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THE

REASON WHY:

NATURAL HISTORY.

Giving: Reasons for Hundreds of Interesting- Facts in connec
tion with Zoology ; and throwing lag-ht upon the Pe
culiar Habits and Instincts of the Various
Orders of the Animal Kingdom.

BY THE AUTHOR OF

'•••ML HIBUCAI REASON WHY ;" " TUB BBABOVWltr: GENERAL SCIENCK :" " i.NQrrui
Wiriu.v ;': l THAT'S IT : OR, PLAIN TEACHING ;•' " THE CORNER i.'.unuukD ;" ETO.

ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS EXGRAVINGS.

We proceed here by the InducT.ive Process, taking nothing on trust, nothing for
granted, but reasoning upwards from the meanest fact established, and making
every step sure before going one beyond it — like the engineer in his approaches to a
fortress. We thus gain, ultimately, a roadway, a ladder, by which even a Child
may, almost without knowing it, ascend to the summit of Truth, and obtain that
immensely wide and extensive view which is spread beneath the feet of the aston
ished beholder.

NEW YORK:
DICK & FITZGERALD, PUBLISHERS,

No. 18 ANN STREET.

BIOLOGY

LIBRARY

G

Cnv rod According to Act of Congress in the year 1860 v?"

DICK & FITZGERALD,

fu U.e Cleric's Office of the District Court of tho United States for AC Southern
District of New York.

GIFT OF

PUBLISHER'S PREFACE.

THE series of POPULAR INFORMATION volumes so happily introduced to the
great public under the general title of THE REASON WHY, has met, through
out, with such a flattering reception, that the present valuable addition to
it, might well present itself sans all preliminaries. Relieved, therefore,
from the propitiatory embarrassments common to most prefaces, we feel
at liberty to point out that " THE REASON WHY — NATURAL HISTORY " differs
materially from all other works on the same subject, and will be found to
depart very agreeably, in its main characteristics, from that ideal of it
which the mind of the reader would naturally set up in advance. In other
words, it is not a dry, formal disquisition, on animated nature, (like many
useful things, very excellent and very insipid,) but a chatty, sociable,
entertaining combination of scientific facts, with illustrative anecdotes,
clothed in language that the ordinary reader will readily understand, and
made piquant to the rudest taste, by a copious commentary in the shape of
pictorial accompaniments.

It will have been observed that THE REASON WHY, in all its phases of
instruction, Cn " THE BIBLICAL RKASON WHY," for instance, in " INQUIRE
WITHIN," in " THAT'S IT, or PLAIN TEACHING," and so on,) has made it a
special endeavor to so combine mental amusement with mental education,
that the most indifferent to the acquisition of knowledge might be tempted
into the pathways of learning, and discover themselves eagerly gathering
the flowers of wisdom while fancying that they culled for pastime, a few
blossoming weeds of quaint attractiveness. That endeavor has resulted in
a success exceeding all anticipation, and has bestowed on THE REASON
WHY a popularity surpassing its author's most extravagant estimate. This
NATURAL HISTORY sequence has been prepared with a careful eye to the
same acceptable peculiarity. It is free from everything calculated to
shock the most delicate sensibility. It contains not a line to which the rigid
purist can take exception. It sedulously avoids all sectarian, as well as all
sectional differences of opinion. It treats the harmonies of nature in th eu
ro anif old varieties of form and animation, with an amiable conservatism
admirably in unison with the subject ; and it accomplishes its purpose with
an engaging seductiveness that is irresistibly effective.

PREFACE.

" THEEEASON WHY — NATURAL HISTORY," will particularly commend itself
to most readers by the conversational freedom of its style — by the bold
pertinence of some of its questions, and the frank, straightforwardness of
its answers. It will thus b« seen that it is not a mere compilation of the
arid facts of naturalists, or a drowsy catechism of the wonders of this
branch of creation ; it is, on the contrary, a lively table-talk, as it were,
between an eager, observant, curious inquirer, and a gossippy friend thor
oughly informed upon every point on which his friend is probing for en
lightenment and entertainment. Besides the grand basis, therefore, of
acknowledged scientific truths relative to the higher order of animal life,
(for the author has been compelled to crowd Entomology out of this work,
and reserve it for a future volume,) THE REASON WHY— NATURAL HISTORY,
gives us a vast accumulation of interesting facts from the private storehouse
of current experience. The interrogatories are just those which an inquisitive
student would be likely to put to his instructor in obedience to the sugges
tions of the text; but, they are consequently those to which, in numberless
instances, no work extant could furnish him with a satisfactory reply. He
could obtain that reply from nothing but the practical knowledge of one
familiar with the every day details, as well as the less common-place class
of information on the subject. In this volume, all he seeks is grouped
before him. The mental food he craves is prepaied to his hand, seasoned
to his taste, and exquisitely fitted to his moral digestion.

With this brief allusion to the nature of THE REASON WHY in its connec
tion with NATURAL HISTORY, the publishers leave it to the judgment of the
reader, confident of the laUer's gratification, as well as of the merits of the
work. The most erudite of us need, at times, a brushing up of the nap of that
old familiar knowledge which, little by little, gets trodden down by the foot of
time, almost out of sight. The less fortunate require a convenient grasp at
such knowledge, to atone for early inexperiences. The thoughtless may be
amused by it into larger views of life. The philosopher will love it as a
lesson in non-polemical theology ; for he knows that :

" All are but parts of one stupendous whole,
Whose body Nature is, und God tbo uouL"

PREFACE.

THE present volume of THE REASON WHY is calculated to give
not merely an increased interest, but a new application, to the
science of Natural History. The old system of study compre
hended merely a description of the external form, geographical
habitation, and distinguishing habits, of individual species. The
interest of the subject mainly rested upon anecdotes of animal
sagacity or ferocity, and the perils of adventure into the wilds of
nature. Few writers had ventured to inquire into reasons for the
peculiarities of animal forms, or to seek Creative Design in their
wonderful diversity, and mutual relations.

In order to bring together the large number of reasons now
presented to the reader, the Author has had to wade througli
numerous volumes, in many cases with a barren result. The
works that have been found productive are enumerated in the
accompanying list of authorities. Among those therein-mentioned,
PALEY'S NATURAL THEOLOGY, DERHAM'S PHYSICO-THEOLOGY, and
PARTINGTON'S CYCLOPAEDIA, merit the most marked and grateful
acknowledgment.

It must not, however, be supposed that The Reason Why of
Natural History is a mere compilation. The Author has from
boyhood been a close observer of the habits of animals, and both
upon sea and land he has delighted to endeavour to interpret
Nature's works. Hence the conception of the plan of this volume,
and the diversity — perhaps boldness — of the questions asked.

The Author begs it to be understood that the limits of this
volume, and the abundant matter supplied by the higher
orders of animal life, left no space for the interesting facts of
Entomology. It is probable that at some future time a volume
may be added to the Reason Why Series, in which that branch
of Natural History will be fully treated. The Author cannot
do better than conclude this brief introduction by quoting
from the British Quarterly Review some admirable sentiments
perfectly relevant to the contents of Jie volume, and, indeed,
to the REASON WHY Series : —

Yl PREFACE.

" The argument from design, as commonly presented, is cumu
lative, it is an induction from a multitude of particulars. Every
science furnishes its quota of materials, and every fresh step in
discovery, if it cannot make the conclusion more certain, adds new
splendour to the illustrations of it. Every being with which we
are conversant, — every limb and fragment of every being, — every
atom composing those fragments — is found to bear on it the stamp
of purpose, — the very autograph of mind. It is a means or an
end, or both means and end.

" But the argument does not rest here. Innumerable particular
instances irresistibly indicate mind as the agency at work in the
universe. Starting from this conclusion, the argument taken a
wider and loftier range ; and on a contemplation of the com
bined phenomena of nature, the conclusion is irresistible, that
all is the work of one mind. Harmony and analogy pervade
nature. Part answers to part, so as inevitably to suggest
the belief of a mighty whole. Many subordinate purposes
are found combining as means to the fulfilment of some higher
purpose. As each being ascends in the scale of creation, it
is seen multiplying its points of analogy and harmony with the
rest of nature ; absorbing into itself a greater number of subordi
nate purposes, and rendering them subservient to its own ends.
The question cannot but arise, where does this progression reach its
limit ? Are the harmonies which so widely obtain in nature, after
all, but partial, to be supplanted on a wider acquaintance by discord
or utter independence ; or do not all the parts of nature, number
less and widely scattered as they are, constitute one vast and
accordant whole ?

"These widely and subtilly interwoven analogies and corres
pondences, and this scale of purpose, narrowing as it ascends, do
they not clearly indicate that the whole is built upon one plan, and
pervaded by a single purpose — TeAosKi/piomiTov — to which all the
rest are subordinate, and in which creation finds its unity, destiny,
and reason?

" And if so, What is that purpose ? This stupendous universe
cannot be a mere disjointed maze of particular contrivance, — a
labyrinth of worlds leading nowither, — a boundless temple, without
altar, service, or in-dwelling Deity The purpose we are in search

PREFACE. dl

of must exist ; and nowhere can it be conceived to exist but in the
'Creator.' The depth saith, 'It is not in me.' The heavens
declare not their own, but their Maker's glory ; ' for all are his
servants.' All lower ranks of being look up to man ; but man
himself looks up, demanding by the entire constitution of hk
being, some end beyond and above himself, and is by nature a
worshipper. And when his ear is opened to hear the response
given to his questionings by the very loftiest ranks of spiritual
creatures, that response is one echoed from every region and
limit of the material universe, — * Thou art worthy, 0 Lord, to
receive glory, and honour, and praise ; for thou hast created ell
tilings, and for thy pleasure they are and were created.'"

LIST OF AUTHORITIES

CONSULTED AND QUOTED IN THB

REASON WHY NATURAL HISTORY.

Bailey's Habits of the Fish

Bechstein's Cage Birds.

Bell on the Hand.

Bell's British Reptiles.

Bell's British Crustacea.

Broderip's Leaves from the Note Book

of a Naturalist.

Buckland's Curiosities of Natural
Buffon'a Natural History. [History.
Burnett's The Power, Wisdom, and

Goodness of God.
Carpenter's Physiology.
Oalmer's Power, Wisdom, and Good
ness of God.

Conversations on the Human Frame.
Couch's Illustrations of Instinct.
Crompton's Birds, Fishes, and Insects.
Cross's Physiology of Human Nature.
Cuvier's Animal Kingdom.
Davis's Naturalist's Practical Guide.
Davy's Salmonia.
Davy's Researches.
Dixon's Domestic Poultry.
Donovan's Natural History of British

Insects.
Donovan's Natural History of British

Quadrupeds.

Eclwanls's Influence of Physical Agents.
Elliotson's Human Physiology.
Encyclopaedia Metropolitana.
FctniK-11's Natural History of

Quadrupeds.
Garratt's Marvels and Mysteries of

Instinct,

Goldsmith's Animated Nature.
Gosse's Life in its Lower Grades.
Henfrcy's Natural History.
Hoeven's Handbook of Zoology.
Hewitt's Calender of the Seasons.
Jardine's Naturalist's Library.
Jesse's Gleanings from Natural History.
Karr's Tour round my Garden.
Kidd's Adaptation of" External Nature.
Kiike's Handbook of Physiology.
Kirby and Spence's Entomology.
Lie's Elements of Natural History.
Lcwes's Seaside Studies.
London's Domestic Cets.
I ardner's Animal Physiology.
Latham's Varieties of Man.
Lord's Popular Physiology.

Laurence's Lectures on Comparative
Anatomy.

Magazine of Natural History.

Magendie's Elementary Compendium.

Martin's Birds and Domestic Fowls.

Maunder's Treasury of Natural History.

Muiie's Feathered Tribes.

Natural History for Young People.

Nuttall's Ornithology.

Orr's Circle of the Sciences.

Owen's Basis of Natural History.

Paley's Natural Theology.

Partington's Cyclopaedia.

Penny Cyclopaedia.

Philosophy of Common Things.

Physiology of Health.

Pliny's Natural History.

Pritchard's Natural History of Man.

Rennie's Bird Miscellanies.

Rennie's Bird Architecture.

Smellie's Philosophy of Natural
History.

Smith's Natural History of the Human
Species.

Stanley's Familiar History of Birds.

St. Pierre's Studies of Nature.

Swainson's Natural History of
Quadrupeds.

Swainson's Natural History of Birds.

Swainson's Habits and Instincts of

Animals.

Swainson's Natural History of Fishes.
Swainson's Natural History of Insects.
Twining's Short Lectures.
Universal Powers of Nature.
Ward's Natural History of Mankind.
Waterton's Essays on Natural History.
Waterton'a Wanderings in South

America.
Wesley's Compendium of Natural

Philosophy.

White's History of Selborne.
Wilson's Diseases of the Skin.
Wilson's Ornithology.
Wonders of the Human Frame.
Wonders of Organic Life.
Yarn-IPs History of British Birds.
Yarrell's History of British Fishes.
Youatt on the Horse.
Youatt on the Sheep.
Youatt on the Dog.

INDEX.

The numbers, except where otherwise indicated, refer to
the Questions. A key to the pronunciation of sclent i fie and
uncommon terms is supplied by the Index,

Acanthoptcra, a-kan-thop'-ter-a,
why is the first sub-order of
fishes so called 1102

Accipetres, ack-sip'-e-tfit-s, why the
first order of birds so called ... 647

Agama, why has it the power of
inflating its body .. 1016

Age, why is the human body hard
and angular when old 39

A i, a'-i, why so called 403

Alligator, why, so called 1012

American, why the race so called 5

Amphibia 164

Amphibia, am-fib'-e-n, why is the
fourth order of reptiles so called 1026

Anacanthina, an-a-kan-thy'-na,
why is the sub-order of fishes so
named 1088

Anchovies, what are they 1061

Animal bodies, why the variation
of most common in the centre 16

Animals, why classified by na
turalists 161

Animals, why do some undergo a
state of torpor 628

Animals, why has every race its
appointed enemies ... ... 1153

Animal*, table of their fecundity... 1155

Animals, why does their duration
of life vary 11.56

Animals, table of their life-periods 1157

Ant-eater, American, why such a
long snout and protrusive tongue 422

Ant-eaters, how are the glands of,
furnished 423

Ant-eaters, why of great import
ance in nature 424

Ant-hills, description of 425

Apes, how are they distinguished
from jaboons and monkeys ... 172

Arm, how are its motions per
formed 63

Armadillo, nr-inar-dil'-lo, why is
it so called 416

Armadillo, how is its form pecu
liarly adapted to its mode of life 417

Armadillo, how is it able to cap
ture ants, although it is unpro
vided with an extensile tongue 418

A'2

Armadillos, why has the number

of, increased in the colonies ... 419
Armadillos, why do Indians ascer
tain the presence of, by the
movements of musquitoes . . . 420
Articulata, ar-tc-ku-lay'-ta, how

cla-siiied 165

Ass, why better kept on commons

than in pastures 501

Ass, why is the milk of, best for

invalids 502

Aves, a'-vces 164

Avocet, a-ro'-set, why is its bill
shaped like a scoop ... ... 903

Badgers, why erroneous to sup
pose that they burrow into
graves and devour bodies ... 239
Badger, why is the female more
careful than the male in

burrowing ... 240

Badgers, narrative of two, in a

state of confinement 241

Badger-hunting, why an amuse
ment of former times 242

Badircr, modes adopted of taking 243

Barbel, why so called 1076

Barbel, why is the first ray of its

dor al flu" deeply set rated ... 1077
Barbel, why has it four wattles on

its lower jaw 1078

Barbel, Avhy do small fish attend it 1079
Bats, why not classed with birds 185
Bats, why are the wings of, hooked 186
Bats, why do they conceal them
selves durinur day 187

Bats, why do they fly by night ... 189
Bats, why have their wings nerves 188

Bats, use of 190

Bats, why do they hybernate ... 191
Bats compared with moles ... 194

Beagles, why they have large

heads 264

Bears, why have they an awkward

gait 235

Bears, why are they good climbers 236
Bears, why uninjured in exposed

places .. .. 237

Brars, why do they easily stand
upright 238

INDEX.

Boasts ot prey, -why do they roar
before the'y spring on their
victim 215

Beavers, why have they remark
ably broad and thin tails ... 375

Peavers, why are their tails with
out fur 376

Beavers, why are their incisor
teeth remarkably developed ... 377

Beavers, the pcculiai habits of ... 378

Beavers, why are the hind feet
better adapted for swimming
than the front 379

Beavers, why do they build their
dams straight and oblique ... 380

Beaver-hats, why called " castors " 381

Bee-eaters, why so called 793

Behemoth, bi'-hS-mafh, of scrip
ture, identity with the hippo
potamus 454

Beli.U'iis, he-li/'-dcns, why does the
long tailed, seldom descend to
the ground 346

Bima >a, bi-n a'-na 167

Binuuia. >hy man only included in
the order 168

Birds, insectivorous, uses of ... 220

Birds, why is the second order
called incessores 684

Birds, why is the third order called
scansores 694

Birds, why is the fifth order called
gyratores 833

Birds, why is the fifth order called
rasores ... ... ... ... 854

Birds, why is the sixth order called
cursores 874

Birds, why is the seventh order
called grallatores 888

Birds, why is the eighth order
called natatores 918

Birds, why the first order called
accipetre's 647

Birds of prey, why they build their
nests upon rocks 648

Birds of prey, why the legs and
thighs of, are shorter than those
of others 649

Birds of prey, why destitute of
song 651

Birds of prey, why some destined
to eat carrion ... ... ... 653

Birds of prey, instance of their
voracity 654

Birds, why the eyes of those
which prey by night are larger
than those of others 672

Birds of paradise, why so called . . 765

Birds of paradise, why supposed to
bs suspended in air 766

Birds of paradise, plumage of ... 767

Birds of paradise, how is the pro
fuse plumage of, useful ... ... 768

Birds, why do they swallow stones,
shells, gravel, &c. 855

Birds, action of their digestive
organs 856

Birds, how do gallinaceous, re-
6ciubl(- ruminating animals ... 857

Birds, why do gallinaceous, lay
ard hatch upon the ground ... 859

Birds, why are the legs of gallina- ,
ceous, soon developed ... ... 860

Birds, why do short-tailed throw
their legs behind when flying ... 892

Birds, why have fish-eaters no crop 893

Birds, why are their necks long
and movcable 994

Birds, peculiarities in the bills of 906

Birds, why are aquatic, able to
emerge from water perfectly dry 923

Birds, why do the old ones precede
the young ones in migration ... 943

Birds, by what circumstance is
their migration governed ... 944

Birds, why, when flying in flocks,
do they arrange themselves into
a tri angular body 946

Birds, why do those, which take
long flights, fly high 947

Birds, why have those, which
winter out of England, black
down under their feathers ... 949

Birds, why are those, brought to
England from distant regions
hard-billed 951

Birds, why have some, extremely
hard bills 952

Birds, why do they lay eggs ... 953

Birns'-eggs, why do they contain
white and yolk 954

Birds'-eggs, incubation of, de
scribed 955

Birds, why have young ones a hard
scaly substance on their beaks... 956

Birds' egg, description of the shell 957

Birds, why can recently hatched
chicks exist without food ... 958

Birds' eggs, why does the number
vary 960

Birds, why do they select silk,
cotton, wool, fur, &c., for nests 961

Bird's nests, how built and pre
pared 962

Birds' nests, why are their ma
terials varied 964

Birds' nest-;, why are some warmer
than others 965

Birds, why will they hesitate if
observed while building nests ... 967

Birds, why do some, require the
parents' care longer than others 969

Birds, why do the male parents
evince an exceptional fondness
for their offspring 970

Birds, structure of their heads and
necks 995

Birds, why does the breast-bone
form an important part of their
organization 996

Birds, why is the gi/.zard an im
portant organ 998

Birds, why do they moult ... 1000

Birds, why are the smaller species
numerous and widely diffused... 972

Birds, why have they distinct
voices ... ... ... ... 974

Buds, why is the j-lumugs of

INDEX.

Xl

females more sombre than of
males ... ... ... ... 976

Birds, why is their plumage som
bre when young 977

Birds, what provision is illustrated
in the disposition of their
feathers 97!)

