y

TUFTS UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES

3 9090 013 413 881

JOHNA.SEAVERNS

Webster Family Library of Veterinary Medicine
Cummings Sciioo! of Veterinary IVledicine at
Tufts University
200 Westboro Road
North Grafton, MA 01 53S

RADICAL-MECHANICS

OF

ANIMAL LOCOMOTION.

WITH EEMAEKS

ON THE

SETTING-UP OF SOLDIERS,

HORSE AND FOOT,

AND ON THE

SUPPLING OF CAVALRY HORSES.

BY

WILLIAM PRATT WAINWRIGHT,

FORMERLY COLONEL COMMANDING SEVENTY-SIXTH NEW YORK
INFANTRY- VOLUNTEERS.

NEW YORK :

PUBLISHED FOR THE AUTHOR BY

D. VAN NOSTRAND,

23 MURRAY AND 27 WARREN STREETS.
1880.

so

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1880,

By WILLIAM PRATT WAINWRIGHT,

In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C.

WHOM I HAD THE HONOK OF COMMANDING

FROJyE JULY. 1863, TO JUNK, 1863,

INCLUDING THE ACTION OF GAINESVILLE, THE BATTLE OF
SOUTH MOUNTAIN, AND OTHER ENGAGEMENTS,

THESE PAGES
ARE MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED.

PREFACE.

The following discussion, if it estabKsli a method
of accomplishing the ends described in its title,
may be of use beyond the sphere of contributing
to the "setting-up" of soldiers; for "being set-
up," in its proper sense, sliould give additional
strength and activity to any man . In fact, set-
ting-up aims at the restoration of the human
frame, so far as locomotion and position are con-
cerned, to the perfection in which God created it ;
a derangement of this perfection being the real
obstacle which hinders a man's body from per-
fectly following the motion of a horse, when riding,
or from accommodating its balance to any normal
posture in which it may be placed .

If setting-up were applicable only to soldiers, it
were well worthy of study, for the calling of a sol-
dier, although liable to great abuse — as is any
powerful instrument when used by wicked hands —
is, in itself, a high one, and the Holy Scriptures

continually mention the noble traits which it re-
quires. Whether it be a Christian calling depends
entirely upon the use made of it, and few will
question the assumption that the militia, as on a
grand scale, the police of the country, and on an
emergency, its defenders, are fulfilhng a religious
as well as a civil duty, in fitting themselves for
these objects.

Now, although thorough military discipline is
the grand strength of an army, and the indispen-
sable requisite for the success of small numbers
against great ones ; yet, setting-up, which so far
as his body goes, enables a man to look and feel
like a soldier, is the physical beginning of this dis-
cipline, and with soldiers, as with children, the
physical education has great influence on the men-
tal. Beside this, a well set-up man may com-
plete his education as a private after the army is
in motion ; but setting-up can hardly be accom-
plished when the drill ground is once abandoned.

In the following discussion we have taken the
ground that only a man who is ambidexter can
have the perfect command and full force of the
movements of his body; whether, indeed, some
slight inclination to one side be necessary to avoid
a sort of dead-centre catch, we cannot positively

vu

saj, since some observers affirm that they have
discovered the tendency to a favorite side, even
in wild animals ; and also since it is obvious
that the position of the stomach, subject as this
organ is, to an increase in size disproportionate to
its pendant the hver, would favor a right hand
and left leg preponderance which, indeed, is so
general among civilized men that it has come to
be considered as the normal condition of the
frame. However this may be, we think it evident
that the preponderance need be but very slight,
and that anything beyond this measure interferes
with the force and free movement of both sets of
diagonal Hmbs.

The fundamental actioiiy as ice have in the follow-
ing pages traced the theory of locomotion, is a hdi-
cat turning of the appuis, discharged and reduced by
a contrary helical turn, whose sudden discharge con-
stitutes a spring. The chief appui may be single,
as in the fish, where the ribs and fins are mere ac-
cessories, and the back-bone acting on the tail
gives propulsion to the animal. Or it may be
double and have independent working forces, while
still directed and to some extent worked by the
simple spine, which then becomes a neck, as in the
bird, where the wings and legs are attached to a

VUl

body whose vertebrae are consolidated into a single
spinal piece.

Or, this final vertebra may be resolved into a
series of vertebrae separating the fore-and rear-
limbs, in which case the ribs move on an artificial
ground furnished by the breast-bone. The trunk,
then, forming a compound spine, works on four
limbs, exterior to the whole, as in quadrupeds.

Or, bringing the centre of motion more forward,
and more between the fore limbs, the animal may
be able to advance to some advantage with the
two rear limbs only as appuis on the ground.

Or, finally, the centre of motion being brought
still further up, so that the neck, working between
the shoulders and the lower jaw, becomes the
master-centre of all motion, we have that highest
development of vertebrate structure into which
alone it has pleased God, as the consummation of
His plan for terrestrial creatures, in addition to in-
telhgence or even reason, to breathe a " living soul"
capable of knowing its Creator.

"We think the epochs between these classes are
widely marked, and we are chiefly puzzled as to
where one may place the snake, which seems rather
to have come from stripping some animal of its
limbs than as a regular forward step ; for while the

fish may contain tlie elements for fashioning a bird,
and the bird for fashioning a quadruped, the snake,
if put in the series, must stand below the fish,
which has additional appuis, although the snake is
evidently of a more perfect organization.

Leaving this point, which we are not sufiiciently
versed in comparative anatomy to debate, we will
only add that the snake, furnishing the most purely
simple method of locomotion among the vertebrate
animals, affords on that account the clearest ground
for tracing the elementary motions.

Our object is not only to propose a theory, but
in case this theory be the true one, to make it
popularly inteUigible. This object, and want of
skill in composition will, we hope, excuse consider-
able proHxity where a good writer could have sub-
mitted his views to the decision of qualified judges
in much fewer words.

Two articles published in the August and Octo-
ber, 1853, numbers of the Fclaireur, a mihtary
journal issued for some time by Colonel Cowman,
and afterward by General J. Watts de Peyster, and
one or two allusions to the subject possibly made
in a series of articles in the Army and Navy
Journal^ on "Marching of troops in large bodies,"
July 2d, 1864, and following ; " The discipline and

care of troops," October 1st, 1864, and following ,-
and " The fighting of troops," February 11th, 1865,.
and following ; are all that the author has previ-
ously written on the subject.

SUMMARY.

The excessive use of one liand, and of the parts of the
body brought into action with it, is the cause of a general
deformity among civilized men.

This so interferes with the central-pivot working of the
body as to greatly reduce its power of producing and sus-
taining action.

The working of the spine is the fundamental basis of
movement.

Motion — properly — originates in the spine, is directed by
the head, and is only followed up by the limbs.

The snake presents the simplest type of the spinal working.

Exemplification of the snake's movement by twisting a
cord or elastic rod by counter-turning its two ends.

These counter-turns, which produce curvatures similar to
those of the snake in locomotion, will, when carried beyond
a certain limit, originate from their central point of coun-
teraction reverse curvatures, which, if allowed to replace
the old ones and again to produce a fresh set, would present
the shapes of alternately reversed curvatures as they are
seen in the locomotion of the snake.

In displacing one set of curvatures by their alternates a
spring is produced.

The reverse set of curvatures developed from the central
point of counteraction of the opposing turns belongs to the
nascent alternate curve, but wait to,^ be accepted as such
until, by a change of originating points, the old cui-vatures
are discharged and the alternate ones adopted.

The first effect of twisting one of the ends of the elastic
rod is to develope a general winding line of shape from one
end to the other.
1*

xu

So soon as the twist from one end is fully resisted by
that from the other, the line of counter action across the
thickness of the rod has that end of it which the active
tnm directly affects drawn to one side.

The drawing to one side of this end fixes the other end
of the cross line which is affected by the counter-twist so
that this latter cannot work directly upon it from the
originating point.

This fixed displacement of one end of the cross line
causes the w^orking of the second twist to be diffused
through the rod, and thus the ensuing spring may have for
its points of appui a point at the centre of the rod, and a
point of rest on the ground at one end of the rod, and on
the same side as that at the centre, instead of having both
points at the centre and on opposite sides.

It is thus that a movement in j)rogression or retrogres-
sion may be obtained, instead of a spring in two directions,
from the centre of the rod.

The fundamental action of locomotion is, then, the forma-
tion and discharge of two counter-turns in an elastic rod ;
the turn discharged giving the spring, and the other, after
controlling this spring, presenting through the counter-
turn it has developed at the cross line, the shape for the
alternate of the first, which again receives a counter-turn,
and so on.

The displacement to a greater or less degree of the end of
the cross line affected by the second turn of one set of
diagonal counter-turns becoming permanent, and thus in-
terfering with the action of the alternate set is the cause of
the general deformity spoken of above. The reduction of this
displacement by strengthening those muscles which work
the alternate winding lines, and the giving position to the
alternate and opposing cross line, is its cure.

The body of the snake presents an elastic compound rod,
which moves by forming, discharging, and, after each

XIU

spring, replacing by opposite curvatures the twists formed
in its back bone and in its ribs.

These twists are projected in a consolidated action in the
ball and socket joint of the head, and in partial concentra-
tions in the various ball and socket joints connecting the
ribs and the spine.

The simplest example of the action is in any one of the
snake's ribs, which being in appui on the ground is, by the
motion of the spine, turned through its length in one direc-
tion ; then, being still fixed at the ground, it is by another
motion of the spine turned in the opposite direction, and
the spring is liberated by the discharge of the first turn at
the ball and socket joints by which the rib joins the spine.

The eyes are the centre of direction, and in the snake as
in other animals, are kept steady by the arrangement of a
principal muscle passing through a loop, in which, after
receiving the counter twists, the two portions into which
the loop divides the muscle, slip back to their original
condition.

The lung of the snake filled with air presents a perma-
nent compensating-portion of the machinery of locomotion.
This, when compressed on one line at the discharge, ex-
pands immediately on the alternate line, and thus, having
aided in giving force to the discharge of one spring, aids
also in the formation of the next. The working of a tense
fluid, as the pivot of every movement, also secures the
smoothness of action, which, as well as its force, depends
much on the filling of the lung.

The snake's ribs, when acting along the several convex
and concave curvatures induced by the twistings of the
spine, may, on each of them, be divided into Propellers and
Bearers, both of which discharge with the primarily formed
lines of torsion, but in opposite directions. The propellers,
which by a peculiarity in the shape of the curvature, are in

XIV

preponderance at the rear, thrust the body forward over the
bearers, which raise it at the front of the curvature.

All the tractions gather in diagonal action, but discharge
in collateral action. This collateral action is only moment-
ary in the movements produced by alternate diagonal
counteractions, but if the two possible sets of counterac-
tions are, suppose, to work simultaneously, they reciprocally
suppress the diagonal elements of shape, and the alternate
helical forms are replaced by undulations in the perpen-
dicular plane.

In these undulations the force of the diagonal elements
is yet present, but the acting tractions are made collateral
even before the discharge.

It is this undulating shape which the spine of the higher
animals assumes, more or less, for all springs from two hind
feet at once, and its perfect production is required for a per-
fect halt from any kind of movement.

The position of such a halt is that in which the body is
perfectly gathered for making, on the instant, any move-
ment of which it is capable, and is what is meant by " set-
ting-up " when applied to an attitude of immobility.

This position may be produced either by forcing one
of the sets of counteractions beyond its limits without
discharge, in which case the other set accepts the excess of
gathering, and both gatherings thus become formed ; or by
commencing with the formation of both sets at the same
time.

The movements of the snake are caused by a succession
of springs from an indefinite number of what may be called
torsion curves, of two curvatures each ; but in man and the
higher animals the spinal curves are limited to three : — one
in the back, which answers to the chest curve in the snake ;
one in the loins, which is not complete until by moving the
hinder limbs it has compounded itself with the chest
curve ; and one in the neck, which combines itself with the

X\r

other two, and by moving the fore-limbs and lower jaw on
a virtual ball and socket joint at the root of the neck, forms
the whole body into one curve.

In this doubly compounded curve the hind and fore-
limbs are the appuis, the head the director, and the centre of
the lungs, made one in action with the head joints is the
centre of force.

In man, by means of the collar bones and general shape,
such a perfect transmission to the feet of the appui on the
arms is effected that his natural position becomes one of
sole acutual appui on these latter, although a proper action
of the arms as a brace is still a condition of its perfection.

In the higher animals the effects of the lines of torsion
forming in the central or ophidian curve pass to the breast
bone, which, as an artificial ground, supports the play of
the ribs ; the effects of the lines of torsion forming in the
combination of the central and loin curves, and of a partial
movement in the neck, pass to the pelvis and to the upper-
most part of the breast bone ; and the effects of the lines
of torsion forming in the combination of the neck curve
with the two others, making one curve of the whole, pass
to the limbs, and finally to the front limbs and lower jaw.

To sustain the complicated movements of the higher
animals, the construction of the head joint is altered from
that of the snake, so that in addition to the general ball and
socket movement there is a superimposed movement of the
same kind, but divided into two parts, which belongs especi-
ally to the limbs and by which the neck concentrates the
whole upon its own curve, with the shoulder-blades and
lower jaw as bases of action, and, as was before said, with
the centre of the lungs and the head joint conjoined in
action as a focus of force.

The lungs also are so constituted that they act for the
central curve in four parts, the two lower of which belong par-
ticularly to the lower sections of the torsion lines whose point

XVI

of origination is above, and the two upper particularly to the
upper sections of those lines whose originating point is
iDelow.

The addition of limbs to the locomotive frame-work
makes necessary the addition of some comparatively small
appendages to the top of the lungs, which fill in a contrary
direction to the filling of the lobe to which they are at-
tached. These appendages sustain the ball and socket
action at the root of the neck, and their action in filling may,
like that of the lungs proper, be divided into four parts.

Two small neck muscles, attached each by one end to the
head and by the other to the lower jaw, hold the lungs sus-
pended by a loop on each side of the windpipe. The action
of these loops, in releasing the muscles from the twists they
receive by the torsion of the lungs in the movements of the
chest, is similar to the action of the loops of the eye muscles,
before spoken of, in releasing the torsions passing to the
eyes from the whole body. These muscles and the eye-
muscles together have as analogues, but in subordinate
M^orking, the diaphragm, its pillars and the pso£e muscles.

The double twist action is the same whether expanded
in its workings, as in the motions through the length of the
ribs, or condensed, as in the ball and socket joint of the
head.

The various combinations of the lines of torsion in the
three curves are the foundation for all the gaits of animals,
and for their halting, which last, as before said, when per-
fectly carried out, is identical with the act of ** setting-up;"
for the deformity spoken of is really a position in locomo-
tion, and only a deformity because of its being permament ;
and even were there no deformity the frame would need to
be gathered, which involves the same movements as does
halting on two sets of torsion lines simultaneously.

The actions of those winding lines which work from the
direction of the head toward the hinder limbs centre at

XVll

lirst on the lower jaw ; while the action of those which
work from the direction of the hinder limbs toward the
head centre at first on the shoulder-blades. They inter-
change from one of these gathering points to the other,
and finally, by the movement of the winding-lines in the
neck, and the virtual ball and socket at the neck-root, the
control of all the forces becomes collected in the neck, and
guided by the head working on the shoulders and lower
jaw, with the eyes as poles of direction.

By a continuous raising of the head, allowing the neck to
adjust itself to the ensuing workings of the body, without
allowing any line to come to a discharge, the counteractions
of the various lines may all be brought into gathering, and
thus afterward require only to be loosened in a particular
connection to bring on the apjDropriate movements.

The application of setting-up to the horse is called in
Manege language "Suppling." It may be carried out
on precisely the same principles in the horse as in man.

Many years ago a Frenchman, by the name of Morquin^
taught, in New York, a method of preparation for gymnastic
exercises, in which, by forcing the filling of the . lungs and
thus bringing on the movements of other parts, a com-
plete "setting up" was effected. This method may, we
think, be explained by one of the results of the theory here
given, but Mons. Morquin could render little or no account
of the why and wherefore. This practice seemed to have
originated in some accidental discovery when carrying out
the idea that the lungs must be well filled as a basis of
action.

The methods for setting-up on horseback are, with al-
lowances for changed appuis, the same as for settiag-up on
foot. If the man can give proper action to the cross line
which is alternate to that whose winding lines have been
unnaturally confirmed, there then remains nothing to pre-
vent his following fully in his own body the gatherings and

XVIU

discharges in tlie body of his horse, so fully that there will
be no inharmonious movement which shall cause him to
leave the saddle in any degree.

The management of the horse consists in controlling the
lines of counteraction formed in the animals body. The
aids to this are : — the Bit ; the Spur ; the Pressure of the
Rein against the neck ; and the weighting one or the other
Seat-bone of the rider. These bring into action or check
different parts of the winding-lines, and by weakening the
working of their action or introducing the alternates upon
them, enable the rider not only to signify his wishes to the
horse but to force compliance.

A short section is added on locomotion in fishes and in
birds.

EEMAEKS

ON THE

SETTI]^G-UP OF SOLDIEES,,

HOESE AND FOOT,

AND ON THE

SUPPLING OF CAVALRY HORSES.

INTRODUCTION.

§ 1. Many are the expedients wHch, in the train-
ing of soldiers, have been and still are adopted, in
order to overcome that fault in the body, whatever
it may be, which, in nine hundred and ninety-nine
men out of every thousand from civilized nations,
tends to hinder the man from marching in a
straight line, from discharging his musket without
destroying his aim, from cutting perpendicularly
with the edge of his sabre, and which likewise
hinders him fiom so following in his own frame
the motions received from the frame of his horse
that the forces communicated by this latter shall
be so absorbed into and discharged with the
working of his own as to give no recoil from the
saddle.

From the expedient of carrying "the left eye^

14

over the line of tlie vest buttons," in Frederick
the Great's time, to that of " fixing the chin and
pointing the toes" of the present day, all remedies
have, in regard to marching, been only more or
less unsuccessful; even the device of a limber
trigger has not ensured success to what may have
been a good aim; a "loose hold of the gripe" still
allows the sabre to come down on its flat ; and the
various shirkings acquu-ed for eluding the shocks
from the horse's motion give only a laboured firm-
ness of seat, not even attaining the point of pre-
venting an uneven riding on the two sides of the
saddle, that chief cause of the giving out of cavalry
horses on long marches. Still less has it given
ability for the nice perpendicular change of the
rider's weight from one seat bone to the other,
which forms one of the most important of the four
*' aids " that give the power of controlling one's
horse.

The motions of the musket-manual are, probably,
based on the manner in which some perfectly
formed man went through with it, but experience
has shown that, for the generality of recruits, its
exact execution^ is simply impossible ; and, so far

* The last external sign of a laboured, and therefore imperfect,
execution is a twitching ot the corners of the mouth. How few can
suppress more obvious proofs!

15

as " carrying the musket in the left hand, balanced
on the middle finger " is concerned, this point seems
now to be about given up for a clutch with the
right hand, which does anything else rather than
conduce to the setting-up of the soldier.

A similar failure in exact central action, and the
like eccentric results are noticeable in animals
whose motions are habitually controlled by the
human hand. Almost all horses bear more on one
side of the bit than on the other ; each has a favour-
ite leg. Do any wear out the shoes of both sides
ahke ?

§ 2. When we observe that the most muscular
men are, often, not only less active, less supple,
and less enduring than others, but also that they
are not always the most powerful, it should seem
probable that the force of muscular contraction
often acts at a disadvantage, and is partially lost
from the want of a perfectly concentric action of
all parts of the bony framework on which the
muscles brace themselves.

We assume then that some fault in the play of
the bony skeleton is the radical cause of the sol-
dier's deficiencies in movement, and it will be our
^ndeavoui- to ascertain the nature of this fault, as
also, if possible, to search out some simple and

16

thorough means, not only for correcting its mani-
festations, but for restoring, the animal machinery,
at least for the moment, to perfect working order.

§ 3. There seems no reason to suppose that the
body of man, more than the body of any other
animal, was intended to have a one-sided action.
Horses driven or ridden by one-sided men may
indeed be shaped into using always the right, or
always the left leg as the leading limb, or one par-
ticular side of the jaw as their favorite resisting
point. Other animals which such men train may
exhibit traces of similar tendencies, possibly the
offspring of these animals may have them from
their birth ; but we see no like partiality, as to the
use of his Hmbs or jaw, in the lion or tiger as they
grasp or tear their food, nor in the squirrel, as fol-
lowing, with precise adaptation of his body, the
direction of his eyes — he leaps from branch to
branch. Some particular point reached in the
respiratory action, or some casual inclination of
the head would rather seem to determine any
choice made by them as to which side shall com-
mence or lead a movement.

W© may add that, although with civilized man
the right hand is almost always the ready hand,
and the left leg the bracing leg, yet the not in-

17

frequent occurrence of the opposite peculiarities
strengthens the analogical proof just given, that
this is not a necessary state of things. From the
Sacred History it would seem (comparing 1st
Chronicles, xii — 2, and Judges, xx— 16), whatever
may be the etymology of the Hebrew word for
left-handed, that the men who could sling stones
at an hair breadth, and not miss, were such as
used hofk hands alike.

§ 4. On the principle that the inequality of
strength in the arms was to be remedied, consid-
erable attention was at one time paid in the Brit-
ish army to exercising the left arm. It might ap-
pear to be a sufficient remedy for grown men that
they should exercise the neglected arm, and for
children, that they should be educated in exercis-
ing both arms equallj^ ; but, in the former case, the
results of so many years' previous habit having to
be overcome, the remedy hardly reaches the centre
of motion;- and, in the latter case, so long as
children are subject to the prevailing customs, par-
ticularly those of always reading to the right,

♦Perhaps the nearest approach to a fuudamental remedy is the rule
given in the French, and in the, from them translated, U. S. Cavalry
Tactics to " keep the right shoulder forward," but, unless there be a
good understanding that this means the upper right side of the chest,
it, too, may fall under the category of covering one fault by another.

18

which gives an unequal exercise of direction to the
eyes ; and of always writing with the right hand,
and to the right ; ^ as well as to the effects of
every instrument being adapted to the right hand,
it should seem that some more fundamental means
were necessary.

§ 5. If we may discover any movement, or series
of movements, by which a man can, as it were,
untwist his frame from its distortion, and then
hold it steadily for a time in proper working po-
sition, we shall give to every muscle the opportu-
nity for perfect action, and this, again and again
repeated, may restore the weaker one of every
pair of muscles to an equahty v/ith its fellow.

We offer the following attempt to discover and
explain such movements for what it may be worth :

The action of the Spine must in the first place he
dearly traced out,

§ 6. The first step m pursuance of this design
must plainly be to trace out the working of the
skeleton in that animal which accomphshes loco-
motion by the simplest means.

§ 7. The general figure of motion in man seems
obvious enough (although to describe it minutely

♦Even did we write with the left hand, it is evident that only when
writing to the left the action would be properly changed.

19

be no easy task) — but the positions of every sepa-
rate point of this figure depend on the movement
of some more inward and more central point.
Thus the hip-bone which carries the thigh-bone
socket is a more inward point than the thigh-bone
and is a controlling basis for its motion, as also
for that of the leg and foot. So is the motion of
the shoulder-blade, which carries the arm-bone
socket, a controlhng basis for the arm, the fore-
arm and the hand.

Further, both the hip-bones and shoulder-blades
depend for a basis of movement upon the spine
and indeed finally upon the head, this last being so
situated in respect to the spine that the relative
positions of the articulating surfaces in their com-
mon joint, at the summit of the neck, determine
the shape assumed by the spine, and consequently
the angles at which the forces acting from the
spine press down their points d'appui against the
ground, and thus give the direction of the ensuing
movement.

§ 8. The hip-hones are soldered into one peice
with the lower end of the back-bone, and therefore
depend directly upon it for every movement. The
shoidder-Uades, on the other hand, are connected
with both the back-bone and neck (the two together

20

^re called the spine), not solidly but by the inter-
vention of muscles; so that, although the arms
must, in all completed motions, finally conform to
the movements of the back-bone, they have yet a
certain liberty of action, superior to that of the legs,
and which is determined rather by their connec-
tions with the head and neck, than by their union
with other parts. The arms are therefore more
particularly Jiead-limbs,^ while the legs may be
called body limbs.

§ 9. We, therefore, assume that, so far as the
skeleton is concerned, motion originates in the spine,
is directed by the head, and is only followed up by the
limbs.

§ 10. The researches of comparative anatomists
have demonstrated, that the closest analogy exists
between relative parts of all the animals classed
as vertebratse (viz., such as have a spine composed
of bony blocks, or vertebrae, joined by Hgaments
into one flexible rod). For example, that the fore-
legs and fore-feet (heads-Umbs of quadrupeds)
answer to the arms and hands of a man, to the
wings of birds, and to the pectoral fins of fishes.

* Comparative anatomists have shown the propriety of the name
" Head-limbs" by tracing analogues of the shoulder-blades in some of
the lower animals (as fishes &c.,) in actual and close attachment to the
head.

21

They have shown that where, for lower animals,
certain parts of the higher ones disappear, repre-
sentative pieces may yet often be found, as for ex-
ample, pieces of bone, apparently useless, but
answering in position to the hip-bones of higher
animals, on the bodies of some serpents. They
have also made it very probable that Ugs and arms
are hut metamorphosed ribs.

§ 11. From this close analogy of structure, we
may infer a close analogy as to the principles
of locomotion among these animals, and we may,
therefore, look to those in which the motions of
the spine are the most obvious, and in which these
motions most immediately produce locomotion, for
a clue to its more obscure action in quadrupeds
and man.

Assuming, then, that the spine is the true basis
of all movement ; that its deformity, brought about
by permanent abnormal flexures, arising from an
unequal counter-action between muscles intended
to balance each other, is (where the frame is
otherwise healthy) the true cause of distorted ac-
tion ; and, that, to redress the shape of the spine, in
these cases, ivill be to redress the faults of motion in
all parts dependent on the spine, we proceed, in
the first place, to inquire how the spine acts.
2

22
PAET I.

THE snake's motion CONSIDERED AS IN A SIMPLE'
ELASTIC EOD.

§ 12. The snake seems to afford the best oppor-
tunity for observing the play of the spine. Its
locomotion is obviously produced, simply by the
action of its back-bone upon its ribs, the remote
end of the ribs being thrust against the ground,,
so as to propel the animal in the direction of the
general resultant of all the forces developed.

§ 13. On studying the mode of locomotion in
the snake, it is, we think, evident that this animal
propels its body with a succession of undulatory
curves, the flexures of which alternately replace
each other in such a manner that those portions
of the body which, during one act of propulsion,
are either convex or concave, become, respectively,
concave or convex for the next act.

§ 14. If we take a piece of twine, or, stiU better,,
of whip-lash (which, for description's sake, we will
suppose held perpendicularly before the face), and,,
holding an end in either hand, turn these ends in
contrary directions, so as to twist the intermediate
portion, we shall find that this central part wilL
xeadily form itself into flexures similar to those

23

which a snake produces in its body during loco-
motion.

For future nomenclature, we may liken each
division of the flexures, although the curvature be
not in a single plane, to the letter S, and we shall
then have an ess proper and an ess reversed al-
ternately throughout the series.

If we next completely untwist the piece of whip-
lash, and then, with the dii'ections of the counter-
turns exchanged, twist it again, we shall have
similar results, with the only exception that where
the curvature was a proper S, it will now be a
reversed S, and vice versa. In other words, re-
garding only the lateral aspects, where there vras a
concavity to the right we shall have a concavity to
the left, and where there was a convexity to the
right we shall have a convexity to the left.

We shall call each separate section of torsion an S,
half a section a C.

§ 15. Were the piece of whip-lash of perfectly
uniform consistence, and were all the rectilineal
elements of its cylinder drawn mth exact equahty
of force, it may be shown, we think, that a series
of somewhat one-sided cones, alternately point to
point and base to base, would be the result. But
by twisting it in the manner described, one set of

24

elements is more particularly drawn, and these are
the first ones to become stretched. It is along
these elongated lines that the convex aspects of
the turns occur, while the other parts are com,pressed
into concaves.

§ 16. If for the wliip-lash there be substituted
a firm but elastic cylindrical rod, the two diagonal
forces of rotary counter-traction, supplied by the
thumbs and fingers, may be replaced by two forces
of diagonal GownteY-'pressiire, the points of applica-
tion of which will be situated at opposite edges of
terminal horizontal planes at the ends of the rod.

Replacing then the piece of whip-lash by an
elastic cylindrical rod, terminated at each end by
plane surfaces cut perpendicularly to its length, the
rod being held perpendicularly before the face ;
replacing also the action of the fingers by two
compound forces, consisting each of a force of
pressure in the perpendicular plane and a force of
rotation, around the axis of the cylinder, in the
horizontal, the latter drawing the substance of the
cylinder with it ; let these forces be applied, one
on each terminal plane near the circumference, and
at diagonally opposite points, and while the forces
of pressure act in contrary directions, let the forces
of rotation act also in opposition to each other.

25

§ 17. We shall call the diagonal points, at which
the compound forces are applied, ^'Points of Ajjpli-
cation,'' and as we confine ourselves to rotaticm from
front to rear, there will be for every S two diagonal
pairs, or four points in all. The diagonal pairs
will replace each other in successive counter-actions
between their points.

§ 18. We shall, for easier illustration, always
consider an example in which the opposition of the
left upper and right lower forces begins the succes-
sive counter-actions. In this the left upper force
rotates from the front centre of the border of its
plane, by the left, to the rear centre. The right
loioer force likewise from the front centre, but by
the right to the rear. The action of the other pair
of diagonal points will then, mutatis mutandis, al-
ternate with these.

§ 19. The theory of the twists may then, we think,
be discussed as follows :

If we first bend the rod in the simplest manner,
i.e., by pressure, without rotation, appHed at j)erpen-
dicularly, not diagonally, opposite points, so that it
shall take the shape of a C, then a spring will be
formed ; and if, while one end of this spring is fixed,
the other end be liberated so that it can pass in
one line only, the force of the spring will be ex-

26

erted in the direction of tliat line. For example, if
we suppose a straight tube of smaller diameter than
the depth of the concavity of the C, to be held oyer
the upper end of the rod, while the lower end is im-
movably fixed, the spring will discharge itself in
the line of the tube.

§ 20. Let us next apply the counter-pressures at
diagonally opposite points. The pressure from
either point forms, as before, a concave beneath
the point, but this concave no longer forms one
with that under the other point. On the contrary,
the concaves being now on opposite sides are each
met by the pressure of an intermediate point, and
form an S, or two C C with their hollows in oppo-
site directions.

The straight line joining the two points of diag-
onal pressure, must cross the rod in a part of its
length determined by the nature of the rod, and
the ratio of the pressures to each other. In this
crossing all counter -tivisting forces from the points
of pressure will meet, and here more especially op-
pose each other.

We shall designate by the expression " Cross-
linej" this portion of the line joining the two diag-
onal points. This "cross-line" plays a very im-
portant part in the following theory of locomotion.

27

land as there will be two sucli lines, the one pro-
duced by the antagonism of the left upper and right
lower forces — the other by that of the right upper
and left lower, we shall discriminate the cross-lines
as left-riglit and right-left respectively. We shall
also name that end of either cross-line on which
an upper force draws the upper end, and that on
which a lower force draws the lower end,

§ 21. It is particularly to be observed that the
curvature under any point of pressure is always con-
cave.

§ 22. Straightening the rod again, let the point
at which the upper diagonal pressure is applied
(according to our standard example the left upper)
be placed at the front centre of its plane, and then
moved in rotation horizontally, the pressure con-
tinuing, and let the lower end of the rod be pre-
vented from following the movement so that it
offers merely a passive resistance to it. There will
then be a constantly increasing pressure exerted
below the moving point by the reaction through
the stretched linear elements of the rod.

The direct effects of the traction will be in a wind-
ing line passing from the point of apphcation, by
the front, half way around the rod, to the point
where it meets the resistance from the stationary

28

lower point of application, and which point is in
effect the " upper end of the cross-line."

So far as the rotary traction from the upper
point continues its course, by drawing on the upper
end of the " cross-line " (here situated on the right
side) it will produce a continuation of its winding
line from that end, by the rear, haK way around
the lower part of the rod, to a point at the lower
plane section, perpendicularly under and of course
collateral with its (the upper left point of applica-
tion) own position. We shall thus have a hehcal
line completely around the rod from a point on the
border of the upper plane section to a point per-
pendicularly under it on the border of the lower
plane section. This line, however, is interrupted
in its continuity of force by the "cross-Hne,"
which (kept in place by the passive resistance of
the lower pohit of application) continues the wind-
ing hne in just such proportion as it is moved from
its place against the resistance of its other end.

§ 23. The drawing on the substance of the rod
along the winding line will, by the reacting pressure,
produce concavities under the varying positions
of the rotating point, and the hne of these con-
caves, as also of their corresponding convexes, will^
of course, likewise be hehcal.

29

So far, also, as tlie end of the " cross-Hue " is-
drawn into rotation it Tvill produce concaves under
its course in the continuation of the mnding line.

Were the diagonally opi^osite lower " point of
application" in active working, it would produce
another winding hne in the opposite direction, un-
der similar conditions, viz : from the right side of
the lower plane, by the front, to the lower end of
the cross-hne, and thence (this cross-line end being
moved) completing the circuit, by the rear, to the
right side of the upper plane section.

§ 24. Two other such " winding hues " may be
developed fi-om the other two diagonal "points
of apphcation." At present we only consider the
diagonal points as acting by pairs, alternately.
The consideration of the two pairs, acting simul-
taneously, will be taken up further on.

§ 25. It will be observed then, that each of these
winding Hues consists of two sections ; the pri-
mary one, which passes from the point of applica-
cation to its end of the " cross-line ;" and a sec-
ondary one, formed by the traction from the cross-
line end, which passes to a point situated in a
perpendicular line fi'om the originatiQg point of
application.

The twisting of a cross-line is caused by the

2-

30

meeting of the primary sections of tlie two diag-
onal winding lines. It will be observed that the
secondary sections terminate each respectively at
what will be the point of application of the alter-
nate opposite line."^

§ 26. We shall designate each of the four wind-
ing Hnes by naming its point of departure which,
since their courses are entirely distinct, will fully
distinguish it thus : Upper lejt luinding line — loiver
right ivinding line — Upper right ivinding line — lower
left ivinding line.

§ 27. As regards the concaves produced by the
revolution of a single point of apphcation against
the simple passive resistance of its diagonal point,
those concaves more directly under the active
point will be the deepest and shortest, and in each
C there ivill he two gradations of curvature, of
lohich that most remote from the active point ivill he
the longest and least sharply inflexed. This last
point is of considerable moment.

§ 28. So soon as either one of a pair of diagonal
forces, drawing on its winding line, meets a cer-
tain amount of resistance through the cross-line,
whether from the active working, or the passive
resistance of the other point, its traction will be-

* To complete this section see note, § 39, and particularly § 201.

31

come more or less completely absorbed in the
cross-line, where it has to meet the contrary turn
of the opposite cross-Hne end.

Each point of application will move its end of
the cross-line in a direction contrary to its own
ooTirse. Thus, the left upper point of application
will move its (the right upper end) of the cross-line to
the left, by the front, and the right loiver point wiU
move its end {the left loiver) to the right, also by tlie
front. A new S cannot develop in the cross-hne,
but the influence of such an S will spread out
from it into the C C of the original curve.

This new S, arising in the centre of the old one,
from the reaction of the cross-line, will be twisted in
precisely contrary directions to the latter, and so far
as its influence develops, will tend to reverse the
original curvatures. In this way each upper end of
a cross-line will, as it were, turn up into the C above
it, and each lower end down into the G below it — re-
versing the curvatures from their positions and car-
rying a similar general effect throughout the C.

This principle, that every set of torsions will, when
(Mrried to a certain point, tend to reverse themselves,
lies at the foundation of the tlieory of locomotion.

§ 29. The new curvatures advance, not as the
old ones, from the extremities to the centre, but

32

from the centre to the extremities, and, if the orig-
inal curvatures could be discharged, and the ex--
tremities moved across each other, we should have
the first S replaced by another of reversed flex-
ures, and we should have the discharge of the orig-
inal curve of the rod so constrained by the nas-
cent one that its direction might be made entirely
perpendicular in both C C ; in a similar manner but
much more accurately than the discharge of the
simple C curve mentioned in § 19, was constrained
by the tube held over it.

The power of the nascent new shape will ba
largely exhausted in thus constraining the direc-
tion of the spring from the old, but a portion
would remain to join the alternating points of ap-
plication in impressing the similarly shaped new
curve upon the rod.

§ 30. If we examine more closely the lines of di-
rect and of reacting traction we think that the
manner in which a change of curvatures would
take place, if appropriate free articulations in the
course of the rod allowed the discharge of the first
cui've, may be explained as follows :

The contrary curvature arising in each C is
constraining the direction of the old curvature
throughout, and incipiently altering it at the cross

33

line end. Now, if we conceive of a half revolution
with a ball and socket joint at the junction of the
two C C, and at the centre of each, we can suppose
the escape of the old curve, and that the alternate
diagonal forces, coming immediately into play, ac-
cept the central parts of the new C C from the
cross-line ends, and, forming the remote parts from
the extremities, join in reciprocal counter-action
by new cross-lines.

The reversal of the curvatures would be accom-
panied by a spring, in each direction from the
cross-line as a point d'appui.

§ 31. The above gives a spring in two directions,
and no advance is made. To accomplish progres-
sive or retrogressive locomotion the spring must
have place in only one direction with a point of
first appui at one of the extremities of the rod, in
order to move in the direction of the other. The
cross-liae gives the requisite appui for the C remote
from the fixed appui (the ground or other basis),
and the reaction between this and the cross-line
furnishes the spring for the nearer one, and also
sustains the spring of the first.

§ 32. After the upper point of application has
formed the general cui'vatures of its winding line,
its further action will displace its end of the cross-

34

line toward its own side. This displacement of
tlie upper end of the cross-line will check the simi-
lar movement of the lower end to the opposite side,
when the diagonal lower point of apphcation acts.
Consequently when the "lower point of apphca-
tion," forming its "secondaiT section" first, has
prepared the upper C for discharge, by introduc-
ing into it a counter-ti'action and twist, and, next,
comes to form its own " piimary section," by mov-
ing the lower end of the "cross-line," it will find
this end immoveably fixed, and the forces gen-
erated by its rotation will thus be brought to bear
against the appui of lower end of the rod on the
ground^ (not against the cross-line) and be kept
against the groimd imtil the last moment of the
general discharge, when only, the lower end of
the cross-line may be moved.

Thus, the upper C being discharged, the lower C
will immediately follow, the latter acting, not
against the cross-hne, but in hannony with the
upper C against the upper terminal plane.

§ 33. The point of appui on the groimd for the
lower end will be on the side to which the whole
cross-line is maintained diu'ing the action, /. e., the

* If the lower cioss-line end be Hxecl to the left, this appiu will be
on the left side, and vice versa.

35

side collateral with the upper point of application.

§ 34. Were the rod laid horizontally on the ground
with the lower end at the rear, and the ground appui
of the now rear end provided for by some projection,
the now anterior C might at its convex side be
provided with an independent appui on the ground,
which should aid, not in projecting it forward, but
in forming the counter-actions which give the
spring. Tlds additional appui, by collecting force
from the anterior C, would raise it from the ground,
and not being on the side first thrust forward by
the changing curvature, would leave the ground after
the rear point of appui.

