on the best markets.
The ducks are stated to be very prohfic layers of large-
sized, almost white-shelled eggs. It is bred usually
under somewhat unnatural conditions, and therefore
is not among the hardiest of its species, the method
adopted not including the provision of water to swim
in for either adult or young stock. In some of the
establishments we have visited in the Merchtem district
the ducklings are reared in enclosed yards, very like
those in Buckinghamshire. The birds fatten rapidly,
and can be marketed quickly.

Description. — In body this variety resembles
that of the Aylesbury in all respects, except that it is
smaller. It is long and boat-shaped, the line of breast
being level with the ground ; the neck is of medium
length, and well arched ; the head is fine and the beak
straight and long, reddish-white in colour; the legs,
which are longer than in the Aylesbury, are set well
in the centre of the body, but are yellow in colour ;
the plumage is white, but there is an undoubted
tendency to blue, and, in fact, it might be called
bluish- white. Weight: males, 6 to 7^ pounds;
females, 5 to 6^ pounds. The size has been increased

by breeding, but does not yet in that respect equal
the Aylesbmy.

BLUE TEEMONDE.

Nomenclature : Belgium, Bleu de Termonde ; Enqlish,
Blue Termonde; fferaiare, Blaue Termonde; iJa^c/i,
Blauw Termonde ; Danish,'B\a.a, Termonde ; Sjmmsh,
Termonde Azulado.

Variety : One.

Classification : Table.

Colour of Flesh and Skin : White.

Colour of Legs and Feet : Eed-brown and black.

Colour OF Egg-shells: Bluish-white.

Origin. — As stated above, the opinion held in Bel-
gium is that the White Merchtem is a sport from the
race under review, which is bred in the valley of the
Scheldt between Ghent and Malines. But as to that
no evidence is obtainable. Little can be deduced from
the colour of the plumage, for white, blue, and red
ducks have been met with in several countries ; in
fact, blue ducks at one time were by no means un-
common in England. Blue, or rather slate-grey —
which would be a better description — is the result of
mixing black and white, and, although somewhat
difficult to maintain, is by no means micommon. The
suggestion is made that the reason why the Blue
Termonde duck has attained so large a measure of
popularity is that birds with this colour of plumage
were less seen by their enemies, both human and
animal, than if they were white or red, and thus were
preferred by the peasants. But there is another
cause, namely, blue plumage in ducks represents
influences which make for vigour of constitution and
quality of flesh. Dixon mentions* that ducks were to
be met with in Norfolk having a slate-blue or bluish-
dun plumage ; and Mr. Lewis Wright says : f ' The
late Mr. Teebay several times told us that, about
1860, there was a recognised local race of large blue
ducks in Lancashire.'

History. — The Blue Termonde duck has a con-
siderable distribution in mid-Belgium, where it is bred
for utility purposes. It is frequently exhibited, but, so
far as we are aware, has not been used elsewhere. Prior
to ten years ago it was scarcely recognised as a dis-
tinct race, but that position must now be accorded to it.

Economic Qualities. — This variety is very
large in size, and produces a considerable amount of
flesh, but, like the Rouen, it is slower in growth than
other breeds. The flesh is excellent in quality and
good in flavour, due to its being reared in a hardy
manner, which would be impossible unless it were
vigorous in constitution. M. Vander Sniokt thus
explains the influence : J ' Exercise develops the

* 'Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,' by Eev. B. S.
Dixon (London, 1850), p. 133.

t ' New Book of Poultry," by Lewis Wright (London, 1902),
p. 539.

+ Chasse et Petite, July 15, 1900, p. 673.

TERMONDE AND HUTTEGEM DUCKS

175

muscles of the part of the body set in motion. A duck-
hng develops by exercise alone the muscles of the
thigh ; those of the breast come by heredity, because
it is fatted and eats before it has ever had the need
to use the wings.'

The great value of the Blue Termonde is in crossing
with softer-fleshed ducks, as in the case of the Indian
Game and Dorking fowls, and it secures this result
without the use of yellow-fleshed ducks, so that the
colour of the flesh and skin is not adversely affected,
whilst the quality of the meat is greatly improved.
It is a bird of great vigour, hardy in the extreme, and
the ducks are excellent layers. From the appearance
of the Huttegem duck it may be assumed that the

HUTTEGEM.

Nomenclature : Hattegem.

Vaeietles : Blue, Dark Fawn, or Tawny.

Classification : Table.

CoLODB OF Flesh and Skin : "White.

CoLOUB OF Legs and Feet : Blue, or slate.

CoLOUB OF Egg-shells : White, or pale green.

Origin. — In the absence of definite information,
which appears to be unobtainable, we may safely regard
this race as the result of crossing the Blue Termonde
upon a smaller duck with a body long and narrow,
resembhng that of the Indian Eunner, which latter
type was formerly very common in the Netherlands.
But that was evidently at a distant period of time,
as the present characters are fairly well fixed.

Fig. 75.— Hdttegem Ducks.

Blue Termonde has either been used for the production
of that race, or that both own the same ancestry.

Description. — The Blue Termonde is very long in
body, broad, and deep, carrying the breast well in front,
but retaining the boat shape ; the neck is fairly long,
well arched, and the head, which is carried well back,
is large, broad, and long ; the beak is also long and
blue in colour ; the legs, which are of medium length,
and feet are red-brown and black ; the plumage is
what breeders usually term blue — that is, slate-grey
evenly throughout the body, each feather shghtly
bordered with black. In some cases the throat is
white, which gives them a pretty appearance, but this
is not universal. Weight : males, 9 to 10 pounds ;
females, 8 to 9 pounds.

though it should be remembered that Belgian duck-
breeders do not pay much attention to colour of
plumage so long as type of body and colour of bill and
legs are in accordance with their views. The descent
of the Huttegem is probably

Blue Termonde Euiiuer

Huttegem.

History. — This duck is bred very extensively in
the Audenarde district of East Flanders, where
hundreds of thousands of ducklings are raised annually.
The name is taken from the village of Huttegem, near
the city of Audenarde, as that is the centre of the in-

176

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

dustry which has been followed for several decades.
The requirements are a hardy, rapid-growing duck,
attaining maturity early, and commencing to lay when
five or six months old. It does not appear to have
extended elsewhere. The district named is low-lying,
with large areas of water meadows, and in the streams
grow abundantly water lentUs, which are regarded as
necessary for ducklings.

Economic Qualities. — As abeady stated, the
Huttegem duck commences to lay early, in August
and September, and the eggs are used for hatching
only from young stock. The ducklings are very hardy,
as they are put out on the fields when two days old,
even if the ground is covered with snow, and they are
given access to water from the first, if the ice has to be
broken for the purpose. Only vigorous birds could

and around the eye above and below is coloured in
D -shape, the white running to the eye, which is at the
base ; the beak is blue, a white line dividing it from
the head ; legs and feet slate-blue.

Varieties.— In the Blue (Fig. 75) the head and
body are slate-blue, and in the Tawny a dark fawn.

BLUE SWEDISH.

NojiENCLATunE : English, Blue Swedish; German,
Schwedische ; Dtitcli, Zweedsohe Blanwe ; Z>aOT'sA,
Blaa Svenske; i!jmiiis!i, Suees Azulada; Hun-
garian, Sved Eek.

Vaelety : One.

Classification : Table.

CoLOUB OF Flesh and Skin : Creamy-white.

CoLOUB OF Legs and Feet : Orange-red.

CoLOUB or Egg-shells : Pale blue.

Origin. — All the evidence which we have been able
to obtain with regard to this duck is from German

Fig. 76. — Blue Swedish Ducks.

stand such treatment, but deaths are few and far
between. They are splendid foragers, roaming widely
in search of worms and other natural food. They
grow rapidly, and at five to sis weeks old can be put
up for fattening, so that they are killed at eight to nine
weeks after hatching. The flesh is fairly abundant,
and fine in flavour. The ducks are prolific layers, but
do not sit.

Description. — Of a medium size, the Huttegem
is long, but rather narrow, flattish in back and round
below, deepest midway between the legs, and higher in
breast than stern, but without Penguin carriage ; the
neck is short, and the head long, with a straight, flat
bill and small forehead ; the back of the head, neck,
breast, under-parts, and wing-flights are white, the
head and rest of body coloured as stated below, but
the colour on the head is peculiar in that the crown

som-ces, as it has held a recognised position in the
Fatherland for many years, and is bred to a consider-
able extent. It is stated that it was introduced about
1835 from Pommern, which at that period was part of
Sweden. Hence the name given to the race. It is not
improbable that the same influences which led to the
Blue Termonde account for the Blue Swedish, and it
is quite possible that both own the same progenitors.
Upon that question we do not enter, as there is no
certainty. It is more than likely that these birds came
from the Farther East, and it is suggestive that the
countries in which blue ducks were found were on the
northern coast-line of Europe, although blue sports
are by no means uncommon in the United Kingdom
and in France.

History. — It has been stated that a race of blue
ducks were known in the North of England early last

BLUE SWEDISH AND CAYUGA DUCKS

177

century, reputed to have come originally from Holland;
but breeding has proceeded on other lines, and thus
blue ducks are not often seen. Specimens were
imported into America in 1884 and onwards, and in the
hands of a few breeders have proved profitable. But
it is not stated whence they were received, and it is
not improbable that they came from Germany. A
few years ago some blue ducks were shown in England
under the name of Orpingtons, but it is generally
thought that they were renamed Swedish or Belgian.

Economic Qualities. — Whilst the ducks are good
average layers, egg production is not their chief quality,
as they are specially noted for flesh properties. The
meat is well distributed and abundant, even when we
regard the size of these birds, and it is well flavoured,
which may be due to the fact that they are bred under
natural conditions. It is said that when they are
entirely domesticated, unless special care is taken in
selection of stock, they lose much of the blue colour
of plumage, which is very suggestive as showing how
variations have been obtained. The Blue Swedish is
not a rapid grower, but fattens well and makes large,
plump, meaty birds.

Description(Fig. 76).— The body is long, broad and
■deep, with a full, round breast, and is well balanced upon
the legs, so that it follows the Eouen in shape ; the back
is level, long and broad, with a slight concave sweep from
shoulder to tail; the neck is strong, slightly arched,
and of medium length ; the head is round and broad,
with a flat forehead ; the beak in a straight hne from
the top of the head, rather long, broad, and in the drake
olive-green, but much bro^\'ner in the duck ; eyes
round, full, and dark brown in colour ; wings full-sized,
■carried close up ; tail broad, well extended behind ; legs
and feet strong, rather over the medium in length, and
with toes well spread, in colour orange-red ; the upper
part of breast and the front of neck up to lower man-
dible white ; the rest of the body of a dark steel blue-
grey, the outer edges of the feathers marked with black,
■except the outer flight feathers, which are white.
Weight : males, 6^ to 8 pounds ; females, 5j to 7
pounds. The general appearance is that of a strong,
massive duck, rather above the medium in size, but not
so large as the Eouen.

CAYUGA.

NoMENcLATUKE : In all countries, Cayuga.

Vabiety : One.

Classd?ication : Table.

CoLOUK OF Flesh and Skin : White.

CoLouB OF Legs and Feet : Dull orange-brown.

CoLouE OF Egg-shells : Very dark green.

Origin. — The evolution of this handsome variety of
■duck, which has never received in Europe its fuU meed
of attention, is uncertain. That it came from America
in the first instance is undoubted, but in the early part
of last century a large black duck was common in the

North of England, probably a sport from the Eouen.
The accounts given as to the origin of the Cayuga are
very indefinite. Miner states * that it ' is undoubtedly
a cross between some wild variety and the domestic
duck,' and Stoddard says f that ' it is said to have
originated on the shores of Cayuga Lake, and to be a
cross of the wild black duck upon the common
Mallard.' That it was probably first made known
in Cayuga County, New York State, may be accepted,
but we think that its origin was South America, even
though some specimens may have been captured in the
northern half of that continent. From such evidence
as can be obtained, large ducks of what are now called
Black East Indians were to be seen about sixty years
ago, and were called Buenos Ayrean, and the appear-
ance of the two are so similar even now, except so far
as size is concerned, as to lead to the opinion that they
were originally the same. It must be remembered
that in Europe the Black East Indian has been bred on
small lines, and in fifty years it would be quite easy to
make them distinct in respect to size. It is quite
possible that the South American ducks met with in
North America were crossed to secure a greater
measure of domesticity, as this is frequently done.
The following shows the descent so far as it can be
traced :

Buenos Ayrean Common Duck

Black East Indian

Cayuga.

History. — Miner, already quoted, writing in 1878,
says that ' this variety of duck has been bred by Mr.
J. S. Clarke, of Cayuga County, New York, for nearly
twenty years, and . . . though Mr. Clarke has bred
them for that length of time, they were first brought to
notice through the columns of the Albany Cultivator
in 1851. Mr. Havard, the editor (now of the Boston
Cultivator), having seen in the market some ducks of
this variety, dressed, and weighing about 8 pounds
each, and always having an eye to the useful, traced
them to Mr. Clarke, since which time the stock has been
more widely disseminated.' It would appear that the
first Cayuga ducks were imported to Britain from
America in 1871. They have had a limited number of
admirers, but have never found much acceptance for
practical purposes, in spite of the fact that they have
very useful qualities, more especially for crossing to
improve the flavour of the flesh. To secure richness
of plumage a good deal of Black East Indian blood
was introduced, which had the effect of reducing the
size of body.

Economic Qualities.— The Cayuga duck is a fair
layer, which quality has not been specially developed,

* 'Domestic Poultry Book,' by T. B. Miner (New York,
1878), p. 248.

+ 'Domestic Waterfowl,' by H. H. Stoddard (Hartford,
Connecticut, 1885), p. 20.

12

178

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

as ■s\'ould probably have resulted had the breed been
taken up more widely by practical poultry-keepers.
They are very meaty, carrying a considerable amount
of flesh on the breast, which is fine in flavour, richer
than is usual with the softer-fleshed races. The meat
is white, but not so much so as the Aylesbury. They
are very hardy, and the ducklings can be reared easily,
except where inbreeding is resorted to for the produc-
tion of exhibition stock. Upon our markets dark-
legged ducks are regarded with less favour than those
which are orange-yellow in that respect, but this is a
prejudice which would be speedily overcome if these
buds were bred to a greater extent and their qualities
recognised. The crossing of a Cayuga drake upon
Pekin ducks produces quick-growing ducklings, which
are excellent in flavour of flesh.

Description. — The body is very long, wide, and
thick from back to keel ; the keel or sternum blade is
large, carrying a large amount of meat ; the breast
well forward, and the line of body very level with the
ground ; the neck is long, tapering to the head, and
well arched ; the head large and broad, and the bill
long and flat, the latter in a line with the eye ; the
wings are large and carried well up ; the tail is full
and carried fully behind, the drake having, as usual,
two or three curled feathers ; the legs are rather long,
keepmg the body well above the ground, and are strong
in bone, m colour of a dull orange-brown, hghter
between the toes ; the plumage is in colour of a deep
metallic black, with a greater briUianoy on the wings ;
the eye is black and the bill of a slaty-black, showing
a jet-black saddle down the centre distinct from the
sides, and stopping at the bean, which is deep black.
Weight : As already stated in Britain crosses of the
Black East Indian have reduced the size, and males
are 6 to V pounds, females, 5 to 6 pounds ; whereas in
America the standard is 7 to 8 pounds for males,
and 6 to 7 pounds for females, and the larger size are
distinctly to be preferred, as brilliancy of plumage is
of secondary value.

RUSSIAN.

During our visit to Russia, m which country and
Siberia there are probably many races of ducks, as of
fowls, unknown to us, the only breed of definite char-
acter we saw was called Indian, but we have not been
able to obtain any definite information as to their
origin, history, and economic qualities. We must
content ourselves, therefore, with a brief description.
These birds are of medium size, and boat-shaped ;
the drake has a fawn-coloured body, with brown
feathers in the tail, except that the neck and back
of the head is white, the rest of the head brown ;
the bill dark green, with a line of white dividing the
bill from the head. In the ducks the plumage is
fawn, but spangled or splashed with white, and the

neck and back of head as in the drake ; in both sexes
the legs are red. In size these birds appeared to be :
males, 7 pounds ; females, 6 pounds. During visits
paid to the various countries of Europe the variety
above named is the only one that could be regarded
as a novelty.

PENGUIN.

Many poultry books refer to a race of ducks which
was imported from India about seventy years ago, to
which the above name was given, by reason of the fact
that they are almost upright m carriage, due to the
legs being set far back in the body, The legs are short
and they have a waddling gait, but are very active.
The body is very long. Darwin states that they are
found very generally in the Malayan Archipelago, and
others say that they are common in India ; but upon
these questions we have no definite information. The
Penguin duck has no practical value, but it is evident
that they have a very definite affinity to the Indian
Eunner, and possibly, to a lesser extent, to the Pekin,
and hence they must be mentioned.

Mr. Harrison Weir states* that ' Mr. Cross, of the
Surrey Zoological Gardens (1837-1838), had several
which bred on the island in the lake ; these were of a
light and dark fawn colour, the ordinary blue bars on
the wing being of a dull slate tint. The ducklings
were extremely odd-looking httle things, and frequently
fell in their attempt to walk fast or run. The next
that came under my observation were at Birmingham,
December, 1858, and were the property of Lord Ber-
wick. These were a rich hazel and fawn La coloiir.
Some are extremely pretty, being of a dull blue, light
brown, blue-black, and splashed freely with white,
having markiugs much in the same way as the Indian
Bunner ducks, of which I believe them to be a closely
analogous variety.'

MUSCOVY.

NojiENCLATURE : English, Muscovy, or Musk; Frencli,.

Barbarie, or Musque ; <?enHan, Moschus: Dutch,.

Muscaat ; Danish, M.oskus ; Spanish, Muscovy.
Vakieties: Pied Black and White, 'White, Black,

Blue-dun.
Classification : Table.
Colour of Flesh /IND Skin : Dark cream.
CoLOUB OF Legs and Feet : Orange-yeUow.
Colour of Egg-shells : White.

Origin. — Nearly all the races of domestic ducks-
are denizens of the Eastern Hemisphere, and almost
without exception appear to be descended from the
Mallard, or wild-duck, although in some cases they
have been modified by crosses, probably with the
Muscovy. But this breed is a native of South
America, where it is found in a wild state. WUlughby
and many later writers have regarded it as a distinct

* 'Our Poultry,' by Harrison Weir, P.E.H.S. (London,
1902), p. 693.

THE MUSCOVY DUCK

179

species, claiming that the crosses produced by the
Muscovy and the common duck are sterile. That,
however, is not borne out by later experience, and
although the place of origin is so distinct, yet they
are equally members of the same species ; for such
sterility is often found in the early days of domestica-
tion, and is one of the results of changed conditions.
It is stated that it inhabits the hottest portions of
tropical America. ' During the day it lives in swamps,
where it finds congenial food, and towards the evening
may be seen sitting in rows on the lower branches
of large trees, descending thence to make inroads into
the maize plantations and cornfields, where it does
considerable damage, plucking up at the same time
the mandioca or tapioca plants.'*

As a proof of its habitat specimens were received
by the Zoological Society of London in 1851 and 1880.
Hence the Muscovy duck differs from other races in
that it is in direct and immediate descent from its
wild progenitors ; but as to the method of domestica-
tion there is no evidence to offer.

History. — The earliest reference we have come
across referring to this breed is in a French work,"]"
and Caius mentioned it in 1670 under the name of the
Turkish duck. Willughby, who died in 1672, speaks
of it as ' a wild Brazilian duck of the bigness of a
goose,' and gives what is yet a correct description.
Nearly all naturalists refer to it in a similar manner.
Coming to the era of poultry-keeping, it does not
receive much favour. Moubray says : J ' Muscovy
and other foreign varieties of the duck are kept rather
out of curiosity than for the table.' The reasons are
given below. In the revised edition of the last-
named work, published in 1854, an interesting account
is given of the name now accorded to it, for it
has received a host of designations— Brazilian, Peru-
vian, Indian, Guinea, Musk, Muscovite, Muscovy,
Turkish, Barbary, etc. — but it is too long to quote.
Briefly stated, it is to the effect that in the sixteenth
century merchant adventurers who traded beyond the
seas took high - sounding names for their companies,
such as the ' Muscovite Company,' in the reign of
Queen EUzabeth; and, as geographical knowledge at
that time was very indefinite, names were accorded
to novel importations which were, to say the least,
misleading. But we incline to the opinion that the
term ' Musk duck,' by which it was at one time known,
due to the peculiar odour emitted by the flesh of old
birds, was corrupted into Muscovy. Specimens are

* Proeeedings of Zooloqical Society, 1876.
+ ' L'Histoire Naturals des Oyseaux ' (Paris, 1645), p. 176.
X 'Practical Treatise,' by Boniugtou Moubray, fifth edition
(London, 1824), p. 34.

always to be met with, and a number of breeders
find it useful for practical as well as ornamental
purposes.

Economic Qualities. — The Muscovy duck is
generally admitted to be a poor layer, but cases are
known where the reverse was the case. It is a large-
bodied bird, quick in growth, and carrying an abun-
dance of meat, which is darkish in colour. The flesh
is very fine in flavour. Dixon says * that ' the Musk
duck is excellent eating if killed just before it is fuUy
fledged ; but it is longer in becoming fit for the table
than the common duck. Their flesh is at first high-
flavoured and tender, but an old bird would be rank,,
and the toughest of tough meat. It is strange that a
dish should now be so much out of fashion as scarcely
ever to be seen or tasted which, under the name of
Guinea duck, graced every feast 150 years ago, and
added dignity to every table at which it was produced.'
These ducks fly well, but do not wander much.
They are good graziers, can be kept easily in con-
finement, but are very savage, and their evil temper
makes it practically impossible to keep other fowls
with them, and explains why they have never become
popular, in spite of undoubted flesh qualities, among
farmers. They are hardy and vigorous.

Description. — In body they are very long, some-
times measuring 2 feet, broad and deep, and are
boat-shaped ; the neck and legs are of medium length,
and flne in bone ; the head is large and broad, and is
ornamented on top with a tuft of feathers ; the bill is
small and curved ; the face around the eye is entu'ely
bare and bright red, but the chief peculiarity is that on
the front of the head is a bright red knob of flesh not
unlike a cherry, which with the featherless face gives
it a somewhat raw appearance ; the wings are large
and strong, and the tail stands well out ; the bill, legs,
and feet are orange-yellow ; there is a great difference
in size between the male and female, the former often
reaching 12 pounds, whilst the latter does not exceed
8 pounds.

Varieties. — The wild specimens are largely black,
with a few white feathers on the head, but considerable
variation has resulted from domestication, and we now
have Pied Black and White, Pure |White, Deep Black,
and Blue Dun. Of these, the white are the most orna-
mental.

There is a large number of other races of ducks, but
these are kept for ornamental purposes, and con-
sequently do not concern us.

* -Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,' by Eev. E. S.
Dixon (London, 1850), p. 75.

CHAPTER XIV

RACES OF DOMESTIC GEESE

Roman Canadian

Embden Russian

Toulouse Egyptian

Saddleback or Pomeranian Chinese

Danubian African

THE geese generally found in Europe and America
possess a remarkably uniform character, varying
only to a very limited extent, less, in fact, than
met with in any other branch of domestic poultry. Until
a comparatively recent period there were practically
only two breeds, the Grey and the White respectively,
known in Europe. That was the case in Italy nearly
2,000 years ago, and so it continued during all
the intervening centuries. Gervasse Markham, whose
work on ' The English Husbandman ' was published in
1615, says : ' Now, for the choyse of geese, the largest is
the best, and the colour would be white or grey, all of one
pair, for pyde are not so profitable, and blacks are
worse.' ' Pyde ' geese probably meant parti-coloured,
like the Pomeranian, but blacks are now unknown, and
it is probable that those referred to were a very dark grey.
Although within recent years additions have been
made to the races of geese regarded as valuable for
domestic purposes, there is very little development
in respect to feather coloration, doubtless due to the
homely garb of the parent stock, as whites and greys
predominate. It is true that rather more coloration is
found in African and Asiatic geese, but even with
these we find alack of that brilliancy of plumage which
cliaracterizes other races of poultry. In spite of the
fact that the goose was one of the earliest fowls
to be domesticated — for it was a sacred bird in Egypt
4,000 years ago — it hasbeen modified to a comparatively
small extent so far as external characters are concerned.
This is probably due to the utilitarian nature of the
birds, as they are useful rather than ornamental.
Darwin emphasizes the fact* that ' hardly any other
anciently domesticated bird or quadruped has varied so
little ' as the goose. Not only was it valuable for its
flosh qualities, but to provide quDls for writing. As

* 'Variation of Plants and Animals under Domestication,'
by Charles Darwin, P.E.S. (Loudon, 18S5), vol. i., p. 302.

Hehn says :* ' The first quill pens were used at the
commencement of the Middle Ages, in the time of the
Ostrogoth Theodoric. It is now supplanted by the steel
pen, so that there are three great periods of such
instruments — the earliest, lasting from the beginning
of the art of writing among the Egyptians to the fall
of the Roman Empire, being that of the split reed,
used by Thucydides and Tacitus ; the second that of
the quill pen, with which Dante and Voltaire, Goethe,
Hegel, and Humboldt wrote ; and the third that of the
steel pen of the nineteenth century.' Goose feathers
have been valuable for the making of beds for 2,000
years. Below are the leading races known to us.

EOMAN.

NoMENCLATUKE : J?n;/Zts7(, Eoman ; French, 'De'Romagne;

ffci-Ma?!, Italiener; /Miiare, Di Romagna; SjJanish,

Romaiia, or Italiana.
■V,\BiETiES : White, Black and White.
Cl.\ssipication : Egg Production.
CoLoxjB OF JFlesh AND Skin : Creamy-white.
Colour of Legs and Feet : Reddish-grey.
Colour of Egg-shells : White.

Observations made in various countries, and espe-
cially in Italy, have led us to the conclusion that some,
at least, of our modern races of geese can trace their
descent to the geese which were domesticated in the
Italian peninsula several centuries before the com-
mencement of the Christian era. Knowing the in-
fluence which Italian races of fowls have exerted in the
evolution of many races, and that distribution has
often followed political and military changes, to the
dominion of the Roman arms and the commercial
relationships of Italy with other parts of the Continent
of Europe may be attributed the dissemination of the
goose, modified by the domestication of the wild

* 'Wanderings of Plants aud Animals,' by Victor Hehn
(London, 1885), p. 279.

THE ROMAN GOOSE

181

species in the respective countries. Throughout South
Germany, Austria, Hungary, and the Balkan States,
we find almost universally a white goose, following the
Embden in character, but much smaller in size, and
consequently closely resembling the White Eoman
goose. Formerly it was thought that this was an
Embden, and although, to secure improvement, speci-
mens of that breed have been used, the conclusion we
have arrived at is that it is descended from the Eoman,
and for that reason we have placed the latter first among
the races under review, as it may be regarded as the
oldest European breed. This is supported by the fact
that in Mid and South-Eastern Europe parti-coloured
geese, similar to what are called the Padovarno in
Italy, are also occasionally met with.

is no direct
expected in

Origin. — Upon this point there
evidence, but that is scarcely to bi
connection with a breed
which has existed for
twenty-three centuries.
Among the ancient writers
many references are made
to geese in Italy before
Christ. Hehn * says :
' Among the Eomans per-
fectly white geese were
carefully selected and used
for breeding, so that in
course of time a white
and tamer species was
produced, which differed
considerably from the
erey wild-goose and its
descendants.' Homer,
Livy, Lucretius, and other
ancient writers, mention
both white and coloured
geese, and these birds
were kept in the Capitol
at Eome as sacred to
Juno, which, as in Egypt,

meant that the priests retained them as long as possible
for their own use. The conclusion come to is that the
Eoman goose was obtained by selection when its wild
progenitor, the Greylag, was captured and brought
into the service of man.

History. — The goose, and especially that associated
with Italy, is famous for its preservation of the Eoman
Capitol during the siege by the Gauls, 365 B.C. The
assailants in the night climbed to the summit in
silence, not even alarming the dogs. ' They were not
inperceived, however, by some geese, which, being
sacred to Juno, the people had spared, even in the
present great scarcity of food, a circumstance to which

Fig. 77.— Eoman Goose.

* 'Wanderings of Plants and An
London, 1885), p. 279.

by Victor Hehn

they owed their preservation, for by the cackling of
these creatures and the clapping of their wings Marcus
Manlius was roused from his sleep,'* and the Capitol
was saved. From that time onward the goose has
held a definite place in the affections of the Eoman
people, but in modern times it has not been bred to
any great extent, as Mid and Southern Italy are not
as suited to the production of fine flesh as are Lom-
bardy. Piedmont, and Venezia, or the colder parts of
Europe. We had not seen this race until our visit to
Italy in 1903, when the Eoman geese then met with
led to the inquiry as to its distribution in Mid and
South-Eastern Europe, and to the opinion that it is the
progenitor of the race common in those countries.

Economic Qualities. — AU the evidence goes to
show that these birds are very precocious indeed,
rapid in growth, and most prolific layers, and we
suggest that the Eoman
would be a valuable breed
both in England and
America. A Belgian
breeder who had tried
the race for a couple of
years, writing October 28,
1899,t says : ' I have a
young Eoman goose,
hatched May 10, which
commenced to lay Sep-
tember 6 (then at the
age of four months), and
which, until to-day has
laid twenty-two eggs -r
that is, twenty-two eggs
in forty-nine days.' This
is borne out by the experi-
ence of others, and it is
stated that these birds will
lay 60 to 110 eggs from
October to June. For the
production of early gos-
lings, for which there is a
good demand at profitable prices, such a breed should be
invaluable. The geese are very late sitters, and other
means of hatching should be adopted. The goslings
grow rapidly, and are quickly ready for the green
gosling trade. The older birds moult rapidly, and their
feathers are valuable. In meat qualities, whilst dry in
their native land, they rapidly improve under more
favourable conditions, and they fatten extremely well,
making up apparently in six months to 8 or 9 pounds,
and three months later to 12 or 14 pounds, at which
sizes they should find a good market. They are
splendid foragers, obtaining a large portion of their food.

Description. — The body is long and broad, with
a well-developed sternum, and the breast broad but

t Livy, lib. v., cap. 47.

* Chasse et Peche, November 5, 1899, p. 95.

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

THE EMBDEN GOOSE

183

not very prominent, thus following the Embden ; back
broad ; neck very long, fine, and well arched ; the head
is fine, and in manj' tliere is a small crest at the back
of the head ; the eye is blue, surrounded with bare
skin of pale yellow ; the beak is very thick and short,
orange-red, nearly rose in colour, with a tip of ivory
white ; the wings are large, but not carried as far back
as the tail ; the legs are strong, reddish-grey in colour,
with white toenails ; the general appearance is that of
a broad and massive goose, but not so tall as the
Toulouse or Embden. Weight : males, 10 to 14 pounds ;
females, 8 to 12 pounds.

Varieties. — Although in Italy the Eoman and
Padovarna are classified separately, they are evidently
two varieties of one race, not two distinct breeds, and
therefore we place them in the same category.

Roman (Fig. 77). — These are pure white in colour,
close and compact in plumage, and with legs and beak
as stated above.

Padovarna. — In this variety the greater part of the
body is white, but in the gander especially the head,
back of neck, wings, and sometimes the back, are dark
grey.

EMBDEN.

NoMENCLATUBE : In all countries, Embden, Embdener,

or Emdem.
Vabiety : One.
Classification : Table.
Colour of Flesh and Skin : Creamy-white.
CoLOUB OF Legs and Feet : Bright orange.
CoLOUB OF Egg-shells : White.

Origin. — "White geese have been known for many
centuries in "Western Europe, produced either by
sports from the Grey or by the introduction of Italians.
The Embden, as we know it to-day, has not existed
for more t"lian 100 years. In the early part of last oen-
tm-y white geese were common in Britain and in Ireland
equally. It would appear that the influence which led
to the improvement of that goose— for it is universally
admitted that to English breeders the credit is due for the
creation of this fine race — was obtained from Holland
or Germany, where goose-breeding has been followed
for a long period of time and on an extensive scale.
The late Sir. Edward Hewitt stated"" that he had
'traced the best specimens of this kind through several
owners, and found that the originals (in these instances)
came from Holland.' In the latest edition of Moubray t
it is stated that ' the Embden takes its name from the
Hanoverian town, whence it was, many years ago,
imported, and whence, as also from some parts of
Prussia and Holland, we still continue to draw supplies.'
The fact of importations having been made is confirmed
by Mr. Harrison Weir from personal knowledge. He

* • The Poultry Book,' by Wingfield and Johnson (London,
1853), p. 26G.

