Seb bien eee te ke mene ae a aes i ah oA sane ae Historic, archived document Do not assume content reflects current scientific knowledge, policies, or practices. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 790 Contribution from the Forest Service HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester Washington, D. C. aw | August 6, 1919 RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS By JAMES T. JARDINE, Inspector of Grazing, and MARK ANDERSON, Grazing Examiner CONTENTS Page Page Introduction 1 | Grazing and Protection of Timber, Water- Determination of Class of Stock to which sheds, Game, and Recreational Use . Range is Best Suited : Range Reconnaissance and Range In- Grazing Periods } specition . Grazing Capacity Poisonous Plants Management of Cattle on the Bahee: i Forage Plants: Collection, Identification, Management of Sheep on the Range 3 and Notes Stock Driveways .....4..”. 5 | Suggestions for the Collection of Range Range Reseeding ........ Plant Specimens on National Forests. 91 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1919 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE A y ; } As CANN AY x ai Vos Ai ss cot b AS Contribution from the Forest Service Se F" Vote HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER August 6, 1919 RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. By JAmMEs T. JarpiINne, Inspector of Grazing, and Mark ANpERSON, Grazing Examiner. INTRODUCTION. In the administration of the National Forests the aim is to convey to the greatest possible number the full benefit of all the resources which the Forests contain and at the same time to perpetuate these resources by regulating their use. Accordingly, grazing on the National For- ests is regulated with the object of using the grazing resources to the fullest extent possible consistent with the protection, development, and use of other resources. As the National Forests were established primarily for the pro- tection and development of the Forests and the protection of the watersheds, great pains must be taken to harmonize graz- ing with these primary purposes. Also, as plans go forward for the development and use of new range and for more complete utiliza- tion of all unused areas within the ranges now in use, more and more care must be exercised to see that the wild life of the Forests is not unduly restricted. As long as a large portion of each Forest was un- used by domestic stock the main feature of game protection was proper regulation of hunting; but with grazing reaching cut to the pockets and corners, the problem of insuring forage and secluded spots for game becomes more complicated. The recreational features of the National Forests, too, are of increasing importance, and in- creased attention is necessary to harmonize grazing use with recre- ational use. a Rules governing the granting of grazing privileges and the use of National Forest lands for grazing purposes are to be found in the Note.—A table of contents by headings will be found on page 97. 111479°—Bull, 790—19——1 1 2 BULLETIN $0, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Use Book.t’ The administration of grazing in accordance with these rules for a period of nearly 14 years has resulted in the develop- ment of a system of range use which is accomplishing in a broad sense the aims of regulated grazing. The period has not been long enough, however, for such a system or its application to be per- fected so as to secure the fullest and best use of the grazing re- sources consistent with the protection, development, and use of the other resources. Perfection in this respect may be approached only by continuous effort and by refinement in methods and practice based upon a more complete inventory of the resources involved and upon the results of investigation and experience extending over a great many years. At the present time there are wide differences of opinion as to when a range is fully used and as to when grazing becomes incon- sistent with the proper use or protection of other resources. Like- wise, there are differences in opinion and in practice as regards the class of stock to which a range is best suited, the plan of grazing best adapted to a given range, the maintenance and improvement of the range, the periods of grazing, the grazing capacity, the man- agement of the stock while on the range, and other phases of range management. ‘These differences exist among forest officers as well as among the stockmen whose stock graze on the ranges, and as a con- sequence there are variations in the results secured on ranges within an individual forest as well as between forests and localities. Too frequently these variations are attributed to differences in local con- ditions and are taken as a matter of course. This is warranted to a limited degree only. Greater uniformity and a general approach to a desirable standard are both possible and necessary. The object of this publication is to aid in bringing about uni- formity In range management and a better understanding of graz- ing use in relation to the other uses of the National Forests. The importance of adjusting grazing so as to secure the perpetuation of the range resources and so as not to interfere with the requirements of other resources is emphasized throughout. The phases of range management which must be given proper attention are pointed out, and, as far as practicable, rules of procedure are given. Exhaustive discussion of each of the subjects taken up is not attempted. The purpose is rather to bring together in handy form sufficient informa- tion on the essential points of grazing practice to enable the reader to make practical application of the best principles of regulated grazing. Further information may be secured from the publications listed. 1U. S. Forest Service. The Use Book, A Manual of Information About the National Forests, 1918: RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 3 DETERMINATION OF CLASS OF STOCK TO WHICH RANGH IS BEST SUITED. Classification of the range to determine the areas best suited to the different classes of stock is the first important step toward the best use of the grazing resources. The classification should be based upon the character of the range, the grazing habits of the different classes of stock, and the relation of grazing to timber growth and other resources, and should be made without regard for the local needs of a given class of stock. The need for administrative discretion in the final division of the range between different classes of stock is recog- nized, but the importance of grazing the class of stock to which the range is best suited must not be unduly subordinated to other factors. MAIN FACTORS DECIDING SUITABILITY OF RANGE. The main factors which, combined, determine the class of stock for which a range is best suited are: 1. Character of forage. 4. Animal pests. 2. Topography. 5, Protection of timber growth, wa- 3. Distribution of watering places. tersheds, and game. CHARACTER OF FORAGE. In general, cattle and horses use a grass range to better advantage than sheep. Sheep relish tender green foliage and the grains of many grasses, but they eat sparingly of coarse or dry grass foliage. Cattle consume a much larger proportion of the coarse grass forage. Horses, even more than cattle, prefer grass to weeds and browse. On the whole, weeds are much more palatable to sheep than to cattle or horses. Only a small percentage of weeds are palatable to cattle, and even fewer are palatable to horses. Sheep show discrimi- nation in their choice of weed forage, but they will eat parts or_all of most weed species on closely grazed range. Both sheep and cattle eat considerable browse; but sheep have a tendency to browse more than cattle, and more of the browse species on range lands appear to be palatable to them than to cattle. How- ever, cattle reach higher than sheep and get more forage from high- growing browse species, such as scrub oak, service berry, and ma- hogany. Horses browse but little. For sheep to use brush range of large area readily the brush should be in open enough stand to enable the sheep and herders to move about through it. Sheep will gradu- ally work their way through and fuily use small areas, however dense the brush, if it is palatable, unless the area is too wet, as is sometimes the case where willow browse occurs in wet meadows. Cattle will use dense brush range, but prefer open grass range or open grass and browse range. i { ae BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TOPOGRAPHY, Cattle prefer level or rolling country. Altitude makes little differ- ence if the stock have been raised on the range. Under necessity they will use rough range; but it is difficult to get equal distribution of cattle grazing on rough range without more watering places, salt grounds, fences, and herders than such ranges ordinarily are pro- vided with. Further, cattle on rough, rocky range frequently become footsore, especially the bulls. As a consequence, there is danger of local overgrazing, and the number of bulls necessary fer each 100 cows to keep up the calf crop is nearly double the number used on level or rolling range. Sheep probably do best on smooth range, other things being equal; but they can readily use rough range, whether rocky or not, pro- vided they can not roll the rocks and so long as there are no natural barriers which they can not get over or around. Altitude is not a factor, except that sheep do best where it is cool during the summer. More even distribution of grazing on rough range can be secured ordinarily with sheep than with cattle, because sheep are under full control of the herder. Cattle are difficult to control without division of the range by fences into comparatively small pastures. Horses will readily use rugged range if raised on it, but horses raised on plains do not adjust themselves readily to rugged moun- tain range. DISTRIBUTION OF WATERING PLACES. Sheep can go from several days to several weeks without drinking, depending upon the abundance of succulent weed feed, the tempera- ture, and the amount of rain and dew. Further, if they are properly handled, they can be directed so as to graze a range of several miles’ radius from one watering place without serious detriment to them- serves or injury to the range. Cattle need water oftener, at least every two days. In rough country they should not have to travel more than 1 mile, prefer- ably half a mile, to water, and in level or rolling range not more than 24 miles. Even with water at these distances, local overgraz- ing will result if the range is fully stocked with cattle. Horses can go long distances to water and will of their own choice graze out on high open grass ridges far from watering places. ANIMAL PESTS. The presence of bloodsucking insects sometimes makes it imprac- ticable to graze cattle or horses on ranges which otherwise are well suited to them. These pests are usually most numerous and most troublesome at the higher elevations. On such ranges there is usually a heavy snowfall and rainfall with a short dry season. These ee eT Se Ce ER EN, SNe PLATE Tf. Iture. gricu Bul. 790, U. S. Dept. of A ‘opeys Fevu PUB JOTEA OF} VSOTO Ss MOpevoUl pue syed sseid uedo sayord 9731") Bul. 790, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. “g0u0sqe poso10 Jus Jo sporsi0d Suoy 10VFe UsMyor soour sult AuvUrl Ur TIM pue ‘s}[09 se uni oAey Aq? YOryM UO SsosuvI 07 poyoryye YonuT As9A OUIODVG UO0LJO SOSIOFT “1078M O} SOOURISIP SuUOT [OAvI} TIM AoYY 9[}789 YILM posreduoo sy “sure}UNOUL OY). Ul SuIsue1 UOYM sosplt sseis uodo Ysty JoJoud sosioTFT v—-90b1€—-A PLATE III. Bul. 790, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. “ysnoiq? 193 Jou Med ssIOY & Yor Svore osn [IM Avy} poypuey Ayomb FI pue ‘yoeqosioy uo ysnosy} uopprs oq ued Jey} seore 9 t7oE6—-A zy Afisea ued Ao, ysniq JO Joquit} ueljey Jo Seore [[eUIS ozI[IN pue oyerjoued [PM dooyqg PLATE IV. Bul. 790, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Aavoy ou) 1J SUM~I-4 ot Aoy) VWqSTa 1V ‘sospii posoquiry Ajaodo 10 poszoquiryan oy. UO peppoq pure Joquary “roqunt} osuop UL osued jo svore Od1e] jo osn poos ope ut AOU, “U0501() UT BOI poo aoy @ UL popsoqun dooyg RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 5 conditions are favorable for the breeding of flies, gnats, and mosqui- toes during the time the stock should be on the range. In some cases the ranges may be grazed after the fly season has passed. Ordinarily, however, this can not be done, as the grazing period in high altitudes is short at best, and the time left after the fly season is too short to warrant putting the cattle and horses on, or so short that full use of the range is not possible. Sheep are annoyed by these insects, but much less than cattle or horses. Usually no consideration need be given to this factor in alloting sheep to a range within the National Forests, but in a few localities adjustment in the time of grazing may be necessary. PROTECTION OF GAME. The forage habits of elk and deer are similar to those of cattle and sheep. Both elk and deer, however, show a greater preference than cattle for weeds and browse. Game animals in many instances voluntarily choose areas not well suited to the grazing of domestic animals. More often, however, this choice is forced by several influencing factors that might all be grouped under the one heading, “ Man.” Mountain sheep and mountain goats are now very seldom found either in summer or winter on ranges accessible to any class of do- mestic stock. However, mountain sheep should be protected from disturbance and competition in the utilization of forage by domestic sheep in the few instances where domestic sheep otherwise would utilize rough range inhabited by mountain sheep. Deer and elk in a majority of cases must be protected from do- mestic stock, particularly sheep, which are capable of utilizing almost any range on which game animals might seek seclusion. During the summer months elk, and in many instances deer, will be found at the higher elevations feeding mainly on the weeds growing in the alpine parks, either among the rocks or in the timber, where there is ample water and shade. In winter elk and deer come to the lower, open foothills, usually feeding on steep, open wind-swept exposures. If unmolested, elk will browse extensively in willow patches during the winter. Moose are usually found in rolling timber courtry where bogs, ponds, and lakes are numerous. Such areas are seldom of very great value for the grazing of domestic stock. While timbered areas of this kind are usually poorly stocked with forage plants, they are also in most instances infested with flies and mosquitoes to a degree that would make the grazing of cattle and horses next to impossible except for a very short period of the year. It is usually a difficult matter, and in some instances impossible, to handle sheep economically in a country of the character suited to moose. 6 BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. PROTECTION OF TIMBER GROWTH AND WATERSHEDS. Experience and investigation have shown that, generally, grazing within certain limits, properly managed, does not interfere to an unwarranted degree with the protection, development, and conserva- tive use of the forests and watersheds. They have made it equaliy evident, however, that grazing management must receive special con- sideration on certain forest lands and on certain watersheds. These important cases usually will be given special study and consideration after the general division of range between different classes of stock has been made. Specific suggestions for the handling of such cases are given under the heading, “Grazing and protection of timber.” In apportioning range among different classes of stock it is im- portant to keep in mind: 1. That where the intensity of the grazing is the same sheep graze young growth of more timber species than do cattle, and that they cause greater injury to young growth, and, in general, to watersheds, though on steep slopes with loose soil cattle grazing may be more destructive to the watershed than sheep grazing. 2. That injury to tree growth by cattle and horses is negligible if overgrazing and bad management of stock are avoided. 3. That injury to tree growth by sheep depends greatly upon the character of the forage, increasing as the proportion of forage not suited to sheep increases, and that timber reproduction on dry grass ranges or other ranges where there is little succulent weed growth or browse suitable to sheep is especially subject to injury by sheep graz- ing if the forage is fully used. 4. That sheep in herds on steep slopes where the soil is loose may - trample out tree seedlings to an appreciable extent. Aside from these special points the main features of importance are to see that seasons of grazing are properly adjusted, overgrazing avoided, and the stock properly handled. These features need be considered in the division of range only to the extent of deciding whether the desired management of the range and stock in question is practicable.t LAMBING RANGE. For areas used by sheep during the lambing period at least two requirements are necessary: Ample green feed suited to sheep, so that the ewes will produce sufficient milk for the lambs, and an altitude low enough not to be subject to severe wet storms during the lambing period. Such storms occur occasionally on any lambing range, but at high altitudes they are frequent at lambing time and the weather generally is cold and wet. A good lambing range should have natu- ral protection from storms. -This is afforded by broken topography 1The selection of goat ranges is a special problem and does not enter as a major problem into division of ranges in general, RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 7 with small canyons, basins, and coves. Such broken topography is an advantage, too, in keeping ewes and young lambs in small bunches for _ the first 10 days after the lambs are dropped. The general tendency has been to use for lambing grounds areas not suitable for this purpose, owing to altitude, lack of sufficient green feed, and poor protection. The use of such areas should be discour- aged in favor of earlier lambing on feed if necessary. Sheep owners will undoubtedly aid in this, as the losses on unfavorable lambing range are unwarranted and the number of lambs saved is becoming more important as a factor in determining net profit of the sheep business. RANGE DIVISION LINES. Division lines between ranges used by different classes of stock are often established without enough attention to the suitability of alf range within a unit to the class of stock assigned to it. The aims naturally are to establish the division lines along the most promi- nent ridges and streams and to satisfy demands of individuals and communities. This practice in general is correct. Very often, how- ever, division lines based on prominent ridges and streams may be so general as to include within exclusive cattle range areas of con- siderable size which can be well utilized only by sheep. This is due to the fact that cattle utilize the lower slopes and more accessible places but make little use of the less accessible areas, usually at the upper parts of the watershed, which could be fully utilized by sheep without interfering with the eattle interests or damaging the water- shed. Less often areas of considerable size best suited to cattle are included within exclusive sheep range. All the area within a pro- posed unit boundary should be carefully examined to determine the suitability of the range to the proposed class of stock. If satisfac- tory boundary lines can not be decided upon so as to exclude range not suited to the class of stock on the unit, common use with more than one class of stock should be considered. The minimum area which it will be practicable to exclude from the unit will have to be decided for the individual case. COMMON USE OF RANGE BY DIFFERENT CLASSES OF STOCK. If a range unit can be fully and properly utilized by one class of stock, there is nothing to be gained by grazing two classes in common. Tt is becoming more and more evident, however, that on mountain lands, such as those within the National Forests, the range units wholly suited to exclusive use by one class of stock are small in num- ber as compared with those which can be fully utilized only by two or more classes. Nature has not provided forage plants, topography, and watering places over arbitrary administrative divisions as large 8 BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. as the average grazing unit to suit the requirements of exclusive grazing by one class of stock. To obtain full utilization of the forage and maximum grazing” capacity one, two, or more classes of stock may be grazed in numbers corresponding to the quantity of forage which can be used best by each class. Where the range supports a variety of plant species, in- cluding a good deal of grass forage, or where there is an appreciable area of meadow range, cattle grazing, if not overdone, is a benefit rather than a detriment to the sheep interests. In heavy feed cattle will trample down some of the weed feed suited to sheep, but the use of the coarse grasses by cattle will prevent the grasses from crowding out the weed forage, as they are doing on many ranges which have been grazed exclusively by sheep for a number of years. On the other hand, sheep grazing on a cattle range where there is a good deal of weed feed, or on small areas difficult for cattle to reach, not only is economy, but aids in maintaining the cattle feed by keeping down the weeds. A few horses may in some cases be grazed to advantage on sheep range, cattle range, or range used by both sheep and cattle. The horses will use to advantage grass range not well suited to sheep and too far from water or too rough for full use by cattle. And it is not improbable that in locali- ties where goats are produced a few goats may be grazed to advan- tage on cattle or sheep ranges to keep brush stands open enough for the growth of vegetation suitable for the other classes of stock. The main reasons then for common use of range are to prevent waste of forage and to maintain a normal balance between the dif- ferent kinds. Success in common use depends upon establishing the right proportion between the different classes of stock to correspond with the proportion of the forage which should be used by each class. This must be done to avoid overgrazing of the range as a whole and to avoid unwarranted encroachment of one class of stock upon another. There usually is sufficient forage suited to both sheep and cattle to admit of considerable variation in the ratio between the two. Where the forage is 50 per cent weeds and 50 per cent grasses sheep and cattle might be run in ratios of 3 to 1 to 6 to 1, depending upon the amount of range the cattle will not use because of ruggedness or distance from water and upon the character of the grass and weed forage. At best, then, careful study of the range is essential to the establishment of the proper ratio, and very often the desired balance between sheep and cattle can be worked out only by observing the utilization of the range and readjusting the num- bers of stock from season to season until the forage crop is utilized as it should be. If a considerable quantity of grass feed is left at the close of the grazing season, it would seem reasonable to consider Pt. nr 7 a th gi Being. Sahil © Bul. 790, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. V-2ze6!—S -dooys kq oSeyuRApe Jsoq 07 pozy]Ijn oq ued STY} Se YONs sosues ysnor ApoAtyereduroo pue ysry uo sjods 9IGISse00" 9Y, J, PLATE VI. Bul. 790, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Q]QIssooovUT UOUIMIOD 4sour v-61e6I—4 ‘osuei dooys poos ore punois youd oy} UL pu’ 7Jo[ oy] OF SvorE OYT, “od Ak OFueI oy} JO [eord Ay Sk punossos0F YYSIA OY} UL poyUososdor Odo]s oY], nVian vests Al lanbburnabte RMA EH MAVALCAN EA NAC ABS IDiobn A to'En ein COVA MIAO MAND AORt bald ve aeRO AIM ATI nba niet BHO “s05UBT 4S910,J INO UO svore ojseM AUeUI ore OI, J, PLATE VII. Iture. ericu Bul. 790, U. S. Dept. of A F-—2—WRG little ry Sheep will take very little of the Cattle will eat but ve 1.—A combination of grass and weed type which should be grazed by both sheep and weed feed. d by a shortage of t grass. 'clen if the fullest possible use is to be made of the range. coarse grass feed unless compelle of the weed feed if there is s cattle Fig. F-3—WRC Fig. 2.—An area of coarse grasses on a sheep allotment that can not be utilized properly by sheep. Cattle make the fullest use of such areas. PLATE VIII. Bul. 790, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. e pour} ore 07789 OOM Suoddey sry J, V-11L6b—-J % i “Sur1ids oy). Ul YIMOIs Jud Jo susis ysuy oy) 18 OFLA OY UO “Ayoedeo Juize1s Ul UOTJONpos Joss V UL poj[NsoL SEY OOUDJ SITY JO 1Y 311 oy). UO sur VAtR | 4 OmyeWMloIg PLATE IX. Bul. 790, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. isgis—J aaa rem ce a ini ape. aah BE ot 05 SOBA 6 case, A rns age -gsn A]re9 00} yFNoIY} Suvi oy} oinfur puw MOUS Surpsoos oy} MOT[OJ WOIJO [TM ‘os Op 0} poy yursed jr ‘9T17e7) oe, PLATE X, Iture. gricu Bul. 790, U. S. Dept. of A a °O a uei dooys pozel JIDAO UV UO OdA} pooMoz00uS Y EE RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 2) increasing the number of cattle. If weed feed is left, an increase in sheep might be desirable. The old-time belief that cattle will not graze on a range used by sheep is erroneous. It originated mainly when the ranges were badly overgrazed. There was little or no feed of any kind left for cattle after sheep grazing. Naturally cattle would not stay on such range. Overgrazing and an excessive number of either class of stock must be avoided, and the stock must be properly handled. These, however, are difficulties which have been repeatedly overcome in practice and undoubtedly can be overcome in the majority of cases. In practice on ranges on the National Forests cattle and sheep are sometimes found grazing together, but usually the two classes of stock graze over the range at different times or graze different portions of the range. The parts best suited to cattle and most used by this class of stock are lightly grazed by sheep at a time when there is least in- terference with cattle. The areas not suited to cattle or not used by cattle furnish the main grazing for sheep. Where the use of the range is regulated there is little need for con- flict other than in opinion, and this should not stand in the way of conservative use of the grazing resources. A great many summer ranges should be grazed by both cattle and sheep. TFither class can not wholly replace the other. It seems logical, therefore, to expect that common use will be given careful study and, where conditions warrant, will be made a requirement 1f such action becomes necessary to secure full use and protection of the range resources. IMPORTANCE OF GRAZING THE CLASS OR CLASSES OF STOCK TO WHICH THE RANGE IS SUITED. The importance of careful study to determine the class or classes of stock to which a range is best suited can not be overemphasized. The many reasons can not be given here without including in this place much discussion which more properly belongs under the headings which follow. The reader is urged, therefore, to note carefully the importance of suitability of range to the stock in determining season of grazing, grazing capacity, management of stock, losses from poi- sonous plants, and damage to tree growth by grazing. The problem of division often is difficult, because it involves not only the suit- ability of the forage, but also the comparative difficulties of handling the different classes of stock so as to utilize the forage without un- warranted damage to other resources. The fact that large range units have been classed as cattle range or as sheep range for years does not necessarily mean that the original classification is infallible. A unit as a whole may be best suited to the class of stock already on it and yet afford much opportunity for interior classification which will result in segregation of range for another class of stock or for common. use. 10 BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Additional references (arranged chronologically). - Coville, Frederick V. Forest Growth and Sheep Grazing in the Cascade Moun- tains of Oregon. U.S. Division of Forestry, Bulletin 15, 1898. Lamson-Scribner, F. Economic Grasses. U.S. Division of Agrostology, Bulle- tin 14, 1900. Sampson, Arthur W., and Dayton, W. A. Relation of Grazing to Timber Repro- duction, Shasta National Forest. U. S. Forest Service, Review Forest Service Investigations, vol. 2, pp. 18-24, 1913. Barnes, Will C. Stock-Watering Places on Western Grazing Lands. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers’ Bulletin 592, 1914. U.S. Forest Service, Office of Grazing Studies. Notes on National Forest Range Plants, Part I, Grasses, 1914. Jardine, James T. Grazing Sheep on Range Without Water. National Wool Grower, vol. 5, No. 6, pp. T-10, September, 1915. Jardine, James T., and Hurtt, L. C. Increased Cattle Production on South- western Ranges. U. 8S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 588, 1917. Hill, Robert R. Effects of Grazing Upon Western Yellow Pine Reproduction in the National Forests of Arizona and New Mexico. U.S. Department of Agri- eulture, Bulletin 580, 1917. Sampson, Arthur W. Important Range Planis. U. 8S. Department of Agricul- ture, Bulletin 545, 1917. Glover, G. H., and Newsom, I. E. Brisket Disease. Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 229, 1917. Sparhawk, W. N. Effect of Grazing Upon Western Yellow Pine Reproduction in Central Idaho. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 738, 1918. Sampson, Arthur W. Effect of Grazing Upon Aspen Reproduction. U. S. De- partment of Agriculture, Bulletin 741, 1919. Chapline, W. R. Production of Goats on Far Western Ranges. U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Bulletin 749, 1919. GRAZING PERIODS. PREMATURE GRAZING. In establishing grazing periods the first care should be to prevent damage to the range through premature use. In doing this there can be none but fancied wrong done the live-stock interests. The perma- nent welfare of the live-stock business itself demands that the grazing seasons should not begin too early, because the maintenance of the maximum permanent carrying capacity of the range is identical with the permanent welfare of the communities or individuals depending upon the range. Premature grazing was undoubtedly one of the foremost causes of the deterioration of range lands prior to regulated grazing; and the fixing of grazing periods on the lands within the National Forests has had as much to do with range improvement as reductions in number of stock, if not more. There is much to be done in adjusting the graz- ing periods so as to fit the requirements of all range covered by each period. The growing herbage might be called a laboratory where plant nutrients are prepared. Repeated removal of this herbage year after year during the early part of the growing season destroys this labora- tory, and by doing so rebs the vegetation of nourishment. As a result the vitality of the forage plants is lowered, the forage production is reduced, and the weakened plants are unable to produce fertile seed. fi} i RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. Te Meanwhile the plants little grazed by stock, or not eaten at all, will be growing vigorously and will eventually occupy the range. The damage to the forage plants from premature grazing is oreat= est nae after cue begins and decreases as the growing _season advances. Litile or no eee is done after the plants: “have matured seed. In a broad sense, therefore, grazing at any time before seed maturity of the forage plants may be consid- ered premature. It is not practicable, however, to allow all of the range to go ungrazed until after seed maturity in any one year. TI he problem is to work out seasonal grazing which will result in maximum production of forage and live stock year after year. Such a plan involves: (1) Fixing the opening of the grazing period so that the damage from grazing will not be irreparable or out of all proportion to the value of the forage secured and (2) adjusting grazing aiter the season opens so that all portions of the range will be grazed as nearly as possible in harmony with the requirements of the vegetation making up the forage crop. WHEN THE GRAZING PERIOD SHOULD OPEN. The importance of avoiding too early grazing can not be over- emphasized. It will be to the ultimate advantage of the range users to feed their stock or otherwise provide for them until the range may properly be opened to grazing. It is especially important to avoid— 1. Cropping of the herbage as soon as the earliest plants afford a small supply of forage. : 2. Admitting stock before at least 25 per cent of the heads of the earlier forage grasses have begun to show or before the leaf sheath involving the head is swollen and conspicuous. 3. The presence of stock while the soil is saturated or while there Is moisture enough so that the trampling by the stock will result in appreciable packing and hardening of the soil when it dries. Tf grazing starts when the earliest plants afford a small quantity of forage the leafage is extremely succulent, low in nourishment, and insufficient in amount properly to maintain the animals. In an attempt te get enough nourishment they cover a large area and, by trampling, do unwarranted damage to young plant growth and soil. The removal of the herbage at this stage of growth is extremely detrimental to the later growth of the plants, greatly reduces the total food. production, retards the production of flower stalks and the time of seed maturity, decreases the quantity of seed, and lowers the viability of what seed is produced. In addition, cases have been Known where heavy unnecessary losses have occurred when cattle already in poor condition were turned on range prematurely and died because there was insufficient nourishment in the soft, washy 2 12 BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. young grass to maintain them through the necessary period of recuperation. By the time 25 per cent or more of the heads of the earlier forage grasses begin to show or are conspicuous in the sheath sufficient leaf- age has been produced to afford a good bit of forage. It is then unnecessary for the animals to travel great distances for the supply of food needed, and the damage from grazing is not nearly so great as during the earlier period. This stage of development comes nor- mally from 10 days to two weeks after growth begins. Grazing when the soil is saturated or very wet results in packing the soil by trampling, so that it hardens when it dries. In this con- dition it does not absorb later rainfall as readily as when mellow, as it ordinarily is if not trampled. As a consequence, the moisture available for the plants is reduced and erosion is more active than on unpacked soil. The greatest danger from trampling and packing is over, normally, so far as the spring period is involved, by the time the main forage plants have been growing about two weeks. Two weeks, then, after growth of the earlier forage grasses begins may be set as the earliest date at which stock should be allowed on the range. Where overgrazing or premature grazing has been practiced until the range has deteriorated the opening of the season may have to be delayed longer, or it may be necessary to apply deferred grazing on the overgrazed area to allow the range to recuperate. The beginning of growth for a given exposure is later by about to 10 days for each 1,000-foot increase in altitude, and there is considerable variation in the time at which growth begins on differ- ent exposures of the same altitude. Further, the time at which growth begins varies somewhat in different years, perhaps as much as two weeks. On the other hand, the opening date of the grazing period for any one year must be decided in advance, but may be changed in years following. These various factors must be kept in mind and harmonized as far as practicable in deciding this open- ing date. In doing so the following suggestions may be helpful: 1. On spring ranges and on summer ranges decide upon the area which should be used during approximately the first third of the period. 2. Allow grazing to begin when the early forage grasses at about the center of altitude on this area are in the head. 3. Inspect this range for a number of years to determine the aver- age date at which the early forage grasses at this central altitude are in the head, and eventually use this date as the beginning of the grazing period. The choice of one-third of the range and of the central altitude of this third may not fit an individual case; but it will serve as a 7 x € RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 13 suggestion of a method of procedure in deciding this vital and com- plex question. On fall and winter ranges the main point is not to begin grazing so long as the stock can be taken care of properly on the summer range. Winter is a critical périod and the forage crop the following spring is uncertain. Consequently reservation of feed for winter is always an advantage. SEASONAL GRAZING AFTER THE PERIOD OF GRAZING BEGINS. Established grazing periods sometimes cover spring, summer, and autumn range varying perhaps as much as 5,000 feet in altitude. Throughout this variation in altitude a given stage of growth of the vegetation is delayed about 7 to 10 days for 1,000 feet of in- crease in elevation, making a total of 35 to 50 days’ difference be- tween the lower and the upper limits. Where such range is used by sheep under herding, a definite plan can be followed to adjust the time of grazing at a given altitude so as to correspond approximately with the development of the vege- tation. Such a plan should be worked out and followed. The control of cattle, however, is usually inadequate to accomplish this desired seasonal grazing. As a consequence the cattle drift to higher alti- tudes before the vegetation should be grazed. Where this is the case the object of establishing a grazing period is accomplished only on the extreme lower altitude. The rest of the range is injured by too early grazing. Sometimes this injury is out of all proportion to the value of the forage secured. Open basins and ridges at the heads of drainage may soon become impaired to such an extent as to necessitate reduction in the number of stock or, in some cases, exclusion of stock while the range is being built up. The remedy is to work for a logical division into spring range, extending to about July 1, and summer range, beginning about July 1, with corre- sponding control of the cattle and horses. It is impossible to do this at once in all cases where it.should be done; but observations, adjustments, and plans should be made with this division or a simi- lar one to fit the individual case in view. Even within these suggested divisions repeated close cropping of the vegetation after the first two weeks of growth will result in deterioration of the range. Care should be exercised to see that grazing is uniform and not heavy during the early part of the grazing period; and if the range is to be grazed to full capacity a system of deferred and rotation grazing, as described under “ Range Reseeding,” should be applied. The idea is sometimes advanced that too early grazing by cattle will not do as much damage to a range as too early grazing by 14 BULLETIN 79, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. sheep. This belief is due to the closer cropping by sheep and to the fact that sheep are handled in bands and may pack the soil more than cattle. Too early grazing of the same intensity by either class of stock, however, will produce essentially the same result. When the soil is wet cattle do as much damage as sheep or more. They sink deeper into the soft ground, slide around more, and tear or press out more vegetation than do sheep under similar conditions and equally heavy grazing. THE CLOSE OF THE GRAZING PERIOD. The close of a late spring grazing period should be governed by the time that grazing on the summer range may properly begin. If the spring range will not carry the stock on it until this date, there are too many stock. The close of a summer grazing period should be governed, as a general rule, by weather conditions and by the supply of fall and winter grazing. Late grazing, when not accompanied by bad management of the stock, will not injure the stock. However, it is not advisable as a general policy to graze the range in the fall as long as the stock can get enough forage to live on. A little old feed in the spring and early summer may be neces- sary to help carry them in case of a late growing season and a consequent shortage of new forage growth. Whether the old forage to be reserved for use the following year is provided by an earlier close of the grazing season than would be necessary if no feed is reserved, or by reducing the number of stock without a change in the season, depends upon local conditions. The close of winter and early spring grazing periods should be governed by the main growing period of the vegetation on the range in question. If the range is to be kept up and a normal forage crop produced over a period of years following, the vegetation must be given a chance to grow. This means that stock should be removed at the beginning of the main growing season. Where yearlong grazing is practiced on range of comparatively uniform altitude, the number of stock should be reduced about 50 per cent during the main growing season of the main forage species on the area, and the stock left on the range should be kept well dis- tributed. Further study may show that a reduction greater or less than 50 per cent will give the best results in total animal feed fur- nished each year over a period of years. It may also show that, in addition to reduction of stock, a system of deferred and rotation grazing may be necessary in order to secure the maximum animal feed over a period of years. In the absence of reduction of stock dur- ing the main growing season, a system of deferred and rotation graz- ing to give the forage on each portion of the range a chance to grow to seed maturity occasionally is imperative. a RANGH MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 15 SHORTER GRAZING PERIOD AND MORE STOCK. The question frequently comes up of shortening an established graz- ing period and proportionately increasing the number of stock. If the established season is such that the best and fullest use is being , made of the range in. question, any considerable shortening of the grazing period will result in waste of forage or overgrazing of the forage plants preferred by the class of stock grazed. If the estab- lished grazing period is not. such as to result in the best and fullest use of the range, the period should be changed and the grazing capacity redetermined after careful inspection. It must be borne in mind that plants have their periods of highest palatability and that this varies for different important forage plants on the same area. Shortening the grazing period, for example, on central Utah range by an earlier close would result in great loss of elder? feed, which is seldom eaten by sheep in this locality before the first heavy frost. A number of browse species ordinarily are only lightly browsed before the latter part of the season. To shorten a properly adjusted grazing period by setting a later date of opening would likewise result in waste of forage from many rapid-growing plants drying up or reach- ing a stage of low palatability before grazing begins. The result in either case would be a.decrease in the total feed furnished; conse- quently, an increase in stock proportionate to the reduction in graz- ing period could not be made without danger of overgrazing. These suggestions apply, of course, to range in normal condition. Ranges partly or wholly depleted of the most desirable forage plants may require a later date for opening the grazmg’ season than the date for the same range in normal condition. The sacrifice of forage from rapid-growing plants is warranted if it will result in improvement » of the range by increasing the more desirable forage plants. Additional references (arranged chronologically ) . Griffiths, D. A Protected Stock Range in Arizona. U. 8. Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 177, 1910. Sampson, Arthur W. Range Improvement by Deferred and Rotation Grazing. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 34, 1913. Sampson, Arthur W. Natural Revegetation of Range Lands Based upon Growth Requirements and Life History of the Vegetation. U. 8S. Department of Agriculture, Journal of Agricultural Research, vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 93-147, Noy. 16, 1914. U. S. Forest Service, Office of Grazing Studies.: Notes on National Forest Range Plants, Part I, Grasses, 1914. Wooton, EH. O. Factors Affecting Range Management in New Mexico. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 211, 1915. Jardine, James T. Improvement and Management of Native Pastures in the West. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Yearbook, 1915, pp. 299-310; Year- book Separate 678. Jardine, James T., and Hurtt, L. ©. Increased Cattle Production on South-. western Ranges. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 588, 1917. Sampson, Arthur W., and Weyl, L. H. Range Preservation and Its Relation to Erosion Control on Western Grazing Lands, U. S. Department of Agricul- ture, Bulletin 675, 1918. 1Elder (Sambucus microbotrys). 16 BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Sampson. Arthur W. Climate and Plant Growth in Certain Vegetative Asso- ciations. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 700, 1918. Chapline, W. R. Production of Goats on Far Western Ranges. WU. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Bulletin 749, 1919. Sampson, Arthur W. Plant Succession in Relation to Range Management. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 791, 1919. GRAZING CAPACITY. Grazing capacity, as used here, means the number of stock of a given class or classes which a range unit will support for the period of grazing allowed. The ideal sought is the maximum number of stock which the unit will support each season over a period of years without injury to the range, tree growth, or watershed, or unwar- ranted interference with game and recreation. If this ideal is to be realized, both overgrazing and unnecessary undergrazing must be avoided. OVERGRAZING. Overgrazing may be defined as grazing which when continued one or more years, reduces the forage crop or results in an undesir- able change in the kind of forage. Such grazing may exist over an entire forest, but this is not likely with regulated range use. It may exist over an entire large unit of cattle range or sheep range, but seldom does. It occasionally exists over small cattle units or indi- vidual sheep allotments, as a whole. Most often, however, overgraz- ing occurs locally on parts of cattle range or sheep range because of poor distribution of the stock or improper handling, or both. It is apparent, therefore, that an overgrazed spot on an allotment does not mean that the allotment, as a whole, is overgrazed. Nor does overgrazing on a few allotments mean that the forest as a whole is overgrazed. On the other hand, the fact that the forest, as a whole, cr a range allotment, as a whole, is not overgrazed does not mean that portions of either or both are not, even seriously, overgrazed. Usually the difficulty can be remedied by more uniform distribution of range by units, better distribution of stock on each unit, and better handling of the stock. To get results, however, the man on the ground must be able to recognize both overgrazing and undergrazing and the causes and remedies for each. In determining whether a range is overstocked for any current year to a point where overgrazing will result, both the condition of the range and the condition of the stock at the close of the grazing season must be carefully observed; also the period during which the range is grazed is important. If a range, for example, is not grazed or is only lightly grazed during the main growing season of the principal forage plants, but is heavily grazed later in the season, the forage suitable for stock may be entirely consumed without damage to the range. The same intensity of grazing during the growing -_* RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 1 iy 1 * season would result in injury to the range. On most ranges, how- ever, there is at least a small supply of forage made up of plants of which stock will eat very little except in case of necessity. It is best to graze the range so that stock will not be forced to eat this forage of low palatability. Close grazing of this class of vegetation there- fore is an indication that the range is overgrazed, provided the range is suited to the class of stock on it. (See Class Overgrazing.) Un- der such conditions the condition of the stock will not be satisfactory if grazing has been reasonably well distributed over the grazing unit. On the other hand, stock may be thin at the close of the graz- ing season without the range being overgrazed if a large part of the forage is unsuited to them. Perhaps the most common mistake is to assume that because fhe stock are in satisfactory condition at the close of the season there is no overgrazing. This may or may not be true. Not infrequently stock in good condition at the close of the season are from ranges on which there is severe overgrazing. Where this is the case there is faulty distribution of grazing, which may be remedied by water development, proper salting, riding, fencing, or a change in the class of steck. Also, stock may be taken off in good condition from a range which has been injured by too heavy grazing during the grow- ing period cf the main forage plants. The point of importance in this connection is that the condition of the stock when taken off the range is not in itself a reliable indi- cation that the range is not overgrazed. It is true also that no cne of the other indicators of overgrazing should be taken as conclusive evidence that a range is being peed or has been overgrazed in the past. Careful examination and observation will usually reveal more than one of these indications of overgrazing. INDICATORS OF OVERGRAZING. Overgrazing for an extended period will leave “earmarks,” which usually will be recognized. To recognize current overgrazing at the time of examination on a range previously not overgrazed is difficult and yet important in order to make timely adjustment. The follow- ing more cbvious earmarks are the most reliable indicators of over- razing prior to the year of examination: The predominance of annual weeds and grasses, such as knotweed,t tarweed,? mustard,*? annual brome grasses,‘ and fescues,> with a dense 1 Knotweed, Polygonum spp. 5 Annual fescues, Festuca megalura, F. 2Tarweed, Madia spp. microstachys, F. bromoides, F. confuse, 3 Mustard, Sophia incisa. and perhaps others. Annual brome grasses, Bromus herdea- ceus, B. brizaeformis, B. tectorum, and others. 111479°—Bull. 790—19—2 18 BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. stand of such species and lack of variety in species. This condition is a severe stage of overgrazing such as occurs around sheep bedding grounds which have been used for long periods each year for several vears in succession. MS gts The predominance of plants which have little or no value for any class of stock, sach as sneezeweed,' niggerhead,? yellowweed,? snake- weed,* and gum weed.’ These and similar plants frequently occur in abundance over large areas of range and indicate that the range needs careful management toe give better forage plants a chance to. grow. The presence of dead and partly dead stwmps of shrubs, such as snowberry,® currant,’ willow,’ service berry,® birch-leaf mahogany,” and Gambel oak.11 This condition usually indicates that the most palatable grasses and weeds have been overgrazed. There may be. some exceptions to this, as in the case of dwarfed willows on ranges where grasses predominate above timber ne. Sheep sometimes kill the willows before the grasses are overgrazed. Noticeable damage to tree reproduction, especially to western yellow-pine ? reproduction on sheep range and aspen * reproduction on cattle range. Lack of aspen reproduction on a weed sheep range indicates overgrazing, provided the natural conditions are favorable to aspen reproduction. On a sheep range where grass predominates severe injury to western yellow-pine or aspen reproduction may indicate that the range is not well suited to sheep. Erosion and barrenness, accompanied by a network of stock trails, where formerly there was a cover of vegetation. These are typical of areas where overgrazing has reached the extreme stage. . The earmarks described are, perhaps, more typical of overgrazed sheep range than of overgrazed cattle range, but the general appear- ance of the two does not differ greatly when overgrazing reaches a stage to be recognized by one or more of these earmarks. The main differences are in the species of plants indicating the overgrazing. Weeds eaten by sheep are often found in abundance on overgrazed cattle range; coarse grasses palatable to cattle are often abundant on overgrazed sheep range. This fact has given rise to the use of the term “class overgrazing.” 1 Sneezeweed, Dugaldia hoopest. 8 Willow, Saliz spp. * Niggerhead, Rudbeckia occidentalis. ® Service berry, Amelanchier spp. 3 Yellowweed, Senecio eremophilus. 1° Bireh-leaf mahogany, Cercoearpus mon- 4Snakeweed, Gutierrezia sarothrae. tanus. >Gum weed, Grindelia squarrosa. 1 Gambel oak, Querews gambelii. 6 Snowberry, Symphoricarpos oreophivus. 12 Western yellow pine, Pinus ponderosa. 7Currant, Ribes spp. #3 Aspen, Populus tremuleides. ft RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 19 i CLASS OVERGRAZING. The term “ class overgrazing” originated in an attempt to desig- nate a condition where the character of forage has changed materi- ally as a result of continued grazing by one class of stock year after year. Where this condition occurs on a cattle range the plants most relished by cattle, usually grasses, decrease in abundance, and the weeds, less palatable to cattle but choice sheep feed, increase. Just. the opposite change may take place on sheep range, the choice weeds decreasing and the grasses increasing. In either case, a good ground cover of plants suited to one or the other class of stock may be present after the range has deteriorated and has been reduced in grazing capacity for the class of stock allotted to it. This change appears to be a natural result where the range is grazed before the forage plants mature, because the development of the plants preferred by the given class of stock is lessened by grazing and the removal of these plants gives the less choice forage plants advantage in thea natural competition. Whether the change is due entirely to grazing or in part to natu- ral factors, the result is not serious if the change is recognized and adjustments made so as to maintain the desired balance in forage plants—which means maintenance of an effective cover as well as of grazing value. This balance can be maintained with the least loss of forage by common use by the two classes of stock, as indicated under the heading “ Determination of Class of Stock to Which Range is Best Suited.” Where common use is not feasible a change in class of stock is needed, or deferred grazing should be applied, or, as a final resort, the number of stock should be reduced. OVERGRAZING OF SCATTERING SPECIES. The recognition and adjustment of class overgrazing involves the decision as to whether a range should be managed so as to perpetu- ate a species which is a very desirable forage plant, but which occurs only in scattering stands. This decision must be based upon the abundance and palatability of the species in question as compared to the abundance and palatability of the other plants which make up the forage crop. Good judgment in sizing up the local situation rather than any percentage figures on abundance and palatability is the essential factor in arriving at a conclusion. It is believed that no attempt should be made to graze so lightly that palatable forage plants which occur in scattering stands will be perpetuated in their original abundance. To perpetuate 10 per cent and waste 70 per cent of the available feed would be poor economy. On the other hand, it would be more disastrous to overgraze and eventually destroy 50 per cent of the forage in order fully to utilize 20 per cent which is low in 20 BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. palatability. This is apt to occur on intensely used ranges. No rule of thumb can be Jaid down for guidance until all forest officers are familiar with the forage plants and their comparative palatability. The best that can be done is to recognize that an important problem exists and to look out for it and study systematically the life history and relative economic importance of the different range plants. OVERGRAZING THE UNDERGROWTH ON BROWSE RANGES. The forage crop on many browse ranges combines grasses and weeds with browse plants, the grasses and weeds growing on open spots or under the browse species. Grazing the browse as heavily as it will stand often results in overgrazing of the grasses and weeds. It is difficult to decide where to draw the line so as to maintain the most satisfactory combination. Data suitable for the basis of a definite rule are lacking and would be difficult to obtain, owing to the many variations in the combination of browse and herbaceous forage. It is hoped that intensive studies of browse range can be undertaken in the near future. A few suggestions, however, may be advanced at the present time. | Many species of browse are grazed by both cattle and sheep early in the spring when they first leaf out and again in late fall and winter, rather than during late spring and summer. This 1s partly explained, perhaps, by the greater abundance and succulence of grasses and weeds during the late spring and summer than in early spring, fall, and winter. In some cases this fact can be taken ad- vantage of to increase the grasses and weeds by deferring grazing on the area until after the grasses and weeds have matured seed. The browse forage can then be utilized. Where the palatable grasses and weeds make up approximately 25 per cent or less of the forage and are distributed throughout the browse they should be sacrificed so long as the grazing does not result in erosion, but care should be taken to watch this point, as it may eccur while there is still unused browse feed. Where this 25 per cent of grasses and weeds is concentrated in small parks rather than dis- tributed throughout the browse, lighter grazing of the area as a whole will be necessary, or denudation and erosion may result on the open jands and extend into the brush. Where the grasses and weeds make up approximately 50 per cent of the forage, grazing should be man- aged so as to perpetuate the herbaceous forage. In either case there will probably be unused browse feed except where the browse is made up of choice forage species. The surplus feed, however, will be an advantage as reserve feed for occasional years when conditions are unfavorable to forage growth. The foregoing paragraph applies to the browse types usually at low altitudes in the woodland or below. On browse types following ee "| = PLATE XI. Bul. 790, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. *kiJoqMOUS JO pueys poos ev poyioddns 90u0 vere sIy} Jey} 9}eOIpul sduinjs pesg duM—-S-4 ‘doays Aq Sulzeis19A0 ySno1y} pokosjsop sqnays o[qeyepeg PLATE XII. Bul. 790, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. F—6—WRC “ig. 1—lLack of aspen reproduction and absence of leaves as high as cattle can reach on overgrazed cattle range. F-7—WRC azing dicator of overgr 10 A good illows on cattle range. Fig. 2.