§ 35. We have considered only one S curve, but,
if there were to be a succession of them, the ac-
tion generated from one " point of application "
might be transferred from one S to the other until
all were thrown into form. In this case the junc-
tions of every two C C (of the S S, marked off fi'om
the top downward), even when they belonged to
different S S, might all be considered as contrary
" cross-lines," in reference to each other, but we
shall find it more consonant with facility of explan-
ation to suppose fresh "points of application" at the
terminal planes of junction of all S S, and " tjross-
lines at the junction of their C C."

36
PAET IT.

APPLICATION TO THE MOVEMENTS OF THE SNAKE.

§ 36. The actions and reactions which we have:
described for the rod are, we concei-ve, those which
take place in the body of the snake, and which pro-
duce its locomotion.

The two pairs of antagonistic forces, as then
brought into play, represent and are the resultants
of the general muscular action of the animal, ad-
ded to the elasticity of its ribs.

The various articulations of the spine, head and
ribs allow the discharge of the different alternating
twists.

§ 37. The head of the snake is coupled to the
back-bone by a perfect ball and socket joint. Of
the two parts of this joint, the ball is carried by
the head, and the socket by the head-end of the
back-bone.

In descriptions of the snake's action we must
change the terms upper and lower used in relation
to the rod, to anterior and posterior.

The head-joint then being a ball and socket, the
equivalents of the " points of application " and the
results of the " winding lines " in the rod, would,
as represented at the head-joint, in its actual or

37

relative movements, be as follows. We take the
left upper and right lower counter-actions.

(a) Accompanying the formation of the kft tipper
winding line, the left side of the head hall, acting as a
point of appHcation, revolves outward and backward.
This extends to its cross-line end, and then forms
the secondary section of the anterior winding line.

{a') Accompanying the movement of the upper
end of the cross-line, the pressure of the head-ball
turns in its course, passing forward and to the left, a
movement which, when constrained by the action
of the right posterior line, is made directly forward.
This moves the cross-line ends and draws tight the
primary section of the upper winding line.

(b) The tractions of the right lower Tvdnding line
cannot work at the head, and those of the left
upper line be maintained, unless by moving the
socket. The draioing of the right loiver loinding
line luould rotate the right side of the socket outward
and backward. This extends to its cross-line end,
and then forms the secondary section of the lower
winding Hne. Its action at the anterior end of
the socket resembles that of the condyle at its
posterior end.

(p') The action of the lower end of the cross-line

38

will give to the socket a forward moyement with a
turn to the right, but when constrained by the
action of the other winding line directly forward,
a' and h' combined tend to liberate the head-joint,
but, as will be noticed further on, the locomotive
gathering requires that a considerable part of h'
precede h.

§ 38. The outward motion of the right side of
the socket, if transformed into motion of the left
side of the head-ball, would double it, and the
■same for the motion of the head-ball in relation to
the socket motion.

§ 39. We think, then, that we may, for our
purposes, describe the movements, actual and rela-
tive, in the head-joint, as follows, for the left-right
opposition of forces.

{a) The head-hall performs a rotary movement
to the left and backward, pressing downward on
the left lateral heniisphere of the socket. This
pressure passes forward.

{h) The right-haK hemisphere of the socket
performs a rotary movement to the right and
backward, at the same time drawing itself away
from the corresponding part of the head-ball, and
consequently raising the left side of the socket under

39

the active side of the head-ball, and increasing the
pressure exerted by it.^

The socket also moves forward.

§ 40. It will be observed that the outward
movements, both of head-ball and socket, are in
opposition to the central forward movement of
the head-ball, and the force of each movement
being retained in the body by the setting of the
muscles, there will be a straining point between
the head-ball and socket, about the centre of the
joint.

If the advance of the socket, which finally
reheves this strain, were made in anticipation of
the outward rotation of the socket, the joint would
not be freed until this rotation were accomplished.

§ 41. These different positions of the head-baU
answering to those of the upper, now front points
of application, act in conjunction with a greater or
less number of subordinate front " points of appli-
cation" at the junction of the different S S formed
in the body of the snake. As mentioned in § 35,
these points are similar to the cross-Line points,
but, it seems to us, that it is only the section planes

* This separation is caused by the posterior winding line, and this line
participates, throughout its course, in having its elements of pressure
reflected to the opposite side, as are those of the separating socket, in
fact, to the convex sides.

40

across every second change of C which primarily
act in connection with the originating movement,
or winding line formed by the leading point of ap-
pHcation. The intermediate planes do not become
planes of pressure until the movement of the sub-
sidiary point of appHcation [^. e., not the leading
point] affects the cross-lines. For this and for
other reasons, we find it more convenient to treat
of the planes at the commencement and ending of
S S as containing points of application.

§ 42. The winding lines from the head having
been formed, and a succession of heUcal turns
shaped against the passive resistance of the succes-
sive posterior points of application, then active
counter-action begins from the rearmost of these
latter points, and its effects are transferred forward
from point to point, actually estahlisJiing first in the
anterior cross-line, and then in each succeeding
cross-line the latent reversal of their respective S S.

The whole force is thus centred on the head, and
when this, by its actual or relative movement, re-
leases the front point of aj^plication, the winding
line from the rear point cutting, as it were, through
the body of the snake, allows the development of the
spring, and becomes, on the opposite aspect of
each C, the new alternating anterior winding line.

41

In this case, where we have begun with the left
anterior and right posterior, the latter becomes the
right anterior line leading, and the left posterior
will develop on it.

§ 43. Although the general action is the same,
and, on the theory of each interior point of appli-
cation being in a cross-hne, we might consider each
C from the front as replacing the one in rear, and
each from the rear as replacing the one in front,
yet we shall, for reasons which will appear when
the locomotion of the higher animals is taken up,
first consider the action of each as simple and un-
connected with others.

In general action, the head is steady, and the
spine moves from or against it at the socket ; but,
since the forces are gathered against the head-ball
as a focus — since the ultimate result is as if the
head gave a final covering tvnat, and since it seems
to facihtate explanation — we shall suppose the head
to move.

§ 44. The spine or back-bone of the snake,
which represents the simple elastic rod of the pre-
ceding discussion, is made up of a large number of
httle blocks of bone called vertebrae. These are
jointed to each other by means of a convex surface
on the rear of one vertebra, fitting into a concave

42

surface in the front of tlie next. Thus the utmost
freedom of motion is allowed, and the numerous
powerful muscles make of the spine a rod of al-
most perfect elasticity, and capable of all the nec-
essary adjustments.

The rihs, by which the snake must evidently
take its final appui for all motion, are set by pairs —
one rib on either side of every vertebra, so that
the courses of their articulations form parallel
lines, from head to tail, on each side of the spine.
These articulations are formed each by a socket of
two slight concavities on the upper end of the rib,
moving on a protuberance from the vertebra which
carries corresponding convexities."^

Thus set on, the ribs support the spine like so
many curved springs bowing outward.

At their ground ends each one of a pair of ribs
is connected with its fellow by a ligamentous hand^
and these bands offer the medium by which, in
transverse continuation of the lower ends of the
ribs, the animal takes hold of the ground.

§ 45. If we call the position of the rihs in their
sockets, as the snake lies extended, their normal
'position, and assume, for the moment, that the rib

* This diflers from the analogous articulalions in the higher ani-
mals, where the rib carries the ball, and the sockets are between
two vertebrae.

43

does not move in its articulation, then, when, by
the formation of torsion curvatures in the spine,
the facings of the protuberances on the vertebrae
are changed, viz., to the front, by coming on the
anterior portion of a convex, or the posterior por-
tion of a concave, and to the rear by coming on
the posterior portion of a convex, or the anterior
of a concave — it is obvious, that the facings of the
ribs will be changed correspondingly. The con-
cave inner surface of each rib will be in the snake
turned toward the rear when the ball of its articu-
lation is turned to the front, and to the front when
the ball is turned to the rear.

We shall ahvays speak of a rib as ^^ facing forward
or hackiuard,'' with reference to its concave surface.
Thus the ribs on the anterior half of convexities,,
and posterior half of concavities, face backward,
the ribs on the remaining halves forward.

§ 46. If next, the ribs in any facing be pressed
against the ground, so that their ground ends are
firmly fixed ; then an altered facing of their articu-
lations, such as would be caused by the commence-
ment of a change to the opposite curvatures in the
spine, will introduce a twist into the C shape of
each rib, thus changing it into a twisted S ; and
when this twist is discharged at the articulation, in

u

the manner we are about to describe, one of tbe
turns will give force, forward or backward, to the
ensuing spring, and, as in the case of the spine, or
rod, the other turn will control the direction of the
spring.

§ 47. We may consider the cylinder formed by
the spine, the ribs, and the ligamentous connec-
tions between the rib ends, as a compound spine, in
which the idea that the elastic rod of our previous
discussion should be able to release its twists of
one form, so as to accept those of the replacing
form, is carried out.

If this be allowed, we see that the fundamental
action of every portion of the machinery for loco-
motion is the action of the double twisty viz., a turn
in one direction met bv a turn in the contrary
direction, and under the rule that one of these
turns being Hberated it is guided as to the direc-
tion of its discharge by the constraining influence
of the other.

For example, a rib faced with its concave for-
ward, by reason of the contour of the spine, under
its articulation, and, becoming twisted by a turn
in fche contrary direction, will, finally, with the
reversing action of the cross-line of its spinal S,
spring at the moment when the shape of the spine

45

is changed. It ivill then he the primary turn ivhicli
discharges itself against the spinal articulation, and
tliis gives the locomotive force, the other turn
merely guiding the direction.

The primary turn would be in the reverse direc-
tion for a different succession of twists, \dz., such
as would have place fiom beginning with a rear
point of application, but, if we be not mistaken,
the ribs of the common snake are, normally, so
inclined as to bring the concave surface to the
front, when they are not in action, a circumstance
wliich would indicate that the final slip at the
articulations is always forward. We expect to
show how locomotion backward may be produced
with an anterior point of application leading, and
it is, we suppose, for this reason, viz. : retrogres-
sion being, in vertebrate animals, derived from
progressive action, that motion backward is some-
what awkward in comparison with the motion
forward.

There is one species of snake, the amphishoena,
which, it is said, moves with equal facility in
either direction. Whether in these the ribs are
so set on that they may discharge by a slip back-
ward, as well as forward, and so, readily, inter-

46

change the leading points of apphcation, we are-
not able to say.

Of the two articulating surfaces on the rib pro-
tuberance (§ 44), which constitute the ball portion
of the rib and spine-joint in the snake, we should
imagine that the rearmost one receives the press-
ure when the concavity of the rib faces forward,
the anterior one when it faces backward.

§ 48. Returning to the action of the head-ball,
and of its socket (which latter is carried by the
first vertebra of the spine), we will endeavor to
carry out the principles stated, to a connection
with the ribs, &g., when concentrating the spring
for an act of progressive locomotion.

(a) (§§ 39, 37). The head-ball rotates from the
left, by the rear, and toward the right, making
pressure in the left hemisphere of its socket, un-
der which a concave forms and its continued ac-
tion forms [against the passive resistance of the
right rear point of application, i. e., one of the
rear rib articulations on the right side], the "left
anterior winding line" (§ 25) in its secondary sec-
tion, i. e., in the posterior C of the S.

{a') The continued rotation of the head-ball,,
against the passive resistance of the right rear
j)oint of application, after it has formed its second-

47

ary section brings around the upper end of its
cross-line, to the left and front, forming fully the
primary section of the left anterior winding line.
The head-ball passing further around comes to a
check, so as to press against a point toward the
front of the socket, and somewhat to the left of its
front centre.

(b') (Which, in a part of its development pre-
cedes h, § 37). The now commencing active work-
ing of the right rear point of application does
not at first form the secondary section of its
winding line, which would form in the anterior
C of the S, that being prevented by the full
formation of the anteiior hne which has dis-
placed the upper end of the cross-hne, and thus
checks the movement of the lower end, so,
indeed, that this end cannot fully draw until
the discharge of the anterior line allows it to
come again into traction. The action, then first,
forms part of the primary section of the rear line,
and introduces the change of curve, from the cross-
line end, first IT? to the rear Cgivinj the counter-turn to
the ribs along its convex. Its effect in the head-joint
is to move the socket forward, but at the same time
with a turn to the right, which brings the left an-

48

terior line point of pressure back to the centre from
its inclination to the left mentioned under (a).

(b) The continuation of the active working of
the right rear point of appHcation next, causes its
secondary section, which is the nascent reverse
cui've to begin in the anterior C, spreading from
the upper end of the cross-line, as its formation
forces this end backward from the forward position
into which it has been drawn by the formation of
the primary section of the anterior line. This
nascent curve gives the second turn to the ribs
along the convex of this C, as the partial develop-
ment of h', which is the nascent reverse ciu've for
the posterior C, did to the ribs on its convex.

Finally the commencement of the alternate (here
the right anterior luinding line by the raovement of
the right anterior point of ai^plication, beginning with
the development of its secondary section (a) tvill first
discharge the rear C, and so on ; the old right rear
winding line becoming the new anterior winding
line, by cutting through the articulations. But a
closer examination of the action of the ribs, <fec.,
will show more clearly how each point discharges
its spring.

It is evident that, if the head were gi'aduaUy
shifted to the right so as to bring the posterior

49

point of application to tlie same relative position
it would take by active movement, all these effects
could be brought about by the movement of the
left head condyle, against the passive resistance of
the rear point, continued throughout.

§ 49. As has been already mentioned, the num-
ber of S S formed in the elastic rod, as well as
their relative proportions, would be dependent on
conditions involved in its structure ; so in the
snake's body, where these conditions must depend
very much on the will of the animal, the number
of S S and their proportions may probably be
regulated at its pleasure. In man and quadrupeds,
however, they are fixed, in both respects by the
form of the mechanism.

§ 50. There is one other set of actions which
might be here discussed, viz., those arising from
both pairs of diagonal forces acting simultaneously,
but, as it seems to us doubtful whether the snake,
having no unyielding breast-bone, be capable of
using them, and since they may be as well and
more conveniently taken up, when speaking of the
higher animals, vv^e defer them for the present, ex-
cepting, so far as they are spoken of in § 71 and
onward.

§ 51. In the different facings of the protuber-

50

ances of the spine, with which the ribs articulate,
the ribs will be thrown more or less upon the outer
or the inner edge of their ground ends, and, being
bent against the ground on one edge, the introduc-
tion of a counter-turn, though this be only poten-
tial and latent as regards the spine, will yet bring
the bearing of the ribs on the contrary edge, to
that on which they at first rested.

We believe that two bevels — an inner and an
outer — are found on the ground ends of the snake's
ribs ; but, however this may be, the change from
outer to inner side (or vice versa) of the feet which
furnish the appuis on the ground in the higher animals
is a marlzed feature of their locomotion, and we may
observe a no less marked distinction in the succes-
sive application of the two sides of the palm of the
hand in man, when this member is perfectly used.

We shall often employ the terms innner and outer
hearings (or levels when speaking of the edges of
the ground ends of the snake's ribs, and also of the
two sides of the feet in quadrupeds, and of the
feet and hands in man.

§ 52. It will be noticed that, in the snake, the
helices of the spine appear from the extreme
pliableness of the ribs, to be more or less flattened,
so that the body seems to move chiefly by curva-

51

tures in the horizontal plane. The spine, however,
retains its helical curvature, and there is real action
in the perpendicular plane.

§ 53. We will then suppose that the ground
end of each rib is terminated by hoo heveJs, so cut
that on one of them — the outer — the rib shall rest
when faced to the front (§ 45) and before receiving
any secondary turn ; on the other of them — the inner
— ichen faced to the rear and under the same con-
dition. Then the ribs which are in appui according
to § 48 (a) will, before they have received a second
turn, rest as follows : those on the anterior part of
a convex (being faced to the rear) on their inner bevels
— those on the posterior part of a convex (being faced
to the front), on their outer bevels. Should the ribs of
concaves be put in appui the order would be
reversed.

§ 54. The forces act, primarily, along the con-
vexes, and the appuis are normally on the ribs
articulated along the two convexes of each S.
Should the ribs of a concave take the place of those
of a convex as appuis, the forces would act on them
only secondarily, i. e., as a sequence of the action
along the convexes.

Supposing the left anterior point of application
in action : As the winding liue is formed and the

52

anterior end of tlie cross-libe is drawn around ta
the right, the ribs on the right of the first C and
on the left of the second (here being the two con-
vexes of the S), will be in appui, and those on the
concaves will be raised. The ribs along the pos-
terior parts of the convexes being already on their
outer bevels, the further traction from the left
anterior point of application, when it begins to
move the front cross-line end will increase this
bearing on the outer bevels.

§ 55. The effect of continued hehcal traction of
the left anterior winding line throughout the con-
vexes, that is to say, in both the posterior and
anterior convex, is finally to turn all the ribs artic-
ulated along them outward. Even those in the
front portions (faced to the rear) will be thus
affected, so soon as, with the straightening of the
line, the upper cross-hne end permanently moves,
and they come under its direct influence.

The posterior part of the secondary section of
the line (§ 23) is first affected ; then the upper
end of the cross-hne, being somewhat moved,
affects the posterior part of the primary section,
and so on until the secondary section, having
reached its hmit, the upper Cross-line end is more
absolutely subject to the traction.

53

The effect of the posterior winding hne on the
same articulations, along the convexes, is to turn
them inward.

The reciprocal cross-cutting of these lines in the
convexity articulations is the means of their discharge
with the spring ivhich they Imve gathered, so soon
as it is Hberated.

§ 56. The double t^sdsting of the convexity ribs
may receive and retain the elements of the dis-
charge, as produced in them by the diagonal wind-
ing lines, before the cui'vatures of the spine are at
all affected.

As was mentioned in § 32, the displacement of
the cross-line by the anterior winding line — in this
case to the left — brings on a reaction to the poste-
rior line from the head, and the rear cross-line
end will not draw until a final exertion of the rear
"point of application," or a redoubled working of
the anterior point (§ 38j restores it to its place.

§ 57. We should suppose the discharge to take
place as follows :

The left anterior winding line, having estab-
lished the light anterior, and left posterior, con-
vexes. The posterior line works — with reaction
at the head — from the rear of each convex ; and
the first effect of this working is to double-twist
3*

54

the ribs on the rear posterior halves of the con-
vexes, and change their outer to an inner bearing

(§ 51).

This being done, the final movement draws the
posterior end of the cross-line and anterior termi-
nation of the right posterior winding line [which
results in the outward turn to the rear of the right
hemisphere of the head socket (§ h, § 39, etc.),] so
into place, that the winding lines cut each other
through the anterior halves of the convexes, also
changing the inner bearing of their ribs to an
outer one. The discharge is thus virtually com-
pleted, and the body in position for the alternate
gathering, if the alternate anterior point of appli-
cation come at once into play.

§ 58. The posterior halves of the convexes,
being virtually discharged by the complete draw-
ing— although not the cutting — of the lines, are
thus actually discharged ; the 'posterior, when the
posterior cross-line end receives the full traction
of the posterior winding line ; the anterior, when
the alternate anterior point of application begins
its working. Or, perhaps, rather the whole dis-
charge is only virtual, until this last action occurs,
when the actual discharge and spring rai3idly

55

take place, beginniiig with the rearmost appui,
in the succession mentioned.

It ^\all be remarked that the coui-se of the cutting
line coming from the opposite side, for the ribs on
the posterior halves, the line first takes effect in the
trunk, and thence ascends to the articulations, where-
as, coming for the anterior halves fi'om their own
sides, it descends at the posterior cross-line, and at
the head-ending of the posterior " winding line,'" from
the articulations, into the trunk.

In these movements the secondary section work-
ing of the anteiior ^nnding line, in the posterior C,
represents the turning (a) of the head condyle. Its
primary section working, including the action of
the anterior cross-line end, represents (a ' ) the pas-
sage of the condyle pressure across the head-joint
to its front. The secondary section working of
the posterior winding hne in the anterior C, repre-
sents the turning (h) of the socket by its outer
edge. Its primary section working in the posterior
O, which partially anticipates the secondary, be-
cause the posterior cross-line end is checked in its
movement, represents (b ' ) the passage of the socket
action across the head-joint to the front.

On the sides, also, the crossing of these lines
could be projected as ball and socket surfaces, the

56

anterior line, then, tracing the sockets, as it pro-
duces the concaves of the alternate curve, and the
posterior line the balls, as it produces the alternate
convexes.

The figure of 8 shape, as developed in the hall and
socket movement, one half by the ball and one half
by the socket, or, by the cutting of two contrary
hehces, seems to lie at the foundation of all locomotion^
and perhaps of all kinds of motion, including that
of the final atoms, pressure and rotation being its
elements. This connection of an 8 shape with lo-
comotion has, we believe, been noticed by several
authors.

§ 59. It will be noticed, further, that (§ 27j the
posterior part of each G, as formed by the leading
point of application (here the left anterior), is the
longest, being furthest from the originating point,
and consequently carries the greater number of
ribs. The anterior ribs of each convex, then, dis-
charge their inward turn causing a spring back-
ward (§ 47), against the action of the numerically
preponderating ribs of the posterior parts, which
discharge their outward turn, causing a spring for-
ward. The anterior ribs of each convex will then
take the role of lifting the section while the posterior
ribs drive it fortvard.

57

§ 60. So soon as the continued advancement of the
'potential change of curvature extends its effects actual-
ly to the spine, a discharge is prepared in which the
posterior C is so far discharged and hfted as to crowd
forward the effect of propulsion on to the anterior
C, and their united discharge thrusts the body
forward by a movement in which the rear ribs of
an S really precede the front ones in leaving the
ground.^

The changing of the curvature of the convexes
from one side to the other has, owing to the con-
vex being the part which primarily foUows the
lines of traction, this characteristic, that iJie convex
passes over, the concave under, in making the
change.

§ 61. The ribs on the concaves do not change their
facing until the actual change in the shape of the spine
brings this about by changing the direction of their
articulating heads.

§ 62. The above stated conditions, when each
section of ribs has been twisted by the turns last
introduced into a position for discharging the pri-
mary ones, at once divide the ribs on any convex,
or concave (should such be in appui), into two sets,

* The same crowdiug forward of the action would occur were there
a number of S S.

58

tIz., those about to discharge in the direction for
progression, in the one case, or retrogression in the
other, which we shall term Propelleks, and those
iibout to discharge in the opposing direction, which
we shall term Bearers, since they raise the body
sufficiently to clear the ground.

If the torsions by both anterior and posterior
points of apphcation work together so that neither
end of the cross-line shall (as in § 32) displace the
other, the spring will take place against the cross-
line as a centre of appui, and the result will be a
perpendicular locomotion, in which case there will be
an equal division between the bearers and propel-
lers in each C.

§ 63. If the rear point of application were made
the leading point, the reverse of the preceding ac-
tion would take place, and in a snake whose struc-
ture allowed this mode of action, retrogression
would follow. In such a case the ribs discharging
to the fi'ont would be " hearers,'' but as this mode
of action will not be considered normal we confine
that term to ike anterior ribs in each G.

§ 64. As to the order in which the alternating
ribs come to the ground, this will depend upon the
degree of gathering attained while " en air." The
propellers of the rear 0, as it were, running over

59

theii" bearers and receiving the proper lift from
tliem, quitted the ground first ; then these bearers ;
next, the ribs of the front C, in the same order.
Now, as, in this way, the rear C alters its curva-
ture before the front C, and this alteration com-
mences at its rear, the alternate propellers of the
rear C will, the first, be read}^ to take the ground,
then its bearers ; and in the same order for the
fi'ont C — that is, the new appuis will ground in
the same order that the old ones lifted. To ac-
complish this, we suppose the gathering "en air"
must have proceeded as far as the drawing of the
right (alternate) point of aj^plication upon the an-
terior end of the alternate cross-line, and the pass-
age of the head-ball pressure to the front. (§ 48.)
But, there are two conditions which may cause
the anterior C to reach the ground in advance of
the rear C. 1st. If the bearers of that C have not
sufficiently raised it, in which case, even if the
propellers of the front C should land before the
bearers, the anterior Hne-gathering w^ould be made
on the ground, and in a somewhat awkward man-
ner ; 2d. If the spring approach the nature of a
jump, and the gathering "en aii'" proceed as far
as the commencement of the active workmg from

60

the alternate posterior (here left) point of applica-
tion, theil the bearers of the front C in the new
curve — the head end of each S being the most
weighted and the sustaining force having ex-
hausted itself — would be the first to reach the
ground.

§ 65. It may here be remarked that, to ensure
smooth action and to maintain the head in un-
swerving steadiness, it would seem requisite that
two or three vertebrae immediately behind the
head should be free from the ground, and thus act
as a neck, or adjusting connection between the head
and the median point between the two first ribs
which, as their articulations, alternately come to
the centre line, must otherwise give it a certain,
lateral motion.

§ QQ. The Scutce, or ligamentous connections
between the ground ends of each pair of ribs
(before alluded to) being flexible, accommodate
themselves to the position of the bevels. They
act, we should suppose, as follows : When the
propellers come to the ground, on their outer
bevels, the posterior edges of their sides of the
scutse press against it, when they take appui on
their inner bevels this edge is pressed downward

61

against the ground to secure a firm resistance in?
appui of the gathering.*

The twisting of the scutae also may have some-
influence in adjusting the bevels of the ribs " en
air."

§ 67. We will now give a short resume of the
foregoing theory of the progressive locomotion of
the snake.

There are for each diagonal spring two virtual
actions at the head-joint.

First. That produced by the moving pressure of
the head-hall and consisting (a) of the passage of
the pressui'e around' the edge of the socket on the
side of the active anterior " point of application.'*
(In our example the left), {a '.) Of its passage-
from the rear, across the middle of the socket, and
(unless the opposing action have begun) to its own
side of the front centre.

Second. That produced by the moving and re-
traction (as to the moving t side), of the socJ^et, un-^
der the side of the head-ball, opposite to that just

*That is, only the posterior edge acts (speaking of the propellers).
The backward bearing of the spring in perfect motion is included en-
tirely within the rib or limb of appui, that element of the force not com-
ing to the ground— were it not for this no locomotion could be obtained
on ice where the weight pressing forward secures the gathering, buti
would not secure the spring.

1 1. e., side which leads the movement.

62

mentioned, and consisting (5 ' ) of the bringing back
of the point of pressure to the front centre, and
that moving forward of the socket which prepares
the liberation of the strain forward (b). The fur-
ther movement of the socket by rotation outward
in the opposite direction to that of the head-ball.
This is more particularly accompanied by retrac-
tion of the moving side of the socket, and by rais-
ing the other side it redoubles the pressure of the
head-ball.

We have called these actions "virtual," because
they may, during a considerable part of their
movement, only represent thfe tractions of the
twisted lines of the spine.

§ 68. The actions in the tody of the snake which
accompany these actions of the head joint, are

Corresponding with (a), those of the secondary
sections of the anterior winding line (§ 25), causing
the prehminary part of the formation of a
greater or less number of S S curves, of which
the posterior C C are longer than the anterior, and
also the posterior part of each C longer than its
anterior part. In this way the posterior curvature
of each C carries more ribs than the anterior, and
thus, in each C the "propellers" preponderate over

63

the "bearers." The "propellers" rest on their
outer, the " bearers" on their inner bevels.

Corresponding with fa'), the drawing on the
anterior ends of the cross lines, which takes effect
chiefly in the jirimary section of the anterior winding
line (§ 25). This produces an increased bearing of
the propellers on their outer bevels and, to some
extent a turning outward of the bearers.

(Jorrespondiyig with ih'), the check which would
be given to the rear points of the cross-lines, in
following the anterior points is, by the strong work-
ing in the primary section of the posterior winding
line — the rear points being prevented fi'om moving
(§ 32) — received at the head. It brings the pro-
pellers on to their inner bevels, double twisting
them — first those of the rear C C, by action pro-
perly belonging to h, then those of the anterior C C,
by action of the secondary section ; and this
through the S S in succession, from rear to front.
So far as it influences the bearers it turns them
outward.

Corresponding ivith (h), the full formation of the
primary section of the posterior winding line, as the
rear ends of the cross-lines come into place ; the
turning outward of the bearers and complete

64

bringing to the discharge point of the propellers by
turning them inward.

Finally, corresponding with action (a) of the
alternating side of the head-ball, the liberation of
these gatherings and the instantaneous formation
of the corresponding movements under (a).

Remarhs. — The discharge actually alters the shape
of the spine, giving the final adjustment to the
articulations of the concaves for taking the ground.

If the motion be of a rapid, powerful character,
the hinder S S will not only be first brought to the
point of discharge, but will first leave the ground,
and be the first to come down ; the whole body,
however close to the groimd, being in air at the
same moment ; but if the movement be more
sluggish, the front S S must the first leave and the
first come to the ground.

The point that (a) {aMot even a ' ) form en air,
when the locomotion is once begun, is a most import-
ant one.

It will often be most convenient to describe the
whole course of an action by referring it to the
head-joint movements, without going through the
details of the spinal workings.

§ 69. From the position of readiness to dis-
charge, where (b) is carried out, three different

65

results may follow, according to the further move-
ments which may be given to the head-ball and
socket-joint.

First result — progression, as above described.

§ 70. Second result — retrogression, if, instead of
at once beginning the alternate movement of the
light anterior point of application, the discharge
be refused. Then any further movement of the
left side of the head-ball being prevented, and the
attempted rotation of the right side of the socket
outward being continued, this latter movement will
be reduplicated in its effects on the left side of
the socket, and, being inoperative in reducing the
position of the ball on the same side, will, by
resiliency, take effect in raising the opposite (right)
side of the socket and carrying it forward. In the
same way, the ball motion of the left side being
reduplicated, the ball vrill be pressed down and
carried backward on the right side. We shall
thus have the head-joint in full position of the
alternate gathering, while the ribs, <fcc., still retain
the old one.

The effect of these actions on the points of
gravity will be to throw, by the first, the appui,
off the convexes, upon the concaves of the first

66

C C ; and, by the second, upon the concaves of the
rear convexes, in each S.

As now the moyement of the socket discharges
the first, tJie front C C will be discharged the first,
then the rear C C, in each S separately ; and, the
appiiis now being on ribs faced in the exactly
opposite directions to those on the convexes, the
movement will be backward instead of forward.

The ribs of the concaves, as thus used in retro-
gression, will leave and take the ground from the
opposite bevels to those from which they would
have left and taken it had they been on a convex
in progression.

The convexes, being still the parts primarily
affected by the tractions (§ 54), and the appuis,
now only changing their bearings with the actual
change of the spinal curves (§ 61), the springs of
the two C C in each S will be more synchronous in
retrogression than in progression.

§ 71. Third result. The effect of an attempted
repetition of any one of the four movements of the
ball and socket on the same track, that is not
allowing any transformation of one movement into
another, wiU be to pass a part of the gathering to
the opposite side, or, rather, perhaps, to give back
part of the gathering belonging to that point of

67

appKcation which may be supposed to have just
discharged.

By thus forcing in succession all the movements^
after a full diagonal gathering, we obtain — as we
would by the synchronous action of both sets of
diagonal forces — that superimposition of torsions to
which reference was made in § 43, and in regard
to which doubts were there expressed as to the
capability of the snake to use this double gather-
ing in continuous locomotion.

By " superimposition of tivists" we would desig-
nate the result of both the pairs of diagonal forces
being in action simultaneously. The lateral shapes-
of both curves will then be suppressed, although
the corresponding forces will stiU lie latent in the
spine. On the other hand, the shapes in the per-
pendicular plane mil remain, since they do not act
against each other.

When these curvatures in the perpendicular plane
are fully gathered, the junction of the two C C of each
S, where the convexes formed by the two diagonal
sets of forces cut each other, will be depressed, as
will likewise the anterior and posterior seats of the
" points of application," where the courses of these
points cut each other. Between these the inter-
mediate portion of each C C will rise and there

68

will be formed for each S two arches in the perpen-
dicular plane, one for each C. The upper lines of
the arch repesents the opposed convexities which have
met in their passage over (§ 60). The loiver lines the
corresponding concaves.

§ 72. We will now follow out the details of
forcing, or attempting to repeat, the various move-
ments of the head-ball and socket — assuming the
usual order of the actions, and that the gathering
from the diagonal left anterior and right posterior
winding lines has been carried to the j^oiut of dis-
charge, which implies that it can be carried no
further. We shall also speak of only a single S.

As regards the ball and the socket themselves,
the attempt at forcing the left anterior point of ap-
plication to repeat its course along the circumfer-
ence of the left side of the socket will cause the
pressure of the ball to slij) over to the right side
of the socket, by the rear — and when the rigid pos-
terior winding line is subsequently forced, an at-
tempt at a repetition of the effects of that line at
its head-end will take place in the movement of
the right side of the socket, producing an analgous
result, viz. : the withdraAval of the socket on the left
side by the rear, the countei-part of its previous ac-
tion on the right side. Thus a cross-strain from

69

the cross-tractions of the body will be preserved,
but the lateral developments will be suppressed,
their effects being carried toward the front (or in
the snake, lower part) of the joint.

Similar effects of passing over a portion of the
gathering to the alternate points would result/^'om
the attempt to force the socket motions brought on by
the working of the diagonal right posterior point
of application. And also even beginning with the
points which correspond to the final movement of
the primary sections of the winding lines, although
these last would require a subsequent adjustment
with the secondary sections, from having been car-
ried out in advance of the regular course of move-
ment.

It is the rotary movements (a) and (b), § 37, i. e.,
those ivhich accompany the formation of the secondary
sections of the winding lines, that produce the arches.
The movements across the joint from rear tofront,
(a ') {b ' ), i. e., those ivhich accompany the primary
sections in their special movement, that depress the
planes of the cross-lines and points of application.

§ 73. Let us now look at the accompanying
formations along the lines of traction. In doing
this, we must bear in mind that the Hues of trac-
tion are not permanent lines, but exist by certain
4

70

points of the skeleton being in such positions that
the muscular actions play on them in certain ways.
Thus, if the point where the anterior end of the
cross-line for the right anterior winding Une should
be brought to a certain position in relation to the
right anterior point of application, the preliminary
form of the primary section of that Hne will be
formed, and so on.

The first effect of forcing the left anterior point of
apphcation will be the passing over of a portion
of the gathering from the secondary section of
the left anterior winding Hne to what will be the
course of the right anterior hne. This transfer
will begin, Jirst, by the formation of a certain
amount of convexity to the right, at the posterior
end of the rear C, i. e., allowing of the passage
without a spriyig of a certain amount of the left
side gathering.

Second. The forcing of the movement (a ' ) will, at
the same time, bring back the anterior cross-line
end of the left anterior winding line to the centre
and advanced to the front, and also cause the ad-
justment of the point, on the left side of the spine,
which should serve as anterior cross-hne end for
the right anterior point of apphcation, so that it
shall come into a similar position.

71

Third. The forcing of the movement [h'). Here
it will be remembered that the cross-line end being
held in check (§ 32), the reaction to the right pos-
terior point of application was at the head. The
movement forward, across the joint of the socket
will, therefore, first be equalized for both sides,
and, then, the primary section drawing, the pos-
terior end of the cross-line will be brought into
place to the front, and the point which should
serve as posterior cross-hne end in the left pos-
terior winding line be likewise similarly adjusted.
The requisite displacement for both now occurs to the
front.

Fourth. The forcing of (b), i. e., of the outivard
rotation of the right side of the socket, compl-etes the
adjustment of the cross-line ends, forms the left
convex of the anterior C equal with that of the
right side, and finally equalizes the reciprocal press-
ure of head-ball on both sides of the head-joint.

Remarks. — Referring to what was said in regard
to the lines of traction depending for existence
upon the relative situation of points in the skel-
eton, it is evident that when the super imposition of
twists (§ 71) is completed, the diagonal lines may
disappear, and tJie tractions become collateral. The

72

diagonal relations, however, would be restored by
very slight movements of the points.

§ 74. We have considered the right posterior
point of application as actively working in the
above movements of excessive action, but, since
there is no spring, the induced action of this point
by the continued working of its diagonal anterior
point (the leftj must be the actual course of the
movement, and ive may regard the head ball action in
the left side of the socket as the only active one
throughout. The secondary forcing point being
active only in a sufficient degree to gather up
in counter-action the line developed by the leading
one.

In fact, the difference between halting, by equalizing
the four ivinding lines, as above, and locomotion, is
that, in thejirst, the subsequent lines are formed by
induction from the leading one, its action being the
moving principle throughout ; and as the effects are
distribided through the frame, the first movement is
continually repeated, while in the second the lines form
independently and separately.

Of course the snake may halt by merely ceasing
the action with wliich it is moving, say just as it
has come to the ground with the anterior point
gathering, and when its shape would be that of the

73

simple S S curves. We have selected the third result,
not that it is the animal's usual way of halting,
but, that it is the one important for our purpose.

§ 75. To retake diagonal gathering from the
shape of " superimposition of twists," or, as it might
be termed, " double diagonal- gathering," it will not
be necessary to repeat the diagonal workings of
counter-action, for, since both gatherings are now
present, the yielding of their lines of traction by
one pair of forces to the other, or the overcoming
of one pair of forces by the other, will restore the
one-pair gathering on the shghtest movement of
the head.

§76. The "Third Kesult" will form the basis
of the system of Setting-up.

§ 77. It should seem that the perfect locomotive
actions of all animals are directed by the eyes.

"Whether the eyes lead these actions, or only
form a pivot for them, the steady point of every
movement centres on the eye-pupil. It is necessary,
therefore, that these poles of all the described
cui'ves should be freed fi'om the necessity of ac-
companying any particular part in its movements.
Such freedom is obtained partly by the appropria-
* tion of two or three vertebrae to form a neck, and
partly by an independent discharge of the real or

74

relative turning movements of the eyeballs. The dis-
charge is secured by a peculiar arrangement which
gives a steady appui to the ball, during the instant
in which the small muscles that move it, discharge
the twists received by them in accommodating
themselves to the lines of traction of the body. The
muscle on the inner side of each eye is made much
longer than the others, and instead of simply fixing
itself on the inner surface of the front of the eye-
ball socket, is there passed through a ligamentous
loop, in which it slips freely, and then bending at
a right angle, proceeds to the rear, to be fixed at
the back part of the socket. The counter-turns
received by this, the ^^ internal oblique muscle,'" are
discharged by its slipping in the loop, while yet
the eyeball is kept steadily in place by it. This
muscle m&y, lohen tivisted, be regarded as an S, or as
a rib, of which the eyeball is the foot end.^

§ 78. There is one more point in the anatomy of
the snake which it is requisite to notice in connec-
tion with our subject, namely, the Lungs.

Although these organs be more imperfectly con-
stituted in the snake than in the higher animals,
they yet fulfil the function of expanding the chest

*See§ 133 for detail. The relative action of the muscle remaining the
same in the higher animals as in the snake.

75

so as to form an elastic cushion, compressible in
any direction, but always ready to fill out again.
On this cushion the front ribs rest themselves, and
not only are the movements thus made more
smoothly, but achial aid is given to the ensuing
gathering hy the expansion of the air compressed in
the lungs during the spring.