+ 'Domestic and Ornamental Poultry,' by Bouiugton
Moubray, new edition (London, 1854), p, 297.

says :* ' It is many years ago that a friend of mine,
who had been some time living in Brunswick, in-
formed me of the geese there attaining weights of much
over 30 pounds, and he said the breed was also known
and successfully reared in Hanover. All were white,
and it was from these large birds that the goose hams
were made. They were not there called Embden, but
" Brunswick " ; but that is now more than forty years
ago.'

From the evidence here given the line of descent
may be traced as follows :

German ^Tiite

English White

Embden,

recognising that by selection British breeders have
fixed the character and size of these birds. In this
connection it is of interest to note that many English
Embdens are now exported to Germany for the im-
provement of the native breeds.

History. — How the name Embden came to be
given there is no record, but probably stock were
imported from that town and the term adopted to
distinguish the strain from others. The first use of
the name we have been able to trace was in 1838,
after which time it became general. But at an earlier
date geese of this variety were exported from Germany
to America under the name ' Bremen,' by which they
were known for a considerable period, the designation
doubtless indicating the port whence they were shipped.
In Britain and America alike they have won a great
amount of favour for their economic qualities, and
within the last thirty years the relative number bred
has greatly increased, as they are quick in growth and
excellent in flesh qualities. But for the enclosure of
common lands upon which geese were at one time
reared in large numbers by small farmers and cottagers,
and the fall off in demand for this class of poultry, they
would have advanced more rapidly.

Economic Qualities.— The Embden is very
quiet in temperament and very amenable to control.
The goose is an early layer, generally coming into
profit in February, but as they are persistent sitters and
mothers they do not lay as many eggs as the Toulouse,
which is a non-sitter. The eggs are large, protected by
a hard, thick shell. They will continue in profit for
many years, but should not be used for breeding until
they are two years old. The leading quality of the
Embden is its rapidity of growth, which is an impor-
tant point in its favour, more especially for the green
gosling and autumn goose trade. Hence they can be
brought into condition for killing cheaply, especially if
fed off upon the stubbles. If kept until Christmas

rrison Weir, F.R.H.S. (London,

184

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

they fatten up well and attain large size. They are
hardy, good foragers, and will thrive upon poorer
l.inds, where the Toulouse would not be profitable.
The feathers are of greater value than those obtained
from grey geese, which to some extent accounts for
their popularity.

Description (Figs. 78 and 79). — The body is long,
broad, and thick, with a massive breast, but not carried
fully in front as in the Toulouse, in comparison with
which it has a some-
what flat appear-
ance ; there is no
sign of keel, and
the body is tight
and compact; the
paunch and stern
are full and deep ;
wings very large
and powerful ; neck
long and fine, well
arched ; head
straight, broad, and
strong ; bill thick at
the base and short,
in colour orange ;
dewlap or loose
gullet should be ap-
parent ; the eye is
large and fvdl, and
bright blue in
colour; tail straight,
rather short ; legs
and feet very stout
in bone, with
straight toes, and
bright orange in
colour; the plum-
age is pure white.
Weight : in Eng-
land, males, 25 to 30
pounds ; females,
23 to 28 pounds ;
in America, males,
20 to 25 pounds;
females, 18 to 23
pounds.

TOULOUSE.

NOMENCLATUEE ; Enf/HsJi, French, German, Dutch,
Danish, Huni/anan, Toulouse, or Toulouser;
Italian, Spanish, Tolosa.

Vabiety: One.

Classification : Table.

Colour of Flesh and Skin : Pale orange.

CoLOUB OF Legs and Feet : Orange.

Colour OP Egg-shells: White.

Origin. — It has already been shown that grey
geese have been known since the species was domesti-

cated, and records are given of its existence in Britain
for centuries. AH the earlier writers from Gervasse
Markham refer to it ; but it is evident that, whilst the
' grey ' has been used in the production of the Toulouse
as seen to-day, other influences were brought to bear in
securing an improved size, and there can be little
doubt that this was obtained from the South of France.
In the early part of last century geese were largely
bred in the Haute Garonne Department of that
country, of which Toulouse is the capital, and even
now the number
kept there is greater
than in any other
French department
save one. Dixon
assumes* that the
Toulouse goose ' is
only the common
domestic, enlarged
by early hatching,
very liberal feeding
during youth, fine
climate, and per-
haps by age,' but
this is not supported
by the facts of the
case, although the
various influences
named have each
had their share in
the evolution of our
present stock. It
would appear that
in the fourth decade
of last century the
then Earl of Derby,
for his famous men-
agerie at Knowsley,
imported some im-
proved grey geese,
as did others, from
Southern France.
These were called at
first Mediterranean
or Pyrenean, but
finally the term Tou-
louse was adopted.
From these, carefully selected, our present-day stock
has descended, and it is acknowledged that the English
Toulouse is finer and larger than the French.

History. — Importation of the improved Toulouse
was immediately prior to the establishment of poultry
shows, which latter have had a marked influence upon
the race, leading to greater perfection of type and to
increase of size. Whilst white geese are more general
* ' Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,' by Kev. E. S.
Dixon (London, 1850), p. 149.

I. — Toulouse Geese.

TOULOUSE AND POMERANIAN GEESE

185

than grey among practical poultry-breeders, the size
of the Toulouse has led to its use for crossing purposes.
Upon the Continent white geese are preferred, but in
America and the Colonies the Toulouse is largely bred.

Economic Qualities.— The Toulouse goose is a
good layer, but seldom becomes broody, and is not a
reliable mother. Her eggs are very large, and generally
white in colour of shell. The goslings are somewhat
slow in growth, for which reason they should be
hatched early, even for the Christmas trade, as they
are of little use as green goslings or for early autumn.
They thrive best upon richer soils, and are not as good
in finding their hving as the Embden. Properly
treated, they develop big frames, and when fatted
lay on a large amount of flesh ; but it is somewhat
coarse in texture as compared with some other
breeds, and there is a large proportion of bone and
offal. In fact, their looseness of shin and of feather
and the frontal prominence gives them the appearance
of greater size than is really the case, for frequently
the Embden exceed them in actual weight at Christ-
mas, and have the advantage of fitness for killing
in the autumn, when the Toulouse would be in a
raw, lanky condition. The heavy paunch is a mis-
take, as such birds make up loosely when killed.
The Toulouse are heavy eaters, especially when under-
going the process of fattening. They are hardy, vigorous,
and not disposed to wander far from home. For cross-
ing purposes they are very valuable, and many of the
best geese placed upon our markets are produced by
Toulouse ganders mated with Embden geese.

Description (Fig. 80). — The body is long and
very deep, carried low between the legs, and very
prominent in front, having a keel almost level with
the ground from breast to paunch ; the paunch
is very heavy and carried low ; back broad and
shghtly curved, and shoulders broad ; the neck is
long and very thick ; the head is broad and thick,
and the bill, which is orange in colour, is strong,
forming a uniform curve from point of bill to top
of head ; the eye is large, dark in colour ; on the
throat is a heavy dewlap, an undesirable point, often
exaggerated in show birds, leading to weakness and
disease, and indicating a loose skin ; the tail is high
and full; the legs are short, heavy in bone, and toes
well spread, in colour orange ; the back, wings, and
thighs are of a dark, even steel - grey, each feather
laced with a much hghter shade, almost pure white,
except the flight feathers, which are of a solid steel-
grey ; the breast and under-parts are of a clear grey,
lighter on the thighs, and the stern, paunch, and tail
are white, with a band of grey across the tail. Weight :
in England, males, 23 to 28 pounds ; females, 21 to
26 pounds ; in America, males, 20 to 25 pounds ;
females, 18 to 23 pounds. The general appearance is
that of massiveness and great depth of body, but so

much is loose feather and skin that for practical pur-
poses better results would be obtained by selection of
closer, more compact birds.

SADDLEBACK, OR POMEEANIAN.

Nomenclature: Enr/Ush. Sadilehsck; German, Dutch,
Poramersclie ; French, Pomeraine ; Danish, Pom-
nierske ; S/taniah, Pomeranai ; Hungarian, Pom-
erAniai.

Vakiety : One.

Classification : Table.

Origin. — What were at one time called Saddlebacks
in Britain have never received their due meed of
consideration by breeders, and they are seldom men-
tioned in modern works on poultry. There can be
little doubt that they are due to matings between
the white and grey geese, but the characteristics are
so far prepotent that in Germany they are given a
distinctive place under the name Pomeranian. Geese
of this type are very frequently met with in our own
country, and personal observations made in many of the
countries of Europe have shown that they are common.
It would appear that the tendency to partial grey feather-
ing is considerable. In some of the earlier works on
poultry mention is made of what are called Mottled
geese, by which name the Saddlebacks are designated.
In the last edition of Moubray * it is stated that ' as we
are satisfied that they are the production of the White
(or Embden) with the Grey (or Toulouse), and have
now very generally establislied themselves with us, it
may be well, perhaps, to concede them the honour of
a passing notice. In size they are of fair proportions,
and differ but very slightly from those previously
described, save in the plumage, in which white pre-
dominates, mottled in patches with a greyish-brown,
only irregularly. The geese of this kind most valued,
as well for their appearance as utility, are what have
long been known and esteemed as " Saddlebacks," so
called from a large broad patch of the dark feathering
upon the back and wings.' In Germany this race has
been bred for a long period of time, and it is generally
acknowledged as the result of a cross between the
White and the Grey.

History. — The Saddleback is one of those races
which have been produced and bred entirely for utility
purposes, and, regarded as a cross, has not received
special attention. But the characters are more or less
fixed, and it is worthy the recognition of aU who are
interested in profitable poultry. As already stated, it
is widely distributed in European countries, but more
especially Germany and the south-east.

* ' Domestic nntl Oruamentiil Poultry,' by Bonington
Moubray, uew edition (London, 1«54), pp. 300-301.

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

Economic Qualities. — The Saddleback goose is
a moderate layer, and a good sitter and mother. They
are not very rapid in growth, but when fully developed
carry a considerable amount of flesh on the breast,
which meat is excellent in quality, fine in texture, and
soft. They are very hardy, excellent foragers, and are
specially suited for flat and low-lying lands, where they
can wander at will. They go willingly into the water,
which is necessary to them, and the breed is not to be
recommended on high and dry lands.

Description (Fig. 81). — In shape the race follows
closely the Toulouse, except that they are higher on
the leg ; body long, even, very broad, with a full, well-
rounded breast and very deep behind ; back broad,
shghtly arched ; neck of medium length, strong, and
carriederect; headbroad,
of medium length, and
strong, with a thick, stout
bill, almost in a line with
the top of the head ; the
bill is orange - red in
colour; tail broad, car-
ried almost horizon-
tally; legs stout with
thick bone, of medium
length, and toes slender ;
the colour of legs and
feet is orange-red ; wings
powerful, full, but of
medium length ; the
geese are generally pure
white in plumage, but
the gander has a grey
head and neck, back and
wings, in many cases
the coloured feathers
are spotted with white.
Weight: males, 18 to 22
pounds ; females, 15 to
20 pomids. These are for
birds eight to nine months

old, but older specimens often equal the Embden and
Toulouse. In Germany and other Continental countries,
however, huge geese are not bred, and as a rule stock
males range about 16 to 18 pounds, and females 10 to 15
pounds, for reasons already explained.

Fig. 81.— Pomeranian Gander

DANUBIAN.

Sevastopol ;
Lodengaus ;

En;i1Uli. Danul

Frencli, Frisee or Seliastopol ;

Italian, Spanish, Daniibio.
Vabiety: One.

Classification : Table ami FeatLers.
CoLOUB OF Flesh anh Skin : Creamy -white.
Colour of Legs and Feet : Red.
Colour of Egg-shells : White.

Origin. — We have been unable to obtain any reli-
able information as to the origin of this race of geese,
which appears to be widely distributed in the countries

surrounding the Black Sea. During visits paid to
South-Eastern Europe and Russia we did not meet
with any specimens, but found occasional instances of
geese having looser feathers than the normal. That,
however, is by no means uncommon in our own
country. From the appearance it may be assumed
that the Danubian is a variation from the ordinary
white goose, perpetuated by reason of the larger
amount of plumage, as feathers are relatively of
greater value than in Western Europe.

History.— These birds were first seen about the
time of the Crimean War, and the earliest specimens
imported into England wore received in 1859. Whether
they came from the Sevastopol district there is no
record, but that name was given to them. Later the
term Danubian has been
adopted. We have not
had the opportunity of
visiting Roumania and
Bessarabia — that is, the
delta of the river Danube
— and are unable to say
whether this breed is
common there, but we
know that goose-breeding
is extensively followed.
In England the race has
not attained any great
amount of popularity, but
we have seen them fre-
quently in Continental
exhibitions.

Economic Quali-
ties. — The Danubian
goose is very quiet in
temperament, indis-
posed to wander far,
and as a consequence
fattens very easily. At
the same time, on suit-
able lands it finds a large amount of food. It is
a moderate layer, but a very good sitter and mother.
The flesh is excellent, and has that softness when fed off,
without being greasy, which is alwa^'s a recommenda-
tion for table geese. But in Western Europe the breed
has not received adequate attention as practical birds.
The feathers are very valuable by reason of their curl.

Description.— In body these birds are long in
comparison with their depth, more like a duck, and
they are very level with the ground ; the neck is of
medium length, fine for a goose ; head like that of the
Embden, except that the bill is rosy-red, as are the legs
and feet ; the eye is bright blue. The peculiarity of this
race is that the wing and back body feathers are elon-
gated, frequently trailing on the ground ; the long
feathers are very slender and often curled, and as they

CxVNADIAN AND RUSSIAN GEESE

187

are not webbed they have a somewhat draggled appear-
ance, another result being that the birds cannot fly.
They, however, are active walkers. Weight : males,
10 to 11 pomids ; females, 8 to 9 pounds. In colour
the majority of specimens are pure white, and they
certainly are the more pleasing in appearance. We
have, however, seen many specimens on the Continent
of Europe in which grey or light brown patches were
present. The colour of the plumage is very uncertain,
and the Whites are due to careful selection. Among
some of the earlier imported birds a few had a small
tuft on the top of the head, and we are informed that
many birds having that decoration are to be found in
Southern Eussia and Asia Minor.

CANADIAN.

NojEENCLATUBK : Eiii/lisJi, Canadian; French, Cravate.

Vaeiety: One.

Classification: Table

Colour of Flesh and Skin : Creamy-white.

CoLouE OP Legs and Feet : Black.

CoLOUK OF Egg-shells : Dull yellowish green or white.

Origin. — The great naturalist Cuvier was doubt-
ful as to whether this breed was related to the swan
or to the goose, but that has been decided by inter-
breeding between the wild American and the domestic
goose. It is an undoubted descendant of the wild-
goose, which migrates from Central to North America
in large flocks, and which at one time were shot by
servants of the Hudson Bay Company in the Far
North, to provide their winter supply of food. The
■wild specimens when wounded and captured have
readily adapted themselves to domestication, and breed
freely with the tame geese. What is now known as
the Canadian is due to this crossing, but the characters
of the wild-goose, vei-y different from those found in
Europe and Africa, have been maintained.

History. — The results of domestication are seen in
the great increase of size, as the tame specimens are
usually double the weight of their wild progenitors.
This breed is kept to a greater extent in the United
States and Canada than any other variety, although of
late years the introduction of European and Asiatic
geese has somewhat displaced it, more especially
among breeders of high-class stock. It is by no
means unknown in Europe, more especially upon
ornamental waters.

Economic Qualities. — The chief value of the
Canadian goose is for crossing to improve the vigour
and flesh qualities of domesticated geese, as they have
an abundance of highly-flavoured meat which is excep-
tionally fine in texture. They are very hardy and
quick growers when bred in the ordinary manner, but
retain a large measure of their wildness if bred pure,
for which reason, in addition to enhanced size, it is
preferable to use them as crosses.

Description. — The body is long and somewhat
slender, with a full and deep breast, and long, rather
narrow, but well-curved back ; the neck is long,
slender, and swan-like ; head small, as is the biU,
which is sharp at the tip, and entirely black ; the
eyes are full, black in colour ; wings large and power-
ful ; tail strong ; legs long, with straight toes on
the feet, and black in colour ; the body colour is as
follows : head, neck, wing primaries, and tail black
back and wings greyish brown, lighter at the edges
breast light grey ; under-parts of body greyish white
Hanks pale grey with white lines ; in front of the neck
around the throat and across the chin is a broad white
band, which extends behind the eyes, giving to the
bird the French name of Cravate. Weight : males,
12 to 16 pounds ; females, 10 to 14 pounds.

BUSSIAN.

NoMZNCLATUEE : EniiHsh, Uussinu; Dutch, B.ussische;

Danish, Russiske ; Spanish, Busi ; liumjarian,

Orosz.
Vakietles : Tula, Arsamas, Kholmogory.
Classification : Table.
Colour of Flesh and Skin : Yellow.
CoLOUE OF Legs and Feet : Dark orange-yellow.
CoLouE OF Egg-shells : White.

Origin.— The first English reference we have been
able to trace as to the fighting geese of Russia is in the
eighth edition of Moubray's work on Poultry, in which
he states* that at St. Petersburg ' they have no cock-
pits, but they have a goose-pit, where, in the spring,
they fight ganders, trained to the sport, and so peck at
each other's shoulders till they draw blood. These
ganders have been sold as high as 500 roubles each.' A
short reference was made in Cornevin's work t to the
Tula goose, under the term ' Race de Combat.' Our
acquaintance with these birds, which are the most
striking in individual character of the species, began in
1899 at the exhibition held that year in St. Petersburg.
We have, however, been unable to obtain any informa-
tion as to then- origin, and until the study of poultry in
Russia has advanced considerably, must remain con-
tent with leaving the question open. M. Houdekow
says X ' the only established fact is that this race have
been bred in Russia from a very remote period, and
that they have preserved their typical and fixed
character.' The conclusion is that the type is entirely
artificial, and is not the result of natural selection, but
of man's choice for his own sport.

History. — These fighting geese, by which is meant
the Tula and the Arsamas especially, are bred in Mid-
Russia to the south of Moscow, and in the neighbour-

* 'Practical Treatise,' by Bonington Moubray, eighth
edition (Loudon, 1842), p. 115.

t ' Les Oiseaus de IJasse-Cour,' par Ch. Cornevin (Paris,
1895), p. 28.

X Trar.aux du Conqris Internationale d' Aviculture, 1899
(St. Petersburg, 1901).

188

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

hood of the Upper Volga River. Formerly they were
kept to a greater extent than is now the case, as goose-
fighting was a recognised sport, and the breeding of
first-class specimens was a profitable pursuit, as was
Game fowl raising in Britain until sixty years ago.
With the prohibition of the sport, although there
is a great amount of goose-fighting carried on surrep-
titiously in Russia, the reason for breeding such birds
was removed, and less general attention paid to them.
Hence their place has been to some extent taken
by other races, but they are still carefuUy bred in a
more limited number of hands, whilst their influence
is seen in many directions. So far as known this
class of goose is not to be met with in any other part
of the world, is peculiarly Russian in character, and, as
already stated, is artificial in its special characters, for
although ganders are often good fighters, they are not
naturally disposed to combat, except in defence of
their mates or young. It is said that these birds are
as keen for battle as are Game cooks, and that their
mates will encourage them to redoubled efforts.

Economic Qualities.-— Keeping in view that
these races have been specially bred for fighting, it
will be understood that weight of body and great
strength of muscle are essential to success. Hence in
developing the wings to enable birds to strike their
opponents heavUy the breast muscles must be increased
accordingly, and thus, as in the case of the Game fowl,
the table properties were enhanced, although there was
no direct intention of securing that result. M. Houde-
kow refers to the fighting breeds as follows :*

'Our geese are indebted for their existence to the
sport of goose-fighting ; nearly all our races of geese are
fighters. The principal quality which has secured
their appreciation is the faculty of fighting each other
furiously ; until one of the combatants is dead the
other will not leave the field of battle. These geese are
not very productive. Thirteen eggs per annum is the
usual record, but sometimes birds produce twenty eggs.
These geese have remarkable endurance, and do not
require any special food or care. Their flesh is of an
excellent quality, is not fibrous, and is very fine in
flavour. It is impossible to fatten fighting geese to
the same degree as the Toulouse or Embden, but their
flesh has a good taste, more like that of wild game.
They are good sitters, and are very careful of their
young, defending them against all species of birds
and animals.'

Our observations in Russia support these remarks,
except that for general purposes the flesh is hard, and
they require to be well hung after killing before they
are cooked. Thus they are chiefly useful for crossing,
as in the case of the Game and Indian Game fowl,
with soft-fleshed races, under which conditions the

* Trai-aux du Comiris Internationale d' Aviculture, 1899
(St. Petersburg, 1901), p. 6.

results are seen in an abundance of breast meat of a
fine quality. Difficulties must necessarily arise in the
case of birds in which the pugilistic nature is so highly
developed, due to their quarrelsome nature, but where
single males are kept for crossing that would be
reduced to a minimum. The use of the Russian
geese with some of our Western breeds is well worth a
trial for the development of meat qualities.

Description.— All the races of Russian geese
named above are very similar in general characters.
The body is long, broad, and very deep, with a full,
round, and massive breast, and a wide, flat, straight
back ; the neck is of medium length, very strong, and
slightly curved near the head ; the head is the peculiar
feature of the breed, and entirely distinct from that of
any other bird with which we are acquainted ; it is
short and nearly round, with a wide forehead and well-
developed cheek muscles, and in older birds there are
often two knobs or protuberances, which mcrease in
size with advancing age, on the upper part of the
skull; the bill is very short indeed, and stout at the
base, the line of the upper mandible being in a line
with the front of the head, which, together vidth the
bill, is practically the same length as depth, in con-
formation resembhng the head of a bull-dog. Beginning
from the nostrils, the surface of the bill is ribbed, and
the month, between the upper and lower mandibles,
has a strange rounded appearance, seeming even when
closed as if it were partially open ; the colour of the
bill is pale yellow, with an ivory tip ; the eye is large,
full, and nearly black, as a rule, but some specimens
have grey or light blue pupils ; the wings are very
large and powerful, with strong shoulder muscles ; the
tail is short ; the legs are of medium length, very
strong, well set apart, with large round feet, and are
in colour dark orange-yellow. From the above it wiU
be seen that these birds are built upon powerful lines,
and they are close and compact in plumage and firm
in flesh.

Varieties.— It is evident that the three varieties
are all of the same race, and we have, therefore,
adopted the generic title of Russian for aU.

Tula. — These birds are the best known, and are
chiefly bred in the central districts of Tula, Kalonga,
Tamboff, Kizan, Koursk, Vladimir, Nijni-Novgorod,
and upon the borders of Oka and the upper parts of
the river Volga. They are generally grey in plumage,
but some are also clay-coloured. Weight : 13i to
17 pounds.

Arsamas. — Pure, spotless white in plumage, and
larger in size of body, as they range from 17 to 22
pounds.

Kholmogoky.— This variety differs from the others
in that they have a longer neck, and the bill is more
natural, being of ordinary length ; the upper line of
bill is curved at the end, giving it a hooked appearance.

EGYPTIAN AND CHLNESE GEESE

189

They are also used for fighting, but not to the same
extent as the Tula or Arsamas. This is the "
Eussian race of geese, weighing 20 to 23 pounds

NoMENCLATUEE : Bnc/Ush, Egyptian or Nile; French,
d'Egypte; Geman, 'Silgans; X>it*(7i, Bgyptisilip;
Danish, ^gyptiske ; Italian, Egitto ; Spanish,

Classification: Uncertain.
CoLOUB or Flesh and Skin : Dark.
Colour of Iiegs and Feet : Yellowish-pink.
Colour of Egg shells : Grey or buff-white.

Origin. — As these birds are widely distributed
in Africa, and may be found from Egypt to Cape
Colony in a wild state, there is little difficulty in
determining the origin of the domesticated race, as
they are the replica of the wild species, which have
been known on the Lower Nile for thousands of years.
Bepresentations are found among the monuments of
ancient Egypt yet remaining on sarcophagi and tablets,
showing birds as they are found to-day.

History. — In the long past the goose was a saered
bird in Egypt, and was, therefore, preserved for the
use of the priests. In later periods the Egyptian
goose was domesticated, and has proved fairly amen-
able to civilized conditions. It is, however, more kept
for ornamental purposes than as a useful bird. It has
considerable value for crossing purposes, more es-
pecially in the production of smaller geese, but upon
that point experience is yet v ery limited.

Economic Qualities.— The Egyptian goose is a
good layer, and breeds well in semi-confinement, but
the ganders are very savage and do not consort amicably
with other fowls; in fact, they appear to take a delight
in annoying everything within reach, and the males
■will fight continuously if more than one are kept
together. The goslings grow quickly, and the race is
hardy in the extreme. The flesh, which is fairly
abundant, is dark and high in flavour, improving when
the birds have been bred and fed for two or three
generations.

Description. — Among the various races of geese
the Egyptian stands easily first for beauty of plumage.
The body is long, but small and slender, with a round
but not deep breast, and narrow, slightly arched back;
the neck is medium in length and fine, head small and
long, with a bill in keepmg, usually purple or reddish-
blue and with a grey tip ; eyes orange, and around the
eye is a ring of reddish-brown or chestnut, a band of
the same colour passing down the nape of the neck ;
wmgs large, and armed with a short spur ; tail full and
stiff ; legs rather long, in colour yellowish-pink, with
straight toes ; in colour the breast and under-surface
are a light iron-yellow sprinkled with brown, except

the abdomen, which is white ; the back and inner wing
feathers grey marked with black ; flights and tail black
or metallic green, the former having a rich narrow bar ;
the neck is grey and black with a clear ring of reddish-
brown. Weight: males, 8 to 10 pounds; females,
6 to 8 pounds. In carriage this breed is upright
and graceful.

CHINESE.

NojiENCLATUBE : Enr/Ush, Chinese; French, Guinte;

German, Hockergans ; Dutch, Chineescbe; Danish,

Kinesiske ; Spanish , China.
Varieties : White, Brown.
Classification : Table.
Colour of Flesh and Siqn : Yellow-ish.
Colour of Legs and Feet : White, orange ; Brown,

dusky-orange.
Colour of Egg-shells : White.

Origin. — The breeding of geese is very extensively
practised in China, but our information as to the races
to be found in that country is very scanty indeed, and
does not extend beyond that designated as the Chinese.
Mr. Lewis Wright says* that 'the original Chinese
variety ranges all over China, much of Siberia, and
most of India, but chiefly Northern India.' He does
not, however, give any authority for this statement,
but probably follows Cuvier, who called it the Swan
goose, and said that it is met with frequently in the
neighbourhood of Tartary and China. It was called
Siberian by Linnffius. Other naturalists have testified
that most of the geese met with in India owe much to
the influence of the China goose, or, to give it the
scientific term, Anser Cygnoides. It is probably of
an ancient race^ and was domesticated by the Chinese
many centuries ago, who have bred it on the hues of
the wild species. There is no reason to suppose that
it has been modified more than would be usual under
domestication, or that any other influence has been
introduced.

History. — The attention of breeders was first called
to this race by the Rev. E. S. Dixon, who stated that
in 1848 Mr. Alfred Whittaker, of Beckington, Somer-
set, owned a flock of the White variety, which 'were
from imported parents, and were hatched on board
ship from China' ;t and also that another breeder in
the same county had a number of specimens. But it
is evident that the China goose was known for a long
time previously under other names, as it was referred
to by Buffon, Cuvier, Bewick, etc., and possibly by
Willughby.

As Dixon says : $ ' It has enough names to fill a
menagerie — China goose. Knob goose, Hong-Kong
goose, Asiatic goose, Swan goose, Guinea goose,
Spanish goose, Polish goose, Muscovy goose,' and,

* ' New Book of Poultry,' by Lewis Wright (London, 1902),
p. 564.

t ' Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,' by Rev. E. S.
Dixon (London, 1850), pp. 88 and 115.

J Ibid., p. 88.

190

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

as we have already seen, Siberian goose. Willughby
stated that in the seventeenth century it was usual to
apply the term ' Guinea ' to everything of foreign and
uncertain origin. We know that Spanish, Turkish,
Indian, were all applied in the same reckless manner
at different periods. It is evident, however, that in
these references to China geese what we now term the
African was included, for Dixon was told by the head
keeper of the Zoological Society in 1848 * that there
were three varieties — namely, the White and two types
of Browns.

For various reasons the China goose has never been
adopted for practical purposes to any extent in Europe,
but it has become fairly popular in America, the
first importations into that country having been made

Brown Chinas did not begin laying until February,
but continued laying freely into June.' The highest
records were fifty eggs from one White goose and 42
from a Brown goose. The eggs are not so large as those
obtained from Embden or Toulouse. It is claimed by
some breeders that the flesh qualities are equal to
those of other races of geese, but this does not appear
to be warranted. In the report already referred to it is
stated that* ' China geese are not favourites with those
who raise goslings for sale to poultrymen, who fatten
them and put them on the market as green geese.
They are too small to be profitable for such a market.
When a small-boned, moderate-sized goose is required
for the fall or Christmas trade, these breeds would
prove valuable, as they lay well, and with proper care in

■White Chinese Geese.

about thirty years ago. They have proved profitable
where a smaller-sized goose is demanded upon the
market.

Economic Qualities. — The Chinese goose is re-
garded as an excellent layer. In an American report
it is stated that f ' the Brown and White Chinas are
early and prolific layers of fair-sized eggs. If well
fed they not infrequently lay in the autumn months,
but generally those which do so lay later and fewer
eggs the following spring. At the Experiment Station
in 1896 and 1897 the 'N^Tiite Chinese laid in every
month from January to June inclusive, while the

* ' Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,' by Eev. E. S.
Dixon (London, 1850), p. 121.
t Rhode Island Experiment Station Report, 1897, p. 436.

selecting breeding stock large birds should be raised.
The Brown Chinese especially seem very vigorous,
hardy, and active, but pick hard, and reqmre care in
dressing to look well. The White China ... is
usually not so difficult to pick, and handsomer in
appearance when dressed.' Their chief value is for
crossing, to produce a smaller-sized goose to meet the re-
quirements of the autumn market. We have previously
stated t that ' were smaller birds produced (and there
is no reason why they should not^be as profitable as
the larger), these would be^bought more readily, and
it would be possible to create a desire for them on the
part of the consuming public. A_fleshy, compact,

* Rhode Island Experiment Station Report, 1897, p. 437. "
f Journal of the If-ot/af Af/nniUural Society of JBngland,
vol. X., part ii. (1899), p. 350. '

CHINESE AND AFRICAN GEESE

191

good bird of 8 pounds to 10 pounds would be finer
in meat qualities, and during the ' green goose ' and
autumn seasons woiild meet an inquiry which might
grow to a very large extent, touching a class which at
present does not enjoy the luxury of this fowl.' For
that purpose the Chinese goose is very suitable.
These races are very hardy, and make good sitters
and mothers, but are rather quarrelsome, and have a
somewhat unpleasant cry.

Description. — The body is of medium length,
round, plump, and is carried upright, the chest being
well elevated ; the breast is round and fairly full ; neck
long and well arched ; head carried well forward, and is
large and long, with a large knob at the base of the
bill ; the bill is stout and of medium length ; eyes
large and bright ; tail hard and stiff ; wings large, well
folded; legs medium in length, with long, straight toes.

the neck and breast a yellowish-grey or brown, with
a very dark brown stripe passing from the back of the
head down the neck to the body ; the wings and tail
are dark brown ; the bill and legs are dusky orange,
and the knob black or dark brown.

NoMENCLATUEE : English, MiicSkn; Dutch , Aivic3,a,nsche

Danish, Africanske; Spanish, Africano.
Vaeiety : One.
Classipication : Table.
CoLOUB OF Flesh and Skin : Yellow.
CoLouE OF Legs and Feet : Dark orange.
Colour of Kgg-shells : White.

Origin. — This race has been made known by
American breeders, who have exalted it to a separate
position from thr Chinese. In spite of the fact that

Fid. 83.— Br.

Chinesk Gek

Weight : males, 12 to 16 pounds ; females, 10 to 14
pounds. In Europe dewlaps are permitted, but not in
America.

Varieties. — The two varieties are very uniform,
except in coloration of plumage. Both have a large
dewlap, or folded skm, under the throat, as in the
Toulouse.

White (Fig. 82). — The plumage is pure white,
except that there is often a colour stripe from the head
to the body ; the bill, knob, and legs are orange in
colour, and the whole appearance is very pleasing.