—Dead and partly dead w PLATE XIII. Iture. gricu Bul. 790, U. S. Dept. of A v—6Itble—4 ‘93UBI POZeIFZIVAO UL UO UOISOIO ,.J99YS,, pue , Ad][MW5,, si culture. gri Bul. 790, U. S. Dept. of A - v-oesne—4 ' “SUIZVITIOAO puv FuizesiF onyeurosd FUIMOTOJ UOIsoJO PUIM pue uONepnuocT RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 21 burns in conifer timber the cbject should be to restore the timber species, and grazing should be adjusted accordingly. MAIN CAUSES OF OVERGRAZING. If it is decided that an area is being overgrazed, the next step is to determine the cause, as a basis for remedial measures. The prin- cipal direct causes of overgrazing on National Forest ranges at the present time are too early grazing, poor distribution of stock, too many stock, and improper handling of stock. Too early grazing by cattle is Pea. the most far-reaching cause of overgrazing on National Forest ranges at the present time. The practice too frequently has been to turn cattle loose on the low range adjoining the Forest lands or within the Forest and allow them to drift to higher altitudes as the snow line recedes and forage growth comes on. This practice has resulted in the grazing of range before the main forage plants have had two weeks cf growth, which is be- lieved to be the minimum period proper to allow between the begin- ning of growth and the beginning of grazing. Usually the remedy is apparent but diticult of application. First, the beginning of the grazing period should be established in accord- ance with the suggestions on page 11, on Grazing Periods; second, there must be control at the Forest boundary to prevent the stock from drifting on the range before the date decided upon for the opening of the grazing period; and, third, there must be some form of control to prevent stock from lorie the low range too early and fellowing the snow line to higher altitudes. Fences eventually, no doubt, will be constructed to control the stock. Meantime control by salting and riding should be exerted to the maximum extent practicable. Too early grazing is not so common with sheep as with cattle. Lambing ranges, early spring ranges, and, occasionally, portions of high summer range, however, are erazed before the main forage plants have had two weeks of growth. The remedy again is obvious, though difficult to apply until lambing facilities are better adjusted to the changed condition of limited lambing range. The fact to. recognize and face is that the small acreage of lambing and early, spring range can not be stretched to meet increasing demands. It has its limit beyond which it is bad policy for the man permanently in the sheep industry to go, even if he is permitted to do so. Poor distribution of cattle and lack of uniformity of sheep -graz- ing on the individual allotments, next to too early grazing by cattle, are the important causes of overgrazing at the present time. The range assigned to a given number of cattle or to a band of sheep in most cases will provide them with sufficient forage. The difficulty hes in getting them to use fully the more remote, least accessible 22 BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. portions of the range without abusing the portions more easily reached. This difficulty can be overcome or minimized by improved methods of salting, herding, fencing, and development of water, as discussed in detail under ihe heading, “ Management of Cattle on the Range.” If these means are not successful, the number of cattle should be reduced. To prevent waste of feed which the cattle will not use, common use may be necessary. More uniform use of sheep allotments is possible only ee conscientious effort on the part of local forest officers, sheep owners, and herders to bring this about on all parts of each allotment. With- out this the only way to remedy overgrazing is to reduce the number of sheep. Overstocking undoubtedly was one of the main causes oi the rapid deterioration of many ranges before they were placed under regulated grazing. It is believed, however, that most of the range units within the National Forests will support the stock now allotted to them if the grazing periods, distribution of stock, and the metheds of handling the stock are reasonably well adjusted. If careful consideration of a recognized case of overgrazing shows that these factors are BELO) adjusted and overgrazing is still going on, then a system of deferred grazing should be a ned and, if effective carrying out of the system demands it, the number of stock should be reduced. Where overgrazing has resulted in denudation and erosion which has reached the stage of shoestring gullying, no grazing should be allowed until the damage is largely repaired and the cover of vegetation restored. To temporize in such eases in order not to disturb the local stock industry will hurt the local in- dustry in the end, as delay increases the total protection necessary to build up the range. Improper handling of stock on the range causes overgrazing, partly through lack of proper distribution. There are, however, a few features of improper handling which may result in severe local over- grazing on range where the stock are reasonably well distributed over the allotment as a whole. For example, though all portions of a sheep allotment may be used, the practice of bedding sheep six or more nights in the same place over a period of years will result in an area of from one-eighth to one-fourth of a mile around the bedding ground being overgrazed, sometimes disastrously.t. The three-night bedding rule will help to overcome this difficulty, but will not en- tirely do away with it if three nights in the same camp, year after year, accompanied by trailing out from and back to the camp in late morning and early evening hours, isthe rule rather than the excep- tion. If one-night bedding, with the sheep away from the bed in 1 Sampson, Arthur W., “Plant Succession in Relation to Range Management,” U. 8. Dept. of Agriculture, Bul. 791, 1919. RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 23 early morning, is the rule, and three-night bedding the exception, damage can largely be avoided. Overgrazing in spots by sheep occasionally results from shading up for hours during the day on areas where timber is scattering. The lack of shade results in the use of the same shade ground to excess. The remedy is to follow conscientiously the bedding-out system of handling sheep and to take care that no area is used to excess. Cattle range may be provided with watering places and salt grounds which will largely elimimate local overgrazing. However, careful study is essential to locate salting grounds so as to help cor- rect the tendency to excessive use of saddies, or natural passes, and flats, which at best will be used more than the average of the range. Care in distributing the cattle over the range when they are first put on and riding during the grazing season to keep them distributed will help much. in the handling of goats the general principles outlined for the handling of sheep will serve as a guide. For more complete infor- mation Department of Agriculture Bulletin 749 + should be consulted. - UNDERGRAZING. A general failure to secure full utilization of forage where a range is accessible is usually due to an insufficient number of the class or classes of stock to which the range is best suited. One class of stock might utilize fully the forage suitable to them, while forage suitable to another class of stock was being wasted. Additional stock of the class on the range would result in overgrazing. The solution is com- mon use by the classes of stock to which the range 1s suited. - Localized undergrazing in most cases is due to lack of proper dis- tribution of cattle or to failure to secure uniform use of the range by sheep. ‘Tle remedies are, first, to make sure that the allotment boundaries are located so that full utilization is feasible, and then to work for the desired distribution of stock and uniform grazing by improved salting plans, water development, fences, bridges, stock trails, and riding. GRAZING-CAPACITY ESTIMATES. The grazing capacity of a range unit over a period of years is greatly influenced by the extent to which the suggestions given under overgrazing and undergrazing are applied. AREAS OF NO GRAZING VALUE. The area of no grazing value within range units and within National Forests varies from zere to over 50 per cent of the total 1Chapline, W. R. “ Production of Goats on Far Western Ranges,” U. 8S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bul. 749, 1919. 24 BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. acreage. It is made up of (1) areas which produce no vegetation palatable to stock or so little that its use for grazing is not eee (2) areas which produce forage, but on which grazing is not prac- ticable because of fallen timber, ruggedness, or too dense timber or brush; and (8) areas of good range, inaccessible because the cost of making them available for use is unwarranted by = value of the foley. to be secured. Where the lands of no grazing value are in one body it is not diffi- cult to exclude them in estimating grazing capacity. More often, however, they are distributed in small areas, or small areas of graz- ing value occur along drainage within larger waste areas. The out- standing fact is that lands of no grazing value may exist in sufficient area to make figures for grazing capacity of a unit or Forest on an acreage basis meaningless until these lands are excluded from the estimates. The first problem in estimating grazing capacity of a large Forest or of a large range unit, therefore, so far as there is a first problem, is to get at the acreage which supports forage and can be grazed. A range classification of the Medicine Bow Forest, for example, shows that 246,458 acres out of a total of 469,786 are not suited to the grazing of domestic stock. Pending a reconnaissance survey, advantage should be taken of every opportunity im connection with range inspection and range administration to secure similar figures for other forests. On many Forests the data must be collected_in this way if it is to be secured in a reasonable length of time. | VARIATION IN AMOUNT OF FORAGE PER ACRE. Variation in the amount of forage per acre on the land actually used for grazing may be so great as to require from 10 acres to 100 acres to support a cow throughout the year. Such extremes rarely occur on ranges of the National Forests after the area of no grazing value is excluded from the estimates. A variation of 100 per cent, however, not infrequently exists on a single unit. This fact confronts the range examiner in making grazing-capacity estimates after he has xcluded acreage of no value for grazing. If forage production, or grazing capacity, were always uniform over any considerable acreage, close approximation in estimates would not be exceedingly difficult ; but on the rugged mountain ranges variation may be frequent and ae: on account of abrupt ranean in altitude, exposure, slope, soil, and moisture. The solution of the problem is not obvious. VARIATION IN AMOUNT OF FORAGE IN DIFFERENT YEARS. Areas within the National Forests generally are not subject to the great variation in forage production which may occur on desert and PLATE XV. Bul. 790, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. yoo }s o10um st Apouros V-corle—s4 “pops 4soq ST OFeIOJ OIQUTWAL OY? YONA 0} Sse] 9Y} JO oy], “peyxooissopun st oFuer OY} FLY} So}yLOIpul UOsves SuIze1g JOWUINS OY} JO VSOJD 9Y} Jes JO ye 9FeIOJ JO UONIpUOD SIT J, PLATE XVI. Bul. 790, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. “sosvo YONS UL SUIzZeISIOpUN pue SUIZEISIOAO YOM JOF ApoutoI OY} SI YS JO UOTyNIIISIp 107)90q eSeiO} pue pozeissioAo og AvUL JUN OSULI OY} JO Je v—Lt06e—-J3 ‘osueI OY} UO YOO}S JO UOIZNII}SIp 100d 0} onp ST U9zjo *suoljI0d J0Yy1O UO 94SCM OF} SuroF ‘ose SIY} UL SB ‘SuIZeAsJopuN [eo0'T : 4 s Bes +f? ere rE RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 25% semidesert ranges. That there is considerable difference in the quan- _tity of forage produced in good years and in years unfavorable to plant growth, however, is certain. Estimates of grazing capacity should be based as nearly as possible upon forage production in * average years. If this is done the occasional years of low forage pro- duction can be tided over without unwarranted injury to the range. If necessary, the stock can be removed a little earlier than in average years. Stockmen usually will do this of their own accord. The toad years will serve to keep the vegetation up to standard by more vig- orous growth and perhaps by natural reseeding. Surplus forage can be used by allowing the stock to remain on the range longer at the close of the season where weather permits. Where the grazing period is long and it is obvious at an early date that there is going to be an abnormally good forage crop with a surplus of forage, additional stock might be accommodated for temporary grazing to rest ranges at lower altitudes. The essential point is not to be led astray in grazing- capacity estimates by either the low forage production in poor years or the high forage production in years above the average. The small surplus of forage at the close of the grazing season should not oc- easion uneasiness on the part of forest officers. Slight understocking is far better for both the range and the stock than overstocking, however small. RELATIVE PALATABILITY OF FORAGE PLANTS. The palatability of the plant species which make up the available forage on a range is an important factor in the division of range between different classes of stock. Division of range, however, on the large mountain areas must be along rather broad lines and not on the basis of a few head. If common use is resorted to, and sheep are placed on cattle range to utilize weed feed unsuited to the cattle, there must be enough of this feed to accommedate a band of sheep, perhaps a minimum of 1,000 under present practice in range sheep manage- ment. Proportionately smaller numbers of cattle might be placed on a sheep range, but they would not travel over all parts of the range and use the forage unsuited to sheep. At best, then, there may be, and usually will be, a portion of the least palatable forage unused. The quantity will vary with the proportion and distribution of for- age low in palatability. If it dominates on areas large enough to warrant use by another class of stock, common use may result in close utilization. If the forage of low palatability to the class of stock grazing is distributed throughout the range, little use can be made of it without overstocking. This factor in estimating grazing capacity is emphasized here as a measure of precaution, because ranges have at times been reported as not full¥ stocked when vegetation of low palatability was left at 26 BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the close of the grazing season. No doubt grazing capacity of other ranges has been overestimated on this account and the number of stock increased, to the detriment of the range. CONDITION OF THE STOCK. Whether grazing capacity of National Forest ranges should be ad- justed to produce fat stock or stock suitable for the feed yards is sometimes in question. The answer depends upon the character of the range and the demand for range to take care of stock for which feed is available locally for the remainder of the year. Some National Forest range does not furnish forage suitable for producing fat stock in the sense of stock ready for the beef and mut- ton market, unless the range is so much understocked that the aninials sraze largely upon the choice forage and leave the rest. In the stock- man’s term this is “topping the range.” On some ranges the combi- nation of forage, water, salt, and topography may be such that the dry stock will become fat when the range is stocked as heavily as it should be, provided the beef stock are removed before the last part of the season when the forage is getting low. Where more stock are produced and properly provided for during the remainder of the year than can be taken care of on the summer ranges, 1t is doubtful economy to deprive part of them of range in order to produce maximum gains on others. To stock a range so heavily as to retard the growth of young stock and keep the majority of the breeding stock thin would be unfair to the stock owners and dangerous to the range. If by “feeders” is meant stock in good flesh at the close of the season, the policy of grazing to produce feeders may be justified under conditions where local demand for range and the supply of fall, spring, and winter feed are in excess of available summer range, provided the surplus feed can not be disposed of to advantage except by feeding it to live stock grazed on near-by range. In general, continued stocking of a range so that the stock will come off in poor condition, due to shortage of forage, will result in de- terioration of the range. The whole question has dangers, and de- cision should be made only after careful consideration, keeping in mind first the permanent welfare of the range. Ordinarily, the best pclicy is to stock the range so that beef and mutton will be turned off in the fall unless the range is of a character not suited to producing fat stock. EFFECT OF GRAZING UPON TIMBER GROWTH AND WATER SUPPLY, Grazing-capacity estimates may have to be adjusted locally to avoid unwarranted damage to timber reproduction or to a watershed on areas where exclusion of grazing is not deemed necessary, but where the possibility of unwarranted damage is greater than for the > RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 27 yange as a whole. The main precautions necessary and the reasons for them are presented on page 66. ACREAGE REQUIRED FOR SHEEP AND CATTLE. A number of grazing-capacity studies have been conducted to determine the minimum acreage required to support a cow or sheep through the grazing season. The acreage grazed over, the intensity of grazing, the length of the grazing season, and the methods of management of both range and stock have been closely. observed and recorded by men giving special attention to the work. To supple- ment these special studies, the data secured from grazing recon- naissance surveys during the past six years have been carefully analyzed. The data from the two sources appear to be consistent enough over a wide range of territory to warrant conclusions as to the approximate average acreage requirement for cattle and for sheep. It is believed that the figures which follow will be of mate- rial value in bringing about greater uniformity in the quantity of usable forage made available for each animal or for each band or herd over individual Forests and over the Forest ranges as a whole. It is not intended that they should apply to a small range unit or part of a unit with the accuracy finally desired. The first big step, however, in adjusting grazing capacity is to equalize the distribution of forage and stock over large units. After this is done the final grazing capacity on individual ranges will have to be worked out by adjustments from time to time over a period of years until the number of stock is such as to utilize all the forage as closely as it should be used en the individual range, all factors considered. ACREAGE FOR SHEEP. Fifty-six sheep allotments on summer range have been carefully studied during the past few years. An average of 2.5 acres, or 0.79 forage acres,’ was required to support 1 mature sheep or 2 lambs — 1 The variation in amount of forage per acre and the relative palatability of forage plants are important factors in determining the amount or volume of forage which stock can be expected to use on a given range, and consequently in determining the grazing capacity of the range in question. To determine the comparative amount of forage by range reconnaissance methods, the range is classified into types, and for each area of a given type the stand of forage which stock should use is estimated. A complete ground cover made up of vegetation palatable to stock is represented by 1.0. Variation from this standard is represented by the decimals 0.95, 0.90, 0.85, and on down to 0.1. The actual acreage of a given area muitiplied by the decimal representing the stand of forage gives the amount ef forage which it is estimated that stock will secure. For example, on an area of 160 acres, where the forage factor is estimated at 0.5, there are 50 units of forage produced. The unit of measure in this case is called a forage acie, and in the “example given there are 50 forage-acre units on the 100 surface acres of range. This method of arriving at the grazing capacity of range is not in general use and therefore is not emphasized in the text. It is used, however, by grazing experts who have been trained in range reconnaissance surveys and estimates, and for this reason the forage acre requirements of range stock are given. 28 BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. for an average grazing period of 72 days. The figures do not include lands of no value for grazing. A, The ranges studied include sheep allotments on choice summer range of Montana, inferior timber and brush ranges of Idaho and Utah, and ranges of about average value in these States and in Oregon and Wiyoitiiie. The sheep under observation were all ewe and lamb bands. Two lambs were considered the equivalent of one mature sheep. The bands contain an average of 58 per cent of lambs. The ratio of two lambs to one mature sheep is an arbitrary one, since no data are available to show the relative forage consumption by lambs and by their mothers on summer ranges. To use this ratio, however, and include the lambs is better than to disregard the lambs, because the percentage of lambs may vary greatly. The average lamb crop for the far western range States as given by the United States Tariff Board * is 70.3 per cent, with Washington the highest at 92.5 per cent and Arizona lowest at 59.3 per cent. The general average has probably been increased slightly since this report was issued, so that to fisure on a 75 per cent average lamb crop in using the grazing-capacity figures given will be within the general margin of accuracy and uniformity of grazing estimates and methods. If such a thing as a uniform measure of grazing capacity can be used, it would appear from close study of the tests conducted, and from similar figures deduced from range reconnaissance surveys, that 0.01 forage acres per head per day is about right for range suited to sheep grazing. This would be equivalent to about 0.03 surface acres per head per day, exclusive of range having no value for graz- ing, or about 3 surface acres for a grazing period of 100 days. ACREAGE FOR CATTLE. A high, open, rolling range on the Lewis and Clark National Forest in Montana supported one cow to every 7.37 surface acres, furnishing 2.65 forage acres per cow for a period of 100 days. This is at the rate of 27 surface acres, or 9.69 forage acres per year. On cattle ranges of southern Idaho 10 surface acres, furnishing ap- proximately 4 forage acres, was found to be the minimum required for one cow over a period of five and one-half months. This range is well watered and was closely utilized. Good grass foothill pasture of the Santa Rita aes Reserve in southern Arizona has furnished an average of 365 cow-days? feed annually over a period of years on an average of about 14 acres. Each year during the main growing season the number of stock was 1U. 8. Tariff Board, Wool and Manufactures of Wool, Vol. II (pt. 2). H. Doc. No. 342, 62d Pe 2d sess., 1912. RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 29 reduced about 30 per cent below the average for the year, to give the vegetation a chance to grow. - Otherwise, grazing was yearlong. Utilization was closer than can be expected on open range. Studies of grazing capacity on the Jornada Range Reserve in southern New Mexico led to the conclusion that the grass range will support one cow on 20 to 380 acres, depending upon the acreage of poorer range types which occur within the grass type. These figures are computed on a yearlong basis, but with the understanding that the number of stock will be reduced during the main growing season, July to Octeber, to about one-half the average number for the year. With the relatively close utilization possible under fence on the Jornada Range Reserve it is figured that approximately 8 forage acres per cow yearlong will be sufficient. In general, the grazing-capacity figures indicate that about 2 to 24 acres per cow per month is as near an average as can now be arrived at for cattle range suited to this class of stock within the National Forests. This, of course, 1s the acreage required exclusive of lands of no value for grazing except the occasional small patches of waste within usable range. With this average as a guide, the examiner can judge whether range is exceptionally good or inferior and can adjust his estimate accordingly. Where available forage is estimated in terms of forage acres, an average of about 0.8 forage acres per cow per month should be allowed. If utilization is complete and close over the entire area, as it usually is in pastures, 0.7 of a forage acre, or a little less, per head per month should be suflicient. COMPARISON OF ACREAGE REQUIRED FOR SHEEP AND FOR CATTLE. Considering the general difference in the forage suited to sheep and cattle, it is evident that there is no constant relation between the grazing capacity of a range for sheep and the grazing capacity of the same range for cattle. By careful division of the range between different classes of stock, as outlined on page 3, the justification for change in class of stock on a general range is largely done away with. Some ranges, however, may be used to advantage by either sheep or cattle. A change from one class to the other can never safely be made in an individual case on a previously decided or fixed ratio. The ratios used in the Grazing Manual of the Forest Service? are based on general averages and are intended for application to the special case of change in class of stock, provided the grazing capacity of the range in question for the new class of stock warrants the use of the standard ratio. The grazing capacity of the range in question for 1 Jardine, James T., and Hurtt, L. C., Increased Cattle Production on Southwestern Ranges, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bul. 588, 1917. 2U.S. Forest Service. National Forest Manual; Regulations and Instructions, Grazing Section, 30 BULLETIN 79, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the class of stock to be allowed by the change should be determined by careful inspection of the range. GRAZING CAPACITY AS AFFECTED BY MANAGEMENT OF THE STOCK. The grazing-capacity figures given apply to conditions of average management as regards distribution and control of cattle and herd- ing of sheep. It should be remembered that with poor distribution of cattle or close herding and driving of sheep to and from a central camp from 10 to 20 per cent more range will be required, depending upon the extent of poor management. On the other hand, a decrease of 5 to 15 per cent from the average figures should result from an approach to the ideal in management of the stock on the range. How to approach the best that can be expected in the handling of stock on the range is explained in later paragraphs on cattle manage- ment and sheep management, Additional references (arranged chronologically). Potter, Albert F. Questions Regarding the Public Grazing Lands of the Western United States. 8S. Doc. 189, Fifty-eighth Cong., third sess., Ap- pendix, pp. 5-25, 1905. Coville, Frederick V. A Report on Systems of Leasing Large Areas of Grazing Land. S. Doc. 189, Fifty-eighth Cong., third sess., Appendix, pp. 26-61, 1905. Griffiths, D. A Protected Stock Range in Arizona. U. S. Bureau of Piant Industry, Bulletin 177, 1916. Jardine, James JT. The Pasturage System for Handling Range Sheep. U. 8. Forest Service, Circular 178, 1919. Thornber, J. J. The Grazing Ranges of Arizona. Arizona Agircultural Experi- ment Station, Bulletin 65, 1910. Sampson, Arthur W. Range Improvement by Deferred and Rotation Grazing. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 34, 1913. Sampson, Arthur W. Naturai Revegetation of Range Lands Based Upon Growth Requirements and Life History of the Vegetation. -U. S. Department of Agriculture, Journal of Agricultural Research, vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 93-147, Noy. 16, 1914. sardine, James T. Improvement and Management of Native Pastures in the West. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Yearbook 1915, pp. 299-310; Year- book Separate 678. Barnes, Will C., and Jardine, James T. Live Stock Production in the Hleven Far Western Range States. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of the Secretary, Report 110, Part II, 1916. Wooton, E. O. Carrying Capacity of Grazing Ranges in Southern Arizona. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 367, 1916. é Jardine, James T., and Hurtt, L. C. Increased Cattle Production on South- western Ranges. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 588, 1917. Chapline, W. R. Production of Goats on Far Western Ranges. U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Bulletin 749, 1919. Sampson, Arthur W. Plant Succession in Relation to Range Management. U. S. Department of Agricuiture, Bulletin 791, 1919. MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE ON THE RANGE. Control over the numbers and distribution of stock is a funda- mental requirement of regulated grazing and effective range man- agement. Many of the difficulties involved are brought out in the preceding pages because the action recommended there is often directly dependent upon this control. In turn, the discussion which RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. el - follows applies to the management of cattle after the range has been divided among different classes of stock, the grazing period fixed, and the grazing capacity decided upon in accordance with the sug- gestions given. CONTROLLING THE NUMBER OF CATTLE. Until the number of cattle actually grazed and the period of graz- ing are the same as the number and period authorized, the most efficient use of the range is not assured. This applies not only to a National Forest as a unit, but to each subdivision of the Forest which is considered as a unit of management. A National Forest as a whole may not be overstocked, in fact, may be understocked, and yet large subdivisions of it may be overstocked. The preblem, then, involves control at the boundary of the Forest and control by individual units within the Forest. CONTROL AT FOREST BOUNDARY. Lack of satisfactory control of cattle at the boundaries of Forests has resulted in both premature grazing and overstocking on nearly every National Forest where cattle are grazed in large numbers, The main difficulty lies in the fact that with few, if any, exceptions there is unfenced range adjoining the Forest lands. In localities where the stock are fed during the winter they usually are turned on the open range soon after the snow is off and later drift on the Forest land before, the range should be grazed. If the num- ber turned out is in excess of the number the Forest range will sup- port, it 1s almost certain that the Forest range will be overstocked at some time during the grazing season. In a great many cases “on and off” permits are issued to cover cattle which graze a range unit part of which is outside of the Forest boundary and part inside. The range outside may have a grazing _ ¢apacity equal to the area used inside. The Forest range, however, 1s usually higher in altitude, and in a great many places the forage and water facilities are better than on the adjoining lands outside. Asa result, the stock will naturally use the range on the Forest more than the range outside. To issue an “on and off” permit on the basis of 50 per cent of the grazing to be on the Forest and 50 per cent off does not remedy the situation. Nor will it be remedied by issuing a per- mit for 75 per cent of the stock on the Forest, as this would authorize overstocking. The most effective remedy is to fence the Forest boundary. All Forest boundaries, however, can not be fenced in the immediate future. In the meantime, measures should be taken to protect the range. In some instances the grazing can be equalized by proper distribution of salt; salting heaviest on the outside range if neces- sary, and by riding to help keep the stock distributed. 32 BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Each local case where control of cattle at the boundary of the Forest is involved may have its peculiarities. In all, however, close cooperation between forest officers and the owners of the stock is imperative to secure good results. Forest officers should take the lead and work out some plan for proper use of the Forest ranges. Diticulty of adjustment should not stand in the way of action, be- cause the construction of fences is always a possibility. CONTROL BY RANGE UNITS WITHIN A FOREST. With assured control of the number of stock entering the Forest and of the time that they enter, there still remains the big task of control to secure distribution so as to equalize grazing, prevent stray- ing and loss of stock, and minimize the riding necessary and keep it at least within practical limits, Consequently, it is necessary to divide the cattle range within a Forest, or, for that matter, any large area of cattle range, into smaller units of management. What shall be the basis of this division, all factors considered? The importance of this question and its bearing upon future management of the range and stock are not always appreciated. A number of important, somewhat conflicting, factors are in- volved: 1. To secure maximum production of stock on the range over a period of years some form of deferred and rotation grazing is imper- ative. Any plan for control of stock by units should provide, there- fore, for deferred and rotation grazing eventually. : 2. The segregation of breeding stock from dry stock on the range is an important item in the production of beef and will help to increase the calf crop. 3. Frequently there is great range in altitude and consequently great variation in the time at which different parts of the range on a single watershed should be grazed. Consequently, as pointed out in the paragraphs on period of grazing and natural reseeding, pro- vision should eventually be made for dividing late spring and early summer range from midsummer and late summer or early fall range. 4, Boundaries of comparatively large units on ranges within the National Forests can usually be chosen so as to take advantage of natural barriers, high ridges, and streams and thus minimize the fencing necessary to control the stock. On the other hand, distribu- tion of stock is easier to obtain on small controlled units than on large units. 5. Individual owners of stock naturally prefer to run their stock separate from that of other owners, and in many instances are pre- pared to construct fences for this purpose. Units to take care of individual permittees, however, interfere with proper management RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 303 of the range and stock as a whole, except where the range of the individual is clearly a distinct natural grazing unit. 6. As a rule, the range lands are low in grazing capacity com- pared with farm pastures. Consequently, the number of stock con- . trolled, rather than the acreage controlled per mile of fence, usually decides whether the cost of fencing is warranted or not. The excep- tions are fenced areas for holding beef stock while they are being gathered, for pure-bred registered stock, for weaning calves, and for saddle stock. It is obvious that these important factors can be incorporated in the final plan of management only by looking ahead and working out a comprehensive plan for the development and use of the range. Otherwise a beef pasture, calf pasture, or individual fenced range of to-morrow will interfere with segregation of breeding stock and dry stock, or with divisions for proper seasons of grazing, or de- ferred and rotation grazing next year or later. _As a matter of fact, the features of management outlined in num- bers 1, 2, and 3 are becoming more and more important and should be given first consideration in working out plans for future control and management of the range. To insure the incorporation of these principles in the management of the range and stock on lands of low grazing capacity necessitates management by comparatively large units, otherwise the expense of the necessary control will be unwar- ranted. On ranges within the National Forests the division of cattle range inta units should ordinarily be by watersheds, where practicable, in order to take advantage of topographic features which will aid in controlling the stock. Watersheds, however, are not always satis- factory units. They may be too large or too small for effective man- agement. It is difficult to define what too large or too small means as regards acreage; for variation in altitude, in topography, in the shape of the area, and in the character of forage and cost of con- trolling the stock are important. Ordinarily, however, a unit which will support not more than 3,000 head nor less than 1,000 head of cat- tle should be satisfactory. There will be individual units larger, and some smaller, which clearly should be managed as units. Just where the division lines should be is often influenced by com- munity interest. It is obvious that cooperation of permittees in the handling of the stock and the range is necessary to successful range management. So far as practicable, therefore, the cattle units should be such as to group the stock by communities, so that it will be pos- sible for the owners to organize into an effective, active stock associ- ation with unity of interests. This factor is of increasing importance as range management becomes more intensive. The grouping of community stock, therefore, in many cases may be of sufficient im- 111479°—Bull. 790—19 3 Q 34 BULLETIN 1790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. portance to warrant variation from what would seem to be the most | desirable natural unit range division, so far as topography ‘is the deciding factor. | The important feature of this whole question of cattle units is to look into the future and plan with a view to the management desired, * rather than to act “piecemeal” from day to day on separate phases of management. A comprehensive plan of management embodying the principles outlined will be a necessity in the not-distant future. Such a plan, to be lasting, should be by units which will remain per- manent, as far as this is practicable. The community unit for cattle range, conforming to natural topographic divisions, appears to offer the greatest possibilities for permanency and for comprehensive plans of range development and management which will make pos- sible, eventually, the application of fundamental principles of range and live-stock management, and yet be practicable as regards cost, both for development and for administration. The personnel of the users may change, but the unit and its management should not. As soon as such units are established with assurance of reasonable permanency, constructive work should begin on means of preventing drift of stock from one unit to another. As in the case of control at the boundary of the Forest, the final control by units will be obtained by a combination of fences and natural barriers. Pending the construction of necessary fences, however, reasonably effective control of stock can be secured by care in salting, watering, and rid- ing to get the stock accustomed to their home range. Cattle once thoroughly accustomed to using a given range are not inclined to drift far. Stock placed on a new range and young stock born on the range must be carefully watched during at least one year to prevent drift. Salt should not be placed near the dividing lne between two units; stock should not be driven from one unit to another during a round-up; if they are moved they should be returned to their home range; if a few head of stock become accustomed to drifting from one unit to another they should be got rid of as soon as practicable, as one old cow may lead a number of young stock off the range and cause unwarranted expense for riding and loss from straying. DISTRIBUTION OF CATTLE WITHIN A UNIT. Once range-management units for cattle are established and the numbers of stock and period of grazing are under control on each $ unit the problem is to secure the best use of the forage on the indi- vidual unit. This involves grazing at the proper time, as well as full, uniform grazing over all parts of the unit. The means of arriv- ing at both these ends are proper salting of the cattle, development of watering places, construction of fences, construction of stock trails. and attention by riders. RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 35 SALTING. Proper salting of cattle aione can not be expected to correct all of the natural faults in distribution of cattle on a range, but, everything considered, salting offers the greatest possibilities for bringing about immediate improvement throughout cattle ranges within the National Forests. This is due in part to the feasibility of working out and. putting mto application improved salting plans without delay. While water often is not to be had where it is desired, the proper location for fences is uncertain, and both water development and fence construction involve great expense compared with salting. There is no more immediately important grazing work, therefore, to which a forest officer may devote his time than securing proper salting of the cattle on range units under his supervision. Amount of salt—Cattle should have from 1 to 2 pounds of salt per month while on the range, ordinarily 2 pounds per month while the vegetation is succulent and 1 pound per month during the re- mainder of the season. Kind of salt.—Crystal sack salt, compressed salt, and rock salt are used for cattle on the range. Stockmen differ in opinion as to which of these kinds is best for the cattle and most economical. Crystal sack salt, usually called stock salt or coarse salt, as distinguished from dairy salt or fine salt, appears to be gaining in popularity. It can be distributed so that many cattle can get salt at one time, while a large block of rock salt may be monopolized by one cow for an hour or more. Care must be exercised, of course, to prevent cattle exceed- ingly hungry for salt from having free access to such salt troughs. Salt containers.—Sack salt fed to cattle on the range is generally placed in long troughs, in wooden boxes, on rocks, or on the ground. The practice of using salt logs or salt boxes is rapidly growing and no doubt will be general within a few years. Where logs are avail- able on or near the salting place selected, the log-trough container is the most economical and most satisfactory, all things considered. A log large enough so that the top will be about 30 inches above the ground is best for cattle. The animals will then feed from both sides; more animals can feed at one time than at a smaller log; and there will be less crowding and less chance for the salt to become foul. Where logs are not readily available, salt troughs made of lumber are used extensively. Where transportation is not difficult troughs can be made in town or at the ranch when labor is not oceupied at other work. This is sometimes an advantage over log troughs, which must be made on the range when other work may be pressing. Pigures 1 and 2 show sketches of salt logs and salt troughs which have given good service. 36 BULLETIN 790, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Distribution of salt—Salting places should ordinarily be located so as to draw the cattle away from watering places and other areas where they naturally congregate and overgraze the range. Where new dirt storage tanks have been built it may be advisable to depart from the general rule and salt at the tanks temporarily, so that the stock will tramp the bottom of the tank and thereby help to make it hold water. The main object should be to secure uniform utiliza- tion of range between salt and water over the entire range unit. The distance of salt from water will depend upon water distribution and topography. No set rule can be laid down. The problem must be worked out on the individual range unit so as to secure the most uniform grazing possible and limit as far as practicable congrega- tion of stock and overgrazing around water holes, salt grounds, and SALT BOX SALT LOG Capacity -/50 *70o 1/75 Invert slope (7 Cold Climases to Wanhotre ERAT. prevent /ce rFro/m BU/STI79 /09 5 eres 2/2 -/2°0' No. 2 Clear Capacity of 16" /09 - 25" per Tuning T.\ \Y*2Z02 common nails Capacity of 2:0" 109° SO" per running Ft; 6 corner s7raps as per Cezatl ‘32 W0.6 screws 2" long Vance 1h natural passes. Ordinarily, salting places should not be more than 1 mile apart, and occasionally salting places well chosen at distances less than 1 mile apart will result in the use of range which otherwise would not be grazed until the more accessible parts are overgrazed. The amount of salt for any salting place should be based upon the grazing capacity of the range to be used from the salting place. If, for example, such a range is expected to support 50 cattle for one month early in the season, the amount of salt put out should be 100 pounds, or for the same range late in the season, 50 pounds. The amount of salt for each saiting place should be worked out on this basis. Jf it does not conform to the grazing capacity of the range intensity of grazing will not be uniform. The stockmen who use the range should cooperate in the selection of salting places. As nearly as possible the sites selected should be satisfactory to them. The deciding factor, however, should be the best use of the range and not the wishes of the users. The results ee HO") ier -~— 7 if 59/08’ Ne 3 BONG 3 VwOs TTT... & ~t95// Cea oy PAN aia orig ' J Soc es sl oYatmeeia cee Boe p aeiet po ae ) Vy, ‘ ba : ! | ee aay [a], a : SS aS 89/99 1-- “pager sngo) me a | . ie Oy ae rae ey ' iy i '09/. ; Lo LoD 6, ~s< tev igeso ae Nene ~ hye. f Mes ie aes : J YOK woe Mr CS A tans ont { Seni ON Vaid nao ay: ys Vi ae a x 4 ie eee NS [SH/OOL °$9 bos bi eee BAS seg Ee SUMMARY ON SALTING. e cattle on 1on with saltin ts to remember in connect National Forests are ain poin The m ranges of the { 1. That improvement in salting probably offers the greatest oppor- =) provement in the management of cattle v tunity for immediate im ranges. Bul. 790, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVII. F-—20504—A Fig. 1.—Counting cattle as they go on a National Forest range. Until the number of cattle and the time that they go on the range are properly controlled, proper use of the grazing resources is not assured. F-76674 Fig. 2.—Control of cattle by range units within a National Forest can be secured by a combination of fences and natural barriers. Bul 790: U SeDeprvetNecionliare PLATE XVIIL F-8-WRG Fig. 1.—Salt log used on cattle range of Whitman National Forest. Smooth, twisted wire stapled every 4 inches is used, as shown, to protect the trough from gnawing by horses and porcupines. F—27212—-A Fig. 2.—Where block salt is used one cow may monopolize a block for an hour, forcing the % other animals to wait their turn. F—29392—A ignboard marking a salt ground on the Sawtooth National Forest in southern Idaho. Bul. 790, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XX, F—19993—A Fig. 1.—These cattle were called from dense Haber and brush range and were fed salt on rocks, as shown. Fig. 2.—The old type of salt ground. Salt should be placed on the ground only as a last resort. RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. Al 2. That the responsibility for securing the proper salting of stock on any National Forest range unit rests directly upon the local forest officer in charge. | 3. That cattle require ordinarily about 2 pounds of salt per month = while the forage is succulent and about 1 pound per month for the remainder of the season. 4, That cattle accustomed to being salted will travel to salt as they, will to water; and that salt, therefore, can be used as a means of securing distribution of cattle over the range. 5. That salt should usually be placed at a reasonable distance from water and away from places where cattle naturally congregate or pass frequently. Salting at new dirt tanks may be advisable until the tanks hold water. 6. That sack salt should be placed upon the ground only as a last resort. Log troughs or wooden boxes should be used wherever practicable. 7. That a few important salt grounds in a series, perhaps every tenth one, should be marked with a sign bearing a number or a name, or both. 8. That on range units with a considerable variation in elevation or exposure the salt should be put out at times corresponding as nearly as possible to the date the vegetation should be used, so as to discourage premature grazing. 9. The amount of salt for any salting place should be based upon the grazing capacity of the range to be feed from the salting place. 10. That definite graphic and written plans, based on a thorough knowledge of range conditions, are necessary in securing a proper distribution of salt on almost any cattle range. 11. That only through the active organized cooperation of per- mittees can satisfactory results be secured. WATER. The distribution of water may influence the distribution of cattle and the utilization of forage more than any other single factor. Man’s control over the distribution of watering places on ae range, however, is limited. Frequently it is not possible even to approach ihe desired number or distribution. It is assumed in this chapter that the suggestions of the paragraphs on division of range between different classes of stock have been carried out. This discussion ap- plies, therefore, to range reasonably well suited to cattle grazing. The suggestion of importance is to look carefully into the avail- able water supply, and, if possible, have a watering place every half mile on rugged mountain range and every mile and a half on level or rolling range. 42 BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Springs and seeps which naturally furnish water only in small puddles or cow tracks will furnish clean water for a number of cattle if the supply is developed and troughs installed. Qn ranges of the Southwest a large part of the water supply is furnished by storage tanks which collect and store surface run-off. This method of water development can be resorted to in other localities. Also, wells 500 feet deep or more, equipped with windmills and engines for pump- ing, are used successfully on large areas of range. In some places water for midsummer is obtained by collecting ito storage tanks early in the season water from small meadow areas which dry up in midsummer. Range is valuable. It can not be used by cattle with- out water. It should not be considered permanently unusable until exhaustive consideration has been given to possible ways ef water development. Farmers’ Bulletin 5921 discusses methods of develop- ing water for stock under range conditions. FENCES. Very often fences are the most effective and most economical means of controlling cattle on the range. In fencing, however, the first consideration should be given to fences to provide control which is vital to the range as a whole. The importance of such control, first at the boundary of a National Forest and then at the boundary of smaller natural range units, has been emphasized. Generally, control at these places, by fences if necessary, should come first, so as to contro] the numbers of cattle and time of grazing on the Forest, as a whole, and on the natural unit of management. With this con- trel established, interior fence control should preceed according to a well-developed plan for the management of the cattle within the natural unit. The important objects of fences within the unit are: To make pos- sible seasonal grazing and deferred and rotation grazing, as out- lined in the paragraphs on Grazing Periods and Natural Reseeding; segregation of breeding stock from dry stock; protection of cattle trom poisoning; protection of areas of watershed, timber growth, or recreation areas from grazing; holding pastures for stock during a round-up; reserving pastures for saddle stock; and economy in han- dling the stock and in supervision of grazing. These possible needs should be considered in working out the fencing plan for each unit. Protection and the best use of the range resources should be given first consideration. Several years ago a general study was made to ascertain the eco- nomic value of stock fences then in existence on the National Forests. Each of 243 fences was reported on. The average estimate of in- 1 Barnes, Will C., Stock Watering Places on Western Grazing Lands, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers’ Bul, 592, 1914, RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 43 crease In grazing capacity due to the fences was about 15 per cent. The reported intprovement in condition of stock, due to more quiet handling under fence, averaged about 5 per cent; the increase in calf crop, about 10 per cent; and the decrease in cost of handling, 40 per cent. Aside from these important items the fences as a general rule simplified and reduced the cost of grazing administration, reduced trespass and complaints, and resulted in more even utilization of the range. These data were included to give an idea of the possible increase in net returns as a result of stock fences where they are warranted. and properly located. Too often, however, fences for minor purposes are constructed and later interfere with the fencing plan for manage- ment of the unit asa whole. It is extremely important that the plan for the whole natural range unit be worked out before any great amount of piece fencing is undertaken. TRAIL IMPROVEMENT. On many ranges used by cattle for years the construction of a few stock trails would help to produce a few more and better stock by. opening to use smal] areas now inaccessible or difficult for stock to reach, or by providing a trail to water. These are minor develop- ments which will come in time. RIDING. ‘The stock on any range cattle unit need the attention of riders. Proper salting, water development, fences, and stock trails work wonders in the management of cattle on the range and consequently increase grazing capacity. After all that reasonably can be expected by these means is accomplished, however, there is still room for im- provement. This is due mainly to the fact that in range management — we are dealing with large areas, usually of low grazing capacity, and on such Jands the extent to which improvements can be made is limited both by natural conditions and by expenditures proportionate to the value of the forage. When this limit is reached the subdi- visions of the range are very large as compared, for example, with the subdivisions of a well-developed ranch. The riders should see that salt is always available, and that water- ing places and fences are in serviceable condition. After this they should see that the stock are kept well distributed and that they use all parts of the range. Occasionally it is necessary to herd stock away from dangerous poison areas, and attention may be needed to keep the bulls properly distributed with the breeding cows. Losses from any cause should be watched for, the cause determined if possible, and preventive measures taken. Carcasses of dead animals should be burned or buried as a protection to the health of remaining animals, 44 BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Ordinarily, too little attention is given to the stock for the best. results in growth, calf crop, and losses. A few pounds additional weight on the beef animals, an additional calf from each 100 cows, and one or two additional cows saved out of 1,000 head will more than pay for the services of riders. On most cattle ranges these increases are the minimum that can be expected. An increase of 100. pounds or more on beef animals, an increase of 5 calves for each 100. cows, and a decrease of 10 head in loss out of each 1,000 head, in addi- tion to increase in grazing capacity of the range, are nearer the pos- sible net returns from proper attention by riders. Animals are valu- able, and costs of production are increasing. It will pay to figure carefully on the possible returns from an additional doilar invested. The number of stock one rider can look after varies from about. 250 to 1,000 head, depending upon the range. The ideal to work toward is about 250 head of high-grade stock accustomed to being worked. One man can then distribute the stock in smali bunches where feed is best, see that bull service is adequate, and look after the. general welfare of the stock so that losses will be negligible and net returns per animal a maximum. Plate XXIII, figure 2, shows an actual example of such management on National Forest range. BREED OF STOCK. What has been written in these pages on the management of cattle: apples primarily to cattle accustomed to running on the open range or in large pastures. The suggestions given will not result in satis- factory management of dry stock or milch cows from dairy herds accustomed to being handled in barns, feed lots, and small level pas- tures with feed and water convenient; for when such stock are turned loose on a rough mountain range it is difficult to keep them away from the level areas near water. The result is marked local over- grazing and a surplus of feed away on the hills. Where it is advis- able, all things considered, to use mountain range for a limited num- ber of this class of stock, extra restrictions in management will be necessary to avoid injury to the range. COOPERATION. Cooperation between forest officers administering grazing and the stockmen whose stock use the ranges has been an important factor in the development of range management on the National Forests. It has not always been possible to meet the desires of every individual permittee; but with the support of the majority many changes in the management of both the range and the stock have been made, to the ultimate advantage of Forest administration and the live-stock indus- try. As a whole, the cooperation thus far has been concerned pri- marily with underlying principles of regulated use of the range re- Bul. 790, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXI. F-l0O—WRCG Fig. 1.—Springs and seeps which naturally furnish water only in puddles or cow tracks will eee water for a number of cattle if the water supply is developed and troughs installed. F-II-WRG Fig. 2.—Springs which are of little or no value in their natural state as watering places for range sheep will furnish water for a band of sheep by a moderate expenditure for developing and fencing the spring and installing troughs. a . a = “osAYy. SB S][NG YONS JO SOOTAIOS OY}, O.INDOS 0} SMOD MOT V JO JOUMO OY). SOTGeuS TOUTUIOD ur Jon oSuvd & SuIsN UOUAY00)s UOOMJOG UOLJLsJOdOOT “OpeAOJOT) UL OSULA JSOIOT TLUOLJEA; UO OsN JOY poseyound s][nq psoJosoP[ posq-orng V-968b0-4 PLATE XXII. Iture. gricu Bul. 790, U. S. Dept. of A Bul. 790, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXIII. F—35690—A Fig. 1.