We shall have occasion to go thoroughly into the
discussion of that action of the anterior and pos-
terior parts of the lungs, which in the higher ani-
mals belongs to the anterior and posterior portions
of the central S curve of the body, and shall post-
pone further consideration of the subject to that
time. We may, however, observe that the form
which would give the greatest capacity to that pai-t
of the body in which the lungs are situated, is
that of the full gathered superimposition of ticists
(§ 71). In this the ribs are raised toward the head
iDy their ground ends as much as possible, while
the point where the two turns meet is also raised
outward by the depression of their spinal ends.

76
PART TIT.

APPLICATION TO THE HIGHER ANIMALS.

§ 79. Kegarding, then, the snake's contortions
as exemplifying the fundamental mechanics on
which the locomotions of quadiTipeds and man are
based, we observe in these higher animals —

1st. — That the spine is not so pliable as in the
snake ; but that it is still a most elastic rod, made
up of httle blocks of bone, every two of which, in-
stead of having, as in the snake, a ball and socket
joint at their surfaces of co-adaptation, are, as it
were, threaded together throughout the two sur-
faces by an infinite number of short, strong elastic
filaments, which, rising from the whole surface of
one block, run into the whole corresponding sur-
face of the other, and form a solid elastic mass-
between them.

2d. — That from a number of the vertebrse the
ribs have been removed. In fact, two such vacant
spaces exist, one at each end of the spine, and be-
tween them is the space to which ribs remain at-
tached.

3d. — That, on this space, the motion and the
elasticity of the anterior ribs is very much re-
duced, in comparision with the posterior ones, and

77

that, if the analogies are to be carried out, this re-
duction must be supplemented by the movement
of other parts not present in the snake.

§ 80. The front space, bare of ribs — the neck —
carries the head, and the head, as comparative
anatomy has shown, is made up of consolidated
vertebrae. Like the vertebrae of the back, the head
carries ribs, viz., the fore-limhs (or arms), anal-
ogues of which have been traced, du'ectly con-
nected with it and the loiuer jaw.

It is easy, therefore, to conceive that the head
may gather to itself, by means of its spinal attach-
ments, of the connections of the lower jaw, and of
those of the fore-hmbs, all the threads of force col-
lected by the trank and limbs, and that, thus hold-
ing the moulds of all motions, it may direct their
subsequent developments.

Thus the articulation of the head is the working
medium between the brain and the body, when it
gathers the ribs and limbs of appui on one bear-
ing, with the eye diagonal to the rear appui,
as the pivot, and when, completing this gathering,
with the same eye as a point of direction, it
double tmsts them on the other bearing, and
holds the nascent curves of replacement ready to
discharge their predecessors.

78

During these movements, not only do the fore-
limbs, after moving with the body, finally settle
into position with entire reference to the head, but
the lower jmv, experiencing similar effects from
the movements of the body, as conveyed to it
through the lungs, finally clinches the whole by its
reaction on the head.

From this condition of " qatJiering,'' in which
the elements of motion have, so to speak, their
orthographic projection on the base of the skull,
the head, by the slightest positive or relative
change in its bearings on the spine, may initiate,
and by again changing these bearings, may com-
plete any movement.

It is in this sense that we may consider the head
to be the governor of all perfect motion. In de-
formed movement there is a failure of straight
connection with the head at certain points, and
this default of such connection must be made up
for by extra and eccentric movements, which de-
stroy the steadiness of the body.

§ 81. The hmder space, bare of ribs (the loins)
carries, at its extreme end, a hollow but solid
framework of bones called the pelvis. This con-
sists of the two hip-bones, immovably joined to-
gether in front by the meeting of two bones called

79

the pubis-bones, and as immovably connected be-
hind by another bone called the sacrum,'^ These
bones, though seemingly one mass with the pelvis
in the full-grown animal, are originally distinct.

The sacrum is evidently an analogue of the
spinal vertebrae, and we shall, further on, attempt
to show that the puhis-hones represent a continua-
tion of the breast-bone, the hip-bones standing for
the ribs.

The sacrum is a direct continuation of the spine,
and this, in quadrupeds, is again continued by the
tail.

The pelvis is not connected with the spine by a
free joint as is the head, but by the same sort of
juncture that exists between the several vertebrae
of which the spine is made up.

The whole pelvis, thus moving in one piece, an-
swers, in locomotion, the pui-pose of an exagge-
rated vertebrae belonging to the trunk of the
body as a whole, and furnishing an extended
sweep for the thigh-bone sockets which it carries.
The trunk of the body may thus be considered as a
COMPOSITE SPINE, of ivMch the legs and J for a certain
-share in their motion, thefoi^e-limhs are tlie ribs.

* The pubis-bones are. at their rear ends, keyed to the hip-bones by
other two bones (one on each side), called the ischium-boues, which in
4nan form the seat bones.

80

§ 82. The ribs of the higher animals are, Hke
like those of the snake, attached to the spine by
ball and socket joints. The relative positions of
the ball and socket, however, are reversed, the
rib now carrying the ball; and tivo vertebrae, at
the sides of their junctions, carrying the socket.
Also, the further extremities of the ribs, which in
the snake would have been their " ground-ends,'*
are elastically joined on either side to a solid
piece of bone called the hreast-hone, or " sternunL'

This bone, which represents all the ligamentous^
scutae of the snake (§§ 44, 66) consolidated, may
be considered as a substitute ground on which the
ribs perform their movements, as those of the
snake do on the real ground. At each spring the
breast-bone is taken up and carried to the position
required for the next effort.

Almost the whole length of this artificial ground
is occupied, on both its sides, by the attachment
of only part of the ribs, namely, of the first divis-
ion from the head, called the " true ribs." These
are separately articulated to it — each rib by the
end of its elastic prolongation.

Of the remaining division, called the "false
ribs,'' each rib has a longer and still more elastic
prolongation than a true rib ; but these prolonga-

81

tions, before reaching the breast-bone, become
united on each side into a single one, and the two
resulting continuations are attached to the hinder
— in man the lower — end of the breast-bone.

The true ribs diminish in length and capability
of independent movement as thej approach the
neck, so that the upper ones have \erj httle be-
yond a hinge-like movement at the spine, as
their front ends are raised when the breast-bone
is drawn up by muscles from above, in connection
with the outer tui'ning of the false ribs below.

In man there are seven true and five false ribs ;
in the horse, eight true and ten false ; in the Hon
and cat, nine true and four false ; in the gii-affe,
eight tme and six false ; variations which, no
doubt, favour certain pecuharities in the motion of
each animal.

In this way the breast-bone answers, at its
sides, to only a part of the length along which the
rib sockets extend, being, in fact, only imder those
of the true ribs.

At its rear, however, the breast-bone is power^
fully acted on by the false ribs, and these, prin-
cipally, give it direction and push it forward, the
false ribs of either side driving their motion
through the breast-bone up to the head by a con-

82

nection presently to be described. At the head it
is received and adjusted with the action of the
true ribs of the other side.

It is possible that we ought to assign one or two
of the true ribs to the rear C of the spinal curve ; but
the proportionately greater length of that portion of
the spine to which the false ribs are attached, and
the fact that the first — or first two — upper ribs"^
seem rather to belong to the joint of the root of
the neck (§ 90) and the spine than to the front C,
might give sufficient preponderance of force as
propellers to the false ribs alone (§ 62). This
being the case, toe have adopted the more convenient
nomenclature of assigning all the true ribs to the an-
terior C, and all the false ribs to the ijosterior one.

§ 83. If we give an artificial ground to the ribs,
one S in the spine will be required to work on it ;
if we attach two rear appui to the trunk thus
formed, another S will be required for their sup-
port ; and if the whole is to be centred on the
head, still another S will be required for combin-
ing the two first, and this last S will require some
separate appui on which to effect this combination.

These requirements, we think, are fulfilled in

* These ribs, we believe, are bent from front to lear in a different
tlircction from the other true ribs.

83

the back or dorsal vertebrae, as the central S ; the
loins, or lumbar vertahra^ and sacrum, as the S for
moving tlie hinder limbs, or appiiis proper of the
trunk ; the neck as the S of combination ; and the
arms as the appnis of combination.

We shall name these three S S S, beginning at
the head, iliejirst S, second S, and third JS ; or, the
7iecJc S ; the central, and from its more simple ac-
tion, the opjhidian'^' !S ; and the loin S.

The relative actions of these three S S S be-
come quite changed from those of three successive
S S S in the snake, as will be explained.

§ 84. The cavity formed by the ribs and the
breast-bone is filled by the lungs, and from the
extremities of the breast-bone go muscular cords
of connection to the head and to the pelvis.

These cords of connection join the actions of the
central or opliidian S, with those of the loin S,
and the actions' of both these with those of the
neck S.

The trunk, composed of the dorsal and lumbar
vertebrae, the ribs and sternum and the pelvis, may
be regarded as an S, of which the hinder limbs are
the ribs. We shall call this the composite S, The

* Acting through the ribs, directly on its artificial ground, it has a
true opliidian or snake action.

84

pelvis is a vertebra in it. Its posterior C is sep-
arated from its anterior C by the diaphragm^
which will be described further on.

The head, neck, shoulder blades and this " com-
posite spine " may again be regarded as a com-
pound spine, of which the arms are the ribs. We
shall call this the hicomposite spine. The head,
taken with the shoulder blades, is a vertebra in it,
distinguished, however, from the pelvis as a ver-
tebra, in that while the " composite spine " gov-
erns the pelvis, the head governs the " bicomposite
spine."

To some extent the arms act as ribs to the
composite spine ; also, and through them, the
head draws in a direct way on the hinder Hmbs.^

§ 85. Five vertebrce — two for each flexure, and one
for the point of contrary flexure — are the smallest
number of which an independent S curve could be
composed. If now, we alloiv one of each end for its
articulations with other points, we have seven verte-

* Although the head be the " governour " and the spine the proper
" origin of all movement," movement may, in the higher animals, be
initiated in other parts. For example, a man in dropping from a
height may, by thrusting forward his hands or jerking back his elbows,
and thus changing the centre of gravity by altering the shape of the
body, through the medium of the breast-bone, change very materially
the point on which he alights from Avhat it would otherwise have been.
A horse in taking a fence, often does not know the ground on the far-
ther side, and no doubt while yet in air, he can, to some extent, deter-
mine his point of descent.

85

hrm, the unvarying number contained in the neck of
man and (with the exception of the sloth) of quad-
rupeds.

§ 86. The breast-bone is steadied at its upper
part by muscles which — replaced by equivalents
m quadrupeds — exist in their most simple manner
in man. We shall, therefore, since we do not aim
at discussing the minute differences of action
which make an alteration in these muscles neces-
sary, consider the type given in man as applicable
for reference, whenever we speak of these, or in-
deed of any of the muscles.

In man these muscles, — from the upper end of
the breast-bone, called the sterno-cleido-mastoids,
or as we shall generally name them, the sterno-
mastoids, — are very prominent, and may be clearly
seen one on each side of the neck,"^* passing from
the top of the breast-bone upward, backward and

* These muscles take their name in man from their various attach-
ments, viz., each on its side, to the breast-bone, the collar-bone, and the
mastoid protuberance of the skull, just behind the ear. In such ani-
mals as have no collar-bone the middle word of the name evidently
falls away.

In the horse this muscle is replaced by two—" one, the ' sterno-max-
illarji,' is fixed to the anterior end of the sternum, and passes up the
front of the neck to be attached to the back part of the lower jawbone ;
the other, the levator humeri, is fixed to the front and upper part of tlie
round bone of the shoulder, and by a detached slip to the upper end of
the sternum, whence it passes up the front and side of the neck, to be
attached to the mastoid projection of the skull, giving off, on the way».
slips which are attached to the four or five upper neck vertebrae."

86

outward to either side of the head, behind the ear.
They are so attached to the bottom of the skull,
near to and on each side of its articulation with
the spine, that they either draw the head down
toward the breast-bone, or the breast-bone up-
ward toward the head, according as the resisting
lines of the spine, as developed in the neck, are
brought forward or backward between the two
muscles, and so by their positions give the pre-
ponderating leverage one way or the other. That
is to say, if the plane of junction of the two C C
of the neck S be well thrust forward between the
stemo-mastoids, the action of these muscles will
raise the breast-bone ; whereas, if this be retired,
the same action will lower the head.

Suppose the chest well raised and filled with
air, and the neck fully gathered by the " super-
imposition " of the diagonal counter-actions (§ 71),
the plane of junction between its two C C will be
advanced, and fi*om this position every change of
bearing in the head articulation will alter the
drawing of the sterno-mastoids at the upper cor-
ners of the breast-bone, whether of both equally
or of one preponderatingly. Thus a perfect action
of the neck is all important to perfect inovement.

§ 87. The sterno-mastoids must partake of the

87

double - twisting action shown for the internal
oblique muscle of the eye (§ 77), although with
them there is no necessity for a pulley attachment,
the support against the neck-spine answering the
same purpose.

It is easily seen that the two sterno-mastoids ap-
proach each other as they descend in fi-ont of the
neck. Thus their separate act ion must be diagonal,
ending, in fact, for each at the diagonal hip-joint,
so soon as the intervening ophidian S has placed
the points in the requisite position, by moving its
substitute ground, the breast-bone.

§ 88. At its posterior end the breast-bone is stead-
ied against tlie pelvis by a combination of muscles,
which, in relation to the pelvis, carry out from the
breast-bone a working in harmony with, but sub-
ordinate to that proceeding from the breast-bone,
through the sterno-mastoids toward the head.

§ 89. In the snake a simple ball and socket joint
at the head answers every purpose, for allowing
the working of the spine over the ribs, these latter
being the simple and only appuis ; but in the
higher animals another arrangement becomes nec-
essary.

This consists in dividing the simple ball and
socket articulation of the snake from behind for-

88

ward, by a wedge-shaped fissure, and giving to
each of the parts thus separated an ovoidal form.
The articulation is thus divided into two separate
working pieces, one used when the head-ball
pressure is from the left, the other when it is from
the right, and in the same way for the sockets.

Bearing in mind that the head joint always
opens in front, we may represent this new form of
the articulation by supposing the two halves, which
Avould be obtained by the longitudinal division of
a pear, about one inch long, to be soldered by
their flat surfaces to the base of the skull, in such
a manner that the points converge in front, while
the globular ends diverge in rear, at an angle va-
rying in different animals, according to the mode
of action to be accommodated.

These ovoidal pieces are called the head-con-
dyles, and have each a separate socket of corre-
sponding shape on either side of the upper surface
of the first vertebra of the spine.

§ 90. In the snake a couple of vertebrae, freed
from the ground, are all that is required in order
to adjust the eccentric movements of the anterior
part of the spine with a steady position of the
head ; but, as we have seen in man and quadru-
peds, there is, after what may be called the ophid-

89

ian or snake movements on the ribs, another set
of movements, namely, that on the hinder limbs,
to be accommodated, and on this set again, in
order to provide for the master movement of the
fore-limbs — earned to its perfection in man — there
is yet another set of movements to be accommo-
dated, namely, that on these fore-limbs and on the
lower jaw.

It is with reference to these requirements that
we should explain the necessity for a complete S
in the neck, added to the couple of extra vertebrae
used in the snake ; and, in dividing the vertebrae
for this purpose, ice should place the one or two ver-
tehrce ansivering to the snake's neck, directly under
the seventh vertebra of the neck (§ 82), ivhere they,
aided by the general motion of the part, form a vie-
TUAL hall and socket joint.

The separate motions of the trunk and of the
hmbs may, we think, be easily noticed in the
horse, and, indeed, Seeger, a Pi-ussian author,
in his " Horsemanship," insists much upon mark-
ing it. " First the body moves, then the limbs."

§ 91. In the chest of the higher animals, as has
already been noticed, the ribs have great mobility
and large development below, while at the ex-
treme top they have Ktfcle of either. It is appar-

90

ent, on looking at this arrangement, that although
the secondary sections of the anterior winding-
lines (§§ 25, 68) might be easily established, from
" points of application " acting on an anterior
plane section, just below the first pair of ribs, and
also the primary sections of the posterior Hnes^
from " points " on a posterior plane at the summit
of the lumbar vertebrse, yet the estabhshment of
the primary sections of the anterior lines, and of
the secondary sections of the posterior lines, would
be seriously interfered with, unless the upper part
of the chest be allowed considerable eccentric
movement, such as shall successively bring its rib
articulations under the course of the sectional
lines referred to.

This eccentric movement is allowed and regu-
lated by the action of the neck S, the lower part
of which moves with the upper part of the chest,
and must adjust itself by a virtual joint, in which
the lowest neck vertebra and one or two of the
most anterior ribs take part, and which we shall
call the " neck root joints

The head condyles are here essential, in their
character as two separate ball and socket joints,
because of the break in the " composite " move-
ment caused by the interposition of the breast-

91

bone, which (§ 87) must place the intermediate
points of traction in position before the head and
pelvis act upon each other. This makes necessary
an extra spiral-line movement, very much more
extended than any for the connection of the S S,
or C C, in the snake's contortions, and wliich can-
not be accommodated on one surface. It takes
place, for the transition from the anterior ivinding-
line of the " ophidian " to that of the " composite-
spine'' at the posterior end of eitJier condyle ; and
for the similar movement hetiveen the posterior lines
at the anterior end.

Further, when the neck, S, allows this eccentric
movement to the upper part of the chest, the line
of pressure becomes oblique, and to resist this the
condyle-sides must be rounded in the perpendic-
ular plane. For example, the inner side of the
left condyle to meet the movement of the upper
part of the chest to the left, which accompanies
the establishment of the primary section of the
left anterior line, and its exterior side against the
movement to the right, which accompanies the
formation of the secondary section of the right
posterior line, exerted against this side by the up-
ward movement of the socket reciprocal to its
withdrawal on the right §67 (h).

92

It is to be remembered that, although a part or
all of these pressures may, at first, be latent in the
neck, they must finally be satisfied at the con-
dyles when the spring takes place.

§ 92. To illustrate what has been said :

Suppose the left anterior winding-line to form
in the ophidian S. Its secondary section will, to
some extent*, throw the left hind and right fore-
feet on their outer bearings, by the change in the
centres of gravity of the body. It will also cause
some movement of the head-joint, as if a simple
ball and socket existed.

At the following combination of this " secondary
section " into the " composite spine " (§ 84), the
limbs of appui will be thrown decidedly on their
outer bearings, and the relative motion at the
head joint will be that of the posterior extremity
of the left condyle revolving, to the rear and in-
ward, in its socket.

Its 'primary section will occasion a further
change of the centres of gravity in the same di-
rection as at first, and, as it moves the anterior
cross-hne end toward the left side, will require a
movement of the upper end of the chest in that di-
rection, as well as one forward to correspond with

93

the movement forward of the head-ball in the
socket (§ 67 a').

At the following combination of this " primary
section " into the '' composite spine," in order to
keep the head steady, the above left movement
must be met by resistance along the inner edge of
the left condyle, and the movement forward by
the moving of the condyle along this line.

Suppose next the right posterior line to form

IN THE OPHIDIAN S.

Its secondary section refleeied;!action — the cross-
line end being displaced, (§ 32) — will take its first
re-action against the anterior plane^section of the
spine (in which the anterior point of application
moved) bringing the posterior left comer of the
sternum to the right, as the false ribs come on
their inner bearings, and so far as it affects the
upper part of the sternum, carrying it further to
the left. The change in the [centres^ of gravity
^will commence the change of the left hind and
right fore-legs to their inner bearings.

At the following combination of this section into
the " composite spine," the tui'ning of the socket
against the anterior end of the left condyle would
occur, as the right socket^is withdrawn ; but as

94

{b') cannot take full effect until (h) is carried out
(§ 37), this movement will be held in abeyance.

Its secondary section direct action will move the
anterior part of the body to the left, and as it
brings about whatever action may be equivalent ta
putting the right propeller true ribs on their inner
bearings, the alteration of the centres of gravity
will bring the left hind and right fore-feet still
more on their inner bearings.

At the following combination of the " primary
section " of the posterior winding-hne into the
" composite spine," which, in this order of succes-
sion, would be the final action in forming that
spine, the diagonal feet of appuis will be brought
strongly upon their inner bearings, and there will
be required to resist the passage of the body to-
the right, as, reciprocally to the withdrawal of
the right socket the left socket rises, a pressure
of this latter against the outer edge of the left
condyle, and corresponding with the suppressed
advance of the socket (see the preceding para-
graph), a passage forward, along this edge, to
the anterior point, where, finally, a turn to the front
and inward by the left socket will discharge the
gathering, so soon as the alternate set of motions
be inaugurated to release it.

95

§ 93. While the action of the ophidian and com-
posite S S tighten the right corner of the sternum,
and the right fore-leg against the left hind-leg, a
little additional motion of the head-joint tightens the
left sterno-mastoid, and thus produces the " bicompo-
site /S"' (§ 84). The bracing of the composite and
ophidian S S is diagonal, that of the bicomposite is
collateral.

§ 94. In this gathering movement the front appui
(here the right fore leg) goes tvifh the body, and, as
we shall see, the free fore-limb (here the left) prin-
cipally and finally tuith the neck.

§ 95. Each motion of the head condyles affects
the sternum through the medium of the neck S, but
its more immediate action, through the sterno-mas-
toids, so du'ectly affects this bone, that if a head con-
dyle (not an anterior point of application, at the front
of the chest, and, thus the " bicomposite," not the
opHdian S) begins the gathering, it will cause the
sternum to move before the spine, a circumstance
which, as we shall see further on, may explain
those movements of the limbs— the pace, &c. —
which do not seem to be strictly diagonal.

§ 96. In attempting to follow out the effects of
the head condyle movements on the sterno-mastoid

96

muscles, a very important clew seems to be af-
forded by the analogy of those muscles, which, in
the horse, replace the sterno-mastoids in man.
These are (see note to 86) one muscle, which goes
from either upper corner of the sternum to the rear
part of the lower jaw, so that its action will close
the jaw ; or, this done, bring down the head toward
the breast ; and a second, which goes from the raas-
toid protuberance, and the anterior C part of the
neck S to the upper part of the upper arm-bone, the
action of which is "to raise the shoulder and arm,
and at the same time draw them forward, or, these
being fixed, to turn the neck and head to one side."

We should conclude from these facts, as an-
alogues, that certain effects, accompanying the
motions given to the sterno-mastoids by the upper
comers of the sternum, largely, even if indirectly,
affect the motions of the lower jaw ; and also that
the clavicle (collar bone) in man secures certain
connections between the motions of the head and
the arm-bone, and between the sternum and the
lower jaw, which for the horse (it having no collar
bone) must be supplied by extra muscles.

It would seem that when the sterno-mastoid of
the left side was dratvn tight, i. e., (§ 93), when the

97

hicomposite spine (§ 84) formed, the lower jaw should
be firmly closed and set on the left side."

Also that, under the same circumstances, the
left fore-leg should be raised, or if this were fixed,
the head drawn somewhat to one side. This would
corroborate what has been said (§ 94) in regard to
the free fore-leg beiag under the influence of the
neck.

Again, as the left stemo-mastoid must relax
after the spring, so must the left side of the jaw,
then the opposite (here right ) side will begin to take
appui in its socket, we expect to show how either
side of the jaw gradually sets in its socket, and
how, in bearing on its outer or inner side, its actions
resemble, with reversed relations, the " bearings "
of the ribs and limbs.

§ 97. Great as is the analogy as to shape which
the fore-hmbs have to the hinder-ones, this analogy
is by no means complete. Both are modified ribs,
but the action of the two is not only different, in
that the fore-limbs act more largely as supporters,
and the hind-limbs as propellers, but, while the
hind Hmbs follow chiefly, the movements of the
"composite S," the fore Hmbs, although connected

* We instance the left side, but, of course, with proper changes, the
same holds good for the right.

98

with all three S S S, finally depend directly upon
the head.

Thus, although supported by the anterior ribs,
and adapting themselves to their motions, the
shoulder- blades (which carry the sockets of the fore-
limbs) have another connection, viz., that of the neck,
and move on a basis exterior to the trunk, during
the virtual crossing of the median line by those
ribs. During this time, the neck is the S of which-
ever fore-Umb is thus engaged. The quasi ball
and socket motion, at the base of the neck, is the
pivot on which either fore-hmb changes from the
trunk to the neck connection.

The shoulder-blades are connected in rear with
the head by masses of muscle, and with the
whole back ridge of the spine, with the ribs and
with the pelvis, either directly or through the me-
dium of the upper part of the arm-bone, by sheets
of the same substance. To the neck part of the
spine they are not directly attached, but are joined
on either side by muscles to the whole length of
a cord or ligament, which, loosely attached to the
central rear line of the neck vertebrae, stretches
over them all, from the head to the projecting
bone of the lowest neck vertebra in man, and in
the horse to the top of the withers.

99

Jja. front the shoulder-blades are attached to the
'breast-bone and to the front of the ribs by large
and powerful muscles, and the breast-bone being
joined to the head by the stemo-mastoid muscles,
there is, in this way, Si front attachment of the
shoulder-blades to the head. The massiveness
of these connections agrees with the function of
the fore-limbs as the final brace on which all the
gatherings are collected.

§ 98. In the horse the breast muscles suffice for
the connection in front ; but in man the collar-bones
are added. These are articulated, each at one
end, with an upper corner of the breast-bone, and
at the other end with one of the shoulder-blades.

The breast-bone of man is thus enabled to ptish
against the arm-bones, as well as, like that of the
horse, to draw upon them ; and the head of man
being, during the working of the condyles, thus
braced against the " substitute ground " (§ 82), by
the collar-bones, as the head of the horse is
against the real ground, by its fore-legs, the sup-
porting thrust is transmitted to the pelvis, and in
this way the legs of a man can act both as com-
plete "supporters" and complete "propellers."

§ 99. Thus, frst, the intermediate appui of the
action of the neck is the sternum, on which the

100

action of the neck follows, nearly to completion,
tlie torsions of the loins and of the ophidian Sy
making the centre of this latter betiveen (the lower
points of the shoulder-blades,'^) the centre of force,\ the
neck, being itseK the centre of action. Then an-
other torsion, in which the eyes participate, and
into which are brought the final turn of the limbs,,
together with the finishing of all the torsions,
makes the head the governour of direction.

§ 100. It may be remarked that in making the
foregoing distinctions of three S S S and of sim-
ple composite and bicomposite spines, no one of
these, in a perfect body, acts without, at least in
some degree, affecting the others. Thus, the
slightest change in the ophidian S should alter
the line of gravity over the feet, and require a mo-
tion of- the whole frame to adjust it.

§ 101. In man the ^Ve toes, i\iQ five fingers, and the
hones which in the palm of the hand and in the" sole
of the foot support them, would seem to represent
the ends of five ribs belonging to five vertebrae^
required to make up an S (§ 85), and, as such, we

* Where, as will be seen further on, is also the centre of the luugs*^
actioB.

t This fundamental centre not being reached, unless the working of
the body is perfect, even a moderate distortion by the right-hand de-
formity occasions a great loss of power and accuracy in all motion.

101

may suppose them to be attached, the toes to the
composite — the fingers to the bicomposite — spine
(§ 84). The bones of the arms and legs would
then be the consolidated masses of these sets of
five ribs.

To avoid confusion, where speaking of man and
animals under the same head, we shall call both
fingers and toes " Digits,'' and number them begin-
ning with the thumb or great toe, frst, second, third,
fourth Sind Jifth digits.

If the third digit (" middle " finger or toe) repre-
sent the centre of this S, the fourth and fifth digits
will receive their impressions from the rear C, the
first and second from the front C, and the central
one from both. Indeed we may go further and say
that the fifth digit represents the posterior part of
the rear C, the fourth the anterior part, the second
and first the same for the front C. Then (§§ 25, 92,
96) the fifth digit receives its impressions fi'om the
formation of the secondary section of the anterior
winding hne, the second from the estabHshment of
the primary section of this line,. the /owr^A digit
from the establishment of the primary section of
the posterior winding line, and the frst from
the formation of the secondar}^ section of that
line. They will, also, in these connections be re-
5*

102

lated to tlie actions of the liead condyles (§ 92) and
to those of the lower jaw, which latter will be more
fully considered hereafter.

§ 102. It will be observed that, regarding the
fore and hind limbs as ribs, the counter torsions in
their length can no longer, as in the real ribs, be
received by the elasticity of their substance ; ac-
cordingly, separate joints are substituted for elas-
ticity. Again, were the bearings mere bevels
(§ 51), the passage from one to the other would be
very rough ; and, unless the bevels were very
broad, quite insufficient for the extent of motion.
This is remedied by the formation of the foot of
tlie higher animals. In these, however, it is un-
necessary that the first digit appear as an actual
appui, if they rest on four feet ; it is only in man,
and, to some extent in a few other animals, that
the development and spreading inward of the great
toe renders possible the steady change in the S S,
as their forces cross the median* line without any
support from anterior appuis.

To still further assimilate the perfection of sup-
port to that which the snake gains from a completely
underlying set of appuis, it is necessary that the

* Any shoe which inteiferes with this inward spread of the great toe
is a hindrance to marching.

103

digits supporting the motions of the rear C should
still remain on the ground, while those supporting
the front C are being brought in action. Tliis seems
to be accomplished for the hind limbs by the pro-
jecting heel, which, by means of the strong muscle
passing from it to the thigh bone, allows of the
foot being rotated on to its outer side, while the
passing line of gravity, at the same time, brings its
inner side down,— or vice versa. The elbow in
the horse may answer the same purpose in respect
to its fore limbs ; while in man the power of turn-
ing at the wrist should seem to make any other
appliance unnecessary.

The heel muscle of the hind limbs subserves, of
<?ourse, other purposes ; being one of many which
;give to the limb, and that mth vastly increased
force, all the elasticity of the most elastic ribs. "^

* It maj' be doubted that the heel of a man should, in perfect loco-
motion, touch the gi-ound at all; but the idea of this being an essential part
of the step has caused an ingenious writer, and apparently capital
horseman, Captain Raabe, of the French cavalr}', in his work '• Examen
du Cours d'Equitation de M. d'Aure," 1854, to suppose that each foot of
a man, when walking, goes through the motions of the galloj) of a horse,
leading with the left leg for the right foot, and with the right leg for
the left foot ; that is to say, the outer edge of either heel stands for the
horse's outer hind foot {1st. beat) ; the inner edge of the heel and the
outer toes, for the inner hind and outer fore-foot (2d. beat) ; and the
great loe for the inner or leading fore-foot (^d. beat). He says the
change of the leading foot, which can thus be performed in place
at each atep b\' man (as in "maik time'), was never perforaied by any

104

§ 103. In the hear, dec, the pieces of the foot are
still five, and all of them are still applied flat on
the ground. In the dog they are reduced to four ;
the digits themselves are still put flat on the
ground, but the bones (analogous to the palm of
the hand in man) which carry the digits, are raised
upright. In the horse, ox, <&c., not only these, but
all tln-ee sections of the digits (these sections may
be counted in the joints of a man's fingers) are also
set upright, and the animal moves, as it were, on
its nails which have now become " hoofs." At the
same time, in these last animals, the bones which
carry the digits have been very much lengthened,
and form the " cannon." In the horse, the
third and fourth digit (as we should suppose)
have been consolidated into one, and form, by
their joints, the "large and small pastern bones"
and the "coffin bone." In the cannon of the
horse's leg, the third and fourth of the bones
which carry the digits, are consohdated into the

horse, excepting " Partisan," aD animal, by subduing which Baucher
founded his reputation.

Thus, Captain Kaabe seeks to establish the high character of the
human walk, and to refute the slander which, he adds, has represented
it as a sort of broken down amble. Our description would count the
heel as a support only when supplying the failure of the outer toes to
perform their functions, and, therefore, cannot fit. in with his supposi-
tion.

105

"cannon-bone" and the second and fifth remain as
the " splent-bones." These last do not reach down
to the length of the cannon bone, and they no
longer have any digits to cany. In the horse and
in the dog, the first digit is, at the most, rejoresented
by some dislocated piece.

The hock-joint is formed of the small bones, which,
in man, compose the ankle ; and the " point of
the hock " is the projecting heel of man. In like
manner, the smaU wrist bones are all found repre-
sented in the " knee" of a horse or ox, while in
these animals the elbow rests close to the body.

§ 104. In the bottom of the horse's foot, two
lobes, divided by the cleft of the frog, may be easily
seen. Now, if we suppose two fingers of a man's
hand to be placed together, the ball of one finger
against that of the other — next, that while the nails
grow together hehveen the fingers, while on the outer
sides the nail of each outer finger turns and pro-
longs itseK into the skin — Ave have only to draw
away the skin from the inner face of these nails, to
get a representation of the bottom of the horse's
foot ; the nails and their inflexed continuations stand-
ing for the " crust " and " bars ; " the skin outside the
turning of the nails, and ivhat is drawn back from
their inner surface, for the "frog ;" and the portion

106

of skin stretched by this drawing hack, for the
"soler

If the foot of the horse contains, as we
have supposed, only two digits, we must look for
the point of effect of the secondary section of the
" anterior winding-line" (§ 101) to the outer splent
bone at the hock, and regra'd it as only mediately
affecting the foot, through the connection of this
splent bone with the cannon bone. In the same
way, we must find the point of effect of the second-
ary section of the posterior line on the inner splent
bone, and its action on the foot only mediate, as be-
iore.

The action of the secondary section of the j)OS-
terior lines and the final ad jastment, which, in man,
would be carried through the thumb, in imaginary
appui, must, for the horse, depend on movement in
the fore legs, and in the quasi ball and socket at
the base of the neck (§ 90), an unusual require-
ment for this movement may possibly account for
the " dishing " of a raised forefoot in some horses.
The dishing is evidently a prolongation of its in-
ner bearing, and this ^prolongation may, perhaps,
be owing to uncommonly extended action of these
parts before the "lift."

The ox, &c., have two parts to the hoof, and, if

107

tliese parts represent each tlie consolidation of two
digits, i. e., the second and third in one, the fourth
and fifth in the other, the fact of there being but
,one bone in the cannon of these animals may show
that all the bones having, in this case, digits to
-carry are consolidated into one for action upon
them, and corroborate the supposition that the
splent bones in the horse remain separate as the
unemployed connections of two discarded digits in
its foot.

§ 105. It will be well, perhaps, before giving a
description of the diaphi'agm to make some allu-
sion to the lungs, although a more detailed exami-
nation of their functions will be made further on.

It has been remarked (§ 76) that when the
snake's ribs are fuUy under the influence of the
double turns given them in the " superimposition
of twists," then the chest has its greatest possible
capacity, and that as a consequence of this the
lungs, which fill the chest, are then expanded to
their greatest limit.

If this air be forcibly detained within them
dming action, the lungs will form an elastic cushion,
w^hich expands after every compression. They
thus, Hke the fly-wheel in machinery, make good
£Lny deficiency in force from other sources at every

108

part of the movement. Compressed by one gath-
ering they aid in initiating the next ; supporting
the chest they form, at their working centre,
(common with that of the ophidian S) the true
centre of force (§ 99) ; and they fulfill another
and more important function in the completion of
each movement of locomotion , which will be spoken
of in connection with the lower jaw.

§ 106. Within the ribbed portion of the trunk
in the higher animals, are the lungs, and below this
portion the stomach, bowels, &c. The two are sepa-
rated by a sheet of tendon stretched horizontally
across the bottom of the chest and attached by
muscular fibres to the upper edges of the lowest
ribs, and to the cartilage-prolongations which go
from them to the lower end of the breast bone.

This sheet of tendon with its muscular border is
called the Diaphragm. In our description of it
and of the muscular fibres which stretch it we shall
speak in general terms, aiming simply at convey-
ing such an idea of its action as may be of service
in explaining the process of " Setting-up," when
we come to that final object of our work.

The diaphragm is described in anatomical works
as consisting of three lobes, whose shape and situ-

109

ation may be represented by a trefoil^ having its
stem fixed to the spine.

The muscular fibres form a border from the
edges of the two tendinous side lobes to the lower
rim of the chest. They will, of course, stretch the
diaphragm, when the ribs turn so as to favor this
action, viz., concave surfaces of ribs to the front,,
i. e., the outer-bearing. The muscular fibres from
the front part of the central lobe going toward the
breast bone will complete this stretching, when
the heads of the ribs, by turning in a contrary
direction, i. e., on their inner-bearing, and sinking
back into their sockets shall give a double twist to
the ribs.

So far, the movements of the diaphragm are gov-
erned by the secondary section of the anterior loind-
ing-line, as to the older bearing, and by the primary
section of the j^osterior line as to the inner bearing.

The primary section of the anterior line simply
increases the effect of the secondary ; but the
secondary section of the j^osterior line which (§ 25)
gives inner bearing to the upper C C of the S S,
has its action in stretching the diaphragm, aided by
additional muscular fibres. These form two long,
thick muscles which, between them, gather to-
gether the tendinous fibres from the whole sheet

110

of the diaphragm at the rear, as if the " trefoil "
stem were split in two. They then pass, the one
on the right, the other on the left of the upper ver-
tehrce of the loins, and are fixed, as they descend, to
those vertebrae which we should consider as form-
ing the upper C of the third S of the spine (§ 83).
From these vertebrae, as points d'appui, their ac-
tion gives a final stretching to the diaphragm, in
correspondence with the final inward bearing
which is given to the whole body by the action of
the secondary section of the posterior line, when,
in the bicomposite spine (§ 93), it accompanies the
motion of the condyle socket along the outer edge
of the head condyle. These muscles are called
the " Pillars of the Diaphragm.''

§ 107. The diaphragm supports the lower surface
of the lungs, and thus, from the double-twisting
action of the spine, which draws the diaphragm
flat, as well as extends the ribs, we have the chest
expanded in two directions, length and diameter.

It is obvious that the above arrangement of the
diaphragm is fitted to act in two parts, a right and
a left. These conjoin their actions when the
^' curves of superimposition " are in force.*

* It may be added that, under the diaphragm lies, on the left side,
ithe stomach, on the right, the liver. Any habitual enlargement of

ill

§ 108. Beginning their upper attachments on
each side, behind and parallel with the lower at-
tachments of the pillars of the diaphragm, that is
to say, on the upper C of the third S, are two long
and thick muscles called the '' Fsooe.'' They de-
verge from each other obliquely, outward and
downward, until, passing from the inside of the
pelvis, they reach the thigh bones, to each of which
a psoas muscle is so fixed that by its contraction
the thigh bone is rolled outward. Thepsooe muscles,
-as we should suppose, turn with the effect of the pri-
mary sections of the anterior tvinding lines on the upper
G C, and, with the "pillars," complete the analogy
of the diaphragm to the ' digastrics," two small but
focal muscles to be presently mentioned.

§ 109. The various muscles above referred to
mark out, we think, the leading lines by, and on
which the curvatures of compression and extension
are formed. They are assisted by a multitude of
other muscles, some larger, some smaller, which all
work in harmony with them, if the frame be undis-
torted.

§ 110. As centres of formation for the new curves.

either may, by interfering with the working of the diaphragm, induce
•distortion. Such trouble with the stomach would, by enlarging and
fixing the course of the secondary section of the left anterior winding-
line, favoiir the right-handed deformity.