Birds, how is their varied plumage
accounted for 980

Birds, how do they maintain a
standing position 982

Birds, why do many roost upon
one leg ... 984

Birds, why do their beaks indicate
their peculiar food 985

Birds, why are their eyes
adapted to any range of sight ... 987

Bird.-, why does their hearing
mainly depend upon the internal
structure of the organ 989

Birds, why do they perch with
their faces to the wind 990

Birds, how arc they able to sleep
securely when perched on the
branches of trees 992

Bison, why able to use its horns
with more effect than the ox... 530

Bittern, whv are its habits little
known " 914

Bittern, mode of squatting de
scribed 915

Bleak, why called the water-
swallow VMl

Bleeding, why when the operation
is performed, are the veins
bound 77

Blindness, a person cured of ... 118

Blindness, sensibility of touch in
cases 157

Blood, how formed GO

Blood, the composition of 70

Blood, how circulated and puri
fied 71

Blood, illustration of the heart's
action 72

Blood, why so important an agent
in animal economy 73

Blood, the circulation of 74

Bloodshot, why does the eye
become 128

Bloodhounds, why efficacious in
the pursuit of fugitives 2G6

Bodies, animal, why they vary
most in the centra 16

Bones, why covered with perios
teum... ... . ... ... 43

Bones, the distinct and mutual
uses of 45

Bones, softness of, in infancy ... 4G

Bones, cylindrical 47

Bones, why do they not touch... 57

Bones, why covered with cartilage (>7

Bower-bird, why so called ... C92

Bower-bird, habits of 693

Bruin, the composition of ... 89

Brain, functions of the gieat and
•mill 90

B i' > win not injured b" th»
movement (>f the spine .. ... 91

Breathing, why it causes the chest
to heave 86

Breathing, offices of the ribs and
diaphragm 87

Bnffiiloes, whv the horns of, are
useful to the animal 523

Bull-frog, how does it produce a
noise 1030

Butcher-bird, why so called ... 689

Camel, difference between it and
the dromedary 513

Camel, why so called 5:4

Camel, why is its neck long and
flexible 516

Camel, why is the formation of
the stomach of, adapted for
long journeys over deserts ... 519

Camel, why have its feet large
cushions 521

Camel, how are its eyes protected 522

Camel, adaptation of its teeth for
food 522

Canary, the plumage of 763

Canine teeth, why are carnivorous
animals provided with ... ... 206

Carnaria, kar-nar'-i-a, why is the
third division of the Mammalia
so called 183

Carnaria, why is the first sub
order called cheiroptera 184

Carnaria, why is the second sub
order called insectivora 192

Carnaria, why is the third sub
order called carnivora 205

Carnivora, kar-niv'-o-ra, why is
the third sub-order of carnaria
so called 2^5

Carnivorous animals, why have
they canine teeth 20fc

Carnivorous animals, why are
their molar teeth fitted into
each other 207

Carnivora, how does their anatomy
adapt itself to their modes of
life 208

Carnivorous animals, why are
the pupils of their e^es vari
ously shaped 216

Carnivorous animals, why in
cluded in all the natural classes 219

Cartilage 66

Catalepsy 107

Cat-bird, why so named 694

Cats, why when playing do they
turn on their backs and seize
with their claws ... ... 22C

Cats, why does cropping their ears
prevent their climbing trees ... 224

Cats, why does their fur emit
electrical sparks ... ... ... 227

Cats, purpose served by their

electricity 227

Cats, why are they uneasy pre
vious to a storm ... ... ... 228

Cats, by what means are they
enabled to extend or withdraw

their talons 229

Cats, why do they refuse vege
table food 231

Xll

INDEX.

Cats, why do they lap fluids
slowly 232

Cats, why said to have "nine
lives" 233

Cats, why have they great diffi
culty in masticating vegetables 302

Cattle, why is it customary in
Switzerland to bell their necks 543

Cattle, why when flying from the
hunter do they keep to the sides
of copses 549

Cattle, why, when wild meditate
an attack do they approach in
circles 550

Cattle, why is the hair of tame,
softer and smoother than that
of wild 552

Cattle, why are the horns of tame,
generally shorter than those of
wild 554

Cattle, why do wild, feed in herds 556

Cattle, why when feeding do they
scatter, and graze separately ... 556

Caucasian, kau-kas'-si-un, why is
the race so called 2

Cetacea, se-ta'-ce-a ... ... ... 577

Cotacea, habits and structure of ... 578

Cetacea, why separated from fishes 579

C}\xtoi\ons,'chet'-r)-(lo>is, why are
they so brilliantly coloured ... 1106

Chameleon, why has it the power
of changing its colour 1014

Cheeks, why do they turn pale or
red through fear or rage ... 79

Cheek, why is a pale one an indica
tion of disease 80

Chest, why does it heave when we
breathe 86

Cheirop'era, ky-rop'-ter-a, ... 184

Chelonia, ke!-lo'-ne-a, why is the
first order of reptiles so called... 1002

Chinche, kin'-tche, animals with
an offensive smell... ... ... 248

Chomlrostea, km-drost '-e-a, why
is the second sub-order of
ganoidca so called 1123

Civet, why called the civet cat ... 319

Civet perfume, how is it produced 320

Classification of animals, why
adopted .'. 161

Classification of animals, significa
tion of terms in 162

Classification of animals, principles
of 325

Climbing animals, how is ihe
supply of blood in the legs of,
regulated 412

Coati, ko'-a-te, why does it burrow
beneath trees 234

Cockatoos, why so called 815

Cod, why does it abound on tie
Newfoundland coast ... ... 1091

Cold, why does it purple the skin 35

Cold, why does moderate, stimulate
the system 78

Conirostres, con-c-rtts' -trees, why
is the sub-order so named ... 726

Conirostre*, why are *he heads of,
disproportionately hirjjp ... 728

Cormorant peculiarity in the struc
ture of its foot . .". 936

Coughing, why does it increase
headache 81

Coursing, why are two dogs em
ployed '. ..263

Cow, anecdote of a 544

Cow, why has it four or more teats 547

Cows, management of the teats of
when sucking 548

Coypou, koy-poo, why, though
identical with the 'beaver in
habits, has it a dissimilar tail ... 382

Creeper, why are its feet long and
powerful 780

Crocodile, why does it allow the
zic-zac to be familiar with it ... 1009

Crocodile, why do both of its jaws
move 1011

Crows, why erroneous to suppose
that they destroy grass 763

Crossbill, why is' the beak of,
peculiarly constructed 749

Crows, why said that they can
smell gunpowder 741

Crows, why wrong to destroy them 744

Cuckoo, why does it deposit eggs
in nests of other birds 821

Cuckoo, why does it drop its eggs
in the nests of smaller birds ... 822

Cuckoo, why does it deposit its
eggs in the nests of sparrows,
wagtails, &c 823

Cuckoo, why does it deposit its
eggs with its foot 825

Cuckoo, why does it cause injury
to the eggs of other birds ... 826

Cuckoos, why do they perch on
the backs of oxen while grazing 827

Cursores, kur-so'-rees, why is the
order so named* 873

Cuticle, why is it slightly rough ... 33

Cuticle, spe'cial provisions for, in
various parts of the body ... 34

Cuvier, anecdote of 646

Cyclostomata, sy-klos-tom'-a-ta,
why is the second sub-order of
fishes so called 1039

Deaf persons, why do they place a
hand behind their ears ... ... 148

Deaf persons, why do they hear
more readily if addressed in a
moderate tone 149

Deer, why furnished with supple
mentary breathing organs ... 536

Dentirosties, dtn-te-ros' -trees, why
is the sub-order so called ... 686

Diaphragm, di'-n-fram 87

Dog and wolf, points of similarity
between ... ... ... ... 263

Dog and wolf, why a difference in
the pupils of their eyes 225

Dogs, why may it be supposed
that all the varities of, spring
from a common origin ... ... 258

Dou-s, influence of climate upon ... 257

Dogs. Isle of, why so called ... 258

Dc,?s, why are two employed in
coursing ... ... ... ... 23?

INDEX.

XLU

Dogs, why should those used for
sport be kept to their own game 265

Dogs, why is their sense of sinell
acute 268

Dogs, why do they lose their scent
of game-birds during incubation 2G9

Dogs, why do those used for sport
make " a point " 270

Dogs, what is the scent of ... 272

Dogs, why is a moist atmosphere
best for scent 274

Dogs, why is a wet day unfavour
able for scent 276

Dogs, why is there little scent
when the ground is hard and
dry 277

Dogs, why does scent sometimes
lie breast high 278

Dogs, why does scent rarely lie
with a north or east wind ... 279

Dogs, why is scent generally good
when the wind is southerly, of
dogs 281

Dcgs, why does humidity favour
soent 282

Dogs, why is scent seldom good
when cobwebs hang on bushes... 283

Dogs, why will scent sometimes be
good in a hard rain and mild air 284

Dogs, why is scent destroyed by
sudden storms 285

Dogs, why is scent not good on
sunshiny days 862

Dogs, why is scent good on a warm
day without sunshine 287

Dogs, why does scent lie badly
upon fallows and beaten roads... 288

Dogs, why is scent good by hedge
rows 289

Dogs, why does scent differ in
various u reeds 290

Dog, why is the Newfoundland,
of greatest service to man . . . 293

Dog, anecdote of a Newfoundland 294

Dogs, why do they toss their heads
when masticating a tough sub
stance 295

Dogs, why are the habits of the
shepherd's, the result of educa
tion rather than instinct. .. ... 296

Dogs, how may they be taught to
perform tricks with cards ... 298

Dogs, why frightened at lame and
stooping persons 299

Dogs, why do they turn round
several times before lying down 300

Dogs, why should their treatment
be regulated by moral influence 30]

Dogs, why have they difficulty in
masticating vegetable substances 302

Dog, Tyke the fire-dog 304

Dog, restoring a piece of hidden
money to his master 305

Dog, memory and gratitude of a... 306

Dog acting as constable ... ... 307

Dog's revenge ... 308

Dog, clemency of a Newfoundland 309

Dog, Highland cur performing the
part of a detective 310

Dog philanthropists... . .. 311

Dogs, influence of domestication

upon ............... 601

Dog. a stratagem to obtain food ... 624
Dolphin, why has its shape been

misrepre eh ted ......... 589

Dolphin, why does it utter a sound

resembling the human voice ... 591
Dolphins, why have they the flat

surface of their tails placed hori

zontally ............ 597

Dormouse, why does it become

fat during the period of hyber-

nation ............ 360

Doves, why do they prefer artifi

cial pigeon houses... ... ... 844

Dromedary, the difference between

it and the camel ......... 533

Dromedary, why so called ...... 5i4

DromedarVi why has it a hump on

its back ............ 517

Dromedary, why is stomach of,

adapted for the journeys over

deserts ............ 519

Ducks, why are they assiduous in

trimming their feathers ...... 924

Ducks, why do they appear pleased

at the approach of rain ...... 926

Duck, why is its bill peculiarly

sensitive ............ 927

Eagle, why a courageous bird ... 655
Eagle, why is it called the king of

birds ............... 662

Eagles, why cannot they attack

prey directly under them ... 663
Eagle, the white-headed ...... 664

Eagles, why are they sometimes

found dead, and fastened to fish 665
Eagles, why are the eyes of, fur

nished with nictating membranes 666
Eagles, why do they drive away

their young ......... 668

Eagles, why are the wings of

broad and concave ...... 669

Eagles, why are the wings of

shorter than those of the falcon 670
Ears, why are both used to deter

mine the direction of sound ... 146
Ears, why sometimes both, and at

other times only one, used to

distinguish sounds ... ... 147

Ear, how does a hand placed

behind it operate ......... 148

Edentata, e-dent-a'-ta, why is the

sixth order of animals so named

402
432

Elephant, why furnished with a

proboscis ............

Elephant, why is the trunk of,

capable of " a great variety of

motions ............ 434

Elephants, various functions the

trunk is able to perform ... 435
Elephant, why provided with

tusks ............... 43>i

Elephant, why are the eyes of,

small ............... 438

Elephant, why are the ears of, large 439
Lleylumt, peculiar anatomical

structure of the ear ... 440

xiv

INDEX.

Elephant, why does it use its
trunk to seize a man and not

to attack a tiger 441

Elephant, why has it the power of

bending the hind leg: forward ••• 443
Elephant, docility and intelligence

of 444

Elephant, protecting the sick and

dying- ... " 445

Elephant, going to a hospital to

have Its wounds dressed 446

Elephant, affection of, for its

species 447

Elephant, revenue of 448

Elephant, sagacity of ... ... 449

Elk, why is its neck so short ... 534
Ethiopian, why is the race so

called ... 4

Eye, why do the powers of vision
greatly depend on mechanical

exercise 113

Eye, the operation of in viewing
objects ... ... ... ... 115

Eye, why is the motion of, essen
tial to vision ... ... ... 116

Eye, why do the powers of, depend

on development 117

Eye, why does the pupil of, con-

'tract and dilate 121

Eye, chamber of 122

Eye, why unable to discern objects
"when passing from strong light

into darkness 123

Eye, why inconvenienced when
emerging from darkness into

light 124

Eye, why is the pupil of, so called 125
Eye, why is it sometimes biood-

"shot 128

Eye, why does it lose its lustre in

'old age and sickness 131

Eye, what occasions squinting ... 132
Eye, why does it perceive colours 134
Eve, why does a blow produce a

flash of light 136

Eyeball, sensitiveness of, how ac
counted for 137

Eye, why cannot it distinguish
minute objects when immersed

in water 138

Eyes, why furnished with lashes 139
Eyes, why protected by eyebrows 141
Eyes, furnished with eyelids ... 142
Eyelid, why the motions of, in
voluntary ... ... ... ... 141?

Eyes of carnivorous animals, why

are the pupils variously shaped 2^6
Eyes of animals, why do they

glare in darkness 221

Eyes of animals, why do they not

glisten in the daylight 222

Fairy-rings, why supposed to be

caused by moles 199

Falcon, why are its wings larger

than those of the eagle 670

Falcon, why is the optic nerve in

its eye folded into plaits ... 671
Fat, why necessary to the system 3S
Fat, economy of 37

Fear, why does it cause pale cheeks 79
Feet, how are the nails formed ... 2!?
Ferrets, why dangerous to keep ... 250
Feline animals, why when a per

son ie struck by, should he not

move ............ 211

Ferret, why has the Nubian, valves

to its ears ............ 311

Fingei's, peculiar functions of ... 22
Fingers, why are their extremities

soft and round ......... 24

Fingers, why are thcv of unequal

length ..... '. ...... 25

Fingers, why are the tops of,

guarded by cushions ...... 26

Fingers, why furnished with nails 27
Fishes, why is the first order of,

called leptocardia ......... 1038

Fishes, why is the second order of,

called clyclostomata ...... 1039

Fishes, why is the third older of,

called teleostia ......... 1044

Fishes, why do their spinous de

fensive weapons turn backwards 1104
Fishes, why are some furnished

with a sucker ......... 1111

Fishes, why is the fourth order

named ganoidea ......... 1121

Fishes, why is the fifth order

called selachia ......... 1124

Fishes, how is their breathing

conducted ............ 1131

Fishes, why is their flesh white ... 1132
Fishes, why do they not masticate

their food ............ 1133

Fishes, why are their teeth curved

inwards ............ 1131

Fishes, why do they gasp when

out of water ......... 1135

Fishes, why can some live long

out of water ......... 1136

Fishes, why are the crystalline

lenses of their eyes round ... 1137
Fishes, why do they lie with their

heads against the stream ... 1139
Fishes, why do some swim at the

surface, and others near the

bottom ............ 1143

Fishes, why when they have

broken away with a hook will

they take another immediately... 1144
Fishes, why do their wounds

rapidly heal ......... 1146

Fishes, why are they exempt from

disease " ............ 1146

Fishes, why the sub-order of ana-
canthina so called ...... 1088

Fishes, why do they float when

dead ....... ." ....... 1094

Fishes, why is the sub-order of

physomata so named ...... 104£

Fishes, why may they be drowned

while being caught

Fishes, why are the migrations of,
beneficial

1147
1149

ishes,
shallow waters ......... 1150

Fissirostres, fia-sc-ros' -trees, why
so designated ...... ..'. 711

INDEX.

Flamingo, why when feeding does
it hold its head and beak upside
down in the water ... ... 899

Flamingo, why does it make its
nest on mound-like elevations ... 901

Flat-fish, why do they float more
than others 1095

Fluids, their effect upon the body 40

Flying squirrels, why so called ... 358

Flying-fishes, why are they so
called 1105

Foot, why is the sole arched ... 19

Fowls, why has the cock a stream
ing tail 862

Fowls, why have they become do
mesticated 863

Fowls, why have they limited
powers of flight 864

f >wls, structure of their wings and
feet 865

/"owls, why do they roost in ele
vated places 866

fowls, why do they hustle them
selves in dust ... ... ... 871

Foxes, why are those found early
in the day easily caught ..". 292

Foxes, why are they less easily
caught than hares 388

Frog, why does it keep its mouth
shut when breathing 1027

Frogs, how are the reported
showers of, accounted for ... 1029

Fro!?s, how is their croaking pro
duced 1031

Frogs, why are they frequently
found dead in dusty roads ... 1032

Game-birds, why do dogs lose
their scent of them during the
incubation 269

Ganoidea, gan-oyd'-e-a, why is the
fourth order of fishes so named 1121

Gar- fish, why called the mackerel
guide 1099

Geese, why do they " waddle " in
their walk ... ' 925

Geese, why do, seemed pleased at
the approach of rain 926

Genus, what is the meaning of ... 163

Giraffe, why does the lion wait for,
in the neighbourhood of water 218

Giraff • and kanguroo, locomotion
contrasted 342

Giraffe, why has it a small head ... 433

Giraffe, why has it a long tongue 559

Giraffe, enormous appetite of ... 560

Giraffe, why is the head sur
mounted by short horns ... 561

Giraffe, why are the nostrils
thickly intersected with hairs ... 563

Giraffe, "why are the eyes set prom
inently near the back of th_' head 564

Giraffe, 'why attacked by the lion
when in the act of drinking ... 565

Giraffe, why has it a long slender
neck. 557

Globe-fish, what are its peculiari
ties of structure and habit ... 1107

Goats, why suppose. I that they
improve the health of horses ... 567

Goats, why can they subsist on

vegetables which are poisonous 568
Goat-sucker, why has the mouth

of, long bristly hairs ...... 725

Goldfinches, why do they bu'ld on

flexible branches ........ 761

Gold-fish, how do they subsist

apparently on water only ... 1085
Gold-fish, why do they so fre-

quentlv come to the surface ... 1087
Goose, why is it considered a stupid

bird ............... 919

Goose, why was it esteemed by the

Komana ............ 921

Grallatores, gral-fn-to'-rees, why

is the order so named ... ... 887

Greyhound, why does it hunt by

sight alorip ... ..' ....... 259

Greyhounds, -why less attached to

their masters than other dogs ... 202
Greyhound, why should the neck

of, belong ............ 261

Guinea-fowls, why have their eggs

hard shells ............ 870

Hums, why well fitted to receive

teeth " ............ 94

Gurnards, why are the Indian,

called flyi!i--fir-hed ... ... 1105

Gymnotus, yitn-no'-lns, why has it

"the power of giving electric

shocks ... ... ' ... ... 1048

Gyratores, jy-ra-to'-rees, why is

the order so called ... "... 832
Hair, why an appropriate covering

for the head ......... 38

Hamster, why has it enormous

cheek pouches ......... 371

Hamster, peculiar habits of ... 372
Hand, why the most important

member ............ 20

Hand, why divided into several

parts ............ 21

Hands, why do they incline to

wards each other ... ... ... 23

Hands, why are the palms guarded

by cushions ... ... ... 26

Hare-lip, why, when divided, is

the lip so called ......... 396

Hares, why, when pursued, do

they make for rising ground ... 384
Hares, why do they run down hill

zisr-zag

Hares, why are the hind legs of,
long and powerful ......

Hares, why unable to run on
fallows and wet soils ......

Hares, why, though fleeter than
foxes, are they sooner caught ...

Hares, whv lean, while rabbits are
fat ... * ............

Hares, great speed of ... ...

Hares, why, in the young ones, is
the cavity of the chest larger
than the lungs .........

Hares, why are the ears of, so
long and capable of varied
motion ......... ...

Hares, what are habits and in
stincts of . ......

385
386

387
383

389
390

391

392
393

XVI

INDEX.