—Cooperation is aiding greatly in replacing this class of stock by better animals on the far western ranges. F-12—WRC Fig. 2.—The better animals produce more meat than those of lower grade in proportion to the amount of forage consumed, and the greater money returns from the better animals warrant the careful handling of the stock which is so essential to good range management. Iture. gricu Bul. 790, U. S. Dept. of A *punois poq sry} JO 107099 OY} JO oyrUT Jey-ouo uTgIIM poonpold st oFesoy oT ArOA = “AVP youo dure [v1}090 & WOIJ puL OF dovys Surpsoy JO Wo Sks pfO OY} JopuN sse9d JO soquinu wv JOJ WOK YOwo s}ysiu AuUvUL posn punoss poq dooys plo wy v-0vble—4 RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 45 sources and with the construction of range improvements. During the last few years, however, organized cooperation has been extended to improvement in the grade of stock and their care and management on the range and to new problems in the improvement of the range. This advancement is the logical resulé of a need for improved prac- tice to keep pace with increased cost of production and decrease in the supply of range as compared with the demand. ‘The importance of extending cooperation in these matters to all National Forest ranges can not be overestimated. Especially is this true as regards the man- agement of cattle ranges and cattle on the ranges, because of the problems involved, the wide distribution of cattle-grazing privileges, and the necessity of range management by community units. Im- provement along these lines, which must come largely as a result of organized cooperation, is of great economic importance in itself, and the development of the kind of cooperation necessary to bring about this improvement will pave the way for improving range practice. The growing need for united effort, which can come only through the medium of organization on the right basis, is apparent in the change that has taken place in the number of cattle-grazing per- mittees and in the intensity of grazing. In 1907 approximately 18,500 permits were issued for the grazing of cattle and horses within the National Forests. By 1917 the number had increased to ap- proximately 82,000. The increase in number for 1917 as compared with 1916 was 3,084, showing that the tendency to wider distribution of the grazing privilege is continuing. In 1907 approximately 1,250,000 head of cattle and horses were grazed, and in 1917 over 2,000,000 were grazed, an increase of over 60 per cent in this class of stock. In 1907 the average area per cow or horse was 57.6 acres, and in 1917 it was 48.7 acres. | With this increase in intensity of grazing, number of permittees, and number of stock, the problems to be handled by cooperative effort have increased, and the unit of area for which cooperation should be organized has become smaller. Until a few years ago the most pressing questions could be handled by the National, State, and individual Forest live-stock associations. But to-day the greater number of problems where cooperative effort is important have to do with the improvement and management of the range and the stock within the individual grazing unit. The users of the individual unit of range management have a common interest in all matters per- taining to the management and development of the range and the improvement and management of the cattle and horses within the unit. Proper salting of stock, construction of fences to control the stock, development and maintenance of stock-watering places, proper distribution of stock over the range, reduction in losses of stock on 46 BULLETIN 79, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the range, improvement in grade of stock, and increase in calf crop have a direct effect upon the net profits of the individual user. More and more attention should be given in the future, therefore, id the organization of the grazing permittees who graze their stock in common on a range unit. It has been shown that such permittees have a common interest in the range practice on the grazing unit, but this alone is not incentive enough, ordinarily, to stimulate organi- zation of local associations and keep them active. There must be a definite worthy purpose to be accomplished in the immediate future by the united effort resulting from the organization, such as the application of a comprehensive salting plan, the eradication of poi- sonous plants, the construction of drift fences, the use of high-grade bulls, and other similar objects. i With a proper appreciation of the functions and possibilities of live-stock associations in relation to range management on the Na- tional Forests, forest officers can do much to encourage organiza- tion among the grazing permittees. This can best be done by formu- lating definite practical plans for the solution of important problems in management of the range unit involved, so that the stockmen will have a definite object in organizing. After a local association has been organized and has been officially recognized by the district for- ester, special rules may be adopted by the association as needed to carry out specific plans in the management of the range and the stock. Special rules are of two kinds: (1) Those that not only aim directly to promote the interests of stockmen but are designed to secure a better and fuller use of the forage resources; and (2) those that aim wholly to promote the interests of the stockmen. The following special rules, which have been adopted by various local live-stock associations, will serve to give a clear idea of the nature of these rules and functions: GROUP 1. AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK AND UTILIZATION OF BANGE. All permiitees grazing cattle and horses on the range within the Caribou Basin allotment will be required to pay their pro rata share of assessments levied by the Caribou Basin Cattlemen’s Association for salting, herding, and handling of permitted stock. The advisory board shall purchase salt, attend to its distribution, hire the necessary riders to handle the stock, and levy an assess- ment sufficient to meet these expenditures.* Subject to the supervision and control of the Forest Service, the Willow Creek Grazing Association is hereby authorized to purchase salt, employ herders or riders, superintend the salting, herding, and handling of all cattle and horses grazed under permit on the range open to this class of stock within the Willow Creek division of district 6 of the Fishlake National Forest. All persons hold- ing permits to graze cattle and horses on this division will be required to cooperate with the association in this respect if they desire to allow their stock i Caribou Basin Cattlemen's Association, Caribou Forest. RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. AT to graze at large upon the range, and the issuance of grazing permits will be withheld in all cases and the stock denied admittance to the Forest until the pro rata assessment levied by the association for the above-mentioned purposes during any one year is paid into the treasury of the association. This rule will remain in full force and effect so long as the membership of the association represents a majority of those holding permits to graze cattle and horses on the Willow Creek division of district 6 of the Fishlake Forest. On or before the final date set for the receipt of grazing applications each year the association will furnish the supervisor with an estimate of the amount of money required for the purposes above mentioned. When permit allotments have been made for the season the supervisor will advise the secretary of the association of the names and addresses of the permittees, the number of stock which each will be allowed to graze upon the Forest, and the per capita assess- ment which may be levied by the association. This will be determined by dividing the total amount of money to be collected by the grazing allotment of the division. Upon receipt of the assessment the treasurer or secretary of the association will notify the forest supervisor that payment has been made, so that permit may be issued.’ GROUP 2. PRIMARILY OF BENEFIT TO STOCKMEN. 1. Beginning with the grazing season of 1917 all permittees authorized to graze cattle on that portion of district 6, Cache National Forest, represented by the Cattle and Horse Growers’ Association of district 6, must place on the range with their cattle one registered pure-bred bull of some recognized beef breed for each 25 head of female breeding cattle or fraction thereof, provided permittees grazing less than 25 head of female cattle of breeding age may arrange for joint ownership of bull which shall not represent more than 25 head of breed- ing cattle: Provided further, That in lieu of such bull a permittee may deposit $2.50 per head for each female breeding animal one year of age or over, as his service fee, to be paid into the treasury of the association, the association assum- ing responsibility of furnishing the necessary bulls to meet such cases, 2. Breeding age of female cattle, as contemplated by Rule 1, will include all female cattle one year old or over. 8. In order to secure more uniform-aged calves no bull shall be turned on the range represented by the association until July 1 of each year.’ All permittees of the Montpelier-Elk Valley allotment will be required to furnish one pure-bred bull of beef breed, not less than 15 months of age or more than 8 years, for each 25 head or fraction thereof of female breeding cattle permitted to run on such range. No person shall permit any bull to run on the same range at any other time than during three successive breeding seasons; provided the term “female breeding cattle” shall not apply to female cattle under 12 months of age, and provided that two or more persons may join together in furnishing such bull when the aggregate number of female breed- ing cattle turned loose upon the same range by any two or more persons does not exceed a number of 25 head. Any person failing to comply with this rule shall be liable to have his appli- eation disapproved the following season. All bulls shall be inspected and passed by a committee appointed by the advisory board of the Caribou Cattle- men’s Association.,® 1 Willow Creek Grazers’ Association, Fishlake Forest. 2Cattle and Horse Growers’ Association, district 6, Cache Forest. ® Caribou Cattlemen’s Association, Caribou Forest. 48 BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ~ Additional references (arranged chronologically). Potter, Albert F. Questions Regarding the Public Grazing Lands of the Western United States. Senate Document 189, Fifty-eighth Congress, third session, Appendix, pp. 5—25, 1965. Coville, Frederick V. A Report on Systems of Leasing Large Areas of Grazing Land. Senate Document 189, Fifty-eighth Congress, third session, Appendix, pp. 26-61, 1905. Thornber, J. J. The Grazing Ranges of Arizona. Arizona Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Bulletin 65, 1910. Wooton, E. O. Factors Affecting Range Management in New Mexico. Us: Department of Agricuiture, Bulletin 211, 1915. Barnes, Will C., and Jardine, James T. Livestock Production in the Eleven Far Western Range States. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of See- retary, Report No. 110, Part II, 1916. Wooton, E. O. Carrying Capacity of Grazing Ranges in Southern Arizona. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 367, 1916. Jardine, James T., and Hurtt, L. C. Increased Cattle Production on South- western Ranges. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 588, 1917. Winkjer, Joel G. Cooperative Bull Associations. U. S. Department of Agri- culture, Farmers’ Bulletin 993, 1918. Sampson, Arthur W., and Weyl, L. H. Range Preservation and Its Relation to Erosion Control on Western Grazing Lands. U. §. Department of Agricul- ture, Bulletin 675, 1918. Forsling, Clarence L. Chopped Soapweed as Emergency Feed for Cattle on Southwestern Ranges, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 745, 1919. MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP ON THE RANGE. CONTROL. Control over the number and distribution of stock is a fundamental requirement of effective range management. Control of the number of sheep entering a National Forest or any large range unit of the Forest is comparatively simple. The sheep are under a herder and can be counted in at the Forest boundary and be driven to a range unit in a given time over an established route. On the unfenced sheep ranges of the public domain such control 1s lacking; and, as a consequence, these ranges are run down and in many places are still deteriorating. On ranges of the National Forests the problems in sheep manage- ment are: (1) To establish range sheep units; (2) to get the sheep on these units with the least damage to the range; (3) to prevent tres- pass from one range unit to another; and (4) to see that the sheep are so handled as to secure uniform distribution of grazing and full utilization of the forage. ESTABLISHING SHEEP RANGE UNITS. In general, the practice on ranges within the National Forests has been to divide the sheep range into units which will furnish sufficient forage for a band of sheep during the established grazing period. In some cases the range unit, or allotment, includes range for several bands of sheep owned by one permittee. The assignment of an individual range to each band places respon- sibility for proper use of the range squarely upon the individuals RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 49 4 owning and those herding the sheep. This is desirable for the sheep owners and for the range. It does away with the old practice of racing for a desirable range area, trampling down forage, and doing permanent injury to the range en route; and, if trespass from one unit to another is prevented, it makes possible the use of the poorer areas of range when they can be used best, without danger of other bands coming in the meantime and grazing off choice areas. The advantages of range sheep units to accommodate one band of sheep, therefore, are so marked that an effort should be made to assign each band to a definite range unit whether two or more bands are owned by one permittee or not, for competition between herders under one employer may sometimes result in unnecessary abuse of the range. CONTROL BY UNITS. To secure the best results trespass between units must be avoided, for the individual using a range unit may hesitate te graze properly the range allotted to his band if by doing so he defers grazing upon a choice piece of range which will be a temptation to an adjoining band. Further, trespass upon an allotment might result im over- _ grazing of the allotment before the close of the season. Innocent trespass may occur unless the boundaries of units are readily recognized on the ground. For this reason the unit bounda- ries should be along prominent ridges, so farasis practicable. Streams sometimes are made the dividing line, but where it is possible a band should be allowed the range on both sides of a stream which sheep will cross readily. Otherwise sheep of two bands may mix or there may be too many sheep watering at one stream for the welfare of the range. Unfortunately, the range within the boundary lines which form a natural range unit frequently furnishes too much or too little forage for the sheep in one band. On rugged mountain range it is usually possible to adjust the boundary linés so as to exclude or include range for probably 200 or more sheep and still have boundary lines which should make innocent trespass unlikely. Where the estimated graz- ing capacity of the unit is greater or less than the number of sheep in the band by, say, from 50 to 200 head, the difference is so small that it is not always possible to enlarge or reduce the allotment to accommodate the size of the band and still have satisfactory boundary lines. Where this is the case the size of the band should be adjusted eventually to fit the range. As far as practicable, the size of the unit or allotment should be adapted to the number of sheep in the band; but this principle should not be followed if waste of forage, overgrazing, or innocent trespass, due to poor boundary lines, will result. From 1,000 to 1,200 ewes 111479°—Bull. 79019 —4 | 50 BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. with their lambs, as a general rule, should be the most run im one band. Only mm exceptional cases should the band exceed 1,500 ewes with their lambs, or from 2,000 to 2,500 dry sheep. Larger bands are difficult to handle without injury to a forest range. HANDLING THE. SHEEP. An exhaustive discussion of handling sheep on the range would itself fill a volume. The aim here is sumply to point out the more important features of proper handling without attempting to ex- plain fully the ways in which the general procedure recommended should be adjusted to the local conditions of range and personnel. HERDING. As early as 1909' investigations showed that mountain summer range grazed by sheep under fence supported from 25 to 50 per cent more sheep than were being grazed on the same acreage of similar range on which the sheep were herded by the methcds generally practiced at that time, and that the pastured sheep made better gains in weight than the herdtd sheep. It was found also that there may be a variation of at least 25 per cent in the grazing capacity of a given range when used by the same sheep under diiferent herders. From four years’ study of the aetions of the pastured sheep and the - methods of herding on untfenced range it was concluded that the marked differences in grazing capacity and in growth of the sheep under the two systems were due largely to a few differences in the way the sheep were handled—diferences which could be largely eliminated by improved methods of herding. The desired changes have been tried out in many experiments, and perhaps 50 per cent or more of the sheep grazed on ranges within the National Forests are now herded under improved metheds. The prob- jem now is to secure the adoption of better methods by the other 59 per cent. One of the first steps in bringing this about is to follow strictly the regulation” below: Sheep and goats must not be bedded more than three nights in suecession. in the same place, except when bedding bands of ewes during the lambing season; and must not be bedded within 300 yards of any running stream or living spring, except in rare cases where this restriction is clearly impracticable. The three-night limit is for rare cases where one-night bedding in a place is clearly impracticable. As a general rule sheep should be bedded one night ma place. Fhe damage to range so character- istic around old bedding grounds will then be eliminated, and the 1jJames T. Jardine. The Pasturage System for Handling Range Sheep. U. 8. Forest Service, Cireular 178, £910. 2U. 8. Forest Service. The National Forest Manual, Grazing Regulation 26. RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 51 sheep will be on fresh feed during the cool hours of the morning and evening, when they graze best on the summer range. The herder should be with his sheep, ordinarily, from the time they begin grazing in the afternoon until they are shaded up the fel- lowing forenoon. This is necessary to prevent straying and as a protection against predatory animals. Coyotes, especially, attack sheep most frequently in the late evening and early in the morning. Bears usually attack the band during the night. In some localities the herder remains with his sheep all the time, carrying his camp outfit, provisions, and, if necessary, drinking water, on a pack ani- nal, usually a burro. This practice is desirable in all localities; but where feed is good and the range untimbered, or only partly tim- bered and not too brushy, good results are obtained where the herder leaves the sheep for a short period during the middie of the day, while they are resting. This matter, therefore, should be adjuste to the local conditions of range and the ciass of herders. Lhe sheep should be allowed to begin grazing soon after daybreak so that they will fill up before the heat of day. Their course of travel can be directed by the herder, and, if necessary, the leaders should _be checked so that the herd will spread out quietly over an area sufficient to provide forage for the morning. Until the sheep settle down to rest after the morning grazing the herder should move quietly around the outside of the herd, keeping track especially of the leaders, but net disturbing them except where necessary to check them or change their direction. Between 7 and 9 o’clock in the morning during summer the sheep usually settle down to rest. ‘They will not move far during the re- mainder of the warm part of the day and need not be disturbed. The herder should go around the outside of the band occasionally to see that none of the sheep are straying off. During the time that the sheep are resting the herder has several hours to do his main cooking for the day. Where the burro system is followed he usually makes a cup of coffee before starting his sheep at daybreak. When the sheep shade up he unpacks his burro and does his cooking. Herders who do not remain with the sheep all the time, carrying their provisions and cooking outfit, return to the herder’s supply eamp while the sheep are resting and do their cook- ing and camp work for the day. Herders who follow this plan usu- ually eat two meals at the supply camp each day, one upon arrival in the morning and one before leaving to round up the sheep and re- main permanently with them during the night. The herder’s sup- ply camp should be moved often enough so that he will be able to go around the band occasionally while they are resting. During the scouting trips around the band a bedding place for the night should be selected; and, if the burro system is not being followed, the 52 BULLETIN 780, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. herder’s bed and salt for the sheep should be moved to the new loca- tion. A site comparatively open, free from down timber and brush, and larger than the actual bedding space required should be selected. On an open site the lambs can find their mothers with the least diffi- culty; there is least danger from attack by predatory animals, and there is less danger of a “ pile up” or crippling of sheep in case the band is frightened during the night. High, dry ground on mounds or ridges furnishes the best sites for bedding grounds. Sheep bedded in canyons with adjacent inter- mediate ground open or comparatively free from dense timber and brush have a tendency to leave the bed ground and drift to the ridges. They rarely drift far from a ridge into a canyon. Where heavy timber and brush extend over large areas of the range, small openings are of vital importance. Their location should be known, and grazing should be planned so as to use them to best advantage. | In gathering the sheep in the evening it is especially important that the herder circle the outermost tracks made by the sheep during the day. Tracks are the best indicators of where the sheep have been. From this outer circle the sheep should be turned toward the site selected for bedding. Stragglers and isolated bunches should be driven to the main band. By about 6 o’clock the sheep should be collected into a loose band near the bedding ground. They may then graze in this formation until they bed for the night. Mean- time, the herder should move about them, counting the bells and markers and watching the ewes and lambs. Lambs that can not find their mothers or ewes that can not find their lambs in a reason- able time may be indications that the sheep are not all in. Care in rounding up the sheep at night can not be overemphasized. The greatest losses occur from leaving small bunches away from the band, subject to attack by predatory animals. WATERING, The length of time sheep may be away from water depends upon the character of the forage and the weather. On high mountain summer range within National Forests sheep have been grazed suc- cessfully during the entire summer without water. Ordinarily, when the vegetation is succulent, the weather cool, and heavy dew frequent, sheep do not require water oftener than every three or four days. During hot, dry days they will do best if shade, forage, and water are convenient. Areas of succulent feed near water and shade should be reserved for this period. In late summer and fall cool weather and storms ordinarily make watering oftener than every three or four days unnecessary. ‘aduer 04} 0} Aimfut 97991] SeM O10Yy} pue SuTUVAD 9}e[ pue Surasour AjIeo ul paaj ysery peg dooys oy [, “PYysTU yours posn seM punois peq Mou B UI9}sKs JnNO-sUIpPped 9Yy} JepuNn pe[puvy doevys osoy} YM *90d0} S,Jops0y OY} Jeou JYsIU OY} JOF poyoo][oo desyg W-0218e—-A4 PLATE XXV. Bul. 790, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXVI. Bul. 790, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. v—6oL8e—J4 “surpsoy JO uroysAs JNO-SuIppoqd oy} Jopun “ul ‘ve 6 Ve ..dn popeys,, dosoyg Bul. 790, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXVII. F—38725—-A USSR BO URS 4 Sheep handled under the bedding-out system grazing quietly on good feed just before sundown. SIE ABE PLATE XXVIII. Bul. 790, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ie reo Z pue T ore sjue]d [euis Jo Joquinu 921K] oy], OuM—EeI-—A4 *sseid youn “SI6L PUB ‘LIOL ‘9L6L 5 ureyunour Jo syuv]d plo ulinp Sulzead ysurese po}oo}0Id ynq ‘OT6T 07 Jord dooys Aq pozesisI9AO ATLAvOY OFuLyy RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 53 - If the sheep are herded as suggested in the preceding paragraphs, watering oftener than every few days is not only unnecessary but: may not be for the best interests of the sheep if they can reach water only by traveling several miles into deep canyons. They should be grazed, not driven to water, and then grazed back. Careful planning will make it possible ordinarily to direct the course of the band so that they will reach water in late morning or midafternoon. An hour on water during these periods of the day will be sufficient. They should not be shaded up near the water for several hours. Such practice is equivalent to bedding near a stream or living spring and may result in unnecessary contamination of the water supply. SALTING. Salt is essential to the welfare of the sheep and makes them more contented and easier to herd. It would be best to have salt on the bedding place every night, but this is not alwavs practicable on the range without a great deal of labor. Sheep can be salted, however, at least every five to seven days. Crystal sack salt or dairy salt should be used. About 100 pounds every five days for 1,200 ewes and their lambs should be a minimum. Where practicable, from 50 to 75 pounds of salt every three days for a band of 1,200 ewes is more satisfactory than a greater amount fed less often. Salting every night on a new bedding ground helps to make the sheep contented during the night. The salt is sometimes fed in portable wooden or canvas troughs. The necessity of having a great many troughs or of moving them frequently affords a temptation to bed the sheep more than one night in a place. Furthermore, if sheep are going to the salt troughs at all times of the night the disturbance may make the band restless. The salt should be distributed, one or two handfuls in a place, on rocks, clean ground, or grass. Care should be exercised not to put it where there is gravel, sand, or loose dirt. Sand or gravel in the salt may result in marked injury to the teeth. If salt is distributed in small piles before the sheep reach the salting ground, there will be comparatively little waste and all the sheep will get salt in a short time. It is doubtful if this method will be replaced to any great extent by salting in troughs if the sheep are bedded a maximum of three nights in one place. TIMELY USE OF FORAGE. A well-thought-out plan for grazing the range allotted to each band of sheep on summer range will be to the advantage of both sheep and range. Usually on each allotment there are areas where the forage grows to maturity quickly and then dies. On cther areas the forage becomes tough and of low palatability by midseason. On 54 BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. still others the forage remains green and tender throughout the sea- son. Sheep, especially ewes and lambs, make most rapid gains on suceulent tender forage. For this reason the weight of lambs at the close of the grazing season may be varied at least 5 pounds by a difference in the plan of grazing the range allotted to the band. The endeavor should be to use the range so as to have green, tender feed for the longest time possible. This will necessitate moving the herd- er’s supply camp, if one is used, oftener than is done ordinarily, but the extra moving will be justified by the production of heavier sheep. Range with green feed and shade should be reserved for use during the hot weather. The owner of the sheep, or some one employed by him, should see to it that the herder is kept supphed with provisions and salt for the’ sheep and that the herder’s camp is moved as often as is necessary to keep it near the sheep, provided the burro system is not foliowed. Lack of consideration for the herder in these matters usually results in neglect of the sheep or injury to the range from driving the sheep to the supply camp and holding them too long on near-by range. The practice which allows the owner of the sheep or the eamp mover to visit the herder at intervals of two weeks or longer is out of date, or should be, in all localities. Whoever does this work might profitably spend more time on the range helping to work out the erder of camps, seeing that a prompt search is made for jost sheep and that due consideration 1s given to the needs of the herder, so that he can devote his attention entirely to proper handling of the sheep. The methed of handling sheep here outlined is now followed, with slight variation, in the management of perhaps 50 per cent of the 8,500,000 sheep grazed within the National Forests and should be followed by the other 50 per cent. The manner in which the sheep. are handled is an important factor in deciding whether certain water- sheds and forest areas may be used for sheep grazing without un- warranted interference with watershed protection and forest protec- tion, and is important m determining the grazing capacity of the range as well as the gain in weight of the sheep. Additional references (arranged chronologically). Coville, Frederick . Forest Growth and Sheep Grazing in the CVascade Moun- tains of Oregon. U.S. Division of Forestry, Bulletin 15, 1898. Kkennedy, P. B. Summer Ranges-of Hastern Nevada Sheep. Nevada Agricul- tural Experiment Station, Bulletin 55, 1903. Jardine, James T. The Pasturage System for Handling Range Sheep. U. 5%. Forest Service, Circular 178, 1910. Jardine, James 'T. Coyote-proof Hnelosures in Connection with Range Lambing Grounds, U. S. Forest Service, Bulletin 97, 1911. Jardine, James T. Pastures and Sheds in Connection with Range Lambing Grounds. National Wool Grower, vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 17-21, Mareh, 1915." Jardine, James T. Possibility of Predueing More and Better Sheep by Inm- provement in Methods of Handling on the Range. National Woot Grower, vol. 5,: No. 4, pp. 15-18, April, 1915.” ~ 1A few reprints available in the Forest Service, Washington, D. C, RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 55 Fleming, C. E. “Blanket” System of Handling Sheep on the Madison National Forest. National Weol Grower, vol. 5, No. 5, pp. 7-10, May, 1915.