Bhowk (Fig. 83). — The body colour is a greyish
brown, shading to white or very light grey on the
abdomen ; the head is dark brown, and the front of

claim has been made for it as a distinct breed, on the
ground that it is first supposed to have been imported
from Africa, that it is said to be bred in the neighbour-
hood of Zanzibar, and that possibly the name ' Guinea '
given to the Chinese may have had some justification,
it cannot but be regarded as a descendant of the last-
named breed, as there is not the slightest proof of the
distribution of either wild or tame members of the
family on the African continent. It is essentially
Chinese in character, varying principally in size, and
may be regarded as a descendant of the Brown Chinese
goose, but has probably been crossed with some other
and larger variety, such as the Toulouse. Our opinion
is that the African was originally the Brown Chmese,
that it was taken to Africa by trading-ships, and after^

192

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

wards to America. "Whether the crossing to secure
increased size and thicker body took place in Africa or
America we do not know ; probably the latter. Hence
the table of descent would be :

Brown Chin

(?) Toulouse

History. — Whether Buffon's 'Spanish' goose and
those variously designated by other writers were
Chinese or African, or both, it is difficult to determine.
Both were probably referred to by naturalists, for,
as we have seen, in 1848 in England three types were
found of what were named the Chinese. The first
reference met with is in an American work published

pure bred were called by that name. He next
found geese landed by a Provincetown (Massachusetts)
vessel, and said to have come from Africa. Tliese
birds were scattered about the section west of Boston,
and were called Africans, and exhibited under that
name.' Up to the present they have not attained any
great measure of popularity, and we have not seen any
in Europe.

Economic Qualities.— Evidence as to the pro-
ductiveness in respect to eggs is very conflicting ; but
in the Rhode Island experiments, 1897, the highest
record was twenty-two and the lowest fourteen. The
eggs are larger than from the Chinese. Their chief
point is flesh quality, as they grow rapidly, make

Fig. 84. — African G

in 1845,"* where the term Guinea or African was used,
and from the description it evidently relates to what
we now call the African, in that it is stated that
the breed ' is the largest of the goose tribe . . . and it
•often weighs more than 25 pounds.' Further interest-
ing facts are given in the report already quoted, f
It is recorded that Mr. William Rankin, of Brockton,
Massachusetts, states that he first knew of the African
in 1859, when some were landed at Essex, Massa-
chusetts, U.S.A. ' What he learned from persons who
had them led him to believe that they came from
Hindustan, and he called them India geese, and all

* ' American Poulterers' Companion,' by Mr. Boment
(1845), p. 271.

t Ehode Island Experiment Station Report, 1897, pp. 432-
433.

excellent green goslings, and fatten to a great size
for the winter trade. They are hardy, of a quiet,
mild disposition, and contentedly accept restricted
conditions when put up for feeding.

Description (Fig. 84). — The body is long, large
and deeper than the Chinese, whUst not carried so erect
following the Toulouse shape ; neck moderately long,
fairly thick, and well curved ; head large, with a long,
stout bm, which is black, as also the prominent knob
at its base ; wings large and powerful ; legs stout,
medium length, dark orange in colour, with black nails
on the toes ; the colour of body on the back, wings, and
tail is dark grey ; on the breast and under-parts light
grey ; the neck is light grey, with a dark brown stripe
from the head down the back of neclv to body.

CHAPTER XV

EACJES OF DOMESTIC TUEKEYS

Black

White

Grey

Cambridge Bronze

American Bronze
Naragansett
Fawn
Ronquieres

AS already seen, the Turkey was indigenoiis to
America, and was unknown elsewhere until
the discovery of the mainland of the Western
continent in A.D. 1518. The first actual records show
that it was introduced into Spain about 1524. One
French writer* says that the first importation into
France was in 1518, but gives no authority for that
statement. For reasons given above that cannot be
accepted, although, from the records of an expedition
to Central America and Mexico by Bernal Dias de
Grijalva, it is possible that specimens were received in
Spain that year. When we keep in view the maritime
intercommunications between Spain and England, it
is evident that the introduction into Britain was ac-
comphshed soon afterwards.

John Walcot, whose work on British Birds was
published in 1789, states that the turkey was brought
to England in 1521. Dixon f gives the date as 1524,
which is generally recognised as correct. Martin
Doyle says J that, ' according to the "Norfolk Archae-
ology," an ancestor of Sir George Strickland, Bart.,
first brought it into England, and the crest (grant of
arms given to William Strickland by Edward VI.
about 1550) of this family is a turkey cock in his
pride " proper." ... In 1541 Archbishop Cranmer
prohibited the appearance at table at State festivals
of more than one dish of turkey cocks ; the female
was too precious to be cooked at that period. Pour-
teen years later two turkeys and two turkey poults
were served up at a grand law dinner. Twenty years
afterwards the turkey became a Christmas dish with
the farmer.'

* 'Lea Oiseaux de Basse-Cour,' par Bemy Saiut-Loup
(Paris, 1895), p. 294.

t ' Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,' by Rev. E. S.
Dixon (London, 1850), p. 35.

J ' Illustrated Book of Poultry,' by Martin Doyle (London,
1854), pp. 206-207.

Upon this question, however, there is a consider-
able amount of doubt, for there is no mention in
Sir Anthony Fitzherbert's ' Boke of Husbandry ' of
the turkej', although other classes of poultry are
referred to ; perhaps it would be too soon for recogni-
tion as a regular dish. That the race spread rapidly
appears to be unquestionable, for old Tusser, writing
in 1573 of the Christmas fare of the period, says :

' Beef, mutton, and port, shred pies of the best.
Pig, veal, goose, and capon, and turkey well drest. '

And Barnaby Googe, in his ' Four Books on Hus-
bandry,' in 1578, says : ' Turkey cocks we have not
long had among us ; for before the year of our Lord
1530 they were not seen with us, nor, I believe, known
to the old writers.'

Gervasse Markham, in ' The English Husbandman,'
pubUshed in 1615, deals with the turkey as a recognised
member of the poultry-yard. It is evident that the
turkey spread rapidly over Europe. There is con-
siderable doubt as to when it was introduced into
France, but probably about the same time as received
in England, though the suggestion has been made that
they were introduced about 1540 by PhUip de Chabot,
Admu-al under Francis I. Belon's description was pub-
lished in 1555.

An interesting account has been given as to the
introduction of the turkey into France : * ' The first
turkey was eaten Ln France on June 27, 1576, at
the wedding-feast of Charles IX. and Elizabeth of
Austria. A large number of these birds had been
sent over from Boston to St. Malo, and when the
ship reached that port the provincial Governor
despatched a dozen of them to the chef of the King's
kitchen, thinking that they would be a welcome addi-
tion to the Royal table. These twelve turkeys were

• JAve Stocl Journal, January 14, 1881, p. 37.
3 13

194

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

stuffed and served on the spits, like so many larks,
and the great dignitaries of the Court, as well as the
Cardinal de Lorraine and the Queen-Mother, eat so
much of them that they all had an attack of indiges-
tion. Charles IX. was so pleased with them that he
began to breed turkeys in the forest of St. Germain,
and his example was soon followed by many of the
great landowners.'

However true this record may be as to the King's
feast, for reasons already given it is evident that the
turkey was known in France several decades prior to
1576. In Italy the first recorded account is that
of the year 1556, when an ordinance was issued
by the magistrates of Venice repressing the luxury,
and about 1570 Bartolomew Scappi, cook to Pope
Pius v., pubhshed several recipes for cooking them.
It is further stated that they were first introduced into
Germany in 1580.

Our task with the various races of turkeys is simple,
by reason of the fact that the turkey was already
domesticated when first imported into Europe, and the
variations are due to change of conditions or to the
perpetuation of sports. From the adaptability of the
species, and that there are practically no references in
earlier writings as to any difficulty in keeping them
under ordinary conditions, we are led to the conclusion,
as shown in Chapter I., that they had already been
domesticated for a considerable period of time before
the discovery of America. It is easy to understand
how a large bird lUve the turkey would rapidly grow in
favour, as they were distinct in that respect, and also in
the quality of flesh, to any race then known.

BLACK.

Nomenclature: Ent/lish, Black Norfolk; French.

Dindon Noir ; 'German, Truthiihner Schwarz ;

i)u(c7i, Ealkoenen Zwart ; Z)a)JiV),Ealkun Borte;

Italian, Tacchini Nigripennis ; Spanish, Negra
dePavos; Buni/arian, Pulyka Fekete.
Vabibties : Black, Norfolk Black.
Classification: Table.
CoLOUB or Flesh and Skin : White.
CoLOUE OF Legs and Feet : Slaty-black.
CoLouE OP Egg-shells : Cream, speckled with brown.

Origin. — The Mexican turkey, whilst it cannot be
termed black, for there is a considerable amount of
brown in the plumage, is decidedly dark in colour, and
has a constant tendency — as, in fact, have the Bronze —
to black feathers, more especially under new conditions.
As there was no other species or race with which the
early imported turkeys could be crossed, we can but
suggest that the tendency already mentioned explains
the origin of the Black turkeys, which are widely
distributed over the greater part of Europe. It is
more than probable that the earliest importations were
dark in plumage ; perhaps even selection for that colour
had been followed in Central America before the dis-
covery of that country ; or at an early period the

superiority of the Black turkey in flesh qualities, as is
the case to-day to a large extent, was recognised, leading
to choice of specimens of that colour for breeding ; or
the evident predilection of the Spaniards, as seen in their
races of fowls, for black -plumaged poultry may have
had an important influence in making turkeys of that
hue almost universal throughout European countries.

History. —In the absence of any definite informa-
tion as to the distribution of Black turkeys during the
past centuries, facts must be accepted as they now are.
Sefior Castello* says that the Black variety is chiefly
found in Andalusia and Castile. In Northern France
many of the turkeys are black. At one time through-
out East Anglia what were called the Black Norfolk
were common, and evidently had been bred there for a
very long period. Their place has been taken by the
American Bronze, due to the greater size and vigour of
the last-named breed. In other Continental countries
than those already named Blacks are very general,
more especially in Germany, Austria, Hungary, and the
Balkan States. These are often called Bronze, but
personal observations have shown that they are much
more nearly allied to the Black than to the Bronze
American. Eastern European turkeys are, as a rule,
much smaller in size than those found in Western
countries and in America, and it would appear that
diminution of size has been greater the further the
species has travelled from its natural habitat.

Economic Qualities. — It is generally admitted
that the Black turkey is one of the finest for table
qualities, yielding a large amount of beautifully white,
soft flesh, and is very fine in flavour, whilst its lightness
of bone is a distinct advantage. These — as, in fact, all
— quahties are due in large measure to the conditions
under which they are produced. The finest specimens
of Blacks have been met with on the rich lands of
Eastern England, and of Normandy, in Prance, where
soil, climate, and natural food are all conducive to
quality of flesh. In Mid-Europe they are smaller in
size and not so good in flavour of flesh, whilst in South
and South-Eastern Europe in both directions there is
a marked deterioration. Of the Blacks, the French are
much the hardier, whilst the Norfollvs have almost
become extinct, and where found are delicate in con-
stitution, probably due to inbreeding and the use of
immature birds for stock pm'poses. The hens are good
sitters and mothers and fair layers.

Description. — This race is long in body, which
is very deep from back to breast, and massive, very
full and round in front, with a broad back, which is
curved, highest in the centre, but the stern is always
lower than the shoulders ; the neck is long and cm-ved,
carried well back ; the head is long and broad, and

* ' Avlcultura,' par D. Salvador Castello y Carreras
(Barcelona, 1S99), p. 64S.

BLACK AND WHITE TURKEYS

195

what is Imown as oarunoulated, whicli means that the
head and upper part of the neck is bare of feathers,
the skin wrinkled, and formed into wart-hke elevations.
From the base of the upper mandible springs a i3eshy
protuberance capable of elongation, with a few hairs at
the tip, and taking the place of a comb, as seen in the
domesticated fowl. The head is blue on top and at
back, and face, wattles, and caruncle bright red. The
beak is stout and well curved, dark horn in colour ;
eye full and dark hazel ; the wattles are full, round,
and pouch-like ; the wings are very large, long, and
powerful, carried low in the male ; the tail of the male
is very large, and
spreads out like a
fan : that of the
female is long but
compact ; legs and
feet are stout and
strong, but not
heavy m bone, and,
with the toes, are
long, in colour dark
lead or slaty-black.
Weight (ua England
and France), for
fuUy-grown speci-
mens : males, 20 to
22 pounds ; females,
12 to 14 pounds.

Varieties.—

Whilst all the
Blacks are allied,
there are differences
which require to be
mentioned.

French. — These
are of a deep,
even, glossy black
throughout, with-
out any white or
brown tips, and
during the breed-
ing season they are
very handsome.

Norfolk (Fig. 85).

WHITE.

Fig. 85. — Norfolk Black Turkeys.

-It is generally stated, although
some older vnriters do not agree in this respect, that
the Norfolk Black is dull in colour, without any sheen.
The chief difference between these and the French is
that some of the feathers of the tail and on the back
have brown, or even white, tips, probably due to
influences to be noted later. For the resuscitation
of this old breed the French Black would be very
useful.

NoMENCLATUEE : Enqlish, White; American, WMte
Holland ; French, Dindon Blanche ; German,
Virginisohe; Z)!(<fA, Wit; Z>am'sA, Hvide; Italian,
Tacehini BianoM ; jSJjamisA, Blauca; Hungarian,
Feherpulyka.

Variety : One.

Classipioation : Table.

Colour of Flesh and Skin : Reddish-white.

Colour of Legs and Feet : Pinkish-white.

CoLOUB OF Egg-shells :_Cream, speckled with brown.

Origin. — Given black-plumaged birds as the basis,
is easy to explain the origin of the White Turkey, as
there is always a
tendency by failure
of pjigment to
white in aU blaok-
feathered birds.
Many instances can
be given of such
variations within
recent years, but it
is unnecessary to
deal with them in
detail. Tegetmeier
says : * 'It is well
known that most
birds, wild as well as
tame, occasionally
produce perfectly
white individuals
of more delicate
constitution than
the parents. There
can be no doubt
that the selection
and pairing of such
is the way in which
the breed of white
turkeys has been
establishedandkept
up.' This writer
mentions the fre-
quent production of
ticked or speckled
specimens in flocks
of Whites, and an American breeder, Mr. J. A. Leland,
says :f 'As to colour I have never seen a White Holland
turkey that did not show some black ticking in its
plumage dm-ing some period of its life,' which is a
further evidence of the origin.

History. — White Turkeys appear to have been
known for a long period of time, as Moubray and
other of the earlier writers refer to them, and that

• 'The Poultry Book,' by E. W. Tegetmeier, F.Z.S.
(London, 1873), p. 3'22.

•f- ' Tm-keys, their Care and Management ' (Quincey,
Illinois, U.S.A., 1901), p. 72.

13—2

196

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

author states that they are said to have been originally
imported from Holland.* The countries where they
are found are France, Austria, and Hungary. In the
South of France, more especially in Languedoc, Pro-
vence, etc., they are almost exclusively kept, and are
there regarded as hardy and of fine quality. I\'Ir.
Lewis Wright mentions t that ' the Whites are often
mentioned as Austrian Whites — why we do not know,
as they can be traced back in England for over 100
years.' Our personal observations in that country, as
in Hungary, prove their wide distribution, and the
above name may be attributable to some special impor-
tation. In America the White Holland, as it is called
— probably owing to birds having been taken from the
Low Countries to the States — has a limited amount of
favour, but in England they are kept chiefly for orna-
mental or exhibition purposes. The finest display we

exhibition has debilitated the stock. The Hungarian
view is that they are equally hardy with the Blacks.
The hens are fair layers, and good sitters and mothers.

Description (Fig. 86).— The general characters
are as in Blacks, excepting the beak, which is flesh-
coloured with a pink tinge, and the legs and feet, which
are pinkish-white ; the plumage is a glossy white, with
the faintest indication of blue, thus proving that they
are not mere albinos. The beard, or tuft of feathers on
the upper part of the breast, found in turkey cocks, is
black. Thus the effect of contrasts in plumage and
head and neck is very pleasing, and there can be no
question that this is the most ornamental of the turkey
family. Weight : males, 16 to 26 pounds ; females, 10
to 16 pounds, but the heavier birds are not common
abroad.

Fig. 86. — White Turkeys.

have ever seen was at Pozsony, Hungary, in Septem-
ber, 1902, when it was learnt that the white plumage
explains their popularity ; and a later visit to that
country (1904) gave fm-ther proof that they are largely
kept in one or two districts.

Economic Qualities. — In France it is claimed
that the Whites are equal to aU others for flesh quali-
ties, but in Hungary we obtained the opinion of a large
dealer that they do not kill or dress as well as those
with dark feathers. The English experience is not at
all reliable, as the breed is not kept for market pur-
poses. They are regarded as specially delicate here —
not, we think, because of the colour of plumage, but
for the reason that inbreeding and preparation for

* ' Practical Treatise,' by Bonington Moubray (London,
1824), p. 24.

+ ' New Book of Poultry,' by Lewis Wright (London, 1902),
p. 519.

GREY.

Grey-feathered turkeys have been known for almost
as long a period as any other colour, as might be
expected where Blacks and Whites are bred, but they
have never assumed definite characters, and earmot be
regarded as a distinct race. Among older writers
frequent references are made to Grey birds of this
species, and it would appear that they were common
in Cambridgeshire. One writer* says, speaking of
turkeys in Norfolk, ' When grey they are called the
Bustard breed.' In the South of Ireland many of the
turkeys are distinctly grey in plumage, and the
wonderful quality of flesh upon them, probably the
finest in the world, causes the inquiry why Irish
breeders do not attempt to fix the characters and

* ' The Poultry Book,' by Wingfield anil Johnson (London,
1853), p. 244.

CAMBRIDGE BRONZE TURKEY

197

elevate their turkeys into a race. Then the Erin tur-
key would command a high position ; but increase of
size would be an essential point, for the present race
is distinctly small. Italian turkeys are largely grey in
hue. They are even smaller than the Irish, and, so far as
our experience goes, dry and insipid in flesh, due to the
conditions under which they are bred, and the intense
heat of Eastern and Southern Italy. Turkeys with
bluish or slate-coloured feathers are often met with,
more especially upon the Continent, as might be
expected where Greys or Blacks are common, and
occasionally we have seen very pretty specimens.
These variations are interesting, but at present of no
practical value. Better results would be obtained by
perfecting the Grey turkey than attempting to secure
slate-blue or Andalusian plumage.

Dixon says* that ' the plumage of the Cambridge breed
varies very much ; sometimes it is entirely made up
of sliades of reddish-brown and grey . . . sometimes of
grey, black, and white, but frequently it approaches
very near to what we see figured as the wild bird.' It
is stated by Wingfield and Johnson f that ' they vary
in colour, being grey, pied black and white, and rusty
brown. . . . The grey breed is the one most common
in Cambridgeshire, being considered hardier than the
others. Attempts have been made to cross this breed
with the white and black breeds ; but in every instance
within my knowledge those attempts have signally
failed. As a proof of the excellence of the Cambridge-
shire turkey, it may be remarked that that county has
for several years past supplied the Koyal table on
Christmas Day.' In the 1854 edition of Moubray

Fig. 87. — Cambridge Beonze Turkey.
Bred by Gage Harper, Baydon, Essex.

CAMBRIDGE BEONZE.

NojiENCLATuiiE : £jif/fjs/(, Cambridge Bronze; French,
Dindon de Cambridge; Dutch, Cambridge Brons ;
X>a)Ms/( , Bronse-f arvede Cambridge ; Spanish, Cam-
bridge Bronoeada ; Siungarian, Cambridgei Broiiz.

Vabiety: One.

Classification : Table.

CoLOUB OF Flesh and Skin : Wliite.

Colour of Legs and Feet : Dark Ki-ey.

CoLoiiK OF Egg-shells : Cream, speckled with brown.

Origin.— -Cambridgeshire has been as famous for
its turkeys as Norfolk but the character of the race
bred in the two counties has differed considerably.

mention is made of Grey, of Copper, and of Brown
turkeys as all to be found in Cambridgeshire. After
the period named, either by crossings of American
Bronze, or more careful selection of darker-plumaged
birds, they assumed more or less of a Bronze character,
as in 1865 the Cambridge turkeys exhibited were of a
dull bronze. Then came the demand for size and
greater vigour, and the Americans were freely used
for breeding.

* 'Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,' by Rev. E. S.
Dixon (London, 1850), p. 36.

t ' The Poultry Book,' by Wingfield and Johnson (London,
1853), p. 244.

198

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

The following table of descent may be regarded as
representing the development of the present-day birds :
Black
Copper or Brown Grey

Cambridge Bronze.
Even yet can be distinctly traced the Grey influence.

History. — Until about forty years ago the Cam-
bridge tm-key v^as recognised as the finest of the
larger races, and it yet holds the premier position in
that respect, although it is not bred so extensively as
formerly. But it is unequalled upon the markets. It
is seldom seen in exhibitions of live poultry, the more
homely garb of this race looking dull beside the
American Bronze ; consequently, the latter generally
secure the leading prizes.

Economic Qualities. — Amongst practical poultry-
breeders the Cambridge Bronze is regarded as the most
profitable to keep, as it is comparatively light in bone,
and is abundant in flesh ; although not so large in frame
as the American, they fatten better, producing soft
flesh of great thickness on the breast, beautifully white
in colour. In dead-poultry shows they generally stand
first for quahty. They look very plump, as there is not
the prominence of breast-bone found in other breeds.
The largest dead specimen we have ever seen was a
Cambridge, weighing 33 pounds, and it was tender as a
chicken, without the heavy bag in front which spoils so
many turkeys. Essentially it is a practical fowl, but
we do not think it quite as hardy as the American
Bronze. Turkey-breeders whose object is to produce
for the Christmas markets find it the most valuable
race either pure or as a cross. The hens are good
layers, and excellent sitters and mothers.

Description (Fig. 87). — The type is that general
to the species, except that the Cambridge is not so long
in body, but is deep and massive ; the plumage is of a
dull bronze, with grey and white tips to the body
feathers, and bars on the wings and tail of the same
colours ; the beak is flesh-coloured, and the legs and
feet dark grey ; in size these birds do not equal the
American, but lighter frame is an advantage when the
birds fatten up to market requirements. Males, 18 to
24 pounds ; females, 12 to 16 pounds.

AMEBICAN BBONZB.

NoMENCLATUBE : Em/lish, American Bronze; Frenrh,
Dindon Bronze et Cuivres; Crfj-miiJi, Broncefarbig;
Dutch, Amerik Brons; Danisli, Amerikanske Bronse-
farvede; Italian, Selvaggia d America; Spanish,
Bronceada Americana ; i£)ini/a?'iare, AmerikaiBronz.

Tabiety: One.

Classification : TaLle.

Colour of Flesh and Skin : "White.

CoLODB OF Legs and Feet : Very dark, or flesh-colonred.

CoLOUB OP Egg-shells ; Cream, speckled with brown.

Origin. — Since the settlement of what is now
known as the United States and Canada, the turkey
has been a favourite fowl in those countries, so much
so that Benjamin Frankhn, on the separation of the
North American States from the British Crown, desired
it to be made the national emblem rather than the
eagle. What the exact type of turkey bred under
domestication 100 years ago was we cannot tell, but it
is more than probable that there has been a constant
infusion of wild blood, as would be possible in America,
but in process of time that will no longer be so.
Mr. H. S. Babeock states* that ' there is reason to
believe that it [the American Bronze] resulted from
crossing the wild turkey — the original of aU the domes-
ticated varieties — upon the Black turkey. Early
references to the variety show that it was at first
known as the " Black Bronzed," but the term was too
long, and it was shortened into Bronze. This variety
is interesting as showing that, after a marked departure
from the early colour, it has come back to very nearly
the colour of its wild original. The Black had departed
a long distance from the rich hues of the wild turkey,
but the lines are restored in the Bronze variety.' But
it is not a question of opinion, as there are facts to go
upon. In the work just named is an extract from reports
of the Ehode Island Experiment Station, t in which
it is stated that where wild turkeys are plentiful crosses
between wild and domestic bh'ds frequently occur
without design on the part of the owner of the latter.
Scores of cases are recorded where a wild gobbler from
the woods has taken possession of a flock of common
turkeys, sometimes after first battling with and killing
the domestic gobbler. The results of such a cross in
almost every case have been so satisfactory that such
meetings are much desired by turkey-raisers in those
districts, and young wild birds are caught for this pur-
pose and brought up with common young turkeys.
Very often nests of wild turkey eggs are found in the
woods and hatched on the farm. Hence the origin of
the Bronze American turkey is explained.

History. — How long since the birds under re-
view became common in America it is impossible to
say, but probably 200 years. The first importations
into Europe appear to have been in the early part of
last century, when Lord Leicester in Norfolli, Lord
Powis in Wales, and Lord Derby in Lancashire, had
specimens which they bred in a semi-wild state.
These birds were only partially tamed, as they were
kept with some measure of difficulty, and in a fox
country were liable to be destroyed. Although they
awakened considerable interest, yet their real value
was not discovered until about forty years ago, when
the turkey began to displace beet and goose as the
Christmas dish in this country, and the fashion for

* ' Tm-keys,' edited bv Herbert Myrick (New York, 1903).
p. 16.
t Ihid., pp. 37-38.

THE AMERICAiN BRONZE TURKEY

199

huge specimens came into being. From that time
onward they have grown in popularity, displacing
nearly all our older breeds. Considerable numbers of
stock birds have been, and are still, imported. Upon

Economic Qualities.— The leading qualities of
the American Bronze Turkey are its great size and,
under proper conditions, greater vigour than any other
member of the same species. With the demand for

-BlONZE llIEIICi

' Fishei s hlanl Fair,

NY USA

the Continent so-called Bronze turkeys are found, but
unless imported for show purposes, they are duller in
plumage and smaller in size than the American, and
may be regarded as crosses of Blacks with the older
Copper-feathered or Eed varieties.

huge specimens in America for thanksgiving, and in
Britain for Christmas, for which high prices are paid,
the popularity of this breed is explained. Twenty-five
to thirty pound young males of eight and nine months
old can be produced, and as these realize a higher rate

200

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

per pound than smaller specimens, the hreeder naturally
seeks to supply that which yields the better returns
and a greater profit. They carry a large amount of
flesh on the breast ; but the best friend of the American
Bronze cannot claim that in fineness of texture, delicacy
of flavour, and whiteness of skin, it is equal to the
Black, or Grey, or Cambridge Bronze, although the
meat is not dry, as is that of South European birds.
Much depends upon the nature of the soil, general con-
ditions, and feeding ; but whilst admitting the great
value of this breed, we cannot place it in the first rank
for flesh qualities apart from ^^•eight. They are heavy
in bone, and often show too heavy a bag in front when
killed. They are
somewhat wild in
disposition, and
range widely, but
thrive well if
allowed to roost in
trees during the
greater part of the
year. The hens are
good layers, making
most faithful sitters
and mothers. The
chicks are hardy if
the parents are well
matured before used
for breeding and
when the broods are
reared in a com-
mon-sense fashion,
but like all other
turkeys they may
be enfeebled by
coddling. As a
cross the American
Bronze stands pre-
eminent where size
of progeny is de-
sired. When killed
hey are generally
very prominent in
breast-bone.

Fig. 89.
Bred (

very long, and when the bird disports himself is
spread into a huge fan ; the legs are long, stout in
bone, and in young birds almost black, turning to
flesh colour with increasing age, which is an indis-
putable proof in older specimens ; in colour the
neck and breast are of a rich, brilliant bronze, whilst
the back and sides are also bright bronze, with
a narrow band of black at the extremity of each
feather ; the primary feathers of the wings are nearly
black, with pencUlings of grey or white, but the
secondaries are more brown or bronze. "When spread
the appearance is of equal bars of bronze and grey ;
the wing-bows are of a lustrous black ; the tail
feathers are black,
across which are
narrow bands of
light brown, with a
broadband of black,
and a wide, grey
margin at the tips.
The hens are simi-
lar in body to the
males, but not so
b'rilhant as in the
latter, and, of
course, have not
the spreading tail.
Weight : males, 22
to 34 pounds ;
females, 14 to 18
pounds ; but the
bigger specimens
are generally um-e-
liable for breeding
purposes, and two-
year-old birds are
better if 26 pounds
for males and 16
pounds for females.
It is interesting to
note that wild tur-
keys have been shot
in America weigh-
ing 60 pounds.

-Bronze American Turkey Hen.
Fishers Island Farm, N.Y., U.,S.A.

Descri ption (Figs. 88 and 89).— The body long, well
rounded, and about midway very deep, rising sharply
to both front and back ; the back and body are very
broad, and the breast is prominent and wide ; the
neck is long, well curved, and heavily clad with
feathers ; the head is long and broad, with a strong,
curved beak of horn colour ; the carunculations
as ah-eady described in the Black, and in the males
these are very full indeed ; the eyes are dark hazel ;
the wattles large and pendulous ; the wings are large,
powerful, wide - spreading, with massive muscles,
enabling the bird to rise ; the taU in the male is

NAERAGANSETT.

NoMENCL.-VTUBE : Nan'agansett.

"Variety ; One.

Classification : Table.

Colour of Flesh and Skin : White.

Colour of Legs and Feet : Deep salmon, or

brown.
Colour of Egg-shells: Cream, speckled with

Origin.— This race appears to have been bred in
the New England States, more especially Khode
Island, for a long period of time, taking its name
from the bay which stretches from Newport to Provi-

NARRAGANSETT AND FAWN TURKEYS

201

denoe, Rhode Island. It is more than probable that
they have descended from a race of Black turkeys,
kept prior to the introduction of the wild blood,
perhaps brought from Mexico.

History. — At one period they appear to have been
ubiquitous in the district giving them the name. As
Mr. H. S. Babcook says :* ' It is the variety which, in
all probability, first gave to Ehode Island turkeys
their world-wide reputation. That reputation has
remained, though the variety has to a considerable
extent disappeared from the borders of the bay. The
greater size of the Bronze turkey has been a potent
cause in the gradual disappearance of other varieties.'
So far as known, they are not widely distributed,
and we have never seen any specimens in Europe.

Economic Qualities.— The Narragansett turkey
does not attain the same weight as the American
Bronze, but is said to be much finer in quality of
flesh, which is softer, and they are not so heavy in
bone, maturing more rapidly, and meeting a demand
for medium-sized, fleshy birds. They are probably
not so hardy as the Bronze. The hens are very good
layers, but do not make good sitters, as they are
late in becoming broody. They do not wander far
from home.

Description. — This race is shortish in the leg,
and of a compact, cobby shape, without the massive-
ness of the Bronze. The plumage is of a metallic
black, each feather ending in a broad, light steel-grey
band, edged with black ; the flight feathers are black,
barred with white or grey, showing two narrow bars
when folded ; the tail of the male is black, barred
with brown, and terminating in a broad black band,
with a light grey margin: in the hens the plumage
is much paler and duller ; the beak is light horn in
colour. Weight : males, 20 to 25 pounds ; females,
14 to 18 pounds.

FAWN.

NoMENCLATUHE : Eiu/Hsfi, BuG or Fawn; French,
Chocolat ; Italian, Fulva.

Vablbty : One.
— Classification : Table.

Colour of Flesh and Skin : White.

Colour of Legs and Feet : Bluish-white, or flesh-
colour.

Colour of Egg-shells: Cream, si.5eckled with brown.

Origin. — Specimens of Buff, or Fawn, or Chocolate
turkeys, for they vary greatly in colour, are to be met
with m several European countries, and they are to be
found in America. That they are merely sports from
the Bronze, due to crossing with the White, is evident.
Upon this point Mr. H. S. Babcock writes : t ' How
it perhaps originated can be guessed, though we

* ' Turkeys,' edited by Herbert Myrick (New York, 1303),
p. .SI.

+ Ibid., pp. 29-30.

have no records to tell us the matings or the maker
of the matings. But as black -red domestic fowls
crossed upon white produce an approximation to buff,
which, by selection^ can be perfected, we believe that
a cross of the Bronze and the White turkey, with
subsequent selection, would produce the Buff variety.'
In older books references are made to this colour,
but they are always recorded as scarce, and few are
found in exhibitions either at home or abroad.

History. — The writer just quoted states* that 'a
variety of the Buff turkey used to be bred in Pennsyl-
vania, U.S.A., under the name of Tuscawara Beds.
These birds had a deeper plumage than the ordinary
Buff.'

In the last edition of Moubrayf it is said that
these Buff turkeys, ' with plumage of a light buff
or delicate fawn colour, have an exceedingly neat and
Quaker-like appearance when the shade is unbroken,
but it is sometimes broken with white. This colour
is but rarely met with now.' When, as already noted.
Copper or Bed turkeys were by no means infrequent.
Buffs would naturally be produced, but for some reason
they have not attained any measure of popularity,
and are kept for their rarity rather than for practical

Economic Qualities.— Upon this point very
little information is available, due to the fact that this
race has been kept chiefly for its ornamental characters,
and has not been brought into comparison with others.
In size they are about the same as the Whites,
and equal that variety in meat qualities. They
are stated to be fau-ly hardy, but upon that point vre
should desire further information. Birds which are
primarily bred for exhibition, more especially when the
plumage is so difficult to obtain true as in the case of
all buffs, are often in bred, and thus the natural vigour
is less than where the economic qualities are the
primary consideration.