112

as well as actual workers in giving the final turn
in discharging the old ones, two pair of small mus-
cles of very peculiar construction are especially
concerned.

One pair of these, the Internal Oblique Muscles of
the Eyes, has been already described (§ 77), when
speaking of the snake.

The other pair, the Digastrics, through which the
lungs are suspended by one end of each muscle
from the lower jaw, and, by the other end, from
the base of the skull, are, we believe, found only in
the higher animals. We shall describe them in con-
nection with the wind-pipe (§ 114), the action of
which, in the locomotion of the body, these muscles
may be said to express.

§ 111. The Lungs, which may be described as an
" air sponge,'' but one absorbing from the interior
instead of the exterior surface, are enclosed in
cases which allow the air to enter and to leave
them by only one and the same opening.

They are made up in man and the higher
animals, so far as our purposes are concerned, of
four"^ such inclosed portions, two on each side.

The chest, as can easily be observed, has a coni-

* There are, in fact, five such parts, three on the right side and two
on the left. This disposition may have reference to the heart, which is
on the left side.

113

cal shape without, and, within it, the kings taken
as a whole form a soii; of cone, the apex of which
is above, while the base rests on the diaphragm
below.

The shape of the four incased parts, which are
put together to form the cone, may perhaps be best
given by supposing first, a perpendicular plane
passed lengthwise through the spine and the breast
bone, this will divide the lungs into right and left
halves. Then another plane, oblique from above
downwards its upper surface facing to the front,
passed between the true and the false ribs, will
divide the whole into four pieces, which are called
" lobes,'' and the general shape of each of the four
will be given by the direction of the planes.

§ 112. To each of the two upper lobes of the
lungs appendages are added, at their upper ends,
which may be called "tips ;"^ when unfilled these lie
somewhat bent and twisted, at the summit of each
lung. As we suppose every part of the lung to
fill, not always in the same order, but according as
the movements of the chest create a vacuum, these
tips would, on our theory, fll from above doivn-
ward, i. e., in the opposite direction to the filling

* That these ''Tips " may have some special action, is alluded to in
an article in '' Townsend's Cyclopajdia of Anatomy."

114

of the bodies of the upper lobes to wliicli tliey are
attached. They take, we conceive, a double
twist, each for the action of its own line, and con-
stitute the basis for the connection of the neck-
action with that of the central spine, at the quasi
ball and socket joint of the " neck root."

It will be observed that, as the space of the false
ribs, ending in a single continuation in front,
§ 82, is more extended in rear than in front, so the
two loicer lobes of the lungs marked out by them will
be very much thicker behind than before, while the
tivo upper lobes will be somewhat deeper in front
thmi in rear. The true and false ribs and the lung
lobes thus seem to match in shape as they do in
motion.

§ 113. The lung lobes are filled with air through
only one set of tubes ; but where (that is, in
what part) they become filled depends upon where
a vacuum is created in the chest, by the motions of
the ribs and of the diaphragm. Experiment will
— so we think — easily show, that m the fillings from
the ophidian movement the upper lung lobes fill from
the lower part upward ; the loiver lobes from the
upper part downward.

There are two moments of filling for each set of
lobes, viz.: for the loiver lobes , when the secondary

115

sections of the anterior winding-lines throw the
ribs on their outer bearings, and again, when the
primary sections of the posterior Hnes bring them
on their inner bearings ; for the npper lobes, similar
moments, with the necessary substitutions as to
sections.

Both these filhngs will, for the ophidian action,
be as just stated, but at the time when each move-
ment coalesces with the composite spine, the lung tips
(§ 112) will accompany the movement of the quasi
ball and socket at the root of the neck, so that
whenever a connection of the lower C C occurs the
lung tips Jill at their upper part from above ; and
whenever of the upper C C, at their lower part, also
from above.

The formation of the bicomposite spine tends to
straighten the lung filings, destroying the counter
turns, and making the whole lung one ; entirely so,
when the " superimposition of curves" (§ 71) has
place, and approximately so in single diagonal for-
mations.

There is a certain action at the lower edges of
the lungs (about the diaphragm) analogous to that
at the lung tips, but it seems unnecessary to take
this into account.

116

§ 114. The lobes of the lungs consist of an infi-
nite number of au'-cells, Avhich communicate with
the air by a multitude of tubes ; these unite and
reunite, until they are reduced to one on each
side, coming off about the centre of the surfaces of
contact of the lobes of that side, and these two
again unite into one principal tube, the " wind-
pipe." This sole conduit for air into the lungs can
easily be felt as it passes upward above the breast-
bone.

§ 115. In front of the neck vertebrae the wind-
pipe is surmounted at top by a sort of box, of
considerable size, called the " laeynx," prominent
in front as " Adam's apple." To this box there is
but a single small opening, through the membrane
which forms its upper part, and this opening can,
at any time, he dosed by a lid called tlie " epiglot-
tis."

It is evident that the amount of air surface
which can come into action against the smaU un-
der surface of this Hd is exceedingly limited, com-
pared with the surface presented by the air in the
lungs, and that thus the slender muscles, which
close the Hd, are quite competent to hold it tight
against any escape of that fluid, even when the
most violent compression of the hmgs, from the

117

action of the ribs, reduces the cavity of the chest
at the spring. The epiglottis, still refusing to allow
the escape of air, it is condensed, and the equiva-
lent expansion assists in developing the alternate
shape, so soon as the compression is removed.

§ 116. It is our next object to trace the succes-
sion in filling or exhausting the different parts of
the lungs, as the one or the other accompanies the
formation of the winding-lines, and their reaction
on each other in the different C C.

Supposing, as usual, the left anterior point of
application to commence the workings, and this
hy the ophidian S. The formation of the right
•convex of the upper C, and of the left convex of
the lower C, by the left anterior winding-line, will
enlarge the right upper lung lobe upward, and the
left lower lobe downward (§ 113).

The reflex action from the secondary section of
the right posterior line (b' § 58) very particularly
enlarges the left lower lung, as it draws downward
the rib articulations.

Meantime, the air is drawn from the left upper
and right lower lobes and into the left lower and
right upper.

Next we have the direct action of the secondary
section of the right posterior line, coming from the
6

118

trunk toward the articulations of the ribs (§ 58),
and meeting the already formed primary section
of the left anterior line. This completes the filling
of the right upper lobe for the ophidian spine.

But the actions of the upper lobes are very dif-
ferent from those of the lower ones, by reason of
the eccentric movement of their upper ends, for al-
though there must be some eccentric movement of
the lower lobes, from their being connected with
the upper end of the third S, yet this is met by
the considerable extent of the lower lung surface
and the elasticity of the lower ribs. On the other
hand, the upper points of the upper lobes must re-
volve with the ball and socket motions at the base
of the neck.

Each one of the above ophidian movements is
followed by the action which unites it with the
composite spine, and which increases still more
the filling of the lung, by rendering tenser the en-
largement of the chest cavity at the same time
that it fills the lung tips (§ 112).

Finally, the formation of the bicomposite spine .
in reducing the counter directions of the filling of
the lobes and of the lung tips, expands the chest
still further.

The compressions of the lung are caused hy the

119

development of the new curve, and, of course, are
greatest at the moment of discharge, when the shape
of the spine changes.

§ 117. In connection with these movements, we
think one may trace the relative workings of the
psoce muscles and the diaphragm. — of the small
oblique muscles at the back of the head and the
sterno-raastoids — of the muscles which from the
upper part of the shoulder blades, converge at the
back of the head, of the muscles tvhich, from the
back, pass to the arms, and of the muscular combina-
tions which, acting between the lower end of the
breast bone and the collateral sides of the pelvis,
straighten the tractions of this bone from diagonal
to collateral.

In tracing the action of the bony skeleton, as
affected by these muscles, we shall leave out of
mention the Latissimus dorsi, the obhque muscles
of the head, and those connecting the shoulder
blades and the head, because we think that their
workings may be more clearly defined by tracing
the shoulder blades as resting on and following the
shape of the chest, and that the movements of the
head are sufficiently clear of themselves.

§ 118. Taking a general view of the action of

120

the three spines* — ophidian, composite and bicom-
posite {§ 84) — it will be observed, at the head
ball and socket joint, that the result of a ball and
a socket action, fuUy carried out, is to, as it were,
throw off the point of pressure and the pair of coun-
ter-acting lines on which it depends to the front, dis-
engaging them, one from the other, each to its own
side. And if, as in the curve of " superimposition "
(§ 71), there be two pairs of counter-acting lines,
both are thus thrown forward and disengaged lat-
terally. In either case, if not discharged, they
will straighten, and, in the case of one pair, this
position protracted will bring the other pair into
action, and, suppressing the lateral developments,
will produce double superimposition (§ 71), and
make the tractions collateral instead of, as before,
diagonal (§ 71).

Now, before the whole course of the lines for aU
the spines are thus made collateral, this baU and
socket action occurs at four points :

First. — Between the upper and lower lung lobes,
for the ophidian S.

Second. — At the diaphragm, for the union between
the central and third S.

* When considering the bony spine only in relation to its S S S, we
have called them First, Central and Third.

121

Third. — At the digastrics, for the union between
the central and neck S, covering, to some extent,
also the third S.

Fourth. — At the head joint, for the formation of
the bi-composite spine, covering the whole.

•The second and third are those by which the
two ends of the composite S are formed.

The fourth and first unite in their action after
the action of the third and second, so that the
central focus is always between the lung lobes.

The action of the digastrics, in representing the
central uniting with the neck S through the neck-
root joint, is similar to that of the diaphragm in
uniting the central and the third S, the flat an-
terior part of the diaphragm (§ 106) being the ana-
logue of the anterior portion of the digastrics, the
diaphragm pillars of the posterior portions. The
psoae complete the action, and join it with the in-
ternal obliques of the eyes.

The various S S of the snake are discharged in
succession ; those of the higher animals are col-
lected together under one S — the ." bicomposite " —
by means of the neck and then discharged together.

§ 119. The above is the gathering movement,
and determines the action of the legs of appui.
The free legs are moved in the discharge. In

122

simple diagonal locomotion, such as the trot of
the horse, the gathering of one pair of lines, and
the discharge of the other pair, are to some degree
synchronous, and must be described together.

We shall next enter into a more detailed ex-
amination of the action of various parts.

§ 120. The long tube, called ihe tvindpipe, is,

during locomotion, the subject of various twisting

movements, coming from the motions imparted to

the lobes of the lungs by the varying shapes of

the chest. These twistings are not communicated

to the larynx, or voice box, because the windpipe,

just below the plane at which the larynx crowns

it, is held up by two loops, one on either side, and

these slip on cords stretched from the back part

of the under surface of the skull behind the head

condyle joints, to the inside-front of the lower

jaw, on a line between the two central incisor

teeth. These cords, which are each composed of

two muscular masses, joined together in the centre

where the loops run by a smooth, round tendon,

have been already mentioned as the Digastrics.

Being joined to the skull behind the head condyles,

to the lungs by the windpipe, and to the lower

jaw, they obviously connect the motions of all

three.

123

§ 121. The larynx is a box with unyielding sides,
TDiit the loindpipe is a flexible tube, formed, at its
front, by a series of three-quarter hoops. The
space between the ends of these hoops, that is the
back of the windpipe, is filled out by a yielding
membrane. The windpipe thus somewhat resem-
bles the body of a snake, if we suppose the ribs to
join below, forming one piece mth the scutae (§ 44)
and the vertebrse to be removed above.

§ 122. It is plain, we think, not only that con-
siderable motions of torsion and counter-torsion
must take place in the windpipe, but also, that its
connections with the lower jaw, to be given in the
next section, show that those twistings must exert
a powerful reflex influence on the motions of the
whole body. We might also appeal to horsemen,
who well know how different the effects of the
bit are from those of the cavesson, a difference
which can be explained only by the fact that move-
ments of the lower jaw affect the lungs, and
changes in the lungs affect the trunk. It is when
the spur, acting on the false ribs near the dia-
phragm, alters the filling of the lungs, in counter-
action to any attempt of the lower jaw to stiffen
itself into one piece with the head, that that perfect

124

mastery over the horse's motions is obtained,
which is one grand object in cavabry riding.

§ 123. The larynx, windpipe and lungs lie, as has
been mentioned, entirely loose within the chest
and neck, and are suspended by the digastrics. Be-
fore speaking further of the lower jaw we will de-
scribe more particularly the points between which
the digastrics are stretched. Just behind the ears
may be felt, on each side, the bony protuberances
to which the upper ends of the sterno-mastoids are
fixed. Close inside of each protuberance is the
attachment of a digastric. From these points the
digastrics go forward, converging toward each other,,
and having run each through one of the loops on
either side of the windpipe, they meet together
and fix themselves inside of the front part of
the lower jaw, on either side of a line passing down-
ward from between the two centre front teeth.
The mastoid protuberances, the centre of the lower
jaw, and the top of the windpipe, are so easily to
be traced, that after mentioning the fact that these
cords sag down in the middle, where the windpipe
is suspended, it seems unnecessary to dwell longer
on their description.

§ 124. Just in front of each ear one of the hinge-

126

like,"^ articulations of the lower jaw is easily recog-
nized on opening or shutting it. The weight of
the lungs and the contractions of the digastric
muscles would continually open it by drawing on
its front part, were it not for several powerful mus-
cles on both sides which easily keep it closed, so
long as the windpipe loops do not come too far for-
ward.

On the plan of describing only such parts as
seem necessary to the explanation of oiu* subject,
we may here select the two " Temporal muscles,'"
one on each side of the head, as representing the
forces which close the lower jaw, and which thus,
as will be presently explained, complete the series
of motions that give a double twist to all the
springs of the body.

For the lower attachments of the temporal mus-
cles a projection of bone rises from the upper edge
of the lower jaw on either side, in front of the
hinge-like articulation with the skull, and, from
these projections, the muscles spreading out Hke a
fan, fix themselves for their upper attachment over
the surface of the temples (whence their name).

§ 125. When the lower jaw is closed, each di-

* In the lion, &c., they are complete hinges ; in man and the horse
there is also a lateral movement.

6*

126

gastric has effectually two attachments to the head,
one in front and one in the rear of the head con-
dyles, so that it is easy to see how the movements
of the lungs and of the head are connected by
these muscles in harmony with the workings of
the 'neck. It is (§ 118) through their medium that
the shoulder and hind-limhs are Itrought into connec-
tion tvith the hicomposite spine.

We have (§ 121) referred to some resemblance
between the rings of the windpipe and the ribs of
the snake combined A\dth its scutae (§44), suppos-
ing the vertebrae to be translated to some other
position. The ivindpipe seems to act in sufficient
correspondence with the vertebrae of the neck to
admit of the supposition that it is th£ " artificiaJ
ground " on ivhich the neck works in the composite
spine, as the ribs do on the sternum, and, by the
connection of the abdominal muscles, Hkewise on
the pubis. The sternum is joined to the head by
the stern o-mastoids, just where the windpipe is
joined to the head by the rear portions of the di-
gastrics. This fact may somewhat corroborate
their similarity of functions.

The digastrics, when the lower jaw is closed, give
the windpipe an attachment to the head, in front
of the head-condyles, but the tmnk of the body

127

has such attachment only through the chest being
raised bj the lungs, and consequently, also only by
the digastrics. We should, therefore, finally, con-
sider the lower jaiv as the ariiflciol ground of the
hi-composite spine.

§ 126. To sum up what has been said in the last
and several preceding sections we shall have —

For the diagonal actions the central, the lumbar,
and the neck S S S.

For the ball and socket movements connecting
the diagonal actions and their lines of traction for-
ward each to its respective " substitute ground "
and from these to the real ground :

The centre of the central S between the lung lobes
(connecting the two C C) making the ophidian
spine.

The diaphragm, between the central and lumbar
S S, making the lower half of the composite spine.

The neck-root joint between the central and the
neck S S, making the upper haK of the composite
spine, the movement of which is represented by
the digastric muscles, between the composite spine
and the head.

The head joint forms the bi-composite spine, and
through the shoulder-blades and lower jaw, so con-

128

nects the parts, that all return again to the move-
ments between the wpper and lower lung lobes.

Finally, the internal oblique muscles of the eye
throw off all the gatherings for a renewal of the
actions, by the alternate movements.

The ball and socket movement, at the root of the
neck, being at the plane of the points of application
for the ophidian movement, and between the com-
posite and bi-composite spines when their last
movement of union takes place, works Hke the
head condyles, partially with all the ball and socket
actions, and ceases to do so only when these centre
on the plane between the upper and lower lung
lobes.

EACH OF THE SPINAL MOVEMENTS THUS PASSES TO A

" SUBSTITUTE GROUND " to which they transmit the
tractions so changed by their passage through their
respective ball and socket joints, that, in the case
of the synchronous action of all the counteracting
lines, they become collateral just before the dis-
charge, and in the alternate action by pairs, a like
collateral union has also place at some instant
during the step. These " substitute grounds "
are —

Of the ophidian spine, the Sternum,

129

Of the lower half of the composite spine, the^
Pubis.

Of the upper half of the composite spine, the
wpper part of the Sternum.

Of the composite spine, which includes partially
the neck (as it does partially the shoulders), the
Pubis, Sternum and windpipe (§ 125.)

Of the bi-composite spine, the lower jaw.

For the whole body, the eye balls.

§ 126. (a) The internal oblique muscles of the eye,
occwpying the same relative position as in the snake,
are,frstqf all, and fundamentally connected with the
ophidian spine. They accept the additional connec-
tions as they form, and, finally, by the rather extensive
movement of the digastrics and the neck, the head joint
being the centre, the shoulders and lower jaw are ad-
justed with them, and the bi-composite spine is formed.
This is the course for what we consider the funda-
mental action, viz., the trot; certain variation
taking place for the other gaits.

130

PAET IV.

Locomotion of Man and of the Horse.

§ 127. Locomotion in man and in quadrupeds,
although apparently so dissimilar, is yet, in its
chief points, really so alike, that after discussing
the action of the horse it will need only a few ad-
ditions in order to adapt the description to the
human frame. And tlie locomotion of the horse
being also the nearer step in the transition from
that of the snake, we shall commence with it.

§ 128. The trot, for reasons which will appear
as we proceed, is more fully based on the ophidian
action than any of the other paces, and will there-
fore more perfectly fit on to the discussion of the
various tractions given in the preceding sections.
On this account, we select it as the fundamental
gait with which we shall compare all the others.

The trot not only exhibits the ophidian action
in the change of bearing from the outer to the
inner sides of the feet employed as appuis, (equiva-
lent to the change of bearing on the ground end
bevels of the snake's ribs, but the movement com-
menced in the chest at the ophidian S takes, as in
the snake, a nearly synchronous spring from the
diagonal points d'appui.

131

In this gait it is to be noticed that two diagonal
feet being on the ground and the other two being
lifted, the fixed fore-foot of one side leaves the
ground just in time for the collateral raised hind-
foot to be put down in its place — that on the op-
posite side the two feet (a raised fore and a fixed
hind-foot) separate widely, the one forward, the
other backward — and that, as we think may be
recognized by the eye of an observer, the pro-
pelling hind foot leaves the gi'ound an instant before
its diagonal (the fixed fore-foot) does so. This
result seems analogous with the view we have
taken of the order of discharge of the two C C
forming each S in the snake's locomotion.

§ 129. Let it be remembered that tiie air in the
lungs expands to support every expansion, and
condenses to allow every contraction of the chest ;
also that these air actions are of two kinds, 07ie
central in the lobes proper, coming from the
ophidian movement proper, the other terminal in
the lung tips, coming from a working added to that
of the central S, in order to accommodate the
action of the two additional S S, i. e., of idie loins
and of the neck, which work with the hind legs and
the fore legs (or arms) respectively and to serve as
a working pivot for the union of the ophidian and

132

composite spines, as also by a repetition and further
extension of its movements for collecting all in the
bi-composite spine.

The filling of the lung tips (§ 112) takes place as
if each lung-tip were an S. The upper part, or C,
fills from above with an outward turning motion^
harmonizing with the outward turning of its diag-
onal lower lung lobe as this filled, and, by a fur-
ther outward turning, not accompanied by filling,
harmonizing with that part of the filling of its at-
tached upper lobe which requires an outward turn-
ing. The lower part, or C, fills from above with
an inward turning motion, harmonizing with that
part of the filling of both the attached upper and
diagonal lower lung lobes which requires an in-
ward turning, but especially with that of the at-
tached upper lobe, with which this inward turning
finally makes one piece of the lobe and its tip.

It will be borne in mind that the filling of the
lung lobes is accomplished in two times — (1.) By
the secondary section of the anterior winding-line
for the lower lobe — of the diagonal posterior wind-
ing-line for the diagonal upper lobe, causing an
outward turning. (2.) By the counter-action of the
two lines causing an inward turning throughout
their points of meeting, which, finally, raises the

133

outermost point of the lower edge of the ribs and
gives the greatest capacity to the chest.

The filling of the upper C of a lung tip is con-
nected with the formation of the upper part of the
composite spine in the anterior winding-Une. It.
thus accompanies the turn outward from the lower
part of the collateral stemo-mastoid and of the
diagonal diaphragm pillar and psoas. The filling
of lower C is connected with the formation of the
lower part of the composite spine in the posterior
line, and thus accompanies the turn inward of
those muscles from their upper parts.

§ 130. The fore-limbs we suppose to be guided
by the anterior part of the trunk, and by the neck,:
in the following manner. The edge of the shoul-
der blade, opposite to the arm socket, or more
exactly speaking, that perpendicular to the prolon-
gation of the central axis of the movements of the
anterior limb* lies on the posterior true ribs, near
the spine, so as to be guided by the propellers of
their convex (§ 62), and thus follows their move-
ments.

* This would not include the "whole of the posterior part of the shoul-
der blade, some portion being under the guidance of the neck. Refer-
ring to the beat engravings to which we have access, there is a diflfer-
ence in the proportion of the shoulder blade, which might be supposed
to be guided by these ribs ; the part under the influence of the neck be-
ing much larger in the lion than in the horse and giraffe.

134

That end of the shoulder blade lohich carries the
shoulder joint socket lies on the anterior ground end
of the true ribs, and is guided by the moyements
of this part, which amounts tofolloiving the move-
ments of the front part of bearers of the convex
•{§ 62) and the upper end of the sternum.^

The upper end of the sternum moves with the
stemo-mastoids, and they, finally, move with the
neck S.

At the formation of the left anterior winding-
line, in both its sections, the propeller true ribs (on
the rear portion of the convex) would so move the
right shoulder blade that the right fore-foot will
rest on its outer bearing ; the estabhshment of the
primary section will so alter the shape of the ribs
as to bring the shoulder socket more against the
bearers. The upper end of the sternum is carried
somewhat toward the left.

At the formation of the right posterior Hue the
upper end of the sternum is carried toward the left,
at least relatively, by the movement of its posterior
end to the right, as the left hind foot comes on to
its inner bearing. This movement of the sternum
brings the right fore-leg on its inner bearing by the
movement of its shoulder socket.

* The clavicle which exists in some animals would compel this.

135

From this position the spring takes place, and
the fore-foot, when lifted, continues presenting its
inner bearing, not only because of the position in
which it left the ground, but from its being pres-
ently again governed by the upper edge of its
shoulder blade, which, on the change of curvature,
lies at the rear of a concave of the true ribs. Thus it
remains until the formation of the alternate winding-
Kne which has discharged the old curvatures in the
ophidian and composite S S, extends to the neck
S, brings the (now free) right fore-leg in connec-
tion with the new posterior convex of the neck and
causes it to present for the outer bearing.

Thus ice sliould have in the trot for a fore-foot^
ichiJe in cqjjnii, the outer hearing from the upper edge
of the shoulder blade, while the anterior line of its
formation is in action. The inner hearing from the
socket^ while the posterior line of its formation is in
action.

But a raised forefoot, having the posterior edge
of its shoulder-blade on the rear of the new con-
cave of the anterior C of the ophidian S remains,
presenting for the inner hearing until the imcK form-
ation of the neiv anterior line puts it on the outer
hearing, by connecting its socket with the posterior
part of the rear C of the neck S.

136

§ 131. Although the ophidian, composite, and
bi-composite spines begin the development of the
winding lines, separately, yet, once begun, each
continues its development throughout ; that is,
until the anterior winding line, beginning in the
ophidian S, has formed its bi-composite portion,
the ophidian action constantly increases along
with the others, and so also for the posterior wind-
ing line. Thus, the final action still centres be-
tween the upper and lower lung lobes (§ 99).

§ 132. It wiU be remembered (§§ 32, 33, 34) that
to bring both C C of any S into a discharge for-
ward, the cross-line must be displaced, and the pos-
terior C rests, for its point of reaction, against the
plane in which the anterior point of apphcation
moves. For this reason the ophidian posterior C
thus rests against the neck-root plane ; the poster-
ior C of the rear half of the composite spine (its
junction with the central S being formed) rests
against the same point. The final point of reaction
will be at the base of head, to which the points of
all the spines will be transferred.

These posterior C C, their appuis (the hind-leg,
&c.) being fixed, thrust their points of reaction for-
ward, and (though the anterior C C discharge, so

137

far as tlie spring is concerned, before them) their
appui, the hind-leg, jprecedes in leaving the ground,
the appui of the anterior C C, the diagonal fore-leg,"^
the latter being in great part used only as a rest
while collecting the spring and in Hfting the anter-
ior part of the body. It is discharged only when
the whole composite S springs from the ground.

The posterior winding line prepares the dis-
charge of both C C on the already formed anterior
line, but its working is not completed until the
posterior "point of appUcation " has brought the
posterior end of the cross-line to its own side, as
the anterior point of appHcation has already
brought the anterior end. This cannot be done
until the anterior end, which holds it in check
(§ 32) is completely hberated, consequently not
until after the liberation of the spring from the
hind-foot, where the direct drawing of the posterior
point of application on the posterior cross-line end
completes— first, the change of curvature in the anterior
C, lifting up tJw fore foot, and then, completing the
change of curvature in the posterior C, puts down the

* In our usual illustration, the parts would be the left anterior and
right posterior points of application, the left hind and right lore legs,
and the cross-line would be, at first, drawn completely over to the left
side, the anterior end being drawn, and the posterior end held in check
there by the left anterior winding line.

138

collateral hind-foot ivliich is to form the neiv rear
appui.^

§ 133. The ball and socket movement of the
digastrics, and of the internal oblique muscles of
the eyes, we should describe on the principle that
a rolling outward of the muscle, beginning at its
anterior part, represents the ball motion — a turning
inward, commencing in the rear portion, the reci-
procal socket motion (§ 39). The eyes remain
steady in the central line of advance while, with
movements similar to those of its diagonal eye
muscle, each digastrics brings the composite spine
into connection with the central movement. The
eyes thus belong fundamentally to the ophidian
(or snake) spine.

The part of both digastric and eye muscles an-
terior to the loop rolls outward with the secondary
section of the anterior winding line, the part pos-
terior to the loop with its primary section — then, to
form the double twist, the rear portion rolls in-
wards with the primary section of the posterior
winding line, the front portion inward with the
secondary section. These correspondences take place
for the eye muscle during the ophidian spine action —

* The newly grounded hind-foot should, in perfect action, come into
the print of the fore-foot which gives place to it, unless the spring has
carried all four feet forward.

139

for the digastric during the formation of the compo-
site spine.

As the left anterior winding line enters the " bi-
composite spine" formation, the revolution out-
ward of the left digastric is completed, and its loop
goes to the extreme rear hmit of its rear movement.

At the formation of the composite spine, in the
right posterior winding line, the action of the right
digastric, turning outward from above, beginning-
with its posterior end, which really represents the
socket movement, becomes transformed, (§ 39) as
to effect, into the left digastric-turning inward^
beginning at the rear.

§ 134. The movement of the left hindfoot in
appui, following the left lower lung lobe, corres-
sponds with the movement of the left (its collateral)
digastric, so long as the composite spine is form--
ing. But, so soon as the bi-composite spine forms
and the right fore-leg comes into correspondence
with the left (its diagonal) digastric, this leg sub-
stitutes itself for the digastric in the connection tvith
the left hind if the movement penetrates the neck
root joint.*

* There are some movements, notably, the walk, in which it seems
to us, that the neck root joint shirks more or less of its full actions.
<See § 146),

140

Thus the right eye, tlie left digastric and the right
Jore leg are brought into one direction, first by the an-
terior ivinding line, then by the posterior.

§ 135. The sternum, which is influenced by both
formations, turns — with that of the left anterior
winding line at its upper left corner when forming
the bi-composite spine, so that the left sterno
mastoid revolves outward in its lower portion, and
allows the " displacement " of what would be the
left anterior' cross-line and of the neck S — at about
one-third its length from the head. With that of
the right posterior line the right side of the loiver
and of the sterno (since it represents the separating
head-joint socket) is turned outward, but the ten-
sion comes on the left side turning inward as the
pressure from the right socket movement came on
to the left.

These movements of the sternum, in which its left
lower end may be considered as representing the
posterior end of the cross-line, and its right upper
corner the anterior end, give a full collateral traction
just as the full gathering takes place.

In consequence of the delay in the/w?? discharge

•of the posterior C (§ 132), the free (right) hind-leg

does not come into connection with the right digastric,

Jor its future appui, until the alternate anterior

141

winding line is fully developed, whereas the free
left fore-leg, moving with the neck, is in connection
with it from the first formation.

We have dwelt on these points so long, because,
although they may seem slight, they are of great
importance in " setting up " where the removal of
each chronic displacement adds to the effect as
the point approaches the final centre in a continu-
ally increasing ratio. In developing the action of
the bit in the horse's mouth, the connections of the
digastrics are also of fundamental importance.

§ 136. For tJie Composite Spi^^e ive may trace the
anterior luinding line ~- for iristance, the left one — as
beginning at the spine on the left side of the neck-root,
passing around the body on the right side, so as to
cross it in rear of the upper lumbar vertebra, and fin-
ishing in rear of the left (collateral) hijJ-socJcet.

The right posterior ivinding line, as begimiing at
the right hip-socket in front, passing to the loicer end
of the sternum, thence around the left side of the body,
and under the right (collateral) shoulder-blade.

§ 137. For the Bi-composite Spine, with the Itead-
Joint as the seat of the "points of apphcation," the
condyles {ivorking down into the lungs) representing
the "anterior points,"" the sockets the "posterior,'' the

142

shoulder joints combine the character of both sets of
limbs, and the lower jaw is the substitute ground.

§ 138. The eyes, if we trace the optic nerves
(which we have attempted to do further on), may
be considered to combine both rear and front appuis'
as the foot ends of the ivhole system, first for the
ophidian spine, and successively for all the others,,
as they form. For the trot they first assume their
relation to the ophidian spine, and then, by the ac-
tion of the neck, the bi-composite relation is superadded..
For a variation from this gait the lower jaw, head-
joint, and shoulders, may first act, and then on the
eyes the composite spine may be brought in.

§ 138. The pelvis and the shoulder-blades act
with both C C. The third S is so rigid in its com-
position that it is difficult to separate the movements
of its C G, except by their effects. At the formation
of the bi-composite spine the lohole third S is merged
in the rear G of the ophidian, as is tJie ivhole neck S
in its anterior G, bringing the cross-line centre of this
spine betiveeii the lung lobes.

§ 139. The lower jaw is the ground of junction
between the composite and bi-composite spines, and
on it the re-actions from the real ground, as well as
from all the substitute grounds (§§ 81, 82, 125)
come in bearing. These are essentially collateral.

143

In the same way, the shoulders receive all the
diagonal actions.

In giving the details of the trot, which we are
about to do, we have followed out each section of
the winding lines as if it were developed in each of
the spines — ophidian, composite, and bi-compo-
site — in succession, before the succeeding section
began in the ophidian spine. This has been done
to avoid the confusion from intermixing them ;
but it is obvious that the ball and socket motion of
the neck cannot succeed the anterior line of the
ophidian spine smoothly until the primary section
of the latter is partially formed, since this latter
moves the neck-root joint. Hence, the ophidian
and composite S S of the trot are always in ad-
vance of the neck S — that is to say, both their
secondary and primary windmg-line sections are
in formation before the secondary of the neck
begins.

§ 140. It may be mentioned that we shall con-
sider THE TROT as formed by commencing icith the
ophidian S, and through the continuance of the
action of this S developing the other S S, and, fi-
nally, the bi-composite spine ; the pace as com-
mencing tvith the neck S, which, by its develop-
ment, causes the formation, — first, of the third S,

144

tlirougli the sternum, and then of the ophidian ;
THE WALK, as commencing ivith the ophidian, hut
not extending regularly, the neck-root working
being only partially performed ; in fact, as being a
trot with the hind-legs and a pace with the fore.

As to the gaits of double action we shall con-
sider tJie SQUARE JUMP, which may form a species of
gallop, to be a double trot ; the " full run " to be
a double pace ; the canter to be a mixture of the
trot and pace, which is finished in each spring by
double action.

DETAILS OF THE TROT.

§ 141. Let us, as usual, suppose the left anterior
winding-line to be the leading one, we will mark
the developments by the following symbols :
A for the original anterior windmg-line.
" posterior "

alternate anterior "

secondary section of the anterior line,
primary " " " "

secondary " " posterior "

primary " " " "

a' and b' for the ophidian spine,
a^ " b' " " composite "
a'^ " b^ " " bi-composite "

B

A'

a

a'

b

b'

145

§ 142. A a^ Formation of the secondary sec-^
tion of tlie anterior winding-line in the ophidian
spine. The " point of apphcation " being on a
cross-plane section, somewhere at the root of the
neck, the ophidian left anterior Avinding-line de-
velops from it. This development causes the left
false and right true ribs to form on convexes of
the spine, which work against the sternum, and at
the same time expand the left posterior, and, al-
though less fully, the right anterior lung lobes, at
the expense of then- reciprocals, the collateral left
anterior and right posterior lobes."^ The con-
sequent changes in the centre of gravity bring the
left hind-foot and, in a less degree, the right fore-
foot on their outward bearings, giving them also a
greater share of the weight of the body, and by so
much, relieving the right hind and left fore-feet.
"With the movement of the false ribs the left side
of the diaphragm is stretched.

The left fore-foot is turned in by the commence-
ment of an inward facing of its socket (§ 130), fol-
lowing through the upper part ^of the shoulder-

* The anterior portion of the ej^e muscle rolls oatwarl with ih.Q fill-
ing of its diagonal posterior lobe, anfl inward with the exhausting of its
collateral posterior lobe. Hence, since it cannot roll two ways at once,
the two posterior lobes cannot hi reciprocals as to filling and exhaust-
ing.

146

blade the shape of the rear true ribs of its side.
The right Jiind-foot is turned in by the facing of its
socket.

The right eye becomes the centre of direction,
the muscular portion in front of the loop rolling
outward, and thus the ophidian spine preserves, in
the eye, its relation to the snake's motion.

a '^ Formation of the primary section — Upper
end of sternum carried somewhat to left, brings
bearing of right shoulder blade on the ribs, nearer
to its socket part — Displaces ophidian cross line to
left — Eear portion of right eye muscle rolls out-
ward, loop slipping to its rear limit — Enlarges right
upper lung lobe.

a^ This movement combines the third S with
the ophidian spine, and thus forms the rear portion
of the composite spine for the anterior winding-
line. As the internal relations of the composite
spine belong to the ophidian S, and the external to
the neck S, the anterior "point of application" for a^
a ''^ must vary between the " point in a cross plane"
spoken of under a ^ and the head condyles — Turns
the left hind-foot still more on its outer bearing —
Fills the rear C of the right lung tip (in filling
this, revolves to the left and backward)— Tightens
connection between left side of pubis and left side

147

of posterior end of sternum, in the outward bear-
ing, in consequence of the turning of the lower of
the third S. Turns the upper part of left diaph-
ragm pillar outward, and still further expands the
left lower lung lobe.

a'2 Formation of anterior part of composite
spine in anterior winding line — Rolls left anterior
comer of sternum outward and backward, and causes
lower part of left stemo-mastoid muscle to roll
in same direction — completes outer turning of left
diaphragm-pillar, and begins that of left psoas. The
turning of the left upper corner of the sternum
causes a partial movement in the neck root joint, in
its character of a ball and socket — Right fore-leg
shoulder socket brought close to ribs.

a^. Continued revolution of left anterior ophi-
dian point of appHcation further moves neck root
joint, so that left head condyle turns inward by the
rear on its posterior end. The left digastric rolls
outward in its anterior portion, the loop slipping
backward. The left (tree) fore-foot turns outward.^
The left psoas completes its outward turn, thus
forming the rear portion of theM-composite spine in
the anterior line.

*When the trot is fully inaugurated, the anterior line which we are
■now describing, is the alternate line in relation to the previous spring.

148

a'^. Continued action of the ophidian line works
still fnrtlier on neck root joint; the left head con-
dyle, in consequence, rotates forward, so as to pass
its inteiior side against the interior side of its sock-
et, resisting the movement toward the left coming
from the right fore-leg, and carrying its own point
of pressure forward ; thus corresponding to a*
§ 37. The rear portion of the left digastric rolls
outward, the loop moving to its utmost rear limit.
The left fore-foot is carried forw^ard.

The movements a' a'^ of the left head con-
dyle are made on the rear C of the right lung tip,
and the hicomposite spine for the " anterior line " is
completed in the formation of its front part by (in.
this case left) side of the lower jaw setting, in its
socket, so as to rest on the inner part of its con-
dyle. This bearing, and that on the outer side, are,
respectively, analogically the same as the outer and
inner bearing of the ribs and feet ; we shall, there-
fore, name them the analogical outer and inner
bearings of the lower jaw.

§ 143. B. It is a little difficult to describe
the action of the posterior windmg-line as it
covers the precedently established diagonal an-
terior line. Its secondary section working in the
anterior C, is there opposed by the primary sec-

149

tion of tlie anterior Hue liolding tlie cross line
displaced, aud tlie first effects are, on this account,
not those of a working in this C, but hy re-action
of a working in the posterior C. Here, beginning
at the rear end, it double twists the propeller false
ribs, bringing them on their iuner beariag.

With the estabhshment of its primary section
the posterior wiuding-hne would move the poste-
rior cross-line end, but this is held fast, displaced
to the left, untn the anterior line is discharged ia
its primary section by the action of the primary
section of the " alternate line," when it displaces
its appropriate end of the alternate cross-Hne.

In consequence of this delay the propeller true
ribs are, next after the double twisting of the pro-
peller false ribs, brought on to their inner bear-
ings, and even the bearer true and false ribs are
brought on to then* outer bearuigs (§ 53) while
the displacement is still maintaiued.

At the discharge, which begins with the forma-
tion of the secondary section of the " alternate an-
terior -^dnding-line," the original posterior C is
discharged, ^'^V^:/a/7^, but it is ^only when the es-
tablishment of the piimary section of this " alter-
nate line " takes place, and discharges the original
anterior C, releasing the original anterior cross-
7^

150

line end as it draws that end of the alternate
cross line toward the right, and releasing also the
original posterior cross-line end from its con-
strained position to the left, that this virtual dis-
charge is carried out and the alternate false rib
propellers are grounded.

The analogy of the snake's action holding good
for the three spines and their appuis, the right
hind-foot will be set down when A' a'^ has re-
leased the cross-line end of the comj^osite spine
at the jimctnre of the lumbar and ophidian ver-
tebrae.