* Dougias, L. BH. .The “ Bedding Out” System of Handling Sheep on the Big- horn National Forest, Wyoming. National Wool Grower, vol. 5, No. 6, pp. 18-16. June, 2915." Martineau, Bryant S. Handling Sheep on Timber and Brush Ranges of Idaho. _ National Wool Grower, vol. 5, No. 7, pp. 7-11, July, 1915.7 Jardine. James T. Grazing Sheep on Range Without. Water. National Wool Grower, vol. 5, No. 9, pp 7-10, September, 1915.7 Hill, Robert R. Lambing Methods on National Forests in the Southwest. Na- tional Wool Grower, vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 7-10, Mareh, 1916. Barnes, Will C., and Jardine, James T. Live-stock Production in the Eleven Kar Western Range States. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of the Secretary, Rept. 110, Part HL, 1916. Marshall, Ff. R., and Millin, RK. Bb. Farm Sheep Raising for Beginners. WU. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers’ Bulletin 840, 1917. Extension Service, University of Wisconsin. Shepherd’s Calendar. American Sheep Breeder, vol. 37, No. & p. 469, Auugst, 1917. Ritzman, HE. G. Nature and Rate of Growth of Lambs During the First Year. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Journal of Agricultural Research, vol. 11, No. 11, pp. 607-624, Dec. 10, 1917. Fleming, C. HE. One-nigth Camps v. Established Bed-grounds on Nevada Sheep Ranges. Nevada Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 94, 1918. STOCK DRIVEWAYS. During the fiseal year ended June 30, 1917, a total of 2,176 permits were issued, allowing 56,954 head of cattle, 1,148 head of horses, 3,385,429 sheep, and 47,897 goats to cross National Forest lands en route to and from the ranges used by the respective permittees. The number of stock which uses the National Forest lands in this capacity varies little from year to year. There may be a slight decrease in the future, but it will be necessary to provide crossing privileges for at least 3,000,000 head of stock each year for a number of years, and for acne this number permanently. The distances that the stock are driven vary from perhaps less than 1 mile to about 125 miles. It is evident, therefore, that a considerable acreage must be devoted to this phase of range utilization. It is equally evident that on every National Forest where grazing is an important activity a great deal of attention should be given to getting the stock to their allotted range with the least injury to timber growth, watersheds, and the range, and with the minimum interference with proper graz- ing use of range along the way. Driveways have been established over portions of the National For- ests where it is necessary for stock to cross regularly. Many of these. driveways have been in use for a number of years and show the ill effects of premature grazing, overgrazing, and trampling. Hill,’ for example, reported on this subject as follows: One of the most serious menaces. to reproduction (western yellow pine), as well as. to ramge, occurs on stock driveways. Even at best an excessive number 1A few reprints available in the Forest Service, Washington, D. €. 2Hili, Robert RB. Iiffeets. of Grazing upon Western Yellow Pine Reproduction in the National Forests of Arizona and New Mexico. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bul. 580, 1917. 56 - BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of stock must use these strips of range, and injury can not be avoided. How- ever, all practicable means should be used to conserve the stand of forage by furnishing sufficient feed for the stock using the driveways to reduce the injury to reproduction to a minimum. In order to accomplish this, it is reeommended that driveways be used as little as possible; that, whenever practicable, they be closed to grazing except by passing steck; that a sufficient number be estab- lished to prevent overgrazing; and that water be furnished in abundance at proper intervals along them. These conclusions and recommendations are sound, and should be considered seriously in the location and use of stock driveways. It might also be well to consider the possibility of increasing the num- ber of driveways and adopting a system of rotation in their use, so as to give each driveway protection against grazing during the grow- ing season for, say, two years in succession out of each four-year period. In some cases it may be possible and necessary to narrow the driveway to the width actually necessary to drive a band of sheep over and to provide supplemental grazing areas at intervals along the way where the sheep can be furnished the amount of grazing neces- sary for their maintenance en route. Should this be done, the dis- tance between grazing areas and the amount of grazing required for each band at each stop should be determined with care, so as to pre- vent overgrazing as well as unnecessary consumption of forage en route. The grazing areas might be numbered and a plan devel- oped whereby the first half of the stock to pass over the driveway would use only a designated number of grazing areas, leaving the rest fresh for later stock. It should be understood that these are only suggestions for consid- eration in adjusting any given driveway problem. No definite policy can be offered at this time. Careful study of the problem on every important grazing Forest is urged. The cumulative annual damage by this time may have reached a stage where a change in a driveway or a portion of it is imperative. A driveway should not be looked upon as a thing fixed for all time, and therefore of no further con- cern. Each driveway should be inspected annually to determine the condition of the range, the damage to timber growth, the extent of erosion, if any, and possible changes to minimize damage and facili- tate movement of stock to and from the range. RANGE RESEEDING. SEEDING TO CULTIVATED FORAGE PLANTS. The grazing capacity of western range lands varies from small meadows where a few acres will support a cow during the summer grazing season to lands where 100 acres will barely support a cow throughout the year. Between these extremes there are all grades of range, with the greater part somewhere near the average of 2 bf RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. Ot or 3 acres per cow per month, waste areas excluded. The main reasons for this low grazing capacity, as compared with the capacity of most farm pastures, are (1) the natural low productivity ef the range lands and (2) the range deterioration. Whatever the cause of low grazing capacity, it is only natural that there should be many appeals to National, State, and private agencies for seed of forage plants which will work wonders in the way of increasing the supply of forage and improving its quality. Such plants may be found or may be developed at some time in the distant future; they are not available at present. There are, however, limited areas within the National Forests upon which the expense of seeding to cultivated forage plants may be war- ranted by the resulting improvement in the forage crop. Over 500 seeding tests have been conducted by the Forest Service since 1907 in an attempt to determine just what kind of lands can be seeded = profitably, the species to use, and the methods which will secure the best results. The information available is largely included in De- partment of Agriculture Bulletin 421 : The results presented in Bulletin 4, as well as the results of investi- gations since it was issued, indicate that the expense of seeding range lands to cultivated species 1s warranted only on mountain meadows and other areas of minor extent 500 feet or more below true timber line and having favorable soil and moisture conditions. Even on lands of this character, if they already support a stand of native perennial vegetation covering 60 per cent or more of the ground surface, seed- ing to cultivated forage plants will rarely be successful. The soil is in poor condition to receive the seed, and the cultivated forage plants will rarely replace the hardy native vegetation. It is realized that this description will not enable the reader to decide readily whether a given area should be seeded; but the limitations given will exclude at once dry bunchgrass hillsides, dry timbered or untimbered lands where there is a scanty growth of native grasses, weeds, or shrubs, and other areas where the native vegetation indicates that soil and moisture conditions are unsuitable for all but hardy, drought-resistant native plants. Most men having to do with the supervision and use of western range are somewhat familiar with the conditions under which timo- thy, redtop, and the clovers can be grown successfully on farms and ranches. If similar conditions of soil and moisture are found on range lands, and the native vegetation ts scant, the advisability of seeding to cultivated plants should be looked into. Not infrequently, however, recommendations for seeding to cultivated forage plants are based upon the fact that timothy, redtop, bluegrass, clover, or 1 Sampson, Arthur W., The Reseeding of Depleted Grazing Lands to Cultivated Forage Plants, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bul. 4, 1913. 58 BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. - some other cultivated species is found growing along wagon tracks, in the center of a wagon road, or around camp grounds. In such places the greund usually has been made more favorable for recei¥- ing the seed and retaining moisture as a result of some disturbance or fertilization. Further, it 1s probable that a great many seeds have been scattered in these places compared with the few which grow and become established. The conditions of soil, moisture, fer- tility, and competition of native vegetation where the cultivated plants are found growing as compared with those on the area to be seeded should be carefully studied before recommendations are made. it should be remembered that seeding to cultivated forage plants will cost + from $1 to $5 per acre if properly dene, and that protection against grazing during the first year after seeding is essential to suc- cess. Cultivated species can not be expected to succeed and continue productive on the range with less protection than is required for their successful growth on the farm. It is not the object of this discussion, however, to discourage all consideration of seeding to cultivated forage plants. On the con- trary, this phase of range imprevement must be given more con- sideration as grazing becomes more intensive and as the value of range increases. What is needed is more careful examination of the comparatively small acreage of lands where soil and moisture con- ditions are similar to those of farm and ranch lands which are pro- ducing profitable pasturage of cultivated forage plants. Of lands in this class the most promising are mountain meadows and parks, alluvial flats along streams, and other areas of deep soil with con- siderable organic matter. ‘There undoubtedly are many acres of mountain meadow and park lands within the National Forests which should be improved by seed- ing and by other means as soon as it is feasible to follow seeding by the care and grazing management necessary for successful growth and maintenance of the forage crop resulting from seeding. These areas In most cases are such as ior many years have been favorite congregating places for cattle, bedding grounds for sheep, salting grounds for both classes of stock, locations for separating corrals, round-up grounds, and camp grounds. In a great many cases exces- sive use for these purposes has hastened erosion and lowered the stream bed until the water level is far below the surface of the ground; and the meadow, once moist and productive, has become dry and low in productivity. Seeding alone will not bring about the de- sired improvement in such cases. The water must be distributed over the surface instead of running down a channel 5 to 20 feet deep, and abusive use must be eliminated. The fact that many mountain 1 Sampson, Arthur W., The Reseeding of Depleted Grazing Lands to Cultivated Forage Plants, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bul. 4, 19132. RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 59 meadows in run-down condition are privately owned is evidence that the demand for range has not become acute enough to result in ex- pensive improvement and the effort necessary for preservation and wise use. To some extent this apples also to seeding other than in meadows. When everybody concerned is prepared to share volun- tarily in the improvement and upkeep and wise use of all range, the matter of seeding will assume greater importance than at present in comparison with other range improvements. Meantime there is opportunity for careful observation on every. National Forest to select the areas where seeding will probably be warranted when this method of improvement becomes of enough comparative importance. Time of seeding, quantity of seed, methods of seeding, cultural treatment, and protection from grazing until the plants have become firmly pctalsliched are fully discussed in Bulletin 4.1 The selection of species for seeding also is fully discussed in the same bulletin. The list given, however, includes a number of species which should be tested further by seeding under expert supervision before they are used extensively. The species which have given the best results are timothy, Kentucky blue grass, smooth brome grass, redtop, alsike clover, and white clover. Range seeding should be confined primarily to these species unless other species are known locally to have given satisfactory results under conditions similar to those on lands whera seeding is to be done. Investigations have been under way for several years to determine the practicability of hastening revegetation on depleted ranges by seeding with seed ef suitable native forage plants. A number of ' promising species have been grown in nurseries in the hope of select- ing plants which can be placed under cultivation so that seed may be secured without prohibitive cost. The indications are that, for a number of years at least, the most economical method will be to pro- tect. areas where the plants of which seed is desired are already grow- ing vigorously and from these areas collect seed for use on similar denuded lands in the same locality. While the cost of collecting the native seed is high and the seed often of low fertility, there appear to be future possibilities of building up and maintaining range in this way. Further tests on a large scale are under way to find out mora definitely the results which may be expected, as well as the cost. Reliable data will no doubt be available by the time that extensive seeding can be undertaken. NATURAL RESEEDING. The limited possibility of increasing the forage crop by seeding range lands to cultivated forage plants emphasizes the need of build- 1 Sampson, Arthur W., The Reseeding of Depleted Grazing Lands to Cultivated Forage Plants. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bul, 4, 1913, 60 BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ing up depleted ranges and maintaining all range lands by giving the desirable native forage plants a chance to reproduce. The mainte- nance of maximum forage production would not be difficult if graz- ing could be deferred on all ranges each year until the forage plants have gone to seed. Protection to this extent, however, is clearly im- practicable because of the need for range forage during the main growing season of the vegetation. Necessity, therefore, demands a system which will permit the maximum grazing possible during the growing season and still maintain the range. Such a system must take into consideration the requirements of the vegetation which makes up the forage crop and the relation of grazing to these re- quirements at different stages of growth. For many of the more im- portant forage plants the natural requirements of growth and re- production, as well as the way in which grazing interferes with or promotes these requirements, have been studied; and though there is a great deal yet to be learned along these lines, fundamental prin- ciples of grazing management have been developed which have given good results in practical application. It remains to extend the application of these principles to other ranges. in doing so, the first step is to fix the opening of the graz- ing season in accordance with the suggestions of the paragraphs on Grazing Periods. Unless this is done, the management which follows will not produce the results desired. The next step is to carry out the suggestions given in the discussion of Grazing Capacity. It is important, then, that the management of the stock be such as to se- cure as nearly as possible uniform grazing over the range. Local overgrazing around watering places, bedding’ grounds, salting grounds, and other places where stock naturally congregate must be prevented; where it can not be prevented, it should be limited to small areas. Otherwise, the damage from this source will offset, or more than offset, the improvement from other measures. These steps must precede or accompany the application of a system of deferred and rotation grazing intended to promote natural reseeding. DEFERRED AND ROTATION GRAZING, The following are some of the principles developed in investiga- tions on the relation of grazing to growth and reproduction of range forage plants.1 (1) Removal of the herbage year after year during the early part of the growing season weakens the plants, delays the resumption of growth, advances the time of maturity, and decreases the seed production and the fertility of the seed, 1Sampson, Arthur W., Natural Revegetation of Range Lands Based upon Growth Requirements and Life History of the Vegetatior. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. III, No. 2, pp. 93-147, Nov. 16, 1914. RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 61 (2) Under the practice of yearlong or season-long grazing, the growth of the plants and seed production are seriously interfered with. A range so used, when stocked to its full capacity, finally becomes denuded. (3) Grazing after seed maturity in no way interferes with flower-stalk production. As much fertile seed is produced as where the vegetation is pro- tected from grazing during the whole of the year. (4) Deferred grazing (grazing after seed maturity) insures the planting of the seed crop and the permanent establishment of seedling plants without sacrificing the season’s forage or establishing a fire hazard. (5) Deferred grazing can be applied wherever the vegetation remains pal- atabie after Seed maturity and produces a seed crop, provided ample water facilities for stock exist or may be developed. (6) Yearlong protection against grazing of the range favors plant growth and seed production, but does not insure the planting of the seed. Moreover, it is impracticable, because of the entire loss of the forage crop and the fire danger resulting from the accumulation of inflammable material. Excessive damage from grazing during the early part of the grow- ing period is largely avoided if grazing does not begin until the main forage grasses are in the boot. But between this opening date and the time of seed maturity of these same plants there is a period of about six weeks, during which continuous grazing year after year on a fully stocked range would materially weaken the forage plants and result in range deterioration. The system of deferred and rota- tion grazing aims to minimize the injury from grazing during this period (1) by having each portion of the range bear its share of the early grazing and (2) by protecting each portion of the range in its turn until after seed maturity, so that the main forage plants will regain their vigor and reproduce either from seed or vegetatively. Suppose, for example, that the grazing season on a range unit or range allotment covers the period from May 1 to October 31 and that the vegetation is similar in character and the period of growth about the same throughout the unit, with the seed of the main forage plants maturing September 1. To appiy a deferred and rotation grazing system, the unit might be divided into three parts of about equal grazing capacity, in a way to give the best distribution of water and shade and the best control of stock on each third. Suppose the third most in need of improvement is numbered 1, the one second in need of improvement numbered 2, and the third divi- sion numbered 3. The order of deferred grazing for a period of six years should then be as follows: Year. Area No. 1. Area No. 2. Area No. 3 LO1O Pee ee Soo e: Sept. 1 to Oct. 31............ Tly te tovAuMe ole ees May 1 to June 30. L920 eee ESE SUA ea | MOU GIO at NN Bae A Oa May 1 to June 30....-.....-. July 1 to Aug. 31. UATE 3S bo OuocDa OM teeaoes July 1to Aug. 31...... Sees SeptetitorOct. glen yaaa May 1 to June 30. OP Aa ARS ue ae ls ee May 1 to June 30............/..-.. CGO eta Ste aie AE ei uo ky July 1to Aug. 31. io a eas yi 1 Be A Sy ae Oe Re Sa. Ap cate July 1 to Aug. 31 Wile See a Sept. 1 to Oct. 31. = Ste Hes ST RIE Be fay nue. BNR eee ten ee pave ean) Reset es 2 ray Do. 1 Repeat order of grazing for 1919 to 1924. 62 BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The foregoing example apphes to range where the soil still retains most of its original fertility and where there is still considerable of the original perennial vegetation. If the range has deteriorated beyond this stage, more than twe years of deferred grazing on each third of the range will be necessary for revegetation, and the rotation will extend over a longer period. The number of years necessary or the number advisable nope upon the extent to which the vegeta- tion has been killed out and the soil depleted in fertility? and must be decided in the individual case after a careful examination of the vegetation. Deferrec Sens should be continued until there is sat- efaviery reproduction ot the principal forage species. Of course, there are difficulties to overcome in the applheation of deferred and rotation grazing, but in only a very few cases is it im- possible to work out and eventually apply a plan which will aid in maintaining the vigor and productiveness of the main forage plants and occasionally allow the preduction of a seed crop. On ranges within the National Forests the two main difficulties are: (1) Great variation in character of forage and growing season, due to varia- tion in altitude and exposure; (2) lack of fences or other means of contr rolling the stock, espectally cattle. The division of range into spring grazing extending up to about July 1 and summer grazing from July 1 on, as suggested in the dis- cussion of seasonal grazing, will m part overcome the difficulty of variation In growing season. The growimg season throughout the range set aside for spring grazing will ordinarily be uniform enough to admit of a plan for deferred grazing to meet the needs of this range. Likewise, the growing season on the range opened to use about July 1 will be sufficiently uniform to make possible a sub- division for deferred grazing along the lines of the sample plan given. This division into sprmg and summer grazing has been made on parts ef the range on many National Forests, especially on the sheep range. And in many instances deferred and rotation grazing has been apphed in the way shown in figure 4. Eventually there must be some such dtvision en most of the cattle ranges, with cerre- sponding control of the cattle to prevent premature grazing of the higher range in certain cases and in others to prevent seasonlong grazing and overstocking of the range at the lower altitudes. The variation in season of growth between the Forest boundary and the mountain top and high basins is so great that incluston of the 1Sampson, Arthur W., Natural Revegetation of Range Lands Based upon Growth Requirements. and Life Histery of the Vegetation. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Journal © Agricultural Research, Vol. III, No. 2, pp. 93-147, Nov. 16, 1914. Sampson, Arthur W., and Weyl, L. H., Range Preservation and its Relation to Erosion Control on Western Grazing Lands. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bul. 675, 1918. Sampson, Arthur W., Plant Suecession in Relation to Range Management. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bul. 791, 1919. ee RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 63 whole stretch of eountry in one grazing period without control of stock between the boundary and the sky line is ineffective. There should be a division to provide units of management upon which grazing conditions are nearly uniform. TFdentical or even approxi- mately identical conditions can not be expected, because the low om poungary, ubAVI SION Pee one|Soundary Mi weed Range = Aspen fFrange Browse Farge Timber Frarige % pad Sage Brush Range ¥ iy EEE WVAsve FANG & b E> > RPE REPT ve : Grazing to be Deferred Until After Seed Maturity SUBMIS 1Ol2 MO. 4.------ 19/6 ce ales la Vil is He oe: eT GLE us ee eae SGD Fic. 4.—Range type classification and order of deferred grazing for a summer sheep allet- ment en the Caribou National Forest. grazing capacity of the range in general will not justify the quantity of feneing necessary to control the stock on small areas. he first main division between spring and summer range, however, 1s essen- tial and should be warranted, as only large areas are involved. It is worth thinking about and planning for, even if adequate control of stock can not be secured at once. 64 BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Where the spring cattle range is fenced off from the summer range there still is difficulty in securing adequate control of the cattle. It will probably be many years before division fences are built to provide for deferred and rotation grazing on small units, in accordance with the sample plan of this chapter. But cattle units ordinarily are large; and if they are kept large, as suggested in the paragraphs on Management of Cattle, deferred and rotation grazing should eventually be made possible by division fences on both spring and summer range. With this end in view, comprehensive plans for the future management of each cattle unit should be developed as soon as possible, so that fences constructed for other purposes will fit into the plan ultimately to be put into effect. At least, care should be exercised in the location of all fences to see that they will not interfere with the proper division and management of the range unit as a whole. : Meantime deferred grazing can be secured to a considerable extent on parts of cattle range in need of it by salting the stock away from the area to be protected, and in some cases by closing watering places on the area until after seed maturity of the important forage plants. Part of the stock accustomed to grazing the area during the early part of the grazing season will graze the protected area, regardless of insufficient salt and water, but a reduction of 50 per cent in the number that the area is supposed to carry will result in the protection of at least a part of the vegetation. 