Ha: es, why do they make forms,
while rabbits burrow 391

Hares, why are persons said to be
as mad "as March hares when
they are flighty 397

Hare, why so culled 398

Hares, why do they leap <o and
fro before they jump upon their
forms 399

Hares, stratagem; adopted by,
to escape 400

Hares, why are the eyes of> never
closed 401

Head, why covered with hair ... 38

Head, formation of, in idocy ... 55

Head, why are the senses
placed in 112

Headache, why increased by
coughing 81

Hearing-, the process of 144

Heaii.ig, why is that of infants
iiurutinct 145

Hearing, why both ears are used
to determine the direction of
sound 146

Hearing, why sometimes one ear
and otherwise both called into
action ... ... ... ... 147

Hearing, why made easier to deaf
persons by a moderate tone of
voice 149

Hearing, how facilitated by placing
a ticking watch upon the teeth 150

Hi-art, its action 72

Heart, insensibility of 109

Heart, how is its position undis
turbed Ill

Hedgehog, why covered with
spines 203

Hedgehog, what it chiefly preys
upon 204

Heel, why projecting 56

Herbivorous, her-be'-co-rtts, ani
mals, why do they chew the cud 508

Herons, why have they cumbrous
wings 913

Herring, why so called 1050

Herrings, why do they migrate ... 1051

Herrings, why do they swim in
shoab ... * 1053

Herrings, why are few eavight in
the cold mouths 1052

Herring, in what does it differ
from the pilchard... 1056

Hcrvio Nano, exploits of, de
scribed 650

Hip-joint, mechanism of 51

Hippopotamus, hip-po-pot'-a-
mits, why so called 450

Hippopotamus, why do the waters
bubble when it dives 451

Hippopotamus, why has it large
teeth 452

Hippopotamus, what are its offices
in rivers ... ... ... ... 453

Hippopotamus, identity with the
behemoth 451

Hippopotamus, why does it walk
awkwardly 455

Hippopotamus, why called the
" river-horse " 456

Hippopotamus, hovr are the eyes
and nostrils adapted to its
habits 457

Hippopotamus, faculty of living
under water 453

Hogs, why have they thick necks 4ti7

Hog, Indian, why furnished \\ith
crooked tusks 403

Hogs, functions of the tusks . . . 469

Hogs, why when two are feeding
will one of them have his foot
in the trough 471

Holocephala, hol-o-seph'-e-Ia, why
is the first sub-order of selachia
so called 1125

Holostea, hol-ost'-e-a, why is the
first sub-order of gano'idea so
called 1122

Hoopoe, hoop'-o, why so named ... 787

Horns of animals, growth, struc
ture, and uses 526

Horses, wild, why they congre
gate in flocks 477

Horses, why are the colours and
marks of, varied 478

Horses, "why when two are in a
pasture does one nibble the
shoulder of the other 480

Horses, why furnished with strong
hairs on the lips 482

Horses, why does a prevalence of
"white" in the eye indicate a
vicious temper 483

Horses, why without eyebrows ... 484

Hurses, how are the eyes pro
tected 485

Horses, why is the form of the
racer fitted for running ... 486

Horses, varied forms arid points of 487

Horses, why have they large
square jaws 488

Horses, why does a heavy shoulder
indicate slowness and stumbling 489

Horses, why are those with deep
bellies best for labour ... ... 490

Horses, capabilities of the Suffolic
punch 491

Horses, why without gall-bladders 492

Horses, why havr aged ones
cavities above their eyes ... 493

Horses, how may the age be
judged 494

Horses, why should the jirain on
which they are fed be crushed 495

Horses, why when early and hard
worked do they never arrive at
full sixe 496

Horses, why will they find their
way in the dark without guide
or cheek 497

Horses, instinct and intelligence
of, in the dark 498

Horses, why is Mr. llarey's system
of taming so efficacious ... 499

Horses, system of taming pursued
by Mr. llarey explained 50t

Horses, why is the health ofl sup-

INDEX.

xvu

posed to be improved when

goats are kept in the stables 567
Hounds, packs of, mode of pur
suing the hare 260

llumming-birds, why motionless

in the ak 772

Humming-birds, why so called ... 773

Humming-birds, flight of 774

Humming-birds, why do they fly

at the eyes of their adversaries... 775
Humming-birds, why are the nests

of warm 777

Humming-birds, why is their

plumage gorgeous .. 778

Hunting, why is it an instinctive

sport among men 599

Hybemating animals, why are

they enabled to live throughout

the winter without food or

motion 406

Hyenas, why are they denominated

scavengers 316

Idiocy, form of the head charac
teristic of 55

Incessores, in-ses-so'-rees, why so

named 684

Incessores, also called passeres ... 685
Infants, why is milk when mixed

with water most suitable for ... 102
Infants, why is the hearing of, in
distinct 145

Insecta, in-seck'-ta 164

Insectivora, in-scck-tw'-o-ra, why

is the second sub-order of car-

naria so called 192

Insectivorous, in-teck-tio'-o-rus,

birds, useful offices of 220

Instinct, differs from reason ... 618
Internal organs, why concealed

from sight 104

Invertebrata, in-vert-e-bra'-ta ... 166
Isle of Dogs, why so called ... 258
Jacana, jn-ka'-na, why has it toes

of extraordinary length 911

Jacana, why has it sharpened spurs

on the corner of each wing ... 912
Jackal, why is it called " the lion's

provider" 312

Jackal, track of, followed by the

tiger 313

Jack, why are the fins nearest its

gills continually moving ... 1141

Jack, why are pike so called ... 1073

John Dory, why so called 1110

Joints, why can they bear so much

use 48

Joints, peculiarities in the structure 49
Kanguroos, why included in the

order of marsupialia 336

Kanguroo, why has it powerful

posterior organs 341

Kangaroo and giraffe, locomotion

contrasted 342

Kanguroo, why is its bounding

movements adapted to its habits 343
Kanguroos, why are their heads

and fore-paws small 345

Kingfisher, how is its bill adapted

for obtaining food 790

Kingfishers, why have they small

feet 702

Knee-pan, prominence of 5(J

Lamprey, why has it a cartila
ginous mouth 1012

Lark, why is the hind claw so long 755
Lark, what use are its long claws 757
Lemmings, why do they migrate
from their settlements ... ... 373

Lemmings, what are the peculiar

habits of 374

Lemurs-, why are they included in
the same order with monkeys ... 180

Lemurs, why so called 181

Leopard, why so called 321

Leopard, distinction between it

and the panther 322

Leptocardia, lep-to-card'-e-a, why
is the first order of fishes so

called 1038

Ligaments 68

Linnet, why is the female mistaken

for the male 759

Lions, why provided with large

manes 209

Lion, why termed king of the

forest ' 210

Lion, encounter with 212

Lion, why is the tongue of, rough 214
Lion, why does he wait for the
giraffe in the neighbourhood of

water 218

Lion, why does it attack the giraffe

when in the act of drinking ... 566
Lip, why is it an indication of

disease when blanched 80

Liver, how are its functions per
formed 88

Liver, how does it maintain its

position in the body Ill

Lizards, why is the monitor so

called 1037

Llama, why are the toes of sepa
rated and pointed 524

Lophobranchia, lo-fo-brank'-e-a,
why is the fifth sub-order of

fishes so named 1113

Love-birds, why named 82?

Lump-fish, peculiar habits of ... 1115

Lungs 82

Lungs, how do they indicate
whether an infant has been born

alive or dead 81

Lungs, of their earliest action ... 85
Lungs, how do the}* retain their

position in the body Ill

Macaws, why so named 806

Magpie, adapted for eithsr a tree

or ground bird 748

Magpies, why called pilfering

birds 747

Magpie, why does one alone por
tend bad weather 748

Malay, why is the race so called ... 6
Mammalia, mam-rnu-le-a ... ... 1G4

Man, what are the principal

varieties of the human race ... i
Man, why is one of the types called
Caucasian %

XYiU

INDEX.

Man, whr is one of the types called
Mongolian ... ... ... ... 3

Man, why is one of the types called
Ethiopian 4

Man, -why is one of the types called
American 5

Man, why is one of the types called
Malay 6

Man, why have the primitive types
retained their characteristics ... 7

Man, why are there so many dif
ferent complexions 8

Man, how are various habits and
modes of life accounted for ... 10

Man, how distinguished from
lower animals ... ... ... 11

Man, why do we know that the
varieties have sprung from one
original 12

Man, why is his face adapted to
the erect attitude 14

Man, why is he only included in
the order bimana 168

Man, why is his omnivorous cha
racter beneficial to the lower
creation 598

Man, how is he enabled to influ
ence the forms and qualities of
various animals 600

Mane, why have lions a large ... 209

March -hares, why are persons said
to be as mad as March hares
when they are nighty 397

Marsupialia, mnr-su-pc-a'-lc-a,
why are kanguroos, opossums,
&c., included in the order of ... 336

Marsupialia, why are they pro
vided with pouches 337

Marsupialia, why are the young
born in a helpless condition ... 339

Marsupialia, peculiar gestation of 340

Martins, why appointed a distinct
range of elevation 712

Membrane, why is there none en
closing the skull 53

Mice, why are a small number
beneficial in a house 361

Milk, why suitable for infants ... 102

Milk, properties of various kinds 103

Mocking-bird, why so called ... 690

Molar teeth, why are those of
carnivorous animals fitted into
each other 207

Mole, how adapted to its mode
of life 193

Molos, comparison of, with bats ... 194

Moles, why beneficial to farmers 195

Moles, why supposed to have no
eyes 197

Moles, why have they elongated
muzzles 198

Moles, why supposed to occasion
"fairy-rings" 199

Moles, why is their collar-bone
long and thick 200

Mole, why when a female is
trapped is «he male frequently
found dead 201

Uollusca> mof-lus'-ka 1(>5

Mongolian, mon-go-lc'-an, why is

the race so called I

Monkeys, why are they described

as four-handed 170

Monkeys, why divided into those

of the old world -md the new ... 173
Monkeys, wh\ con ined to certain

geographical liir its 174

Monkeys, how are their imitative

propensities employed 175

Monkeys, imitative propensities ... 176
Monkeys, why have some long

tails 177

Monkeys, their locomotive powers 178
Monkeys, why is the " preacher "

so called 179

Monkeys, why are lemurs included

in the same order 180

Monkey and crow 182

Mules, 'why said to be stubborn ... 5' '3
Mules, sagacity of, in travelling ... 504
Muscles, what are the uses of ... 4f>

Muscle 58

Muscles, offices of various 59

Muscles, why are they of numer
ous forms and attitudes 61

Muscles, action of 62

Muscles, why separated from sur
rounding parts 64

Musk, odour of 273

Musquitoes, mus-ke'-tos, why do
their movements betray arma
dillos 420

Nails, why are the fingers fur
nished with 27

Nails of hands and feet, hovr

formed 29

Nails, peculiar structure of ... 30
Natatores, na-ta-to'-recs, whj is

the order so called 916

Natatores, why are they some
times called " palmipedes " ... 918
Nerves, what are they ... ... 60

Nests, why are those of birds of
prey built on lofty and barren

rocks H4S

Newfoundland dog, anecdote of ... 294
Newfoundland dog, clemency of ... 309
Nictating membrane, what is it ... 607
Nocturnal birds, why are they

very large 673

Nocturnal birds, why arc their

eyes placed near each other ... 674
Nocturnal birds, why do their eyes

contain a shining substance ... 6*5
Nocturnal birds, why is their

plumage tapered off to a point. . . 681
Nuthatch, why has it a short tail 782
Nuthatch, method of procuring

food 783

Nuthatch, why docs it make its

nest in decayed trees 784

Ocelot, o'-ce-lot. why so called... 323
Onaga, why is it found in hilly

and mountainous places .. ... 505
Ophidea, o-fid'-e-a, why is the

third order of reptiles so called 1017
Opossums, why are they included
in the or *rof marsupialia ... 33fi

INDEX.

Org&as, deep-seated, how do we
know that they are divested of
feeling 108

Organs, internal, -why do they
retain their places in the body 110

Ornythorynchus, or-nc-tho-ring'-
ku«, why so called 426

Ornythorynchus, why is it pro
vided with a duck-like ap
pendage 427

Ostrich, why is it the swiftest of
animals 875

Ostrich why are its digestive
organs so powerful 876

Ostrich, why does the hen con
tinue to lay while incubating ... 877

Ostrich, why does the hen aban
don her nest for a long: period ... 879

Ostrich, why is it said to be a
neglectful mother 881

Ostrich, why docs its foot resemble
that of the camel 883

Ostrich, why has it small and light
wings 885

Otters, why when hunting fish do
they swim against the stream ... 252

Ouzel, the nest of 700

Oven-bird, why PO called 830

Owls, why able to turn their heads
round in a circle ... ... ... 676

Owl, why is its head large 677

Owls, peculiar provision of their
ears 678

Owls, why is their flight feeble ... 679

Owls, why wrong to destroy
them 680

Ox, why is it one of the most
valuable and useful beasts ... 538

Ox, why does the sight of blood
and of red colours infuriate it 540

Oxen, why do they frequently
stand in shallow water during
hotweath-r 541

Oxen, why have they a licking
motion with the tongue when
grazing 542

Oxen, -why so easily and uni
versally domesticated 545

Oxen, why have they divided
hoofs 546

Oxen, wild and tame, why a
greater difference than between
wild and tame sheep 575

Oxen, acclimation of 539

Pachydermata, pack-e-der-ma'-ta 429

Pachydermata ordinaria, or-de-
na-rea 431

Pachydermata, how subdivided ... 431

Palmipedes, pal-me-pt-dees, why
are birds of the order of nata-
tores so called 918

Panthers, hearing very acute ... 213

Panther, distinction between, and
the leopard 322

Papillae, pa-pil'-lay 31

Pisroquettes, par-ro-kets' , why so
called 811

Paroquettes, why numerous in
America ... &12

Parrot, why is its bill thick and
powerful ............

Parrot, why is it able to use its
bill with force tmd yet with
nicety ............

Parrot, why has each species its
peculiar residence ......

Parrot, why are there marked dif
ferences in the forms of their
feet ...............

Parrots, why are they natives of

tropical climates .........

Parrots, why do they suffer little

from confinement... ... ...

Parrots, why do they chip and

gnaw wood ............

Parrot, what advantage results

from the mobility of its upper

mandible ............

Parrot, why does it not construct

a nest ............

Parrot-fish, why so called ...

Parrot-fish, why has it rounded

jaws and scale-like teeth ...
Passeres, pas-see' -rces, why called

also incessores .........

Pelican, why has it a large pouch
Petrels, why can they run on the

surface of the water ......

why is the third sub-order of

fishes so called

Pheasant, why does its plumage

taper to a point

Pheasants, why do they perch on

larch trees

Physomata, fi/-xnm-a'-tn^ why is

the sub-order of fishes so named
Pigeons, why have they a puffed

appearance at the breast
Pigeons, how are young, fed by

their parents ".

Pigeon, why is the plumage of the

rock, close and compact

Pigeons, why is their plumage of a

sombre hue. ..
Pigeons, how is their structure

adapted to their powers of flight
Pigeon, why does the rock, prefer

a white-washed house

Pigeon, why does the rock, walk

upon the sea-beach

Pigeon, why is the song of the

ringed, only heard in spring and

autumn

Pigeons, why do they return to the

place where they started from...

Pigeons, power of flight

Pigeon, why is the flesh of the

wild, less delicate and palatable

than that of the tame

Pigs, why do they run about with

straws in their mouths

Pigs, why is it said that they cut

their throats when swimming ...
Pike, why do they appear in poads

where none were before.. .
Pike, why is their presence courted

and shunned by smaller fish ...

801
903

804
807
808
809

810

813
1100

1101

685
942

938

1096
868
869

1048
833
834
S3«
838
833
840
841

847

848
849

851
470
472
1070
1071

JEST

INDEX.

Pike, why does it undergo a state

of torpidity 1072

Pike, why also called jack ... 1073

Pike, why is it voracious at certain

seasons 1074

Pilchard, why are few caught in

the cold months ... „. ...1055
Pilchards, in what does it differ

from the berring 1056

Pisces, pia'-cecz, what are they ... 164
Plagiostomata, play-yi-ost-o-

ma'-ta, why is the second sub
order of selachia so called ... 1127
Plectognatha, plert-o-gnuy'-tha,

Why is the sub-order of fishes so

called 1118

Pointer, attitudes of, in pursuit of

game... ... ... ... ... 271

Polecat, what gave rise to the

saying of " stinking like a pole
cat" 247

Porcupine, why covered with

qulfts 383

Pores of the skin, to health ... 101

Porpoise, why said to roll 593

Porpoise, why so named ... .. 595
Porpoise, why thought to foretell

a storm 596

Proboscidea, pro - bos - sid'- e-a,

what is the meaning of the

term of 431

Pupil of eye, why so called ... 125
Quadrumana, quod-roo-mfty'-na... 169
Quadrumana, why are monkeys

included in the order of ... ... 170

Quadrupeds, why are the largest,

found in Africa 606

Quadrupeds, why are the larger,

less prolific than other species ... 610
Quadrupeds, why are the feet of

small... 617

Quadrupeds, why have some, a

mixed coating of hair and wool 640
Rabbits, why do they burrow,

while hares make forms 394

Rabbits, why are they fat, while

hares are lean 389

Ridiata, ra-de-a'-fa 165

Rage, why does it redden the

cheeks 79

Rarey, Mr., why is his system of

taming horses efficacious ... 499
Rasores, ra-zo'-rccs, why is this

order so named ... 853

Rats, why beneficial 362

Rat, why is the tail long 365

Rats, why said that they " always

quit a falling house " 367

Rats, why said that they "leave a

sinking ship" 368

Ratting, why is shifting from one

party to another so termed ... 369
Rats communicate with each

other 370

Rattlesnake, why has it a rattle ... 1023
Haven, characteristics of its bill ... 730
Raven, habits and instincts of ... 731
U a veu, why termed the herald of

the year 732

Raven, why associated with sick
ness arid misfortune 733

Ravens, why more social than birds

of prey 735

Ray, why has it a long tail armed

with spines 1130

Reason differs from instinct ... 618
Redbreast, why a solitary bird ... 701
Redbreast, why the latest bird in

the evening 703

Redbreast, why called an autumnal

songster 704

Redbreast, why associated with the

wren 705

Reindeer, structure adapted to

climate 532

Reindeer, its horns cf assistance in

procuring food 523

Reindeer, why are its feet deeply

fissured 538

Reptiles, why the largest in

America 606

Reptilia, rep-till' -e-a 1002

Reptiles, why are they so named 1003
Reptiles, why is the first order of,

called chelonia 1002

Reptiles, why is the second order

of, called sauria 1008

Reptiles, why is the third order

termed ophidia 1017

Reptiles, why is the fourth order

of, called amphibia 1026

Reptiles, why have they a move-
able lid at their nostrils 1035

Reptiles, why can they abstain for

a long time from food and drink 1036
Reptiles, why are they termed

cold-blooded 103*

Rhinoceros, why so called 459

Rhinoceros, why provided with

horny appendages 450

Rhinoceros, functions of the horn 461
Rhinoceros, why the eyes placed

low in the head 462

Rhinoceros, why the ears of easy

and quick motion 463

Rhinoceros, why is the skm of in

numerous folds ... ... ... 464

Rhinoceros, Indian, structure of... 465

Ribs, the structure of 52

Rifle-bird, why so called 785

Ringdove, why does it feed greedily

and become fat in the autumn 842
Ringdoves, peculiar habits of ... 843
Ringdove, why does its form

change in the evening 850

Roach, why when angling for,

should the depths be tried ... 1080
Roach, why has it a small mouth

without teeth 1082

Rodentia, ro-den'-she-a 348

llodentia, teeth of 349

Rodents, why are their jaws

lipht ... 350

Rook, why the earliest bird in the

morning 737

Rooks, why docs the flight of,

foretell the weather 788

Rooks, shooting of 73»

INDEX

xx3

Rooks, why do they repair their
nests in autumn 740

Rook, adaptations of the bill and
stomach 743

Rooks, why are they frequently
accompanied by starlings ... 993

Rope-dancing, why is the eye im
portant in 120

Rumiuantia, roo-me-nan'-she-a ... 507

Ruminating animals, digestive
organs explained 509

Rumination, how conducted ... 510

Ruminating animals, why have
they cloven feet 512

Ruminating animals, why are
many furnished with horns ... 525

Salmon, why do they arrive earlier
in some rivers than in others ... 1063

Salmon, why do female, ascend the
rivers before the males when
spawning 1064

Salmon, why do they halt in
brackish water 1066

Salmon, why is the flesh red ... 1067

Sand-eel, why ha* it a projecting
jaw 1090

Sand-launce, why has it a project
ing jaw 1090

Sauria, saw'-rc-a, why is the
order of reptiles so called ... 1008

Savage tribes, how are the heads
of, flattened 93

Scansorts, skan-so'-rees, why is
the third order of birds so termed 794

Scansores, why also called zygo-
dactyli 796

Scent in dogs 272

Sceut, why is a moist atmosphere
best for

274
276

Scent, why is a wet day unfavour
able for

Scent, why is there little when the
ground is hard and dry 277

Scent, why does it sometimes lie
breast high... 278

Scent, why does it rarely lie with
a north or east wind

Scent, state of, indicated by the
manners and attitudes of dogs...

Scent, why good when the wind is
southerly

Scent, why does humidity favour

279

281

282

its transmission
Scent, why seldom good when

cobwebs hang on bushes ... 283

Scent, why will it sometimes be

good in a hard rain and mild

air 281

Scent, why destroyed by sudden

storms 285

Scent, why not good on sunshiny

days 236

Scrnt, why good on a warm day

without sunshine 287

toont, why does it lie badly upon

fallows and roads 288

Scent, why good by hedge-rows ... 289
Bccnt, why does it differ in various

breeds of dogs 290

Sea, why is it sometimes lumiaous 1161

Sea, why does it contain saline
matter 1153

Sea-birds, why are they able to
breast the waves 940

Sea-horse, why has it a pouch in
its abdomen 1115

Sea-horse, why has it a pointed
tail 1117

Seals, why classed among car-
nivora 324

Seals, why they abound in estu
aries and straits 326

Seal-hunters, why do they place
themselves near holes in the
ice 323

Seals, why are the nostrils of sur
rounded by hairs... ... ... 330

Seals, why "their nostrils close
habitually 332

Seals, why their eyes are peculiarly
developed ... ... ... ... 333

Sea-wolf, peculiar structure of the
jaw 627

Secretary bird, why are its wings
tipped with hard points 682

Secretary bird, why esteemed in
America 683

Seeing, why do its powers depend
greatly on exercise ... ... 113

Seeing, why erroneous to suppose
that the eye takes in many near
objects at once 114

Selachia, sec-tack'-c-a, why is the
fifth order of fishes so called ... 11 24

Senses, why placed in the head ... 112

Serpents, why have they no feet... 1018

Serpents, how are they able to
move without legs 1019

Serpents, why may they fall from
trees without injury 1020

Serpents, why have they the power
of fascination 1024

Shanny, why docs it hide behind
stones and rocks 1083

Sharks, why do they follow ships 1128

Sharks, why have their eggs long
filaments attached 1129

Sheep, why do they make a
nodding motion of the head ... 570

Sheep, why do they follow each
other even into danger 572

Sheep, why is their upper lip
divided 574

Sheep, wild and tame, why less
difference between, than between
wild and tame cattle 575

Sheep, why so much bleating
among, after shearing 641

Shepherd's dog, why are its habits
the result of training, and not
instinct 296

Shrike, why called the sentinel ... 687

Shrike, why called the butcher
bird 689

Sight, why essential to the firm
ness of the body 110

Sight, in old age, why are spec
tacles necessary 123

INDEX.