Description.— The shape of body closely follows
the breeds already described, and need not be stated
in detail, the differences being entirely of colour ; the
plumage is of a pure buff, or of light fawn, or of deeper
red, almost chocolate, in accordance with the depth of
pigment, and when even any one of these shades is
pleasing in appearance, but it is very seldom that
specimens can be found which do not show variations
in depth of colour, or are free from what is called
patchiness— that is, lighter patches over the body— and
as a rule the under-colour is lighter, as are the wings.
The best we have seen in these respects were those of
a darker hue, called chocolate in France, but even with
these the colour was not pure, as there was a good

• ' Tm-keys,' edited by Herbert Myrick (New York, 1903),
p. 30.

+ ' Practical Treatise,' by Bonington Moubray (London,

202

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

amount of black on various parts of the body. The beak
is bluish-white ; legs and feet bluish-white, or flesh
colour ; in many cases the tail feathers are very dark.
Weight : males, 18 to 20 pounds ; females, 12 to 16
pounds.

EONQUIERES.

NoMENCLATUBE : Belf/ian, Dindon de Ronquiferes.

Vabietieb : Several.

Classification : Table.

Colour op Flesh and Skin : White.

Colour of Legs and Feet : White.

Colour of Egg-shells : Cream, spotted with brown.

Origin. — It would be difficult to fix the origin o
this race of turkey, which is bred extensively in Belgium,
and which is evidently due to a mixture of breeds,
mated without any reference to the coloration of
plumage, as the economic qualities are the primary
consideration. From the appearance we should judge
that the basis is the French Black turkey, known for
its excellent qualities, and bred for a long time upon
definite lines in Prance and the adjacent countries.
With this there would appear to have been crossed the
Grey and the White races of this species, both of which,
with the Blacks, can be traced in the Bonquieres. It
is possible, also, that there may have been an infusion
of Bronze blood. All is, however, uncertain, as there
is no direct evidence to show the method of mating to
produce the birds as we see them at present. Size of
body, wealth of flesh, white legs and feet, have been the
leading points aimed for by breeders, who had not the
object of producing a pure race, but of securing fine
market turkeys, capable of attaining heavy weight in
a short space of time, and yielding the largest amount
of profit. Such uniformity of character as has been
obtained is due rather to natural evolution than to
skilful breeding. ' Handsome is as handsome does '
has evidently been the idea prevailing in the minds of
those concerned in the development of this race.

History. — It is only within the last five or six years
that the Bonquieres turkey has received recognition as
a pure breed, and upon the usual lines it can hardly be
said to deserve that name, as the variations are very
considerable in the same brood. As stated in the

report of a Belgian stock :* ' The breeding-pen is com-
posed of a turkey cock and five or six hens. The male
is very large, and of a dark colour ; the plumage of the
hens has no uniformity — each has a different plumage.'
Since that date, however, breeding upon more definite
lines has taken place, as is essential if the economic
qualities are to be fixed and transmitted, though we
agree that selection of the male is more necessary than
of the female, so far as coloration of feathers is con-
cerned.

Economic Qualities.— The Bonquieres turkey is
most noteworthy for its table qualities, as it is a quick
grower, carrying a large amount of breast meat, which
is fine in flavour, soft, and beautifully white in colour.
In size they do not attain the proportions of the
American Bronze, but are larger than the ordinary
European White turkey, and as they fatten well they
can be fed up to 20 pounds or even more. The hens
are good sitters and mothers, and are regarded as hardy
for this species, more especially as they are bred and
reared under somewhat rough-and-ready conditions.

Description. — We quote from an article on this
breed by M. Louis Vander Snickt, of Brussels :f

'The typical colour (of the male) from which are
derived all the secondary colours, is a dark grey and
dull tawny ; each feather, of which the centre is
pencilled with fine black concentric Imes, is bordered
with a black bar showing brilliant metallic reflections.
The edges of the feathers of the stern, the abdomen,
and the tail are white. The hens are of aU colours
imaginable, even yellow, yellow with each feather
edged with black, grey, whites with each feather
bordered with black, pure white, and combinations
' the most diverse. But whatever the plumage may
be, the feet are always white, with white toenails,
signs required in all fowls destined to produce fine
white flesh.'

Some specimens we have met with were as follows :
The males were very dark, well marked with yellow,
the black, which was very bright, predominating
greatly ; the hens were of a grey ground colour, with
one dark bar on each feather. The breed is capable of
improvement, and appears to be worthy the attention
of practical turkey-breeders.

• Chasse et Pedie, xVpril -22, lilOO, p. -ITS.
t Jbid., p. 479.

CHAPTEK XVI

EXTERNAL CHAEACTEES OF POULTEY AND THEIE VALUES

Effects of exhibition system— Standards— External characters and Internal qualities-
Plumage— Coloration of plumage— Comb and wattles— Beak or bill— Earlobe—
Wings — Legs and Feet — Size — Type — Voice

EFFECTS OF EXHIBITION SYSTEM.

THE question has frequently been raised in connec-
tion with all forms of stock-breeding as to the
correlation of external characters with economic
qualities. There are those who condemn the exhibition
system entirely, who say that it has been a gigantic
mistake, that instead of working for the improvement
of our stock it has led to degeneracy, and that we
ought to abandon it altogether in order to develop the
economic properties. On the other hand, there are
those who claim, and with a certain amount of reason,
that the progress made in any branch of stock is
greatest where exhibitions have been held, and, further,
that the general quality of the animals and birds met
with in such districts is distinctly higher under these
circumstances than in the absence of shows. The
latter fact is unquestionable. We have had the oppor-
tunity of visiting almost every part of the United
Kingdom and of observing the stock in detail, as well
as of noting the conditions in other countries ; and
however much truth there may be in the statement
first made above, it is impossible to deny the truth
that shows have a marked influence upon the class of
animals kept in any district. 'Whether this influence
is as great as it might have been under other conditions
is a different question altogether, as also is how far
such exhibitions have served their purpose. Probably
the practical value of shows in this country has been
attained — namely, the improvement of existent breeds
and the introduction of new races, and that, except
from the promotion of recreative or pleasurable breed-
ing, in itself an important consideration to large
masses of the population, further developments can be
secured by other means. Whilst acknowledging,
therefore, the value of what is called ' fancy ' poultry-
breeding, we beheve that the truth will be found
between the above extremes.

STANDARDS.

When endeavouring to discover the wisdom or un-
wisdom of adopting fixed standards for the different
races of poultry, it is essential to recognise the fact that
external characters must have some cause or meaning.
It has already been seen that artificial selection — that
is, breeding for definite points — is almost entirely based
upon natural variations. Certain types are produced
by special conditions, and a measure of uniformity is
thus obtained without artificial selection. As shown
below, that is evident in connection with coloration
of plumage, of legs, and of flesh. These cannot be
maintained under a different environment. They are
the expression of the special conditions by which they
were produced. It is the adoption and extension of
merely arbitrary points, which have no economic
value, so far as can be discerned, which, especially
if carried to an extreme, may reduce or destroy
the profitable qualities of the fowl. For such excess
there can be no dispute that exhibitions are entirely
responsible, and it must be admitted that grave and
serious mistakes have been made as a result of the
show system. Breeds have been ruined practically by
undue development of characters which were perhaps
beneficial up to a given point. In all nature we find
reactive influences with a view to the maintenance of
a proper balance, and excess in one direction com-
pensated by loss in others. Instances in proof are
given below. Every part of the structure has some
purpose, so long as it is maintained in due proportion
to the other parts.

We are thus led to point out the desirability of
keeping in view the fact that external characters should
be in distinct sympathy with internal qualities. In
many breeds of poultry which are popular in the exhi-
bition-pen this is altogether forgotten. Breeders of
purely fancy poultry seldom care anything about

204,

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

utility. One can understand this. For instance, a
breeder of, say, Langshans who only looks to the
exhibition-pen would much rather that one of his
hens should lay fifty eggs in the year, and the chickens
hatched from those eggs be to a large extent perfect in
external qualities, than that hen should lay 150 eggs
in twelve months and the birds be inferior. The
better birds he may sell at prices from 10s. to ^10
each, whereas the eggs as eggs are only worth from
Id. to 2d. each. Thus the whole tendency of the
fancier, who has not wisdom to see the effects of his
work, is towards exaggeration. In this connection
there are very strong influences which compel him
sooner or later to remember that the sacrifice of
economics for purely fancy characteristics does not
pay in the long-run. The bulk of the breeding of
poultry is for practical purposes, and as soon as the
exaggeration of externals means that breeding becomes
so difficult as to be confined in the hands of a few
individuals, and also entails the sacrifice of those
properties which recommend the breed to the ordinary
poultry-keeper, then the demand at once falls off. It
is for this reason that many breeds which at one time
were popular are no longer so. At the same time,
however, too much stress must not be laid upon this
point. Many of those who study poultry forget that
with a rapidly reproducing race the tendency to ex-
haustion must always be very considerable, and that
unless the greatest care is exercised in the dh-ection
of out-crossing the breed is bound to lose ground.
Thus the fact that many breeds are no longer popular,
which at one time were amongst the most valuable
for economic purposes, must not be wholly laid down
to fanciers. It is to some extent a natural influence.

So far as can be seen, there is no reason whatever
why there should be any antagonism between the
external characters and internal qualities. To some
extent the former are artificial, and where the arti-
ficiality is carried to too great a length, then there
must be loss in other directions. The object of
those who draft the standards for our different
races of poultry should be (as far as possible) to give
prominence to those points which are in unison with
the economic properties for which the breed in the
first place won favour. It must not be forgotten that
this latter point is of supreme importance. There are
many breeds of poultry now popular which at first
secured attention by reason of the fact that they were
exceptional!}' good layers, good upon the table, or good
for some other purpose. All our standards should be
drawn upon this basis. As an instance, in the case of
Leghorns the reason why they first became popular
was because of their exceptionally good laying quali-
ties. In forming a standard for the Leghorn, sup-
posing that in an arbitrary manner those framing it
had declared that the comb of the Leghorn should be
small, like, say, the Game. That could have been

effected ; it would only have taken a few years, and
breeders could have reduced the comb in the way we
have indicated. Such, however, would have destroyed
absolutely the great quality of the fowl, and therefore
in drawing up the standard it was most important
that the size of comb should be distinctly large.
Another instance wiU suffice. In the case of table
fowls, a large comb is not desirable, because these birds
are, on the whole, only moderate layers, but what is
wanted is a comb fine in texture. If in forming a
standard for the Dorking preference were to be given
to the big, coarse-combed birds, doubtless that would
improve them in vigour, and probably in productive-
ness, yet at the same time tlie quality of the flesh
would be distinctly impaired. These questions are dealt
with in detail in the following paragraphs, the object
of which is to attempt what has never yet been done —
namely, discernment of the correlation of external
characters to internal qualities. In doing so it is
necessary to frankly indicate the errors made under
the present system, with a view to their avoidance in
the future.

It is needless to discuss again the question as to the
relative value to practical poultrj' - keepers of pure
breeds as against mongrels. The former must be
used as the basis of all progressive aviculture. The
subject is dealt with in another place,* and the great
importance of pure races is fully recognised.

PLUMAGE.

The outer covering of birds consists of feathers,
which serve two purposes — namely, as a covering to
the skin, affording protection and warmth to the body,
and as organs of flight. The last-named point need
not concern us, as we seek as far as possible in
domestic poultry to limit and suspend all desire for use
of the feathers in that direction. With regard to the
former, it should be remembered that the skin of birds
is much thinner than that of hair-clad animals, giving
less protection to the body, and is devoid of the usual
glands. Change of conditions has a marked influence
upon the plumage, in colder latitudes becoming thicker
and more abundant than in warm climates, due to the
fact that the well-clad fowls are able to withstand low
temperature to a greater extent than hghter-covered
birds. Here, again, is an exemplification of the law of
' survival of the fittest,' and an explanation why certain
races of poultry thrive in cold, exposed districts to
which others are unsuitable. Activity of habit and
vigour of constitution mean much in this direction,
but it is found that the heavier-feathered races of fowls
are better winter layers than those which are lighter
in that respect. Practically the feathers ai'e of small
economic value, save in so far as they are essential to

* ' Poultry - Ijeepiug as an Industry for Farmers and
Cottagers,' by Edward Brown, F.L.S. (London, 1904), p. 2'2.

COLORATION OF PLUMAGE

205

enable the birds to attain the object for which they
are kept. That they are a most expensive part of
the system to produce appears to be unquestionable,
as with more abundant plumage growth is slower
and food consumed correspondingly increased. Usually
on the more active races hard, tight feathering is
found. With a sympathetic temperament is associated
soft and more abundant plumage.

COLORATION OF PLUMAGE.

On approaching the question of coloration of plumage,
■very little is known as to the causes of variation. That
such causes exist cannot be questioned. We have
already seen that under changes of condition the
tendency to variation is greatly increased. Soil has
a very rapid effect upon colour of legs and of flesh,
and as feathers are fed by the body, it may be assumed
that they are affected in the same way. Mr. Primrose
McConnell mentions* that the colour of the Cleveland
bay horse may be due to its having been bred for
centuries on an ironstone soil, and that the wool colour
of sheep is influenced by the land upon which they
are bred. Very little is, however, known upon this
question. It is probable that the effect of soil upon
the colour of plumage is indirect rather than direct.

The primary colours of the domestic fowl are four —
red, black, yellow, and blue. White is not a colour,
but in fowls may be due either to an .absence of pig-
ment— that is, albinoism — or to a combination of
other colours — that is, a strong white on a dark
ground. All the coloiirs seen on domestic poultry
are composed of the above, but subject to many
variations of shade in each. Among self-colours —
that is, those which are of the same colour through-
out— blacks and whites are the most numerous ;
yeUow (or buff) and blues very difficult to obtain
and maintain — in fact, a perfect buff or blue is
never seen, as white is always present in the former
and black in the latter ; and of reds there are two
races — namely, the Bed Orloff and the Ehode Island
Bed — but in both black is present to a considerable
extent. The majority of our poultry have a mixture
of colours in their plumage.

It would appear, as already seen, that there is always
a tendency to variation under natural conditions, which
is increased when the birds are domesticated, and that
the fixing of certain colours and types is due to the
fact that those birds which conform largely to the
surromiding conditions are less easily seen by their
enemies, and therefore are preserved whilst others
are destroyed. That soil and food also have influences
is apparent. Light and darkness, heat and cold, all
share in this direction. Animals and plants bred and
produced in darkness are deficient in coloration, whilst

* ' Agriotiltural Zoology,' by Primrose McConnell (London,
1902), pp. 281, 312.

all the richer-hued species under natural conditions
live in the torrid zones. In the Arctic regions there
is an almost entire absence of colour in animal life,
partially due, no doubt, to the protective influence
mentioned above, but also to the lack of heat in the
atmosphere. Coloration may be regarded, therefore,
as a result of environment and of food, at which point
the question must be left, as our knowledge is so
scanty and incomplete. It is a natural result of the
conditions under which the bnd lives, and there is
ever a tendency to conform to those conditions. When
domesticated the endeavour is to escape from such
limitations, to perpetuate variations which would
seldom be produced under other circumstances. It
is thus there arise many of our difficulties.

Whilst it appears to be essential, in order to main-
tain purity of race, that coloration of plumage must
be given its place in the whole, the mistake is in
making it, or, in fact, any point, supreme to all other
considerations. Under the exliibition system there
are great temptations in this direction. For instance,
a sound-coloured Buff Orpington may be worth as
many pounds as another, less perfect in that respect
but superior in practical qualities, is worth pence.
The fancier, desiring the pounds, sacrifices evex-y other
quality. Not only so, but he deliberately and de-
signedly eliminates the more vigorous specimens, as
shown in sports and what are called mismarked
feathers, retaining the more refined but weaker birds
as breeding stock, thus enhancing the tendency to loss
of virility which is ever present under such conditions.
We have previously discussed this important question,*
but may add that variations are frequently the expres-
sion of dormant characters or quahties which would
stem the downward influence, and preserve the race
from enfeeblement. The fancier, however, sternly
represses this influence by elimination of such speci-
mens from his stock. As Darwin says : t ' Man
always tends to go to an extreme point in the selec-
tion, whether methodical or unconscious, of all useful
and pleasing qualities.' Our point is that whilst we
must regard colour of plumage as part of the whole,
it is only part, and selection should not be too rigid.
Buff tails in Buff breeds may be pleasing in appear-
ance, but are unnatural, and the birds with black tails
are to be preferred.

COMB AND WATTLES.

The head of all races of domestic fowls is orna-
mented with fleshy enlargements, varying greatly
in size and shape. These consist of what is called
the comb — that is, a fleshy growth above the crown

* ' Poultry-Keeping as an Industry for Farmers and
Cottagers,' by Edward Brown, P.L.S. (London, 1904),
pp. 33-34.

t ' Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication '
(London, 1885), vol. ii., p. 235.

«06

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

of the skull — and of the wattles, usually double,
which hang below the jaw or lower mandible. They
are very different in size and shape (see Chapter II.,
Fig. 3), and are in all cases larger in the male than
the female. It is difficult to determine the reason for
these characters, which are probably due to sexual
selection, the males most prominent in these respects
attracting the females more than others. Descriptions
of the forms of combs and wattles are given in
Chapter II., p. 21. The shape of comb appears to have
no meaning. Economically the combs and wattles
of fowls are of small value. In France and Belgium
the former are cooked for human food, making a pala-
table dish when skilfully prepared, but in this country
they are seldom so used.

That there is a correlation between the combs and
wattles and the reproductive organs of fowls cannot
be questioned. Evidence of that fact is within the
reach of every breeder of poultry. In the males the
comb is largest and brightest during the breeding
season, and when a hen is about to begin laying
and whilst she continues in profit it is large, firm,
and bright. So soon as she ceases production it
shrinks and becomes comparatively dull. So far is
this recognised that it is a common saying that a hen
' looks like laying.' Further, during the growing stage
the comb indicates the time of puberty. Races in
which the comb shoots early are those which come
into profit soonest. From these evidences it is appa-
rent that there is a direct connection between the
head ornaments and the egg or generative organs, for
which reason they assume a more important position
in our consideration of the relationship between char-
acters and qualities, and are an indication of practical
value to the breeder.

A careful inquiry into the size of the comb reveals the
fact that all the most prolific races have large combs,
and that with increased egg production there is a corre-
sponding enlargement of the comb. In saying this,
we do not ignore the fact that one or two large-combed
breeds are moderate layers, even where they have not
been artificially selected for that point. The most
strLkiug example is the Dorking ; but the size of comb
must be compared with the size of body. What would
be a large comb on a Leghorn would be medium on a
Dorking. By such a standard the Dorking comb may not
be regarded as large, and must be classed as medium.
We cannot, therefore, escape from the conclusion that
size of comb is influenced by productiveness, for the
shape does not concern us ; it is the amount of flesh
in the comb and wattles, as compared with the bulk
of body. Pro rata, a Hamburgh has as large a comb
as a Minorca, or nearly so. The tendency to rose or
flat combs in very cold countries is marked, as they
are less liable to frost-bite than single combs, and under
such conditions small-combed races will prevail, unless
artificial selection comes into play.

There can be no question that size in comb has been
carried to an extreme by fanciers, who have produced
the exaggerated combs seen on several breeds. Ex-
hibition Minorcas, Leghorns, Ajidalusians, Wyandottes,
and others, have had their combs greatly enlarged
of late years, to the injury of the respective races, both
as to productiveness and beauty. We have always
protested against these monstrous combs, both from
the aesthetic and practical points of view, and it cannot
be questioned that they have been injurious, reduc-
ing the vitality and prolificacy of the birds. Definite
evidence can be given as to the injury done by these
large combs. Mr T. Henry Thornton writes * of
' birds with combs that hang down four or five inches
below the level of the wattles, completely rendering
useless the eye on that side, and burdening the poor
victim of " craze " with an appendage which is neither
useful nor ornamental.'

A most striking instance of how exhibitors recognise
the evils of excessive combs upon breeding stock,
although they produce them for the sake of prize-
winning, was reported by Mr. A. F. Hunter, of South
Natick, Massachusetts, U.S.A., in respect to his visit to
Messrs. Abbot Bros., the well-known Thuxton poultry-
breeders :t -Among the stock birds I noticed many
c cks that were dubbed, and Mr. Abbot told me it was
their practice to dub their single-combed stock birds ;
of course, that spoils them for showing, but they are
always better for stock purposes ; in fact, Minorcas,
Leghorns, and Silver-grey Dorkmgs are now bred with
such excessive combs that it is necessary to dub many
of them to relieve the pressure upon the brain and
restore the bird to good condition. Mr. Abbot told me
that they had male birds killed by that excess of comb,
and said : "I can show you in the pens over yonder a
bird that will die within a week if he isn't dubbed."
Arrived at the pen, he showed me a SUver-grey Dorking
cock, a splendid bird, that "had been shown several times
and always brought back a prize-card," and now was
dumpish, listless, carrying his head drooping and with
a decided "list to starboard." The comb was a very
large one, and evidently was bearing down heavily upon
one side of the skull, the carrying of the head a little
sideways being apparently due to an effort to relieve
the pressure upon the brain. Mr. Abbot said : " I'U dub
that bird to-night, and in twenty-four hours he'll be
all right again ; all he needs is relief from that pressure
of comb on the skull." ' Mr. Lewis Wright sums up
the matter concisely J as follows : ' The hen or puUet is
practically blinded on one side, and in both sexes the
weight is too great for the brain, causing brain fatigue
and often headache, which exhausts the nervous energy
and so impairs the sexual vigour.'

• Feathered WvM, March 31, 1899, p. 619.

t farm I'utdtnj (Boston, U.S.A.), October la, 1897, pp.
355-356.

X 'New Book of Poultry,' by Lewis Wright (London, 1902),
p. 179.

VARIOUS EXTERNAL CHARACTERS

207

In all Nature a reactive influence is exerted with the
object of preserving a balance and of meeting any
excess. Large combs are desirable in comiection with
egg production, but when increased beyond a reason-
able point a reverse influence is apparent. What the
point is may be stated to be that on single-combed
fowls the height from the base to the extremity of the
longest spike should not exceed twice the length from
the centre of the eye to the tip of the beak. Thus, if
the latter were 2 inches, the comb should be 4 inches
or a little less. In rose-combed fowls it is more diiiicult
to measure, but the height of comb should not be greater
than the width, and the latter be the same breadth as
the skull. Such birds would yield all the advantages of
large combs in relation to the size of body, without any
of the evil efi'ects of excess, and be well proportioned.

The comb also indicates table quahties, but by fine-
ness of texture, not size. A coarse comb is the expres-
sion of coarse flesh, and in selection of breeding stock
for market chickens it is important that birds with a
neat, finely-made comb be chosen. The comb is also
the barometer of general health, but upon that we need
not dwell.

BEAK OE BILL.

The beak in fowls and turkeys and the bill in ducks
and geese have distinct correlation with the qualities.
Nearly all the yellow-fleshed and egg-producing races
of fowls have a yellow or horn-coloured beak, some-
times darker on the upper side, whereas the white-
fleshed races have either a white or a dark beak.
Consequently, the breeder mil find it advantageous to
keep this apparently minor point in view, for it is not
merely an arbitrary standard. In America, however,
where yellow flesh is preferred upon the table, to
produce this the beak should be yellow ; but European
taste is in favour of white flesh, and under those
conditions it would be foUy to breed from birds with
other than white or dark beaks. Further information
is given below m respect to coloration of legs and feet.

In ducks and geese it is found that white flesh is
associated with flesh or dark coloured bills. In the
case of the Aylesbury the ideal of the bill is that of a
lady's finger nail, and in Belgium blue bills with a
white bean or tip are thought to accompany the best
flesh. Yellow bills, as in the Pekin, mean yellow
flesh. The same is true in geese, where a white or
light horn bean is of great importance.

EAKLOBE.

So far as we koow, the earlobe is no indication of
any quality, and therefore has no practical value. In
ordinary fowls it is usually red, as might be expected
where the face is of that colour, but frequently white
streaks are found upon it ; but instances are to be met
with where it is creamy-yellow in tint, following the
colour of the skin and legs, and in others bluish-white.

To breed for white earlobes on birds with yellow
skin is fightmg agamst Nature. Yet this is a point
insisted upon in several races. Breeders know that
birds showing red in the earlobes where white is the
standard are often hardier and stronger than those
more perfect in that respect. Show birds are often
kept in strict confinement to bleach the earlobe, which
treatment tends to enfeeblement. We believe that
white earlobes are often natural to white-fleshed breeds
but colour is a very minor and arbitrary point, and
increase of size of lobe is injurious and certainly not
ornamental.

CREST AND BEARD.

Ornamental tufts of feathers are found on the heads
of many species of birds, and among domestic poultry
here is a strong tendency in the same direction.
On reference to the description of Russian fowls in
Chapter XL it will be seen that several races which
have not been carefully selected have crests or beards.
We have met with poultry of all kinds — fowls, ducks,
geese, and turkeys —in almost every country we have
visited displaying these features. Artificial selection of
these variations has led to the development of crests
and beards in such races as Polish, Dutch Crested,
Houdans, etc. Natural variation, however, is very
apparent in common poultry. So far as can be learnt
these are purely ornamental and have no practical
value, although it is stated that the crest in certain
breeds has the same influence as a comb. In fact, in
a moist climate a crest is a serious disadvantage to
any fowl. A very interesting development of the
cranium is found in all fowls with large crests. As
a rule a large-crested fowl has a small comb, which
the late Charles Darwin says* 'seems always accom-
panied by a great diminution or almost entire absence
of the comb. A large beard is similarly accompanied
by diminished or absent wattles. These latter cases
apparently come under the law of compensation or
balancement of growth. A large beard beneath the
lower jaw and a large topnot on the skull often go
together.' There are exceptions to this rule, for the
Houdan has both crest and comb of considerable size,
and there are several breeds, notably the Faverolles,
which are bearded but have no crest, and the Crested
Dutch, which have crest but no beard. How far the
crest is correlated to the comb we have no evidence.
The suggestion is made that crests, beards, and muffs
are a protection against frost-bite, and therefore they
are preferred in cold countries.

Plying birds display greater development of the
wings than of the legs ; those who move by walking
are stronger in the legs than the wings. In both of

• ' Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,'
by Charles Darwin, P.E.S. (London, 1885), vol. i., p. 288.

208

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

these cases the respective muscles would be specially
developed, and the opposite muscles vi'eakened and
decreased in size. In Chapter II. this point is
mentioned when dealing with the classification of table
poultr3'. As the motor muscles of the wings consist
of the flesh found upon the sternum or breast, the
correlation of the wing and table properties of the fowl
is at once evident. Large wings mean well-developed
breasts, therefore good table fowls ; small wings lack
of flesh on that part of the body, and poor table
properties.

LEGS AND FEET.

We have previously* explained the influence of soil
upon the colour of the legs and feet of poultry, and
also upon the growth of young birds. Such colour is
a very important indication of the flesh qualities.
Without exception, white flesh and skin are correlative
with white legs, white or grey flesh with blue or
black legs, and yellow flesh with yellow legs. White-
fleshed birds stand first in value upon European mar-
kets for table purposes, and grey second ; whilst
yellow-fleshed races are the most prolific layers and
hardiest, grey-fleshed second, and white-fleshed third, in
the absence of special selection. In some countries blue-
legged fowls are regarded as the finest in flavour of flesh.

Study of the various races reveals the fact that there
is considerable variation in the length of leg in fowls,
with much greater uniformity in ducks, geese, and
turkeys. The latter have not, however, been bred so
much for exhibition purposes. The Game and the
Malay, with their great length of lower limbs, are at
one extreme, and the Dumpies and Courtes-Pattes,
with their abbreviated legs, at the opposite. Both
have been bred for the result attained — the former as
exhibition fowls, the latter to prevent their scratching
in gardens, etc. But the majority of our fowls have
legs of medium length, in conformity with size and
weight of body. A Plymouth Rock has a much longer
leg than a Leghorn, but it is correspondingly larger
and heavier in body, and needs it. That excessive
length is a mistake cannot be doubted, as with it there
must be increased thickness of bone, which is the most
■costly part of the body in time and food to produce.
We must, therefore, consider the thickness of leg-bone
in relation to the entire skeleton and the object for
which the fowls are raised. Lightness of bone means
■quicker growth and earlier maturity, whether for flesh
or egg production ; heavy bone means retardation of
development, but ultimate enhancement of size.
There should be a sufficiently large frame, but an ounce
more than is required involves a corresponding loss of
profit. Up to the present scientific research has helped
us very little, and knowledge upon the subject is due to
practical observation.

• ' Poultry-Keeping as an Industry for Farmers and
Cottagers,' by Edward Brown, P.L.S. (London, 1904;,

At the Congress held at St. Petersburg in 1899 a
most interesting paper was read by M. Abozine on the
' Relation of the Body of Fowls to their Fecundity,' in
which he states that the opinion that races of poultry
destined for the table possess, relatively speaking,
lighter bone is very general. On examination of the
skeleton of a large number of fowls he always found
that the relative weight of the dried skeletons to that
of the entire living bird and of its edible parts is the
same for all breeds, and equivalent to 6 per cent. For
a skeleton not dried the proportion is 8 per cent. The
old theory, says M. Abozine, ' the more the bone, the
more the flesh,' is perfectly correct. Different birds
of the same breed may have bone of variable thickness,
but it is alwaj's in direct proportion to the quantity of
flesh, of skin, and of feathers. That is why the weight
of the skeleton to the living bird is in all cases invari-
able.* The question here raised is very interesting
and important, calling for further inquiry. But fowls
carrying a large amount of flesh upon the thighs are
heavier in leg-bone than those which are more fuUy
developed in breast. The one is a result of the other.
Hence the birds with large wings and breast muscle
are quicker in growth than those with heavy legs.

M. Abozine states that t ' the weight of leg-bone in
Game fowls, in respect to weight of the entire skeleton,
is about 40 per cent.,! and the same proportion exists
in the Cochin ; in Malays this ratio is 42 per cent. ; in
Polish 30 per cent. ; in Dorking cocks 34 per cent. ; in
Dorking hens 30 per cent. ; and in Hamburghs and
Bantams 26 per cent. '

Our knowledge upon this question is too limited to
make definite deductions, but enough is known by
practical observations to say that whilst the thickness
of leg-bone must be proportionate to the size of body,
for table poultry fineness of bone is essential to insure
rapid growth, and as an indication that the meat shall
be more upon the breast than the thighs.

The usual number of toes is four, but in some breeds
five are present, chiefly in Dorkings and races descend-
ing therefrom. This supernumerary digit is of no value,
except as a sign of descent. The toenails are usually
of the same colour as the beak, and can be regarded m
the same way. Feathers on the legs and heavj' hocks
are useless additions, associated with heavy bone, costly
to produce, and should be regarded as objectionable
by the practical poultry-breeder.

SIZE.

Reference has been made to the fact that one of the
results of domestication is a considerable increase in
the size of our poultry in all species except one— the
turkey. As the reduced body of the latter would

* Tmvaii.T- du Conqris International d' Aviculture, May, 1899
(St. Petersburg, 190i), p. 1.

t Ihid. , p. 2.

J By which is evidently meant the heavy Game of Con
tinental countries, not the lighter English. — E. B.

SIZE OF BODY, TYPE AND VOICE

209

appear to be due to direct action on the part of breeders
who have found smaller specimens more profitable
than the wild birds, and have consequently made
selection accordingly, that does not affect the general
rule. In bantams also diminution is due to artificial
selection. "Where the effects of abundantly-provided
food and limitation of exercise, with absence of danger
from enemies, are given full scope, increase is speedily
apparent in all races of fowls, ducks, and geese, vary-
ing considerably, it is true, but always apparent. That
is to the good, if not carried to an extreme, where the
object is flesh production. But the heaviest birds,
when in lean or hard condition, are not the most
profitable, as they add less 2}i'0 rata to the weight by
fattening than do the medium-sized races. But a
bulliy frame is desirable. Our opinion is that among
young chickens and ducklings from 3 to 5 pounds, in
accordance with the breed, and in older birds from 5 to
7 pounds, are the most profitable, and give the best
quality of flesh. Upon that question we do not express
a definite opinion, as reliable data is unavailable.

In respect to the production of eggs, there is no doubt
whatever that the smaller-bodied birds of any race are
more prolific than bigger specimens of the same breed.
Among cows the best milkers are always small and
lean. Increase of bulk means lessened yield of milk.
So it is with hens. All the best laying breeds are
small in size of body. Physical activity is essential to
good laying. The larger-bodied fowls are less active.
For the ovaries to operate quickly the blood must flow
freely, which is never the case unless the tempera-
ment is lively. Fully-matured hens, weighing from
ih pounds to 6 pounds, wiU be more prolific than if
larger, as with increased size there is more demand
upon the food for support of the body, and a greater
tendency to flesh production. Sixiall medium fowls
are to be preferred as layers and large medium for
table purposes, with large where the market demands
greater size — that is, eight and nine months old birds,
commonly called capons. "We cannot expect to obtain
the full measure of quality in more than one direction.