3 The problem of controlling the stock is not a difficult one in the case of sheep, so long as the range area to be grazed or protected from grazing is large enough to accommodate a band of from 1,000 to 1,500 head of ewes and their lambs under herding. On ranges of high grazing capacity, and not divided into small parts by canyons and ridges, to confine the band to the area represented by one-third of the grazing capacity might necessitate too close herd- ing for the good of either sheep or range. Such a case might readily occur on a high, sparsely timbered summer range grazed only for about six weeks, or on a spring range which is of high grazing capacity, and used for only one or two months. In either case, how- ever, the range involved is used from a number of central camps. Instead of using the camps in the same order every year, the order can be changed so that during a period of five or six years the range used from each camp will stand its share of grazing prior to seed maturity, so far as is consistent with the use of the range when the forage is suitable for sheep. Such a plan is shown in figure 3. In a few cases the difficulty of adjustment has been overcome by using three or four sheep allotments as the unit for a system of deferred and rotation grazing, one allotment at a time being pro- PLATE XXIX. Iture. gricu Bul. 790, U. S. Dept. of A F-31395-A ary 10N. ds and grasses of second f the reg inly the best forag € grasses O 1S wee grazed heavily after the plants matured seed each The area to the right has been grazed during the main Much of the vegetation to the right lon is ma ft the vegetat: To the le growing season. year for a number of years. forage value. The area on the left of the fence has been PLATE XXX. lture. gricu Bul. 790, U. S. Dept. of A o80I—4 0 OO “eoryoVid sty} Woy J[NSer Aeur uoryoOnpoidoes oy} 07 Asnfur poyuRsise MU) “uolyONpoidoel 991} Ul ,.dn popeys,, dsayg RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 65 tected until after seed maturity. This plan involves frequent redi- vision of range or departure from individual ranges for each band during the grazing season. It may work satisfactorily in some cases, but not generally. If it is necessary in order to build up an area, however, such a plan with its accompanying readjustments should be followed. The application of this plan would involve the substitution of allotments for the subdivisions in figure 4 and in the example given on page 61. Tt would be difficult and perhaps unnecessary to discuss further the local preblems to be overcome in applying deferred grazing. The suggestions given here and in the paragraphs on Grazing Periods and Grazing Capacity will make clear the importance of giving each portion of the range the maximum opportunity for unhindered growth after the growing season opens. Where possible a system of deferred and rotation grazing should be put into application. Where the application of such a system is not possible at the present time it should be provided for in working out future plans of manage- ment. Meantime, the period of using the range from a given camp on sheep range should be varied trom year to year so as to distribute the early grazing as far as practicable. On cattle range, salting, closing water, and riding should be resorted to in the absence of fences to distribute early and late grazing; but the aim should be to have the cattle ranges grazed under a system of deferred and rota- tion grazing ultimately, as a means of maintaining the forage pro- duction under maximum grazing. Improvement varying from a few per cent to several hundred per cent has been brought about in partly depleted ranges as a result of following this system of grazing; and new evidence is available each -season indicating that probably 25 per cent more stock can be carried on a range year after year under a deferred and rotation grazing system than on the same range with no effective provision for distributing the grazing prior to seed ma- turity, or no adequate provision for natural revegetation. Additional references (arranged chronologically). Kennedy, P. B. Cooperative Experiments with Grasses and Forage Plants. U. 8S. Division of Agrostology, Bulletin 22, 1900. Lamson-Scribner, F. Economic Grasses. U.S. Division of Agrostology, Bulle- tin 14, 1900. ; Hitchcock, A. 8. Cultivated Forage Crops of the Northwestern States. U.S. Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 31, 1902. Nelson, Elias. Native and Introduced Saltbushes. Wyoming Agricultural Ex- periment Station, Bulletin 63, 1904. Cotton, J. S. Range Management in the State of Washington. U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 75, 1905. Cotton, J. S. The Improvement of Mountain Meadows. U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 127, 1908. Griffiths, D. The Reseeding of Depleted Range and Native Pastures. U. S. ; Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 117, 1907. Vinall, H. N. Meadow Fescue; Its Culture and Uses. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers’ Bulletin 361, 1909, 111479°—Bull. 790—19——_5 66 BULLETIN 790 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Griffiths, D. «& Protected Stoek Range in Arizona. U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 177, 1910. Thornber, J. J. The Grazing Ranges of Arizona. Arizona Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Bulletin 65, 1910. Sampson, Arthur W. Range Improvement by Deferred and Rotation Grazing. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 34, 1913. Jardine, James T. FImprovement and Management of Native Pastures in the West. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Yearbook 1915, pp. 299-310; Year- beok Separate 67S. Douglas, lL. H. Deferred and Rotation Grazing, Hayden National Forest, Wyoming. National Wool Grower, Vol. 5, No. 10, pp. 11-14, October, 1915.7 Wooton, E. O. Factors Affecting Range Management in New Mexico. WU. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 211, 1915. Wooton, E. O. Carrying Capacity of Grazing Ranges in Southern Arizona. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin. 36, 17916. Jardine, James T., and Hurtt, L. C. Increased Cattle Production on South- western Ranges. U. 8S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 588, 1917. Sempson, Arthur W. Important Range Plants. U. S: Department of Agricul- ture, Bulletin 545. 1917. Sempson, Arthur W. Climate and Plant Growth in Certain Vegetative Asso- cations. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 700, 1918. Sar:pson, Arthur W. Plant Succession in Relation to Range Management. U. S. Department of Agirculture, Bulletin 791, 1919. GRAZING AND PROTECTION OF TIMBER, WATERSHEDS, GAME,: AND RECREATIONAL USE. POLICY. “ National Forests have for their objects to insure a perpetual sup- ply of timber, to preserve the forest cover, which regulates the flow of streams, and to provide for the use of all resources which the forests contain, in the ways which will make them of largest service.” ? If the suggestions given in preceding sections on the fundamental principles generally applicable in grazing management are followed. in practice, damage to the forests will be limited to individual cases where a combination of factors makes special treatment necessary to- insure the proper protection of the timber resources and watersheds. On the other hand, the damage may be widespread and unwarranted if division of the range among different classes of stock, periods of grazing, grazing capacity, and management of the stock are not worked out with a reasonable degree of efficiency along the lines suggested. PROTECTION OF TIMBER. CONIFER SPECIES. Through investigation and experience over a period of years a number of important principles have been developed for harmoniz- ing grazing use with the production of timber. The intensive investi- gations on the effeets of grazing upon the reproduction of conifer species have been concentrated mainly on western yellow pine. The suggestions based upon these investigations, however, will serve as a 1A few reprints available in Forest Service, Washington, D. C. *U. S. Forest Service. The National Forest Manual; Regulations and Instructions: RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 67 guide in making’ necessary adjustments where other conifer species are involved. Intensity of grazing—The injury to conifer reproduction from grazing by any class of stock varies directly with the intensity of grazing. Hill+ found in Arizona and New Mexico that “on over- grazed areas all classes of stock are apt to damage small trees (west- ern yellow pine) severely. Cattle and horses may damage about 10 per cent of all reproduction. Where sheep are grazed along with them, however, at least 35 per cent of the total stand may be severely damaged. Ordinarily sheep cause about seven and one-half times as much damage as cattle.” Under normal conditions of grazing, Hill found that “ cattle and horses do an ineonsiderable amount of damage to western yellow-pine reproduction, but that sheep may be respon- sible for severe injury to 11 per cent of the total stand of reproduc- tion under about 4 feet in height.” Sparhawk? found in central Idaho that from 20 to 30 per cent of seedlings less than 1 year old were killed by sheep grazing and trampling on moderately grazed areas and 6.5 per cent on lightly grazed plots. On moderately grazed areas only about 1 per cent of _the yellow-pine reproduction over 3 years of age was killed. Mod- erate grazing means removal of the greater part of the forage readily eaten by sheep. Character of forage.—lf there is an abundance of forage suitable for stock there will be little damage to tree reproduction by browsing. On the other hand, if there is little forage suited to the class of stock, especially sheep, the tree growth within reach will be browsed. This is why moderate grazing by sheep is defined as removal of the-greater part of the forage readily eaten by sheep. Grazing until the less palatable forage is eaten will result in marked increase of damage to young tree growth, both from browsing and trampling. Hill found that on range where the greater part of the forage is bunch grasses, sheep injured 32 per cent of the western yellow-pine reproduction under about 4 feet in height. The same intensity of erazing on range better suited to sheep resulted in severe injury to only about 10 per cent of the reproduction. The bunch grasses were” not overgrazed, but they are not suitable for the main forage for sheep. Even hght grazing would result in considerable damage to the young trees. Cattle on the same range would do little damage if overgrazing were avoided. Time of grazing —Both Hill and Sparhawk found that injury to tree reproduction is least when the range is grazed during the time 1 Hill, Robert R. Effects of Grazing upon Western Yellow Pine Reproduction in the National Forests of Arizena and New Mexico. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bul. 580, 1917. 2Sparhawk, W. N. Effect of Grazing upon Western Yellow Pine Reproduction in Central Idaho. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bul. 738, 1918. 68 BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. that the main forage is tender. This finding is in keeping with the conclusion that the extent of injury depends upon the supply of available forage suitable for the class of stock. When the herbaceous forage becomes dry and tough, sheep browse more on the young trees unless there is other bones more palatable. Method of handling stock.—The way in which sheep are handled has an important bearing upon the extent of damage to tree repro- duction both from trampling and browsing. Close herding, round- Ing up with dogs, driving in a close herd, shading up for long periods, and bedding more than one night in a place are all destruc- tive to young trees. Such practices can not be followed without excessive trampling, which destroys a great many seedlings, or with- out grazing the forage suitable for sheep so closely that the sheep browse the young trees much more than they do where there is plenty of other forage. The damage will vary with the extent of bad man- agement of the sheep, from injury which is not ala arming toe com- plete destruction of tree reproduction under 4 feet in height. If sheep are quietly grazed in loose formation, bedded only one night in a place, and given plenty of salt, the damage to tree reproduction will be kept at a minimum and ordinarily will not be alarming if the forage is suited to sheep and the range is not overgrazed. When cattle congregate around water holes, salt licks, corrals, shading grounds along drainage, and at the edge of parks, they injure a great many young trees by rubbing. On 17 representative plots studied, Hill found 31 per cent of the trees between about 3 feet and 6 feet in height severely damaged. The damage can be reduced by proper salting, more watering places, and riding to keep the cattle properly distributed. It is the general opinion that goat grazing is very destructive to young timber growth. -Undoubtedly this is true where the range is heavily overgrazed and the goats are grazed from one camp through- out the entire year or for long periods. Three years’ study of goat grazing, however, has resulted in data which indicate that a great deal of the damage may be charged to the methods of feosucel tenes the range and the goats.t. Goats prefer almost any other browse and green grass to conifer reproduction. If they are properly handled on range where there is ample forage, including browse and grass suited to them, they will eat little of the conifer reproduction. The old practice of overgrazing the range by goats and returning to one camp every night throughout the year or for long periods means death to the range as well as to the tree growth within reach. This practice should be stopped whether tree growth is involved or not. Goats should be handled under a system of open herding with fre- 1Chapline, W. R. Production of Goats on Far Western Ranges, U. S. Dept. of Agricul- ture, Bul. 749, 1919. \ ‘RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 69 quent change of bedding ground. The bedding-out system of herding so widely adopted in handling sheep should be approached, if not adopted, in the handling of goats on the range. Unless these precau- tions are observed unwarranted injury to both range and tree growth may be expected. ASPEN. A study to determine the effects of grazing upon reproduction of aspen was conducted over a period of years on the Manti National Forest.t It was found that the leafage of young twigs of aspen is browsed in varying degree by both sheep and cattle. Sheep may be responsible for severe damage to aspen reproduction both in stand- ing timber and on clear cuttings, regardless of the variety and sup- ply of other choice forage. The damage from cattle grazing is usually slight, except where the range is overgrazed and around water, salt licks, and shading and bedding grounds where the cattle congregate. Observations over a period of five years on range in standing tim- ber showed that 27.2 per cent of the aspen reproduction under about 40 inches in height was killed by light sheep grazing; 31.8 per cent by moderate grazing; and 65 per cent by heavy grazing. On clear- cut plots the damage annually was found to be exceedingly heavy. ‘Three years of successive sheep grazing on such plots following clear cutting of the standing timber resulted in complete destruction of the aspen reproduction. After the sprouts reach a height of about 45 inches, which takes about three years, they are beyond destructive browsing by sheep. The foregoing conclusions apply, no doubt, to other central Utah Forests than the Manti. Observations elsewhere do not always show such marked damage from sheep grazing on range where other forage suitable for sheep is available. It is a fact, however, that overgraz- ing or heavy grazing by sheep will prevent a good stand of aspen reproduction. Continued overgrazing by cattle also will seriously in- terfere with, if it does not prevent, satisfactory reproduction. It is imperative, therefore, to avoid overgrazing and mismanage- ment of the stock. In addition, only well-regulated, moderate cattle grazing should be allowed in clear-cut and thinned aspen forests during the first three years after cutting or thinning, if it is desired to secure a satisfactory stand of aspen reproduction. IMPORTANCE OF PROPER MANAGEMENT OF THE RANGE AND THE STOCK. In this whole problem of adjusting grazing so that it will not interfere to an unwarranted extent with timber production the foundation is grazing management and management of the stock. 1Sampson, Arthur W. Effect of Grazing upon Aspen Reproduction. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bul. 741, 1919. 70 BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ' If the range is used by the class of stock to which it is best suited, and the grazing and management of stock so regulated that range deterioration is avoided, the general damage to tree reproduction from grazing will not be a cause for worry, and the benefits from grazing, by a reduction of the fire hazard, will offset to a consider- able extent the slight damage which may be done. Perhaps there will always be special cases of reproducing cut- over areas, reproducing burned areas, plantations, and areas of spe- cial Importance in standing timber, where special restrictions in graz- ing management will be necessary. Such areas are small compared with the total acreage of National Forest range. The difficult prob- Jem in such cases is to control the stock and apply the method of management needed without restricting grazing on other areas which might well be grazed. The solution will have to be worked out for the individual case by reduction in number of stock, change in class of stock, fencing to control or exclude stock, herding, water develop- ment, and proper salting. WATERSHED PROTECTION. One primary purpose of the National Forests is to preserve the cover which regulates the flow of streams. Cover in this sense in- cludes the tree cover, the herbaceous and shrubby cover, and the. surface soil with its decayed and decaying vegetable matter. This understanding of cover in relation to the regulation of stream flow is imperative in the management of grazing on the lands within the National Forests. In open-stand forests the herbaceous and shrubby cover and the condition of the surface soil may be important factors controlling run-off. Where this cover is dense or comparatively dense, there will be little danger from grazing the forage as closely as it may be grazed and forage production maintained year after year. Where the herbaceous cover consists of a thin stand of bunch grasses and a few weeds, erosion and too rapid run-off may occur, even if the lands are not grazed. Light grazing under such condi- tions will probably not interfere with the regulation of stream fiow; for there will not be enough trampling to pack the soil, there will be a slight increase in fertility from manure, and the stock will carry im seed to improve the stand of vegetation. Grazing that fully utilizes the forage on such areas, however, may result in packing the soil and decreasing its power of absorbing and holding precipitation. The conditions vary. No definite rule can be laid down, except that overgrazing must be avoided, even on small areas. If use is to be continued, the man on the ground must watch the results closely and adjust the management accordingly. RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. TE Vital portions of many important watersheds are untimbered or. sparsely timbered. The maintenance of stability and regularity in stream flow under such conditions is dependent upon the maintenance of an herbaceous and shrubby cover and a surface soil which will be effective in preventing erosion and unwarranted run-off. Mainte- nance of an effective vegetative cover is imperative. No halfway measures will do, and it 1s unwise to allow deterioration at all, as erosion and soil depletion may start and be difficult to control. Over- grazing and too early grazing must be avoided. Deferred and rota- tion grazing should be apphed, and stock should be properly dis- tributed throughout the grazing period. ‘These subjects have been. fully discussed in preceding chapters. The topography, the soil, and the character of the storms may be such that stability in stream flow can be maintained only by complete protection of the herbaceous cover and surface soil. Fortunately, the areas Where complete protection against grazing 1s necessary are | small and few in number as compared with the whole. However, they are usually distributed throughout larger areas of range in such: a way that the only means of getting complete protection by control of the stock is to fence the small area or exclude stock. from. the larger unit involved. Total exclusion of stock from a watershed might be recommended - as a means of protecting vital parts of that watershed. ‘This pro-_ cedure could hardly be considered a solution, however, because in practice stock would be excluded from a large area which has been used for grazing for a number of years, probably only after condi- tions had: become so bad that total protection from grazing would not, in itself, remedy the condition. A practical solution must. stop the breaking down of the cover when the break begins and where it _ begins. The idea that injury resulting in marked erosion and rush of water from a small part of a watershed is warranted, in view of the great value of grazing on the complete watershed, is dangerous. Where such a condition is thought to exist a solution must be found which will give the necessary protection. Fencing of the critical area may be warranted rather than complete exclusion of grazing from the watershed as a whole. The cost of fencing as compared with the total value of the forage crop lost by exclusion of stock will be the basis for decision. PROTECTION OF GAME. Full discussion of the subject of game protection is not within the scope of this bulletin. ‘The aim here is to make clear that protection and development of the wild life of the Forest must go hand in hand. with the development and management of the range resources for use by domestic stock. In the first chapter, discussmg the classifi- fi BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cation of the range and its division between different classes of stock, it is pointed out that the forage habits of elk, deer, and mountain sheep are similar to those of cattle and sheep, and that, as a conse- quence, there may be conflict where a range as a whole is fully stocked or where either the summer range or the winter range of the game animals is fully stocked with cattle and sheep. It is obvious, there- fore, that the needs of the game animals for range. must be given more and more consideration as grazing by domestic stock becomes more intensive. There is the immediate problem of seeing tlrat range is provided for the elk, deer, and mountain sheep already in any given locality. There is the future problem of providing for wider distribution of these animals and providing range for in- creased numbers in localities where an increase is desirable. For either of these purposes it is necessary to know the number and distribution of game animals on each National Forest, the char-. acter of range necessary for the proper maintenance of each class, the area and grazing capacity of such range already available, and the need for increasing the present acreage or of restricting its further development for use by live stock. More accurate information on these subjects is vital to proper maintenance of the game withcut undue restriction of the development and use of the range by domestic stock. . Careful observations as to forage available for game animals will involve a study of the ranges in use by cattle and sheep as well as areas not used by domestic stock. The preceding chapters should make clear the difficulty of securing equal distribution of domestic stock over the range so as to use all the forage available. In the case of sheep, for example, forage must be in such quantity that it can be used by a band of 1,000 to 2,000 sheep under herding. Not in- frequently small pockets of excellent feed, forage in dense brush and timber, and narrow strips of grasses, weeds, and browse along streams are not utilized by sheep because a band of sheep can not be handled on them. This feed, however, may be choice, both in character and location, for use by game. There may be enough range of this sort to provide summer feed for all the game animals which can be pro- vided with forage or feed during the winter. This fact, or the con- trary, should be established by a study of the situation. The problem of winter range is more complicated. A great deal of the former winter game range has been taken by settlement, making it difficult in some localities for the game animals to live through the winter, even if there is little or no grazing by domestic stock. Where this is the case a thorough winter study of the winter game range should be made at the first opportunity. Such a study should be made by some one acquainted with the habits of game animals and having a knowledge of range. The big question is to determine RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 73 whether there is sufficient suitable forage available in places where it is practicable for game to use it without unwarranted loss of ani- mals. During the course of such studies there will be opportunity to collect information as to the number and kind of game animals on the range. 3 Before opening up new range to domestic stock, the use, or prob- able use, of the area by game should be carefully considered. This precaution is of increasing importance as range management is per- fected to secure more complete use of forage by domestic stock, both within the individual range unit and within the Forest as a whole. It is not intended that development of the grazing resources for use by domestic stock shall unduly restrict the development of game or interfere with its proper protection from loss due to lack of suitable forage. On the other hand, it is not intended that forage which might be used by domestic stock shall go unused for years if it is not needed by game. Each has its place in the development and use of the National Forest resources, and every forest officer should realize | that he shares the responsibility of determining the proper relation between the two. The problem, so far as range is the deciding factor, is one for study and solution on the individual ranger districts. RECREATIONAL USE. The number of people who visit the National Forests for recrea- tion is increasing annually, and it is probable that development along this line is only just beginning. This use of the National For- est lands as a general rule will not require any great reduction in numbers of stock or any great change in grazing management. On individual Forests, however, considerable readjustment of grazing may be necessary, and throughout the National Forests the grazing use of certain portions of the range may have to be adjusted so as to meet the needs of campers and summer residents. Protection of camping places and forage for the work, saddle, and pack animals of campers is perhaps the most pressing need at pres- ent. Campers greatly outnumber the summer residents. The num- ber which will visit any given locality in a given year and the time that they will appear 1s somewhat uncertain, and the length of time that they remain varies from year to year. It is certain, however, that suitable camping grounds should be provided and given sufli- cient protection from grazing to preserve their natural attractiveness. By careful selection and improvement of camp sites it will be possi- ble to induce campers to use locations selected by forest officers. The establishment of a system of permanent camp sites will greatly facilitate adjustments in grazing so as to protect the camps and re- serve feed near by for use by campers’ stock. 74 BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The area which should be protected against grazing will vary and must be decided for the individual case. To insure the necessary protection against grazing on sheep range the area to be protected. should be marked by posters. On cattle range it may be necessary to establish fenced public pastures in order to insure the reservation of feed at places convenient to the camp grounds. Adjustment of grazing to meet the needs of summer residents, hotels, and summer resorts, for range and protection against stock, will have to be worked out in the individual case in accordance with the general pclicy of putting the lands to their highest use. in the management of grazing as it relates to recreational use the essential thing at the present time is to realize fully the growing importance of recreation and to make provision for the necessary forage and protection of camp sites in working out plans for grazing management, especially where such plans involve opening up new range, increasing the number of stock, changing the class of stock,. or the establishment of stock driveways, or where the grazing plan contemplates expenditures for permanent range improvements. Additional references (arranged chronologically). Coville, Frederick V. Forest Growth and Sheep Grazing in the Cascade Moun- tains of Oregon. U.S. Division of Forestry, Bulletin 15, 1898. Pearson, G. A. Repreduction of Western Yellow Pine in the Southwest. U. S. Forest Service, Circular 174, 1910. Graves, Henry S. Grazing and Fires in National Forests. American Forestry, vol, 17, No. 7, p. 435,. Jaly; 1911. Reynolds, R. V. R. Grazing and Floods: A Study of Conditions in the Manti. National Forest, Utah. U. 8. Forest Service, Bulletin 91, 1911. Sampson, Arthur W., and Dayton, W. A. Relation of Grazing to Timber Repro- duction, Shasta National Forest. U.S. Forest Service, Review Forest Service Investigations, vol. 2, pp. 18-24, 1913. Davis, R. O. E. Soil Erosion in the South. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 180, 1915. Zon, R. Forests and Water in the Light of Scientific Investigations. Senate Document 469, Sixty-second Congress, second session, Appendix V, pp. 203-— 302, 1912. Mason, D. T. Utilization and Management of Lodgepole Pine in the Rocky Mountains. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 234, 1915. Munger, T. T. Western Yellow Pine in Oregon. U.S. Department of Agricul- ture, Bulletin 418, 1917. Dana, S. T. Farms, Forests, and Erosion, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Yearbook 1916, pp. 107-134; Yearbook Separate 688. Sampson, Arthur W., and Weyl, L. H. Range Preservation and its Relation to Erosion Control on Western Grazing Lands, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 675, 1918. Chapline, W. R. Production of Goats on Far Western Ranges. U. 8S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Bulletin 749, 1919. RANGE RECONNAISSANCE AND RANGE INSPECTION. OBJECT. The objects of range reconnaissance and range imspection in a broad sense are the same. In either case the survey or examination of the range is made to collect information necessary for improving 7A few reprints available in the Forest Service, Washington, D. C. a RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. he or perfecting range management and utilization along the lines dis- cussed in the preceding pages. The two differ in the intensiveness of the work and consequently in the degree of permanence of the maps and grazing-management plans resultmg. Intensive range. y reconnaissance has been developed to a point where an adequate dis- cussion of all phases of the work would itself fill a bulletin. The discussion here aims merely to make clear the essential differences between range reconnaissance and range inspection, the limitations and application of each. | RANGE RECONNAISSANCE. An intensive range reconnaissance survey results in the prepara- tion of a map classifying the area examined into grazing types, showing for each type the location, acreage, topography, ameunt, and character of vegetation, condition of the range, available water- ing places, and cultural features. The work is done with sufficient accuracy so that the resulting data will serve as the basis for present and future plans of grazing management, regardless of the intensity of grazing. The foundation for such a survey 1s a topographic map of at least reasonable accuracy. If a satisfactory topographic map has not already been prepared by some other survey, one must be made either in advance of or as a part of the grazing survey. Range inspection is less intensive. If accurate topographic maps are available, a general grazing-type classification can be made dur- ing the mspection; but the detail of classification secured by the reconnaissance survey can not be secured by an examination which logically would be called a range inspection. | The range reconnaissance proceeds systematically; first in the col-| lection of the field data, then in its compilation, and finally in the preparation of grazing-management plans, usually in the office, to be adjusted later in the field. Range inspection aims at sizing up a range unit in the field, finding the flaws in the existing management, and deciding upon the remedies, at the same time collecting sufli- cient data to point out the existing faults of management and show how to make the adjustments recommended. Tt is possible to use men who have had but little preliminary expe- rience im a range-reconnassance party under the direction of a well- trained chief of party; while on inspection only men who have had several years of experience in judging range can work effectively. There is lttle doubt that surveys intensive enough to determine acreage by types to within an average error of about 5 per cent will eventually be necessary as a basis of intensive range management on fully stocked forests. This accuracy will necessitate a range-recon- nalssance survey. 76 BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Figure 4 was prepared from a grazing-reconnaissance survey map. It shows the detail of classification into grazing types. The large waste area emphasizes the importance of determining the acre- age and location of areas which are of no value for grazing, both in estimating grazing capacity and in planning use of the area of graz- ing value. The distribution and grazing capacity of the other types and the topography and water facilities furnish a good basis for deciding the important questions discussed in preceding chapters. Data on acreage, vegetation, and grazing capacity by types, ordi- narily included on maps for grazing working plans, are omitted in the ilustration. |- At the rate intensive range reconnaissance will probably proceed many years will be required to cover the ranges within the National Forests. Meantime, much can be accomplished in correcting errors of grazing management by systematic range inspection. RANGE INSPECTION. The following outline will serve as a guide to the major questions which should be answered by the range inspector. As far as practi- cable in the time aHotted for the inspection the field examination should be made with a view to furnishing the information desired for each small describable unit of range. OUTLINE FOR RANGE INSPECTION. 1. Is the range unit being grazed by the class or classes of stock to which it is best suited? If not, by what class or classes of stock should it be grazed? The answer in each case should be in accord- ance with the suggestions given on page 3. Where maps are avail- able the class or classes of stock to which each unit is best suited should be graphically shown. Photographs illustrating the topog- raphy and types should accompany this portion of the report. 2. Is the grazing season for each unit what it should be? If not, what is the proper period? Give dates. This classification also should be indicated on the face of the map used in the field, later to be shown graphically on the map accompanying the inspection report. 3. How does the intensity of grazing on the different range units compare? Such notes as will be needed in the preparation of a utili- zation map, showing areas overgrazed, areas not utilized, areas partly utilized, and areas fully or properly utilized should be made on the face of the field map and later shown by lines or colors on the map accompanying the inspection report. Also, the class of stock involved in each case should be indicated. 4. If the utilization is not what it should be on any one unit or number of units, what action should be taken to remedy the situa- “RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. TT tion? Where a general movement of stock from one unit to another, such as from one grazing district to another, is recommended, the proposed shift should be shown on the map by arrow lines with figures indicating the number of animals to be moved. Proposed changes in allotment boundaries should be graphically shown if maps are available. Otherwise, written descriptions checked on the ground must be relied upon. 5. What is the grazing capacity of each range unit for the class or classes of stock to which the unit is best suited? To what extent is this estimate dependent upon changes in management? Grazing capacity can not ordinarily be determined conclusively in the field, but must be computed later from the figures and notations made on the face of the field map showing the relative stands of forage on the different units and the condition of the range and from avail- able data as to the numbers of stock grazed at present and in the past. 6. Have adequate salting plans been developed for the Forest or the unit? While the details of salting must be left to the local officers, the inspecting officer should make general recommendations where necessary relative to the total supply of sali, based upon the graz- ing capacity, to be placed on each natural unit. The inspector should also offer any constructive criticisms that might aid the local force in bettering conditions in this respect. (. Are the sheep on each allotment managed as they should be? Ordinarily an inspector will not have time to study the manage- ment of each band of sheep, but can gain in the course of inspection a very accurate idea of the methods employed on different parts of the range, and even on particular allotments, by observing the condition of the range with reference to the amount of trampling and the presence of bed grounds. 8. Is the tree reproduction being injured, and to what extent? The location of any extensive areas where injury has occurred should be indicated on the map, the class or classes of stock responsi- ble being given. The map should be supplemented by notes giving the species and height of trees injured. 9. Are there any areas on which grazing has caused erosion? Indicate on the map the location of such areas and furnish notes describing the nature and seriousness of the erosion. Jf practicable, photographs should be taken. 10. What is the condition of the driveways on the Forest or range unit? Are they located to the best advantage for the protection of the Forest and the interests of the stockmen? Is there an oppor- tunity to establish more driveways and follow some plan of rota- tion in their use? Should present driveways be widened and addi- 78 BULLETIN 790, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tional holding ground be provided? Is feeding along any driveway or portion of a driveway necessary and practicable? 11. Are there any game animals on the range unit? What kinds and how many? Where do they range in summer? In winter? Information on these points should be obtained from local forest offi- cers beforehand and during the inspection to facilitate special obser- vation on such areas as may need it. Is there any apparent or prob- able conflict between game animals and domestic stock in the use of the range? If so, what adjustments in grazing management should be made to insure adequate protection for the game? It is especially important to make sure that elk and deer have sufficient winter forage on areas suitable for their use in winter. 12. What range improvements are needed? Proposed improve- ments should be indicated on the map, and each should be discussed in a fina] report and plan, particularly with reference to the cost and the relation of the projects to forage utilization. 13. What is the condition of the improvements that have already been constructed? These should also be located on the map, and, if advisable, recommendations should be made relative to the nature and cost of maintenance work. Everyone engaged in range inspection should collect information in the form of notes and photographs on all range improvements, such as water development, fences, bridges, corrals, trails, ete., that might be used either in bettering conditions in each specific case or in standardizing and mmproving this lime of work in general. Proposed projects, projects under construction, and completed proj- ects should be included. 14. What are the principal forage types and species on the Forest or unit under consideration? If the inspector is not already certain of the identity of the more abundant plants, specimens should be collected and identifications obtained. Ordinarily the inspecting officer will not have the time nor find it convenient to collect and care properly for more than 15 or 20 species in the course of an inspection. It is essential that notes on the abundance, distribution, and forage value of these species be made in the field while the inspection is in progress. These notes should be prepared separately from the remainder of the report. Where topographic maps are available the general division line between types should be drawn on the map. | 15. What are the poisonous-plant species, and what is the extent of the losses in live stock from poisoning? Poisonous-plant areas should be located on a map, and recommendations should be made relative to the management of each area. These recommendations should contain figures on the acreage, the annual losses, and the cost of reducing or eliminating the losses on each separate area. RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 79 16. Is any part of the range in need of reseeding? Ifso, what plan must be followed to bring about the desired improvement? Ordi- narily, these areas correspond to the overgrazed areas represented on the utilization map, making it unnecessary in most cases to pre- pare a special map showing the area of forest lands in need of reseeding. 17. Are there any areas where an intensive grazing reconnaissance is urgently needed to make adjustments in grazing management? TYPE CLASSIFICATION, In making an intensive grazing reconnaissance 10 different type divisions are used : 1. Grassland other than meadow. 7. Waste range in dense timber and 2. Meadow. brush. 3. Weed range. 8. Barren, rock slides, cliffs, and 4, Sagebrush. _ denuded areas. 5. Browse. 9. Woodland, pinion, and juniper. 6. Conifer. 10. Aspen. These types are first. indicated on the field map by numbers and symbols and later translated into colors. In inspection work the _ typing is greatly generalized, and each unit is given a type designa- tion on the basis of the predominating species. The general aspect of the range is the best guide in determining this classification. The forage species are only occasionally conspicuous enough to contribute to the aspect of the range. If, for instance, a range supports enough aspen to make it at once apparent that this species is the most con- spicuous, the area would be classified as an aspen type. There might be numerous grass or weed parks of considerable size that would be thrown into this general aspen type. In other instances a range might support sufficient sagebrush to give the landscape a general , sagebrush aspect. The sagebrush might not be the most abundant speGies in the type, yet, because of its conspicuous habit, the area supporting sage should be classified as a sagebrush type. FORAGE ESTIMATES... Some means must be used to indicate the relative amounts of forage within each type and on different types. Ordinarily, this can be done best by the use of decimals. If the decimal 0.6 is used, this would indicate that there are 6 forage acres’ for every 10 surface acres in the type. If the decimal 0.3 is used, this would indicate that the type supports 3 forage acres for every 10 surface acres, or only half as much forage per unit area as the first. These figures should be entered on the face of the map if the map used lh making the inspection is fairly reliable.. An estimate should be made and entered upon the map whenever there is a marked change in the stand of forage. 1 For definition of forage acre see footnote, p. 27. | 1 80 BULLETIN 790, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. USE OF MAPS. Preliminary to making a range inspection, all available and usable map data for the areas to be examined should be obtained and assem- bled. The maps should be enlarged or reduced to a scale of 2 inches to the mile, if they are not already this size; and they should be cut up and mounted on heavy cloth, in order that they may be folded into suitable size for carrying in saddlebags. If blue-line prints are available, these might be made on a specially prepared linen suitable for field use and satisfactory for later plans. While on the ground, the inspector should make it a practice to record on the face of the map by the use of suitable figures, symbols, and abbreviations the most essential facts about range conditions. Such records, of course, must be occasionally supplemented by notes kept in a notebook that can be carried in the field. In the absence of suitable maps the inspecting officer will often find it necessary to adopt some means of roughly determining dis- tances and directions. This can be done on horseback by the use of a compass and tally register. In some instances a few prominent points might be located to good advantage by using a traverse board or plane table. The base for such a triangulation system must be a chained base line or previously established points which can be plotted. DEGREE OF ACCURACY REQUIRED. The field work, as well as the work of arranging the data into usable form, should be sufficiently intensive and sufficiently accurate to serve as a basis for the solution of the principal grazing-manage- ment problems confronting the administration on the areas inspected. If a forest is believed to be fully stocked, or even closely approaches that condition, obviously it would be inconsistent to base the rela- tively fine adjustments that would be necessary in such a case upon information obtained through a very general inspection. On forests considerably understocked the necessary adjustments might be made consistently on information obtained through a hurried inspection. On an intensively grazed forest of average size (800,000 acres) one man should spend at least the entire season, say from July 1 to Octo- ber 31, in field inspection if satisfactory results for the Forest as a whole are to be secured. If there are any low ranges used for early grazing on the Forest, the inspection might begin late in May or early in June. This is usually the best time for the examination of lamb- ing ranges and other early spring ranges. TIME OF INSPECTION. When there is a considerable variation in elevation the inspection should be planned so that each part of the range will be in prac- tically the same stage of development when the examination is made. PLATE XXXII. Bui. 790, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. eLLII—A peyssoyeM JueVIOdUT Ue UO ‘SUIZEIGIOAO JO J[NSeI e se ‘UOISOINT Bul. 790, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXXII. F—22597—A Fig. 1—A heavy loss of sheep from eating poisonous plants on the range. This loss could Hee Peon avoided if the poison area had been located in advance and the sheep properly an : F—20372—A Fig. 2.—This animal died of larkspur poisoning. The market value of one good cow or steer | in 1918 was about equal to the cost of grubbing out from 5 to 20 acres of larkspur. | RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 81 The best conception of the utilization of the forage and the dis- tribution of cattle for the current season can, of course, be gained during the latter part of the grazing period. For this reason, when an inspection is made for the primary purpose of determining the degree of utilization on each unit, the work should be done as late in the season as possible. Utilization classification for past seasons can ordinarily be made witha fair degree of accuracy very soon after the opening of the field season. The value of this information for the current season will depend largely upon whether or not the numbers of stock or the methods of management have been changed recently to any extent. Where an inspection is made in the early part of the season, care- ful observations should be made for cattle signs of the previous sea- son. Tracks are often reliable indicators, but the amount of manure left on the range is better evidence of the extent to which cattle have grazed the range the previous season or seasons. When the maiter of grazing periods is to be considered the in- spector should be on the ground a short time before and during the time that the stock are coming on the range, in order to make obser- vations relative to the amount of snow, if any, the condition of the soil, and the growth of the plants at this critical period. However, very reliable information can usually be gained from the local officers and stockmen relative to the condition of the range at the beginning of the grazing season. COOPERATION OF STOCKMEN. The successful application of the data obtained through a range inspection will ordinarily depend to a great extent upon whether or not the stockmen are willing to cooperate in making the resulting plans effective. It is seldom that a thorough inspection will not reveal changes which should be made, involving either redistribu- tion of stock, readjustment in division or allotment lines, changes in grazing periods, or reduction or increase in numbers of stock. When- ever convenient, during the progress of the work, stockmen concerned should be informed that work of this character is being done. They will then be better prepared to receive whatever recommendations or plans result from the inspection. The findings and recommendations resulting from the inspection can be presented and explained to the stockmen most. effectively through the advisory board of the stockmen’s association, where an association has been recognized by the Forest Service. If an entire forest or a large portion of a forest involving more than one associa- tion has been inspected as a unit, recommendations by the examining officer might be presented at a joint advisory board meeting. 111479°—Bull, 79¢—19-—6 82 BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. COOPERATION OF LOCAL FORCE, If the work is to be done by a special inspector, the local forest officers should be given a clear understanding of the purposes of the inspection and the methods that will be used. Ti is seldom necessary or of advantage, however, for the special inspector to make himself familiar with administrative difficulties before the actual field work is done. A very general knowledge of the nature of these problems and the areas involved in each particular case is all that the inspector should attempt to get previous to the presentation of the essential information and recommendations based upon range conditions. ‘The extent to which these recommendations can be immediately carried out is a matter to be decided by the ad- ministrative officers familiar with the various interests involved in each case. The inspecting officer need not be accompanied by an administra- tive officer at all times during the inspection. A day or two with each ranger should be sufficient te give the inspecting officer a good idea of the best routes of travel and such other information as may be of use, and to give the ranger a good understanding of the inspec- tion work. PRESENTATION -OF DATA. It is necessary to separate large areas, such as a forest, into rela- tively small natural units before any satisfactory report or plan can be made. The size of these units depends to a considerable extent upon the intensiveness of the inspection; but ordinarily the units are made to correspond to the watersheds or portiens of watersheds that can be given a name and for which the acreage in each case can be determined with at least a fair degree of definiteness. The unit of management for sheep is the band allotment; for cattle it is usually the community allotment. Where considerable areas have been covered by inspection, and plans for the redistribution of stock are to be shown graphically, atlas-size sheets on a scale of 2 inches to the mile should be used. Allotment boundaries with figures on the number of stock within each allotment, the acreage of each allotment with acres per head, and the permittee’s name in each case should be entered directly on the face of the map or on a transparent overlay sheet that will make it possible to show the relation of the allotment boundaries to the topography. , POISONOUS PLANTS. The best figures available show that about 6,000 cattle and 16,000 sheep are killed annually from eating poisonous plants on ranges within the National Forests. RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 83 Important facts relative to the main poisonous plants of far-west- ern ranges have been accumulated as a result of field experiments, demonstrations, and observations under range conditions. Each of the main poisonous plants, the classes of stock poisoned by each, the season of poisoning, and the remedies, so far as they have been worked out, have been published and are available to every owner of live stock and every individual involved in the management of live stock on the range. | The publications listed at the close of this section should be read at the earliest opportunity as a preparation for effective work in the management of range infested with poisonous plants. To master fully all available information on poisonous plants is only the first step. Until each poisonous species is recognized on the range and its distribution and abundance determined, little progress ean be made in the application of measures, however practicable, to prevent the poisoning of stock. For poisonous-plant experts and range experts to attend to this themselves on the vast areas within the National Forests alone would take many years. Progress on a large scale necessitates not only that local forest officers and stock- men learn to know the poisonous plants when they see them on the range, but that they cooperate in locating all areas where each plant occurs and in determining the abundance of each plant on each area. In this work the forest officers should take the lead. They are in possession of illustrated wall charts and pamphlets which will help in identifying the more important poisonous species. Colored illus- trations for a number of species are in the brary of every Forest. Specimens of the plants identified should be collected and forwarded to the district forester for check identification. The effort necessary is warranted by the magnitude of the losses annually and by the fact that only by such procedure will the men learn to know the plants with certainty and be able to reduce the losses and still use the in- fested range. Once forest officers know the poisonous plants on the range and know the information available relative to the class of stock poisoned by each species, the time of poisoning, the symptoms of poisoning, and the preventive measures, the interest and active cooperation of the stockmen may be developed. Then attention may be called to the plants on the range. Wall charts and mounted speci- mens may be used at meetings and lectures, publications may be re- ferred to, and reading urged. Continued suggestion from a well- informed officer on the ground is the most effective way of creating interest and getting action. When a dangerous area of poisonous plants is known to exist upon a forest, heavy losses may sometimes be avoided if the boundaries of the dangerous area are posted with proper warnings. Because it is often impossible for the local administrative oflicer to point out these 84 BULLETIN 790, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. areas on the ground, it is highly important that they be posted as dangerous to the particular kind of stock affected. Not infrequently there is a heavy loss of stock, apparently from poisoning, on areas not previously recognized as dangerous. If it is reasonably certain that the less is due to poisonous plants, and the plants causing the loss are not known, some one should collect speci- mens of the plants not definitely known to be harmless and submit them for identification. The loss should be reported at ence through the forest supervisor’s office to the district forester, who will inform the experts on poisonous plants and request an examination of the area by an expert if possible. The collection of plants should not be delayed until it is known whether an expert will make an examina- tion of the area. An expert is not always available at once, and by the time he reaches the area the plants responsible for the loss may be beyond identification. The following suggestions apply to any range for the class or classes of stock given: : 1. Don’t overgraze the range. To do so may result in any class of stock’s being poisoned fatally from eating plants which do not cause loss in the amount eaten when the range is not overgrazed. 2. When stock have been driven long distances without sufficient feed, or have been held off feed for any reason until they are very hungry, they should not be turned on range where plants poisonous to them occur in more than very small numbers. Their hunger can usually be satisfied first on parts of the range where there is no danger of poisoning. If no other way exists, and hay can be had, it will pay to buy and feed hay. 3. Cattle should not be salted near patches of larkspur. Areas near salting places are usually closely grazed, so that cattle eat more lark- spur than they ordinarily would. Further, cattle have a tendency to loaf around salt and water and leisurely graze anything in sight. Losses of cattle from eating larkspur near salt grounds are sometimes attributed to eating too much salt. 4, Sheep should not be bedded more than one night in a place and should not be allowed to shade up for hours during the day on areas where there is more than a small quantity of vegetation poisonous to sheep. Vegetation suitable for sheep near a bedding ground is usually grazed off during the first night of bedding. The sheep then eat the poisonous species in harmful amounts. The same principle applies to shading grounds. 5. Stock should not be worried nor excited after they have grazed on a poison area. They should be moved quietly to an area where there is no poison and then left to rest or graze as they choose. 6. There is usually a short time during the grazing season when danger from poisoning is much greater than at other times. This RANGE MANAGEMENT ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS. 85 varies with different plants and for the same plants at different alti- tudes. The time of grazing should be adjusted as far as possible to avoid use of the poison areas during the most dangerous time. The stage of growth at which each of the important species is most dan- gerous to stock is given in the publications listed for reading. 7. Ample forage suited to the class of stock on a range is an im- portant factor in keeping down loss from poisoning. Lack of more palatable forage results in the stock’s eating more of the harmful plants than they ordinarily do where ample nonharmful forage is available. Following the suggestions under the section on determi- nation of the class of stock to which a range is best suited will aid in overcoming this difficulty. Departures from the practice outlined in these suggestions are not uncommon and are responsible for the annual loss of large numbers of stock. Of approximately 6,000 cattle lost annually from poisonous plants within the National Forests, it is estimated that about 90 per cent are killed by tall larkspur.t. The heaviest losses usually occur on small portions of the ranges. A hundred acres or less of tall larkspur within a cattle range unit of 15,000 acres may be responsible for an annual loss of stock great enough to discourage stockmen in the use of the range. Range, however, is valuable, and heavy expenditures on the small infested areas are warranted, if, as a result, an entire range unit can be made safe for cattle grazing. During the years 1915-1917 tall larkspur was grubbed out on large cattle range units within 16 National Forests.