Sight, how are defects in, detected
by jpticians 130

Skin, why has it a purple hue
when cold 35

Skin, why are the pores essential
to health 101

Skull, why the only cavity in the
body not enclosed by a mem
brane 53

Skull, why may the form of be
altered 92

Skylark, why does the song of
vary 758

Sloth, why does it utter the sound
of "ai'* 404

Sloth, why able to exist through
winter without food 405

Sloth, why well provided with
means of defence... ... ... 407

Sloth, why erroneously considered
awkward ... 408

Sloth, why has it difficulty in
walking on the ground 410

Sloth, how adapted to the locali
ties it inhabits 413

Sloth, habits and instincts of ... 415

Smell, how is the sense produced 151

Smell, why does sniffing air in
crease 152

Smell, why does closing the mouth
increase ... ... ... ... 153

Smelling, why are the organs of,
situated so near those of tasting 154

Smell, why is the sense of, in dogs
acute 268

Snake, how does it throw its body
from the ground 1021

Snake-catchers, why are they able
to charm snakes 1025

Snipe, why has it a long tapering
bill 894

Snipes, why are their eyes back
ward in their heads 895

Snipes, why do they not have long
hind toes 896

Sole, why r^es its skin clear
coffee 1092

Soles, why are they destitute of
air-bladders 1093

Soles, why do they swim upon
their sides 1096

Solids, their effect upon the body 40

Solidungula, sol-id-uitg'-yu-la ... 473

Solidungulous animals, why found
in a wild state on plains 475

Souslik, smcs'-lik, why has it
pouches in its cheeks ... ... 359

Sparrows, why useful to vegeta
tion 751

Sparrows, why bolder than most
birds... .!. ••• 752

Sparrow, why does the house-
sparrow take the nests of other-
birds 753

Sparrow, why late in awaking ... 754

Species, what is the meaning of ... 1(53

Spectacles, why needed in old age 129

Spermaceti, what is it ... ... 587

Spinal colmnr. why flexible ... 41

Spine, why do not its movements

injure the brain

Spoonbill, why has it long man-

dibles

Sprats, what are they
Sprats, why do they usually ap
pear soon after herrings have

spawned
Squintinsr, why some persons

afflicted

Squinting, how cured

Squirrels, why do they convey

food to their mouths with both

paws

Squirrels, why grouped as the

genus sciurus

Squirrels, why are their hind legs

only slightly shorter than their

forelegs

Squirrels, why are their tails so

long and bushy
Squirrels, why are their eyes fully

developed

Squirrels, why they lay up stores
Squirrels, wrhy some called flying
Sta?. why so eager to reach water

before they stand at bay

Stairs, why said to shed tears
Starlings, Why do they frequently

accompany rooks ...
Statue, why cannot stand upright

without support

Stickleback, why are the fins

nearest its gills continually

moving

Stomach, what is the form of
Stork, why an enemy of the cat

species

Storks, why are they voracious

eaters

Stork, why has it always been an

object of favour and veneration
Swallows, why appoint a distinct

ransre of elevation
Swallows, why adapted to migra

tion

Swallows, why are the nests made

round
Swallows, why their mandibles

open far back
Swallows, how do they build

against walls

Swallows, why do they build near

dwellings of man

Swallow, why is the esculent, so

called
Swallows, why does their high

flight foretell fine weather ...
Swans, wny do they frequent

shallow waters
Swans, whv are their wings

capable of dealing a heavy blow
Swans, why do they fly high
Swans, why is their flight governed

by the wind ... ... «..

Swan, why is its plumage un
changeable

Swan, why is its dying song

fabulous

905
1057

1058

13'!
133

351
352

353
355

354
356
358

527
555

993
17

1141
100

907
908
909
712
713
714
726
71G
717
719
724
928

929
9:>3

9:?:?
QZ4

INDEX.

xxiii

Swift, why does it seldom alight

on the ground 721

Swifts, how do they gather material

for nests 722

Swifts, why appointed to a distinct

range of elevation 712

Sword-fish, why is its jaw furnished

with a biade-like weapon ... 1108
Syndactili, si/.n-dac-tl' ~li, why so

culled 788

Tailor- bird, why so named ... 696

Tailor- bird, singular ... ' ... 697

Tapir, why has it an indurated

skin over the head and neck ... 466
Tasting, why are the organs of,

situated so near those of smell-

ing 154

Tasting, why is it the least im
paired by age of the senses ... 155
Tears, why are they globular ... 99
Tears, why have they a globular

form 99

Teeth, why not covered with peros-

teum 43

Teeth, why is there a difference

between the front and back ... 44
Teeth, why are the gums well

adapted for 94

Teeth, fixture of, in the sockets ... 95
Teeth of infants, why hidden ... 96
Teeth, why imperfectly organized

in comparison with adjacent

parts 97

Teeth, why do new ones appear in

advanced age 98

Teeth, why when a ticking watch

*s placed against, do they conduct

sound 150

Teleostia, tel-c-ost'-e-a, why is the

third order of, so named ... 1044

Tendons, their relation to the

muscles 61

Tendons, what are they 65

Tenuirostres. ten-u-e-ros' -trees,

why so designated ... ... 770

Thick-headed peopie, why so called 54
Thrushes, why dp they build near

human habitations 708

Thrush, why are its front toes

fastened by a skin 710

Tigers, their hearing very acute ... 213
Tiger, why the tongue of, rough... 214
Titmouse, why does it suspend its

nest over a pond 762

Toad, instance of vitality 6-33

Toads, why are they useful in

greenhouses 1033

Toads, why can they live em
bedded in rock or stone 1034

Tooth, carnivorous 645

Tortoises, why are their cheeks

distended while breathing ... 1006
Toucan, tuiv-kait', why so named 816
Toucan, why does it toss back its

head while eating ... 817

Toucan, why has it an immense

bill 819

Touch, why considered the most

important of the senses 156

Touch, extreme sensibility of, in
blindness 167

Touch, why more vivid -when the
circulation is active 158

Touch, why is the sense of, occa
sionally illusive 159

Trout, why arc there many varieties 10(i8

Trunk-fish, why covered with long
plates ..'. 1120

Turtles, why are they covered
with hard external shells ... 1004

Turtles, why have they no teeth... 1007

Veins, why have they a blue ap
pearance 75

Veins, why do they sometimes
swell 7€

Veins, why are they bound up
when the operation of bleeding
is performed 77

Ventricles, their action in the
circulation of the blood 74

Venues, ver'-meez, what are they 164

Vertebrata, ver-te-bxi'-ta 165

Vulture, why a cowardly bird ... 655

Vulture, description of the bearded 656

Vulture, why are the head and neck
without feathers 657

Vulture, why does it soar to a great
height 653

Vulture, why called the king ... 660

Wading-birds, why have they
long legs and short tails 889

Wading-birds, why have they
wide-spreading feet 891

Wagtails, why do they congregate
about cows 707

Walrus, why has it large tusks ... 335

Water-shrew, why bright and
silvery when swimming 21)2

Weasel, whence tie proverb,
" Catch a weasel," &c 244

Weasel, why an excellent hunter
of mice 245

Weasel, whence the proverb, " He
builds closely with dry stones
who can build out the weasel " 249

Whales, by what means are they
enabled to eject water in a spout 581

Whales, what provision have they
for the retention of heat 582

Whales, why is the enormous size
of the head no impediment to
locomotion ... ... ... ... 583

Whales, structure and habits of
the spermaceti 58'

Whales, why have they the flat
surface of their tails placed hori-
/ontally 59r

Whalebone 585

White-bait, what arc they 1059

Wolf and dog, what are the points
of similarity 25:

Wolf and dog, why a difference in
the pupils of the eyes ... ... 255

Wood-pigeon, why are its notes
associated with gentleness and
love 845

Woodcocks, why do they disap
pear from ciUtivated districta ... 897

xxiv

INDEX.

Woodpeckers, why are their sup
posed ravages beneficial ...

Woodpeckers, whjr are the ex
tremities of their tails hard and
elastic

Wren, why does it make several
nests

Wren, why associated with the
redbroHst 703

j Wren, why are the toes of golden-
797 crested, fastened by a skin ... 710

Wry-neck, why so called 828

Youth, why is the human body
789 soft and round 39

Zebra, why found in hilly and
698 mountainous places 505

Zebra, beautiful form and colours 5M

Nothing is foreign, parts relate to wtioie ;

One all-extending, all-preserving soul

Connects each being, greatest with the least ;

Made beast in aid of man, and man of beast." — V *«

TEE

REASON WHY:

NATURAL HISTORY.

CHAPTER L

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN.*

1. What are tJw principal types of tfte varieties of fht
human race ?

The types generally recognized are those pointed out by Blumen-
bach, consisting of— 1. The Caucasian ; 2. The Mongolian
3. The Ethiopian; 4. The American ; 5, The Malay.

2, Why is the first of tJiese types called the Caucasian?

Because the tribes from which this great division of the human
family descended have for many ages been the occupants of 'ha
mountain chain of the Caucasus.

The characters of this variety are, a white skin, either with a ru^/

• The chapter upon the Natural History of Man has been founded upon John-
eon's Physical Atlas ; Prichard's Physical History of Mankind ; Lawrence's Lectures*,
Latham's Varieties of Man ; The Encyclopaedia mericana, art. Man ; and the con-
eluding pages of Humboldt's Cosmos. For the subsequent chapters, a grea*
Dumber of authorities have been consulted, which are specified in the list of
••Authorities."

THE REASON WHY C

44 He prayeth best who loveth be^t
All things both great and small;
For the great God who loveth us,
He made and loveth all."— COLERIDGE.

tint, or inclining to
brown ; red cheeks ;
hair black, or of the
various lighter, e<>-
lours, abundant,
and more or less
curled or waving ;
hides dark in
those of brown
skin ; light blue,
grey, or greenish,
in the fair or rosy
complexioned ;
large cranium wilij
small face, the
upper and anterior
regions of the
former particularly
developed, and the
latter falling per
pendicularly under
them ; face oval
and straight, with
features distinct from each other; expanded forehead, nrrrow
ind rather aquiline nose, and small mouth ; front tee^h of both
•aws perpendidular ; lips, particularly the lower, gently turned
>nt ; chin full, rounded, and bearded.

In this type the moral feelings and intellectual powers are most
energetic, being susceptible of the highest development and culture.
It includes all the ancient and modern Europeans, except the
Laplanders and the nest of the Finnish race.

The sub-divisions, or varieties of this type are — the Circassian, or
true Caucasian ; the Syro- Arabian : Hindoo, Celtic, Grecian, Italian,
German, Slavonic, &c,> and Gypsies, originally from the banks </
the Indus, from whence they have wandered over Europe.

CAUCASIAN.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Know then thyself, presume not God to scan,
The proper study of mankind is man." — POPE.

3. Why is the second of these types called the Mongolian f
From Ihe vast region of Mongolia, over which they are
generally spread.

They are charac
terized by an olive
colour, which in
many cases is very
light ; black eyes ;
black, straight,
strong, and thin
hair ; little or no
beard ; head of a
square form, with
small and low fore
head ; broad and
flattened face, with
the features run
ning together ; nose
small and flat ;
cheeks projecting ;
eyes placed very
obliquely ; slight
projection of the
chin ; with the cars large and lips thick. The stature, par
ticularly in the countries within the Arctic circle, is inferior to
that of Europeans.

The sub-divisions of this type are the true Mongols, the Tibetans,
Chinese, Burmese, Siamese, Samoeids, Yeniseians, Finns, Lapps,
Esquimaux, Turks, &c. These tribes occupy Central and Northern
Asia, the Asiatic Islands, and the Arctic coasts of Asia and
America.

4. Why is the third type denominated tJie Ethiopian ?

Because the primitive tribes were the occupants of Ethiopia,
M the country of the dark skinned, the ancient name of Africa. The

MONGOLIAN.

REASON WHY:

" Be not of us afraid,

Poor kindred man ! thy fellow-creatures, we
Front Llie :-aiiu- Parent power our being drew.
T!K- sine our I/.uxl, our laws, our great pursuit." — THOMSON.

Ethiopian embrn ces
the African central
tribes and their
varieties, the Ne
groes of Western
Africa, and the
Kafirs of the south.
The Central Afri
cans are marked
by an elongated,
narrow cranium,
crisp and curly
hair, projecting
jaws, thick lips,
and black or dusky
skin. In the Negro
the skull is narrow,
or compressed at
the sides, and
elongated from front to back, the dome arched and dense, the
forehead convex, retreating, and narrow ; the contour of the head
is smooth compared with the angular form of the Mongol ; the
cheak bones project forward ; the bridge of the nose is small and
flat, the nostrils round and wide ; mouth wide with thick lips ;
hair crisp and woolly, except the eyebrows and eyelashes ; beard
scanty on the upper lip, and chiefly confined to the point of the
chin ; body strong, muscular, and symmetrical ; feet broad and
heavy, and the soles flat. In the Kaffir the cranium rises higher,
and is more rounded than in the Negro ; the cheek bones project,
the eyes are small and dark, the eyelids occasionally oblique, the
face tapers towards the chin, and the jaws are much less prominent
than those of the Negro,

5. Why is the American type so called f

Because it includes the aboriginals of the American continent^

NATURAL HISTORY.

" Man superior walks
Amid the glad creation, musing nraise.
And looking livtlv gratitude." — THOMSON.

which, though dis
tributed over wide
latitudes, and exhi
biting considerable
diversity of form,
have a general phy
sical aspect which
is common to the
whole. The cheek
bones are high, the
forehead rather low
and retreating ; the
nose prominent,
not unfrequently
aquiline ; jaws
powerful, mouth
large, lips full, eyes
small, deep-set, and
black ; hair coarse,
black, and rather
scanty, beard
scanty. Skin of a red copper colour, and glossy in some North
American tribes, and of a yellowish-red, light brown, and sallow
hue in the various tribes of South America. This type includes all
American aborigines except the Esquimaux, which are Mongolian.

6. Why is the ffth type called the Malay ?

Because most of the tribes speak the Malay language, which, in
the various ramifications of this race, may be traced from Mada
gascar to Easter Island in the South Pacific, half-way between Asia
and America. The characteristics of this type are a brown colour,
varying from a light tawny tint, not deeper than that of the
Spaniards and Portuguese, to a deep brown, approaching to black ;
black hair, more or less curled, and abundant ; head rather narrow ;
bones of the face large and prominent ; nose full and broad towards

AMERICAN — WOMAN.

THE REASON WHY":

' Truth bids me look on men as autumn leave!*,
And nil they bleed for as the summer's dust
Driven by the whirlwind." — YOUNG.

the point, arid mouth large. To this division belong the inhabitants
of the peninsula of Malacca, of Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes,

and the adjacent
islands of Australia,
Van Dieman's
Land, New Guinea,
New Zealand, and
the numberless is
lands scattered
throughout the
South Sea.

7. Why have ilu
primitive types re
tained their charac
teristic features
chiefly in moun
tainous countries ?

Because the
stream of immi-
MALAT. gration naturally

takes place in the direction of rivers, by which the tribes of the
plains become mixed and changed ; but mountains are less acces
sible, and frequently form almost impenetrable boundaries. We
therefore find among mountaineers the remnants of the oldest races.

8. }Vliy are, there so many different complexions in the tribes
composing the various types ?

The problem has occupied the attention of philosophers and
divines in all ages. The result of their investigations shows that
no single cause, but a variety of causes, must be considered. The
most important of them are, 1, climate ; 2, organization ; 3, inter
marriage ; 4, exceptional circumstances. The influence of climate
is shown by the fact that every zone is more or less marked by a
distinctive colour. Black prevails under the equator, copper coioui
under the Tropics, olive and fair towards the poles.

NATURAL BISTORT.

'Tis vain to seek in man far more than maa,
Though proud in promi&e big in previous thought,
Experience dumps our triumphs." — YOUNG.

The influence of organization is shown in rflany instances : the
Moors, who have lived for ages under a burning sun, still have
white children, and the offspring of Europeans in the Indies have
the original tint of their progenitors. Different complexions are in
some cases intermixed by immigrant races, and white and black
people dwell together ; and complexions are modified by the off
spring of marriages between members of the different races. But
it is further and most conclusively demonstrated by an examination
of the skins of the darkly-coloured races, in which a secreted colour-
Ing matter is found. The skin is thicker and harder in black people
than in white. The external skin of each is transparent and colour
less. The colouring matter of the coloured races lies in the rate
tnucosum, or inner skin, and this colour is seen through the trans
parent true skin, just as white people see the traces of their dark
veins through the same cuticle. The influences of intermarriage are
abundantly demonstrated by the fact that the union of black and
white parents generally produces children of an intermediate cha
racter, which are called mulattoes ; and of exceptional circumstances
in the less frequent occurrence of the birth of pie-bald negroes,
having their skin diversified with black and white spots, and part
of their woolly hair white ; of short parents producing very tall
children, &c.

9. The eh.amje of colour in the human skin, from exposure to sun and air, is well
known to be temporary. The discoloration which we term " tanning," or being
"sun-burnt," as well as the spots called "freckles," are most incidental to fair
ekins, and disappear when the parts are covered or no longer exposed to the sun.
The children of the husbandman or of the sailor whose countenance bears the marks
of other climes, are just as fair as those of the most delicate and pale inhabitants
of a city.

10. What imparted to various tribes the different, Jvabits and
modes of life for which they are remarkable ?

Chiefly the physical features of the countries in which they were
born, or into which they wandered. The people who established them
selves in the frozen regions of the north not finding enough of vege
table nourishment, became hunters and fishers. Necessarily separated
from each other for the pursui t of sustenance, they multiplied slowly,

THE REASON WHY :

*«• So from the first eternal order ran,
And creature link'cl to creature man to man." — rop».

and civilization remained unknown. Among such people the arts
are confined to the construction of huts, the preparation of skins
for covering, and to the manufacture of spears and other weapons.
The inhabitants of the northern and eastern parts of Siberia, and
the savages of North America, are almost the only people who arf
now to be found in this primitive state. Those people who feed
numerous herds of cattle, in localities where it was necessary to
seek new pastures for their maintenance, necessarily adopted a
wandering life. Travelling in numbers, they acquired ideas of
property and of mutual rights ; and inequality of condition sooi
gave one man power over another. But the wandering life in search
i>f new pastures and more agreeable climates, kept them still within
rery narrow limits of civilization. The Laplanders in the north of
Europe, the Tartars, who inhabit the vast region in the interior of
Asia, the Bedouin Arabs, who occupy the sands of Arabia and the
north of Africa, and the Caffres and Hottentots in Southern
Africa, are the principal wandering tribes that still remain. In
countries where the nature of the soil and the value of the pro
ductions rendered an abiding residence essential, people took to
agriculture, acquired property in land, developed themselves into
classes, instituted laws, became less predatory and warlike ; and
when, in the division of labour and duty, the functions of the
civilian became separated from those of the soldier, the civil portion
of society cultivated various improvements and assumed the habits
of civilized men.

11. Wkai is the chief physical distinction between man anJ
the inferior animals ?

The brain of man is proportionally much larger, and the jawa
are much shorter than in any other being. The brain, by its great
extent, forms the protuberance of the occipital bone, the forehead,
and all that part of the head which is above the ears.

In the inferior animals the brain is so small that most of them
have no occiput, and the front is either wanting or but little raised.
Man combines by far the largest cranium with the smallest face,

NATURAL HISTORY

T) man she pave, in that proud hour,
The boon of intellectual power." — MOOHE.

and animals deviate from these relations ia proportion as they
increase in stupidity and ferocity.

12. Why may we feel assured that all the varieties of man
sprung from one original ?

Because we have, first, the Scriptural history of man's creation ;
and, secondly, scientific investigations entirely support the unity of
man's origin.

Whilst attention was exclusively directed to the extremes of
colour and of form, the result of the first vivid impressions derived
from the senses was a tendency to view these differences as character
istics, not of mere varieties, but of originally distinct species. Tho
permanence of certain types in the midst of the most opposite in
fluences, especially of climate, appeared to favour this view, not
withstanding the shortness of the time to which the historical
evidence applied. But the many intermediate gradations of tho
tint of the skin and the form of the skull, which have been made
known by the rapid progress of geographical science in modern
times ; the analogies derived from the history of varieties in
animals, both domesticated and wild ; and to the positive observa
tions collected respecting the limits of fecundity in hybrids.

So long as the western nations were acquainted with only a part
of the earth's surface, partial views almost necessarily prevailed ;
tropical heat and a black colour of the skin appeared to be insepa
rable. When the first Portuguese navigators sailed for purposes of
discovery to the shores of Africa, it was confidently predicted by
learned men of the time that if ever they returned they would be
as black as the negro race.

When we take a general view of the dark coloured African
nations, and compare them with the natives of the Australasian
Islands, and with the Papuas and Alfourous, we see that a black
skin, woolly hair, and negro features, are by no means invariably
associated.

13 Linnaeus was the flrst who ventured to class man in a scientific system with
other animals ; and he did not escape the censure of some, as degrading tho
dignity of the human race by such an approximation ; but classification is a mere
1*

10 THE REASON WIIT

Happy the man who sees a God employed

Iu all the good and ill that chequer lite ! " — COWPER.

statement of a fact in anatomy, and the philosopher who observes and interprets
nature, is not surely to blame.

Man, then, whether considered as the head of the animal creation, and a part of it ;
or as a sole genus and sole species, distinct from others, and lord of all ; whethei
defined to be a biped without feathers, or a quadruped without hoofs, a monkey with
a voice, or a monkey without a tail, — if viewed solely in a physical light, and setting
aside his divine reason, and his immortal nature, — is a being provided with two
hands, designed for prehension, and having fingers protected by flat nails, and two
feet, with single soles, destined for walking ; with a single stomach, and with three
kinds of teeth, — incisive, canine, and molar.

His position is upright, his food both vegetable and animal, his body naked. It
has been made a subject of dispute, whether there is more than one species in tho
human race ; but it is merely a dispute of words ; and if the term species is used
in its common scientific sense, it cannot be denied that there is but one species
There are, however, certain and constant differences of stature, physiognomy, color*
nature of the hair or form of the skull, which have given rise to subdivisions of thia
species.

CHAPTER II.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN FRAME — THE BONES, MUSCLES,
TENDONS, LIGAMENTS, NERVES, ETC.