As has been so fi'equently said (§ 39, etc.), all
the actions of the posterior lines are " replace-
ment" movements in the side of the C which they
affect. Thus the inward rolling of the left digas-
tric is really consequent on an inoperative outward
rolling of the right digastric, in the same way as
the pressure of the left head socket comes from
the drawing away of the right one.

b^ Posterior right winding-line. Effects in ^^os-
terior C of the re-action from its secondary section
as checked in anterior C, brings the left propel-
ler false ribs on to their inner beariags, beginning
at the rear, and produces an effect in the further
stretching of the left side of the diaphragm by

151

"" counter-action " in its fibres. Begins a rolling
motion of the right eye muscle in-^varcl, in its rear
portion corresponding with the motions, from re-
action in the rear C of the spine. Produces some
inward bearing of the left hind-foot from the
change of centre of gravity.

b'. Direct action in secondary section. Bight
true rib projDcllers come on inner bearing, and
bearers on outer bearing. Bight eye muscle rolls
inward, by its anterior part, loop still not moving.

b^. Be-actionary formation of rear half of com-
posite spine for the posterior winding-line. Brings
the left hind-ioot on to its iniier bearing. Bolls
the left pillar of the diaphragm inward by its lower
part. Turns (by change of socket facing) the
right (free) hind-foot for outer bearing.

b'^. Direct formation of anterior part of the com-
posite spine, for right posterior winding Hue,
secondary section. Lower C of right lung tip fills,
rolling inward. Bight fore-foot comes on inner
bearing by movement of socket from continued pass-
age of the upper end of sternum to the left. Turns
the posterior end of sternum, left side, inwards by
the front, so far as the displaced position of the
cross-line end will allow it.

Partial movement in neck-root joiut crossing

152

that of a^ Left diaphragm pillar rolls inward at
its upper part. Left psoas rolls in by its lower
part.

b'^. Reactionary neck S. Since the action, is
spreading upwards fi-om the neck-root joint, the
movement of the digastric will somewhat precede
that of the head socket. Left digastric rolls inward,,
beginning with its anterior part, but loop does
not move. Left head socket rotates forward so as
to pass its exterior side against the exterior side of
the condyle, still resisting the general pressure to
the left, which is now exerted through the condyle.

Action through the sternum forms rear part of hi-
composite spine for the posterior winding line connec-
ting left (fixed) hind-leg with the left digastric, and
by the diagonal part of its traction bringing the
right (free) hind-leg forward. The left psoas roll&
inward by its upper part to form in the bi-compo-
site spine.

b^ Direct pressures and counter-pressures gather
at the anterior point of the left head-joint socket.
Left digastric rolls inward by its posterior por-
tion. Left side of lower jaw comes as firmly on to
its "analogical inner" bearing (§ 142) as it can,
until the formation of b'".

Movement on lower C of right lung tip finishing

153

tlie motion of tlie neck-root joint completes hi-corn-
posiie spine anteriorly for the right posterior winding
line, excepting the formation throughout of h', h'^y
b'^, its primary sections, which await the release of
the posterior cross-line end from its position to the
left, on the formation of the alternate anterior line.

Right anterior lung lobe and lung tip straighten
into one. The sternal action would connect the
right fore-leg mth the right digastric, but for the
same reason (§ 39) that the action of the right head-
socket only gives pressure on the left; this only
causes accumulated action in the left digastric.

DiscHAEGE. Sy the formation of the right (al-
ternate) anterior line.

A' a^ a'*. Gives final discharge to the ophidian
S so soon as a'* draws the anterior end of the alter-
nate ophidian cross-Hne to the right, thus releasing
the end of the old line.

A' a'2, moving the anterior end of the alternate
composite spine cross-line, after fully discharging
the left hind-foot by releasing the "reactionary,"
and the right fore-foot by releasing the "direct"
action of the secondary section of the old posterior
line, sets down the free right hind-foot by the re~
lease of the old posterior cross-line end of the com-
posite spine. A' a'^ Hkewise frees the left digas-

154

trie loop after allowing the now, for the first time,
possible action of b' b" of the old line. This loop
passes instantly forward to its utmost front limit,
and at the same time allows the left jaw to set
firmly on its "analogical inner bearing" (§ 142)^
given up to the drawing of its temporal muscle.

The new appuis being now set do-wn on the out-
ward bearing, and the old ones bemg raised as they
left the ground with the imier bearing presented. —
A' a^ and a'^ form, in some horses, with great
rapidity, and perhaps a^ before reaching the ground,
but in others with a slight delay, t These turn the
now raised (here right) fore-foot for its outer bear-
ing and bring it forward ; then, when B' is formed,
the left (now free) hind-foot is turned out by B'
b'^ and b^ is brought forward by B' b'^ and b^, and
so on.

Whether, in the landing, the new hind or the
new fore-foot reaches the ground first, depends on
the degree of gathering (§ 64.)

§ 144. The Pace. We include under this name

* We suppose the sudden pull on vhe reiu collateral with the propel-
ling hind-foot, at the moment of the thrust, to be owing to this sudden
setting of the lower jaw. It is well known that drawing this rein just
as the foot has left the ground, most powerfully checks progression.

t Where this delay is very marked, the lifted fore-foot not being
presented for its outer bearing, retains the inner, w^hich is called
** dishing."

155

all those methods of locomotion in which quadru-
peds use tico legs of the same side as appuis for
a step.

In the trot, the movement was begun with the
ophidian S acting with the eye diagonal to the
rear appui, and, extending to the third 8, and
finally to the neck S, concluded by this S acting
with the digastric collateral with the rear appui.
We suppose the pace to be begun with the neck S
and the collateral digastric, to extend to the thiixl
S, and finally to be concluded by the ophidian S
and the diagonal eye.

There was what might be called an " ophidian
action " of the head articulation coming from the
spine in the eye movement of the trot, but we
have now the thorough action of the separate con-
dyles ; this ended the trot, but begins the pace, and
the sterno-mastoids bring the tractions fii'st to the
sternum. The sternal tractions are (§1 18) collate-
ral, and hence the point of appui will be two feet of
the same side, instead of as in the trot, diagonal.

In our theory of the trot, the back bone is drawn
over the sternum and the final stress of the dis-
charge brought on to the front of the latter. In
that of the pace, the sternum is first drawn forward
find the final stress of the discharge brought to-

156

wards tlie root of the neck (or perliapsthe withers).

It is apparent that, for animals which carry
great weights in their mouths, as the Hon with its
prey, the pace — since it may commence with the
lower jaw as its initiative point — would be the most
advantageous. The sino^le-action locomotion of
the lion, &c., is, we believe, of this nature ; and it is
noticed in such animals, that the lower jaw articu-
lation is a simple hinge, without any lateral move-
ment,"^'" so that the body must rather move about
the lower jaw, than the lower jaw accommodate
itself to the movements of the body.

These movement of the pace, however, would
more properly begin with a head-condyle and its
thorough action. It is in this way we suppose them
to be performed by the Horse and the Giraffe.

The digastric loop may be released either with a
lateral movement of the lower jaw as at A' a'^ , or
by an extended lateral movement of the diaphragm
as the base of the lungs, or by a lateral movement
of the head as the basis from which the digastrics
hold ; which last again may be supplied by a still
freer lateral movement of the jaw. In the trot of

* Possibly the fact that, from the absence of the bony partition be-
tween them, the (emporal muscle presses directly npon the eyeball in
these animals, may have sometlfing to do with so connecting the digas-
tric and the internal oblique of the eye that the lateral motion of the
jaw is less needed.

157

the horse the lateral movement of the lower jaw,
as it leaves its outer bearing, supplies whatever is
wanting in the similar movement of the diaphragm.
In the lion, &c., the long flexible body gives suffi-
cient movement to the diaphragm for replacing en-
tirely the movement of the jaw. But in the Giraffe
there must be an extended jaw movement, to re-
place the want of proportional lateral movement
of the diaphragm caused by the long neck and
comparatively short body.

When moving with the neck, thefore-limhs are re-
lated to the neck S,'^ as the hind-limhs are to the third
S, and thus the limb on the side of the rear con-
vex of the neck will receive an outer bearing turn,
the one on the side of a rear concave an inward
bearing turn. This relation will be more ma:^ked
when the neck S acts first as in the pace.

The third S is for the rear luhat the neck S is for
the front (excepting so far as the latter is more
concerned in forming the bi-composite spine). After
(for the pace) receiving its development in the an-
terior line by the extension of the neck S, and
when this developement has been extended to the
ophidian S, the third S commences the formation of
the POSTERIOR winding line. From the beginning, its.

* We would recall the fact of the fore-limbs being head-limbs.

158

development is in close counter-action with the
neck S and the latter after the formation of the
ophidian part, developes the bi-composite spine
for the line by the final thorough movement of the
condyles.

§ 145. Eeferring to § 141 for the symbols used,
ive should form the pace by the following combina-
tion :

A a^. The left head condyle revolving at its pos-
terior end, independently of any preceding ophidian
movement, throws the weight on to the left fore-leg
by its neck connection ; and the left sterno-mastoid
muscle turning outward by the movement imparted
to the left upper comer of the sternum, through
the formation of the left convex in the posterior C
of the neck S, turns the left fore-foot on its outer
bearing. This working is, in the horse, directly as-
sisted by the Levator humeri muscle (§ 86, note*).
There wiU also be a certain effect in throwing the
left hind-foot on its outer hearing.

a'^. The left-head condyle passes its interior
side against the interior of its socket. If the left
fore-foot were fi'ee this would carry it forward,
but this foot being fixed, the traction of the sterno-

* Were the foot in air, the drawing of this muscle would bond the
3eg; being in appui, the straightened leg draws on the neck.

159

mastoid becomes diagonal through the sternum,
and brings the (free) right hind foot someivliat for-
icarcl with its inner hearing presented.

a^ The rear part of the composite spine, begin-
ning with the third S, forms, by induction, fi*om
the neck. The left kind foot is brought more fully
on to its outer hearing.

a'^ Right fore-leg hent and its foot presented for
outer hearing by movement of sternum to the left,
changing the socket facing as the neck root joint
moves.

a^ Completion of outer bearing of left hindfoot.

a'^ Completion of action of right fore-foot, as in
a'^ but its movement now derived from the rear
true ribs.

B b'^ Begins with the third S, but, as before
said, so in counter-action with the neck S that
they move almost together. Throws left hind-foot
on iniier hearing. Turns right hind-foot on outer
hearing and advances it.

b'. Brings left fore-foot on its inner hearing.

b'2. Right hind-foot forward outer hearing.

b^ Eight fore-foot inner bearing.

b'^ Increase of b'^

b^ Increase of b^

160

A' a'. Discharge. Turns riglit fore-foot on outer
hearing.

— a'^ Brings riglit fore-foot forvf arcl.

A' a" discharges tlie left hind-foot in its bi-com-
posite connection, and — a'^ the left fore-foot in the
same. These discharges, of course, work on the
sternum, and are followed by the composite and
ojDhidian spines ; but, from the circumstance of
the altered position of the appuis of the alternate
anterior line, the collateral fore and hind-leg are
not much separated after leaving the ground.

§ 146. One difficulty in describing all the gaits
lies in the difference between the action of the an-
terior hne when first throwing the body into posi-
tion, and its action when as "alternate anterior'*
it discharges the gathered three springs of the old
Hues. In imagining the real working of this line,
when the gait is fully inaugurated, we must bear
in mind that, then, the first office of the anterior
line is to discharge the old spring, after which it
forms the basis for a new one.

It will be noticed that a marked distinction be-
tween the trot and the pace consists in the " alter-
nate neck winding line " A' a^ a" forming itself in
the trot, after the spring and landing, but in the
pace, before either.

161

lu the trot the discharge of the C C succeeded
each otlier "s\ith a marked interval ; that is, the
rear C was virtually discharged and the alternate
anterior line for this part formed, before the ante-
rior C was discharged and its portion of the alter-
nate anterior hne was formed, and, in retrogression,
vice versa.

But, since the pace begins at what was the con-
clusion of the trot, the two C C are discharged
more together, and the discharging alternate ante-
rior line, ha\dng awaited their discharge, then forms
more as a whole ; that is, in the trot the left hind-
leg vu^tually discharges and the right posterior
lung lobe fills, before the right fore-leg discharges
and the left anterior lung lobe fills ; whereas, in the
jmce the left hind and right fore-leg discharge (this
last not in appui), then the right lower and left
upper lung lobes fill.

The above described difference will make a prom-
inent point in " setting up," causing a distinction
between forcing the trotting and the pacing move-
ments to the "third result" (§ 76).

The Walk is described by von Oeynhausen as
the gait in which each foot moves at separate in-
tervals, and so that, VN^hile in moving forward each
fore-foot is succeeded by its diagonal hind-foot,

162

each hind-foot is succeeded by its collateral fore-
foot. Thus, supposing (1) the right hind-foot to
move to the front, then (2) the right fore-foot next
moves, and, for an instant, the horse is resting on
the two left feet ; (3) the right hind-foot is put
down, the horse is on three feet ; (4) the right fore-
foot is put down, the horse is on four feet ; (5, 6, 7
and 8), the same is repeated, with the opposite side
leading.

§ 147. We should construct the icalk from the
elements of locomotion A, B, A' given in § 141, by
supposing the action of the primary sections sus-
pended in all the anterior hues, and the secondary
sections of the posterior lines to be carried only
far enough to secure the necessary reactions in the
posterior C C C. In this way, the through ball and
socket action of the neck-root joint is passed over,
and the fore-feet given up almost entirely to the
neck action ; the hind-feet to the body action.
From this gait the extension of the neck S lines,
when they are developing, will produce the pace ;
the extension of the ophidian hues, the trot. The
passage of the outer and inner edges of the con-
dyles will be very imperfectly made, and the pass-
age from the anterior to the posterior condyle ends
will thus take place with something of a jerk, which

163

gives a "nodding motion" at each step, particularly
marked in good walkers.

A. a^ Puts weight on left hind- foot.

a'. Increases this joining the ophidian and third
SS.

a\ Puts the iveight on left fore-foot. Raises right
fore.

B. h'^ and b'^ Brings left hind-foot on its in-
ner hearing; turns right hind-foot for outer hearing
and brings it foriuard.

h'^. Puts left fore-foot on inner hearing.

A'. a\ Keleases a^ b'^

a^. Keleases a'' b'' at junction of central and third
S. Puts down right hind-foot.

a^. Carries/orirarc? and puts down right fore.

Thus we have A' a^ right hind foot down. A'^
right fore foot down. We are inchned to think that
in \hQ full progress of the step a fore-foot leaves the
ground as the opposite fore-foot is put down, thus
shghtly differing from the description of von
Oeynhausen ; but as this fore-foot, after rising,
awaits the movement of the collateral hind-foot,
raised and carried forward by the posterior line^
the difference is not important.

§ 148. Retrogressio7i may be brought about, after
the formation of the diagonal oppositions which

164

prepare for the spring forward, by refusing the
discharge and continuing to develope the original
hues of gathering. While the alternate anterior
line is kept from forming (§70 snake's motion), the
head-joint, both as to its ophidian and separate
condyle (or limb) motion, will change to the alter-
nate bearings, and the effect of this will he—frst,
to change the appuis to the alternate legs ; and
second, on these concave appuis to discharge the
old lines and form the new ones.

This delaying the spring until all the concaves
have actually changed to convexes, and thus mak-
ing that change on the ground entirely, instead of
finishing it in air, again brings the head condyles,
in advance, into their alternate position, and puts
the concaves in appui for the next step.

We think that Jive points of difference from pro-
gression must be produced by that accumulation
of action at the head-joint which, in retrogression,
at each step keeps the balance of gravity on the
concaves. (1.) The filling of the alternating lung
lobes must be in advance of that in progression.
(2.) The passage of the convexes over the con-
caves (§ 60) must be reduced to a minimum, if, in-
deed, the contrary action do not have place. (3.)
The thiTist of the feet of appui, depending now on

165

the actual change of the spinal convexities (§ 61),
the movement of the diagonal feet of appui, in
the backward trot, must be more nearly synchro-
nous than in that of progression. (4.) The action
of the lower jaw must, in proper backing, be that
of yielding, instead of forcing, at the moment of
the spring, the alternating joint leading the work-
ing one.

(5.) In hacJdng (§ 70) the feet leave the ground by
the outer bearings and take it again by tJw inner
bearing, exactly the reverse of progi-ession.

§149. The Halt. In the "the third result" of
forcing the winding lines in the snake (§ 71), we
endeavoured to describe that of bringing on
the formation of one line by induction from the
continued forcing of the other, after the alloioed
counteractions had been already formed ; also to
show that so doing would bring on an equaHzation
of gathering in the two sides, resulting finally in the
^' superimposition of twists," a formation in which
all four winding lines are developed at the same
time, and consequently all lateral curvatures sup-
pressed.

As the actions of halting are identical with those
on which our theory of " setting up " is founded,

8

166

we shall postpone a part of the details to the sec-
tions in which that subject is treated.

In retrogression both the anterior and posterior
lines were separately formed, but if one line be
forced and the other form by induction, then, from
the continuance of this forcing, we shall have as
the result, equalization of gathering on the two>
sides, and thus a position from which any gait may
be initiated by a redistribution of the tractions.

Any portion in the course of the icinding line may he
selected for commencing the forcing, and the equalization
will then hegin at the point ivhich would have been
formed by that moment of action in the original
formation of the line.

We shall, however, for the present, consider the
forcing as beginning in each S, at a point of ap-
plication.

When a horse lands from any spring, he may be
halted in three ivays."^ First on the alternate an-
terior line of the ophidian spine — this line having
being brought into superadded action by the
pressure of the legs or by the spur, while the bit
checks the extension of the line to a^ in the neck S
until this is formed as part of the adjustment in
equalizing the sides from forcing its ophidian
portion. In this case the horse will be halted on

167

the outer bearings of the feet, and then come on to
the inner bearings ; i. e., he will be halted in pro-
gression, probably the most advantageous method.

Second. — On the alternate posterior line of the
ophidian S. In this case the bit is drawn as the
posterior line begins to form, after landing, and
the spur is applied after the bit. The action of the
neck S in the anterior hne (a^a'^) having preceded
it, a fore-foot will have been raised. In this case
the horse will be halted on the inner bearings, be-
ginning with the hind leg of appui, and then come
on to the outer bearings, i. e., he will be halted in
retrogression. This is not a false halt, and is we
believe the one generally used by the Arabs, and
perhaps that used by the animal in a state of
nature. Third. — The rein may be drawn after
landing, before the action (a^ a'^j of the neck is
completed. As the neck inaugurates a pacing
movement, the halt will then be made in a pace
ingrafted on the trot, causing a very awkward
equaHzation of gathering, and this we suppose
to be the " halt on the shoulders " so much depre-
cated by aU horsemen.

§ 150. Double-action Motion^ from position of

*We refer to the trot in exemplifying the subject.

168

" Superimposition of twists " (§ 71) ; i. e., spring by
two rear and two front appuis.

§ 151. The Double-action Trot or Square-Jump
must differ very considerably from the single ac-
tion in the movement of the feet, since one fore-
foot can no longer be thrown forward by the neck
movement, A a^ a'^ (§ 143), while the other fore-
foot acts in appui ; on the contrary, the fore-feet
when thrown forward must depend for support on
the hind feet, or on an impetus derived from the
spring of the hind feet. And, also, since all the legs
must be affected, before the spring, hy both the body
and neck gatherings.

§ 152. We shall be obhged to add to the sym-
bols, § 141, a character representing the right an-
terior and left posterior winding lines which can no
longer be regarded as alternate, by giving an Italic
letter to these last, thus A a* a'*, A', and so on,
for the right anterior Hues, B b'^ b^ B', for the
left posterior.

§ 153. In the double trot the anterior winding
lines, left and right, acting together throughout
their secondary and primary sections, in the ophid-
ian S, throw, by change of centres of gravity, the
weight on the outer bearings of both hind and both

169

fore-feet. Cause both internal oblique eye muscles
to roll outward, &c., &c. A ^ a^ a^ a'^ a'^.

a 2 Of ^ Form tlie rear of the composite spine.
Cause the back, from the junction of the third and
ophidian S S to the tail, to begin forming a con-
vex in the medium perpendicular plane*. Increase
the outward hearing of both hind-feet.

sl'^ a'^. Forms the anterior part of the com-
posite spine. Moves the neck-root joint as ball and
socket for these lines. Increases outward hearing
of hoth fore-feet.

a^ a^. Both digastrics roll outward. Both loops
drawn back. Muscles connecting pubis and ster-
num tightened. Bicomposite spine formed in rear
for anterior Hne.

a'^ a'^. Fore-feet fully on outward bearing.
Digastric loops to rear limits. Motion of con-
dyles and motion in neck-root joint completed for
anterior lines. Bicomposite spine completed for
the same. Both lower jaw articulations set on
their analogical outer bearing.

B B. In the ophidian and composite spines these

* The perpendicular convexities are properly two for each S S S,
but, as the bicomposite spine forms, the various portions are so reduced
as to form two for the whole body, one the neck and part of the ophid-
ian spine, the other, jiart of the ophidian spine and the third S. Be-
tween the two the centre of the ophidian spine lies in concave.

170

lines bring the hind and fore-feet on their inner
bearings. In the bicomposite spine this beariQg is
increased, and the whole body brought iato one
gathering with two convexes, upward, in the me-
dian perpendicular plane ; i. e., one consisting of
the neck and part of the ophidian spine, the other
of part of the ophidian spine and the third S ; the
centre of the ophidian spine sinking as a concave
between them.*

A' A'. Eelease the gathered springs of all the
spines successively before leaving the ground, and
beguirdng with the ophidian spine. The hind-feet
are thus released first, and the fore-feet imme-
diately after them. The release of the fore-feet
by the alternate neck lines — which in the single
action trot would have been accomphshed after
the landing — is in the double action accompanied
by a sudden and rapid carrying of them forward,
at the time when the head condyles change their
bearing.

The feet come down gathered on the anterior
lines, and immediately form on B' B', and so on.

§ 154. At one moment of the " double trot "
the horse is much extended, the fore-feet being

* Here again wo have the centre between the hmg lobes as the
" centre of force" for the whole body (§ 99).

171

tstretched forward and the hind-feet just drawing
up from the thrust backward. The whole action
is so violent that it is unfitted for more than a few
iDOunds.

The landing may be made on the hind or the
fore-feet, according to the distribution and force of
the gathering.

As the animal is ia " double superimposition of
twdsts " at each gathering, there will be no equali-
zation of the sides at the Halt, which now can be
made only on the alternate posterior line, and, by
a violent and disturbing effort on the neck action.

§155. The Double Pace or Full Run ("Car-
riere "). This gait will bear the same relation to
the single action pace that double action trot bears
to single action. The movement, however, will
differ widely from that of the trot, inasmuch as the
whole bicomposite spine is first discharged by the
sternum, and the hind-legs follow so closely on to
ihe fore that they separate but little either in leav-
ing the ground or on landing. As in the pace, the
head condyles change their beaiings while the
appuis are still on the ground (in the double trot
they change in air). The push at the bit should
•also be different, since the lower jaw articulations
preceding the digastrics in their movements, it will

172

occur before the Mnd-feet leave the ground instead
of, as in the trot, just as they have done so.*

§ 156. The Canterj- or Gallop. There remains still
this other perfect gait, which is the usual method
of locomotion in double action.

If we consider the double trot, in reference to
the alternate expanding and contracting of the
lung lobes, it will be seen that, in the gatherings,,
there is a very forcible expansion of them, in which
state they are retained to await the movement of
the breast-bone (or " substitute gi'ound"). This is
evidently a laborious action, as may be observed
when putting a horse through the movement. On
the other hand, although the double pace is easier,
because the extreme tension comes on only at the
moment when the completion of the final diagonal
actions enables the lungs readily to relieve them-
selves at the spring, and makes this gait the one
for the highest speed. Yet, since it requires a
complete leaving of the ground by aU four
appuis at the same moment, and gives no inter-
mediate instant of rest on two appuis, it calls for a
great expenditure of force.

* It must be necessary for the lion, &c., when carrying a weight
in the mouth, that the condyles and lower jaw should take their alternate^
bearings before the body leaves the ground.

t We shall use the term canter as more definite than gallop.

173

These objections existing for any ordinary
movement, either in the double trot or double
pace, a combination of the two is adopted as the
usual method of locomotion with double action.

The succession of the feet in the canter, accord-
ing to Yon Oe^Tihausen, is in leavinc/ the ground.
(1.) a' hind-foot ; (2.) the collateral fore and op-
posite hind-foot, so closely in succession as to be
almost synchronous ; (3.) the diagonal fore-foot.
In coming to the ground the order is the same, ex-
cepting that when the iveight is ivell on the hauncheSy
the hind foot of No. 2 anticipates its diagonal fore-
foot, and in this latter case there will he four
" beats," since each foot comes separately doTvn,
whereas in the former only three can be separated
by the ear.

It is evident, we think, that von Oeynhausen
considers that iu No. 2 the collateral fore-foot an-
ticipates the opposite hind-foot in leaving the
ground, and that (adopting our usual illustra-
tion), we have — (1.) The left hind-foot ; (2.) the
left fore-foot ; (3.) the right hind-foot ; (4.) the
right fore-foot. This would give 1;he same relative
" succession " as in the walk, the Kkeness of
which to the canter he thus particularly points
out : " The similarity between the succession of the

174

feet in the woUi and in the golloip will not have es-
caped the observation of the reader. * * *
It is also a frequently repeated remark, and one
confirmed by experience, that the goodness or
faultiness of the walk and gallop are nearly re-
lated to each other."

§ 157. We should explaia von Oeynhausen's
description of the canter, in accord with our theory
of tractions, in the following manner :

We will suppose the canter to be " to the right,"
which may be best illustrated by assuming that
the horse is moving around a circle of which the
centre is to his right. The left legs are then the
outer legs, the right legs the inner ones, and if the
horse be cantering properly he " leads " with his
right (inner) fore-leg.

In the "succession" of the walk — right hind,
right fore ; left hind, left fore. It will be no-
ticed that the two legs of the right side succes-
sively pass the two of the left side, then those of
the left the two of the right, and so on. This von
Oeynhausen makes the Jpasis of his description of
the canter, and we shall use it for the same pur-
pose.

One may imagine a gait in which the movements
of the walk are performed with a double action.

175

This would allow of no ball and socket action at
the neck root joint, but would give a double trot
for the body limbs and a double pace for the head
limbs. Now, if in such double action a certain
amount of lateral curvature — say convex to the
left in the rear C C, to the right in the front C C —
be allowed in the S S, and this curvature be con-
stantly maintained, we shall have the double ac-
tion trot of the hind-legs and the double action
pace of the fore-legs, modified by a moment of sin-
gle action for the legs of either side, as the
winding-Hnes form, and in which the right-left
counteractions will not at all enter the neck root
joint, thus leaving the left fore-leg entirely to the
neck action, as in the walk, and the left-right
counteractions will enter to only a certain dis-
tance, as the partial actions of the left head-con-
dyle and right head joint socket carry it. That
is, the single actions of the body and of the neck,
by which the gatherings of the left hind and left
fore-legs begin, are, at their ending, merged in
double action with the beginning of the gather-
ings for the right side legs, and the right side
gatherings again end in single action.

The whole action of the right hind-leg is, when
the rear C C are maintained convex to the left, made

176

less forcible by reason of the left anterior cross-
line end being kept from moving to the right, and
the movement of the left fore-leg is restricted, the
anterior C C being maintained convex to the right,
because the true ribs of the left side are kept from
passing the sternum fully over to its support.

These C C being thus constantly kept partially
convex, let us suppose that (1) the horse has in the
walk put down the left hind-leg to gather on the an-
terior winding lines q} a*^, and that the gathering
thus made is maintained, but kept suppressed.
(2) He gathers on the left condyle for the left fore-
leg, and this is also kept in abeyance. (3) and (4)
He gathers in the same way for the right side.
The gatherings for the two sides will coalesce at the
ending of the one and the beguining of the other.

Let the posterior lines be formed iq the same
way for both sides.

There are now, as it may be said, " latent " four
movements of the walk, and if, when the alternate
anterior lines are formed to discharge them, the
discharge be restraiaed, so that all of them spring
nearly at once, the steps, so far as passing the feet
is concerned, will take place in air.

The order of the spring wlQ be : — (1) The left hind-
foot (rear action exaggerated). (2) The left fore-

177

foot (forward action limited). (3) The right hind
(rear action limited).^ (4) The right fore (forward
action exaggerated) while in air, first the left hind
and left fore-feet will successively pass those of the
right side as the hoi^se rises, fulfilling their steps ;
second, the right hind and right fore will repass
those of the left side as the Jiorse descends, fulfilling
their steps. All the feet will then come down
in the same order, and to the same positions as at
the start.

In this gait, by reason of the permanent bendings
of the body and neck S S, the left stifle joint and
the point of the left shoulder are held always in
rear of those of the right side,t and thus, although
each foot passes, the ivJiole leg does not.

If, during tJie canter, the horse extend the neck-root
action from the neck backward, he launches into the
"full run,'' if he extend it from the ophidian S for-
ward he takes the " double trot.''

Von Oeynhausen is inclined to explain the " 07ily
two beats" which are heard and felt in the full run
as coming, not from the two hind-feet giving one
sound and the two fore-feet another, but from the

* A3 before stated, the times of 2 and 3 are so close together in de-
scending that the ear cannot distinguish them, and also if the haunches
be weighted, 3 (the foot not the leg) precedes 2.

t VoM Oeynhausen lays much stress on this.

178

left hind and left fore-feet giving one sound, and
the right hind and right fore another. This may
be so, and consequently, perhaps the double action
never entirely lose a slight one-sided element, but
this would seem to take from its perfection, and we
should rather believe that the two sounds come
from the slight difference in the times of landing
of the two front and the two hind feet.

:§L58. The " Disunited gallop.'' In this move-
ment the shoulder of, say the left side, is in ad-
vance, while the stifle-joint of the same side is in
rear. On our theory this must be explained by
supposing the horse to introduce the wrong con-
dyle into action with the ophidian movement.

§159. We shall leave the other actions of the
horse for the subject of riding, since their descrip-
tion is so connected with that of the " aids " used
by the rider for producing them, as to render it
difficult to separate the one from the other.

179
PAET V.

SETTING-UP.

Before rehearsing the chief points which are
concerned in " setting-up," we will allude to some
general principles.

It will be noticed that the alternate head ball
motion, in gathering the alternate anterior line,
coincides in direction with the old motion of the
underlying socket, m gathering the old posterior
line. Now this alternate ball motion absorbs the
old socket gathering, and thus transforms it into
the alternate anterior gathering, at the same time
that it releases the old anterior gathering, which
was held under control by the now transferred and
metamorphosed posterior winding line.

We say " metamorphosed luinding line " because
the same thing takes place at all the articulations,
and thus the (for instance) right posterior winding
line becomes the right anterior winding line, the
concave to the right of the lower C ascending to
the upper C, and vice versa.

The head joint changes its relations, in which
the ball represents the anterior, the socket the
posterior line by a concentrated working, the other
joints do so by an eccentric movement which gives

180

an epicycloidal sliape to tlieir curves of transform-
ation.

At the cross-lines the same movement has place,
the direction in which the old (for example) right
posterior line turns its posterior cross-line end
is the same in which the alternate right anterior
line will turn its anterior end, and they will both
draw their ends over to the same (here the right)
side, where the joint will slip, the remaining alter-
nate line claim its traction, and the workings again
become diagonal.

It is the rectifying of the cross-line, and that,
finally, between the Inng-lobes, which is, as it may
be expressed, the sticking point in " setting-up."

§ 160. In man as has been mentioned, there is
one more gathering than in the horse, viz.: that
which brings the bearings of all the tractions above
the collar bones, and unites the results of all the
S S in the hands.

With this addition, which is only an extension
of those turns at the upper comer of the sternum
that unite the rear C C of the central and third
S S together in the neck, the principles of motion
in man are precisely similar to those in quadru-
peds, and we may refer to the foregoing discussions,
for every explanation that may be required.

181

The great cause of deformity in civilized man
we assume to be the preponderating exercise of one
set of diagonal corae counteractions, until the
muscles affected by them have acquired an undue
proportion of strength, and permanently fixed the
convexes which accompany their gatherings.
Thus, the change from one set of diagonal appuis
to the other no longer cames with it that complete
change of socket bearings, throughout the joints
of the body, which should take place. In fact, the
movements of a man under such circumstances,
whether walking or running, are, to a greater or
less extent, varying with individuals, under the
conditions of those of a horse in the canter, and in
most men these conditions are those of a canter to
the right, viz., on the left leg as a principal appui,
and with the right arm as the " leading limb."

We now propose, first, to describe the course of
action in setting-up on the basis of the halting of a
Iwrse from the trot.

We shall then aUude to the movement from
other conditions, and shall also give some exercises
founded on the filling and exhausting of the lung
lobes, and the movements which the extending in-
fluence of these brings on in the composite and
the bicomposite cycles.

182

The lung exercises will afford tlie best clew for
those who, from want of anatomical knowledge, or
from the want of clearness in our own explana-
tions, may ftnd difficulties with the other methods.
In addition to these advantages it is, perhaps,
safest always first to fill up the lungs in any ex-
ercises which involve lifting, or give a strain to
•one particular part of the body.

§ 161. The movements of setting-up are not so
comphcated as they might seem, since the con-
tinuance of the initiatory motion entails all the
others, and the chief difficulty is rather to know
what directions of movement are to be permitted,
than what ones are to be made.

§ 162. It may, however, be as well here to re-
capitulate the leading points assumed for locomo-
tion and for halting.

First, — The winding-Hnes act for each S in two
sections. The beginning and ending of each line
are collateral, so that the " point of application "
of an anterior " winding-line " is identical with the
ending of its collateral posterior "winding-line,"
and the point of application of a posterior line is
identical with the ending of its collateral anterior
line. The anterior lines develope, at first, spe-
'Cially in their secondary or posterior sections.

183

and are always connected with the head condyle
movements, whether these be superficial to accom-
modate the turnings which ascend the neck from
the ophidian and composite spines, or thorough to
accompany the formation of the bicomposite
spine.

The secondary sections of the anterior lines af-
fect the anterior part of the eye muscles and di-
gastrics with an outward turn ; the primary, the
posterior part in a similar way.

It is in displacing or equalizing the positions of
the anterior cross-line ends that the primary sec-
tion motion more particularly manifests itself.

The anterior Knes give outward bearings on the
convexe§, the posterior lines give inward bearings
on the convexes^ but on the concaves they give out-
ward T3earings. Thus, when the alternate left
upper lung lobe is filled in equalizing, it is with an
outer bearing of the lower (left) true ribs, being in
the secondary section equalization of the left post
point of apphcation.

Second. — The posterior lines would develope in
a manner similar to that of the anterior lines, viz. :
first, and more especially, in the front C C C, as
the anterior do in the rear C C C, and end by
moving the posterior cross-line ends, were it not

184

that, in quadrupeds and man (and, we suppose,
in most species of the snake), the normal position
of the ribs for an outer bearing so interferes with
their course as to bring the first development of the
posterior lines also into the rear C C C, this being,
however, a reflex action from the suppressed
movements of their secondary sections in the front
C C C. Thus it is not until the working in the
front C C C is carried out that the posterior point
of application can act directly in its primary sec-
tion and move the posterior cross-line end.

This peculiarity in the action of the posterior
winding lines is what secures progressive or (chang-
ing the appuis) retrogressive locomotion instead of
two springs, one to the rear and the other forward
and centering in the cross-line (§§ 31, 32).

Third. — As every stage in the process of halting
is formed by induction from the continuance of the
first action, it follows that this first action, whether
of an anterior "point of application" by the head-
condyle movement, or of a posterior "point" by its
socket movement, must also be the last action, so
far as induction can carry the movement. Thus,
in forcing the left head condyle and its anterior
Hue (§ 71) the equahzing of the condyles must be
its final action ; and in forcing the right socket

185

movement with the right posterior action the
equalization of the sockets must be its final ac-
tion. But, in the first case, though the left ante-
rior line would be reduced as the right condyle
came into place, by the drawmg of the right sterno-
mastoid at the right upper corner of the sternum,
a further and separate action of the right posterior
line would be required to give full equahzation to
the alternate left posterior line and carry out the
collateral drawing from the pelvis. And in the
same way, in the second case, induction from the
right posterior line being finished by equalizing the
position of the left socket with the right one and
drawing on the left shoulder-blade, a separate ac-
tion of the left anterior Hue would be necessary to
carry out the drawing of the right alternate line
from the head.

Fourth. — Although the forcing tractions may be
begun at any point, and their relations afterwards
adjusted, yet the regular succession, in order to a
smooth working, is to begin in any S with the point
of application, either of the anterior or posterior
line, and to continue that line through the forma-
tion of all the "spines" before the other line begins
by induction.

Fifth. — In the equalizations, the new formations

186

are evidently developments on the alternate lines>
and we may therefore, instead of forcing the old
lines in order to form the equahzed alternates,
begin by forming the alternates and drawing from
the old lines. That is, instead of forcing A and B
in order to produce A and B, begin with forming
A and B and reducing A and B.

In this case of beginning with the alternates,,
however, the direction of action will be, at every
point, reversed. For instance, in producing h'^ from
b'* the right true ribs are drawn around by the
right to the rear, being the movement in the sec-
ondary section of the right posterior lines ; but
beginning with h'^ these true ribs (the "right shoul-
der") are advanced, because the basis of action is
the left posterior line, which draws back the left
true ribs.

Sixth, — The general course of the winding lines
of the hicomposite spine may be given as follows,
and since the object in Setting-up is to form these
lines by the fusing of those of the S S S, their
course should be thoroughly apprehended :

The left anterior winding line in the hicomposite
spine passes from the left side of the head, through
the stemo-mastoid to the left upper comer of the

187

sternum, thence, around the right side of the body
to the left hip joint in rear.

It will be seen that the sternum here contains
the anterior line elements of the ophidian and
third S S. With these the lines of the neck S^
are fused through the stemo-mastoid muscles and
the front muscles connecting the pelvis and the
posterior end of the sternum. These having re-
spectively received the counteractions of the two
C C of the neck and third S, straighten in double
twist and fuse them with the ophidian S in the
bicomposite spine.

The riglit anterior winding line passes from the
right side of the head, through the sterno mastoid
muscle to the right upper comer of the sternum ,^
thence, around the left side of the body to the right
hip joint in rear.*

The right posterior winding line passes from the
right hip-joint, in front, through the right front ab-
dominal muscles to the right side of the lower end
of the sternum, thence, around the body by the left
side to the right shoulder blade, thence, by the
right neck shoulder blade muscles to the back of
the head.

*In man the connection by the collar bone gives an action for each,
anterior line on the corresponding shoulder. In the horse the levator
humeri furnishes this connection.

188

The left posterior winding line passes from the
left hip joint, in front, through the left front ab-
dominal muscles to the left side of the lower end of
the sternum, thence, around the body by the right
side to the left shoulder blade, thence, by the left
neck shoulder blade muscles to the back of the
head.