Some years ago we met with an interesting instance
which is worthy of record. A breeder of Silver-grey
Dorkings determined to increase by selection the pro-
duction of eggs in his stock. He did so to a remark-
able extent without any crossing, but each year there
was an equal- loss in size of body and flesh properties.
"We do not see why in nearly every breed there
should not be two distinct classes, one bred for table
qualities and the other for eggs, the former a larger
race than the latter by 2 or 3 pounds. And if
the fanciers desired their part in the business they
could have a third size, the Bantams. For practical
purposes in all the economic races the result would be
satisfactory. Taking Dorkings, for instance, first, we
should have a smaU type, not exceeding, when matured,
6 pounds in cocks and 4^ to 5 pounds in hens, which

would provide splendid asparagus or milk chickens
and the hens be excellent layers ; and, second, as now
in respect to size, meeting the demand for table poultry
of a greater bulk. So throughout the entire range of
our domestic poultry.

TYPE.
Every breed should have its distinct type or character,
and in breeding this must be kept to the fore. To
describe type is difficult, but it may be explained as
the combination of characters which give the race
its individuality and distinguish it from others. Into
type the shape, conformation, size, and carriage, enter
more fuUy than coloration of plumage.

VOICE.
Although the voice of the fowl, especially the crow
uttered by the male, cannot be strictly regarded as an
external character, yet it must be mentioned by reason
of its revelation of economic qualities. In Belgium
cock-crowing matches are held for the purpose of test-
ing which birds crow earliest and longest, and with a
practical rather than a sportive object. That there is
a correlation between the comb and the reproductive
organs is undoubted, and the period at which a cockerel
begins to crow is determined by the springing of the
comb — that is, the time of puberty. M. "Vander Snickt
called attention to this question at the Reading Con-
ference in 1889, at which he said * that there ' is a vast
difference between a cockerel at five or six weeks old,
if it belongs to a medium, early matured, laying breed,
or to a large Asiatic breed. . . . "When the chicken first'
comes from the egg-shell the comb of the cockerel is
always flat against the head ; when the chicken is dry
the comb rises from the head. Then cockerels begin to
crow early, say at three weeks old. . . . The cock who
is the most often disposed to crow is also he who may
be able to conduct the largest flock of hens. . . . The
more often adult cocks crow after having been trained,
the earlier their offspring cockerels crow and the earlier
the pullets will lay. . . . A cockerel wiU not crow before
his comb is developed and red ; the comb wOl not be
red before the interior organs are developed. There is
an advantage in developmg maturity as soon as possible,
for the sooner the cockerels are in a mature state, the
sooner they bear a lot of ripe meat, the sooner they can
be killed, fattened, or caponized.' Our knowledge upon
this subject may be summarized by saying that early
crowhig means in the breed early maturity, both for
kiUiug as miUv chickens or broilers in cockerels and
laying Lq the pullets ; that prolonged crowing means
prolificacy in egg production ; and that retardation of
beginning to crow means delayed maturity, but gene-
rally increased size of body.

* ' Official Report of National Poultry Conference, Eead-
ing' (London, 18'J9), p. 57.

U

CHAPTER XVII

LAWS OF BEEEDING AND THEIR APPLICATION

Evolution — Species — Varieties — Atavism — Parental influence — Are white fowls delicate?
— Habit and instinct — Consanguinity — Sex — Mating — New Breeds

EVOLUTION.

fT'^HE student may regard it as presumptuous to
I use the term ' Laws of Breeding.' Whilst
certain influences or forces have apparently
definite results, the difficulties of the subject are so
great, and our knowledge is so limited, that merely the
borders have been explored. Philosophers from the
time of Aristotle have given their attention to the
problems involved and theorized respecting them. In
the light of advancing knowledge, of later revelations,
many long-accepted theories have had to be abandoned,
and probably so-called laws which appear complete
will have at least to be reconsidered. That is, how-
ever, the way of advancement. The theorist is the
herald of all progress^ or, as clearly stated by the
late Professor Henry Drummond : * ' Without some
hypothesis no work can ever be done, and, as
everyone knows, many of the greatest contributions
to human knowledge have been made by the use of
theories either seriously imperfect or demonstrably
false. This is the age of the evolution of Evolution. All
thoughts that the evolutionist works with, all theories
and generalizations, have been themselves evolved and
are now being evolved. Even were his theory per-
fected, its first lesson would be that it was itself but a
phase of the evolution of further opinion, no more
iixed than a species, no more final than the theory
which it displaced. Of all men the evolutionist, by the
very nature of his calling, the mere tools of his craft,
his understanding of his hourly shifting place in the
always moving and ever more mysterious world, must
be humble, tolerant, and undogmatic. '

It is in that spirit we approach consideration of the
question. The real meanings of life have only begun
to be understood within the last fifty years. The
work of Herbert Spencer, Charles Darwin, Alfred
Richard Wallace, and others, has opened fresh pages in

* 'The Ascent of Man,' by Henry Drummond (London,
1894), p. i1.

the great book of Nature, but these great men have
freely acknowledged how much there is yet to learn.
One question appears to defy all investigation — the
Secret of Life, which remains locked up in the great
Creator's cabinet.

SPECIES.

The use of the term ' species ' is in connection with
those distinct forms of animals and birds which are
distinct from, and do not interbreed with, others
beyond the first generation. They may produce
hybrids, but stop at that point. The tendency in
Nature is to groups. The four species of Galli may be
said to form one group, but they do not breed together,
and thus maintain their individualities. The reason
for this is unknown, but is a determined fact, an
indication of the importance of submitting all theory
to the stei-n test of practice. A large number of
species are the same as others in primary characters,
but vary in secondary characters, which latter would
appear to be the expression of something unknown, but
of the greater importance. For instance, the horse, the
ass, and the zebra are very similar in shape, form, and
habits, but they are distinct species, and do not inter-
breed, even though they may live on the same soil and
food, and under the same conditions as each other. On
the other hand, horses bred under the most diverse con-
ditions in any part of the world, upon absolutely different
foods, and developed upon extreme lines, will freely
mate, and their progeny be fertile. So it is with
poultry. The differences in primary characters be-
tween a large duck and a small goose are less than
between the Eouen and Indian Runner ducks, but
whilst the latter freely cross, the former do not. Such
limitations must be recognised by the breeder.

VARIETIES.
In spite of the fact that there is a constant tendency
to variation in all poultry, increasingly so when

211

domesticated, lilie produces like to a remarkable ex-
tent, and is the sheet-anchor of the breeder; otherwise
he would never know what would be the result of his
efforts. If he mates Dorkings, he obtains Dorkings ;
Eouen ducks produce him the same, and so on. There
may be variations in minor directions, capable of
increase and perpetuation, but they are minor and
most pronounced in merely artificial characters.
Generally speaking, the progeny will resemble the
parents not only in type, but in character and quality.
As we have already seen, variations and the evolution of
breeds and varieties, inclusive of increased size and
fecundity, are largely due to change of conditions. As
Darwin has so well said : =■= ' Man has no power of
altering the absolute conditions of life ; he cannot
change the climate of any country ; he adds no new
element to the soil ; but he can remove an animal or
plant from one climate or soil to another, and give it
food on which it did not subsist in its natural state. . . .
He unintentionally exposes his animals and plants to
various conditions of life, and variability supervenes,
which he cannot even prevent or check.' That
the tendency to variation is weakened where the fowls
are bred under the same conditions for generations is
within the observation of all breeders, as also is the
further fact that fixity of type and of colour is greater
in accordance with the length of time during which
breeding has been conducted on the same lines. In
that way we may find an explanation why certain
types are so persistent. These have been bred for many
generations, and maintain then- influence. We find
this in men and in all classes of animals. Among
some races of exhibition poultry it is often carried to
such an extreme in the development of artificial points
that everything is sacrificed to that end, and the
virility of the breed almost destroyed. With all pure
races there is a tendency to work out, to exhaust their
vigour by general enfeeblement. That can be pre-
vented by what is known as out- crossing, which is
referred to at length in ' Poultry-Keeping as an In-
dustry for Farmers and Cottagers,' Chapter V.

ATAVISM.

One of the most powerful factors in the breeding of
any class of stock is what is commonly called the law
of reversion, or, to use the scientific term, atavism, by
which is meant the influence of ancestors. Every
breeder has had evidence of this influence, which
sometimes seriously upsets his calculations. The
inheritance not only of external characters, but also of
quahties such as temperament, productiveness, flesh
formation, and the maternal instinct, are equally in-
fluenced by the progenitors. Of course, the longer any
race is bred upon definite lines the weaker are certain

* 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,'
by Charles Darwin, P.K.S. (London, 1885), vol. i., p. 2.

tendencies, but even in the purest of stock we possess
now and again there appear variations which exhibit
this tendency to a marked degree. In many breeds
of poultry frequently there appear bro-sv-n feathers,
even in black and white self-coloured varieties. Prob-
ably this is one of the most marked tendencies to
atavism met with. The explanation simply is that
the original fowl had a considerable amount of red or
brown in its plumage, and if our different races were
allowed to breed under natural conditions, without
selection being brought to bear upon them, in the
course of a very few generations they would revert to
the original type. Sometimes purchasers of birds have
been disposed to thinli that the specimens sold to them
were not pure because chickens appeared with feathers
distinctly different from those of their parents. Whilst
undoubtedly a good deal of crossing has taken place
amongst the different breeds, at the same time the
appearance of red or brown feathers is no direct proof,
and in many cases is simply a result of changed con-
ditions. We know that in crosses atavism comes into
play more strongly than in the pure races, due to the
fact that the fresh blood thus introduced strengthens
certain dormant influences, and thus they resume their
power. This point is one to which Darwin gave great
attention. ' When two distinct races are crossed, it is
notorious that the tendency in the offspring to rever-
sion to one or both parent forms is strong and endm-es
for many generations.'* And again : ' With crossed
breeds the act of crossing in itself certainly leads to the
recurrence of long-lost characters, as well as of those
derived from either parent form. That a being should
be born resembling in certain characters an ancestor
removed by two or three, and in some cases by hundreds
or even thousands of generations, is assuredly a wonder-
ful fact.' t

Whilst, therefore, there can be no question that our
system of maintaining pure breeds and of carefuUy
preserving them from other influences fixes the
character, at the same time the latent or dormant
influences handed down from ancestors will now and
again exert their influence. Upon this question of fixity
of character Darwin says :t ' It is a general belief
amongst breeders that the longer any character has
been transmitted by a breed, the more fully it will
continue to be transmitted. I do not wish to dispute
the truth of the proposition that inheritance gains
strength simply through long continuance, but I doubt
whether it can be proved. In one sense the proposition
is little better than a truism ; if any character has
remained constant during many generations, it wiU be
likely to continue so if the conditions of life remain
the same. So, again, m improving a breed, if care be
taken for a length of time to exclude all inferior

• ' Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,'
by Charles Darwin, P.E.S. (London, 1885), vol. ii., p. 8.

t Ibid., p. 25.

J Ibid., p. 37.

14—2

212

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

individuals the breed will obviously tend to become
pure, as it wiU not have been crossed during many
generations by an inferior animal.'

The great naturalist whose name has been given
above dealt very fully with this question of reversion ;
but there is a point which we have not hitherto seen
noted or given the prominence which it appears to
deserve — namely, may not those birds which show
signs of reversion often be valuable because of their
increased vigour ? This suggestion is obtained from
the fact that in many oases, without any intercrossing,
change of conditions will lead to alterations in the way
we have indicated. It is a well-known fact that if we
take animals from one part of the earth to another,
even though they are bred most carefully from parents
selected on both sides of the approved type, the
tendency to variation is very much greater than under
the original conditions. But it is also equally true
tha;t in many cases, at any rate, the vigour of the
animals is considerably enhanced, and it would appear
to be reasonable to assume that this greater vigour has
given strength to certain latent characters, and there-
fore the general strength of the animal is increased.
It is unnecessary, in this connection, for us to give
examples, as they are within the observation of every
careful breeder. The usual custom, however, is to
eliminate as quickly as possible all those specimens
called by fanciers ' wastrels,' and by Americans ' culls.'
We are not sure that this is altogether as wise as at first
sight might appear, and it may be that many of the
rejected birds, if they were used in a proper manner,
would be valuable for givmg renewed strength to our
stock. It is the easiest thing in the world to sacrifice
the stamma of our poultry, and many instances could
be cited where, by striving for improvement of external
characters, the economic qualities have been to a great
extent reduced.

In respect to both the characters and qualities of our
domestic poultry, it is apparent that both good and bad
are handed down, sometimes missing one or two gene-
rations, but appearing again and again. Especially is
this true when crosses are made or new breeds formed.
In an older-established race there may be a remote
tendency, through a long-past ancestor, to, say, feathers
on the legs, but which is dormant. If crossed with
another race in which is a like tendency, the union of
these two may give results far beyond the mathematical
proportion of their respective values. Even change of
conditions may have a like result. Atavism is, there-
fore, a factor which cannot be ignored by the breeder.
^¥hat is true as to external characters is equally so in
respect to internal qualities. A good layer breeds good
layers, and vice versa ; a hen laying brown eggs breeds
pullets which will do the same.

PARENTAL INFLUENCE.

It is generally accepted * that the male parent
influences external characters more than does the hen,
and that the female parent controls internal qualities,
such as temperament, fecundity, etc., more than the
cock, though in neither case are the limitations in
only one direction. Briefly stated, breeding males
should be chosen to improve and fix colour of plumage,
vigour, and general character, and the female for
racial type and economic qualities ; but with affinity,
not antagonism, between the two sexes. The question
is discussed more fully below in dealing with Mating.

ARE WHITE FOWLS DELICATE ?

It is a common impression among naturalists that
all white-haired animals and white-plumaged birds
are not so hardy as those with coloured hair or
feathers. Frequently objection is made to white races
of poultry on the ground that they are delicate. The
late Charles Darwin gave expression to that opinion,
and as a consequence its correctness was generaUy
assumed. Our own experience, and that of many
others, does not, however, confirm it. For instance,
it is strange if white-plumaged or white-furred birds
or animals are weaker than those with coloured
plumage that we should find the former almost en-
tirely within the Arctic Zone, where the conditions of
life are very much more severe than in the Temperate
or Torrid Zones. It may be suggested that the reason
why we find the white animals and birds in the Arctic
regions is due to the law of survival of the fittest, they
being not so much seen by their enemies as are the
latter. This undoubtedly has had a great influence, but
still there remains the striking fact that the white-furred
animals are amongst the most vigorous of all our races,
and are able to withstand the rigours of the climate.

In Dr. A. R. Wallace's work on ' Darwinism' the same
opinion is expressed. The writer says : t ' The corre-
lation of a white colour and blue eyes in male cats
with deafness, and of the tortoise-shell marking with
the female sex of the same animal, are two well-known
but most extraordinary cases. . . . Buckwheat in
flower is also said to be injurious to white pigs, but
not to black. In the Tarentino black sheep are not
injured by eating the Hypericum crispion, a species
of St. John's wort, which kills white sheep. White
terriers suffer most from distemper, white chickens
from the gapes. White-haired horses or cattle are
subject to cutaneous diseases from which the dark-
coloured are free, whilst both in Thuringia and the
West Indies it has been noticed that white or pale
coloured cattle are much more troubled by flies than
are those which are brown or black.'

* ' Poultry-Keeping as an Industry for Farmers and
Cottagers," by Edward Brown, P.L.S. (London, 1904), p. 30.

t 'Darwinism,' by A. E. Wallace, LL.D. (Loudon, ISS'l),
p. 170.

HABIT AND INSTINCT, AND CONSANGUINITY

213

On reading this, we communicated with Dr. Wallace,
placing before him the facts, of which mention has
been made above, with regard to animals in the Arctic
Zone, and in reply he said that he had made no per-
sonal observations on the subject, but had accepted
the opinion held by Darwin.

Here we came to a point where it was necessary
that there should be some definite conclusion arrived
at. Of course, anyone who has studied natural
history must know that in many cases the statements
made are perfectly true. If we take the birds and
animals and fishes found in, say, the Mammoth Cave,
Kentucky, which are bleached white because of the
fact that they live always in darkness, they are dis-
tinctly more delicate than those which are coloured
and live in the open an- ; but this weakness may be,
and is probably, due to some other cause, the lack of
colour being owing to the lack of sunshine. Frequently
in the case of animals, and probably in plants, any
delicacy which arises may be due to a want of crossing.
If we have white-plumaged fowls, for instance, we do
not cross them with any carrying coloured feathers,
and there is thus a greater tendency to inbreeding ;
whereas in coloured birds, if we want to bring in fresh
vigour and to modify any characteristics, we can cross
with many other races, and in this way avoid de-
generacy. The question is, however, capable of
solution.

M. Louis Vander Snickt, of Brussels, speaking at
the Beading Conference, 1899, said : ' There exists in
animals two whites — a weak white, due to albinoism
(absence of pigmentation), and a strong white on dark
ground, the strongest of all colours, resulting from
the union of all other colours.'

The difference between the two is not at all difficult
to find out, because where there is the combination
of colours in the white this has either a very slight
blue tinge, or in some cases a creamy appearance,
especially in the sunshine ; whereas, on the other
hand, when there is the absence of pigment the bird
or animal has a washed-out appearance, and the
absence of colour indicates itself in this way. The
latter are albinos, the former are not. The great
majority of our races of fowls with white plumage
are as hardy as others, unless they are weakened by
inbreeding, which, together with unnatural condi-
tions, would tend to destroy the darker pigments
making up the white, and induce the dull, insipid
albino. These remarks apply chiefly to the yeUow
and dark-legged races.

HABIT AND INSTINCT.

Mistakes are often made as to the instinctive actions
and those which are due to habit or the result of
experience. The common method is to include in the
term ' instinct ' all actions which are apparently the

result of natural volition, but, as seen below, many of
these are due to example or experience. Artificial
methods of rearing have helped to a clearer definition
between instinct and habit.

Mr. Lloyd Morgan thus describes the two functions :*
' Instincts are congenital, adaptive, and coordinated
activities of relative complexity, and involving the
behaviour of the organism as a whole. They are not
characteristic of individuals as such, but are similarly
performed by all like members of the same more or less
restricted group, under circumstances which are either
of frequent recurrence or are vitally essential to the
continuance of the race. While they are, broadly
speaking, constant in character, they are subject to
variation analogous to that found in organic structures.'
Also : t ' A habit is a more or less definite mode of
procedure or kind of behaviour which has been
acquired by the individual, and has become, so to
speak, stereotyped through repetition.'

Walking, scratching, pecking, eating, drinking, crouch-
ing when frightened, and the orowmg of cockerels, are
instinctive to the young, and also the sexual and
maternal functions when older may be regarded as
instinctive.

Mr. Lloyd Morgan mentions that t ' ducklings a day
or two old, dropped into a tepid bath, kicked vigorously
and excitedly for a few seconds, but in a minute were
swimming with easy, rapid motion, and pecking at the
marks on the sides of the bath.' Yet instinctive action
may be stimulated by example, for the same author
remarks : § ' In broods of chicken brought up under
experimental conditions by themselves, and without
opportunities of imitating older birds, are one, or two,
or three more active, vigorous, intelligent, and mis-
chievous birds. They are the leaders of the brood ;
the others are their imitators. Their presence raises
the general level of intelligent activity. Remove them,
and the others shows a less active, less inquisitive,
less adventurous life, if one may so put it; they seem
to lack initiative.' Among habits may be named the
avoidance of water in quantity by chickens and young
txu'keys, the rejection of certain classes of food, perch-
ing, returning to their own dwelling even from a con-
siderable distance, and seeking shelter.

CONSANGUINITY.

Some time ago the
a serious trouble in a
duck-breeding is a com
found that soft bill was
young ducklings were s
could not break throug
observation and inquiry

* 'Habit and Instinct,'
(London, 1806), pp. 27-28.
t Uid.,-e- 1. t 11

writer was consulted as to
district of England where

siderable industry. It was
very prevalent — that is, the

30 soft in the bill that they

;h the shell. After careful
we came to the conclusion
by C. Lloyd Morgan, F.G.S.

■id., p. 62. § Ibid., 182

214

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

that this was chiefly owing to inbreeding. Large
numbers of ducks were kept, and the people in the
district had tlie idea that they were the best ducks in
the world. They simply bought males from one
another, and thus the birds of the whole countryside
were practically of the same family. The introduction
of fresh blood from a distance has had a great deal to
do with the removal of the trouble. But what is true
in this case is equally so in many other parts, although
perhaps the effects are not so apparent. It must be
borne in mind that in these days, especially with some
of the newer breeds, it is very difficult to secure
absolutely fresh stock, and unless inquiry is made there
is always the risk that^ even though we are buying 200
or 300 miles from home, those purchased may be
related to the ones already in possession.

In the case of wild animals and birds there must be
a certain amount of inbreeding, but what is less harm-
ful in the wild state becomes very serious under domes-
tication, where we limit those natural influences which
help to preserve the stamina and vigour of the race.
The late Charles Darwin shows very clearly the evil
effects of close breeding : *

' Long-continued, close interbreeding between the
nearest relations dipiinishes the constitutional vigour,
size, and fertility of the offspring, and occasionally
leads to malformations, but not necessarily to general
deterioration of form or structure. This failure of
fertility shows that the evil results of interbreeding are
independent of the augmentation of morbid tendencies
common to both parents, though this augmentation no
doubt is often highly injm-ious. Our belief that evil
follows from close inbreeding rests to a certain extent
on the experience of practical breeders, especially of
those who have reared many animals of quickly-
propagating kinds, but it likewise rests on several
carefully-recorded experiments. With some animals
close interbreeding may be carried on for a long period
with impunity by the selection of the most vigorous
and healthy individuals, but sooner or later evil
follows. The evil, however, comes on so slowly and
gradually that it easily escapes observation, but can be
recognised by the almost instantaneous manner in
which size, constitutional vigour, and fertility are
regained when animals that have long been interbred
are crossed with a distinct family.'

We have, of course, to recognise that a certain amount
of inbreeding has been practised, and is essential for the
perfection of any race of animals or birds, and for the
production of high-class stock it is probable that this is
the most speedy way of securing that object. But there
are serious penalties arising from the transgression of
what may be regarded as a natural law, and it should be
our endeavour to minimize the efi'ects as far as possible.
Something can be done by securing birds which have

* 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,'
by Charles Darwin, F.R.S. (London, 1SS5), p. 159.

been reared upon different soil and under different
conditions. For instance, if fowls of one family have
been reared, say in the East of Scotland, for several
generations, and others in the South of England,
although the original stock might be related, the
changed conditions will have so altered them that prac-
tically they have lost the close relationship ; but, be it
noted, this would only be after several generations.

There are many other ways in which the evil
influences of inbreeding are to be noted. Albinoism,
twisted feathers and toes, weak combs, and wry tails,
are all frequently caused by mbreeding. These will,
however, suffice for the purpose we have in view —
namely, to call the attention of breeders to what is a
great and serious danger. We do not think, from the
evidence obtainable, that inbreeding is actually the
cause of disease if the birds are absolutely healthy, but,
tending as it does to refinement and delicacy of consti-
tution, it reduces the power of the birds to withstand
attacks of disease, and hence they are more easily
affected than those bred in a natural manner. We
have constantly to combat the tendency m poultry,
and, in fact, all animals under domestication, towards
enfeeblement, and it is essential to keep that fact in
view. We cannot urge too strongly the necessity of
introducing fresh blood from time to time, and also
to insure that the blood is really such as will help to
maintain the size, vigour, and stamina of the race.

SEX.

Under natural conditions the rule of life appears
to be that the sexes are very nearly equal, although in
some directions it would seem that this is not absolutely
the case. It must always be borne in mind, in con-
sidering the relative number of males and females of
any race or species, that the males are more exposed
to danger, and that the proportionate number of deaths
amongst males is greater daring the period of develop-
ment and early maturity than in the case of the
females. Under domestication, however, this rule — if
it may be termed so — is modified to a considerable
extent, though probably not nearly so much as is
generally supposed. Even under domestication, how-
ever, the males are exposed to greater dangers than
the females, and thus, to preserve the absolute equality
of the sexes, it would be necessary that a greater
number of males should be produced. So far as many
races of our animals are concei-ned, however, the
desire of their owners is that there shall be a much
larger number of females. This does not apply to
such animals as are used for draught, but in the case of
milk production and also in connection with poultry it
is necessary that there shall be sonaething hke six to ten
times as many females in profit as males are kept, and
in some cases the number is even greater. Although
there have been abundant theories with regard to this

SEX AND MATING

215

question, the amount of positive fact has been very
small indeed, and it is not too much to say that at the
present moment our knowledge as to the forces vifhich
are at work in this direction is very Umited.

As to all the statements which are made from time
to time— and some of which are more than 2,000 years
old — that the sex of the future bird can be discerned by
the shape of the egg, or by the time at which it is
laid, these may be dismissed absolutely. There are,
however, several points which do help us to some extent.
It has been shown ia many cases, and certainly to a
sufficient degree to command our attention, that if the
male bird is older than the pullets the tendency will
be to increase the number of males, and it has been
suggested that this is an effort on the part of Nature
to preserve the sex which is threatened with earUer
extinction. The latter suggestion can scarcely, how-
ever, be accepted. Nature does not work in that way.
But whilst not for a moment doubting the result of
the mating referred to, it is more likely to be due to
the relative physical conditions of the parents than to
any question of age, although this physical condition
may be the result of age. There are several observations
which help us towards the idea which is now more or
less accepted— namely, that the condition of the body of
the mother has much to do with the sex of its offspring.
In the case of mammalia it is easily seen that this
would be much more apparent than in the case of
birds, because the influence of the mother would extend
to a much greater period— in fact, untU the time of
birth ; but we must bear in mind that a well-fed — and
by this term we mean a suitably-fed — hen would affect
the ovum or yolk of the egg, which is the food reserve
of the chicken, and thus the same result would be
achieved. Evidence has been given by some of the
best observers which all tends in this direction. One
French naturalist states that furriers have recorded
that in fruitful regions more furs of females are always
to be bought than in unfruitful districts. Another
scientist says that female calves are born to a greater
extent if the cow is poorly fed.

It is very evident that there is no effect without a
cause, and we do not beheve that even in the question
of sex chance is any explanation of the variations which
take place. Some determining influence must be at
work, although we may not know what that influence is.
The practical application of the knowledge which we
refer to is contained in a very interesting book pub-
lished by the late Dr. L. Schenk, Director of the
Embryological Institute in Vienna.* Many of his
theories are probably unsupported by fact, but none
the less the importance of diet seems to be very
great indeed, and there can be no question that his
theories are borne out by a large amount of prac-
tical experience. He shows that in certain regions

* ' The Determination of Sex,' by Dr. Leopold Schenk,
English translation (London, 1898).

and amongst certain people where meat forms the
principal diet only, male — or principally male — offspring
would be produced ; whilst, on the other hand, feeding
the mother upon a highly nitrogenous diet with fat,
and adding only so much carbohydrates as is abso-
lutely necessary to prevent its want being felt, would
tend to the production of females. Here we have
what may in process of time help us to an explanation
of the larger number of males produced when animals
and birds are kept under domestication, because there
can be no question that the mistake which is generally
met with is feeding our animals too well, and especially
upon the starchy foods which go to produce fat. We
know by experience that a fat hen is seldom a good
breeder, but if the giving of fat tends to increase the
number of males as compared with females, then it is
a further disadvantage. What we want, therefore, is
to feed our hens, at any rate, in order to produce more
pullets, upon nitrogenous foods, and thus keep them in
hard condition of body, with as little fat as possible
upon them, whilst, on the other hand, the male birds
should be fed to a much fuller extent. We are not
here suggesting that by the adoption of such a system
as this we can anticipate regularly the exact number
of cockerels and pullets produced, because in aU
Nature there are reactive influences, and if the attempt
is made to throw all the weight in one direction, then
Nature would assert herself and seek to preserve the
balance more equitably. The whole question is, how-
ever, in the experimental stage.

MATING.
From what has been said as to the relationship of
external characters with internal qualities, it is evident
that without fixity of type the efforts of the poultry-
keeper would be retarded. Such characters are the
result of generations of breeding, either natural or
artificial, for the perpetuation of definite qualities. In
advocating, therefore, pure breeds and pure breeding,
we are doing so in the interests of the community at
large, and with a view to increased food-supply. That
is what Nature does under all conditions; or, to take an
example from other stock : ' It has been said that if a
flock of sheep were divided into lots, and each lot sent
to different districts of Britam, and kept from inter-
breeding with other kinds, each would, in the course of
a few generations, develop pomts and peculiarities
which could easily be accentuated by selection only,
and thus breeds be manufactured altogether different
from the original strain and from each other.' * Mon-
grelism spells degeneracy ; properly selected pure races,
enhanced production in every country. Our truest
method of insuring success is to select races which are
suited to om- conditions and to the object we have in view.

* ' Agricultural Zoology,' by Primrose McConnell, B.Sc,
(London, 1902), p. 299.

216

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

But, having stated the position we hold clearly, we
cannot come to any other conclusion than that the
present system of adopting fixed colour standards for
both males and females is, except for self-coloured
breeds, a serious blunder, against all natural laws, and
working for the enfeeblement, degeneracy, and ultimate
ruin of the race. What is known as type, in which
coloration of plumage holds a very minor position,
may be as rigid as we can make it, even in regard to
what appear small differences, but that is not antago-
nistic to natural methods. The Arab horse and the
Russian pony are of the same species, but differ in type
or character, and it would be folly to ignore, as some
appear to suggest, that such differences exist. In
every breed the essential factor to secure its perpetua-
tion and improvement is to define the type, to recognise
that combination which makes it distinct from all other
breeds. And in this combination we must include
what may be regarded as minor characters. Such
cannot be avoided. In many cases they are as impor-
tant as those parts which bulk larger. Square body,
full breast, large wings, shortish neck and legs, medium
comb, and five toes, combine to make the Dorking.
Change or absence of any one of these would destroy
the type. It would be a Dorking no longer. Hence
in breeding we place type in the frontal position.

It is when we come to coloration of plumage that we
join issue with present ideas of breeding, especially in
respect to the females. A great deal has been said as
to the injury done by breeding for show, and by some
of those who were most responsible for the present
system and for the adoption of fixed standards, but we
have failed to find that they even attempt to indicate
where the mistake lays, and how it can be remedied.
Fanciers have carried point-breeding to an extreme, to
the serious injury for practical purposes of many races,
but they have only followed the guidance in the first
place of some of those who are now their chief critics,
who have apparently never sought for the cause, much
less pointed out a better way by means of which
purity of race can be maintained, even in combination
with the pleasures and profits of exhibiting, the
fascination of breeding for which cannot be questioned,
without adversely affecting the economic and essential
qualities.

The conclusion at which we have arrived, after many
years of study and observation, is that, whilst colour
standards may — nay, must— be adopted for males in all
species of domestic poultry, no such rigidity should be
observed with the females. Our friend M. Louis
Vander Sniekt, of Brussels, goes further, in that he
would accord to colour a less important place even in
males, and condemns the fixing of colour of plumage
almost entirely. We find, however, that Nature teaches
us the need for maintenance of pure races, and that
colour in the males is a fixed quantity. In nearly all
birds the males are bright in plumage and very uniforn

in colour, whilst the hens have a much more homely
garb. Probably in the former case the richer hues
are maintained by selection on the part of the hens,
as the handsomer the male the more attractive he
would be to them. On the other hand, hens would
be less seen by enemies when upon their nests if dull
in colour. Their mates would be able to protect them
by drawing attention to themselves if attacked, as
they are better equipped for fighting. The chief
object in Nature is apparently perpetuation of the
race. When we observe poultry of all species bred
under natural conditions, it is to find that there is
great variation in the colour of females. The same
was true in Game fowls— and is yet to a considerable
extent — and other highly-coloured races, as they were
bred for vigour and strength, often indicated by bright-
ness of plumage. In Black-red Game of the purest
strains the pullets bred are very varied in hue. This
is clearly indicated by Mr. F. C. Tomkins, A^-ho says,*
dealing with Black-red Game : ' It is, in my opmion,
useless to describe the colour of hens to be used for
cockerel-breeding, or the colour of cocks required for
pullet-breeding, unless we know how they are bred, as
the produce might be quite different.'