14. Why is the position of the human face exactly adapted to the
erect attitude ? .

Because in that posture the plane of the orbits is nearly horizontal ;
the cavities of the nose are in the best direction for inhalino- odours

O

proceeding from before or from below them ; the jaws do not project
in front of the forehead and chin. If the posture were changed, as
painful an effort would be required to examine an object in front
of the body as is now necessary to keep the eyes fixed on the zenith,
and the heavens would be almost hidden from our view ; the nose
would be unable to perceive any other odours than those which pro
ceeded from the earth or from the body itself ; and the teeth and
li^s would be almost useless, for they would scarcely touch an ob
ject or. tho ground before the forehead and cliia were in contact

NATURAL HISTORY. 11

" Ye chief, for whom the whole creation smiles ;
At once the head, the heart, the tongue of all,
Crown the great hymn ! " — THOMSON.

with it ; while the view of that which they attempted to seize would
be obstructed by the nose and cheeks.

15. Wliy is a horizontal posture unfitted for the human body ?

Because if man were to attempt such a posture he would b«
compelled to rest on his knees, with his thighs bent towards tha
trunk ; an attempt to advance them would be painful, and with
his legs and feet would be immoveable and useless. Or, he must
elevate his trunk on the extremities of his toes, throwing his head
downwards, and exerting himself very forcibly at every attempt to
bring forward the thighs by a rotary motion at the hip-joinfe. In
either case, the only useful joint would be that at the hip, and the
legs would be scarcely superior to wooden or rigid supports.

16. Wliy is the variation of animal bodies most common in
the centre, whilst towards the extremities there is comparative
uniformity ?

Because the central parts, as 'the skull, spine, and ribs, are in
their offices permanent ; whilst the extremities, as the hands and
feet, are adapted to every exterior circumstance. In all animals
the office of the cranial part of the skull is to protect the brain,
that of the spine to contain the spinal marrow, and that of the ribs
to perform the part of respiration. It is unnecessary, therefore, for
these parts to vary in shape, while their offices remain the same.
But the shoulder, on the contrary, must vary in form, as it does in
motion, in different animals ; so must the shape of the bones and
of the joints more distant from the centre be adapted to their va
rious actions, and the wrist, the ankle, and the bones of the fingers
and toes must change more than all the rest, to accommodate the
extremities to their diversified offices.

17. Why cannot a statue stand upright on its feet without support,
although it may be a modd of symmetry in all its parts, and is placed
in that attitude which is the most adapted to man ?

Because a statue has but one centre of gravity, and when that

12 THE REASON WHY

What if the foot, ordained the dust to tread,

Or hand, to toil, aspired to be the head ? "—Peps.

is so shifted as that the perpendicular through it to the centre of
the earth falls in any way without the base of the statue — that is,
without a figure formed by lines joining all the external points of
the feet upon which the statue rests— the statue must necessarily
fall to the earth with all the passiveness of a mass of matter of any
other shape. The human body, on the other hand, has a muscular
feeling of the centre of gravity, in consequence of which, if that
centre inclines so much on one side that the position is beginning
to become unstable, the motions and flexions of the limbs instantly
shift the centre of gravity, or rather shift the attitude of the body,
so as to accommodate it to that centre.

18. The centre of gravitv in the body is somewhere in the height of it, varying a little
with the form ; and if this centre is kept in the perpendicular, the body will always
maintain the position of the greatest stability, whatever may be the flexures or
motions of the other parts ; or the centre of gravity may move so as to be over any
one point in the base and yet be stable, only the stability will always be less the
nearer that the body is to one side of the base, and the farther it is from the oppo
site side. The number of positions which the body can assume while on the same
base of the two feet is almost beyond the power of arithmetic ; and as the positions
of thp feet themselves may be also greatly varied, the command which we have of
the bo i by means of our power of working it upon its centre of gravity is truly
wondt^-lul.

19. Why is the sole of the foot arched ?

Because by this arrangement the weight of the body is made to
fall on the summit of the arch, which is supported by a strong liga
ment, and this method of support, as is demonstrated by bridges
and other buildings, is the strongest and most secure that can be
devised.

20. \V~ky is the human hand the most important member of the
whole

Because it is the hand which gives the power of execution
to the mind ; and it is the relative position of one of the
fingers to the other four which principally stamps the character of
the hand ; for the thumb, by its capability of being brought into
opposition witft eacfy of the other fingers, enables the hand to adapt

NATURAL HISTORY. 1J

: All are but parts of one stupendous whole,
Whose body nature is, and God the soul." — POPE.

itself to every shape, and gives it that complete dominion which it
possesses over the various forms of matter.

21. Why is the hand divided into several parts ?

Being thus constructed the hand is capable of applying a
portion or the whole of its functions, according to the size, form,
and weight of the object it designs to handle.

22. Thus the smallest things we take up with the tips of our fingers; those
which are a little larger we take up with the same fingers, but not with the tips ol
them ; substances still larger we take up with three fingers, and so on with four or
all the five fingers, or even with the whole hand ; all which we could not do were
not the hand divided, and divided precisely as it is.

23. Why are the hands made equal to and inclined towards
each other ?

Because when bodies of a great weight and large size are to be
grasped on opposite sides, it is necessary that the instruments which
lift them should be capable of this combined action.

24. Why are the extremities of the fingers soft and round ?

If they had been otherwise formed, or made of bone in
stead of flesh, we could not then lay hold of such minute bodies aa
thorns or hairs. For, in order that a body may be firmly held, it is
necessary that it be in some degree enfolded in the substance
holding it ; which condition could not have been fulfilled by a
hard or bony material.

25. Why are the fingers of an unequal length ?

This difference in the length of the fingers serves innu
merable purposes in connection with the arts and ordinary opera
tions of life ; thus a pen, a pencil, a brush, an engraving tool, a
sword, a hammer, &c., may be more securely grasped, and used with
greater facility ; for if the fingers were of an equal length, one would
get in the way of the other, and pravent the whole from performing
their office properly.

!.4 THE REAfiON WHY :

Man ! know thyself. All wisdom centres there :
To none man seems ignoble, but to man " — YOUNG.

2G. Wliy are the palms of the hands and the insides and tips
of the fingers guarded by cushions of skin ?

If it were not for this protection, the strain upon the blood
vessels and nerves would be too great, and the texture even
of bones and muscles would not be able to sustain the demand
made upon them.

27. Why are the fingers furnished ivith nails ?

If the fingers were not thus furnished, the flesh would be
forced out of its position and incapable of supporting hard sub
stances ; the assistance of the nails is also necessary in retaining
minute objects which would otherwise elude the grasp.

28. The nails are applicable to many other purpose?, and in polishing and scraping,
in tearing and peeling off the skins of vegetables and animals, and in almost ever/
act where nicety of execution is required.

"29. How are the nails of the hands and feet formed?

The nails are a part of the scarf skin, and present the same pheno
mena/)!' adaptation to the surface of the sensitive skin, but in a more
»triking manner. The portion of sensitive skin which gives support
to the nail is formed into very delicate longitudinal folds, which
stand up perpendicularly to the surface. The nail upon its under
surface is fashioned into thin vertical plates, which are received
between the folds of sensitive skin ; and in this manner the two
kinds of laminae reciprocally embracing each other, the firmness of
connecti >n of the nail is maintained.

30. If *c took on the surface of the nail we sec an indication of its structure in
the alternate red and white lines which are there observed; the former of these
correspond with the sensitive laminae, the latter with the horny plates, and the
ribbed appearance of the nail is due to the same circumstance. These sensitive
lamina1 arc provided with an unusual number of blood-vessels for the formation of
the nail, and hence they give a red tint to that portion under which they lie; but
nu.m-r the ro:>t of the nail, there is a part which is not laminated, but merely
ridged longitudinally, and is less abundantly supplied with capillary vessels. Tula
lam i part consequently iroks pale if compared with the preceding. The root of the

NATURAL HISTORY. 15

" Vast chain of being ! which from God began,
Natures othcriul, human, angel, man." — POPE.

nail IB embedded in a fold of sensitive skin to the depth of about a twelfth part of an
Inch for the fingers and toes, about the eighth part of an inch for the thumb, and
the sixth of an inch for the great toe.

31. What are the papilla?

Papillae arc the terminations of the nerves on the surface of the
skin, soft and pulpy, and forming minute protuberances, resembling
the nap of frieze cloth, though greatly inferior in magnitude. These
nerves are a species of animal feelers, and are the immediate
instruments of sensation.

32. When examinin g or enjoying any object, it is natural to enquire, What are the
Changes produced in the nervous papillae or organs of sensation ? If an object
possessed of agreeable feeling is perceived, the nervous papilla; instantly extend
themselves, and from a state of flaccidity become comparatively rigid. When a
person in the dark inclines to examine any object, in order to discover its figure or
other qualities, he perceives a kind of rigidity at the tips of his fingers. If the
fingers are kept long in this state the rigidity of the nervous papillae will give him
a kind of pain or anxiety, which is caused by the over distention of the papillae.
If a small insect creep upon a person's hand, when the papillae are flaccid, ita
movements are not perceived ; but if he happen to direct his eye to the animal, he
immediately extends the papillae, and feels distinctly all the motions of the insect.

33. Why is the cuticle slightly rough, instead of being perfectly
smooth, as might be hastily considered its 'most appropriate,
characteristic ?

Because the slightly rough surface endows it with a quality more
adapted to convey sensation. An illustration of this truth is fur
nished by the imperfect sense of touch which contact with polished
surfaces affords, as compared with the handling of rough bodies.

34. A provision for increasing friction is especially necessary in some parts of the
skin. Thus the roughness of the cuticle in the palm of the hand, and in the sole of
tb<z foot, gives us a firmer grasp and a steadier footing. Nothing is so little apt to
slip as the thickened scarf-skin, either of the hand or the foot.

35. Why has the skin a purple hue when exposed to cold '{

Because the vigour of the nervous power is reduced by cold ; and
in addition to the repulsion inward of most of the blood contained
within the vessels of the skin producing pallor, that which remains

16 THE REASON WHY :

Know, Nature's children, all divide h*r care,

The fur that warms a monarch, vanned a bear." — P:>PE.

behind moves so languidly through the capillaries, that the change
from bright red to deep black red has time to be established before
it completes its circuit and reaches the veins.

36. Why is fat necessary to the system ?

Its principal uses are mechanical. It surrounds the organs like
an elastic cushion, so as to protect the more delicate parts from
sudden and injurious shocks. The soles of the feet, for example,
upon which the whole weight of the body rests, and which in loco
motion are subject to frequent concussion and pressure, are pro
tected by a cushion of fat, which breaks the shocks which would
otherwise take place between the foot and the ground, in the same
manner as do the buffer-cushions which are placed between the
carriages of a railway train.

37 There is another physical quality in fat which renders it of considerable
utility in the animai economy. It is nearly a non-conductor of heat, and as it is
generally collected in a superficial stratum investing the organs, it prevents the
undue escape of heat, and keeps the body warm ; it thus performs the part of a
blanket or clothing, and it is found accordingly that fat persons are less chilly than
thin persons.

38. Why does hair form so appropriate a covering for the head ?

The hairs by their number and the manner in which they
are disposed, are well adapted to deaden any strokes which may fall
on the head, and to prevent strong pressure from wounding the
skin. Being bad conductors of heat, they form a sort of felt, whose
meshes intercept the air, and by that means preserve a uniform
temperature in the head, to a certain degree, independent of that of
the aii and of surrounding bodies ; besides, being impregnated with
an oilv matter, the hair imbibes but a small quantity of water, and
v<-r\ MOOII dries.

30. WTiy is the human body soft and round in youth, <ind hcvrd%
unequal, and angular in advanced life ?

Because the softness and roundness of form of the human body b»

NATURAL HISTORY. 17

" There closely braced,
And neatly fitted, it compresses hard
The prominent and most unsightly bones,
And binds the shoulders flat." — COWPER.

NX^^~vys^~^rw^^wv~^-*~y^/-x^^x^v^N^w^x~^-^x^

owing to the greater proportion of fluids to that of solids ; the
younger the age the greater the preponderance of fluids. The human
embryo when first perceptible is almost wholly fluid ; solid sub
stances are gradually but slowly superadded, and even after birth the
preponderance is strictly according to age : for in the infant the fluids
abound more than in the child; in the child more than in the youth ;
in the youth more than in the adolescent ; in the adolescent more
than in the adult ; and in the adult more than in the aged.

40. The fluids are not only more abundant than the solids, but they are also more
important, as they afford the immediate material of the organization of the body ;
the medium by which its composition and decomposition are effected. They bear
nourishment to every part, and by them are carried out of the system its noxious
and useless matter.

41. Wliy is the spinal column flexible ?

This flexibility renders the movement of the body free,
easy, and varied, and accommodating to the complex combination of
motion which may be brought into play at any moment, with the
rapidity of the changes of thought, and at the command of the im
pulses of feeling. If the spinal column were composed of a rigid and
immoveable pile of bones, all the other parts of the body, to which
they are directly or indirectly attached, would have been rendered
stiff and mechanical in their movements, and would not have beer
able to move, save in a given direction.

42. The degree of flexibility which the spinal column possesses, and the extei*.
to which, by the cultivation of it, it is sometimes actually brought, is exemplified 'T
the positions and contortions of the posture-master and the tumbler. It is acquir*-r
by means of the compressible and elastic matter interposed between the seve~a
vertebrae. So compi-essible is this substance that the human body is half-an-ir>« "'
shorter in the evening than in the morning, having lost by the exertions of the d**
so much of its stature ; yet, so elastic is this matter that the stature lost during tr .•*
day is regained by the repose of the night.

43. IVhy are all the bones of the body covered with a dehccu*
coating, termed periosteum, except the teeth?

ila<i so exquisitely sensitive a mombrano as the

7 (E REASON WHY '.

" In human work«, though laboured on -with pain,
A thousand movements scarce our purpose gam ;
In God's one single can its ends produce ;
Yet nerves to second too some other use." — POPE.

invested the teeth, as it invests every other bone of the body, ac
tion, necessary exposure, and irritation would have subjected the
animal to continual pain. General as it is, it was not the sort of integu
ment which suited the teeth ; what they stood in need of was a strong,
hard, insensible defensive coat, and exactly such a covering is given
to them, in the ivory enamel which adheres to their surface.

44. Why are the front teeth of the mouth sharp and the back
teeth broad and blunted?

Because the office of the former is to cut and separate the food ;
while the purpose of the latter is to grind it to a pulp, by which it
becomes fitted for the process of digestion.

45. What are the uses, distinct and mutual, of the bones
and muscles ?

The bones are to the body what the masts and spars are to a ship
—they give support and the power of resistance. The muscles,
again, are to the bones what the ropes are to the masts and spars ;
it is to them that the bones are indebted for the preservation or the
change of their position. If the bones or masts are too feeble in pro
portion to the weight which they are required to sustain, then a de
viation from their shape or position takes place ; and, on the other
hand, if the muscles or ropes are not sufficiently strong and wel1
bra^fd, then insufficiency of support must necessarily result.

46. /iarly infancy affords an instance of both of the above-mentioned imperfec
tions <ue bones being infirm, and the muscles small and destitute of true fleshy
fibres The disease called " Softness of the bones," is an illustration of what may
be C;...CT. a weak mast of the body, which must yield if its muscles be strongly
drawi, f he state of muscular debility consequent on fever and many acute diseases,
>r eve*, ^n sudden fright, is, on the other hand, an instance of the inability of the
tones alone to preserve an attitude or execute motion, when the muscular system
2<? by disease.

47. Why is the cylindrical form of the long bones of the body
advantages to structure of the human frame ?

The superior advantages oi this arrangement are illustrated

NATURAL HISTORY. 19

" The man who consecrates his hours
By vigorous effort, and an honest aim,
At once he draws the sting- of life and death." — Yotmo.

fVdows : — Tf a piece of timber supported on two point*.

"

bear a weight upon it, it sustains this weight by different qualities in
its difterent parts. For example, divide it into three equal parts,
A, B, 0 ; th:3 uppar part, A, supports the weight by its solidity and
resistance to compression ; the lowest part, B, on the other hand,
resists by its toughness or adhesive quality. Between the portions
acting in so different a manner, there is an intermediate, neutral, or
central part, C, which may be taken away without materially weak
ening the beam, which shows that a hollow cylinder is the form of
strength.

48. How is it that the joints of the body undergo so much use
for many years without diminution of their action?

This durability is attributable to tho provision which is made for
preventing wear and tear, first, by the polish of the cartilaginous
surfaces ; secondly, by the healing lubrication of the mucilage, and
in part to that astonishing property of animal constitutions, assimi
lation, by which in every portion of the body, let it consist of what
it may, substance is restored and waste repaired.

49. The union of joints even where no motion is intended or required, carries
narks of mechanism and mechanical wisdom. The teeth, especially the front teeth,
are one bone fixed in another, like a peg driven into a hoard. The sutures of tho
skull are like the edges of two saws clapped together in such a manner us
that the teetV of one enter the intervals of the other. We have sometimes one bone
lapping over another, and planed down at the edges ; sometimes, also, the thir.
lamella of one bone re-curved into a narrow furrow of another. In all of \vhu-h
varieties we discover the same design ; namely, firmness of junction w iiln>u<

20 THE REASON WHY:

" Each night we die,

Each morn arc born anew : each day a life
And shall .ve kilt each day 1 If trifling kills,
Sure vice must butcher." — YOUNU.

AO. How are the strength and lightness of the human body
preserved independently of the bones ?

By the pressure of the atmosphere, consequent on the air-tight
character of the bag formed by the synovial membrane (which
secretes the oily fluid of the joints), and which is of itself more than
sufficient to keep the articulating surfaces of the bones in contract.

51. This admirable fact is most readily demonstrated by the hip-joint. The
round head of the thigh-bone is received into a socket, thus constituting what is
familiarly known as a ball-and-socket joint; and all communication between
the cavity of the joint and external fluids is cut off by the synovial membrane.
The power thus exercised by the atmosphere is about one-fifth greater than would
be necessary to support a limb weighing thirty pounds, and the barometer would
require to fall twenty-five inches to place the limb and the atmosphere in exact
equilibrium. The pressure of the atmosphere on the shoulder joint is capable of
supporting a weight nearly twice that of the arm, and the force thus exercised upon
the elbow-joint, knee-joint, and highest joint of the fore-finger are respectively
six times, nine times, and thirty-five times greater than are requisite for the
support of the fore-arm, leg, and finger.

52. What is the structure of the rib&?

The ribs are a frame of bones which enclose
a hollow space. The lungs and heart are
within them. The ribs are fastened in front
to a bone called the breast-bone, and are
jouied at the oack to the backbone. In front,
the rib-bones are joined to the breast-bone by
gristle, and this gives them a certain amount
of flexibility, and enables them to move more
easily when the lungs fill with air.

53. Why is the skull the only cavity in the body that is not
enclosed by a membrane ?

Because the importance of the brain to life, and the extreme
tenderness of its substance, make a solid case more necessary for it
than is required for any other part. The skull also completely
aurrounding its contents, is calculated not for motion, but solely for
defence.

NATURAL HISTORY. 2L

Hope humbly then ; with trembling pinions soar ;
Wait the great teacher Death, and God adore." — POPE.

54. WHiy are persons remarkable for their stupidity commonly
termed " thick-headed ?"

The bones of the cranium which are in connection with those of
the face, require to increase proportionately in their growth, so as to
keep pace with the face, and preserve the symmetry of the parts.
This they do, however, only in their external table, the internal
remaining to preserve the symmetry of the bones of the cranium.
From this inequality of development, spaces are left between the two
tables termed sinuses. In the forehead, immediately under the eye
brows, there are two such named frontal sinuses. It sometimes
happens that the brain shrinks from disease, as in idiocy. In such
cases the internal table follows the brain, and the distance between
the two tables is increased, the intervening space being either
filled with a kind of refuse, or remaining empty, forming unusually
large sinuses.

55. A female child about four months after birth was noticed to have an unusually
large head. Till the fourth year, however, it did not excite much attention, and
the mental powers up to this period seemed to be excited in the ordinary degree.
At this period, however, the head began rapidly to enlargo, and the ro ind became
more and more obscured, till complete idiocy supervened, and continued till Her
death, which occurred in her twenty-second year. The head became too large to be
supported by the puny muscles of the neck ; she therefore constantly lay on a pallet
by the side of the fire. She appeared to have some slight glimmerings of mind, was
readily amused, like a young child, with noise and brilliant objects, and for years
kept rubbing a penny piece in her hands, which she would not part with day or
night, and which became at length reduced to the thinness of a wafer.

56. What purposes are served by the projection of the heel and
the prominence of the knee-pan ?

They increase by mechanical adjustment the power of the muscles ;
for by such means the point of insertion of the muscles is removed
to a distance from the centre of motion in the joint, and the lever
power thus obtained is greatly increased.

57. Why is it, that although the bones are designed for the strength
ening and support of the frame, yet ihey never touch each other ?

Because were it not for the fine elastic material, the cartilage,
interposed between the bones, the frame would be deprived Of its

22 THE REASON WHY :

How poor, how rich, how abjest, how august,
How complicate, how wonderful is man." — YOCNO.'

elasticity. Without such elasticity, a jar would reach the more
delicate organs, even in the very recesses of the body, at every
violent motion ; and every joint would crack by the attrition of the
surfaces of the bones.

58. What is a muscle?

A muscle is composed of long slender fibres, which possess the
power of contracting, and are everywhere enveloped in common
cellular membranes ; the fibres become fewer as they approach the
extremity of the muscle, and ultimately terminate. The cellular
substance that envelopes them being thus freed from the muscular
fibres, joins more closely together, and forms itself into a white,
round, or flattened tendon. When the muscular fibres contract, their
power is united on the tendon, and drawing it up, makes it perform
the action of a pulley.