Seventh — .The centre between the upper and
lower lung lobes is the focus of force, and all " set-
ting up " is directed to centering the final gather-
ing on this point, and therefore " all siraightening
of the figure is concentrated between the shoulder-
blades, and not at the small of the back.

The seat of tlie "cross lines'' and of each
ground of appui, artificial or real, then would be —

For the ophidian spine between the upper and
lower lung-lobes ; having for its artificial ground the
sternum and the eye balls.

For the composite spine, at the small of the back,
behind the diaphraghm ; having for artificial
ground the upper end of the sternum, when the
anterior winding line forms, and the lower end when
the posterior ; and, in a measure, taking in the front
of the pelvis and the shoulder sockets.

For the neck S, at the junction of its upper and
lower C C, in man about one third down from the

189

head joint ; having for artificial ground the lower
jaw, and, in a measure the shoulder sockets.

For the hicomposite spine, at the head joint ; hav-
ing for a ground the terminations of the posterior
and anterior hmbs, and for an artificial ground the
eyeballs.

The composite spine, in forming with the an-
terior Hues, acts first with the lower C of the neck,
and therefore on the upper end of the sternum as
an artificial ground ; in forming with the posterior
Unes it acts first with the upper C of the third S,
and therefore on the lower end of the sternum in
that relation.

All combine, more or less, on the eyeballs, and
finally the bicomposite spine joins its action -with
that of the ophidian and these points.

Eighth. — As has been before noticed, the pressure
of each point of application principally produces
the concave under it (§21 and following). Thus
the anterior (left) concave is mainly due to the
pressure of the left anterior point of appHcation, and
the effect of its line if carried throughout the S
would be to make it wholly concave to the left.

In the same way, the right posterior pressure
extended would form the whole line concave to the
right.

9

190

We say " principally produces," for the active
working of the (left) anterior winding line against
the stationary position of the posterior end of the
S, has begun the lower part of the rear C, before
the active working of the posterior point begins,
and the virtual effect of the (right) posterior Hne
is similar at the front part of the front C. The
concavities, however, were much increased by the
pressure of the diagonal points of application.

It is the extension of the (left) anterior concave
and its acceptance by the (left) posterior point of
pressure, and the extension of the (right) posterior
concave and its acceptance by the (riglit) anterior
point of pressure, which brings about the change
of curvatures, or for halting and setting up, the par-
tial change and consequent equalization.

Ninth. — The filling of either upper or lower lung
lobe brings its C forward, when, of course, the
other C of the S passes relatively backwards. Thus,
when the upper lung lobes fill, the lower lung lobes,
and with them the hinder Hmbs, pass to the rear ;
when the lower lung lobes fill, the hinder limbs
come forward.

Tenth. — The inner bearing of the propellers de-
veloped on the convexes includes the reactions of
an anterior windiag Hne and its diagonal posterior.

191

and when equalized produces the two on the op-
posite side.

Eleventh. — Any point giving off a bearing moves
in the opposite direction hy reason of the loss of it,
and vice versa. Thus, when the right shoulder
blade gives off inner bearing to the left, the former
recovers itself on the outer bearing. This will be
particularly noticeable in setting-up by double ac-
tion (§ 179).

§ 163. Since the previously formed anterior wind-
ing line is the normal obstacle to the direct action
of the posterior point of apphcation, this anterior
line must be reduced before the full equahzation
of the posterior lines can have place.

In beginning with the (left) anterior hne, the
equalization of the outer bearings, the filling of
the (right) lower lung lobe, and the reducing of the
upper convex proceed as far as the equalization of
the .anterior cross line ends will carry them, but,
in order to give full equalization to these lines,
there remains the equahzing of the inner bearings.

This equahzing of the inner bearings has place
first (by reflex action from the secondary section
of the posterior line) in the posterior convex ; then,
at the seat of the secondary section, in the anterior
convex, by dhect action ; and these being carried

192

through, the posterior point of application is so
brought into connection with its cross hne end that
it can bring into action the alternate (left) posterior
point of apphcation, and cause this latter to produce
the filling of the (left) upper lung lobe under the
left true ribs. Finally, movement in double ac-
tion gives equal traction at both upper corners of
the sternum.

Thus, in beginning with an anterior line, the fill-
ing of the corresponding posterior lung lobe leads
the movement up to a^ a'^ and the filling of the
anterior lung lobe takes place only just before the
action in b'^ b^.

On the other hand, in beginning with the (right)
posterior line, the equaHzation of the inner bear-
ings on the convexes begins the movement ; this is
succeeded by the equalizing of the upper lung
lobes, and of the posterior points of application,
and this by the neck action, forming the bicom-
posite spine for the posterior lines ; finally, the
remaining liaK of the outer bearing for the anterior
line is adjusted, the (right) lower lung lobe filHng,
and the neck action for the anterior line forming
the bicomposite spine, prepares all for a movement
in double action which gives the same traction on
both shoulder blades as the terminating poitns of

193

the posterior lines ; and, on the upper end of ster-
num for the anterior lines, as their points of con-
nection with the head.

§ 164. We subjoin a tabulated view of the move-
ments of setting up when commencing with the
ophidian S. It will not, however, in practice be
necessary to follow out the details. We shall num-
ber the methods proposed for setting up with a
view to after reference.

194

[N'o. 1— (Left) Anterioe Line Leading.

Forcing A a^.

Equalizes* lower (right)
false ribs with (left)
ones on outer bearings.

Fills (right) lower
lung lobe.t

Anterior portion of
(left) eye muscle turns
outward equalizing

with the analogous
portion of the right eye
muscle.

*When the word equalize is
used, it denotes "so far as the
movement in question will carry
it." The final movement is nec-
essary to complete any part.

t The lung lobes draw from
each other collaterally— thus, the
right lower lobe draws from the
right ui)per; the left upper from
the right lower.

Forcing A a'^

(Eight) upper C (true
rib) cavity reduced.

''Left -right" and
' * right-left ' ' anterior
cross-line ends (§ 20)
equalized with the left-
right as to position
(both come to centre).
This takes effect be-
tween the upper and
lower lung lobes, re-
ducing the right upper
lung lobe from its pos-
terior part.

Posterior portions of
eye muscles equalize on
outer bearings.

195

(Left) Anterior Line Leading.

Porcing A a*.

Action a*, continuing
spreads to third S,
equalizing sides of pel-
vis.

The consequent move-
ment of the hip-joint
sockets causes an equal-
ization between the out-
er bearings of the left
and right feet.

The (right) lower
lung lobe continues to
expand and the (right)
diaphragm leaf to
spread.

The anterior portions
of the digastrics equal-
ize on outer bearings ;
the (right) digastric
passing, as it were, over
the left.

Forcing A a'^.

Action of a'l contin-
uing, spreads to neck
S.

Anterior cross-line
ends, still keeping their
focus between upper
and lower lung lobes,
equalize the upper cor-
ners of the sternum
and of the sides of the
spine, at the small of
the back — diaphragm
pillars — in outer bear-
ings.

The posterior por-
tions of the digastrics
equalize on outer bear-
ings.*

* The arms are affected by this
movement, as the legs were by
a2, but to trace their motions, as
ill the trot, will too much com-
plicate the table. .

196

(Left) Anterior Line Leading.

Forcing A a^.

Action of a^ contin-
uing, and spreading
through a2, equalizes
the hinder limbs on
their outer bearings.

Head joint condyles
equalize, in the thor-
ough movement, as to
their posterior end
pressure.

Forcing A a".

Action of a'l contin-
uing and spreading
through a'»

The front C C of the
lung tips (§ 112) equal-
ize as the movement
turns on them.

Anterior cross-line
ends — still in focus be-
tween the upper and
lower lung lobes, and
further moving the up-
per corners of the ster-
num and the sides of
spine at the small
of the back — now
equalize the lower jaw
articulations on their
outer bearings, the
(right) articulation

making a sort of lateral
epicycloidal movement
on the (left) one.

The head-condyles
equalize in the forward
movement across (§ 92)
the sockets by inner
edge.

All being thus drawn
up to the head, the arm
sockets equalize in out-
er bearing from right
to left.*

♦This action at the shoulder
joints, it will be seen, changes the
direction of the line of general
pressm-e (§ 91), which up to-
this point, has been toward
the right ; and introduces, by
changing it incipiently toward
the left, the posterior line equal-
ization which ends in the head
joint sockets.

The eflect of this on the head
connection is to bring the stress
on the right stcrno-mastoid at
right upper corner of the ster-
nvim.

197

(Left) Anteriob Line Leading.

Forcing by ( B b'^.

Induction. ^

By bringing back the
" left - right anterior
cross-line end " from
its displacement, the
* ' right - left jDosterior
end " is brought into
action, and by but a
little further movement
of a^, as it fills the right
lower lung lobe, the
necessary forcing, in
the right posterior line,
is given, and the reac-
tion of bi begins in the
posterior C of the
ophidian S. This
equalizes the inner
bearings of this C, after
which the action in the
secondary section
equalizes the inner
bearings of the anterior
C.

The eye muscles
equalize on the inner
bearings — first, by re-
action in the posterior
portion ; then in the
anterior portions at the
** secondary sections"
of the posterior line
(§ 25).

9*

Forcing by ^ B b^

Induction. \

The right lower point
of application now
draws directly, and at
the focus, between the
lung lobes, equalizes
the posterior cross-line
ends of the ophidian S.
The eye muscles
equalize on the inner
bearing at their pos-
terior ends.

198

(Left) Anteeior Line Leading.

Forcing by ) B b'2.

Induction. \

The action of a^ c n-
tinuing, the hip- joints
are equalized on the
inner bearings, and
with the secondary sec-
tion, the loiver end of
the sternum is equal-
ized on its inner bear-
ings against the outer
bearings A a^ of the
upper end. Bj this
the (right) false ribs
gain in prominence,
outward and forward,
while the left draw in,
as they fall into the
traction of the left pos-
terior winding-line.

The digastrics equal-
ize on the inner bear-
ing (the right one gain-
ing on the left), the
posterior portion first,
then the anterior.

Forcing by ) B b2.

Induction. \

The action of a'^ con-
tinuing, the upper left
lung lobe fills from be-
low.

Digastrics finish
equalizing on inner
bearing, at their rear
ends.

199

(Left) Anteeior Line Leading.

Porcing by ) B b'^.

Induction. )

Action of a' continuing
through b'l, equalizes
the hinder limbs on
inner bearings by the
reactionary movement
with lower C of the
neck S, and as b^^ takes
effect in its secondary
section, with the upper
C of the neck S, equal-
izes the shoulder joints.

Forcing by ) B b'.

Induction. \

Equalizes the lower jaw
articulations, and thus
ends with the stress on
the right sterno-mas-
toid, di'awing on right
upper corner of ster-
num.*

* After which the linishing ad-
justment, bringing both corners
of stei-num into eqiial stress, is
made in "double action."

200

165. We next consider the
No. 2 — (Eight) Posterior Line Leading.

Forcing B b'^

The first action felt is
in the secondary sec-
tion of the (right) pos-
terior line, which is
that of the (right) true
ribs, forcing their move-
ment and pressing to
the (left) as they turn
outward and back-
ward ;* but the first
result is reflexion, i. e.,
the lower ribs equalize
their inner bearings,
from the action in the
secondary section. The
true ribs then equalize,
as the secondary sec-
tion.

By the first move-
ment the (left) lower
false rib cavity is dim-
inished ; by the second
the (left) upper true
rib cavity is prepared
for enlargement.

Eye muscles act as in
§ 164, same column.

*To prevent mistakes, we re-
peat what was before said, that
if, instead of forcing the old line,
the forming of the alternate pos-
terior line lead the action, this
movement is forward.

Forcing B b^

The forcing of the pos-
terior line next brings
about an equalization
of the posterior cross-
line ends, 8o far as pos-
sible; but from the dis-
placed (" left-right ">
anterior end (§ 32)
holding its correspond-
ing posterior end from'
its movement to the
(right), this equaliza-
tion is performed with
a decided " list " to the
left, and this remains
until the change to an-
terior line action liber-
ates the displaced
(left-right) end.

The focus of the
cross-line end action is
always between the up-
per and lower lung
lobes.

Eye muscles make
their inner bearing
equalization at their
posterior ends.

201

(Eight) Posterior Line Leading.

Forcing B b'^.

The action of h'^ con-
tinuing the reaction in
the lower C of the com-
posite spine, and the
action ia its upper C,
first equalize the hip-
joints (by the move-
ment of the pelvis) on
their inner bearings ;
then the lower end of
the sternum, with which
goes the inner bearing
of the digastrics, first
of their posterior, then
of their anterior por-
tion.

Forcing B b^.

Action of b^ continuing.
Posterior ' * cross-line
ends " still keeping
their focus between the
upper and lower lung
lobes, and the "list"
of the general line to
the left being still
maintained, equalize at
the small of the back —
diaphragm pillars — fol-
lowing which the (left)
upper lung lobe fills
with air from below,
and the left line equal-
ization begins in the
neck-root joint.

The posterior por-
tions of the digastrics
equalize on inner bear-
ings at their posterior
ends.

202

(Eight) PosTERiOK Line Leading.

forcing of Bb'3.

The pressures contiu-
ually collecting and
swelling at the anterior
end of the left head
joint socket, equalize
with the similar point
of the right socket, so
far as the displaced an-
terior cross-line end al-
lows.

The shoulder- joints
■equalize, the right giv-
ing oj6f to the left, on
which latter the stress
of the movement de-
cidedly comes.

Forcing B b^.

The lower C C of the
lung tips equalize as
the head joint, with the
upper C of the neck S,
allows the turning of
the outer edge of its
sockets. *

The lower jaw artic-
ulations equalize,
changing for this suc-
cession of movements
(as at A a^ the shoul-
ders did for the former
one) the general line
of bearing. But it is
to be remembered that
all the lines gained are
to be held, and that the
''induction " of the an-
terior line will make its
own alterations.

* The pressure of the left socket
should diminish as it equalizes
with the right (both being reflect-
ed pressures) ; but the displaced
cross-line end still holds back the
movement.

203

(Right) Posterior Line Leading.

Forcing by [ A a'.
Induction. \

Tlie inner bearing be-
longing to tlie right
side of the posterior C
C and to the left side
of the anterior C C, has
already been transfer-
red to them, they now
receive then* portion of
the outer bearing.

The right lower lung
lobe fills.

The eye muscles
equaljze in front on
.outer bearings.

Forcing by ^ A a'^

Induction. ^

The anterior cross-line
ends equalize between
the lung lobes, and to
a certain extent, free
the posterior ones, to
assume the positions
from which they have
been hitherto restrain-
ed.

Eye muscles equalize
in their rear portions
on outer bearings.

204

(Eight) PoBTEKiOR Line Leading.

Forcing by ? A a".
Induction. )

Hip-joints equalize on

outer bearings.

Digastrics equalize

in front portions on

outward bearings.

Forcing by ) A a'^.
Induction. )

Upper corners of ster-
num equalize.

Digastrics on outer
bearing at posterior
portions.

Adjustment of cross-
line ends at small of
back — diaphragm pil-
lars.

205

(Eight) PosTEBiOR Line Leading.

Forcing by ) A a^.

Induction. )

Actions of b'l contin-
uing. Equalization of
lower jaw articulations
finished from b'.

Hinder limbs equal-
ized throughout.

Forcing by ^ A a' 3.
Induction. ^

As the right head con-
dyles equalize, the
shoulder joints do the-
same. The right shoul-
der passing outer bear-
ing to the left one, on
which, as the right con-
dyle comes into place,
the left rear neck mus-
cles draw,* completing
the left posterior wind-
ing line.

* Finishing movement,by which
rear neck muscles are equalized,,
is made in "double action."

See Appendix II.

206

§ 166. We have given the table for setting-up,
when commencing with the ophidian S, in pretty
full detail, but as was said, it is not necessary in
practice to follow these details mentally, since one
produces the other, if allowed.

Tico chief points are to he kept in mind, viz., that
the movement of the cross-line ends more particularly
changes the curvatures, and that the focus of this
movement must he maintained hetween the upper and
loicer lung lohes, that is, at the centre of the ophidian
spine. Each motion being brought into this point,
whether from the small of the back or from either
end of the sternum, etc.

§ 167. No. 1.— For " setting-up " with the {left)
anterior line of the ophidian S leading, as in the first
tahle, it seems only necessary to observe the fol-
lowing points :

The chin, while not initiating the left head con-
dyle movement, must be kept sufficiently up, so
that no clamping of the head joint in the opposite
movement shall interfere with the current one.

The movement being once initiated from a " point
of application " at the base of the neck-root joint
on the (left) side, particular attention must be given
to the two fundamental motions, i. e., the filling of
the right lower lung lobe, and the subsequent equal-

207

izing of the anterior cross-line ends between the
upper and lower hing lobes.

Next comes the extension of these to the pelvis
and hip joints, and the subsequent equalizing ac-
tion at the upper corners of the sternum, and at
the small of the back, both brought to bear be-
tween the lung lobes.

Then the anterior line movement proper ends
with the lower jaw equalization, that of the head
condyles with " the thorough movement," and that
of the shoulder joint initiating the inducing of the
(right) posterior line T\dth the continuance of the
first mentioned fundamental motions of the an-
terior and the change of the general line of press-
ure.

The induction of the equalization of the posterior
lines comes, first, from the continued filling of the
(right) lower lung lobe, this reduces the (left) lower
lung lobe cavity ; and next from the continued
action in equalizing the anterior cross-line ends,
this causes the equalization of the posterior ones,
first, between the lung lobes, then at the small of
the back, and at the lower end of the sternum,
fills the (left) upper lung lobe which reduces the
(left) lower lobe ; lastly, the continued filling of
the right lov/er lung lobe, equalizes the shoulder

208

blades, and establishes the (left) posterior line at
the left shoulder blade (§ 162 sixth) ; and the
equalizing of the cross-line ends brings into equal
action the two jaw articulations, the inner bearing
passing from the left to the right, and leaving the
stress of the head condyle movement at the right
upper corner of the sternum.

§ 168. No. 2. — And for " setting up " with the
(right) posterior line of the ophidian S leading.
Since the rear " point of application " cannot, at
once, exercise its direct working, as did that of the
anterior winding Hne, the fundamental points are
to begin the influence of the " secondary section '*
of the (right) posterior line by pressing the (right)
true ribs to the left, at the same time that they
rotate outward and backward,"^ producing the
effect of equalizing the inner bearing first in the
false ribs (posterior C), as a reflected action from
the upper true ribs, on which follows equalization
of this bearing at the true ribs, as the secondary
section proper ; subsequently to allow the direct
action of the (right) posterior " point of appHca-
tion " between the upper and lower lung lobes,
where, for the ophidian S, it takes effect more es-

* Forward, if forming the alternate posterior line first.

209

pecially in reducing the cavity of the chest under
the (left) false ribs.

Next, for the composite S, with the extension of
the ophidian S movement, comes as a reflected
action the equalization of the inner bearing for the
pelvis at the hip joints ; then, as the proper sec-
ondary section, the filling of the left upper lung
lobe from below ; then, for the posterior " point of
appKcation " the inner bearing equalization at the
small of the back, and at the lower end of the ster-
num, which last brings the focus back to the space
between the upper and lower lung lobes.

As the movement by the right posterior winding line
takes effect for the bicomiDOsite spine, the reflect-
ed secondary section action equahzes the hind-legs
on the inner bearings ; the secondary section proper
the shoulder blades ; and the drawing of the (right)
posterior point of application the lower jaw articu-
lations ; during which the head joint sockets equal-
ize so far as they can, for the general line still in-
clines to the (left). The whole turns on the upper
C 0 of the lung tips. The equahzation of the lower
jaw articulations changes the movement for the
induction of action by the anterior winding line.

The induced equahzation of the lower ribs on
their outer bearings (the secondary section of

210

the anterior line), fills the right lower lung lobe ;
then the action of the primary section, as the an-
terior cross line ends equalize between the lung
lobes, begins to release the (right-left) posterior
cross-line end and the general Hne of the body
gains toward the (right).

As the action of the secondary section extends
to the composite spine (the right lung continuing its
filling), the right hip joint obtains a more equal
bearing ; as that of the primary extends, the left
upper lung lobe fills more completely, and is nearly
fully expanded as the equalization of the anterior
cross line ends at the small of the back and the
upper end of the sternum, releases the posterior
hne ends at the small of the back and the lower
end of the sternum, aU again centering between the
lung lobes.

The bicomposite spine movement equahzes for
its secondary section the bearings of the hinder
limbs, for the cross lines the lower jaw articula-
tions, and for its final turn the shoulder blades ;
leaving a final stress from the back of the head on
the left shoulder-blade, which is to be adjusted
with the other by a shght movement in double ac-
tion.

§ 169. No. 3— The "forcing of the winding lines"

211

may, perliaps,be moTe advantageously carried out
on the pacing movement than on that of the trot
just described. If we begin with the anterior lines
of the bicomposite spine, i. e., the pace in progression,
the successive motions would be as follows :

First. — The movement of the (left) head condyle
equalizing with the right at its posterior end,
brings on the equahzation of the lower jaw articu-
lations, the (right) articulation being brought
(§ 166) with a sort of lateral epicycloidal movement
over the (left) ; thence the movement extends to the
equalization of the hind-limbs on the outer bearing;
thence, passing more inward to the equalization of
the secondary section of the anterior line in the
composite spine, viz., the pelvis, the false ribs, the
filling of the (right) lower lung lobe; the secondary
section in the ophidian spine bringing the action
between the upper and lower lung lobes.

Second. — The equalization of the shoulder-blades
on the outer bearings as the head condyles equalize
on their cross joint movement, brings on the equal-
ization of the other primary sections in the succes-
sive spines. The sternum comers and the small
of the back are effected by the anterior cross-lines
of the composite spine, and, finally, the equaliza-
tion of these end between the upper and lower
lung lobes.

212

Third. — As the head joint sockets begin their
equahzation at the forward ends, the shoulder-
joints would equalize as representing the second-
ary section of the posterior line action, in the
bicomposite spine ; but the " reflected action "
which takes place in the hinder-Hmbs must first be
carried out by their equalization on the inner
bearing ; then succeeds the similar equahzation of
the shoulder-joints ; next, for the composite spine,
comes that of the false ribs, then of the true ribs,
and the filUng of the (left) upper lung lobe, from
the left lower ; finally, the equalizing of this section
in the ophidian S.

Fourth. — The head joint sockets equalize on their
outer edges ; the lower jaw articulations follow,
bringing on the equahzation of the posterior cross-
line ends in succession ; the lower end of the
sternum and the small of the back for the compos-
ite S ; the working between the upper and lower
lung lobes for the ophidian.

§ 170. It will be observed that the lower jaiv ar-
ticulations go with the posterior C C in each ca^e ; the
shoulder-blades tvith the anterior C G ; that is, the
lower jatv goes tvith the secondary section of the an-
terior lines, and, with the primary section of the poste-
rior, whilethe shoulder-blades go with the secondary sec-
tions of the posterior, and the primary of the anterior.

213

It will be also observed that the S S were carried
out by halves.

§ 171. No. 4. — If for setting-up we begin with the
posterior lines of the bicomposite spine in the retro-
gressive pacing action, the successive motions would
be as follows : First. — For the bicomposite spine,
the hinder Umbs in reflected action, then the
shoulder-blades as the proper secondary section of
the posterior line ; the head-joint sockets equalize
at their anterior ends, next, for the composite
spine, the false ribs ; then the true ribs and filling
of the left upper lung lobe ; lastly, equalizing of
this secondary section in the ophidian S. Second. —
Head-joint sockets equalize on their outer edges,
the lower jaw articulations equalize on the inner
bearing, succeeded in the several spines by the equal-
izing of the posterior cross-line ends as the (right)
posterior point of apphcation draws. Third. —
The head condyle equalization at the rear ends, and
for the bicomposite spine, the lower jaw articula-
tions equalize on the outer bearing, then the hinder
limbs ; for the composite spine, the pelvis, false
ribs and filling of the (right) lower lung lobe, ac-
tion between upper and lower lung lobes. Fourth. —
Head condyles equalize on their cross joint move-
ment, equalization of shoulder-blades for bicom-
10

214

posite spine ; next, the upper end of sternum, small
of back ; and between lung lobes for composite and
ophidian spines.

§ 172. We have gone through the details of
equalizing the tractions of the winding lines by
forcing beyond their hmits those akeady formed,
this seeming the best way of explaining the sub-
ject ; but often, perhaps generally, the most prac-
tical method for "setting-up" is forming the alter-^
nates and discharging in their "wake" the old line&
of the composite and ophidian spines, at the same
time limiting the action to these spines, which will
allow of equahzing each Hue after its formation. *
This being done, next forming successively, in the
same way, the alternate lines of the bicomposite
spine, discharging the old ones and equalizing the
new ones.

No. 5. To equaHze the winding lines, the forma-
tion of the (right) alternate anterior line leading. As
has been previously remarked, the bearing of the
general line and the rear and front direction of the
leading moving points wiU be reversed from those
of the already given examples, because these are
now those of the new line forming and drawing,

* Did the movement extend through the neck-root joint to the bicom-
posite spine we should have the full alternates.

215

instead of those of the old Ime forcing its actions
and, so to speak, pushing. (§ 162. Fifth.)

As in all cases, the movement maybe begun at var-
ious points. We shall commence with the (left) eye.

First. — With the (left) eye muscle turning out-
ward in its arderior portion, commence the forma-
tion of the alternate (right) anterior hne in its sec-
ondary sections, viz : The filling of the (right) lung
lobe, followed by the reduction of the left false-rib
concavity and the increased outer bearing at the
(right) hip-socket, followed by a reduction of the
(left) hip-socket. Then, with the outward turn of
the (left) eye muscle, in its posterior portion, com-
mence the formation of the primary sections, viz. :
the gaining between the (right) lower and left
upper lung lobes of the (right-left) cross-Une end
to the (left), followed by reduction of the position
of the (left-right) end to the (right) ; gaining of the
same point at the small of the back to the right
followed by the reduction of the (left-right) point
to the right,^ a similar gain and reduction between

* In many cases, from the great displacement of the left-right anterior
cross-line end to the left, its restoration is the main feature. The
right side at the small of the back straightening its incurvation toward
the left in a very marked degree. It may be remarked here, that the
new points rise above the old ones, and also pass (in man) in front of
them, corresponding to the passage of the concaves under the convexes
in the snake (§ 60).

216

the (right and left) upper corners of the sternum. -
Continuing the drawing will equalize the whole.

Second. — With the (left; eye muscle turning in-
ward, first, in its rear portion, by reflected action ;
lastly, in its anterior portion, by proper action, al-
low the alternate (left) posterior winding-line to
form for the secondary sections, viz., by bringing
the inner bearing on the (right) false ribs, which
implies a reduction of the cavity under the (left)
false ribs (§ 39 and note), by taking the inner
bearing from the (left) hip joint to the (right) ; by
filhng the (left) upper lung lobe from below as the
lower (left) true ribs turn outward. Then for the
primary section, the drawing of the alternate ante-
rior (right-left) cross-line end will bring the alter-
nate posterior (left-right) end into action ; discharg-
ing the old point between the lung lobes ; at the
small of the back ; and at the lower end of the
sternum.

Third. — From the bicomposite alternate (right)
anterior Ime, first, on the right lower jaw articula-
tion, then on the left shoulder blade, discharging
the old fine — equalize. Then the bicomposite
alternate (left) posterior line, on the left shoulder

* It is often necessary to equalize somewhat the small of the back and
corners of the sternum before the movement between tlie lung lobes
can be effected.

217

blade, then on the right lower jaw articulation,
discharging the old hne — equalize.

§ 173. Remarks. — As the alternate Hne is the
"new line " of the previous methods, the " anterior
line leading " movements end here, as there, with
a stress on the same point, viz., the right upper
corner of the sternum.

In all these movements, where the anterior line
leads, the order of succession for the cross-line
ends in the composite spine is small of the
back, upper corners of sternum for the anterior
ends ; small of back, lower end of sternum, for
the posterior ends. This is a necessary conse-
quence of the throughout continued filUng of the
(right) lower lung lobe, as the conspicuous foun-
dation of the movement. On the other hand,
for the leading of the posterior line where the in-
ward pressure of the (right) upper true rib convex,
whether forward or to the rear, is the foundation
of the movement, the succession is necessarily
lower end of sternum, small of back for the pos-
terior ends ; upper end of sternum, small of back
for the anterior ends.

§ 174. No. 6. — To equalize the winding lines, the

formation of the alternate [left) posterior line leading.

As we cannot begin with a rear point of apj^hca-

218

tion (§167), and, therefore, not with its representa-
tive, the rear point of the (left) eye muscle ; and,
as we cannot develope the secondary section of
the alternate posterior line without some corres-
ponding point d'appni, in the old line, we take
the right upper ribs as this point d'appui, and
begin by forming against it, the secondary section
of the alternate (left) posterior winding Hne ; first
in its " reflected " action of drawing the inner bear-
ing from the (left) false to the (right) false rib ar-
ticulation ; and, then, in its " proper " action from
the (right) true to the (left) true ribs.

It will be remembered (§171), that the move-
ment of every point is, now, the reverse of what
it was in the forcing of the old Hne.

We shall make the description of this movement
in more general terms than have been employed
heretofore.

In the composite spine. First. — Pressing the upper
part of the (right) upper ribs forward and to the
(left), an appui is taken on that action in the
course of the alternate (left) posterior line, which
will, for the secondary section (by reaction), draw
the inner bearing from the (left) false ribs to the
right ones, then (by proper action), that of the
right true ribs to the left ones, and begin to fill the

219

left upper lung lobe in its lower portion as the
left tine ribs take the inner bearing.*

Next, for the primary section. Developing the
position of the alternate (left -right) posterior cross-
line end discharge the old (right-left) posterior —
straightening the right side of the spine at the
«maU of the back, and releasing the traction on the
left side of the lower end of the sternum, t

Second. — The continuation of the movement brings
on a retraction of the (right) upper point of appli-
cation for the ophidian spine ; the filling of the
right lower lung lobe for the secondary section of
the anterior line. Then, for the primary section,
the formation of the new, and discharge of the
old-Hne, between the right and left upper corners of
the sternum, and the same for the two sides of the
small of the back.

In the biGomposite spine. First. — The left shoulder-
blade taking from the right shoulder-blade, then,
ihe right jaw articulation from the left one for the
alternate posterior line.

Second. — And, for the whole, lastly. The right jaw
articulation taking from the left one ; then, the
left shoulder-blade taking from the right shoulder-

♦ This lung lobe does not fill until the preceding movements have
vbeen well carried out.

t This traction § 39 belongs to the old (right) posterior winding line.

220

blade for the alternate anterior" line; the whole-
ending with a stress on the (left) shoulder-blade.

These last bicomposite actions move the neck-
root joint and bring the focus of force to the space
between the upper and lower lung lobes.

§ 175. Nos. 9 and 10.— § 177. The forming of the
alternate lines in the pace developement, followed
by their equalization after the discharge of the
old lines.

No. 9 — For the (right) anterior alternate line lead-
ing, we have, frst, the attempt at rotation back-
ward and inward of the (right) head condyle ; then
the incipient convex on the (right) of the lower C
of the neck S, followed by the discharge of the (Jefl:)
upper corner of the sternum ; then the formation
on the outer bearing, for the (right) jaw articula-
tion, followed by the discharge of the left articula-
tion, then the developement of the (right-left) an-
terior cross-line end in its position, and the reduc-
tion of the (left-right) followed by the formation
for the left shoulder-blade on the outer bearing,
and reduction of the right.

For the (left) posterior alternate Hne hy induction ;
first, inner bearing formed on the right of the lower
C of neck S (reaction) ; reduction of left side ;
inner bearing on left of upper C (proper action) ;;

221

reduction of riglit side ; formation of left shoulder-
blade on inner bearing ; reduction of right shoul-
der-blade; then the development of (left-right)
posterior cross-line end, and reduction of the (right-
left) ; followed by the formation for the (right) jaw
articulation on the inner bearing, and reduction of
the (left). Finally, drawing of (right) sterno-mas-
toid.

§ 176. No. 10. — For the (left) alternate posterior
line leading. The most marked points seem to be
the forming pressure of (right) socket gaining its
pressure at the front part of its condyle — and the
reduction of the pressure of the (left) socket, as if
it were separating from its condyle.

For tliis (left) posterior alternate hue leading by
forming pressure of the (right) socket, we have,
first, the inner bearing on the (right) side of the
lower C of the neck S (reaction) ; reduction of left
side ; inner bearing on left of upper C (proper
action) &c. &c., being the repetition of No. 9 , ex-
cepting that the posterior line comes first and de-
pends not on induction, but on the forming socket-
pressure ; and that the anterior line comes second
by induction, working from the right lower jaw
articulation as the posterior line continues its ac-
tion.

10^

222

Nos. 7, 8, 9 and 10 run veiy much into each other.
In fact, m 9 and 10 the equahzation of the compo-
site spine follows on the first part of the second
set of lines in action whichever this may be. Thus,
in No. 10, so soon as the left shoulder-blade moves
in connection with the lower C of the neck, the
right shoulder-blade steadies the upper C of the
composite spine for its reactionary action in the
lower ribs.

Practical Setting-up.

§ 177. Of the EIGHT METHODS OF " SETTING-UP,"

which have just been enumerated, the bases may
be described as follows, and with the descriptions
already given we shall refer more particularly to
the present section for jjractical explanation. The
process of exhausting and filling the lung lobes
will be discussed more fully under " setting-up
with double action ;" but it may be remarked
here that the mouth should be kept closed, the air
passing out through the nostiil collateral with
the exhausting lobe, and entering by the nostril
collateral with the filling lobe. It will not, how-
ever, be necessary to attend to the latter process,
as a good part of the filling will come from trans-
fer from an upper to a collateral lower lobe, or

223

Tice versa. The paragraph conchiding No. 1 ap-
pHes with obvious modifications to all the num-
bers.

We have taken no notice of the movement of
the head condyles or eye muscles, as they will ad-
just of themselves.

It is to be remembered that the upper lobes
fill or exhaust from below, the lower lobes from
above.

No. 1. — Forcing the anterior line in the trot-
ting movement. (1.) Exliausting the lower (left)
lung lobe until this action brings on the filHng
of the lower (right) lobe. (2.) By induction from
(1.) and after allowing the necessary connections
of the neck and pelvis to adjust themselves.
Exhausting the upper (right) lung lobe, until this
brings on the fiUing of the upper (left) lobe, and
fresh adjustment of the pelvis and neck.

The movement would be begun by drawing back
the left upper part of the chest near the first rib.
As to the adjustments, these will be — (1.) the
(left) lower jaw articulation giving off its inner
bearing as the lower (left) lung, exhausts, and the
(right) jaw articulation taking outer bearing as
the lower (right) lobe fills. (2.) The (right) shoul-
der joint giving off inner bearing as the upper

224

(right) lung lobe exhausts, and the (left) shoulder
joint taking outer bearing as the upper (left) lung
lobe fills. Consequent on the exhaustion of the
lower C of the right lung tip* and filling of the
lower C of the left, being the final action, the
right sterno-mastoid then draws from above on
the right upper corner of the sternum.

It will be observed that in these movements the
lower (left) false rib articulations cross the central
line of the body ; both they and the (left) hip joint
passing in front, across the body to the (right) and
falling outward, as they give off inner bearing. The
(right) true ribs and right shoulder blade pass
relatively to the (left), beginning below, but the
uppermost true rib is not adjusted until the body
S being virtually carried through its movement,
the right shoulder joint moves with the neck S,
completely separating the sterno-mastoids in front.

No. 2. — Forcing the posterior line in the trot-
ting movement. (1.) Exhausting the upper (right)
lung lobe, until this action brings on the filling of
the upper (left) lobe. (2) By induction from (1)^
and after allowing the pelvis and neck connections
to adjust themselves. Exhatistiug the lower (left

* The upper C of each lung tip goes with its diagonal lower lung
lobe ; the lower C with the upper lobe, to which it is attached.

225

lung lobe, until this brings on the filling of the-
lower (right) lobe and fresh adjustments of the
neck and pelvis.

Since the posterior point of application cannot,
at first, act directly, the movement would be be-
gun by drawing backward the (rightj upper part
of the chest, near the first rib, but at the same
time allowing this to press inward, to accommo-
date the reflected action in the (left) false ribs.
As to the adjustments, these will be (1) the
(right) shoulder joint giving off its inner bearing
as the upper (right) lobe exhausts, and the left
shoulder joint, taking outer bearing as the upper
(left) lobe fills. (2.) The (left) jaw articulation
giving off inner bearing, as the left lower lung lobe
exhausts, and the (right) jaw articulation taking
outer bearing as the lower (right) lobe fills. Con-
sequent on the exhaustion of the upper C of the
(right) lung tip and filling of the upper C of the
(left) lung tip being the final action, the left head
muscles then draw from above on the left shoulder
blade.

No. 3. — Forcing the anterior- line in the pacing
movement. (1.) Begins with the (left) jaw artic-
ulation giving off inner bearing with exhaustion
of lower (left) lung lobe. The movement of the

226

neck S corresponding to this, brings around the
right shoulder joint, giving off inner bearing with
exhaustion of the upper (right) lung lobe. (2.)
The neck motion continuing, the (right) jaw artic-
ulation takes outer bearing with filHng of lower
(right) lung lobe, and the neck movement still
continuing, the left shoulder joint takes outer
bearing with filling of upper left lung lobe. Fi-
nally, although differently from the trot, the draw-
ing of the right sterno-mastoid is in advance of
the equahzation of the lung tips, yet, consequent
on the exhaustion of the lower C of the (right)
lung tip, and filling of the lower C of the left,
being the final movement, the drawing of the upper
(right) corner of the sternum is from above.

No. 4. — Forcing the posterior line in the pacing
movement. (1). Begins with the (right) shoulder
joint giving off inner bearing with exhaustion of
the upper (right) lung lobe. The movement of the
neck 8 corresponding to this, brings around the
(left) jaw articulation, giving off inner bearing with
the exhaustion of the lower (left) lung lobe. (2). The
neck motion continuing, the (left) shoulder joint
takes outer bearing with the filling of the upper
(left) lung lobe, and the neck movement still contin-
uing, the (right) jaw articulation takes outer bear-

227

ing with the filling of the lower (right) lung lobe.
Finally, the drawing of the (left) side back mus-
cles of the neck, moving in advance of the equaliza-
tion of the lung tips, consequent on this and on the
exhaustion of the upper C of the (right) lung tip,
and filling of upper C of the (left) lung tip, being
the final action, the drawing on the (left) shoulder-
blade is from above.

No. 5. — Forming first the alternate anterior line
in the trotting movement. (1). Filling the lower
(right) lung lobe. Exhaustiag the lower (left)
lobe. (2). Filling the upper (left) lobe. Exhaust-
ing the upper (right) lobe.

The jaw articulations and shoulder joints, as
before, follow the lung movement, the (right) jaw
articulation taking outer bearing, then the (left) one
giving off inner bearing. The (left) shoulder taking
outer bearing, the right shoulder gi\^ng off inner
bearing. Then, as the lung tips equalize, the jaw,
and lastly the shoulders, take a final adjustment,
ending with a drawing at the right upper comer
of the sternum, which, instead of coming as in No.
1, from above, by the sterno-ma<stoid, now comes
from below, along the right side of the sternum.