In white and black feathered fowls the question is
unimportant, but standards which insist upon pencil-
ling, lacing, spangling, and chain-mail in hens are
a mistake. To their adoption we owe, more than any
other cause, the degeneracy of certain breeds. Even
for exhibition such fixity is folly, leading to the system
of double matmgs for the production of cockerels and
pullets respectively, which, however interesting from
the breeder's position, is to be condemned for practical
purposes, and seriously militates against the usefulness
of any breed. Colour in the males is important, often
indicating vu'ility when combined with general char-
acter, but in the hens type should be supreme. For
these reasons we have in our descriptions of the different
races paid little attention to the plumage of females.

NEW BEEEDS.

Statements are frequently made — usually by those
who have been breeders of poultry for many years —
that the newer breeds of poultry are not worthy of
consideration, or are inferior to the older races. Whilst
we have no word to say against the latter, it is de-
sirable to examine whether the claim made that the
older breeds are more profitable and of greater com-
mercial value than the new ones is tenable. If it
were so, then, of course, it would be inadvisable to
multiply varieties of poultry simply for the variations
obtained by different external characters. Perhaps
the best way will be to take forty years ago as the
basis, when it will be found that amongst the varieties

• ' New Book of Poultry,' by Lewis Wright (London, 1902),

NEW BREEDS

217-

then unknown are the following : Anconas, Coucou de
Malines, Faverolles, Indian Game, Langshans, Leg-
horns, Orpingtons, Plymouth Eocks, and Wyandottes in
fowls, and Pekins and Indian Eunners in ducks. There
may be others, especially among the more ornamental
varieties, such as Bantams, etc. ; but as this question
is approached from the economic standpoint, it is
better to keep to those which may be termed utUity
poultry.

On examination of the list given above it will at
once be seen that some of the most prolific, and con-
sequently the most valuable, races for egg production
were unknown, in this country at any rate, forty
years ago. No one can for a single moment doubt
that the introduction of these different breeds has been
of the greatest service in the stimulation of interest in
poultry-keeping, and, moreover, in the quantity of eggs
and poultry produced in the country.

But there is another reason why the introduction
of new varieties should be encouraged. It must be
borne in mind that with a rapidly-reproducing race
like poultry, when bred in domestication, the rate at
which its vigour and stamina are exhausted must be
accelerated. It would appear to be almost a law of
Nature that forms of life, or varieties of those forms,
only last for a certain period, which may be tens or
hundreds of years. Then they seem to work out, and
some other form takes their place. The geological
records show that this is undoubtedly the case. "When
we bring any race under domestication, therefore, this
tendency must be considerably enhanced, with the
result that if we are to keep poultry or any other
animal or plant to the fore there must be out-crosses
of blood to give that strength which purity of breeding

tends to reduce. These infusions of fresh blood have,
of course, the result of practically modifying the
external characteristics, with new forms as a natural
sequence. We see the same influence in animals and
plants of various kinds, and what is true in that direc-
tion is equally so with poultry. «

That there is always a tendency to unduly multiply
the number of so-called breeds cannot be questioned,
and many during the past few years have come forward,
but failed either to impress their value upon the public
mind, or when bred did not maintain the special
features claimed for them. Every new breed must
pass through the fire in this way. It is bound to be
subjected to adverse criticism, and unless it can stand
criticism it has no right to exist. The hard words
which have been said about most of the newer varieties
are evidence of this state of things. Those, however,
who promote the new breeds must be willing to bear
comment, and if they own a breed of intrinsic merit
the criticism will do no harm, but a considerable
amount of good.

It is surprising that whilst in some species, notably
flowers, the man who could bring out a blue rose
would be heralded as having accomplished a wonder-
ful thing, or if he could discover or by cross-fertiliza-
tion produce a fresh form of plant, honour and credit
would fall to him ; but according to some writers the
reverse should be the case in connection with poultry.
We do not see why what is true in one direction
should not be equally so in another, and think that
those who have introduced fresh varieties of poultry
have frequently rendered a much greater service to
their day and generation than those who have simply
produced a new plant merely for ornamental purposes.

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

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B.— JUDGING ON UTILITY LINES

SCALE OF POINTS.

Symmetry ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 20

Size ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1.5

Legs and feet ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 10

Comb and wattles ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 10

Head and neck ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 10

Condition ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 10

Tail and wings ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 10

Colour of plmnage ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 15

CUTS OB DEDUCTIONS.

Symmetry : Up ^„

Bad shape ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 10

Short body in table breeds ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5

Round back ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5

Incorrect carriage ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 10

Size :

Excess or deficiency, per pound ... ... ... ... ... ... 10

Legs and Feet :

Coarseness of bone ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5

Excess or deficiency of length ... ... ... ... ... ... 5

Pale colour in yeUow or dark ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5

Soot or yellow in white ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5

Twisted toes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5

Bad colour in nails ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5

Comb and Wattles :

Excess or deficiency in size ... ... ... ... .. ... ... 5

Coarseness of texture ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5

Broken or additional spilies ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5

Dull in colour ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5

Head and Neck :

Eoughface .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... 5

Deficiency in crest or beard ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5

Bad colour in beak ... .. ... ... ... ... ... ' ... 5

Coarse or iU-shaped neck ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5

Condition :

Dull plumage ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5

Loss of essential feattiers ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5

T-iiL and Wings :

High or low tail ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5

Loss of sickles . . ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5

Dropped wings ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5

Colour of Plumage :

Defects in body colour ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 10

Spots or patches ... ... ... . . ... ... .. ... 5

Lack of uniformity ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5

DISQUALIFICATIONS.

Want of general character of breed. Feathers on shanks of clean-legged breeds.

Bent breast bone. Absence of feathers on shanks of feathered breeds.

Deformities or enlargements. Additional or absence of toes.

Great excess of size in small and medium breeds. Wrong class of comb.

Small body in table and general purpose breeds. Squirrel or wry-tail.

Wrong colour of legs and feet. Wrong colour of plumage.

15—2

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

C— FURTHER NOTES ON THE ORIGIN OF THE TURKEY.

Since the earlier chapters were printed, the following
has been received from the Count de las N avas, librarian
at the Royal Palace, Madrid, which appears to show
that the turkey was discovered at an earlier date than
has hitherto been accepted, and was first introduced
into Spain in the year 1500.

In a work entitled ' The Zoology of Columbus and
the First Explorers of America,' by Juan Ignasio de
Arcenas, published at Havana in 1888, we find that ' it
is usually asserted that the turkey was first found in
Mexico, and that, on the whole, it was a stranger to
South America. But both assertions are incorrect.
Pedro Nino was its discoverer, on the coast of Cumana,
north of Venezuela, on the voyage made by him in

1499. He bought some from the Indians at the rate
of four glass beads for each fowl. It is certain that in

1500, on the return of this fortunate expedition to
Bayeria, in Galicia, besides the monkeys, parrots, and
other curiosities (including a great quantity of pearls)
collected by Nino in America, turkeys were seen for the
first time on European soil.

' There is no mention of them on the other side of
the Orinoco ; we may therefore take the course of this
river as the limit of this breed on the Atlantic side of
South America. On the Pacific side they reached as
far south as the borders of Peru. In 1502 Columbus
found " very large fowls," with feathers like wool, in
the island of Guanaja, the easternmost of the Ruatan

group, off the coast of Honduras, which was known in
early times under the general name of the Guanajan
Islands. He also found them in Honduras, and in
every part of the coast up to the Isthmus. They must
have been introduced into Cuba between the year 1511,
when Cuba was conquered, and 1517, when Yucatan
was discovered. The name Guanaja, which is given to
this bird in Cuba, is sufficient indication of its origin in
the Guanaja Islands, whither frequent expeditions were
then sent in order to obtain Indian slaves, who were
also called Guanajos. It is known that one of the ex-
peditions to these islands, commanded by Fernandez de
Cordoba, landed in Yucatan ; this was the original con-
quest of Mexico.

' Throughout New Spain this bird was very common.
The Indians bred it in their households, and there were
always several millions in Montezuma's palaces, which
were used to feed the birds, snakes and other animals
that were there. There was also a wild species in the
country. Their general name was totolui, the hen
cihuatshd, the cock huexoloth. _

' From Mexico the turkey was carried to Europe, and
also, apparently, to San Domingo, for Oviedo made
the mistake of thinking that this country was its sole
place of origin. He describes it as widely distributed in
1525, in the Auh'las and Costa Jinue, and says that
he himself had the opportunity of seeing it in Nicar-
agua and other places.'

INDEX

Abbot Bros, on Andalusian Fowl,

108
Abolition of Coek-iighting, 37
Abozine, M., on Weight of Bone, 208
Acclimatization, 23
Acker. A. C, on White Leghorn Fowl,

73
Aoland, Sir Thos. Dyke, Importations

of Minorcas by, 103
African Goose, 18, 191, 226
Age of Parents, Influence of, on Sex, 215
Albinoism, 213
Aldrovandi on Padua Fowl, 138 ; on

Turkish Fowl, 44
Allen, A. B., on Dorkings, 28
America, Blue Ducks in, 177
,, Chinese Geese in, 190
,, Embdeu Geese in, 182
,, Game Fowl in, 34
„ Pekin Ducks in, 171
„ Turkeys in Central, 193
American Bronze Turkey, 19, 198, 226
Races of Fowls, 149
,, Turkey, 7

,, Tyj)e of Brahmas, 56, 57, 58
Anas boschas, 5
Ancona Club, 79

„ Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 77, 220
Andalusian Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 106, 221
Annatoyn, Mr., on Langshan Fowl, 64
Aiiser cinereus, 6
Anserferus, 6
Antwerp Brahma Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 116,

121, 222
Arbitrary Points, 203
Ardenne'Fowl, 17, IS, 116, 222
Arnold, Miss May, on Duelair-Eouen

Duck, 168
Arsamas Geese, 188, 226
Artificial Characters and Qualities, 11

Selection, 13, 203
Aryans, Mr. G. L. Gomme on the, 1
Aseel Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 36, 67, 220
Asiatic Civilization, 1

,, Races of Fowls, 56
Assendelfter Fowls, 127
Atavism, 211
Atkinson, Herbert, on Cock-fighting,

8 ; on Game Fowl, 40
Audenarde, Ducklings at, 119
Augsburg Fowl, 17, 18, 137, 223
Austro-Hungary, Turkeys in, 196
Ayam Jallak Fowl, 70
Aylesbury Duck, 18, 169, 225

Babcock, H. S. , on American Turkey,
198 ; on Fawn Turkey, 201 ; on
Narragansett Turkey, 201 ; on
Rhode Island Red Fowl, 162

Barbezieux Fowl, 17, 18, 109, 221

Barn-door Fowls, 13

Barred Plymouth Rock Fowl, 150, 152,
224

Bavaria, Poultry-keeping in, 137

Beard. 207

Bearded Thuringian Fowl, 16, 17, IS,
223

Beak, 207

Beaks, Colour of, in Turkeys, 19

Belgian Races of Fowls, 112

Bement, Mr., on African Geese, 192

Bennett's Plymouth Rock Fowl, 151

Bergische Grower Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 134,
223

Bewick on Crested Dutch Fowls, 124

Bill, 207

Bills, Colour of, in Ducks, 18

Birmingham Show, 39, 102

Black-breasted Red Game, 40, 218

Black Braekel Fowl, 116, 221

■ „ Breda Fowl, 124, 222
,, BresseFowl, 84, 220
,, Cochin Fowl, 60, 219
,, Crfevecceur Fowl, 87, 221
,, East Indian Ducks, 177
,, Faverolles Fowl, 95, 221
,, Friesland Fowl, 129
,, Game Fowl, 41, 219
,, Hamburgh Fowl, 44, 219

Black-headed Braekel Fowl, 116, 221

Black Herve Fowl, 119, 222
,, Java Fowl, 67, 220
,, Langshan Fowl, 66, 219
„ Leghorn Fowl, 72, 73, 77, 220
,, Magyar Fowl, 147
,, Malay Fowl, 63, 219
,, Minorca Fowl, 102, 106, 221
,, Orpington Fowl, 52, 53, 54, 55
,, Owl -bearded Dutch Fowl, 127,

223
,, Pavlotf Fowl, 144

Black-pluniaged Poultry in Spain, 194

Black Plymouth Rock Fowl, 150,154,224
,, Polverara Fowl, 80, 220

Black-red Malay Fowl, 63, 219

Black Schlotterkamm Fowl, 134
,, Spanish Fowl, 101, 221
,, Sumatra Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 69, 220
., Thuringian Fowl, 136
229

Black Turkey, 19, 194, 226
,, Void arno Fowl, 80, 220
„ Wyandotte Fowl, 157, 163, 224
Blair, Mrs. Fergusson, on Scotch Grey

Fowl, 50
Blue Breda Fowl, 124, 222
,, Bresse Fowl, 84, 220
,, Creveooeur Fowl, 88, 221
,, Ducks in America, 177
,, ,, in England, 174
,, Langshan Fowl, 66, 219
,, Pavlotf Fowl, 144
Blue-plumaged Fowls in Holland, 107
Blue Thuringian Fowl, 136
,, Swedish Duck, 18, 176, 225
,, Termonde Duck, IS, 174, 225
Bolton Bay Fowl, 45
, , Grey Fowl, 45
Bone, Fineness of, 28

Books on Poultry-breeding, 14
Bourbourg Fowl, 17, 18, 97, 221
Brabant Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 120, 222
Braekel Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 114, 221
Brahma Fowl, 17, 18, 56, 155, 219 .
Breda Fowl, 16, 17, 123, 222
Breeding in France, 82
Breeds, Evolution of, 11
Breeds required. New, 216
Bremen Geese, 182
Brent, B. P., on Crested Dutch Fowl,

124 ; on Hamburgh Fowl, 44 ; on

Polish Fowl, 139
Bresse Fowl, 16, 17, 82, 220
Bretagne Fowl, 96, 221
Britain, Fowls in Ancient, 9
British Races of Fowls, 23
Brown-breasted Red Game, 40, 218
Brown Chinese Geese, 191, 226

„ Leghorn Fowl, 72, 73, 75, 162.
220
Bruges Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 118,222
Brunswick Geese, 182
Buckinghamshire, Ducks in, 169
Buenos Ayi'ean Duck, 177
Burton on Crested Dutch Fowl, 124
Bull' Cochin Fowl, 60, 219

,, Huttegem Fowl, 120, 222
Buft'-laced Wyandotte Fowl, 157, 163,

225
Buff Leghorn Fowl, 72, 77, 220

,, Orpington Fowl, 52, 54, 55, 219

,, Plymouth Rock Fowl, 150, 154,
155, 224

,. Polish Fowl, 141

„ Wyandotte Fowl, 157, 163, 224

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

Burnhani, G. P., 58
Butters, J. A. C., on Black Sumatra
Fowl, 69

Cambridge Bronze Turkey, 19, 197,

226
Campine Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 112. 221
Canadian Goose, 18, 187, 226
Capitol of Rome, Geese and, 181
Castello, Don Salvador, on Andalusian

Fowl, 107 ; on Black Spanish Fowl,

101 ; on Black Turkey, 194 ; on

Castilian Fowl, 100 ; on Minorca

Fowl, 102, 105, 106 ; on Prat Fowl,

110
Castilian Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 99, 221
Caumont Fowl, 88, 221
Caussade Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 96, 221
Caux Fowl, 88, 221
Cayuga Duck, 18, 177, 225
Chamois BraekePFowl, 116, 221
Polish Fowl, 140
Thuringian Fowl, 137
Change of Conditions, 12, 204, 211,

214
Change of Habitat, 23
Changes in Plumage of Rouen Drakes,

168
Characteristics, 17, 18, 19
Ohasse et Peche, 115, 119
China, Duck-breeding in, 171

,, Goose-breeding in, 189

,, Langshan Fowl in, 63
Chinese Fowls, Habits of, 2
Chinese Goose, 18, 189, 226
Chittagong or Malay Fowl, 61
Chittepratt Fowl, 45
Chocolate Turkey, 201
Choice of Breed, 19
Classification, 15, 17, 18, 19
Climate, Efiects of, 24
Climatic Influences, 11, 12, 13
Cochin Fowl, 17, 18, 52, 59, 64, 150,

156, 162, 219
' Cocker, The,' by W. Sketchley, 37
Cock-crowing Matches, 134, 209
Cook-fighting, 1, 8, 34, 36
Cock-fight Dues, 36, 37
Coloration of Geese, 180

of Plumage, 13, 205

of Shell of Egg, 15

Colour of Beaks and Bills, 207

, , of Earlobes, 207

,, ,, in Leghorn Fowl,

74

,, of Egg-shells of Rhode Island
Red Fowl. 164

,, of Flesh and Skm, 17, 18, 149

,, of Flesh in America, 149

„ of Legs and Feet, 17, 18, 19

,, Standards, 216
Colours, Primary, 205
Columella on Dorking Fowl, 25, 28 ;

on Five-toed Breed, 13 ; on Laying

Fowls, 101 ; on Taming Ducks, 5
Comb, 205 ; Size, 206 ; Shape, 206 ;
Measurements, 207 ; Texture ,
207

,, Influence of, 204
Combs and Prolificacy, 15

„ Shape of, 18, 206

Fowl,

S, 124, 222

Comyns, Alex., on Faverolles Fowl, 93

Consanguinit}', 213

Cook, late Mr. William, on Orpington

Fowl, 52, 53
Cornevin, Ch., on Bresse Fowl, 83 ; on
Faverolles Fowl, 93 ; on Malay
Fowl, 61 ; on Polish Fowl, 139 ; on
Rouen Duck, 166 ; on Russian
Geese, 187
Cornwall, Indian Game in, 41
,, Malays in, 61
,, and Devon, Minorca Fowls
in, 104
Correlation of Colour of Legs and Feet
with Flesh and Skin,
208
,, of External Qualities with

Economic Qualities, 203
Correlative A''ariability, 11
Cottage Gardener on Andalusia
107 ; on Minorca Fowl, 107
' Cotte de Fer ' Fowl, 119, 222
Coucon de Malines Fowl, 117, 222
Courtes Fattes Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 88, 221
Cranium, Enlargement of, in Crested

Races, 207
Creel Fowl, 45
Creole Fowl, 45
Crest, 207

Crested Dutch Fowl, 16, 17,
,, Turkey of Mexico,
Crevecffiur Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 86, 220
Croad, Miss, on Langshan Fowl, 63
Cromwell, Prohibition of Cock-fighting

by, 34
Crosses with American Bronze Turkey,
200
,, with Black Minorca Fowl, 106
,, with Brahma Fowl, 58
,, with Cayuga Ducks, 178
,, of Ducks, 175
,, of Geese, 190
,, with Houdan Fowl, 92
,, with Indian Game Fowl, 42

with Malay Fowl, 62
,, with Plymouth Rocks, 151
Crossing to secure New Races, 12

,, Variations as a Result of, 211
Crowing and Egg production, 115
,, Matches in Rhenish Prussia,
1.34
Cuckoo Breda Fowl, 124, 222
,, Cochin Fowl, 60, 219
„ Herve Fowl, 119, 222
,, Leghorn Fowl, 72, 77, 220
,, Polverara Fowl, SO, 220
,, Schlottcrkamm Fowl, 134
,, Thuringian Fowl, 137
Cumberland, Indian Runner Ducks in,

172
Cuvier on Canadian Geese, 187 ; on
Chinese Geese, 189

Danish Landhen Fowl, 148, 224
Danube, Breed in Plain of, 146
Danubian Goose, 18, 186, 226
Dark Brahma Fowl, 56, 219
Dark or Coloured Dorking, 29, 218
Dark-legged Breeds, 17, 18, 19
Darwin, Charles, on Change of Condi-
tions, 211 ; on Close Breeding, 214 ;

on Correlative Variability, 12 ; on
Crested Fowls, 138, 207 ; on Crossing,
211 ; on Ettects of Use and Disuse,
11 ; on Extremes in Breeding, 205 ;
on Game Fowl, 34 ; on Jungle Fowl,
1 ; on Origin of Ducks, 5 ; on Origin
of Geese, 6 ; on Origin of Turkey, 7 ;
on Variations of Geese, 180
De Courcy Peele, R. , on Buft' Orping-
ton Fowl, 53
Delicate, Are White Fowls ? 212
Denmark, Leghorns in, 72, 73
De Arcenas, Juan Ignasio, on Turkey,

228
De R&umur on ' Art of Hatching,*

14 ; on Fowls, 25
Derbyshire, Redcaps in, 49
De Roo, La Perre, on Bresse Fowl, S3 ;
on Caumont Fowl, 88 ; on Caux
Fowl, 88 ; on Crested Dutch Fowl,
125 ; on Crevecosur Fowl, 86 ; on
French Cuckoo Fowl, 96 ; on Houdan
Fowl, 90 ; on La Fleche Fowl, 84,
85 ; on Mantes Fowl, 95
Descent Tables, 41, 52, 53, 72. 84, 90,
93, 98, 109, 117, 150, 156, 157, 163,
175, 177, 183, 192, 198
Description of Races :

Ducks, 168, 169, 170, 172, 174,

175, 177, 17S
Fowls, 28, 33, 40. 42, 48, 50, 52,
55, 58, 60, 62, 66, 67, 69, 70,
74, 79, 80, SI, S3, 85, 86, 87,
89, 92, 95, 96, 97, 9S, 100, 102,
106, 109, 110, 114, 115, 116,
117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122,
123, 125, 127, 128, 129, 131,
132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137,
140, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146,
147, 14S, 1.50, 152, 160, 164
Geese, 181, 184, 185, 186, 187,

188, 189, 191, 192
Turkeys, 194, 196, 198, 200, 201,
202
Dickson, Walter B., on Hamburgh
Fowl, 44; on Polish Fowl, 125,
138 ; on Rouen Duck, 167 ; on
Russian Fowl, 141 ; on Spanish
Fowl, 101
Distribution of the Domestic Fowl, 8
Dixon, Rev. E. S., M.A., on Cambridge
Turkey, 197 ; on Chinese Geese, 189;
on Game Fowl, 39 ; on Hambm'gh
Fowl, 45 ; on Malay Fowl, 61 ; on
Muscovy Duck, 179 ; on Origin of
Ducks, 5 ; on Rouen Ducks, 167 ;
on Spanish Fowl, 101, 103; on
Toulouse Geese, 184
Domestication of Ducks, 5, 166
of Fowls, 1
Results of, 7, 15
Dominique Fowl, 17, 18, 149, 224
Donald, J. , on Indian Runner Duck, 172
Dorking Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 24, 52, 218
Dorkings in Cumberland, 27 ; in Scot-
land, 27
Double Matiugs, 216
Douglas, J., on Dark Dorking, 29
Doyle, Martin, on Malay Fowl, 61
Drente Fowl, 17, 18, 129, 223
Drummond, iProfessor Henry, on Added
Qualities, 15 ; on Progress by Theory,
210

INDEX

Dubbing Game Fowls, 40

Dublin Show, 59

Duck, Origin of Domestic, 5

Ducklings in Audenarde District, 119

Demand for, 168
Ducks, Breeds of, 18, 166
Duckwing Game Fowl, 40, 218

,, Leghorn Fowl, 72, 77, 220
Duclaii--Rouen Duck, 18, 168. 225
Du Mans Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 85, 220
Dutch Everlasting Layers, 44, 144

,, Poultry Club, 128

,, Races of Fowls, 123

Earlobe, 106, 207
Economic Qualities, 15
Economic Qualities of Races :

Ducks, 168, 169. 171, 172, 174,

177, 179
Fowls, 27, 32, 39, 42, 45, 49, 51,
55, 58, 59, 62, 65, 67, 69, 70,

?3,

104,
116,

, 80, 83, 85, 86, 87, 88,

95, 96, 97, 98, 100, 102,

08, 109, 110, 114, 115,

17, 118, 119, 120, 122,

123, 125, 127, 128, 129, 131,

132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137,

140, 142, 143, 144, 146, 147,

148, 149,151. 158, 164

Geese, 181, 183, 185, 186, 187,

188, 189, 190, 192
Turkeys, 194, 196, 198, 199, 201,
202
Edinburgh Poultry Show, 51
Effects of Exhibition System, 203
,, of Use and Disuse, 11, 15
Egg Production, 1 5

,, Production of Wyandottes, 159
Eggs, Breeds laying Tinted-shelled, 17

„ Size of, 164
Egyptian Goose, 9, 18, 189, 226
Elberfeld Fowl, 133
Elevation of Ground, Influence of, upon

Body, 12
Embden Goose, 18, 183, 225
Enfeeblement as a Result of Domestica-
tion, 15
England, Black Ducks in, 177
Blue Ducks in, 174
English Rouen Ducks in France, 167
,, Type of Brahmas, 56, 57, 58
Ennine Antwerp Brahma Fowl, 122,
222
„ Huttegem Fowl, 120, 222
Essex Strain of Plymouth Rocks, 151
Estaires Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 97, 221
Eureka Fowls, 155
Europe, Pekin Ducks in, 171
Evolution of Breeds, 11, 210
Exaggerated Combs an Evil, 206
Exaggeration of External Characters,

204
Excessive Length of Leg a Mistake,

208
Exhaustion of Races, 204, 217
Exhibition System, 59, 203
Exhibitions and Perfection of Colour,
205
First Poultry, 37, 39, 45
Experiments with FaveroUes Fowl, 95
External Characters of Poultry and
their Values, 203

Fancy Points, Excessive Development
of, 102

Fancy Poultry-breeding, 13, 24, 203

FaveroUes Fowl, 17, 18, 93, 221

Fawn Turkey, 19, 201, 226

Feather Expensive to produce, 58

Feathered Legs on Fowls, 208

Feathers, Use of, 204

Fecundity as a Result of Domestica-
tion, 14

Feeding Chickens at Houdan, 92

Feet, 208

Felch, L K., on Leghorn Fowl, 73

Females, Colour of, 216

,, More required than Males,
214

Ferguson, G., on Andalusian Fowl,
107 ; on Dorking Fowl, 24, 28 ; on
Hamburgh Fowl, 44 ; on Malay
Fowl, 61 ; on Sussex Fowls, 31

Ferrugineus, Gallus, 1, 2, 4, 34

Fifth Toe in Fowls, 25

Fighting-cock, 34

Finn, F., B.A., F.Z.S., on Indian
Runner Ducks, 172

Fitzherbert's, Sir Anthony, ' Boke of
Husbandry,'

,117,118,

Fixity of Type, 211, 216
niish Cuckoo Fowl, 17, 1

Fleni:

222

Flesh, Colour of, in America, 149

,. and Skin, Colour of, 17, 18

,, of AVyandottes, 159
Food, Cochins Heavy Consumers of, 6(

,, Infiueuce of, 12, 13
Foretelling the Sex, 215
Fowl, Distribution of Domestic, 8

, , Origin of Domestic, 1
France, Grey Geese in, 184

„ Turkeys in, 193, 196
French Cuckoo Fowl, 17, 18, 96, 221
Races of Fowls, 82

,, Turkevs, 195
Friesland Fowl, 16. 17, 18, 127, 223
Furcahis, Gallus, 2

Galli, Species of, 1, 2
Gallus Bunkh-a or Ferrugineus, 1, 2,
14, 34
,, Morio, 64
Turcica, 113
Game Fowl, 13, 16, 17, 18, 24, 33,^218

,, Influence in Leghorn Fowl, 76
Gedney, G. W. , on Langshan Fowl, 63
Geese. Breeds of, 18
Gefiugel Zeitung on Lakenfelder Fowl,

131
General Purpose Breeds of Fowls, 16
Gent's ' Systema Agriculture,' 14
German Races of Fowls, 130
Germany, Goose-breeding in, 182, 185

,, Poultry-breeding in, 130
Gold Braekel Fowl. 115, 221

,, Campine Fowl, 114, 221

,, Cuckoo Huttegem Fowl, 120, 220
Gold -laced Owl-bearded Dutch Fowl.

127. 223
Gold Moeven Fowl, 135

,, PavloffFowl, 144

Gold -pencilled Friesland Fowls, 128,

223
Gold Polish Fowl, 140

,, Polverara Fowl, 80, 220

,, Tlmringian Fowl, 136

,, Wyandotte Fowl, 156, 157, 161,
224
Gomme, Mr. G. L. , on the Aryans, 1
Goose-fighting in Russia, 187
Greece, Introduction of Fowl into, 8
Grey Bresse Fowl, 84, 220
Grey-fleshed Breeds, 17, 19
Grey Geese, 180, 184, 226
Grey Turkey, 196
Greylag Goose, 6
Guinea Geese, 190

H

Habit, 213

Habits of life, 11

Hamburgh Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 24, 44,

52, 155, 219
Hamilton, Rev. C. W., on Langshan

Fowl, 64, 66
Hamlin, Harry, on Red Dorking, 29
Hanover, Fowls in, 130
Harris, John, on Cornish Game Fowl,

41 ; on Indian Game Fowl, 36
Harwood, John, on Minorca Fowl, 102,

106
Heathfield District of Sussex, Report
of Royal Commission on Agriculture,
31
Hehn, Victor, on Ancient Use of Fowl,
9 ; on Distribution of Fowl, 8, 10 ;
on Domestication of Goose, 6 ; on
Geese in Italy, 181 ; on Goose Quills,
180 ; on Names, 8 ; on Russian
Fowls, 139
' Henwife ' on Courtes Pattes Fowl,

88 ; on Scotch Grey Fowl, 52
Hergnies Fowl, 98, 221
Herve Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 119, 222
Hewitt, Edward, on Embden Geese,
182 ; on Malay Fowl, 61 ; on Taming
Ducks, 5
History of Races :

Dncks, 167, 168, 169, 171, 172,

174, 176, 176, 177, 179
Fowls, 25, 31, 34, 41, 45, 48, 50;
53, 56, 59, 61, 64, 67, 68, 70,
72, 78, 80, 83, 84, 86, 88, 90,
93. 95, 96, 97, 98, 100, 101,
103, 107, 109, 110, 113. 114,
116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 122,
123, 125, 126, 127, 129, 130,
132, 133, 134, 135, 137, 140,
142, 143. 144, 146, 147, 148,
149, 151, 157, 163
Geese, 181, 183, 184, 185, 186,

187 189 192
Turkeys. 194, 195, 198, 201, 202
Hooks, Evil Results of Excessive, 58, 59
Holland, Poultry-breeding in, 123

Turkeys in, 196
Honduras Turkey, 7, 228
Horned-combed Bieeds, 18
Houdan Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 89, 221
Houdekow, M.. on Orlotf Fowl, 142 ;
on PavloH' Fowl, 143 ; on Russian
Dutch Fowl, 144 ; on Russian Fowls.
141 ; on Russian Geese, 187, 188

RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

Houwink, R., junr., on Drente Fowl,
129 ; on Dutch Races of Fowls, 126 ;
on Friesland Fowls, 128

Hungarian Races of Fowls, 145

Hunter, A. F., on Biifl' "Wyandottes,
157 ; on Excessive Size of Combs, 206

Huttegem Duck, 18, 175, 225

Fowl, 17, 18, 119, 222

I
Importation of Andalusian Fowl, 107
of Pekin Ducks, 171
,, of Turkey into Europe,

193, 228
Inbreeding, 213

Increased Size under Domestication, 208
India, Cock-fighting in, 34, 36
Indian (Cornish) Game Fowl, 16, 17,
41, 219
,, Runner Duck, 18, 172, 225
Influence of Cochin on Orpington Fowl,
52
of Parents, 212
Instinct, 213
Ireland, Tm-keys in, 196
Italian Influence on Magyar Fowl, 146
,, Races of Fowls, 71
,, Turkeys, 197
Italy, Geese in, 180, 181

Jacque, Ch., on Da Mans Fowl, 8f> ;

on La Fleohe Fowl, 84 ; on Polish

Fowl, 140
^-' Java Fowl, 17, 18, 66, 150, 220
Jungle Fowl of India, 1, 2

Kent Fowls,

logory Geese, 188, 226
Kinney, F. J., on Brown Legliorn Fowl,

Kipling's, Rudyard, ' Just-so Stories,' 1
Kulm Fowl, 61

La Fleche Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 220
Lakenfclder Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 130, 223
Landlien Fowl, Danish, 16, 17, 148,

224
Langshan Fowl, 17, 18, 63, 219
Las Havas, Count de, on origin of

Turkey, 228
Laws of Breeding and their Applica-
tion, 210
Laying Breeds of Ducks, 18
„ Breedof Geese, 18

or Non-sitting Breeds of Fowls,
16
Lee, Charles, on Houdan Fowl, 90
Leg and Foot Feathers, 58, 59

,, Muscles, 15
Leghorn Club, 73

Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 71, 220
Legs, 208

,, and Feet, Colour of, 17, 18, 19
Leland, J. A., on White Turkeys, 195
Lemoine, E., on Barbezieux Fowl,
109 ; on Courtes Pattes Fowl, 88 ; on
Crevecoeur Fowl, 87 ; on Houdan
Fowl, 90, 92 ; on Herguies Fowl,
98 ; on La Fleohe ]''owl, 85

Length of Leg, 208
Light and Colour, 205
Light Brahma Fowl, 56, 219

,, Faverolles Fowl, 95, 221

,, Sussex Fowl, 33, 218
Lincolnshire Bviff' Fowl, 53
Lining a Fowl, 15
Lore of Fowls, 8, 9
Lost Characters, 211
Low Countries, Poultry-breeding in.