59. Different muscles accomplish very different purposes. Some of them
draw down the limh or part to which they are attached, if it has a moveable joint,
and is placed under the part of the body in which it acts. Others elevate and ex
tend tke moveahle parts to which they belong, and are placed on the superior
surface. Some muscles, also, move on the parts obliquely, as the oblique muscles
of the eye, and others make them describe a semi-circle, as in the motions of the
neck, arms, legs, &c. ; some elevate the upper eyelids ; others contract them, as the
eyebrows : or wrinkle them, as the extremities of the lips. The muscles also act on
the legs, arms, fingers, toes, &c., in moving them to either side. Another example
of their power is instanced in the forearm, legs, &c. The beauty of the mechanism
of the muscles is also evinced in the abdomen, where some are transverse, others
straight, oblique, &c.

60. What are, the nerves f

They are a species of fine thread running from every part of the
body, charged with exquisite sensibility, by which they convey
the impression or commands between our will and our muscles.

The vital power of a muscle resides in the nerves, and is nervous. Its irritable
power is the property by which it feels and acts, when stimulated without conscious
ness. It is an inherent principle belonging to its constitution, and remains some time
after death. Ligaments and tendons support the same weight, whether dead or alive ;
kut a living muscle that lifts one hundred pounds with ease, cannot, after death,
raise twenty pounds without danger of rupture. When a muscle is newly cut from a
limb, it palpitates and trembles for a considerable time — it cannot be nervous power
'hat thus makes it irritable ; for the nerves being separated from their organ, ait

NATURAL HISTORY.

«' Look round our world ; behold the chain of Love
Combining all below, and all above." — POPE.

dead and powerless. If the heart is newly separated from the body, it contracts if
irritated. The bowels continue their pcr..i|ultic motion after death, until they be
come stiff and cold. This quality belongs absomte.y to the muscie. and exists, in some
cases without nervous irritability altogether — hence, there is a distinction between
nervous sensibility and muscular irritability. The former dies immediately witt
the animal ; the latter lives for a short time after the animal is dead. Muscles are
irritab'e and contractile by the inherent principle of their fibres, and are sensible by
the vitality communicated through their nerves. Though nerves are sensible, they
are not contractile, and cannot perform the functions of muscular fibres.

61. Why do ive find -muscles under a multiplicity of forms and
attitudes, sometimes with double, sometimes with treble tendons, some
times with none, sometimes one tendon to several muscles, at other
time* one muscle to several tendons?

The reason for this great mechanical variety in the figure of the
muscles, *» owing to a fixed law that the contraction of a muscle
shall be towards its centre. Therefore, the object for mechanism on
each occasion is so to modify the figure and adjust the position of
the muscle as to produce the motion required agreeably with this
law. This can only be done by giving to different muscles a diver
sity of configuration suited to their several offices, and to their situa
tion with respect to the work which they have to perform.

62. The illustration of this principle is as follows : A is the tendinous organ ; B

the tendinous insertion, and the
muscular fibres run obliquely be
tween them. This obliquity of
the fibres is almost universal in
D the muscles of the limb, and the
effect is very important. If we

pull obliquely uron a weight, we sacrifice a great deal of power. For what ad
vantage, then, is power resigned in the muscle? If we wish to draw a tling

towards any place with the least

lorce, we must pull directly in the

line between the object and ths

place ; but if we wish to draw it as

quickly as possible, without any

regard to the loss of force, we must

pull it obliquely by drawing it in

two directions at once. Tie a

string to a stone A, and draw it

straight towards you at C with one

l»aud ; then make a loop on ano- ^ | \s /

Vicr string, and running the first

24 THE REASON WHY :

" Leisure is pain ; takes off our chariot wheels ;
How heavily we drag the load of life;
Blest leisure is our curse." — YOUNO.

through it, draw one string in each hand, B, B, not towards you in the lii>< A, 0»
but sideways, till both strings are stretched in a straight line : you will see hotr
much swifter the stone moves than it did before when pulled straight forwara. Nov*
this is proved by mathematical reasoning to be the necessary consequence of iorces
applied obliquely ; there is a loss of power but a great increase of velocity. The
velocity is the quality required to be gained.

63. By what mechanism are the motions of the arm performed ?
The arm is joined to the body, and moved by numerous powerful

muscles ; and is fixed to the breast by the ligaments of the collar-bone.
The muscles that move the shoulder-blade lie upon the trunk ; those
that move the arm lie upon the shoulder-blade ; those that move the
fore-arm lie upon the arm ; and those that move the hand and
fingers lie upon the fore-arm. But as the arm requires easy, circular
motions, it has a multiplicity of parts to perform them. It has the
wrist, for turning it round ; the elbow, for its hinge-like motions ;
and the shoulder-joint, on which it rolls ; and to assist all those, the
mo^eable shoulder-blade becomes the centre of their motions ; for,
after a certain point of elevation, the motion of raising the arm is
performed by the action of the shoulder-blade upon the trunk ;
when cur shoulder-bone is raised to a horizontal position, it is
checked by the upper part of the shoulder-joint which hangs over
it ; and if we elevate our arm still higher, the shoulder-blade rolls,
turning upon the point of the collar-bone ; and, as it turns, it glides
easily upon those muscles, which lie like a fleshy cushion between
it and the trunk over which it is placed.

64. Why are the muscles often removed by means of slender strings
from the parts they are designed to rest upun ?

Because, in many cases, the situation of the muscles where they
are immediately required would be inconvenient. If the muscles
which move the fingers had been placed in the palm or the back of
the hand, they would have swelled that part to an awkward and
clumsy thickness ; the beauty and the proportion of the part
would have been destroyed. They are, therefore, disposed in the
arm, and even up to the elbow, and act by long tendons strapped
down at the wrist, and passing under the ligaments to the fingers
%nd to the joints of the fingers which they are severally to

NATURAL HISTORY. 25

" Since God is ever present, ever felt,
In the void waste as in the city full ;
And where he vital breathes there must be joy." — THOMSON.

move. In like manner, the muscles which move the toes, and
many of the joints of the foot, are disposed in the calf of the
leg, instead of forming an unwieldy tumefaction in the foot itself.
Thus, also, is it with the nictating membrane over the eye. Its
office is in the front of the eye ; but its body is lodged in the
back part of the globe, where it lies safe, and where it encumbers
nothing.

65. What are tendons?

Tendons are not only necessary as pulleys tc the bones, but to
give the limbs a proper form, and preserve their beautiful symmetry,
Tendons are seldom required, except where muscles are inserted
into bones. There is no tendon in the heart, the stomach, the
bowels, or the gullet ; these do not require them, for the motions
are wholly contractile, and need no lever power. But where tendons
pass over bones and traverse joints, the force is concentrated into
narrow bounds, and their long cords being fixed to the extremities
of the muscles, pull the bones, and raise them in obedience to our
will. Tendons have no visible nerves, and little or no motion.

66. What is cartilage?

Cartilage is intermediate in hardness with bane, and what are
called the soft parts — it is firm and resisting, and yet it has
a great deal of elasticity. In some parts of the body there are car
tilages serving for continuations of bones, such as those which con
tinue the ribs and connect them to the breast-bone, and they are
exactly similar to bones from which the earthy parts have been
dissolved by an acid.

67. The cartilaginous crusts which cover the auricular ends of bones are of a very
be utiful and peculiar structure. If a piece of bone be sawn towards its
icular end, till all be cut through, and then the remaining part, and the cartilage
ring it be torn asunder, the cartilage will be found to present an infinity of
•cs set perpendicularly on the surface of the bone. When a portion of the bone
its articular cartilage has been soaked in -water for some weeks, the cartilage
f rind to have lost its smooth surface and cohesion, and looks exactly as if the
.U !iud been coveted with white velvet.

2

26 THE REASON WHY :

" We censure Nature for a span too short ;
That span too short we tax as tedious too ;
Fortune, invention, all expedients tire,
To lash the lingering moments into speed." — YOUNG.

68. What are ligaments?

Ligaments are composed of numerous straight fibres collected to
gether, and arranged into short bands of various breadth, parallel or
radiating, and interwoven with others which cross them. Sometimes
the ligament is so formed as to surmount the articular ends of two
bones which move upon one another, and here it is called a capsule*
Ligaments are not extensible nor elastic ; hence, when any attempt
is made to stretch them too far, great pain is the result, and
inflammation follows, and they are said to be sprained.

CHAPTER III.

THE INTERNAL ORGANS OF THE HUMAN FRAME: THE HEART,
LUNGS, LIVER, STOMACH, BRAIN, ETC.

69. How is Hood formed?

The food which we eat is masticated and afterwards swallowed ;
it is then received into the stomach, where it is prepared by
digestion for the nourishment of the body. Here tLere is a
fluid formed which changes the food into a substance cu'Jcd chymer
which, passing into the several intestines, is there con>.,rced into a
milky liquour denominated chyle. This is the fluid letter from
which the blood is formed.

70. What is the composition of blood?

The blood may be described as consisting of innumerable cells
suspended in a gelatinous fluid. These cells or globules are formed
of thin transparent sacs, evolving a reddish fluid, the quantity
and quality of which undergo constant changes, in consequence
of its passing to and fro vessels containing a denser fluid. As a
general rule, the deeper or lighter colour of the blood may be said
to depend on the greater or smaller number of the globules. The
colour may also become darker although the globules are dimin
ished ; and this is caused by the blood cells assuming a more
globular form, through its action of passing in the vessel*, con

NATURAL HISTORY.

27

" Blest son of foresight, lord of fate !
That awful independent of to-morrow !
Whose work is done ; who triumphs in the past ;
Whose yesterdays look backward with a smile." — YOUNG.

Gaining the denser fluids, and reflects the rays of light in a
different manner.

71. Hoivis the blood in the human body circulated and purified ?

First, the heart sends the blood to all the capillaries through one
set of blood-vessels called arteries. Then the blood is brought back
to the heart by another set of blood-vessels called veins. Next by
the blood which returns by the veins is impure, and is sent by
another set of arteries from the heart into the lungs, to be purified
by the air we breathe. Then it is brought back to the heart by
another set of veins. Thus there are two sets of arteries and veins
through which the blood is all made to pass ; first, through the
body and back to the heart for the purpose of nourishment, and
then through the lungs and back for the purpose of purification.

72. The right side of the heart receives and sends out the impure blood. The upper

division receives it from the body
through two large veins. Then the
blood passes to the lower division of
the heart, where it is sent to the
lungs through one large artery
with two branches, one for each
lung. This is the pulmonary artery .
The left side of the heart receives
and sends out the pure blood. The
upper portion receives it from the
lungs through three large veins.
Then the blood passes to the lower
division of the heart when it is sent
to the capillariet all over the body
through one large artery called the
aorta.

73. Why is the blood regarded as so important an agent in
animal economy ?

Because the blood is the vehicle of life to every atom of our
organization. By properties peculiar to itself, all the various fluids
of our body are produced from it, and every particle of bone,
muscle, membrane, nerve, and vessel must have existed as an in
gredient of the blood, and have been conveyed to its appropriate

28

THE REASON WHY:

" All men think all men mortal but themselves ;
Themselves, when some alarming shock of fate
Strikes through their wounded hearts the sudden dread." — YOUNG.

place by this circulating spring of energy and nourishment. No
vital action is maintained without blood, and should it cea&e to
flow through the brain, all the sense would be speedily shut up,
and every function speedily superseded.

74. In the accompanying1 engraving the circulation of the blood as performed by
a single heart is depicted : V represents the ventricle, or strong muscular bag of th«
heart, which when filled with blood contracts upon it, just as any other muscle
does, and so forces out the contents through the pipe which arises from it, called
the aorta, just as the contents of an india-rubber bag are
squeezed out through a pipe fixed in its neck. The only

Ol 1 difference is, that whereas an external force squeezes the
bag, the heart, beir.g muscular, has a power of contraction
of its own, and, as it were, squeezes itself ; and then, just
like the india-rubber bag which regains its shape when the
pressure is removed, so the heart, when it has squeezed
out all the blood, dilates itself again, and is ready to con
tract anew. The blood having been poured into the great
artery, goes through branches up to the head, and down to
the lower part of the body, where its minute or capillary ter
minations are seen to end in veins. Those from the lower
part «f *Ha body form an inferior great vein ; those from
the upper, * superior : and the two veins terminate
separately into a bag A, called the auricle. The auricle is
not nearly so sti'ong as the ventricle, because it has nothing to
with f()rcing the blood over the body; it is in tended merely
as a receptacle for the venous blood, till the ventricle be ready to
receive it. The auricle is constantly full of blood, which flows
to it through the veins in an equable stream, so that when
ever the emptied ventricle dilates, the blood from the
auricle rushes in, and distends it for a renewed contraction.
The arteries are a set of tubes both dilatable and elastic. Hence at the moment
•when the ventricle contracts, the blood which is forced into them distends them,
increasing their diameter, and producing the feeling communicated to the fingers
placed over them, which is called the pulse. The number of the pulse is therefore
the number of contractions which the heart is making in a minute ; and at the
moment when the ventricle dilates, the artery, having the distending force taken
off, contracts on its contents. It would now drive part of the blood back again
into the ventricle were it not for a valve placed in the artery at its origin, which
shuts down the moment the pressure comes on it backwards, so that the force of
the elasticity of the artery is expended in propelling the blood forward, not in an
equable stream but in successive waves. Again ; when the ventricle contracts tc
throw its blood into the aorta, it would throw back an equal portion into the
auricle, were not a valve placed there also, which shuts the moment the ventricle
•on tracts.

NATURAL H1STORT 29

At thi-rty man suspects himself a foo.,

Knows it at forty, and amends bis plan." — YOUNG.

75. }Vliy have veins a blue or black appearance, although blood is
of a r&d colour ?

Because the oxygen which the blood originally contains is ab
sorbed as it passes through its course of circulation, and the
blood is discoloured. But when it is again sent through the lungs,
it receives a fresh supply of oxygen and regains its colour.

76. Why are the veins sometimes seen to swell ?

As long as the veins that proceed from the organs are free, the
blood that arrives in them from the arteries runs on and does not
accumulate in them ; but if the veins are compressed, or cannot
empty themselves of the blood always arriving by the arteries, and
finding no place in the veins, accumulates on the tissue of the
organ, distends the blood-vessels, and augments, more or less, its
volume, particularly if its physical properties can undergo these
changes. The swelling of the brain, by the difficulty of the circula
tion happens every time that the blood has more difficulty in passing
through the lungs ; and as that generally takes place in expiration,
the brain swells in this instance so much more in proportion as
the expiration is more complete and of larger continuation.

77. Why is a ligature tied round the arm when it is bled ?
Because the veins have valves placed in them at certain distances,

which prevent the blood from flowing backward from the heatf
towards the extremities ; when the ligature is tied the blood is
constantly arriAring from below, because the pressure is not great
enough to obstruct the arteries, but it cannot get up past the
bandage ; the veins are therefore distended and become prominent,
so as easily to be seen and punctured ; and then as the blood cannot
get down the arm again on account of the valves, it is necessitated
to flow out at the orifice.

78. IVliy does moderate cold act as a stimulant to the system?

Because cold repels the blood from the surface, braces and con
tracts the integuments, and lessens the transpiration. The thinner
and superfluous quantity of the circulating fluid is no longer
thru vvn from the surface, but is drained off in the fluid state, and

30 fHE REASON WHT !

Then say not man's imperfect, Heaven in fault ;
Say rather, man's as perfect as he ought ;
His knowledge measured to his state and place;
Hi* time a moment, and a point his space." — POPE.

thus all the heat which would have been requisite for its conversion
into vapour is preserved, and affords additional nourishment to the
system.

79. Why does fear cause the cheeks to turn pale, while rage makes
them red ?

Because, when persons are affected by fear, the respiration and the
afflux of arterial blood are diminished, and paleness of the skin con
sequently ensues ; but when the passions are excited, respiration
and the afflux of arterial blood are increased, and a flushed state of
the cheeks follows.

80. Why is n pale cheek and blanched Up an indication of

Because the lesser or greater number of globules present in the
blood is made known in the one case by the pallor of the cheek,
and in the other by its florid appearance. And as these red
globules are the carriers of oxygen, and consequently in a great
measure the exciters of vital action, it follows that the g*eneral state
of the health is necessarily regulated by the supply of these
important agents.

81. Why is headache increased by a fit of coughing ?
Because expiration assists the heart in propelling the blood, and

as the act of coughing considerably increases expiration, the flow of
blood to the brain is greatly augmented, and the consequent
distended state of the vessels adds to the aching of the head.

82. What are the lungs?

The two lungs are placed, on each side of the spine, in hollow
sjaces formed by the arching of the ribs. They may be compared
to large pieces of sponge, which alternately suck in and squeeze out
the blood of the body and the air of the surrounding atmosphere.
The air passes and re-passes by the same tubes. The air-tubes, com
mencing with the wind-pipe, and branching off frequently in
different directions, beoome gradually smaller and more numerous,
until they terminate in minutf expansions, which are the air-cells

HISTORY.

" We gaze around;

We read their movements ; we sigh ; and wl ile
We sigh, we sink, and are what we deplored."— YOUNO.

of the lungs. The blood is
r.dsed into the lungs by
one set of tubes or vessels
termed arteries, and passes
back by another set of vessels
termed veins. When the ribs
are raised and the floor of
the chest drawn down by the
muscles of inspiration, the walls of the chest fall in, or when they
are brought nearer together by the muscles of expiration, the due
proportion of air and blood is, by gentle pressure, sent out from
the interior of the lungs. A firm and elastic membrane lines the
inside of the chest, and the same membrane passing back, covers
in the lungs, forming their outer coat By this doubling of th«
membrane, the lungs without being attached except at their roots,
where the lobes enter, are held by their own elastic action in cloa«
contiguity to t&e chest, and thus they move freely with it*
movements.

S3. The right lung is divided into three parts or lobes; the left lung is divide*

into two lobes, between which is a
space where the point of the heart
lies. Each lung is contained in J.
email membranous bag called the
pleura, and the air-vessels whiah
axe connected with the windpipe,
through which we breatiie, run
along between the blood-vessels in
the lungs, and eo give to them
that quantity of air which is re
quired to change the colour of the
blood and to render it fit for cir
culation. The accompanying en
graving will serve to illustrate
the structure and position of t-he
lungs ; in the centre is a membrane
which divides the chest. The ribs
are cut of£, so as to show the in
side of the chest. The diaphragm
which divides the chest from the
has been removed. Th«

32

THE REASON WHY

1 Man flies from tirae, and time from man ; too soon
In sad divorce this double flight must end." — YOUNG.

three lobes of the right lung and the two lobes of the left lung are shown in their
proper positions, g is the windpipe through which air is admitted.

84. Why are the lungs capable of indicating whether an infant
found dead has been still-born or not?

Because lungs which have never breathed are heavier than
water, and sink ; but lungs which have breathed, if only once, ai'e
lighter than water, and swim.

85. The lungs, previously to birth, are compressed like a squeezed sponge, and ex
pand whenever the pressure is taken off. The moment they expand tbe air rushes
in by the nostrils and mouth ; and the force with which it enters causes the expan
sion a little beyond the natural state. This acts as a stimulus upon the muscles,
which immediately contract, dimmish the cavity of the chest, and, in conjunction
with the elasticity of the lungs, expel the air till the lungs are again reduced to less
than their natural capacity, and this stimulates the antagonists of the former
muscles, namely, those which expand the chest, and they assist the pressure of the
atmosphere in again filling the lungs. The expansion of the lungs is always pro
duced by their own elasticity, for no muscular apparatus could work so fine a
structure ; but the expansion of the chest gives room ; and the contraction of the
chest again occasions the expulsion. Thus the lungs are set going by atmospheric
pressure and elasticity ; and the action is kept up and regulated by this and
muscular force conjointly.

86. Why does the chest
heave when we breathe ?

Because when we inspire
the air, the ribs are drawn
upward and outward, and the
diaphragm at the same time
is fou:ed down. When we
expire the air, the ribs return
to their natural place, whilst
the diaphragm is again
drawn up.

87. In the accompanying illustra
tion, the front half of the ribs being
cut away, the interior cf the chest is
exposed. C C is the cavity of the
chest, empty. D J) 1) D the dia
phragm, rising high in the centr»

NATURAL IIISTOltr. 33

Life's cares are comforts ; such by Heaven designed ;

lie thu-t has none must n*ake them or be wretched." — YOUNG.

lind descending very low at the sides and behind. The white space is its ten-
donous portion. The lower part is muscle that contracts to draw it downward.
A A is the abdomen.

88. Wliat is the liver, and how are its functions performed ?

The liver lies horizontally on the right side of the body immediately
below the diaphragm, and is protected by the interior ends of the
lower ribs. Its function is to secrete the greenish-yellow fluid, the
gall or bile, which is conveyed from the liver by a canal called the
hepatic duct. On the lower surface of the liver is situated a small
pear-shaped bag, the gall bladder, which is also furnished with a
duct, called the crystic duct, which unites with the duct from the
liver, and forms the common biliary duct.

89. What is the composition of the brain f

The brain is composed of two substances, namely, of a grey-
coloured pulp, and of a white fibrous texture. The grey pulp is the
glandular or active substance, and is made up, like other glands, of
minute points or cavities, from which proceed the finest conducting
tubes. These tubes, intertwining and uniting in bundles within the
brain, are called the cerebral fibres, and they constitute the white
substance occupying, for the most part, the central and under portions
of the brain. The grey substance lies chiefly on and near the surface,
and also in the neighbourhood of those cavities within the brain, which
.ire called its ventricles. The brain is separated by a firm membrane
into two distinct organs, the great brain and the small brain. The
great brain is situated in the front and upper part of the skull, and
its surface is marked by depressions and elevations which, resem
bling the folds of a garment, are called its convolutions. The small
Drain lies underneath at the back of the skull ; its surface is formed
bv close layers of the grey substance, presenting a laminated appear
ance. Four united roots or stems of the fibrous substance, two from
each brain, with distinct portions of the grey or glandular substance
at jugular intervals interspersed, constitute the spinal cord. Nerves
juisis 01 in of the brain and spinal cord, and are distributed to every
organ of the body.