No. 6. — Forming first the alternate posterior line
in the trotting movement. (1). Filling the upper

228

(left) lung lobe. Exhausting the upper (right) lobe.
(2). Filling the lower (right) lung lobe. Exhaust-
ing the lower (left) lobe.

Referring to the first part of the conclud-
ing paragraph of No. 2. (1). The (left) shoul-
der joint takes an outer bearing as the upper (left)
lobe fills, and the (right) shoulder joint gives off
inner bearing as the upper (right) lobe exhausts.
(2). The (right) jaw articulation takes an outer
bearing as the lower (right) lobe fills, and the left
jaw articulation gives off inner bearing as the lower
(left) lobe exhausts. As the lung tips equalize, the
jaw, and lastly the shoulders, take a final adjust-
ment, ending with a drawing on the left shoulder-
blade from below, instead of, as in No. 2, from
above.

No. 7. — Forming first the alternate anterior line in
the pacing movement. (1). Lower (right) and, suc-
ceeding this, the upper (left) lung lobe fills. (2).
Lower (left) and, succeeding this, the upper (right)
lung lobe exhausts.

The head being raised, the (right) lower jaw ar-
ticulation commences the movement, taking on
outer bearing, as- following the movement of the
jaw — the (right) lower lung lobe fills. Next, the
left shoulder-blade, which meantime must not be

229

kept from following the general movement of the
neck, takes on outer bearing as the (left) upper
lung lobe fills. The (left) jaw articulation gives off
inner bearing as the (left) lower lung lobe exliausts,.
and the left hip joint is released. The (right)
sterno-mastoid now drawls at the (right) upper cor-
ner of the sternum. Finally, the (right) shoulder
joint gives off inner bearing as the right true ribs
adjust themselves, and the force along the (right)
side of the sternum coming from below, unites
mth that of the right stemo-mastoid in making
the tractions collateral.

No. 8. — Forming first the alternate posterior hue
in the pacing movement. (1). Upper (left) and, suc-
ceeding this, the lower (right) lung lobe fills. (2).
Upper (right) and, succeeding this, the lower (left)
lung lobe exhausts.

The (left) shoulder joint takes on outer bearing
as, foUo^dng the movement of the shoulder joint,
the (left) upper lung lobe fills, the (right) jaw ar-
ticulation, meantime, following the general neck
movement. The (right) jaw articulation takes on
outer bearing, and the (right) lower lung lobe fills.
The (right) shoulder joint giving off inner bearing,
the right true ribs are released, then, the (left) jaw
articulations giving off inner bearing, the left false

230

ribs and the left hip joint. Lastly, the drawing on
the left shoulder-blade from the head having been
already estabhshed, the line of traction is made
collateral by a drawing from below.

§ 178. If we have previously succeeded in ex-
plaining the successive movements of the parts in
detail, the fillings and exhaustions given in this
section — the action of the leading one being con-
tinued throughout — should indicate those move-
ments. The key to " setting up," as before men-
tioned, is rather the knowing where to yield than
where to initiate movement.

The pacing movement ought, perhaps, theoreti-
cally, to equalize a C of the lung tips before its
corresponding lower or upper lobe ; but in practice,
particularly where there is even the slightest dis-
tortion, we think it will be necessary to give some
precedence to the lobes.

§ 179. There remain two points to be spoken of.
These depend upon the fact that when the shoulder-
blades are turned outwards they act upon the
lower part of the neck-root joint, and affect the
trunk ; but when they are turned inwards they act
upon the upper part of this joint and affect the
neck S.

By pressing the right shoulder forward, and to

231

the left, across the neck, we bring on motion in the
secondary section of the left anterior winding line,
and thus initiate a forcing of the action of the (left)
head condyle.

By pressing the left shoulder forward, to the
right, across the neck, we bring on motion in the
line of reaction of the secondary section of the
right posterior winding line, and thus initiate a
forcing of the indirect pressure of the left head
socket (§39).

§180. Equalization on tico lines at once (or double
action in halting). In this, a similar interchange of
action and of bearings, from side to side, takes place
as when the lines act singly, but the "shapes" do not
show themselves laterally. It finishes also in the
same result of bringing the tractions into collateral,
instead of diagonal connection. As before, the
eye muscles accompany more especially the
ophidian, the digastrics the composite the lower,
jaw the bicomposite spine.

§181. No. 11. — Double action equalization, the an-
terir lines leading.

On the anterior lines (leading). — Ophidian spine —
by outward bearing action, in lower C, of central
S, both lower lung lobes begin to fill as scecondary
section action. Then both anterior cross-line

232

ends exchange for collateral actions, between the
upper and lower lung lobes, as primary section
action. The changes caused in the lines of gravity
give this fundamental movement a general effect
throughout the body.

Composite Spine. — The lower lung lobes go on
filling and the hip-joints interchange outer-bear-
ings for the secondary section. Then the small
of the back and the upper corners of the sternum
adjust their right and left sides, as continuing the
action of the anterior cross-hne ends for the prim-
ary section.

Bicomposite Spine. — The lower lung lobes con-
tinuing to fill, the hinder hmbs adjust themselves
for the secondary section, the lines passing in rear
of the hip joints. Then, the lower jaw articula-
tions adjusting on the outer bearings, followed by
the rotary movement of the head condyles, on
their rear ends, and the forward across-joint move-
ment of the condyles, followed by the adjustment
of the shoulder-blades on the outer bearings, rep-
resent the anterior cross-line ends in the 2y'''iMary
section.*

♦The movement between the lower jaw articulations and shoulder-
blades, crossing at the junction of the neck 0 C, is as if th3 body swung
between them, as the bicomposite tractions confirm those which have

233

On posterior lines (by induction). Since the last
point in the development of the anterior lines was
a bearing on the shoulder-blades, some action
on these will result from each stage in the subse-
quent development of the posterior lines until they
bear on the lower jaw.

Ophidian Spine. — Interchange of inner bearings
between right and left sides of lower ribs begin
to straighten these ribs in double twist, and thus
complete the filKng of the lower lung lobes (reac-
tion). Interchange of inner bearings and between
sides of the upper C, (proper action,) and com-
mencing filling of the upper lung lobes from
their lower portions for secondary action. Then,
posterior cross-line ends adjust themselves between
the lung lobes for j)^'i'nary section.

Composite Spine. — As the interchange of inner
bearings between the lower C ribs continues from
the reactionary movement, its effect extends in the
muscles from the lower end of the spine to the
fi'ont of the pelvis, and does not yet reach the hip
socket. Extended interchange between lower ribs
of inner bearings, which adds to filling of lower

gone before. Thia movement changes the "general lines of thrust"
against the edges of the head joint sockets.

The lung tips (second C) movement occurs with the two condyle
movements.

234

lungs and causes an adjustment between the mus-
cles passing from lower end of the sternum to the
pelvis (reaction). Interchange of inner bearings
between rib articulations of upper C and fiUing of
upper lung lobes, for secondary section. Then^
adjustment of posterior cross-line ends at small of
back and lower end of sternum, as continuing ac-
tion of posterior cross-line ends * and drawing on
posterior points of application (which we may per-
haps consider to be placed at the front projecting
points of the hip bone) for the primary section.

Bicomposiie Spine. — Hinder limbs adjust them-
selves, as to inner bearing, on front part of feet
(reaction). The shoulder-blades adjust themselves,,
followed by the movement at the anterior ends of the
head sockets (proper action). Then the movement
backward of the sockets along the outer edges of
the condyles, followed by the adjustment of the jaw
articulations, as representing the — on this bearing —
posterior cross-line end adjustment; and, finally,
the adjustment and drawing of the posterior points
of apphcation at the front of the hip sockets and
down the hinder limbs, for the primary section.

* We have not thought it worth while to speak of the movement of
the diaphragm and its pillars'.

235

Stress on upper comers of sternum. Upper C of
lung tips pivot for head socket movement.

§ 182, No. 12. — Double action equalization, the pos-
terior lines leading.

On the posterior lines (leading) ophidian spine.
Interchange between sides of lower C of central S
of inner bearings (reaction). This action, which,
in the preceding formation (§ 181), when superin-
duced on the outer bearing, completed the filling
of the lower lung lobes, by straightening the ribs
in "double twist;" now, on the contrary, having
only the efi'ect of pressing the ribs together, drives
the air fr*om these lobes. Interchange of inner
bearings between the sides of the upper C of the
central S (proper action). This action of the pos-
terior points of application draws the rib heads
down, and thus raising the outer part of their arcs
enlarges the upper lung lobes. This for the sec-
ondary section. For the primary section the pos-
terior cross-line ends separate between the lung
lobes, and, following this, the posterior points of
application, do the same, at the lowest dorsal ver-
tebrae.^

Composite Spine. — Again, the lower ribs are com-

* What are "'points of application" for the "ophidian spine" come to
be cross-line ends for the " composite."

236

pressed, the lower lungs are exhausted ; the muscles
passing from the lower end of the sternum to the
pubis adjust themselves so that the lines of gravity
of the body come upon the inner sides of the feet
(reaction). The upper ribs being raised by their
interchange of inner bearings at their articulations
are filled (proper action). This for secondary sec-
tion. For primary section, the axial line of filling
for the upper lung lobes passes through the lower
end of the sternum, at which, and following it, at
the small of the back, the posterior cross-line ends
adjust themselves on either side. Then the poste-
rior points of application on each side at the ante-
rior points of the pelvis."^

Bicomposite spine. — The hinder limbs inter-
change inner bearing (reaction). The shoulder-
blades do the same (proper action) secondary
section. The movement on the anterior ends of
the head joint sockets followed by their movement
backward on the outer edges of the head condyle,
which changes the lines of general thrust and
brings the bearing on the lower jaw, as represent-
ing the cross-line ends. Finally, the adjustment of
the posterior points of application at the hip-joints

* At every stage more and more appui has been taken on the shoulder-
blades.

237

in front, which are likewise for this spine, the con-
tinuation of the posterior cross-Hne ends, primary
section.

On the anterior lines, (by induction) — ophidian
spine. With movement of articulations of lower
ribs on to their outer bearings, the lower lung lobes
begin to fill for the secondary section. Then, with
the movement of the anterior " points of applica-
tion" at the lower part of the neck-rook joint, the
adjustment of the anterior cross-line ends between
the lower and upper lung- lobes for the primary
section.

Composite spine. — With the continued movement
of lower ribs on to their outer bearings, and contin-
ued filling of lower lung-lobes, comes the adjustment
on outer bearing of the hip sockets for the primary
section. Then the adjustment in continuation of
the cross-Hne ends at the upper part of the sternum
and at the small of the back* the anterior points of
appHcation rising in the neck above the neck-root
joint for the primary section.

Bicomposite spin£. — Adjustment of hinder-limbs
on the outer bearing, the movement passing

* It will be noticed that the succession goes from sternum to small
of =back, with posterior lines leading, both for posterior and anterior
lines— whereas it was from small of back to sternum, with anterior
lines leading.

11

238

througli hip joints for the secondary section. Then
the adjustment of lower jaw articulations on outer
bearing as representing the anterior cross-line ends,,
and movement of head condyles on their posterior
ends, followed by movement of condyles across the
joint and adjustment of shoulder-blades on the
outer bearing for the final movement.

§ 183. We have rehearsed over again for double
action equalization, the details which might have
been collected from the movements on one set of
lines. This has been done because the succession
of double movements, with the posterior lines lead-
ing, appears to us to be that on which the method
taught by Monsieur Morquin^ before alluded to, is.
carried out. This method, which is excellent for
a regular exercise,* we shall now discuss.

It will, we think, become evident from this ex-
ercise—

That although Mons. Morquin's method di-
rected filling the lungs from the mouth, yet the
normal filling of, is through the nostrils. That
the upper lobes fill on the posterior fines, the
lower lobes on the anterior lines. That the^
lower C C of the lung tips fill at the passage from

* That is for confirming the setting up by strengthening the defi-
cient muscles. It does not, however, quite answer where a rapid
" setting up " is called for.

239

posterior to anterior lines, when tlie "thorough
action " of the head sockets passes the lines from
the shoulder-blades to the lower jaw, and the upper
C C of the lung tips on the passage from anterior
to posterior lines, when the "thorough action " of
the head condyles passes them from the lower jaw
to the shoulder-blades. Also that each lung lobe,
upper or lower, is exhausted and filled through its
collateral nostril.

That when both upper and lower lobes are filled,
the pressure from the lower lobes, if the filling of
these through the nostrils be continued, may be
made to drive out the air- from the upper lung
lobes, through the mouth, and that a long protrac-
ted, if not indefinitely contiuued, current of air
may thus be kept up, on which the vocal chords
may act, as the cords of any stringed instrument.
Of the volume of sound created, and of the ease
with which it may thus be produced, Mons.
Morquin gave repeated proofs.

§ 184. Mons. Morquin, so far as we know, made
no attempt at any anatomical explanation of the
system, which, he said, had been taught him, as
one of the soldiers of a battalion selected for gym-
nastic instruction, and which, at the time of the
French Revolution of 1830 was stationed at Rheims.

240

Having been unable to find any reference to this
method in the work of Col. Amoros, or to hear
anything of it when in France, a number of years
ago, we are inclined to think, that, as probably
was the case with the motions of the manual of
arms, the seat on horseback, &c., the method was
derived from a description of the way in which
some perfectly formed man naturally accomplished
the action in filHng his own chest and thus setting
himself, up. In this case, very probably, the in-
structor.

His directions may, we believe, although per-
haps not in his own \\iords, be correctly stated as
follows :

(1.) " Place the feet parallel to each other, and
together, throughout their length."

(2.) " Hold the head in its ordinary position,
and free, but keep both it and the chest well for-
ward, so as to bring the weight of the body on to
the front part of the feet."

(3.) " Take a full breath through the mouth."

(4.) " Close the mouth, retaining the air thus
taken in. Raise the chin only sufficiently to keep
the balance of the body forward, without rising on
the toes, and push ivith the upper front part of the
chest forward and upiuard^

241

" This action must, as the trial will show, cause the
air to be expelled slowly through the nostrils. Tliis
expulsion of the air is to be carried as far as pos-
sible."

(5.) " Ketaining the position of all parts of the
body, as thus attained, again fill the chest by the
mouth, and again, by " pushing with the upper
front part of the chest forward and upward," let
air slowly pass out through the nostrils."

BemarJc. — " Let the inspiration through the
mouth be sudden but full. Let the expiration
through the nostrils be slow and regular."

" The repetition of these actions will at last
bring the body into a position in which the chest
will be tensely swollen with air, and every joint of
the body feel free. Its attainment in the course of
the movement will be marked by the feehng that
the shoulder-blades are drawn firmly against the
body, while at the same time the hands are
turned, thumbs outward, elbows near the body,
and the neck is perfectly free in front."

§ 185. Explanation on tlie theories already ad-
vanced. The whole difference between the above
detailed method and No. 12 — " Setting-up by dou-
ble action, the posterior lines leading " — consists
in the air for the upper lung lobes being drawn

242

through the mouth in the former, which makes it
possible to begin by filling them, and to follow this
by exhausting the lower lobes by the " reaction "
from the secondary section of the posterior lines,
with the upper part of the chest as an intermedi-
ate .starting point, instead of beginning at once
with the shoulder-blades.

In No. 12 the lower lobes must be first ex-
hausted through the nostrils, and then the upper
lobes filled in the same way at each stage (except-
ing so far as the air already in the lungs may ad-
just itself). In Mons. Morquin's method the
upper lobes are first filled by the mouth, and
then the lower lobes exhausted by the nostrils.
When the upper lobes are once filled, the lower
lobes, in both methods, are filled through the nos-
trils, and the two methods coalesce. A con-
tinuance of filling the lower lobes beyond their
capacity, will transfer the air to the upper lobes,
whence it may be expired through the mouth, and
form the voice.

Mons. Morquin's method has several advan-
tages, especially that the filling of the upper lobes
through the mouth, although not thorough, is
rapid ; and that, by a few mechanical directions,
a recruit may be caused to go through a process

. 243

which could hardly be explained to the mass of
men.

In all methods commencing with the posterior lines^
it is to he particularly remembered that no stiffening
of the lines from the chest to the hip joints he allowed
in the 'Reactionary'' working of the lower rihs^ he-
cause this traction passes backward only gradually,
viz : first, by a change of gravity taking effect on
the front part of the feet ; second, by the adjust-
ment in the muscles joining the lower end of the
sternum and the front of the pelvis ; third, by the
drawing of the posterior points of appUcation from
ihe front of the hip joints (§ 162, sixth).

§ 186. By a movement analogous to that just
given, but carried out on a single line, viz. : by fill-
ing the left upper lung lobe through the mouth,
and emptying the left lower lung lobe through the
left nostril, it wHl, we think, become apparent that
Mons. Morquin's method is aforrrvation of the alter-
nate lines, and not a forcing of the old ones.

Let the left* upper lobe be filled from the mouth,
the air being carried to its upper part, and then the
left upper part of the chest being strained upward

* It need scarcely be repeated that all these exercises suppose the
right-handed deformity. In the contrary case the parts mentioned
would change.

24A

and forward, let it be so carried around to the left
and backward as to cause compression of the left
lower lobe, such that the air passes out through the
left nostril. After a certain amount of repetition
of these actions the right lower lobe wiU begin to
fill from the right nostril. After the right lower
lobe has thus filled to a certain extent it will begin
to compress the left lower lobe, and to form a co-
working with it which may be likened to the work-
ing of the head condyles in their ball and socket
connection. After this has been carried to a cer-
tain extent, a further enlargement of the left upper
lobe will take place by transfer of air from the
compressed left lower lobe. The left upper lobe
wiU join in a sort of co-working with the right
upper lobe, which, after compressing the latter and
causing the transfer of air to the right lower lobe,
will bring on a slight — finally adjusting — filling of
the right upper, and conjoin the action of the two
upper lobes, so that they may be likened to the
sockets of the ball and socket of the head joint.

§ 187. It may be that the reason for the fact
that few persons can take a so satisfactorily full
inhalation through the nostrils as through the
mouth consists in the necessity for a full move-
ment of the lung tips, or, what comes to the same

245

thing, of the "neck-root joint," in order to accom-
pHsh the first, whereas an inhalation through the
mouth allows a greater filling of the upper lobes
mthout moving the lung tips.

§ 188. A few directions given by Mons. Morquin
for various exercises may be introduced here :

(A) Extend the arms and fingers to either side, the
fingers being kept close together. Push with the
ends of the fingers from the body, thus stretching
the fingers to the utmost. Very soon one of the
fingers will experience a tendency to close * and
the others to follow it.

Keeping up the tension, let the fingers bend on
their own joints (i. e., not at the knuckles) till the
tips of the fingers rest on' the inner faces of the
knuckle joints.

Next close the knuckle-joints until the nails are
supported against the ball of the thumb, and the
heel of the palm. Thus the fingers are well sup-
ported. This exercise seems an excellent one for
developing the strength of the hand.

Finally, bend the thumbs which, meanwhile have
been kept tensely extended, so that their nail sec-

* We think the middle finger first. The stretching is the outer bear-
ing carried to its extreme point— the bending the induced inner
bearing.

11*

246

tions rest against the central sections of the two
first fingers.

(B) In dropping from a height the chest should
be kept swollen with air, the upper part pushed
forward and upward. The chin up, the feet close
together, toes touching. The arms extended and
stretched tensely upwards. The fingers together
and stretched. Push upward with the finger ends.

On touching the ground, air should be allowed
to pass out through the nostrils, and, if necessary,
through the mouth with a shout. Possibly, also, a
spring upward should take place. The effort to
push up the chest and the ends of the fingers must
be continued throughout.

(C) If, when dropping from a height, the elbows
be bent and brought to the sides, and then be
jerked backwards or the fore-arms thrust forward,
a considerable change as to the point of descent may
be effected.

(D) As a general rule in all gymnastic exercises,
whether on the gymnastic bars or in the manual of
the musket, &c., the fingers should be kept
stretched when grasping, and the " heel of the palm''
should alivays strike first, i. e., the stroke of the
hand should, like that of the foot on the ground
in progression, be made on the outer bearing.

247

In the second motion of " charge hayonetj' if the
left hand be held thus stretched out, the musket
on striking the heel of the palm and falling in the
direction of the knuckle-joints, will close the hand
in spite of any effort to keep it extended.

§ 189. We may add :

(a) That the whole of the difficulty so generally
experienced in " support arms'' comes from the left
upper lung-lobe not being properly filled with air,
and from the consequent dropping forward on its
inner bearing of the left shoulder-blade.

(b) The ball and socket action between the lung
lobes being the pivot for aU the movements of the
body, the shoulder-blades, which, by their position,
work directly over this pivot, should support each
other directly, when the man is perfectly set-up ;
that is, the movement of an arm in fencing goes
through its own shoulder-blade directly to the other
shoulder-blade, as its appui, while the head in
a plomb on its condyles regulates the subordinate
ball and socket movements of the hips. The same
would be the case in writing, &c. The shoulder-
blades do not thus support each other where the
{right) handed deformity is present, for there is
then a restrained adjustment of the hips and head
which interferes.

248

In walking, &c., the movements of the pelvis in its
ball and socket action at the diaphragm is met by
the action of the head, and then co-adjusts with
the ball and socket action of the shoulder-blades ;
so that these last (with more or less movement
of the arms) regulate eaxih step. In the horse the
suspension of the formation of the alternate ante-
rior line in the bicomposite spine (A'^) until after
the grounding of the free fore-foot, in the trot, is
necessary in order to maintain the collateral
balance. The same thing occurs in the walk of a
man, after (e. g.) the left foot has left the ground
and the right foot come down, a moment's delay
should take place before the old bicomposite gath«
ering on the left shoulder is discharged, and it is
the imperfect performance of this which causes the
backward hitch of the right shoulder after the
right foot has come down so generally seen.

(c) A well set-up man will experience no diffi-
culty in carrying the musket in old way, i. e.,
balanced on the middle finger of the left hand, the
stock supported in the hollow of the left shoulder.

Having thus gone into the details of the move-
ments in the two identical actions of halting and
setting-up, it may, we think, be added that they
all follow on a continuous movement of holdiag up

249

the head.* The attempt to do this will of itself
indicate what line is to commence the winding line
movements, and on this others will follow, if it be
bom in mind —

First. — That although in actual execution the
formations of the ophidian, composite, and bicom-
posite spines must run into each other, yet there
are three distinct stages, all of which give some
movement at the head joint, viz. :

The ophidian spine, a general movement, as of a
simple ball and socket.

The composite spine, a more definite movement
of the division into two parts, accompanied with a
full movement of the corresponding C of the neck S.

The bicomposite spine, a complete condyle and
condyle-socket movement.

These movements must bring on the filling of the
alternate lung lobes and exhaustion of the ab-
normally filled ones for each line, anterior and pos-
terior ; and, with the beginning of the composite
spine movement, as finishing that of the composite
spine, the action of the lung tips.

Second. — That the action oi the posterior line

*If the movement is to begin with a posterior line, which virtually
brings down the head in front, the front of the socket will rise as the
head is raised.

250

lo h' consists so much in the reflected secondary
action, that the actual primary action occupies but
little time, and also the direct secondary section is
so retarded that the filling of the alternate upper
lung lobe may be kept back until the formation of
even the composite spine is well advanced.

The accommodating of the lower C convex of the
neck to the reflected secondary action in that part,
must be particularly remembered, and the inward
turn of the filling loiver C of the alternate lung tip,
and outward turn of the exhausting loioer C, the
outward turn of the filling upper C and inward
turn of the exhausting one.

Finally, in causing all the movements to succeed
a continued development of the first, and, by in-
duction of the succeeding lines in the head-joint,
it must not be forgotten that eve^y thing goes for-
ward toivard the formation of the collateral tractions,
and that thus, whatever the movement, the head
keeps steadily up.

To complete this subject, see particularly Ap-
pendix n, p. 290.

251

PART YI.

KiDING.

§ 190. We have endeavored to show how seri-
ously the inequahty of action in symmetric parts,
and the consequent, imperfect, and " shackly "
movement of central points may interfere with
personal locomotion.

Not less do these faults interfere with the seat
on horseback, indeed the trouble here is still more
serious, for the points of appui instead of being on
an immoveable surface, which will await the ad-
justment of the body, as does the ground, have
place on another body, w^hich is continually in
motion, and, if not met in time, are at once re-
moved. Thus, if the seat bcnes of the rider do not
move equally, one of them, generally the right, is
left behind by the motion of the horse. Hence,
that hanging back of the right shoulder so general-
ly to be observed, even in passable horsemen. When
this fault exists, it is only by making the knees, in-
stead of the seat bones, the points of appui, that
an action of the shoulder may make up for this loss
of position, and it is in fact thus made up, with a
sort of hop on the other seat-bone, for which the

252

appui on the knee, or perhaps on the stirrup, gives
the necessary freedom.

§ 191. The grand difference between riding and
personal locomotion seems to us to exist in the
fact that, although the rider sits over the lungs of
the horse, the traction which he himself receives at
the seat bones is not in the ophidian but in the
composite spine. Consequently his first action in
following is to combine the composite and ophid-
ian spines by the action at the upper end of the
sternum for progression, at the lower end for re-
trogression, or for a check in progression. This
combination once made," the remainder of the
movement is executed in the regular succession.

Inaugurating his own movement by a leading
action in the ophidian S, as does a man on foot,
wiU cause a discrepancy of motion between the
rider and his horse sufficient to loosen the seat of
the most perfectly formed man. A httle practice,
however, should soon overcome this difficulty, and,
we think, it may be assumed not only that a thor-
oughly set up man may be at once taught to fol-
low the motions of his horse, but also that he may
at once be able to manage the animal, for he has
only to inaugurate in his own body the movements
he desires in such a way that they may meet the

253

horse' s gathering at the proper time for forcing or for
checking the latter, and, if the horse be properly^
suppled, it will follow up the impressions received.

The Setting-up on horseback may, of course, be
accompHshed by any of the methods we have men-
tioned, but there are two among them which ap-
pear to be the most appropriate. Both begin in
the composite spiae ; that on the " anterior wind-
ing line " would seem the best fitted to progression,
that on the "posterior line" to retrogression, or
to a check in progression. Both follow in the
course of the " alternate line " methods Nos. 5 and
6, but begin at intermediate positions, and not at
the " poiats of application " — that for the left an-
terior line commencing with the left shoulder-
blade, that for the right posterior line with the
right upper ribs.

§ 192. For the anterior line. While the chin is
raised well up and carried forward the left shoulder
blade is pressed forward and to the right, as it were,
across and through the neck. The relative beariag
of the shoulder-blade is that which it assumes in No.
5, at the conclusion of the movement of the alter-
nate (right) condyle acrosss the head joint. In the
present case it first causes the actions and equali-
zation preceding this relative bearing to develope

254

ihemselves — the right thigh rolls out — the right
lower lung lobe fills — the right upper comer of the
sternum reduces the left, the left stemo-mastoid
turning outward in its lower portion — the right jaw
articulation rises, as it were, over the left — the
right head condyle turns on its posterior end —
then moves across the joint to the front, and con-
firms the position of the left shoulder-blade.

Second. — The movement of the left shoulder-
blade, " as it were, across the neck," is continued,
and developes the equalizing of the posterior lines,
bringing out the left posterior by induction. The
left lower lung lobe is condensed as the " reaction-
ary " movement from the secondary section equal-
izes the lower false ribs. The left upper lung
lobe fills with the " proper " movement of this sec-
tion— the left shoulder-blade is set in the left al-
ternate posterior line — the right head socket
presses upward against its condyle as the right
upper lung lobe is reduced — passes forward across
the head joint, sets the right jaw articulation as
the lower C of the right lung tip condenses, and
tightens the right stemo-mastoid by a drawing
from below.

§ 193. It is to be remarked that in the progress
•of all the setting-up movements it may be neces-

255

sary occasionally to stretch the central line of the
body so that the advance made may distribute
itself to the various parts and leave the leading
point again in position to draw in its first connec-
tion. There is also a slight, final, "double action"
movement necessary to complete the setting-up.

§ 194. For the posterior line. The relative bear-
ing of the right upper ribs is that in which, after
the passing of the right socket across the head
joint (No. 6), the right articulation of the lower
jaw and the drawing of the right sterno-mastoid
would bring them. The actions and equalizations
preceding this relative bearing are first develop-
ed— the left lower lung lobe is condensed, some-
what, as the "reactionary" movement from the
secondary section of the forming left posterior (al-
ternate) line equalizes the left false ribs — ^left
upper lung lobe fills with the " proper " action — in
the bicomposite spine the left shoulder-blade
equalizes with the right — the right head joint
socket presses up against its condyle, and the
pressure crosses the joint to the front, following
which the right lower jaw equalizes on its inner
bearing, and the right sterno-mastoid draws.

Second. — The same carrying forward, and to the
left, of the right upper part of the chest being con-

256

tinued, the upper lung lobes are fully equalized,
then the lower ones ; the right lower lung lobe fill-
ing, the right head condyle turns in connection
with the right articulation of the lower jaw,
and as it passes forward across, the joint draws
on the left shoulder-blade. This finally sets by a
drawing from below, and a sHght movement of the
posterior point of application in double action
completes the setting-up.

§ 195. The last mentioned method § (194), as
will be observed, carries out the rule to " bring the
right shoulder forward." Both may be used for
either progressive or retrogressive movement, be-
cause, as was said of all the methods, they directly,
if not immediately, find that stage of the horse's
actions which coincides with their requirements.
But we think that, to recapitulate the general
directions, to raise and carry forivard the chirit
while the left shoulder-blade, on its outer hearing, is,
as it were, carried to the front and right, across the
neck, and the spine stretched at intervals, infolloiving
the movement, so as to bring its effects into the trunk,
and allow the sides of the pelvis to equalize, the whole
ending by a spontaneous drawing from below on
the right stemo-mastoid, and followed by a filling

257

of both upper long lobes, will best suit for the for-
ward movements of the horse.

Again, that the general directions to carry the up-
per part of tlie right upper ribs for ward and to the left,
so as to diminish the protrusion of the left hiver (false)
ribs, by sinking the loiuer end of the sternum into
their cavity, while at the same time an effort is made
to MOUNT AS IT WERE, the body, by a backward move-
ment of its upp>er part, over and upon the left shoulder-
blade; the spine stretching, in following the movement,
so as to bring its effects into the upper chest, above
which, as the neck-root joint equalizes, the head joint
IS left free to allow of and adjust itself to the move-
ment— the whole ending by a spontaneous drawing
downward of the left shoulder-blade, and followed
by a filling of both lower lung lobes will best suit
the backward movements.

§ 196. Many books have been written on the seat
on saddles, and on bits.^

As to the seat, it may vary somewhat with the
"make" of the man, but well set-up men will have
one uniform enough even for soldiers.

As to the saddle, no saddle can be contrived that
will be a complete defence against an uneven seat,
or careless packing and adjustment of the soldier's

* Major Dwyer's is one of the best and most interesting.

258

"effects." Against the latter a vigilant officer may
provide ; the former can be remedied only by a
good setting-up, and the unsparing punishment of
every trooper who does not maintain it.^

§ 197. As to bits, although a horse may be taught
to check himseK under a severe bit, as he would
before a stone wall, its use can no more be called
riding than stopping the animal in such a manner
can be called halting him. A curb bit, with a high
port, may, in most horses, force up the upper jaw,
and thus prevent the head joint from closing as it
must for the inner bearing and the spring forward.f
It also, by the leverage of its branches, gives in-
creased power to the usual way of opening the
lower jaw, but it is deficient in lateral action, and
to some extent, by making the lower jaw the chief
" artificial ground" for motion, in place of the eyes,
it is subject to the same objection which that favor-
ite of the French army, the Duke of Orleans, made
to the — for preliminary breaking, wonderful — sys-

* The relation of the knapsack to the foot soldier is the converse of
that of the rider to the horse ; if the man's shoulder-blades he flat, and
his step be even, a well packed knapsack will hardly worry him.

t If in stopping a horse, a man on foot force the snalfle upwards into
the mouth, so as to open it by the upper jaw, this action will, we think,
be at once recognized; the direction to hold the hand high in "stand to
horse " would seem to depend on the same principle.

259

tern of Baucher : " Je ne veux pas de systeme qui
prend sur la vitesse des chevaux."

The double-jointed snaffle, conjoined with the
other " aids," should, under a well set-up rider,
control a horse reasonably well made, and which
the man has ridden for a fortnight, under all cir-
cumstances ; but then the other " aids" must often
precede, and be only met, by that of the bit. In
fact, the rider must imitate the motions in his own
body, and his seat first communicate them to the
horse.

§ 198. The " Aids." Although a perfectly sup>
pled horse will generally answer to the movements
given by the body of his rider, yet if unsuppled, or
fractious, certain forcing influences are required.

These are called " aids,'' and together with them
we shall discuss some of the changes of gait and of
action which they are calculated to produce, and
which we have deferred from § 159.

§ 199. The aids are four in number, namely, the
Bit, the Spurs, Pressure by the Seat bones of the
rider. Pressure by the Beins on the horse's neck

§ 200. The Bit has differing actions according to
the changing relative bearuigs of the side of the
lower jaw on which it acts. For example, if the
left hind foot have just come to the ground, in the

260

trot, the pressure of the bit on the left side of the
mouth will increase the formation on the outer
bearing, and if continued after the right posterior
line has begun to develope, will more or less hinder
the formation on the inner bearing wliich this re-
quires. If applied exactly after the spring from
the left hind-leg, it will hinder the completion of
the alternate (right) anterior line in the bicompos-
ite spine, § 111 (since it is the opposite side of the
jaw which must then take an outer bearing), and
so check the progression. Its eifects, we suppose,
may always be calculated for the " working side "
of the jaw by its coincidence with, or opposition
to the movements of the lower jaw, as these coincide
with the winding line in progress of development ;
and, for the unengaged side, by the effect it thence
produces in favoring or hindering the movements
of the working side.

In double action, drawing on the bit favors all
the anterior winding lines, and hinders aU the pos-
terior ones, excepting just at the interchange of
condyles on the spring, when hindering the pos-
terior winding lines checks the formation of the
alternate anterior ones.*

* The movement of the jaw, it will be remembered, from its connec-
tion with the digastrics and their conneption with the lungs, permeates
the whole body.

261

§ 201. The Spur, and the pressure of the Seat-
hones of the rider are so related that they must be
discussed together. It is scarcely necessary to
premise that we do not intend actual use of the
spur when the pressure of the leg suffices. The
spur, acting near the rear end of the sternum,
brings on the action of the posterior winding Hne
of its own side ; thus the left spur will induce the
developement of the left posterior winding line,
first in the "reaction" from the secondary section,
then, the "proper" secondary section, then in the
primary section (the drawing of the cross line end).
It thus reduces the working of the opposite pos-
terior line.

If the left hind-foot have just grounded in the
trot, the right posterior line begins to form and
put the foot on its inner bearings ; drawing the
left rein will interfere with this, by checking the
coinciding movement of the left lower jaw articula-
tion on to its inner bearing, (temporal muscle
setting); and the left spur will also check it by de-
veloping the opposite posterior winding-line ; con-
sequently the left hind leg, if (as in the right-hand-
ed man), it works too much on the inner bearing,
will be " bent " or " suppled."

The Seat-hone pressure affects similar results for
12

262

the anterior winding line of its side, beginning,
however, with the primary section. Thus, if the
horse's right hiad-foot be raised, the weight of the
rider's body, thrown perpendicularly on the right
seat-bone, will brijig the right hind-foot to the ground
on its outer bearing by the primary section of the
right anterior line, without fully developing the
secondary section. It also reduces the working of
the secondary section of the right posterior hne.

In ("bending") or "suppling" a hind leg, the
right seat-bone pressure should work with the
action of the left rein and left spur, so soon as the
horse's left hind-foot has grounded. In this way
the formation of the right posterior line is hiadered
by the left side of the bit, while the left posterior
and right anterior Hues, by their developement
through the left spur and right seat-bone, subtract
from the over-done " left-right counteractions '*
and tend to equalize the muscles.

The spur in the flank passes along the hne on
which it may be apphed, from the posterior
end of the sternum to the hach^ at which point
it can be supposed to have a like influence to
the seat-bone. Hence it may be that Abd el
Kader described a perfect horseman as being able
croiser Us eperons sur le dos de son cJieval, i. e.,

263

rowel him from tlie belly to the back at one sweep,
which, no doubt, produces an effectual gathering.

§ 202. We have emphasized the word " per^jen-
dicularly'' in speaking of throwing the rider's
weight on to the right- (or left) ribs of his horse,
because we beheve that few, even of pretty well
made men, can do this. In general the weight is
not perpendicular,- even on the left side, and the
attempt to pass it to the right side, being nothing
more than a hanging over from the left, produces
but Htttle effect upon the horse. The required
movement of the cross-line ends in the rider's
body between the upper and lower lung lobes, is
much greater when his seat bones are to inter-
change as appui, than what might serve tolera-
bly weU for the interchange of his feet ; hence the
difficulty. The value as an "aid" of this change
of the rider's weight from one side to the other is
little appreciated because few can use it.

§ 203. Pressure of the rein on the side of the
neck. In our standard illustration for position —
appuis of the horse on left hind and right fore-
feet— the left rein, if carried to the right, would
press against the left convex of the lower C of the
neck S, and would force it toward forming a convex
to the right. Now, it has been said (§§ 60, 148)

264

that in the regular change of curvatui-es the convex
must pass over the concave ; that is, it must, in the
reduction, follow the direction of the line which
formed it. This line was, in the present case, the
secondary section of the left anterior Hne, whose
convex would pass over and to the left. If, in so
doiQg, it developed the corresponding section of the
right anterior line, that convex passing to the right
would oppose it. But it will, we think, be appar-
ent that the pressure of the rein reduces only the
lateral development of the convex, and, so far as
the perpendicular development is concerned, has
rather the contrary effect. Hence, it will he the
primary section of the alternate (right) posterior Utw
which pressure of the left rein on the left convex of the
loiuer G of the neck will develope.

Again, the S being formed by the counteractions
of two forces, compounded each of an element of
pressure and an element of rotation, it may, we
think, be assumed that the pressure elements give
the longitudinal thrust, whereas the rotary element
in each secondary section gives an outward sideway
movement to the ribs, legs, and other parts dependent
on the convexity, 'whether this last be formed or only
forming.

Connected with a primary section, the leg is car-

265

ried inward across the body, for tlie movement there
depends, not on the general course of the winding
line, but on the direction in which the cross-line
end is drawn by the point of application, and
whether the leg, in connection with a convexity, is
following the reduction movement of the old cross-
line end, or, in connection with a concavity, the
establishment of the new one, the direction is alike
across the central line of the body.

The reactions will hold good for all the " spines"
(§ 118), and thus the foee-legs 7nay receive lateral as
well as other motion from two sources, the body or
the necJc, and be differently moved accordiQgly as
they are in the trotting or the pacing connection.

§ 204 Since the spur (§ 199) developes the pri-
mary section of that posterior winduig line, whose
point of appUcation Hes on its own side — i. e., the
left spur the primary section of the left posterior
line, and so on — its appHcation on a convexity
would cause (§ 203) the corresponding hind-leg to
move across the body with the reduciag posterior
cross-line end.