M

MaggiFowl, 81, 220

Magyar Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 146, 224

Malay Fowl, 16, 17, 60, 162, 219

Males, Colour of, 216

Malines Fowl, 17, 18, 116, 222

Mallard, or Wild Duck, 5, 166

Mammoth Bronze Turkey, 7

Manheid Fowl, 119. 222

Mantes Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 95, 221

Markham, Gervasse, ' Cheape and Good
Husbandly, ' 1 4 ; on Colour of Geese,
180 ; on ' The Fighting-Cocke,' 34,
37 ; on the Turkey, 190

Maternal Instinct, 16

Mating, 215

Marx, J. P. L., on Faverolles Fowls, 93

MoConnell, Primrose, on Development
of Special Characters, 215 ; on In-
fluence of Soil, 205

Measurements of Combs, 207

Mediterranean Races, Uniformity of,
99

Megnin, M., on Common Five-toed
Fowl, 90

Meleagris Americana, 7 ; M. Mexi-
cana, 7

Merclitem Duck, IS, 174, 225

Metropolitan Poultry Show, First, 39

Mexican Turkey, 7, 194, 228

Milk Chickens, 109, 114, 119, 128,
131, 209

Millar, Hugh, on Cock-fighting in

burgh Fowl, 44 ; on Malay Fowl, 61 ;
on Minorca Fowl, 104 ; on Muscovy
Duck, 179 ; on Poland Fowl, 124,
137 ; on Rouen Duck, 166 ; on
Rutsian Geese, 187 ; on Saddleback
Geese, 185 ; on Spanish Fowls, 101,
103 ; on Sussex Fowls, 31

Muscles of Legs and Wings, 15

Muscovy Duck, 18, 178, 225

Musk Duck, 179

Nails on Toes, 208
Names of Muscovy Duck, 179
Narragansett Turkey, 19, 200, 226
Natural Selection, 13

,, Variations, 203
New Breeds, 216

Nichols, W. J., on Minorca Fowl, 104
Nolan, J., on Malay Fowl, 61
Nomadic Life, 33
Norfolk Turkey, 195, 226
Normandy Poultry, 86, 87, 90

Old English Game, 38
Origin of Domestic Duck, 5

Miner, T. B., on Cayuga Ducks, 177

Minorca Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 102, 221

Moeven Fowl. 16, 17, 18, 135, 223

Modern Breeding, 13
Breeds, 216
,, Show Game, 39

Mongrels, 215

Montressor, C. F., on Aseel Fowl, 67,
69 ; on Indian (Cornish) Game Fowl,
41 ; on Malay Fowl, 61

Mooney Fowl, 45

Moorish Fowl, 100

Morgan, C. Lloyd, on Habit and In-
stinct, 213

Mortimer's ' Whole Art of Husbandry,'
14

Moss Fo\\'l, 45

Mottled Java Fowl, 67, 220
,, Leghorn Fowl, 77, 220
,, Schlotterkamm Fowl, 134

Moubray, Bonington, 'Practical
Treatise,' 14 ; on Aylesbury Duck,
169 ; on Cambridge Tui-key, 197 ;
on Dorking Fowl, 25, 28 ; on Emb-
den Geese, 'l82; on Fawn Turkey, 201 ;
on Game Fowl, 35, 37 ; on Ham-

Gc

lose. 6

"

''

Turkey,

7,228

Origin of Races ;

Ducks,

, 166,

168,

169,

171,

172,

174,

175, 176, 1

77, 17

'S

Fowls,

24, 31, 34,

41, 44, 48

, 50,

52,

56, 59,

, 61, 63, 66,

67,6

9,71,

77,:

79, 80,

82, !

34, 85,

,86.8

8,89,

95, 96, 97.

, 100,

101,

102,

107,

109.

110,

112,

114,

116,

119,

120;

121,

123,

124,

126,

127,

129,

130,

131,

133,

134,

137,

138^

142,

143,

144,

146^

147,

148,

149,

150,

155,

Geese, 181, 183, 184, 185, 186,

187, 189, 191
Turkeys, 194, 195, 197. 198, 200,
201, 202, 228
OrlofTFowl, 16,17,142,223
Orpington Club, 53
Orpington Fowl, 17, 18, 23, 52, 219
Out-crossing, 211

Owl-bearded Dutch Fowl, 17, 18, 116,
126, 222

Padovaua Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 220

Parental Influence, 212
Partridge Cochin Fowl, 60, 219

Wyandotte Fowl, 157, 163,
224
Pas de Calais, Fowls in, 97
Pavilly Fowl (see Cauinont), 88
Pavloff Fowl, 16, 17, IS, 143, 223
Pea or Triple-combed Breeds. IS
Pegge, Mr., on Cock-fighting, 34
Pekin Duck, 18, 171, 225
Pencilled Hamburgh Fowl, 44, 45, 219
Penguin Ducks, 178
Persia, Introduction of Fowls into, 8
Pctits poussins, 109

Pheasant Fowl, 45

Pile Game Fowl, 40, 218
,, Leghorn Fowl, 72, 77, 220

Pinky- white-legged Breeds, 17

Pliuy on Fowls. 25

Plumage, 204

Plymouth Rock Fowl, 17, 18, 150,
224

Polish Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 138, 223

Polverara Fowl, 17, 18, 80, 220

Pomeranian Geese, 185

Poulardes da Bruxelles, 117

Pmilcts de Lait. 109, 114, 119

Poultry -breeding in America, 149
,, ,, in Belgium, 112

,, ,, in Hungary, 146

Poultry Club, 53

Prat Fowl, 17, 18, 110, 221

Presoott, W. H., on Turkeys in
Mexico, 7

Primary Characters. 210

,, Colours of Fowls, 205

Quality of Flesh, 16
Queen'Victoria's Brahmas, 58
,, ,, Cochins, 59

Races of Domestic Uuuks, 166
Geese, 180
„ ,, Turkeys, 193

Eamelsloh Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 131, 223
Reactive Influences. 207
Redcap Fowl, 16, 17, 48, 219
Red Dorking, 29, 218
Red-faced Spanish Fowl, 103
Red Magyar Fowl, 147, 224
., Malay Fowl, 63, 219
„ OrloffFowl 142
,, or Brown Sussex Fowl, 33, 218
Reduced Size in Turkeys, 208
Rees' ' English Encyclopaedia,' 34
Rennes Fowl, 96, 221
Reproductive Organs, Correlation of,

with Comb, 206
Resultsof Domestication,?, 8, 10, 14, 15
Reversion, Law of, 211

,, a Sign of Vigour, 212

Rhode Island Experiment Station Re-
port on Geese, 190, 192
Rhode Island Red Fowl, 17, 18, 156,

157, 163, 225
Rhone Duck, 166
Richardson, H. B., on Sussex Fowls,

31
Roan Duck, 166
Rohan Duck, 166
Roman Goose, 18, 180, 183, 225
Ronquieres Turkey, 19, 202, 226
Rose-combed Breeds, 18
Rouen Duck, 18, 166. 225
Rouillier-Arnoult, M., on Faverolles

Fowl, 93
Rumpless Fowl, 116
Russian Crested Fowl, 145, 224
,, Ducks, 178
,, Dutch Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 144,

224
,, Goose, 18, 187, 226
„ Races of Fowls, 141
,, Rose-combed Fowl, 145, 224

Sacred Geese in Egypt, 180, 189
Saddleback Goose, 18, 185, 225
Saint-Loup, Remy, on Bresse Fowl,
83 ; on Courtes Pattes Fowl, 88 ; on
Turkeys, 7
Salmon Faverolles Fowl, 95, 221
Schenk, Dr. L., on the Determination

of Sex, 215
Schlotterkanim Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 133,

223
Scotch Grey Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 50, 219
Sebright Cochin Fowls, 155
Secondary Characters most Important,

210
Selection for Size, 24

,, Natural and Artificial, 13
Sevastopol Geese, 186
Sex, 214

Shape of Combs, 206
Shepherd, K. P., on Rhode Island Red

Fowl, 162
Short-legged Braekel Fowl, 116
Show System, Eft'ects of, 30
Shrove Tuesday, Cocking on, 34, 35, 36
Siberian Geese, 189
Silver Braekel Fowl, 115, 221

,, Campine Fowl, 114, 221
Silver-grey Dorking, 30, 218
Silver-laced Owl-bearded Dutch Fowls,

127, 223
Silver Moeven Fowl, 135
,, Pavloff Fowl, 144
Silver-pencilled Friesland Fowl, 128,
223
Wyandotte Fowl, 157,
163, 224
Silver Polish Fowl, 140

,, Polverara Fowl, 80, 220
,, Thuringian Fowl, 136
,, Wyandotte Fowl, 155, 158, 161,
224
Single-combed Breeds, 18
Size influenced by Change of Condi-
tions, 23
,, of Body, 208

,, of Body as a Result of Domestica-
tion, 14
„ of Combs, 206, 207
„ ofEgg, 15, 47
,, of Egg in Campine Fowls, 113
,, of Egg in Wyandottes, 159
,, of Geese, 190
., of Leghorns, 74
Sketchley, W., on ' The Cocker,' 37
Smaller-bodied Hens Best Layers, 209
Snickt, Louis Van der, on Bergische
Grower Fowl, 133 ; on Blue Ter-
monde Duck, 174 ; on Brabant Fowl,
120 ; on Braekel Fowl, 114, 115, 116 ;
on Breeding in Belgium, 112 ; on
Flemish Cuckoo Fowl, 118 ; on
Malines Fowl, 117 ; on Ramelsloh
Fowl, 131 ; on Ronquiferes Tm-key,
202 ; on Value of Colour, 216 ; on
White Plumage in Poultry, 213 ;
on Voice of Fowls, 209
Soft Bill in Ducklings, 213
Soil, Eft'ects of, upon Plumage, 205
Sonneraiii, Gallus, 1
South American Ducks, 177
Spain, Turkeys in, 193

233

Spangled Game Fowl, 41

,, Hamburgh Fowl, 44, 45, 52

219
,, Orpington Fowl, 53, 219
Spanish, Black, Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 101,
221
Races of Fowls, 99
Spaulding's Plymouth Rock Fowl, 151
Species, 210

Speckled Magyar Fowl, 147, 224
Orlott' Fowl, 143
,, Plumage, 31

Sussex Fowl, 33, 218
Spring Ducklings, 168
Standards, 203, 216
Stanleyii, Gallns, 2
Stoddard, H. H., on Cayuga Ducks, 177
Sumatra Fowl, 69, 220
' Survival of the Fittest,' 13, 33, 204,

205, 212
Suspension of Maternal Instinct, 15
Sussex Fowl, 16, 17, IS, 30, 218

,, Fowl Club, 31
Sutlief, Thomas, on Black Pheasant

Fowl, 45
Sykes, Colonel, on Malay Fowl, 61

Table Breeds of Ducks, 18
,, of Fowls, 16
,, ,, of Geese, 18
,, Properties, 15

Tables of Descent, 41, 52, 53, 72, 84,
90, 93, 98, 109, 117, 150, 156, 157,
163, 175, 177, 183, 192, 198

Technical Terms, 19

Tegetmeier, W. B., F.Z.S., on Ancona
Fowl, 78 ; on Hamburgh Fowl, 45 ;
on Indian (Cornish) Game Fowl, 41 ;
on Origin of Fowl, 3 ; on Skull of
Polish Fowl, 139 ; on White Tur-
key, 195

Tendency to Variation, 205

Texture of Combs, 207

Thomas, S. W., on Crevecoeur Fowl, 87

Thompson, Mr. , on Langshan Fowl, 64

Thornton, R. T., on Andalusian Fowl,
107

Thornton, T. Henry, on Ex

Tinted-shelled Eggs, Breeds laying, 17

Titterton, ,Tohn, on White Ducks, 169

Toes, Number of, 208

Tomassini, A. P , on Ancona Fowl, 77

Tompkins, F. C, on Colour of Game
Hens, 216

Toulouse Goose, 18, 184. 225

Trevisani, Marquis, on Padovaua Fowl,
80; on Polish Fowl, 139 ; on Polve-
rara Fowl, 80 ; on Voldarno Fowl, 80

Trinmiing Hamburgh Combs, 47

Transylvanian Naked Neck Fowl, 16,
17, 18, 147, 224

Tula Geese, 188, 226

Turkey, Introduction into Europe, 193,
228
,, Origin of Domestic, 7, 228
,, Reduction in Size of, by Do-
mestication, 8

Turkish Fowl, 113

Tuscawara Red Turkey, 201 /

Type, 209, 216

234.

Ushanki Fowl, T45, 224

Value of Colour iu Fowls, 216
Variability a Result of Crossing, 12
Variations due to Change of Habitat,
23
,, ExpressiveofDorraantChar-

acters, 205
,, Greater under Domestica-
tion, 13
Natural, 203
Varieties :

Ducks, 166, 168, 169, 171, 172,

174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179
Fowls, 24, 28, 29, 30, 33, 37, 40,
41, 44, 48, 50, 52, 55, 56, 59,
60, 63, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 75,
77, 79, 80, 82, 84, 85, 86, 87,
88, 89, 95, 96, 97, 99, 100, 102,
106, 109, 110, 112, 114, 115,
116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121,
122, 123, 124, 126, 127, 128,
129, 130, 131, 133, 134, 135,
136, 137, 138, 140, 142, 143,
144, 146, 147, 150, 152, 161,
165
Geese. 180, 182, 184, 185, 186, 187,

188, 189, 191
Turkeys, 194, 195, 197, 198, 200,
201, 202
Verrey, L. C, on Leghorn Fowl, 73, "4
Violette Fowl, 157
Voice, 209

Voitellier, M., on Mantes Fowl, 95
Voldarno Fowl, 16, 17, 18, 79, 220

Wallace, A. K.., on White Animals and
Birds, 212

KACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY

Ward. N". P., on Brown Leghorn
Fowl, 72

Watchorn, Thos., on Redcap Fowl, 48

Wattles, 205

Watts, Miss E. , on Russian Fowls, 141

Weir, Harrison, F.R.H.S., on Ancona
Fowl, 77 ; on Black Spanish Fowl, 101 ;
on BuffLeghorn Fowl, 72 ; on Embden
Geese, 182 ; on Fowls in Andalusia,
107 ; on Hamburgh Fowl, 44, 45 ;
on Indian (Cornish) Game Fowl, 41 ;
on Langshan Fowl, 66 ; on Penguin
Ducks, 178 ; on Red Dorking, 29 ;
on Rouen Duck, 167 ; on Scotch
Grey, 50 ; on Sussex Fowls, 31 ; on
White Ducks, 169

Weld, Mason C, on Pekin Ducks, 171

White, a Combination of Colours, 213
,, Antwerp Brahma Fowl, 122,

,, Aseel Fowl, 68, 220

„ Braekel Fowl, 110, 221

,, Breda Fowl. 124, 222

,, Bresse Fowl, 84, 220

„ Chinese Geese, 190, 191, 226

,, Cochin Fowl, 60, 219
White-crested Black Dutch Fowls, 126,

Blue Dutch Fowls, 126,
222
White Cr^vecceur Fowl, 88, 221

,, Ducks, 169, 171

,, Faces. Development of, 102
White-fleshed Breeds, 17, 18, 19

,, Fowls, Are they Delicate ? 212

,, Friesland Fowl, 129

,, Game, 41, 219

,, Geese, 180, 181, 182, 188, 191,
226

,, Java Fowl, 67, 220

,, Langshan Fowl, 66, 219
White-legged Breeds, 17, 18
White Leghorn Fowl. 72, 73, 75, 220

,, Magyar Fowl, 147, 224

,, Malay Fowl, 63, 219

,, Malines Fowl, 117, 222

„ Minorca Fowl, 103, 106, 221

White Orloff Fowl, 143

,. Orpington Fowl, 53, 219

,, Owl-bearded Dutch Fowls, 127,

223
,, Plymouth Rock Fowl. 150, 153

224
,, Polish Fowl, 140
,, Polverara Fowl, 80, 220
,, Thuringian Fowl, 136
„ Turkey, 19, 195, 226
,, Voldarno Fowl, 80, 220
,, Wyandotte Fowl, 157, 158, 161
224
Whitfield, R., on Malay Fowl, 61
Willughby on Muscovy Duck, 178
Wingfield and Johnson on Cochin
Fowl, 60 ; on Crested Dutch Fowl,
124 ; on Game Fowl, 39 ; on Malay
Fowl, 61 ; on Normandy Fowl, 90 ;
on Origin of Goose, 6 ; on Polish
Fowl, 138 ; on Rouen Duck, 167 ;
on Turkeys, 196, 197
Wing Muscles, 15
Wings, 207

Wragg, A. E., on Redcap Fowl, 48
Wright, Lewis, on Andalusian Fowl,
107 ; on Aseel Fowl, 67 ; on Black
Spanish Fowl, 101 ; on Black Suma-
tra Fowl, 70 ; on Brahma Fowl, 56 ;
on Chinese Geese, 189 ; on Egg Quali-
ties, 100 ; on Excessive Combs, 206 ;
on Indian (Cornish) Game Fowl, 41 ;
on Langshan Fowl, 64 ; on Name of
Buff' Orpington, 53 ; on Origin of
Fowl, 4 ; on Surrey Fowl, 32
Wyandotte Fowl, 17, IS, 155, 162, 224

Yellow- or Cream-fleshed Breeds, 17, IS
Yellow-legged Breeds, IS
YeUow Magyar Fowl, 147, 224
Yellow-pencilled Friesland Fowls, 128,

223
Yellow Thuringian Fowl, 137
Yorkshire, Redcaps in, 48
Young, Arthur, on Fowls in Sussex, 31

BILLING AND !

PRINTERS, GUILDFORD

MANUFACTURERS OF GAME FOOD i®; ^K »1 . BY SPECIAL WARRANT TO

CMAIYIBERI-IWS

Canadian Poultry Meal,

THE CHEAPEST FOOD IN THE WOKLD FOR

Turkeys, Geese, Ducks, and Chickens.

Received the ONLY AWARD given by the International Jury, Paris Exhibition,

for Poultry Food.

Bronxe Medal and Diploma, Mannheim, 1880. Silver Medal Antwerp Exhibition, 1885.

Turkeys, Geese, Ducks, and Chickens fed on this Meal thrive
■wonderfully, are kept free from disease, and will lay nearly double
the number of Eggs.

Cumberland, April Ibth, 1904.
Dear Sirs —Will you send me another owt. of your Poultry Meal ; it is THE BEST I EVER HAD FOR
REARING CHICKENS. I WON PRIZES AT DAIRY AND CRYSTAL PALACE AND INTER-
NATIONAL fed on your meal last year. It makes them big birds and in good condition.

•^ = ^ Yours truly, THOS. RUMNEY.

Price 19s. 6d. per cwt., including 12 packets of Aromatic Compound and bag.
Packed also in 3-lb. packets, 6d. each; post free. Is. 1 cwt. carriage paid..

1^^ A Volatile Powder, the only cure for gapes in
^2i^ ^ Pheasants and Poultry.

2s. per Tin; post free, 2s. 4d.

•R.OTJF FII^XjS ^ ^ §»

For POULTRY, PIGEONS, and CAGE BIRDS.

For POULTRY, PIGEONS, and CAGE BIRDS.
Above Preparations, Is. per bottle; post free, Is. Id.

JAMES CHAMBERLIN & SMITH,

Game, Poul-tt-y, and Dosr Food Wai-ehowse,

Exchange Street, NORWICH.

A PicK=me=up for Exhibition Fowls.

S PRATT'S
POULTRY SPICE.

Sold in Id., 3d. a.nd 6d. Packets.

One Penny Packet is sufficient for 12 to 14 full-g^o^Afn Fowls or 20 Chickens.
Fortifies the Constitution of tine Birds, especially in Damp or Cold Weather.

%L i^

CI^ISSEl-

5 3

(TRADE MARK).

T£tkes *he Rla.ce o-F Insect Ui-Fe and An-ts' EsSTS.
Per cwt., 26/- ; per | cwt., 13/6 ; per \ cwt., 7/-; per 14 lb., 3,9 ;
per 7 lb., 1,11 ; per 31 lb., 1/-. Also in 3cl. packets; post paid, 7d.

YOUR TRADESMAN WILL SUPPLY YOU.

Pamphlet on Poultry Rearing post free of

SPRATT'S PATENT, LTD.,24 & 25, fenchurch STREET,

WILLIAM COOK & SONS,

^-svyvjj^ Originators of all the Orpington Fowls, ^-sy»^^
f(^^\^^ and the oldest established and largest l^^^^i
^^^^ GENUINE BREEDERS of all classes of K.^^

Fowls, Ducks, Turkeys,
and Geese,

CAN ALWAYS SUPPLY

SINGLE BIRDS, MATED FENS, and TRIOS
for Utility Purposes, and for Breedin§r Exhibition Stock,

AND

-I EGGS FOR SITTING.*- ■

BIRDS SHIPPED TO ALL PARTS , Inspection of Farm cordially invited

OF THE WORLD. (

Sole risk taken by William Cook & Soxs.
Inclusive Quotations per Return Mail.

I :

every Week-day.

TATiON : ST. MARY CRAY, S.-E. & C.R
All Visitors met at Station by appointment.

A/l who are interested in Poidtry-keeping should send for Fully-illustrated Price

List, containing HINTS ON THE MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS, fro^n their

ONLY ENGLISH ADDRESS—

Orpington House, St. Mary Cray, Kent,

And at SCOTCH PLAINS, NEW JERSEY, U.S.A.

Patronised by
HIS MAJESTY THE 13 MP^ls^l^XWr ^1 ^-^ Established 1878.

KING /C

and the British as well 1 'IpF'^ 'f ^^^^I^S^ ^ "^C / All Birds

as many Foreign :yS^ ^^^^^^^-^ ^^'^P^=^S>^. sent on approval.

Governments.

Abbot Bros.,

East of England Live Stock & Poultry Farms,

THUXTON, NORFOLK.

By far the largest and most successful Prize Poultry Breeders in the world, having won more Cups, Medals.
Diplomas, and Prizes than any other Breeding Establishment in England.

E««s forstiw. . :: EARLY HATCHED BIRDS OF 1906

Supplied in large or small quantities, M 21 '^^^ °"'', ^'^P<^t'<=f fo^ ^?^.<^ f°^ f ^^l^il^ition at the eai-ly

guaranteed fertile, and from same Shows ; also few Adult Birds of all Varieties tor sale

Birds we breed from ourselves. M ^^ ^°'^ prices.

FOWLS, DUCKS, GEESE, TURKEYS, BANTAMS, PIGEOMS, CANARIES, Etc.

ALSO BREEDERS OF

Pure-bred Shorthorn Dairy Cattie,

Registered Hackney Horses, Cobs and Ponies,
Wensleydale and Merino Sheep, Pigs, Bob-tailed
Stteep Dogs, and Ferrets.

Before purchasing or sending your Orders elsewhere, send for our Illustrated Descriptive Catalogue, containing
List of Prizes, Testimonials, Hints on Rearing, Management, and Cure of Diseases amongst Poultry.

HERBERT REEVES. Jff

EMSWORTH, Hants.

For twenty-eight Years Breeder and sticcessful Exhibitor of
Dark and Silver-Grey Dorkings.

SHOW AlTD STOCZ BZUDS ALWAYS FOR SALE.

*^^UEING the last eight years 1,200 Cash Prizes have been won by Birds bred and exhibited from this yard,
Vy y at the Royal, Eoyal Counties, Bath and West, Dairy, Palace, and International, and all the leading
^^ Shows in England.

Birds that won First and Second at the New York and Boston Shows, in the best show of Dorkings ever
got together in the United States, were supplied or bred from this yard ; also in New Zealand many of the
principal Prizes in Dorkings have been secured by birds of this strain.

The Dark Dorking Hen that won the Trophy at the International, 1904, and was sold at the record price of
j£50, was bred in this yard, and was pronounced by aU Exhibitors as the finest specimen ever produced.

The Silver Chickens in 1905 won at Royal, Royal Counties, Bath and West, Dairy, etc., aU the Firsts
provided, except two.

Many of the " Wins " in Dead Table Poultry at Smithfield and other large Shows were birds purchased
from this yard.

Breeding Pens of Pullets or Hens, and with Cock or Cockerel, at prices to suit all Buyers.
KGGS yOR SIXTING DURIWG SEASOW.

Speciai, attention to vShipping Orders. Many Testimoniai,s from Foreign Exhibitors.

T. & W. Brown,

College Poultry Farm.
THEALE, READING.

(In conneaion with the University College, Reading.)

Eggs. Day-old Chicks. Stock Birds.

Buff Orpingtons. Red Sussex. White Leghorns.

White Wyandottes. Faverolles.

Aylesbury Ducks.

Prices and full particulars on application.

Mason's Bridge, Raydon, Ipswich, England,

f reebci-, (Pxliibitor, & exporter of MAMMOTH BRONZE TURKEYS.

HAVING made Turkeys a speciality both for Show and Table purposes for upwards of thirty years, and during that time
have bred a large quantity, always being careful to breed from Prize Stock and the pick of my birds, I have taken Prizes
at all the leading Live and Dead Shows for many years ; and have again a tfiaiul selection of unrelated Cockerels and Pullets
for sale, reared on unlimited grass range, also having the run of a
large wood, which, to a great extent, accounts for their being hardy,
healthy, good-breasted birds. They are also excellent in plumage,
good shape and quality, with plenty of bone, in store condition only,
as I always go through all my birds carefully in November and select
all the best io\ breeding, which are not fattened with those that are
to be killed at Christmas, as it is a mistake to fat birds that are
intended for stock.

I have 700 to SOO reared annually on my Farm, which are housed
as little as possible, always roosting out of doors — principalh on
a large rabbit warren ; this is after they leave the coops.

I select 100 to 150 of my very best Turkeys every year, and class
them off into seven or eight different flocks, by this means gettmg
unrelated Ijirds ; my experience is that the medium-sized hens aie
the best to breed from. You get a larger percentage of eggs and
they are more fertile, also the young ones hatch out stronger ind
are not so difficult to rear. I am sure anyone that has a grass run of
about ah acre or so can rear Turkeys to advantage, as there is alw aj s
a demand for GOOD ENGLISH Turkeys in the London Market

I am surprised that this Industry is not taken up by Farmers and
Landowners on a larger scale, and treated as a part of the Farm
Stock, for I am sure if anyone would give as much attention to them
as is given to a flock of sheep or a dairy of cows, they would find
that the result would come out at the top of the list. It is a mistake
to think Turkeys cannot be reared on the same farms year after year
as I have several customers that I have supplied for "the past ten oi
fifteen years. One of them set eighty-seven eggs of the first laj mg
from five hens ; eighty were hatched from them, and all reared and
weighed on December 15, 1900, 97^ stones, and this was done on a
small heavy-land farm, where there has been Turkeys reared for
upwards of thirty years.

It is well for intending customers, when ordering, to state whether
the birds are required for Breeding, Table Bu-ds, or for the Live shows as an entueh diiieient class of bird is required for
each. It is always best to get rid of your Cock Bird every Christmas and ha\e one fresh to the place; they invariably do
better for the change of ground.

I may mention that the Irish Agricultural Society has started to improve the breed of Turkeys in Ireland by introducing
a considerable number of my Cock Turkeys this season (1903-1904), which I am sure -will greatly improve the Irish Turkey.

THE FOLLOWING FB.IZES HAVE BEEN TAKEN SINCE 1893.

it Sheffield. 2nd Dairy. 2nd and 3rd Crystal Palace.

Two l8t Ipswich (table). Two 3rd Norwich. 1st »nd 3rd Bir-
mingham, of which the following ia the Feathered JVorld
report : " Turkey CockereLs, bred in 1804. The beat class we have
seen together, nearly every bird worthy of notice :1st prize, value
84s., given by the Turkey Club to Harper, with a eliuker, excel-
ling in colour, marking correct, of perfect shape, well grown, and
plenty of bone."

XS95.—Ut Ipswich (table). H.C. and C. Dairy Show. 2nd Liver-
pool. 4th Royal Agricultural Hall, London (table).

ISSQ.— 3rd Liverpool. 2nd Oakham. 3rd Crystal Palace.
1st Royal Agricultural Hall, London ; also Silver Cup, value £3,
given by the Drapers' Company, and Gold Medal given by the
Poulterers' Company, for the best couple young cocks. Two 1st
Ipswich (table).

ISST.— 1st with Cock Turkey; 3rd with Hen— Esse.x Agri-
cultural. 1st Prize Silver Cup, Young Cock ; 1st Prize, Silver Cup,
Pullet— Crystiil Palace. 1st Prize and a Five-Guinea Cup, also
the Challenge Cup for best bird of the Show with Young Cock ;
2nd with Pullet ; and 2nd in Table Class— Birmingham. 2nd in
Group Class of Six Young Cocks (table)— Royal Agricultural
Hall, London. 1st, over-year Cook ; also 1st for Pair of Young
Birds (table)— Ipswich Fat Cattle and Poultry.

1898-8.— 3rd Liverpool. 3rd and H.C. Birmingham, and 1st
for Table Class. 2Dd and V.H.C. Royal Agricultural Hall (table).
1st Ayr. 1st and 3rd Stroud. 2nd Altrincham. let and 2nd Bridge
of Earn. 3rd Wln-al and Birkenhead. 1st, 2nd, and two 3rds
Dairy London. 2nd and 3rd Crystal Palace. 1st and 2ud Had-
leigh. 2ud Agricultural Hall (six birds). 2nd Bhrmingham.

1st and 2ud Ipswich (tabic). 1st and 3rd Leeds. 2nd and 3rd

Manchester.
X800.— 2nd Crystal Palace. 3rd Dairy, London. 1st and 2nd

Hadleigh. 3rd Slough. Two 1st and 6th Birmingham, lat West

of England (Davenport). 1st and 2ud Leeds Smithfleld Fat Cattle

and Poultry Show. 3rd Manchester. 1st, and also Silver Cup in the

Group Class for the best half-dozen Cock Birds bred in 1900, at

the London Smithfleld Fat Cattle and Poultry Show (table).

Two 1st Ipswich, also 1st at Wuodbridge.
X80X. — 1st Dairy, London. 1st and 2nd Bildeston. 1st and 2Dd

Hadleigh. 3rd Crystal Palace. 3rd Birmingham. 2nd Manchester.

3rd Leeds. 2nd. London Smitlitield for Pair Young Cocks (table).

1st and Special (White Turkeys), and 2nd and 4th (Bronze) at the

Alexandra Palace Grand International Show.
1802.— Two Ists Alrriueliam. Two 2nds and Srd Wirral and

Birkenhead Diamond .lubilee Show. 1st Derby. 2nd Dairy,

London. 3rd Crystal Palace. 2nd Newbury.
1803.— 1st and Silver Medal given by the Association for best

Turkey in the Show with a Young Cock, also 2nd (over-year

Cock), at the Dairy Show, London. 3rd Derby. 1st Hadleigh.

Srd Manchester. 1st and 3rd Crystal Palace. 2nd Sudbury.

2nd and 4th Birmingham.
1904:.— 1st, Special and 3rd Hadleigh, Suffolk. Silver Cup, 2nd

and Srd Cryst.Tl Palace Great National Show, London. 1st Leeds

in dead class for table birds.
X805.-lst, 2nd and Special Hadleigh, Suffolk. 2nd, 3rd and

C.C. at the Grand International, Alexandi-a Palace, London. 2nd

and H.C. at the Crystal Palace Great National Poultry Show,

Loudon.

Over 1,200 Birds disposed of tMs year. Can always supply Unrelated Stock Turkeys.

TURKEY EGGS in season; also from the following varieties of Fowls : Dark Dorking", Old EngUsh Black-Ked Game,

with White Legs, Barred Kocks, and Indian Game. Also Goose, Indian Kunner, and WUd Duck Eggs.

FULL. PARTICULARS ON APPLICATION.

vi

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, READING.

Principal: W. M. CHILDS. M.A.

UNIVEESITY COLLEGE, BEADING, was founded in June, 1892, with the co-operation
of the House of Christ Church, Oxford. It -^as incorporated in 1896. By authority of
Decrees of the University of Oxford, a Joint Committee, consisting of representatives of
the Oxford Delegacy for the Extension of Teaching, of University College, Beading, of the
Eoyal Agricultural Society, and of the Eoyal Horticultural Society, supervises the Instruction
and Examinations in Agriculture, Horticulture, and Aviculture, and awards Diplomas and
Certificates.