2*

34 THE REASON WHY

" Far as creation's ample range extends,

The scale of sensual, mental powers ascends." — POPK.

90. The functions of the great and small brain appear to be regulated by a system
of mutual dependence and co-operation. During wakefulness the great brain, aided
by the influence of the small brain, and also by that of the spinal cord, conducts
and regulates the conscious movements of the body. But during sleep, when the
great brain relaxes the reins of government, and p-ives them over to the small
brain, this organ, being left to its own laws, directs, through its own fibres and
those of the spinal cord, the movements of the heart, lungs, and other internal
organs, acting at the same time on the muscles ; and while the small brain flows
into all these, there results a plenary equilibrium of the body, and a general
co-operation of all its parts for the mutual support of each other, and for the
preservation of the whole.

91. Why is it that although the brain and the spinal cord are
so intimately connected, yet the brain is not affected by the violent
movements which the spine is constantly making ?

The evil is partly obviated by the elastic and partly by the non-
elastic properties of the matter interposed between the several
layers of compact bone. By means of the elastic property of this
matter, the head rides upon the summit of the column as upon a
pliant spring, while the canal of the spinal cord remains secure and
uninvaded. By means of the soft and pulpy portion of this matter,
the vibrations excited in the compact bone are absorbed point by
point as they are produced ; as many layers of this soft and pulpy
substance, so many points of absorption of the tremors excited in
the compact bone, so many barriers against the possibility of the
transmission of a shock to the delicate nervous substance.

92. Why mo,y the form of the skull be sometimes changed
without injuring the brain ?

Because the peculiar softness of the cerebral mass enables it to
undergo those changes of its envelope without inconvenience
The brain, in proportion to its softness, will suffer percussions am
pressures with less danger ; and, on this account, new-born children
whose bones are soft and moveable, may have their head.'
compressed, and even deformed, without any bad effect.

93. Among some of the savage tribes a low brow is regarded as a beauty ; wd *?•
secure this, the heads of infants are subject*-! to pressure from plates fixed ou the
top of the head, by which means, the crown of the head becomes periectiy uo^
while the back portion of it protrudes extensively.

NATURAL HISTORY. 35

But of this frame the bearing and the ties,

The strong connexions, nice dependencies,

Gradations just, has thy pervading- soul looked through!" — POPE.

94. Why are the gums admirably fitted to receive tlve teeth ?

Because they not only serve as firm elastic cushions whereby
they rapidly diffuse the force, and powerfully support the teeth
when forcibly employed, but by the vascular connection between
them, in part supply them with nourishment.

95. By the manner in which teeth are implanted in the sockets, they are afforded
an extensive surface of support. The force is not concentrated at the point, as lu
the case of a nail thrust into a board ; but is uniformly diffused over the whole

7 surface of the fang, as may be seen in the

— ^r^rra. /""-^"Tf'la /irTi^ annexed engraving, where the fangs of

ll ,!'/>$»' ! ' ;! ''If | j'ij I|B the middle tooth press on a surface, a a «,

. •v.-.i1*^ vM8raL~=«=- equal to four times that of the crown,
6 ; so that supposing the pressure on the
crown to be equai to four pounds, being
extended over the surface of the fangs,
it is reduced to one pound on any given
jioint of the root, and with a similar force
upon the sockets.

96. Why are trie teeth of infants hidden within the gumsl

Because the presence of teeth would not only be useless, but
would interrupt the process of sucking, by which means the infant
is for some time nourished, and which act can be performed more
efficiently, and with greater ease and comfort to the nurse, whilst
the inside of the mouth and edges of the gums are smooth and soft.

97. What renders it more probable that this is the effect of design is, that tho
teeth are imperfect while all the other parts of the mouth are perfect. The lips are
perfect ; the tongue is perfect; the cheeks, the jaws, the palate, the pharynx, tho
larynx, are all perfect ; the teeth alone are not so. All these parts are called into
use from the beginning.

98. Why do new teeth sometimes make their appearance at an
advanced age ?

In such cases the jaw was too small to contain the full
number of the second set of teeth at the ordinary period of their
renewal ; some of the teeth, therefore, remain in the jaw, which
when others drop out make their appearance.

36

TIIE REASON WHY:

" From an eye of tenderness,
Let heavenly pity fall." — YOUNG.

99. IVhy have tears a globular form ?

Because the superfluous fluid secreted by the eye, of which fluid
tears are composed, is discharged through a hole in the bone, of
about the circumference of a goose quill, in these the tears become
moulded to this form.

100. What is the form of the stomach ?

The stomach has the shape of the pouch of a bag-pipe, lies across
the body ; and the passage by which the food leaves it is some
what higher in the body than the orifice by which the food enters ;
so that it is by the contraction of the muscular coat of the
stomach, that the contents having undergone the application of
the gastric juice, are gradually pressed out.

101. Why is the free action of the pores of
the skin essential to the health of the body ?

Because they act as a species of pipes through
which the expended refuse matter is conveyed
from the body. These tubes open through the
cuticle or outer skin, and descend into the fine
or underneath skin, and then form themselves
into a coil as seen in the drawing. These tubes
are hollow, like a pipe-stem, and their inner
surface consists of wonderfully minute capillaries
filled with impure venous blood. The capillaries
of these tubes through the whole skin of the
body are thus constantly exhaling the noxious
and decayed particles of the body. It is calcu
lated that about three or four pounds of waste
matter pass off through the skin every twenty-
four hours.

102. Why is watered milk the most suitable food for the
nourishment of the infant?

Because this aliment has a close analogy to blood, and the
greatest amount of nutrition is therefore afforded in an agreeable
form, and by an easy method, whereas any other mode of supplying

NATURAL IIISTOlir. 37

• Man marks not thee, marks not the mighty hand
That, ever busy, wheels the silent spheres;
Works in the secret deep." — THOMSON.

the same amount and quality of food would overtax the powers
and functions of the infant.

103. If a small drop of milk be submitted to the microscope it will be found to
manifest nearly the same appearances as a drop of blood will present. A multitude
of minute pearly sphericles with the most perfect outline, reflecting light brilliantly
from their centre, and varying in magnitude from the 12,500th to the 3,000th part
of an inch in diameter, and even larger as seen floating in the fluid. The general
magnitude and number of these globules vary much, not only in the case of one
species of animal compared with another, but with different individuals ol the same
species, and even with the same individual under different circumstances. The
constituent upon which the nutritive properties of milk mainly depends is butter ;
in this respect woman's milk is found to be by far the richest, as will be seen from
the following comparative results : —

Woman. Cow. Goat. Ass.

Butter 8-97 2-68 4-56 1-29

Sugar of Milk 1-20 5-G8 9-12 6-29

Cheesy Matter 1-93 8-95 4'38 1'95

Water ... .. 87-90 .. .. 82'69 .. .. 81-94 .. .. 90-47

100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00

104. IVhy is it better for mankind that the action of the l.,\^
organs of the body are hidden from sight ?

Because were we sensible of the organic motions — di'i ve
when the heart beats, the lungs play, and the stortv,'j fVp2sts,
the consciousness could not promote, but might dj'j'Aiib the due
and orderly course of these processes.

105. We do not know when the heart dilates to receive the ^ i>i cuirent, nor when
it contracts to propel it with renewed impetus through the fjj r CMa ; nor when the
blood rushes to the lungs to give out its useless and noxiom y j<.'/.04 ; nor when the
air rushes to the blood to take up those particles, to reriv.c '-hex* by others, and
thus to purify and renovate the vital fluid. Many pro-^Sjf" rf this kind are con
tinually going on within us during every moment of rjr e'f's'^ence, but we are no
more conscious of them than we are of the motion of i.p.e Folds in the blade of grass
on which we tread. On the contrary, when an M.tjtpal object produces in u
sentient nerve that change of state which we denot j jy the words " an impression ;"
when the sentient nerve transmits this impress '.ca to the brain ; when the brain
is thereby brought into the state of perception ,f Aii animal life is in active operation,
and percepient or conscious existence takr , p\ace.

3S THE REASON WHY

; My pul^e as yours doth temperately keep time,
And makes as healthful music." — SHAKSPERK.

100. W7t,y may the organic life exist after the animal life has
perished ?

Because the animal life is extinguished when sensation is
abolished, and voluntary motion can be performed no more.
But disease may abolish sensation and destroy the power of
voluntary motion, while circulation, respiration, secretion, excre
tion, and the entire circle of organic functions continue to be
performed.

107. The disease known as catalepsy affords the most striking illustration jf this
extraordinary condition of the system ; and the following is a case in point : A
young lady was seized with a fit of catalepsy while employed in netting ; she was
in the act of passing the needle through the mesh : in that position she became im
movably rigid, exhibiting in a pleasing form a figure of death — like ?leep, beyond
the power of art to imitate, or the imagination to conceive. Her forehead was
serene, her features perfectly composed. The paleness of her colour, and her
breathing, which at a distance was scarcely perceptible, operated in rendering the
similitude to marble more exact and striking. The position of her fingers, hands,
and arms, was altered with difficulty, but preserved every form of flexure they
acquired ; nor were the muscles of the neck exempted from this law, her head
maintaining every situation in which the hand could place it, as firmly as her
limbs.

108. Why is it erroneous to suppose that deep-seated vital organs
have what is ordinarily termed " feeling ?"

Because (taking the heart as an illustration) the pulsation of the
heart may be felt through the side, and those arteries which lie
near the surface may be felt to beat. After violent exertion or
excitement, too, the pulsation of the heart may be felt, and in
imagination at least, if not in reality, heard without the application
of the hand to any part of the body. But the circulation of the
blood is never felt, and the heart itself gives us no internal evidence
of its existence.

109. A well-authenticated case of the insensibility of the heart to feeling of any
kind, is furnished by the celebrated Harvey, the discoverer of the circulation of the

»lood, as follows : — A young nobleman had a portion of the parietes of the side
destroyed by an abscess, consequent upon a fall. The wound healed, but without
the restoration of the parts which had been destroyed by the abscess, and the hear*.

NATURAL HISTORY. 39

With milky blood the heart is overflown,

Is soothed and sweetened by the social sense." — TUOMSO*.

and lungs could be touched through the opening without imparting any feeling
that they were touched. Harvey says : " When I paid my respects to this young
nobleman, he made no concealment, but exposed the left side of his breast, when I
saw a cavity into which I could introduce my fingers and thumb. Astonished with
the novelty, I again and again explored the wound, and first marvelling at the
extraordinary nature of the cure, I set about the examination of the heart. Taking
it in one hand and placing the finger of the other on the pulse of the wrist, I satis
fied myself that it was indeed the heart which I grasped. I then brought him to
the King (Charles I.), that he might behold and touch so extraordinary a thing, and
that he might perceive, as I did, that unless when we touched the outer skin, or
when he saw our fingers in the cavity, this young nobleman knew not that we
touched the heart."

110. WTiy do the interior organs of the body keep in the placet
assigned them, when the body itself is moved about in every
direction.

Because the various parts are tied or fastened to the body in
such a manner as to prevent them slipping from their places.

111. The heart is placed between two soft lobes of the lungs, and is tied to the me
diastinum and to the pericardium, which pericardium is not only itself a very strong
membrane, but adheres firmly to the duplicature of the mediastinum, and, by its
point, to the middle tendon of the diaphragm. The heart is also sustained in its
place by the great blood-vessels which issue from it. The lungs are tied to the
st'.'tiium by the mediastinum before, to the vertebra? by the pleura behind. It seems
indeed to be the very use of the mediastinum (which is a membrane that goes
'straight through the middle of the thorax, from the breast to the back) to keep thf
contents of the thorax in their places ; in particular to hinder one lobe of the lungs
from incommoding another, or the parts of the lungs from pressing upon each other
when we lie on the side. The liver is fastened in the body by two ligaments ; the
first, which is large and strong, comes from the covering of the diaphragm, and
penetrates the substance of the liver ; the second is the umbilical vein, which, after
liirth, degenerates into a ligament. The first, which is the principal, fixes the liver
in its situation whilst the body holds a n erect post-are ; the second prevents it from
pressing on the diaphragm when we he down ; and both together sling or suspend
the liver when we lie upon our backs, so thnt it may not compress or obstruct the
vein to which belongs the important office of returning the blood from the body to
the heart.

40 THE REASON WHY :

" What a piece of work is a man !
How noble in reason ! how infinite in faculties.
In form and moving, how express and admirable !
In action, how like an angel ! in apprehension, how like a God.'

CHAPTER IV.

THE SENSES — SEEING, HEARING, SMELLING, TASTING, AND FEELING.

112. Why are the senses of seeing, hear ing, tasting, and smelling
placed in the head ?

Because the head is the most elevated part of the body, and is
capable of moving independently of the rest of the fabric. Thus the
organs of sense, which put us in connection with the external world,
which render us susceptible of pleasure, and which give us notice
of the approach of objects capable of exciting pain, are placed where
external bodies may be brought most conveniently and completely
in contact with them, and where alone they can be efficient as the
sentinels of the system.

113. How do we know that the powers of seeing depend more
upon the mechanical exercise of the eye itself than upon mental
capacity ?

Because many persons in certain departments of life, are capable
of discerning objects more readily in connection with their pursuits
than better informed or more intellectual persons who have seldom
or never seen those objects ; thus a sailor will descry the various
phenomena of the elements, which are invisible to the learned and
refined passenger ; and the ploughman will point out certain objects
in a landscape to the wondering student who has just escaped from
his labours. On the other hand, persons who are much accustomed
to reading are enabled to take in, as it were, the contents of a wholo
page of a book, while another person less accustomed to reading has
only been able to master two or three lines.

114. IVTiy is it erroneous to suppose that on entering a, room wt
tee all the objects in it at once ?

Because this apparently simultaneous view arises from the motions

NATURAL HISTORY. 41

And ia the silence of his calm abode,

In nature's works he worshipped nature's God."

MATILDA HOUSTON.

of the eye, which admit of great objects being successively presented
to it with a rapidity of which we are unconscious.

115. It is easy to show that if the eye were without motion, steadily fixed in the
socket, the vision would be quickly lost ; that objects of the greatest brilliancy
•would be obscurely seen, or disappear. For example, let us fix the eye on one
point — a thing somewhat difficult to do, owing to the very disposition in the eye to
be constantly moving ; but suppose that by repeated attempts we have at length
acquired the power of directing the eye steadily ou an object, when we have done
so, we shall find that the whole scene becomes more and more obscure, and finally
vanishes. Let us fix the eye on the corner of the frame of the principal picture in
the room ; at first everything around the room will be distinct ; in a very little
time the impression will become weaker, objects will appear dim, and then the eye
will have an almost uncontrollable desire to wander ; if this be resisted, the im
pressions of the figures in the picture will first fade ; for a time we shall see the
gilded frame alone ; but this also will become faint. When we have thus ascer
tained the fact, if we change the direction of the eye but ever so little, the whole
scene will at once again be perfect to us.

116. Why is incessant motion of the eye essential to the continued
exercise of the organ ?

Because when the eye is fixed upon a point, the lights, shades,
and colours of objects continuing to strike upon the same part of the
retina, the nerve is exhausted ; but when the eye shifts there is a
new exercise of the nerve ; the part of the retina that was opposed
to the lights is now opposed to the shades, and what was opposed to
different colours is now opposed to other colours, and the variation
in the exciting cause produces a renewed sensation.

117. Why do we know that the ideas we obtain of the size, shape,
and distance of objects depend mainly upon the education of the
sight?

Because optical illusions, however nearly they resemble realities
when they first meet the eye, are satisfactorily proved to have no
existence, by the attentive and correct use of that very organ
which gave rise to the error.

118. Dr. Cheselden, by a surgical operation, procured sight to a very intelligent
person who was born blind, and he observed the manner in which this sense was
developed in the young man. " When he saw the light for the first time, he knew
BO little how to judge of distances, that Li believed the objects which he s%w

42 THE REASON WHY :

" lie tliat is ^iddy thinks the world turns round." — SIIAKSPEBB.

touched his eyes, as the things which he felt touched his skin." During the time
of his blindness he had received such an imperfect idea of colours which, by a very
strong light, he was then ahle to distinguish, that a sufficient impression had not
been left by which he could again recognise them. Indeed, when he saw them, he
said the colours he then saw were not the same as those he had seen formerly ; he
did not know the form of any object; nor could he distinguish one object from
another, however different their s5/e and configuration might be ; when objects
were shown te him which he had known formerly by the touch, he looked
at them with attention, and observed them carefully in order to recognise
them again ; but as he had too many objects to retain at once, he forgot the greater
part of them, and when he first learnt, as he said, to see and to know objects, he
forgot a thousand for one that he recollected.

It was two months before he discovered that pictures represented solid bodies ;
until that time he had considered them as planes and surfaces differently coloured
and diversified by a variety of shades ; but when he began to conceive that these
pictures represented solid bodies, in touching the canvas of the picture with his
hand he expected to find something solid upon it, and he was much astonished when,
upon touching those parts which seemed round and unequal, he found them flat
and smooth like the rest.

He could not support much light at first, and every object seemed very large to
him ; but after he had seen larger things, he considered the first smaller ;
he thought there was nothing beyond the limits of his sight. The same operation
was performed on the other eye about a year after the first, and it succeeded
equally well. At first he saw objects with his second eye much larger than with
the other, but not so large, however, as he had seen them with his first eye ; and
when he looked at the same object with both eyes at once, he said that it appeared
twice as large as with the first eye.

119. Why is sight essential to the firmness of most of our
attitudes ?

Because we judge of the position of our bcdies by other bodies
vrhich we see around us. Thus, when we are deprived of this means
of judging of our equilibrium, as when we are on a house,
or any elevated place where we are only surrounded by the air, our
standing becomes uncertain, and it sometimes happens that we
feel giddy, and cannot stand at alL

120. The utility of sight is still greater if the base of support is very narrow ; a
rope dancer could not stand erect if he were not constantly directed by the eye as
to the position necessary to be preserved, in order that the perpendicular drawn
from his centre of gravity may fall upon the base of support. This connection
between sight and attitude is furthor demonstrated by the uncertain postuies which
bund pei'sans assume.

NATURAL HISTORY. 43

" Time wasted is existence, used is life,
And bare existence, man, to lire ordained,
Wrings and oppresses with enormous weight." — YOUNQ.

121. Why does the pupil of the eye contract and dilate ?

Because when it is necessary to exclude excess of light, the pupil
through which the light enters may gradually or wholly exclude it
by contraction ; and when a large amount of light is desired, the
dilation of the pupil in a similar degree ensures the admission of
a greater number of rays.

122. The chamber of the eye is a camera-obscura, which, when the light is too
small, can enlarge its opening; when too strong, can again contract it; and that
without any other assistance than of its own exquisite machinery.

123. Why is a person unable to discern objects when passing from
a strongly-illuminated room into one comparatively dark, or into
the open air at night ?

Because the contraction of the pupil, which was adapted to the
strong light to which it had been previously exposed, admits so little
light to the retina that no sensation is produced. The pupil, how
ever, after a while dilates, and, admitting more light, objects are
perceived which were before invisible.

124. Why does the eye of a person suffer inconvenience and
pain in passing from a dark room, into a light one ?

^ Because, while the observer remains in the dark or less illu
minated room, the pupil is dilated to that degree so as to admit
into the eye as great a quantity of light as the structure of the organ
allows of. "When he passes suddenly into the strongly-illuminated
room the flood of light arriving through the widely dilated pupil
acts with such violence upon the retina as to produce pain, which
necessarily calls for the relief and protection of the organ. The
iris, then, by an action peculiar to it, contracts the dimension of the
pupil so as to admit proportionally less light, and the eye is
gradually opened with impunity.

125. Why is the pupil of the eye so called?

Because if we look into the eye of another we shall perceive a
little image of our own face, like a very minute child or pupil —
hence the name.

44 THE REASON WHY .

There are more tilings in heaven and earth, Horatio,
Thau are dreamed of in your philosophy." — SUAKSPERE.

126. Why are some persons short-sighted?

Because the rays of light are brought to a focus before they reach

the retina, and consequently
produce an indistinct picture
on the retina. This will be
more clearly illustrated by the
accompanying engraving.

127. The remote causes of this defect of the eye may be various ; as too great
density of the humours — too great a convexity either of the cornea or the lens — and
from the space between the retina and the lens being too short. Where it depends
on too much convexity, as age approaches, it may disappear ; but where too great
density is the cause, age is apt rather to aggravate than to relieve it. For while in
the young the convexity both of the cornea and the lens is greater than in advanced
life, the less density of the humours counterbalances it ; and again as life advances,
the more scanty supply of humours, along with the diminishing convexity, are
neutralised by the increasing density ; therefore, if these keep pace with each other
the eye remains to a very protracted period of life without the necessity for
Artificial assistance.

128. W]iy do the eyes sometimes become "bloodshot?"

Because when the eye is healthy its blood-vessels are so small
that only the colourless portion of the blood finds its way through
them. But when the eye is inflamed, the coats of these vessels be
coming weaker, they are readily distended by the impulse of the
blood against them ; they then become enlarged, the red globules
find their way into them, and they are rendered red and visible to
the naked eye.

129. Why, when the sight is impaired in old age, are persons
compelled to wear spectacles, or to hold objects at a distance from
them in order to distinguish them perfectly ?

Because the diminished refractive power of the organ is accom
panied by a divergence of the rays of light which tends to confuse
and obscure the sight. By holding objects at a distance the
divergence becomes diminished, and the same effect is produced
by convex glasses.