When the left rein pressed upon the left convex
of the lower C of the neck, at the same time that
the right bit, drawing the lower jaw of that side on
to its outer bearing, checks the formation of the

266

(alternate) left posterior line, the longitudinal thrust
is suppressed, and, if the horse be kept steady, the
lateral effect only has place. This would pass the
left fore-foot in the neck connection across the body
to the left, following the reduction of the old poste-
rior cross-line end in the neck. Were the left fore-
leg, in its body connection — i. e., on the anterior
concave — the primary section of the forming r^ht
anterior line would move it in the same direction.

§ 205. The cavesson having its action on the nasal
bone, of course moves the ujyper jaw downward,
and with a rein to each side from the projectiag
ring, the head joint may be influenced by closing it
in front on either side, or using both reins on both
sides at once. This closiug of the joint in front is
normally the result of the action of the posterior
winding lines, and we should thus have an "aid"
which would directly ^ act in favoring these Hues
as the bit does in favoring the anterior lines.

Possibly the rider, with a left cavesson and a
left snaffle rein, and a right cavesson and right
snaffle rein, crossed in either hand, might find the
cavesson an additional aid in suppling his horse.

* The lower jaw movement for the posterior lines is one of closing—
i. e., the inner bearing— for the anterior lines of opening— i. e., the outer
bearing. Now, as the bit only opens the mouth, the posterior lines can
only be favored one at a time with the bit, by the indirect action of
causing one side of the jaw to close by opening the other.

267

§ 206. We subjoin two tables, the one giving the
mode of action of the several aids, the other the
lateral movements of the legs :

26S

Aids.

Direct.

Left Bit favours secondary
section left anterior
line,

impedes primary sec-
tion riglit posterior line.

Cavesson. Eight traction
favours primary sec-
tion riglit posterior,

impedes secondary
section left anterior
line.

Right Stvr favours second-
ary section right poste-
rior line,

im,pedes primary sec-
tion left anterior line.

Left Seat-bone favours
primary section left an-
terior liae,

im,pedes secondary
section left posterior
line.

Rein. Pressure of right
rein on lower C, left
convex. Brings on left
posterior line for neck
S, and influences anal-
ogous convexes in the
same way»

Indirect.

Right Bit f avows primary
section of the right pos-
terior line.

269

Lateral Movements of Legs.

Outward from central line.

Left fore-leg. Body move-
ment. Secondary sec-
tion of left posterior
line.

Neck move-
ment. Secondary sec-
tion of left anterior
line.

Right fore-leg. Body move-
ment. Secondary sec-
tion of right posterior
line.

Neck move-
ment. Secondary sec-
tion of right anterior
line.

Left hind-leg. Body move-
ment. Secondary sec-
tion left anterior line.

Right hind-leg. Body move-
ment. Secondary sec-
tion right anterior line.

Inward, across central line.

Left fore-leg. Body move-
ment. Primary sec-
tion of right anterior
line.

Neck movement. *
Primary section of left
posterior line.

Right fore-leg . Body move-
ment. Primary section
of left anterior line.

Neck movement* Pri-
mary section of right
posterior line.

Left hind - leg."^ Body
movement. Primary
section left posterior
line.

Right hind - leg.* Body
movement. , Primary
section right posterior
line.

* All these follow the direction

of the old cross-line end, as it is
reduced by the new one, e. g.,
the left hind-leg, that of the end
belonging to the right posterior
line, as the left spur developes
the left posterioi- line. We have,
for convenience, connected the
motibn with its primary rather
than its proximate cause.

12*

270

§ 207. No rider who cannot feel the manner in
which his horse's feet are placed can accurately ap-
ply the aids. This is one of the decisive argu-
ments for a close seat, without which such feeling
is out of the question. A good seat once obtained,
nothing is easier than to follow the advice of a
German teacher, Seeger, and, knowing the sequence
of the feet in the trot, to watch the fore-legs, and
try to recognize by feeling what one knows to be
the accompanying position of the hind-feet.

CHANGES OF ACTION.

§ 208. There are, of course, various ways in
which the same changes of action may be accom-
plished. We shall endeavor to select for our ex-
planations that one in which the horse would ac-
comphsh it under the influence of the rider, and,
although we may occasionally differ from Von
Oeynhausen, we must again repeat our acknowl-
edgements to him for the " s accession " of the legs
in many, though not all, of the cases, without,
however, at all charging him with our theories in
regard to them.

Trot to walk. Supposing that in the trot the
horse has just put do^vn the diagonal right fore
and left hind-feet. The left anterior line is not com-

271

pleted (§§ 130, 142, 143), tliat is, a^ and a'^ which
turn the raised left fore-foot on its outer bearing
and thrust it forward, are not yet carried out.
With tliis completion, the left articulation of the
lower jaw must come on its outer bearing. This
the rider hinders by drawing the right rein. In
the same moment, with the left spur, he tempora-
rily and partially hinders the development of the
right posterior hne by commencing the formation
of the left one. This hindrance to the completion
of the left anterior line, and check in the formation
of the right posterior, will induce the horse to
change the working head condyle from left to
right directly, i. e., without the intermediate move-
ments, and in connection with the neck only.

The right head condyle will then raise the left
fore-foot in its neck connection and put it down,
whereupon the ophidian cycle, only suspended in
its action, will resume the trotting movement for
the hind-legs, the right hind-foot will be put down,
and the walk' inaugurated, § 145.

Gallop to Walk. In the preceding change
of gait, " Trot to walk," the ophidian gathering
for the trot step with the hind-leg was only re-
strained, but the fore-leg gathering was altered to
the pacing action by changing the working head

272

condyle. Supposing a horse in the " gallop to the
right " to be halted for an instant as he lands from
a spring. His feet are in position to step off with
the left fore, followed by the right hind-foot, if the
working condyle he changed. The horse, of course,
could easily accompKsh this, and possibly, the rider
passing the bridle hand to the right, so as to de-
velope the left posterior line in the neck by press-
ing out the convex, at the same time assisting this
by a very slight action of the left spur, and imme-
diately following the change of condyle by passing
the weight to the right seat-bone, in order to put
down the horse's right hind-foot, might teach him
to do it.

Von Oeynhausen* remarks, " to change literally,
at once, from the gallop to the walk, demands such
precision on the part of the rider, in giving the
aids, and such patient waiting for, and ready an-
swering to them on the part of the horse, that it is
hardly ever really done. In almost all cases, in
common life, the horse takes a few short trotting
steps, and then first begins actually to walk." In
these steps the horse gradually eliminates a* a'*
and b^ b'^ from the action (§ 145).

Gallop to Trot. — The horse being in gallop

* " Gang des P/erdes und Sitz des JReiters " plate 44 text.

273

to the right, it will be necessary to carry out the
left right counteraction entirely through the neck-
root joint, instead of allowing the right-left
counteraction to join and form the double action.
For this purpose, as the horse lands from a spring,
the rider would weight strongly his left seat-bone
in order to drive forward the left anterior line, use
the right spur to strengthen the right posterior
line, and, at the same time, give the horse his head
sufficiently to allow him to respond by carrying
through the trot, on the right fore and left hind-
leg, landing on the left fore and right hind-feet.

Trot to Gallop. — For gallop to the right, the
gathering for the left right counteraction having
been made predominant, the right left counter-
action must be introduced before the completion of
one of the steps on the left hind and right fore-feet
so as to bring on the double action (§ 156).

The rider shortens the right (inside) rein, carry-
ing his hand to the left, which give a preponder-
ance in working to the left head condyle ; he also
throws his weight on the left seat bone and uses
the right spur ; these aids develop preponderating-
ly the left right winding line. As the horse lands
on the right fore and left hind-feet, he gives a suffi-
cient amount of pressure to the right seat-bone,

274

and sufficiently uses the left spur to introduce the
right left winding line in subordinate connection
with the left right, and thus forms the double ac-
tion. Baising the bridle hand, he opens the mouth
by the movement of the upper jaw, and by the
necessarily following movement of the head con-
dyles, which initiates the alternate anterior Unes,
and consequently the discharge of the spring.

§ 209. Halting from the Gallop. — Holding the
reins steady as the horse lands, so as to check the
motion, but not to change the head condyles by
their movement, pressure with the right seat-bone
brings out the right anterior line, and the left spur
the left posterior. The development of those, the sub-
ordinate lines of counteraction restrains the left an-
terior and right posterior lines, and the head con-
dyles not being allowed to change by their owti
movement, the four lines are equalized throughout
the body, and the condyles conform to the new
distribution of tractions.

§ 210. Rearing and Kicking — May be explained
entirely by the " double trot actions."

Bearing. — In this the horse developes the ante-
rior winding lines to an undue degree at the ex-
pense of the posterior lines. The hind-feet thus
come extravagantly upon their outer bearings and

275

the whole body is drawn back upon them as
appuis.

Under the rider, a bit which prevents the horse
from completing the primary section of the poste-
rior lines when he is urged forward, may induce
rearing. The lower jaw, checked in the attempt to
come on its inner bearings, throws back the trac-
tions to those which belong to the jaw on its outer
bearings, i. e., the anterior lines in their secondary
sections. If, when up, the horse thrust forward the
front legs on the inner bearing by introducing the
posterior hne in the anterior C C, we have the full
converse of kicking, which begins with the action
of both lines in the posterior C C, and ends with
the single action of the posterior lines in the an-
terior C C.

If now, the horse rear with a perfect equality of
the sides, the constantly increasing action of the
anterior lines will finally eventuate in " setting-up"
by double action on these lines (§ 180), and he will
come down perfectly gathered. But most horses,
and — if they wish to resist their rider — all horses
rear with a preponderating action of one leg, and
if the rearing then be carried too far, they may
fall over.

As a remedy for rearing, determined spurring.

276

by forcing the posterior winding lines to form, may
bring the horse down from any position short of
the loss of balance, but, as horses generally
use a favorite hind-leg, the development of the
counteracting lines for the other pair of diagonal
legs will generally answer the purpose, if applied
early enough in the movement. Thus, if a horse
stijffen the left hind-leg, the rider should, by throw-
ing his weight on the right seat-bone, bring the
horse's appui more on the right hind-leg ; at the
same time (if necessary) lift the left hind-foot with
the left spur.

§ 211. Kicking. — This is the converse of rearing ;
the horse developes the posterior winding lines to
an undue degree at the expense of the anterior
lines ; the hind-feet rise on their inner bearings with
a forward movement, and are next thrust out to the
rear by a backing movement, as the fore-feet come
on to their outer bearings, by reason of the unmixed
action of the secondary section of the posterior
lines in the anterior C C.

In kicking, as in rearing, most horses have a
favorite leg ; supposing this to be the left hind-leg,
appuied on the right fore, then the left spur, fol-
lowed by the weight on the right seat-bone, which
would introduce the alternate right-left counter-

277

action, should equalize the lines and reduce the un-
manageableness of the kick.

§ 212. Bucking. — This might, we think, be ex-
plained as a jump upward in the double pace
movement, while refusing the cross-line action of
the spine. The thrust in the spine for an upward
jump is both ways from the cross-lines as a centre.

§ 213. Turning. The common turns in the trot
we should describe as being brought about in the
following manner : The drawing of the rein on the
side toward which the turn is to be made can be
done under two conditions, which give origin io
two very different steps.

First. — When, for example, the right fore and
left hind-feet have just landed. The neck portion
(a^ a'®) of the left anterior line — completing the
bicomposite spine — is about to form, followed
instantly (or possibly somewhat preceded) by the
right posterior Hne. Now, since the formation of
the left anterior, followed by that of the right pos-
terior Hne, will bring the left articulation of the
lower jaw on its inner bearing, (i. e., the left tem-
poral muscle drawing) the pressure from the
right side of the bit, by drawing the eight rein
favors this ; but, at the same time, it hinders the
thrusting element of the two Hues, and, so far as

278

this goes, the primary section of the right posterior
hne crosses the right (free) hind-leg to the left.
The right hind-foot being put down, the alternate
Tight-left line forms and the primary section of the
right anterior line passes the left fore-foot across
to the right *

The whole movement may be strengthened by
the right spur, increasing the working of the right
posterior line.

If the horse be in progressive motion, the right
hind-leg will, we think, be found the first to reach
ihe ground ; if he be stationary, he will hdck some-
what on the right hind-foot, thus holding that part
of the left-right counteracting lines undischarged,
while the alternate right anterior moves the fore-
foot, and, as it developes, discharges the old line
(§ 171), which last crosses the right hind-leg.

Second. — When the right fore and left hind-
feet having just landed, the left rein is drawn. As
in the previous paragraph, a' and a'^ are about
forming in the bicomposite spine, but pressure of
ihe bit on the left side of the jaw will hinder the

♦ These crossings are thus both body movements, the left fore-leg
being forced back under the influence of the front C of the ribs. The
■distinction between this, which is a trotting movement, and the cross-
ing of the fore-leg in " passage" (§214), which is a pacing movement, will
he noticed.

279

formation of the right posterior line, and the draw-
ing on the head suppress a^ a'^ by causing the
horse to change the working condyle ;* consequent-
ly, the thrusting element being suppressed, the left
fore-leg will be darted to the left by the rotary ele-
ment of the secondary section of the right anterior
line in the neck, and the right hind-leg will follow
with an outward step caused by the rotary element
of the secondary section of the right anterior line
in the body.

These two stages wUl exhibit the working of the
bit for two or more steps ia the same change of
direction ; for, when turning to the right, the second
action of the bit occurs for the left fore and right
hiad-legs as appuis, the first for the right fore
and left hind. Thus, at one step, the horse crosses
the free legs, at the next, he throws them outward
from his body.

There is still another way of changiug direction,
the discussion of which must be reserved for *' cir-
cHng on the haunches" (§ 217), of which the move-
ment is simply modified by progression being
more or less continued as it proceeds.

* It should be x'emembered, that in the horse the head follows the
lower jaw only when the latter is closed ; when open the lateral move-
ment disengages it.

280

§ 214. Passage. — So-called in the United States
and in the English Cavalry Tactics — (French, Ap-
pui — German, Schliessen, Half and Full Travers).*

Taking from the tables §§ 206, 207, the rules
that the rotary elements of the anterior lines in
each of the three " spines" act by their secondary
sections in connection with the lower jaw on its
outer bearings, to throw the limbs outward from
the central line of the body ; while the posterior
lines act with the lower jaw on its inner beariQg
by their primary sections, to throw them inward
across the central Hne, we should explain the
"Passage " in the following way :

The horse is placed as if for progressive move-
ment on a pair of diagonal appuis — say on the
right fore and left hind-legs, the head is then
confined by drawing the right rein, so that the
(working) left head condyle cannot actually dis-
charge. The left spur, in the next place, bringing
into action the left posterior line, raises the left
hind-foot and forces down its right fellow. The
formation of this line would be a part of movement
forward on the right hind-foot, which its comple-
ment the right anterior line not being formed, the

* The " Passage " proper is not the same, but a sort of " Mark-time "
in the trot.

281

horse might shirk by backing on this foot — but the
rider by bringing down his right seat-bone and
partly inducing the right anterior line prevents it.
Now, the action of the left spur forming the left
posterior line up to its primary section, should, in
connection with the pressure of the right side of
the bit which checks its thrust, carry the left hind-
foot to the right, across the central line of the
body. The pressure of the left rein carried agaiast
the neck convex, while tending to produce the alter-
nate curve in its left posterior line component,
should, by the primary section of this Hne, carry
the left fore-foot, related to the neck as the left
hind-foot is to the body, in the same direction, viz.,
to the right — and this pressure on the neck affect-
ing the whole length of the spine, forces the horse,
if he have resisted, to yield to the foregoiag action
of the left spur.

Under the actions of the left spur, left rein and
right seat-bone, the alternate winding lines have
nearly suppressed the left-right counteraction, but
the head condyles have not been allowed to change.
This counteraction is now restored, and being
stiQ held in check, as to its forward thrust, by the
left side of the bit, the rotary elements of the
secondary section of the anterior line, on the light-

282

ening of the right seat-bone pressure, carry the
right fore-leg with the neck restoration, and the
right hind-leg with that of the body sideways to
the right, by reaction from what would have been
the movement of the two left feet had they been
free.

The neck action in this movement connects it
with the pace on both sides of the body.^

The horse resists the "passage" from a halt by
backing, and, when in progression, by striking a
pace with the (right) "inside" feet.t The former
is checked by the pressure of the (right) "inner"
seat-bone of the rider, and for the latter, the inside
rein must be drawn sufficiently to prevent the
change of condyle.

The "passage" is one of the best exercises for
suppling, particularly when the horse has a "favor-
ite" side of the mouth for resisting the bit, and it
is also the best remedy for shying. For the latter,
the horse should be made to passage toward the
object which he avoids. In resisting this, he will
very possibly strike a pace which, we think, cor-

* The diagonal legs in the turn (§213 second) were thrown outward
by similar but not the same movements, for there they occurred on two
different lines of counteraction, these on one and the same, as in the
pace.
t Would be such if on the circle and passaging toward the centre.

283

roborates the view we have taken of the nature of
the action.

§ 215. Circling on the Fore-hand, and Circling on
the HaunchesJ^ — These movements, including, of
course, the pirouette renversee, and the pirouette,
seem to be both contained in the actions of the
"passage." Circhng on the fore-hand being the
haunch movement, with the neck movement re-
duced to a minimum, and circHng on the haunches
the neck movement, with the hauncli movement
reduced to a minimum.

Circling mi the Fore-hand, with the head turned
inwards. The horse is put in position with the
appui, say, on the left hind and right fore-feet^
The rider lifts the left hind-foot with the left spur,
presses down the right hind-foot with his right
seat-bone, and continues the action of the left spur
until the formation of the primary section of the
left posterior line ; the thrusting element held in
check, carries the left hind-leg across the body to
the right. No pressure being made with the left
rein, as is done in the "passage," the weight is
thrown upon the left fore-foot without moving it,

* These movements are well shown in the plates accompanying the
late General Kenner Garrard's Annotations on Nolan, Baucher and
Rarey.

284

and when, the pressure of the right seat-bone being
lightened, the restoration of the left anterior hne
occurs, this, while in the body connection it passes
the right hind-foot well to the right, in the neck
connection only moves the right fore-foot suffici-
ently around its left fellow to readjust the posi-
tion.

In the pirouette renversee, we should suppose
that the addition made to the above movement
was, that the horse somewhat increases the neck
gathering, and retains it until the arc is completed.
He raises and passes across the left hind-foot, and
springs from the right hind-iooi by the right ante-
rior, left posterior lines maintaining, however, the
left-right reaction by keeping the left head condyle
in place as the working one. This last condition
enables him with the right fore-foot to bear off the
weight on to the left fore-foot. He finally descends
on the left hind-foot, and then plants the right hind
and right fore.

§ 216. Circling on the Haunches. — The horse is
put in position, say with appui on the right fore
and left hind-leg. The right rein is well drawn, so
as to fully develop the lower C of the neck S, con-
vex to the left. Then, with the rider's right seat-
bone developing somewhat the right anterior wind-

285

iQg line, the left rein is pressed against the neck
by carrying the bridle hand to the right, and the
left fore-leg forced across to the right. The left
spur is used just sufficiently to start the move-
ment to keep the right hind-foot a little on its
inner bearing, and to insure the small required
movement of the left hind-foot as it moves around
its right fellow for a pivot, and then sustains the
extended adjusting movement of the right fore-leg.
The sideway movement of the right hind-leg to
the right is represented only by its adjustment.

For the piromtte the right spur, resisted by the
left side of the bit, develops the secondary sec-
tion of the left anterior line, and the horse rises on
the left hind-leg (>$ 210j. Then the pressure of the
rider's right seat-bone, the pressure of the left
rein, and, if required, the left spur, cause the horse,
in the effort to carry the left fore-leg across, to
face about on the right hind-foot as a pivot. The
right spur keeps the horse from discharging the
left head condyle, and, with the left bit, keeps him
up. The rein pressure forces him around, and the
left spur brings him sufficiently on the irmer bear-
ing of the right hind-foot. The seat-bone pressure
must be dehcately adjusted, as after raising him
T\ith that of the left, the right gives proper outer
13

286

bearing to the right hind-foot, which may be said
to be continually coi^reded by the inner bearing.

§ 217. Changing direction on the inner hind-foot
by pressing the outer rein we should consider as
circling on the haunches corobined with progres-
sion.

§ 218. We have only to add, in conclusion to
this part, that as the snake's motion has been
taken as a clue in tracing up the mechanism of lo-
comotion in the higher animals, so the horseman
cannot, we think, do better than to reverse the
process, and take the working of analogical parts
of his own body as a clue for guiding his observa-
tions and conclusions as to the actions which take
place in the body of his horse, and as to the best
means of controUing them.

287

APPEISTDIX I

LOCOMOTION OF BIKDS AND OF FISHES,

We have little to say concerning the locomotion
of these classes of animals. It would seem to us
that, although the fins of a fish are added, appar-
ently somewhat in the manner of limbs, yet the
fundamental locomotive action of a true fish comes
from the tail, following the ophidian motions of the
back bone, and acting on the water as the blade of
a single oar does when worked at the stem of a
small boat in the motion called " scuUing."

Birds, we should say, fly by alternately raising
and pressing down the front edges of their wings.
The first motion presents the wing as a plane in-
clined upward to the air in the front-rear direc-
tion. This is the outer bearing, and on this plane
they rise after the second motion, which is a down-
ward stroke of the anterior edge, answering toi;he
inner bearing. If the action of flying come fully
under our theory of locomotion, the second motion
should collect the feathers in a spring before its
discharge.

288

Birds, as is commonly known, have no effective
movement in the vertebrae of the body whilst the
numerous vertebrae of the neck are very moveable.
We should explain the S S actions of the neck in
the following manner : Supposing the body ver-
tebrae of a man to be thus solidified, there would be
one of the motive connections of the arms, viz.,
that with the body, unprovided with a diagonal
counteracting basis. This basis, as it exists,
brings the legs and arms into connection, and both
are then brought into a central line by the neck S.
Possibly the extra S in the neck of birds (one or
more above the number in quadrupeds and man)
(§ 85) supplies this loss, and there is still the same
double action on a bird's wing as on the arms of a
man.

A bird cannot, we think, keep its head steady
when walking on the ground, without stretching
the neck. May it be that, the body, being then
confined to one plane, and the lower S of the neck
having no means of adjusting the excentric move-
ments of the neck-root, these movements must be
communicated to the head. If the neck be stretch-
ed, the action of this S is reduced as much as
possible.

The spring collected in the wing and the double

289

action above alluded to, being absent in artificial
wings, may have something to do with the poor
success attending all attempts to adapt them to
the human frame.

Possibly the reversed positions of the head and
sockets of the rib articulations in the snake to
those in the higher animals, may be accounted for
by the discharge in the S S, being successive, for
the former, but combined for the latter.

290

APPENDIX II.

We will attempt a concise general outline of
Setting-up for the right hand deformity, bringing
in a portion of the movement which has not been
made sufficiently prominent in the previous de-
scriptions.

First. — The (alternate) left posterior line leading.
The head being continuously raised forward, the
right upper ribs at the neck-root joint are pressed
to the left and somewhat forward. This latter
action, which begins a reduction of the right upper
lung lobe in the ophidian S, on the course of the
alternate posterior line leading, extends to the
neck and to the left anterior part of the head-joint,
when there the socket begins to draw away from
the condyle.

Presently the left upper lung lobe begins to fill
and to cross the secondary section of the (alternate)
left posterior hne with the corresponding portion
of the (old) right posterior line. This crossing
passes from the ophidian to the neck S, and causes

291

the anterior part of the right head joint socket to
rise against the corresponding part of the right
head condyle.

A repetition of the foregoing movements soon
causes the right lower lung lobe to commence jBll-
ing, not on the secondary sections of the right an-
terior Hne, but — and this is the point which we
wish to make prominent — on the reflected action for
the (alternate) left posterior hne.

This is continued until the left lower lung lobe is
equalized by exhausting it on the reflected action
of the (old) right posterior hne, carrying the move-
ment through the left hip joint. Next the
resumption of the direct action on the (alternate)
left posterior line completely fills the left upper
lung lobe and fully reduces the right lobe, ending
by the proper adjustment of the left anterior part
of the head joint socket and the drawing on the
right shoulder-blade from above.

A shght continuation of the movement will next
bring on, by induction, the full filling of the right
lower lung lobe on the (alternate) right anterior
line, the consequent reduction of the left lower lung
lobe, and, finally, the additional reduction of the
right upper lung lobe and fiUing of the left upper,
which all depend on the equahzation of the two

292

anterior lines. The whole ends with a drawing on
the left shoulder-blade from below.

Referring the two fillings of the lower lobe, i. e.,
one from the reflected action of the secondary sec-
tion of the posterior line, and the other from the
secondary section of the anterior hne, to double
setting-up, it may be seen that the former causes
no tightening of the muscles from the lower end of
the sternum to the pubis bones, while the latter
does. Hence, whenever beginning on one or both
posterior Hues, and, of course, in Mons. Morquin's
method, this drawing is to be avoided until the end-
ing of the movement.

It may be easily seen, we think, in what manner
the formations on the anterior lines joining with
those of the posterior complete the double twist of
the ribs, etc., and thus join the filling of the lung
lobes into one.

Second. — The (alternate) right anterior line lead-
ing. Here the head is carried up and forward,
but, not drawing on the left stemo-mastoid muscle,,
passes with the neck somewhat to the right. It,
may need a sHght pressure of the left shoulder
blade forward and to the right in order to initiate
the movement on the (alternate) right anterior hne
by which the right lower lung lobe commences to>

293

fill. This filling begim, the movement extends
through neck and to the right head condyle,
which begins to press on its socket. The reduction
of the left lower lung lobe next begins on the (old)
left anterior line, and the action extends to the
neck, causing a marked movement in reducing the
left convex of its lower C, and then in reduction of
the left head condyle ; both equalizing the (old)
left anterior line with the (alternate) right anterior,
crossing them at their cutting points in the three
spines, and, from the left shoulder-blade throwing
the tractions forward on to the whole right side
line of the sternum and on to the right articulation
of the lower jaw, and at the same time gi^ong such
equahzation to the upper lung lobes as belongs to
the anterior lines.

Finally, thrown back from the left articulation of
the lower jaw, begins the filHng of the left upper
lung lobe in the direct, and of the right lower in
the reflected course of the (alternate) left posterior
line and the corresponding reduction of the left
lower and right upj)er lobes, ending with a draw-
ing along the right side of the, sternum concentrat-
ed at its right upper comer.

It will be noticed that in beginning with the
posterior line the final movement was the straight-
13^

294

ening of the spine to the right ; as in the ophidian
S, the drawing on the posterior cross-Hne end of
the (alternate) left po^erior Hne was estabhshed ;
while in beginning with the anterior line the final
movement was the straightening the tractions of
the breast bone, also to the right, as the drawing,
likewise in the ophidian spine, on the anterior
cross-line end of the (alternate) right anterior line
was confirmed.

It was said that a tlieory would be proposed as
to the course of the optic nerves ; but in copying
the last manuscript from the older one this was
omitted.

It amounted simply to this :

The optic nerves, after leaving the back of either
eye, run together at about a right angle. Some of
the fibres cross each other, and some of them, it is
supposed, continue on their own side. May it. not
be that the crossing ones go with the anterior
winding-Kne of their respective nerves, and those
which do not cross with its counteracting posterior
line ? Thus the crossing fibres of the right optic
nerve would go with the anterior left winding-line,
and those which keep their side with the posterior
right winding-line, in all the spines.

INDEX.

PAGE.

•aa' In snake's movement '^6-55

aai Resume' _

Abd el Kader— His definition of a liorseman 262

Action, changes of in horse 270

^ids -Table of their action 268

" The four ^•''^

Air— In farming voice

" Passes collaterally ^^'

" In chest assists gathering and discharge 59

Alternate lines ^^

Appui, how secured at one end instead of centre 33

" additional in front ^

Artificial ground 126-128

a u 188

bbi Insnake ^'^'^

bb' Resimie of action ^

Ball and Socket Action at four points 120

where.

127

£cue/s on ground ends of snake's ribs 50-51

Bearers- -A division of the ribs • •• ^^

Bearings-\y hen given off point recovers in opposite di-
rection

Bicomposite Spine-lta bracing collateral J^

Bicomposite Spine

Birds, Locomotion of '

Bit— Its action "^^

„ .^ 2oo

Bits - . . .

Body— Only attachment to head in front of head jonit is by

the digastrics "

Bucking ^^.,

€ Half a torsion curve -'

C Rear the first discharged by alternate anterior line 4S

C C Posterior part the longest ^|j

Canter "

" Its analogies with the walk ^'_^

" How it becomes a run ^"

^ 260

Cavesson

INDEX.

PAGE..

Centre of force between lung-lobes 136-18S

Chest, Varying elasticity of different parts of 8&

Chin must not be allowed to interfere by dropping

Changes of action in horse 270'

Circling— On the fore hand 283

" On the haunches 284

Cord A. May be twisted so as to resemble locomotive lines

of the snake 22

Convex in discharge passes over concave 57

Convexes are the normal sides of appui 51

Collateral tractions. Become such when 71-120

Collar bone in man 99

Convexities fused into two when spines are combined (note) 169

Composite spine consists of 79

" " 83

" " Its bracing diagonal 95

Condyles, Head 88

Co« cares— Their extension into and reversal of one another 190

Cross-lines 20-27

" " All plane sections between changes of curva-
ture may be considered as such 39-

Cross-line end, Lower Displacement of 34

Cross-Zme— Directions in which its ends are moved 31

Ci'oss-lines— Their seats for the different spines 188

Curvature, Gradations of 30

Deformed movement, Cause of 78

Deformity— The right hand gives a sort of canter to step. . 181

Displacement of lower cross-line end 34

Discharge of spring caused by cross cutting of winding

lines 53:

" for posterior CO ascends, and for anterior CC de-
scends 55

" of spring 153-154

Digits— ]Ao\x numbei-ed 101

Dishing of fore-feet in horse 106.

Diaphragm 108

Direct action of secondary section in posterior lines 117

Disunited gallop 17S

Digastrics .; 112

" Their analogy with the diaphi'agm, etc 121

" Their attachments 124

" Their working 12&

«• Correspondence with ball and socket action — 138

Diagonal action 127

Double action 167

PAGE.

Double pace (full run) 171

" trot 177

Dropping from a heig:ht 246

Eight, Figure of, Shape 56

Elements of torsion, Two 24

" of motion projected on base of skull 78

Epiglottis 116

" Retains compressed air in lungs 117

Equalizations may begin at any point 185

" See setting-up

Eyes lead locomotion 73

" HoAv steadied 73

" Pulley muscle of 74-112-128

" Respeclively pivots of diagonal rear appui 77

" The foot ends of all locomotion 142

" In the trot 142

Eye-muscles— ¥i.o^>v aflfected by anterior lines 183

Exercises given by Mons. Morquin 245

French— A French system of setting-up 239-238-240

Feeling the movements of horse 270

Filling of lung lobes and lung tips 131-132

Final action in equalizing, the same as the commencing one 184

Fish, Locomotion of 287

Fingers Represent ribs 100

Flying, Reasons against artificial 289

Forcing the winding lines without discharging them . .' 68

Fore-foot of horse— Why it remains presenting for inner

bearing after the lift 135

Fore-leg— \N\ien substituted for digastric in connection

with diagonal hind leg 139

Focus of force the centre between lung lobes 188

Foot of horse— A theory of its analogies 105

Foot— How the whole foot is kept on ground while CC suc-
ceed each other in action 103

" How constituted in man, horse, dog, etc 104

" Raised hind— When only it can be fairly put down 137-138

Gaits of horse, Difference between 143

Gallop Change to Avalk 271

" " " trot 272

Giraffe— Moxement of lower jaw 156

Ground, Artificial or real, What for each spine 188

Hand— Heel of palm should always strike first 246

Halt, the (see Equalization Setting-up) 165

Halting, three ways of 166

" Final action same as commencing one 184

INDEX.

PAGE.

Halting, From the gallop 274

" How differing from locomotion 72

Head joint in snake— Its action 37

" " Relations of its different parts to the winding

lines 91

" " How altered in the higher animals 87

Head— To be kept always raised up 250

Higher animals 76

l/b?-se— Muscles answering to sterno-mastoids and a clue

to action of the latter, 85 note 96

Illustrations for diagonal movements ; always suppose left
anterior and right posterior winding lines to com-
mence the action 25

Joint Virtual, at roof of neck 89

Kicking 276

Lateral pressures at head joint 92-93

Larynx 116

Landing from spring— Order in which snake's ribs should

come to ground 58

Legs Free— How moved in discharge 121

" Diagonal— Their movement more synchronous in re-
trogression 165

•' Table of their lateral movements 269

Limbs, Fore and hind. Difference between 97

" Fore— How guided by trunk, and how by neck 133

Lines, Winding 28

" Alternate may lead in equalizing 186

Line of general pressure,Where oblique requires rounding

of condyles 91

Lobes of lungs 112

Locomotion of man and of the liorse 130

Loops of windpipe, When they allow lower jaw to close... 125

Lotver jaw— Its articulations 125-129

" " Artificial gi-ound for bicomposite spine 127

"• " Yields in retrogression 165

" '• Goes especially with posterior ec 212

" " Analogues to its motion 97

Lungs in the higher animals 107

'• CeMs and tubes of 116

" Exercises founded on their action 182

'' In the snake 74

'♦ Their centre the focus of force and centre of set-
ting-up 136-188

Lung lobes 112

" " Their pecuUar shape 114

INDEX. T

PAGE.

Ijung lobes, Manner of filling 114-131-132

" " How their filling and exhausting accompanies

the diflferent lines of torsion 117

" " Filling of each brings its C forward 190

" *' Filled through collateral nostrils 238

" " Ball and socket action between them the pivot

of all movement 247

Lung tips 112

" " Manner of filling 115-131-132

" " Analogous action in lower lobes 115

" " Theiraction 238

Morquin, Mons— His account of himself 239

" His method of setting-up 238-240

iVccA;— Snake must use two or three vertebrae as such 60

" Its connection with the fore limbs 98

JSTeck-root— Its virtual ball and socket joint 89-90-128

Neck-root joint— On it the fore limbs change from their body

to their neck connection 98

iVosM7s— Normal tilliug of lungs has place through them . . 238
" Why sometimes difficult to breathe entirely

through them 244

Oeynhausen, von Colonel 161-172-179-272

Ophidian S 83

Orleans, Duke o/— His judgment on Baucher's system 258

Passage 280

Pace 154-155-156-157

" Details of 158-159-160

Pelvis 78

" Muscular connection with breast bone 87

" Acts with both CC 142

Perpendicular plane. Movement in 58

Pillars of diaphragm 110

Pirouette and pirouette reuversee 284

Points of application 25

Posterior winding line— Its working not completed until

at partial discharge of spring 137

'• point of application— Its direct drawing almost at

last moment in equalization 192

Posterior ivinding ?t7ies— Reflex and direct action of their

secondary sections , 117

Primary sections of winding lines 29

Pressure of socket against condyle on one side depends on

its separation on the other 39

" Lateral at head joint 92-93

Propellers— A division of the ribs 58

PAGE.

Progression— From the position of ready to discharge 65

Progressive locomotion, how secured 184

Psoce muscles Ill

Pubis bones— A continuation of the breast bone 79

Baabe, Capt.— His theory of the walk in man (note) 103

Reflected action of secondary section of posterior lines 117

Retrogression 45-65-163-164

Resume' of snake's movement 61

" of chief points in locomotion and halting 182

RestiUs which may ensue on position of readiness to dis-
charge 64

Rein, Pressure of on side of neck 263-286:

Rearing 274

Rib collects spring 44

Ribs of snake 42

" *■' How double twisted 43

Ribs Slip at articulations 45

" How correspond with raovemements of head joint. . . 46
" How affected as to their bearings by the winding

lines 51-52-53

" Respective roles of those on the anterior and pos-
terior part of a convex 56.

" On concaves do not change facings until the spinal

curves change 37

•' Proportion of in higher animals 76

" True and false 80

" Proportion of false to true in several animals 81

" How assigned to the CC 82

Riding — How different from personal locomotion 252

" Why rider leaves his horse 251

" Right shoulder forward,'''' in riding agi-ees with 25&

8 Least number of vertebrae which can constitute. . . 84

Definition of 2a

SSS Nomenclature 83

" "Why three are required in higher animals 82

Sacrum 79^

Saddles 257

Scutce of snake— Their action 60

Sections of winding lines, primary and secondary 29

Seeger, Herr 27(i

Seat of rider over lungs of horse 252

Seat bone pressure— Its, action 261

Setting-up 182

" " Tables of on the ophidian action 194

" " Remarks 20S

PAGE.

Setting up Pacing movement 211

" " On horse-back 253

" '' Following a continued raising of the head 248-290

" Appendix II 290

" " On the alternate lines, ophidian movement 214-217

" " On the alternate lines, pacing movement 220-221

" " Practical Ophidian movement 222-223-224

" " " Pacing movement 225-226

" " " Alternate lines 227-228-229

" " By double action Anterior lines 231

" '•'■ " " " Posterior lines 235

Shoulder blades, Act with 142

" " Their connection with the neck 98

" " Straightening of the figure concentrated

between them 188

" " Go in connection with the trunk with an-
terior CC 212

" " Their effect on the winding lines when

they are pressed directly on the base

of the neck 230

" " Should work directly on each other as

appuis 247

Snake— "Why possibly its manner of rib articulation is re-
versed in the higher animals 289

" Anatomy of 36

" Its movement 40-61

" Probably incapable of locomotion by " double ac-
tion" 49

>ifptn«— Its mode of action 22

" Of snake, its anatomy 41

" Composite consists of 79

" Bicomposite 84

Spines— Hovf the three combine 189

Spur— Its action 261-262

Sterno-mastoid muscles 85

Sternum — Intermediate appui when action of the neck leads 99

" - Its movements 140

Stopping a horse by forcing bit upward (note) 258

Superimposition of twists, Definition of. 67

Sytnbols used in explanations 144-168

Tables for equalization of the four tractions 194

Table for action of the aids 268

" for lateral movements of the legs 269

Temporal muscles 125»

Torsions, Counter, reverse each other or themselves 31

INDEX.

PAUE.

Torsion may be resolved into two elements 24

Toes Represent ribs 100

Tbe, Great, Should spread inward 102

Transformation of action of posterior lines 39

Trot — General description 130

" Details of A 145-148

" " ofB 14b-153

" Change to walk , 270

" togallop 273

Turning 277

Twisis— Discussion of theory 25

" Superimposition of Definition 67

Vocal chords 239

Vertebrae in the higher animals 76

Walk in the horse 161-162-163

Winding lines 28

" " Anterior and posterior traced for composite

spine 161

•' " How posterior becomes alternate anterior. . 179-180

" " How they affect the rib bearings 183

" " Their general course in the bicomposite spine 186

" " Their sections 92

" " Nomenclature 30

JFmdptpe— Artificial groun d for neck action 126

" How suspended 121

" Torsion and counter torsion in 123

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