The College consists of Departments of Letters and Science, Agriculture, Horticulture,
Music, the Fine Arts, and Commerce, and provides teaching for about 1,40 J Day and Evening
Students.

In addition to lecture- and class-rooms it contains Zoological, Botanical, Chemical,
Physical, and Bacteriological Laboratories, Art Studios, Students' Library, and Common
Booms.

The College is affiHated to the University of Oxford, and is recognised by the Board of
Education as a Day Training College, by the Boyal Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons as
a place of instruction in Natural Science, and by the Surveyors' Institution as a centre of
Instruction.

The College undertakes much work in the adjoining counties in connection with field trials
and lectures at rural centres, and advises with regard to insect pests, plant diseases, and the
manuring of crops.

The CoUeg-e Farm, Shinfield, of about 150 acres, for instruction in Practical Agriculture
and Experimental Work, is about 1h miles from Beading.

The British Dairy Institute adjoins the College, and affords facilities for Practical
Instruction in Dairying.

The CoUeg-e Poultry Farm and Experimental Station, Theale, is available for Students
desirous of obtaining Practical Instruction in Poultry-keeping.

The College Garden for Horticultural Practice and Instruction is situate in the London
Eoad, Beading.

For further information apply to —

FBANCIS H. WEIGHT,

Begistrar
University College, Beading.

IGH HOUSE POULTRY FARM,

LICKEY HILLS, BROMSGROVE, England.

VACANCIES FOR PUPILS-IWoderatc Terms. Ntarest station: Barnt Geeen, M.R.

Is established on modern up-to-date Anglo-American methods, and is able to

iioderate prices Poultry or Sittings of Eggs from most reliable stock, mated up with the gi-eatest care, regardless of
3nse. We can boast being the proud possessors of the best strains of

»*• •!• MIGM-CI-ASS POUl-XRY

that Great Britain can produce, including noted record layers and Prize Winners at standard Exhibitions. Those who
have made purchase of

*»• •!• UXIl-IXY OR EXMIBIXIOM

Fowls are loud in their praise of the excellent results from our Stock, which includes the following profitable varieties : —

Buff Orpingtons, Salmon Faverolles, Indian GAme, Aylesbury Ducks, White Leginorns.
White, also Silver, Wyandottes, Houdans, Black Minorcas, and Silver-Grey Dorkings,

-!• ir SIXXIMGS OF EIGGS

may be relied upon, as High House Poultry Fakm is situated 800 feet above sea-level, tlius insuring exceedingly hardy
birds, suitable for any climate.

VIGOROUS SXOCK or CMICJCEWS

from a day old upwards, may be had from our extensive Incubatories, where ten large machines are daily at work.
Our motto is

-I* »»• B1.00D WIl-1- XEl-1-5

and intending poultry keepers or agriculturists desirous of improving their flocks or stocking their farms will do well to
write at once for our Illustrated Catalogue (post free) and make immediate purchases.

EDWARD A. CASS,

Can dies by House,

BURGH, /e.S.O.,

BREEDER AND
EXHIBITOR OF

'BtiTT Orj)mgtOHS.

STOCK AND EXHIBITION
BIRDS FOR SALE.

Export Orders receive carefttl
attention.

REQINALD MELBOURNE,

The Mount,
SOUTH GOOSTO/VE, Surrey,

Breeder and Exhibitor of

Blacfi anb Buff Xecjborns, Mnck

fIDinorcas, anb

lPartint)oe M^anbottes.

Winner of Blade Leghorn Challenge Cup, and Prizes
Dairy, Palace, International, and all leading Shows.

Send for Catalogue with complete list of wins, all varieties,
and Patent Combined Brooder and Fowl-House,

fitted with Trap Nests— saves £5 in £10 !

Utility Birds, 5/- ; Exhibition Specimens from £1 Is. ;
Eggs in Season, 5/-, 10/-, £1 Is. per doz.

A CUP, value £5 5s., and £1 15s. Pkize-Money given
every year for best Birds hatched from £1 Is. Sittings.

N.B.— Special attention is paid to Egg Produc-
tion in the Utility Pens.

REGINALD MELBOURNE,
The Mount, SOUTH GODSTONE, Surrey.

W. M. BELL,

Breeder and Successful Exhibitor

AT ALL THE LEADING SHOWS OF

BLACK, BUFF <S WHITE ORPINGTONS,
PARTRIDGE 6 WHITE WYANDOTTES.

A large selection of birds always on hand at reasonable prices for
Exhibition, Pure Breeding, and Utility purposes. Over 2,000 bred and
reared on this farm annually. Trap nests used for all breeding pens and
strict pedigree kept of all stock raised.

Eggs and day-old chicks supplied in season. Catalogue free.

NON-RESIDENT PUPILS TAKEN.

ST. LEONARD'S POULTRY FARM, RINGWOGD, HANTS.

Elack Suialia Game.

Mr. F. R. EATON,

Cleveland House,

EATON, Norwich,

Breeder of Winners of premier Honours

at all the leading Shows, Winners of the

Black Sumatra Challenge Bowl, etc., etc.,

has generally

BIRDS FOR SALE.

ing's Norton PoBltry Farm,

1% WOBCESTEBSHIItE.

(Proprietor: W. ASTLEV.)

Breeder of White Wyan, Partridge Wyan,

Black and White Leghorns,

BufiF Rocks and Buff Orpingtons.

All stock from this Farm is guaranteed the progeny of birds

selected year after year by recording nests, and are all of

gi'and type.

Stuck Birds, Sittings, and Day-olu Chicks.

SILVER-GREY
^ DORKINGS.

Exhibition and Stock Birds for Sale.
Eggs in Season.

THE HONBLE. FLORENCE AMHERST,
c/o Mr. E. SIZEN,

Didlington Estate Office,

STOKE FERRY, Norfolk.

HENRY JOHN WEBB,

377, 376, 329, Central Markets,

LONDON,

KOR

English New-laid Eggs,
Fowls, Ducks,

Turkeys, Geese.

GAME OF ALL DESCRIPTIONS.

EMBDEN GEESE.

Exhibition and Ml Birds for Sale.

ciMK

THE HONBLE. SYBIL AMHERST,
c/o Mr. E. SIZEN,

Didiington Estate Office,

STOKE FERRY, Norfolk.

A. Q. PITTS,

Highbridge, SOMERSET,

CHAMPION BREEDER of

BLACK MINORGAS.

BIRDS ALWAYS O/V SALE, AND EGGS //V
SEASON.

•5)

^ DOI^KIMGS. ^

Breedek 30 Years. If WVi VW ««^ ^ ♦

STOCK AND SHOW BIRDS ALWAYS FOR SALE.

PRICES MODERATE.

ARTHUR G. MAJOR, DITTON, LANGLEY, BUCKS.

ESTABLISHED 1811.
Telegrafkic Address : Te/e/Ziottc

' NOURISHMENT, LONDON.' No. 178* Avenue.

CHARLES E. BROOKE & SONS,

(5amc, poultry, S. /©eat jfactorSt

%ive ipoultrvj Dealers,
LEADENHALL MARKET, LONDON.

Bankers :
London City and Midland Bank, SHIPPING SUPPLIED

Thrbadneedle Street. OORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED.

College Poultry Farm,

.X5>C THEALE, Reading.

Poultry Establishments laid 'out
Stock selected for Exportation.

WORCESTERSHIRE *
POULTRY FARM

TARDEBiGGE, BROMSGROVE,

HA-\-E SOME OF

THE FINEST LAYING STRAINS OF POULTRY

Their strain of WHITE LEGHORNS -.von the 1904-05
Laying Competition of the Utility Poultry Club, and their
strain of WHITE WYANDOTTES was represented
in the 3rd, 4th, and 6th 'Winners.

By careful selection, with trap-nests and importations
from reliable breeders in U.S.A., their Strains for
Laying are unequalled.

ILLU.STP.ATED CATALOGUE

EGGS for Setting and
Stock Birds

Al'PUCAIIOff. IIONT MISS IT.

W. A. DOOLITTLE'S

PARTRIDGE
WYANDOTTES.

The Recognised Champions. Let others magnify
their winnings as they may, the fact remains that
Doolittle's strain of Partridge Wyandottes has pro-
duced more prize specimens than all others combined.
All but one possible first, three out of four specials,
fifteen prizes in all, on this one variety at the World's
Fair, St. Louis, U.S.A., 1904. Correspondence
soUcited.

W. A.-DOOLITTLE,

Sabetha, Kans.. U.S.A.

Catalogue, with colour plate from life of a pair

of Partridge "Wyandottes, mailed on receipt

of Is.

BOOKS AT ALL BOOKSELLERS'.

DEAN HOLE'S FAMOUS WORKS ON GARDENING.

A BOOK ABOUT ROSES.

By the Very Ecv. S. Reynolds Hole, Dean of Rochester.
IDiistrated by H. G. Mooj; and G. S. Elgood, R.I.
Eighteenth Edition. Cr-own-8vor, cloth, 3s. 6d. ; or Pre-
sentation Edition, with coloured plates, 6s.

Dalty TeUf/rapk. — "A perfectly charming book."

A BOOK ABOUT THE GARDEN AND THE
GARDENER,

By Deau Hole. Popular Edition. Crown 8vo., cloth, 3s. 6d,

World.—" A delightful vohime, full, not merely of information, but
of laumour and entertainment."

Morning Post.— "jyea-u Hole has contrived to make hie book both
amusing and of real practical utility. " '}

One volume, demy 8vo., 336 pages, 16s

THE PRINCIPLES OF LANDED ESTATE MANAGEMENT.

By Henry Hei;bekt Smith, Fellow of the Institution of Surveyors, and Agent to tlie Marrjuess of Lansdowne, K.G.,
the Earl of Crewe, Major-General the Lord Methuen, etc. With Plans and Illustrations.

! than 300 pages as much practical

Staudanl.—"
information and sound adv
all persons either directly o

indirectly connected with the important subject of which it treats.'

IN A GLOUCESTERSHIRE GARDEN.

By Henry L. Ellacomee. 51. A., A^icar of Bitton, and
Honorary Canon of Bristol. With Illustrations by Major
E. B. RiCKETTS. Crown 8vo., cloth, 6s.
Times.—" Canon EUflCombe's book certainly ought to appeal to a

wide range of readers, fnr it is written in a most pleasant style, and,

without any parade of s'.-ience, is evidently the fruit of long personal

observation."

COLONEL KENNEY-HERBERT'

COMMON-SENSE COOKERY.

Based on Modern English and Continental Principles worked
out in detail. Large crown 8vo., over 500 pages, 7s. 6d.

Times. — "A book which is sure to have a large circulation, since the
author, the well-known ' Wyvern,' has been for some time generally
accepted as perhaps the chief Enghsh authority on the art of
cookery."

PRACTICAL MANUALS

Chemistry for Agricultural Students. By T.

S. Dymond, of the County Technical Laboratories,
Chelmsford. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

A Manual of Alcoholic Fermentation and

the Allied Industries. By Chakles g. Matthews,
F.I.C., F.C.S., etc. Fully Illustrated. Crown 8vo.,
cloth, 7s. 6d. net.
Wood. A Manual of the Natural History and
Industrial Applications of the Timbers of Commerce. By
G. S. Boulgee, F.L.S., F.G.S. Fully Illustrated.
Crown 8vo., 7s. 6d. net.

A Text-book of Nursing for Home and Hos-
pital Use. By C. Weeks Shaw. Revised and largely
rewritten by W. Radford, House-Surgeon at the Poplar
Hospital, under the supervision of Sir Dyce Duckwokth,
M.D., F,R.C.P. Fully Illustrated. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

Cycling for Health and Pleasure. By L. H.

PoRi'EK. Revised and edited by F. W. Shoeland,
Amateur Champion, 1892-93-94. With
trations. Small 8yo., 2s. 6d.

PLEASURABLE BEE-KEEPINC.

By Chaeles Nettleship White, First-class Certificated
Expert of the British Bee-keepers' Association. Fully
Illustrated. Crown 8vo. . cloth, 2s. 6d.

; MODERN COOKERY BOOKS,

FIFTY BREAKFASTS.

Containing a great variety of Xew and Simple Recipes for
Breakfast Dishes. 8vo., cloth, 2s. 6d.

FIFTY DINNERS, svo., doth, 2s. ed.
FIFTY LUNCHES. svo.,cioth,2s.6d.

FOR EVERYDAY USE.

English Estate Forestry. By A. C. Forbes,

Lecturer in Forestry, Armstrong College, Neweastle-ou-
Tyne ; late Forester on the Mar<juis of Bath's Longleat
Estate, etc. With Illustrations. Demy Svo., 12s. 6d. net .
British Railways : Their Organization ami
Management. By Hugh Moned Ross. Crown 8vo.,
5s. net.

The Stock Exchange. By Godefroi D. Ingall

and Geuege WirHniis. Crown 8vo., 5s. net.

The Draughts Pocket Manual. By J. G.

Cunningham. An introdnction to the game in all its
branches. With numerous Diagrams. Small Svo., Is. 6d.

A Text-book on the Natural Use of the Voice.

By G. E. Thoi-.i' and W. Nichoi.l, late Professor of
Singing in the Roj-al Academy of Music. A New Edition.
Crown Svo., 2s. 6d.

The Art of Reading and Speaking. By the

Rev. J.iJiES Fleming, Canon of Yorlc. Fifth Edition.
Crown Svo., 3s. 6d.

LONDON : EDWARD ARNOLD, 41 & 43 MADDOX STREET, W.

Wise old Hen. " Don't eat that food, my son — it has

Molassine Meal in it!"
Giddy young Cockerel. " Why, that's the very reason I like it

and eat so much /"
Wise old Hen. " Yes, that's all very well, but unless you are

anxious to go to market before your time, I should

advise vou to let it alone !"

1st Hen " I ansh you'd hurry up and get off that nest '
2nd Hen " Why, you've laid once to-day — what moie a

you want ?'
1st Hen. " Oh, it's that Molassine Meal makes me la

all day long — nearly !"

POULTRY-KEEPING PAYS WHEN FOWLS ARE FED ON

MOLASSINE MEAL

.oV.ass/4,

TRADE

MARK

Brings Chickens on quiekhj and ready for market at less cost than any other food. Makes them lay early am! late.
It eradicates and prevents worms.

Manufactured by HENRY TATE & SONS, Ltd., London and Liverpool.

You may test it by calling on the nearest Grain and Forage Merchant and getting some to day, or sending to

THE MOLASSINE CO. LTD.,

36, MARK LANE, LONDON, E.G.;
125, HOPE STREET, GLASGOW;
43, DAME STREET, DUBLIN ;

AND OTHER ADDRESSES.

XME POCOCK EGG BOX

With Interior Fittings of Felt and Iron-bound Corners.

YOU MUST HAVE SEEN THEM.

EVERYBODY KNOWS THEM.
USED IN EVERY PART OF THE GLOBE.

WITHOUT A RIVAL FOR SAFETY.

REDUCED PRICES

; quality s. d. | To cairj 1st qualitj

4 3 1 > do7

5 3 id , or240egg^

MSOeggs 35 6

- "20 eggs 48 6

■ ito eggs 60 0

THE HAMMOCK PARCEL POST BOX.

EACH EGG SWINGS IN A SEPARATE HAMMOCK OF FELT.

For 12 eggs, lOd., or Is. 2d. post free ; for 15 eggs, Is. 4d., or Is. 8d. post free ;
for 24 eggs, Is. 8d., or 2s. 'id- post Iree.

Complete Catalogue of Poultry and Dairy Appliances post free on application.

DAIRY OUTFIT CO., LTD., King's Cross, LONDON.

c

INCUBATORS,
FOSTER-MOTHERS,

FOWL HOUSES,
and All Appliances.

POULTRY— Exhibition and Utility.
Poultry Farmers^ and Fanciers' Sundries.

AVholes.\le, Export .\yii Retail.
Fi'llyIllusirated Catalogues fkee.

ERNEST TRIPeI: CO., LTD.,

HARMONDSWORTH, MIDDLESEX.

NOTE.— Pupils taught aU Branches and Glasshouse Work.

What Experts

say of the

'J.M.D.'

Hinwick Estate Poultry Farm,
Wellingborough,

Jan. 30th, 1905.
Dear Sir, — 1 have just had the second hatch out of
tliu ,].5I.D. (Treble-Fluod) Incubator; I am more than
s;Lti.sfied with it, and consider it quite one of the best
iiiachines of the day. It has so far beaten four other
machines by different makers in the same room. — Yours
very faithfuUy, G. A, Palmer, Poultry Expert to
Worcestershire, Hertfordshii-e, and Lindsey in Lincoln-

We can show you many similar testimr»nials to the
above. The new J.5I.D. ' Unique ' Treble-Flued Hydro
Incubator is the machine of the future. It is fitted with
patent ball-bearing heat regul.itor, also treble flue, which
enable you to get an even radiation of heat in all parts
of the egg drawer. It lias a drying chambi
the ■ ■

le egg
whole

00-egg machine, and the colisinn|ition of oil is 00 per
cut. lie ow many others now being sjld. You can buy
liis J.JI.D. lOOegg capacity for £4, 50-egg capacity
or £3 7s. 6d. Three Prize Jledals and Diploma
Crystal Palace. li>05. The J.M.U. is THE one you need.
;ET a CATALOGUE TO-DAY.

The J.M.D. Live Stock Appliance Co.
(Dept. P.B.), Blackburn.

• IT,' Poultry Foods,

PREPARED FROM

Miss YATES' oWn Recipes,

Certificated Poultry Expert, University College, Reading; Manager, U.P.C. Winter Laying Competitions, 1904-5, 1905-6 ;
Poultry Instructor to the Studley Castle Agricultural College ; Member of the Poultry Club ; Member of Utility Poultry Club.

JlI.Y. CLOVSH ]!lCI2ZTUIl£i. — Fine-cut Clover with Meat, Malt, etc. Used in conjunction with

Meals 1, 2, 3, and 4, in U.P.C. Laying Competitions as the morning mash. An invaluable and inexpensive food

for laying stock. Price 12/- per cvvt.
III. 7. IvISAL No. 1. — For Chickens when feathering, Duck-raising, and Laying Hens. Price 8 6

per cwt.
2l/[.7. MSAL No. 2. — For Growing Chickens, Laying Hens and Turkeys. Price 8/6 per cwt.
M.Y. MSAL No. 3. — For Growing Stock, Ducks, and Laying Hens. Price 8/6 per cwt.
lVl.7. IVCIiAL No. 4. — For Fattening Table Poultry. (Miss Yates attributes her successes at the

various Agricultural Shows to the use of this Meal.) Although equal to any Food on the market, its price is only

9/6 per cwt.

HL.Y. DB7 CHICS FEED, First Grade. — For use during the first three weeks after hatcliing

this is unrivalled. Price 17/- per cwt.

M.Y. DRY CHICK FEED, Second Grade.— This should follow the use of the First Grade

Food during the second three weeks, and is also used with great advantage in the scratching litter to assist the
production of winter eggs.

Oats, Buckwheat, Dari, Flint, Grit, Oyster Shell, Bone Meal, etc., always in stock.

Price List and Samples, loith Method of Feeding, on application to

E. RIVERS SMITH, Agricultural Seed, Corn, and Artificial Manure Merchant, ROYSTON, Herts.

PRICE

Yes ; that's where RANDOLPH scores. He beats the lot there. No other living man attempts
to work on a similar margin of profit. To test this, before placing your order, drop him a P.C. and
ask for a Quotation, It will cost you but one halfpenny, and may save you pOUndS. He is
not able to afford you a list of everything he handles here, but his " boiled down " Catalogue will give
it you. Don't be without that list. The Public owe their thanks to RANDOLPH for the present
prices of Poultry Appliances ; make no mistake about that. No mortal man has done more than he to
bring such goods within reach of the masses. So long as MEECH is in the business, depend upon it
you'll not pay exorbitant prices for Poultry Appliances— that is, if you ask him to fill your orders. He
caters to supply everything a poultry-keeper needs, and means to keep in the front rank by
quality and price.

RANDOLPH MEECH,

The Poultry Appliance King,

POOI-E5 DOT^SEX.

ROBT. A. COLT, Ltd.,

The Poultry Outfit
Supply Co.,

73a, Chiswell Street,
London, E.G.

Illustrated Catalogues of Live Stock,

Appliances and Foods post free

on application.

Estimates for fitting Farms free.

Vulcanite Sheet Asphalts
FOR

ROOFIMG,

as used on the principal Poultry Farms.

Prices and Samples upon application to

VULCANITE, Ltd., 118, Cannon Street, London, E.C.,

And I.AGANVAI.E, BELFAST.

101'

per
Cwt.
on
Rail.

H

OLTO^'S
SUSSEX
OAT MEAL.

<3^ CUARANXKED PURE. iS^

Sample sent post free on application.

HOLTON, WoRwiiNCFORD Mill, Essex.

NEW HANDBOOKS FOR SPORTSMEN.

By Colonel R. F. MEYSEY-THOMPSON,

Author of " Reminiscences of the Course, the Camp, and the Chase."
Foolscap 8to., cloth, gilt top. Price 3s. 6(1. iict cadi.

A SHOOTING CATECHISM.

THE COUNTY GENTLEMAN says:

' Colonel Meysey-Thompson's catechism is as sug-
stive as it is thoroughly interesting, and, above all,
irlcnianlike and fair ■

THE SPORTSMAN says:

" The whole handy, well-printed book is as full of
information of the right sort as an egg is of meat. It
will delight alike the tyro and the expert, which no book
can do that is not thoroughly good."

THE MANCHESTER GUARDIAN says:

" This is a very handy little volume by an author who
is a sportsman of the front rank."

THE SPORTING TIMES says:

" My library contains many books on shooting, but I
think Colonel Meysey-Thompson's is the best."
THE PALL MALL GAZETTE says:

"The little book most certainly will be read with
interest and profit by those who have ceased to regard
themselves as neophytes in the handling of a gun." "

A FISHING CATECHISM.

THE FIELD says:

" We can honestly recommend this little Fishing
Catechism as a book" which will give the novice sound
and thorough instruction on most points and the
experienced angler new ideas on not a few. In these
days that is an achievement."

THE MORNING POST says:

"Will delight anglers, because it is written in the
spirit proper to a disciple of Isaac Walton, luid displays
an almost encyclopiedio knowledge of the ways of trout
and Salmon, and the methods by which they are pursued
and captured. No one who has rights over any water
should fail to study the book."

THE SPORTSMAN says:

"A handy and useful book for all sorts and conditions
of fishers."

COUNTRY LIFE says :

" There is a wonderful amount of information between
the covers of this book."

THE SPORTING TIMES says:

"After a thorough course of this book all a man would
want would be practice and the fish to practise upon."

LoNiioN : EDWARD ARNOLD, 41 & 43 Mabdox Street, W.

LI\7EKIN E

ALL THE YEAR ROUND,

CHICKENS JUST HATCHED!
HENS LAYING!
BIRDS EXHIBITING!

There is absolutely nothing to equal it. 17/- cwrt., 9/- i-CT»t

CHICKENS GROWING
BIRDS BREEDING! And

POULTRY MEN, DON'T BE WITHOUT OUR MEDICINES,

ROUP POWDER (Certain Cure)
ROUP PILLS - - - -
TONIC POWDERS -
COD-LIVER OIL CAPSULES -

4d. One doz. 3/-, three doz. 8/6.

1/1 and 2/7 per box.

1 - per doz.

1/1 and 2/7 per box.

LIVERINE LIMITED, GRIMSBY.

All Goods Carriage Paid— England, and Wales.

For

he Latest

Poultry
oXsX Appliances

our new

WE GIVE BEST MONEY VALUE,

and all Goods of our manufacture are absolutely
reliable.

WILLIAM CALWAY,

LIMITED,

JSuil&tng Contractors aiib
/IDanutacturers,

GLOUCESTER.

EEVOIDTION In EGG PACKAGES,

R

Newly= Invented

ANTi'SMASH" an^
FEATHERWEIGHT"

Egg Boxes & Baskets

Have reduced weights one-half, have made it possible to send
Eggs with safety, and are the cheapest and most durable yet
put before the public.

Within two and a half years they have carried off every
First Prize given in Great Britain, and have been awarded

13 PEIZE MEDALS,

including the only Gold Medals ever given in the United
Kingdom for Egg Packages.

Illustrated Catalogue post free of over 100 sizes and
varieties.

ROBINSON'S PATENTS, LTD.,

332, Goswell Road, LONDON, E.C

Healthy Poultry, Abundance of Eggs
secured by using

Thorley's Poultry Spice.

OVUM is a condimeiital preparation specially adapted for
poultry. The use of OVUM also improves the plumage
and beautifies the feathers, while it is well known that
all kinds of Poultry pass through the critical period of
moulting far more easily if OVUM be added to their
Soft Food.

OVUM

Fortifies the Constitution.

PFoduees Abundance of Eg-gs.

Enables the Birds to withstand sudden changes of Weather.

SOLD BY AGENTS IN ALL PARTS. Name of nearest Agent sent on application.

Case, containing 72 packets, 6/-. Bags- 1 cwt., 30/-; i cwt., 16/-; \ cwt., 8/6.

7.1b. Bag by Parcels Post on receipt of 3/- by

JOSEPH THORLEY, Limited, King's Cross, London.

BARNARD, BISHOP & BARNARDS, Ltd./'^".-^^^^ POULTRY HOUSES, etc

LEAN-TO POULTRY HOUSE, No lOo

Silvoi Medal IhQ -rnd lb 3 Hoas>,4ft square ^^lth Sliding Fiooi
Eun 8 ft. long, finished 111 beet style, i4, heavici ' '^ ' — " '*" ' ""

NEW LEAN-TO FOWL HOUSE. No :

Single— 4 ft by 4 ft 4o/ W ood Back

— bft by 4 ft / lb/

Do 1 le— ft ly 4 ft / 4/

A

P WiM.

THE FAVOURITE CHICKEN NURSERY.

No 1 S Tin aho be uf,e 1 s a Cu ki-rel Pen
6 ft long ft L in wide ft b in 1 it,h /t

COCKEREL PENS. \o 1 Five Pens
I d Ri 1 b3/ 4 Pens 0/ 3 Pens 60/
Pens 40/ Single Pel 0/ Feeding Trough

rrE LINCWOOD POULTRY HOUSE ^

IMORKOLK II90N WORKS, WORWICM, K1N[C1.AND

Movable Fowl House.

POULTRY APPLIANCES

10a. rough fowl house for farm use.

Madeextrastrongjframcs mortised and tenoned, and must
not be compared to the Houses offered at lower prices.
Size 7 ft. long by 5 ft. wide, nests on each side, also flap
at side for light and air. Mounted on strong high wheels.

CASH PRICE, Carriage Paid - £4 iS O

Illustrated Catalogue of requisites for the Garden, Pa
Estate, Stables, Kennel, and I'oullnj rard,frre on appUca>i<

BOULTON & PAUL, Ltd.,

Manufacturers, NORWICH.

JELLICOE'S

ti

TROLLEVER

The simplest and best method for moving all kinds of

Poultry Houses. One "Trollever" and "Back Axle is

sufficient for all Houses on the Farm.

Obtained SILVER MEDAL at the Plymouth Exhibition, November, 1905.

PRICE 3X/e net, F.O.R. Extra Fittings (one Set fop eaeli House), 3/6. stnt, in,<ih „, b.ui a,i, mmua.

Terms, Ca.sh wi±H Order.

A. JELLiCOE, Maker, Warwick House, THEALE, Berks.
THE WALLBT SERIES OF HANDBOOKS.

Foolscap 8i>o.,

Is. net %ier volume, papei- ; Is. net, cloth.

ELECTRIC LIQHTINa FOR THE INEXPERIENCED.

THE MANAGEMENT OF BABIES.

By HUBERT WALTER.

By Mrs. LEONARD HILL.

HOCKEY AS A GAME FOR WOMEN.

By EDITH THOMPSON.

DRESS OUTFITS FOR ABROAD.

By ARDERN HOLT.

WATER-COLOUR PAINTING.

By MARY L. BREAKBLL.

ON COLLECTING MINIATURES, ENAMELS, AND
JEWELLERY.

By ROBERT EDWARD.

MOTORING FOR MODERATE INCOMES.

By H. REVELL REYNOLDS.

ON TAKING A HOUSE.

ON C0LLECT.NG^E^NGRAVING5^ POTTERY, PORCELAIN,

SIMPLE REMEDIES FOR COMMON AILMENTS.

By ROBERT ELWARD.

By M. H. NAY LOB, M.B., B.S.

London: EDWARD ARNOLD, 41 & 43 Maddox Street, W.

estmeria Brooder.

Ratent.

We have sold nearly TEN THOUSAND of these Brooders, and the numerous

Testimonials that we have received enables us with the utmost confidence to say

that they are THE MOST PERFECT FOSTER MOTHERS.

From W. COOK, Esq., the world-famous Origittafor of the Orpiiujion
Fowls. — " Please send mc another of your Westmeria Brooderd.
I like them better than any other. I have hundreds of visitors
■who see your Brooders, and I always recommend them."

From ED. ISROWK, Esq., P.L.S., the well-known Readimj College E.cpert

and Author of " Poultry-Keeping as an Industry." — "The Westmeria

Brooders are the best."
From Rev. T. W. STUROES, Marston, Northmen.— " It would have

been £50 in my pocket if I had had your Brooder at first. I wish

I had neter scon any other."

From the DUCHESS OF WELLINGTON.- -"\our Brooder deserves all
prai.se. It has been a complete success."

From n. W. WEBSTER. Esq.. Poullry Specialist and Large Breeder,
Maidenhead.— "The Ventilator appears perfect, and the arrange-
ment by which the chamber is lighted at night is an

'Woo

J very much

The WESTMERIA BROODERS are sent out complete with Lamp, Water-Fount,
, Trough, and Scraper. Handsomely Painted in Two Colours, Creosoted Bottom.

jFoj'- 6o Chicks, ^S^J 1^>S. For loo Cliicks,

Free on Rail or Canal, Leight.on Buzzard. Packed for E-'cjiort aud delivered to any English Port, 7/6 extra.

POULTRY APPLIANCES AND FOODS OF ALL KINDS.

Send for List.

WESTMERIA Co., LEIGHTON BUZZARD.

TELLING . . ,
. TESTIMONY

THE sales of Tamlin's Incubators from 1891, the year that this
machine was first placed before the public, to November, 1904,
reached the gigantic total of 40,000 Incubators. This represents
half the total number of Incubators sold throughout the United
Kingdom during that period, therefore one of every two Incubators
made and in use is a Tamlin.

A Surprising Fact proving their universal success :— Not a single
machine of the enormous number sold has ever been returned as
unsatisfactory.

This Appears Incredible.

Yet is Undeniable.

TaMLIN'8

INCUBATORS

ARE ALL GUABANTEED

To be automatic hatchers.

To be simplest and easiest Incubators to work.

To take less oil by half than any other to work.

To produce more, larger, and stronger Chicks when

run in competition under same conditions with

any other Incubators.
To be the best made and best value in the world.

Write for our New Season Illustrated Catalogue, which is full of
matters of interest to Poultry Breeders. You can have it sent
to you Post Free for the asking.

I W. TAMLIN, RICHMOND, LONDON, S.W.

HEARSON'S PATENT

CHAMPION INCUBATORS

Have stood the test of 25 years, and are still in all the World Unequalled.

Hatching
100 per cent.

SIMPLE.
RELIABLE.

SAFE IMESTMEHT.

§0- .

Beware

of Worthless

Imitations.

HEARSON'S PATENT FOSTER-MOTHERS,

FopOutdoor Reaping of Chickens The " Hydrothermic."

in Wintep op Summep.

The "Champion."

HEARSON'S PATENT
CRAMMING
MACHINE

For the Forced Feeding
of Fowls, Turkeys, etc.

Write

for Illustrated

Price Lists.

SHOW ROOMS: 235, REGENX STREET, V\^.

Sole Agents: SPRATT'S PATENT, LTD., 24, 25, Fenchurjh Street London. E.G.

s

THE MORNING SOFT FEED SHOULD BE

PRATT'S

PATENT

POULTRY MEAL.

A COOKED FOOD CONTAINING MEAT.

IN SEALED BAGS,
PER CWT., 20/-.

ALSO IN SMALLER BAGS AND IN 3d.
AND 6d. PACKETS.

GIVE AS THE EVENING FEED

'CHIKKO'

A Nutritious and Sustaining Food requiring no preparation.

20/- PER CWT.

Sealed Bags, also in smaller Bags and en 3d. Packets.

SPRAXTT'S PAXEWX l-XD.,

MANUFACTURERS OF
Dog Kennels, Chains, Collars, Poultry Houses, and all Dog and Poultry Appliances.

SHOW ROOMS:—

24 j5 25, Fenchurch Street, LONDON, E.C.