NATURAL HISTORY. 45

1 'Tis greatly wise to walk with our best hours,
And ask them what report they've borne to heaven."— YOUNG.

130. It is customary with opticians to place in the hands of a person requiring
spectacles a book or newspaper, and by the distance at which the one or the othei
is instantly held from the sight, the optician is enabled to judge of the degree of tho
defect of the vision and the kind of glass that is required.

131. Why does the eye lose its lustre in old age and sickness ?
Because the lustre of the healthy eye is produced by the action of

the muscles of the eye-ball maintaining it firmly in its place, pres
sing it against the fatty cushion on which it rests, and giving to it
that tension necessary to render the corner prominent, clear, and
full. In old age and sickness the muscles of the eye partake of the
general debility of the system, and its functions are thus deranged.

132. Wliy do some persons squint ?

Strabismus, or squinting, is caused by one or more of the muscles
of the eye being shortened or elongated ; and by the derangement
of their action the pupil is consequently carried out of the proper
axis of vision.

133. This defect is cured by a very simple operation. The shortened or elongated
muscle is cut down by a skilful operator. The false position of the pupil is imme
diately rectified by the division of the disordered muscle that induced obliquity by its
irregular action. The divided muscle in healing shortens or lengthens, and during
the healing process suits itself to the exigencies of the case, and in a short time
re-unites.

134. Wliy when we look for some time at a white spot upon a
black ground, and aftenvards direct the eye to a white ground, do we
perceive a black spot ?

Because the retina of the eye has become insensible in the point
which was formerly fatigued by the white light. In the same
manner, after the retina has been some time without acting in one
of its points, whilst the others have acted, the point which has been
in repose becomes of an extreme sensibility, and on this account
objects seem as if they were spotted.

135. In this manner it is explained why, after having looked for a long time at
a red spot, white bodies appear as if spotted with green ; in this case the retina has
become insensible to the red rays, and we know that a ray of white light, from
which the red is substracted, produces the sensation of green.

40 THE REASON WIIY :

Each friend by fate snatched from us, is a plame
Plucked from the wing of vain humanity." — YOUNO.

136. Why does a flash of light from the eye generally follow
from a violent blow on that organ or the surrounding parts ?

Because light, or some degree or modification of light, is the only
impression of which the eye is susceptible ; and therefore every
effect upon the parts of the eye which are essential to vision only
must be a sensation of light.

137. A violent blow on the eye appears as an instantaneous flash of light, and this
effect is produced, not only when the eye itself is struck, but when there is a violent
concussion of the head, which we may suppose to be transmissable to the surround
ing parts of the eye, and so to the eyeball itself. If a person walking hastily and
heedlessly in the dark strikes his forehead violently against an object of resist
ance, then instantly, and before any pain is felt in the part which has received the
stroke, a flash of light is seen by both eyes, brighter in proportion as the stroke is
more violent. Thus, any sudden agitation produced in the exterior coats of the
eyeball, from whatever source it may arise, always tells upon the sentient part of
the eye as light, and never as pain or any other sensation.

138. Why cannot a person distinguish minute objects in the
water with his head likewise immersed in the fluid ?

Because, although there is sufficient difference between the den
sity of the humours of the eye and that of the air, to bring the rays
transmitted by the latter to a focus on the retina, there is not suffi
cient difference between the density of these humours and that of
water, to do the same by rays transmitted through this fluid, so that
such rays are not brought to a focus sufficiently soon. Hence divers
in some places are in the habit, when they descend into the water,
of using extremely convex glasses, in shape almost like the lens of
fishes, and turning their eyes by this means, as it were, into those
of an aquatic animal.

139. Why are the eyes furnished with lashes?

Because they serve to ward off insects, and to protect the eye
from particles floating in the air. When the eyelashes are humid,
the little drops of moisture decompose the rays of light, and, even
independently of humidity, they also partly resolve the light passing
into the interior of the eye.

140. When the eyelids are placed near each other, and the eyelashes admit only a
quantity of light to pass at a time, the eyelashes, by separating into pencils

NATURAL HISTORY. 47

1 And as he spoke a big round drop

F"l' bounding; on his ample sleeve ;
A witness mat he could not stop,
A witness that we all believe." — BLOOMFIELD.

x^./VVN/N>"*yvy^vV>y>^NXVVV'x/\/\x\x\/VV\rV>^N/N/VX/vx/N^

the light whir.h penetrates the eye, make bodies in ignition appear during the
night as if they were surrounded with luminous rays. This appearance does not
take place if the eyelashes are inverted, or merely turned in another direction.
The vision of those persons who have lost their eyelashes is always more or lesa
imperfect.

141. Why are the eyes protected by eyebrows ?

The eyebrows have many uses. The projection which they form
protects the eye against external violence ; the hairs on account of
their oblique direction, and the oily matter with which they are
covered, prevent the perspiration from flowing towards or irritating
the surface of that organ : they direct it towards the temple and the
root of the nose. The colour and the number of hairs of the eye
brows have an influence upon their use. They have generally some
relation to the climate. The inhabitants of hot countries have them
very thick and black ; the inhabitants of cold countries may have
them thick, but they are rarely black. The eyebrows protect th*
eyes from excess of light, particularly when it comes from above ,
this effect is rendered still more conspicuous by the knitting of the
brows.

142. Qf what use are eyelids?

They cover the eye during sleep, and preserve it from the
contact of extraneous particles flying about in the air, which might
injure it ; they defend it from sudden shocks, by their almost
instantaneous closure, and by their habitual motions, which aro
renewed at nearly equal intervals, they preserve it from the effects
of long-continued contact of the air. The eyelids also moderate
the force of a too brilliant light, and prevent the passage of any
more of this fluid than what is necessary for vision without offend
ing the eye. On the contrary, when the light is feeble, we separate
the eyelids to a, considerable distance, in order to admit the passage
cf as great a quantity of light as possible to the interior of the eye.

143. Why is the involuntary closing of the eyelid more
advantageous ik-zn if it depended upon our wiU?

Because, if the eiowi£ of the eyelid depended upon voluntary

48 THE REASON WHY :

" Give every man thine ears, but few thy voice ;
Take each man's censure, but reserve thy judgment."— SHAKSPERB.

power, we might have gone to sleep forgetting to have closed it,
thereby exposing the eye to considerable danger. But under the
involuntary arrangement the lid is made to fall over the eye as
drowsiness comes on, is kept there during sleep, and in the
morning, owing to the delicacy of its structure, it transmits a
sufficient quantity of light to the eye to arouse sensibility, and we
awake.

144. How is the process of Juaring conducted ?

The folds of the outward ear conduct to its entrance, and into
an outer passage, which, after running inward a short distance, is
closed by a membrane called the drum.
Behind this membrane is an inner passage,
which terminates in the throat, which is
called the trumpet. Warm air from the
lungs therefore supplies the inner passage,
and the surrounding atmosphere fills the
outer passage. When the modification of
the atmosphere by which sounds are pro
duced, flow into the outer passage, the drum
of the ear is put upon the stretch, more or less, according to the force
or loudness of the sound, as shown by the trick of calling loudly
under the pretence of whispering in the ear. Behind the drum, in
the hard bone, or the rock-like wall of the inner passage, are two
small openings termed mastoid, which communicate with the inner
cavities or chambers of the ear. There are two other openings
closed by a thin transparent membrane, and the chambers excavated,
as it were, in the rock-like bone, are, with the mastoid cells,
filled with fluid. Within these chambers (called the labyrinth and
semi-circular canals) the nerve of hearing spreads out between the
folds of a most delicate membrane, receiving the impressions
conveyed by the atmosphere or other conducting media, an<J
communicating them to the sense of hearing in the brain.

145. Why do infants hear indistinctly?

Because the bones of their cars are soft and cartilaginous ; and of

NATURAL HISTORY. 4£

" Life speeds away
From point to point, though seeming to stand still." — Yocxa.

course, the tremuiation excited in them by the motion of the air
are comparatively weak. Young children accordingly are extremely
fond of noise. It arouses their attention, and conveys to them the
agreeable sensation of mind ; but feeble sounds are not perceived,
which gives infants, like deaf persons, the appearance of dullness
or want of intelligence,

146, Why are we compelled to use both ears in, order to
determine the direction of a sound ?

Because every sound conies more directly to one ear than to
the other, and it is only by comparing the intensity of the two
impressions, that we are capable of deciding whence the sound
proceeds,

147. If we close one ear perfectly, and cause a slight noise to be made in a
dark place at a short distance, it would often be impossible to determine its direc
tion ; in using both ears this could be determined. If a person wakes in the night and
hears a sound but cannot tell from what quarter it proceeds, he will turn his face
full in the direction from which he supposes the sound to come, thus availing
himself of both ears ; having determined this, and wishing to distinguish the sound,
he will incline one ear only for this purpose.

148. Wliy do persons who are partially deaf place their hand
behind the ear, in order to hear more distinctly ?

Because the hand thus placed acts upon the same principle as the
sounding board ; that is to say, the sound reverberates against it,
and penetrates the ear, instead of passing by, which it would do, if
no barrier existed.

149. Why will a person who is partially deaf frequently hear
more distinctly when addressed in a moderate tone, than when called
to in a loud voice ?

Because in many cases of defective hearing, the impaired organs
are so extremely sensitive, that a loud voice acts like a concussion
upon them, and thus defeats its own end ; whereas a moderate
tone adapts itself to the limited power of hearing, and thus
makes a suitable impression.

60 THE REASON WHY:

A {rood nose is requisite, also, to smell out work for the other senses."

SHAKSPERZ.

150. Why may the ticking of a watch fo heard distinctly
when it is placed against the teeth ?

Because sound is capable of being produced by the "vibration of
solid bodies without the intervention of the atmosphere, and in this
instance the sound is conveyed from the teeth, through the bones of
the face and the head, to the auditory nerves.

151. How is the sense of smell produced?

When we put a flower or a sweet scent of any kind to our nos«
and enjoy the smell of it, it is because the nerves lining our nostrils
are touched by very small particles which fly off from the flower or
scent. In the same way unpleasant smells are detected by
minute noxious particles floating in the air, coming in contact
>riih the nostrils.

152. Why do persons "sniff up the air" when any agreeable
odours are floating in it ?

Because when the nostrils are thus exerted, they act as a species
of syphon, and withdraw a larger amount of the odour from the
atmosphere than they otherwise would, so that the action of sniffing
increases the pleasurable sense thus imparted.

153. Why does closing the mouth increase the sense of smell ?

Because under that condition the respiratory current is drawn
exclusively through the nose. On the contrary, when we wish to
avoid a disagreeable odour, the end may be effected by keeping the
mouth open, through which respiration will chiefly take place,
and very little through the medium of the nose.

154. Why are the organs of smelling and of tasting situated
to near to each other ?

Because the vicinity of these two senses forms a double guard tn

NATURAL HISTORY. f> I

1 And next in orclor sad, Old Age we found :

Tlis beard all hoar, his eyes hollow and biiiid :
"With drooping cheer still poring on the ground." — SACKVILLB.

the selection of food. Were they placed in distant parts of the
body, they could not so readily give mutual aid.

155. Wlmj is taste the least deteriorated by age of any of the
senses ?

Because so long as the body exists it must necessarily be fed,
and the organ by which this process is primarily accomplished is
mercifully spared, while other senses less essential are subjected
to decay.

156. Why is touch considered to be the m^t important of all
the

Because by touch we are enabled to know with greater certainty
the properties of bodies ; our hearing, seeing, and smelling may
frequently deceive us and lead us into error, touch seldom does
this, and in all cases of doubt when the other senses are engaged,
touch steps in as umpire, and resolves the difficulty.

157. The extreme sensibility of the touch of the blind is well known. A blind
person deciphering a book by the aid of touch wi1.!, in general, read with fc\ver
mistakes than are made by persons of ordinary intelligence when perusing a book
by the aid of their sight. There arc many remarkable instances of the intensity
with which one portion of the senses may be exercised, and especially that of
touch, when others arc wanting ; ordinary faculties taking upon themselves
extraordinary functions, and thus in a great measure compensating for the
deprivation which it has pleased Providence to inflict. A case in point is furnished
by the following narrative : —

James Mitchell, the son of a respectable parish minister in the County of Elgin,
was deaf, dumb, and blind from birth. As he grew up, he discovered a most
extraordinary acuteness in the senses of touch and smell, being very soon able by
these to distinguish strangers from the members of his own family, and any little
article that was appropriated to himself from what belonged to others. In child
hood the most noticeable circumstance relating to him was an eager desLc to strike
upon his fore-teeth ; this he would do for hours. When a stranger arrived, his
smell would invariably inform him of the circumstance, and direct him to the place
where the stranger was, whom he proceeded to survey by the sense of touch. In the
remote situation where he resided male visitors were the most frequent, and
therefore the first thing he generally did was to examine •whether or not the strangei
wore boots ; if such were the case he would immediately quit the stranger and
proceed to the stable, accurately examining the whip, and handling the horse with
great care and the utmost seeming attention. It has occasionally happened that

62 THE REASON WHT I

" One touch of Nature makes the whole world kin." — SHAKSPEIIE.

visitors have arrived in a carnage, and on such occasions he has never failed to go
to the place where the carriage stood, examining the whole of it with much anxiety,
and trying innumerable times the elasticity of the springs. When he felt hungry
he would approach his mother or sister, touching them in an expressive manner, and
rointing to the apartment where the victuals were usually kept. If a dry pair of
stockings were wanting, he would point to his legs, and, in short, intimate his
various wishes in a similar way. On one occasion a pair of shoes was brought,
and on attempting to put them on he found they were too small. His mother took
them and locked them in a closet. Soon after a thought seemed to strike him ; he
contrived to obtain the key of the closet, opened the door, took out the shoes, and
put them on the feet of a yonrg lad who attended him, and whom they fitted
"exactly. When he happened i-> be sick and feverish he would point to his head, or
take his mother's hand and y:lace it opposite his heart. He never attempted to
express his feelings by utterance, except when angry, when he would utter a loud
bellow. Satisfaction or complacency he expressed by patting the person or object
which had excited that feeling. His smell being wonderfully acute he would be
frequently offended through that sense when other persons near to him smelt
nothing unpleasant. His elder sister seemed to have a much greater ascendancy
over him than any other person. Touching his head with her hand was the
principal method she employed in signifying her wishes to him respecting his
conduct. This she did with various degrees of force and in different manners, and
he seemed readily to understand the intimation intended to be conveyed.

158. Why is the sense of touch more vivid when the circulation
is warm and active than when it is chilled and stagnant?

Because the papillse are' dependent for their life and action on a
constant supply of blood, when, therefore, the nerves receive an
abundant supply of the stimulating fluid the sense of touch becomes
proportionately acute ; and when this supply is stinted or withheld,
sensation may in some cases become so blunted, as to allow wounds
to be inflicted without exciting pain.

159. Why is the sense of touch sometimes untrustworthy f

Because it has its delusions like the other senses, so much so,
that a body may be imagined to be felt, and yet have no real
existence.

160. The following illusion of an extraordinary kind, which cannot he corrected
e» en by the sight, proves that the senses alone unaided by the reasoning powers
are not to be trusted ; cannot indeed be believed on all occasions :— If we place on

NATURAL HISTORY.

53

" The universal cause

Acts to one end but acts by •v .irious law? ;
Connects each being, greatest with the least ;
Made beast in aid of man, and man of beast." — POPK.

a table, or on the palm of the hand, a marble, or any other small globular body, and
crossing it alternately with the fore and middle fingers
so disposed that the marble shall touch only the outer
edges or surfaces of the two fingers, the person will
believe that he touches two marbles, although he knows
that only one is present. The explanation of this
illusion is as follows : The mind refers, involuntarily,
all sensations experienced at different parts of the body
to the position in which such parts are usually placed.
Now the cros.-ing of the fingers does not prevent us
feeling either of them in contact with the marble, as if
they were placed naturally side by side. But in the
habitual position of the fingers side by side, it is impos
sible that the outer edges of any two fingers can be at
the same time placed in sufficient contact with a single
marble or other similar rounded body ; and thus when such contact actually
takes place simultaneously, by the contrivance of crossing the fingers, then
the mind involuntarily believes the thing to be impossible, takes it for granted
that two marbles, not one, must be present ; and hence arises the sensation and
perception of two distinct bodies.

CHAPTER V.

CLASSIFICATION OJb1 THE VARIOUS ANIMALS.

161. WJiy are animals arranged by naturalists into classes,
orders, sub-orders, families, &c. ?

Classification prevents the necessity of frequently and fully
describing any animal referri>l to ; it ensures correct identity in
the observations and communications of naturalists. It also
answers as a sort of dictionary wherein, from the properties of
things, we proceed to discover their names, thus forming the
inverse of ordinary dictionaries, where the names direct us to the
properties. But no arrangement of animals can be perfect ; first,
because we may not be acquainted with all the species ; secondly,
because of some of the species we may know very little ; and,
thirdly, because of those which we knifcw best, the greater part are
known as more or less domesticated ; and, further, because the

64 • THE REASON WHY I

To Him, no high, no low, no great, no small;

He fills, He bounds, connects, and equals all." — POPI

great masters of natural history, differing in their views, produce
systems of classification more or less varying from each other.
Notwithstanding these difficulties, an approach to uniformity and
identity may be obtained, eminently useful where the objects to be
distinguished are remarkably numerous.

162. What are the significations of the terms class, order,
sub-order, family, genus, species, &c. ?

A class is a primary or leading division, a number of being?*
having one or more features in common. An order is a sub-division
of a class. A sub-order is a further division of an order. Family
is a still further division, and is used synonymously with tribe.
Genus and species are more limited and definite than family or
tribe ; they refer to groups of individuals that agree in all, or
nearly all essentials. Genera is the plural of genus.

163. Species means tribes of animals or plants which have descended from the same
stock, or from parentages precisely similar and in no way distinguished from each
other.

The ancients applied the term genus to any collective number of organised beings
which are akin to each other, or the offspring cf the same ancestors. The idea of
genus was then simple and definite, and just what we attach to the terms kind or
kindred. By degrees, the meaning of genus was extended, and it was made to com
prehend all such creatures as by reason of some real or fancied resemblance in their
form or nature were conjectured to have belonged to one original stock. Such
groups were the "dog-kind," the "cat-kind," the "ox-kind." For the more
developed state of science, these clauses were too comprehensive, and included
tribes so remote from each other that they could not be regarded as the progeny of
the same original tribes. The term species was therefore adopted, and made to
express nearly what genus now does.

1G4. According to the LINN JEAN SYSTEM, the whole animal
kingdom is ranged under the following six CLASSES : —

I. MAMMALIA (from the Latin mammae, the breasts or teats of a
female). — Animals with warm red blood, viviparous, and suckling
their young.

II. AVES (birds). — Animals with warm red blood, oviparous,
an^ feathered.

NATURAL HISTORY.

To me be Nature's volume broad displar'd ;

And to peruse its all-instructing page,

Or, haply catching inspiration thence,

Some easy passage, raptur'd to translate."— THOXSON.

III. AMPHIBIA (from two Greek words, meaning both and life), —
Animals with cold red blood, breathing by lungs, capable of
subsisting for a time either on laud or in water.

IV. PISCES (fishes). — Animals with cold red blood, breathing by
gills, and not by lungs.

V. INSECTA (insects).— Animals with cold white blood, having
antennae (feelers) on the head, and articulated (jointed) horny
organs of motion.

VI. VERMES (worms). — Animals with cold white blood, without
antennas, for the most part with tentacula (having simple thread
like organs for protrusion around their mouths), and without
articulated organs of motion.

165. According to the SYSTEM of CUVIER, a leading grand divi
sion prevails over the whole of these, viz., the vertebrated, from the
invertebrated (from the Latin verto, to turn) ; the first being dis
tinguished by having a back-bone, the latter by the absence of this
organ. The vertebrated animals are divided into four da&Si^
thus : —

DIVISION L VERTEBRATA.

Class L Mammalia. II. Aves. III. Eeptilia. IV. Pisces

DIVISION II. — MOLLUSCA.

[This is the commencement of the invertebrated division, but the
fcerm is disused.]

Class 1. Cephcdapoda. II. Oteropoda. III. Gasteropoda.
IV. Acephala. V. Bradiiopoda. VI. Cirrhopoda.

DIVISION III. — ARTICULATA.

Class I. Annelides. II. Crustacea. III. Aradinidet.
IV. Insect®.

SUB-DIVISION IV. — RADIATA.

Class I. Echinodermata. II. EntozocL III. Acalepha
IV. Polypi. V. In/usoria.

BG

THE REASON WHY:

When with a Reaumur's skill thy curious mind

Has classed the inseei tr.bes of human kind,

Each with its busy hum, or gilded wing,

Its subtle web- work, or its venomed sting."— ROGERS.

166. Why is the term invertebrated unemployed?
Because it is merely of a negative character.

[All animals may be referred to one or other of the foregoing
those not included in the first Division are all invertebrated.]

, and

SO MUCH O7 THE CLASSIFICATION AS WILL BE GIYEN IN 7BE FOLLOWING PAGES IS
A COMBINATION OF TDK SYSTEMS OF LlNN^US AND ClJVIER, WITH SVCH
MODIFICATIONS AS ARE NOW GENERALLY ADOPTED.

DIVISION I.— VERTEBRA CLASS I.— MAMMALIA.

ORDER I.— BIMANA.

167. What is the meaning of the term Bimana ?

It is derived from the Latin bis, twice, and manus, a hand : it
means two-handed.

168. Why is MAN the only individual included in this order ?
Because he is the only two-handed animal. This fact will be

further enforced by reference to

ORDER II.— QUADRUMANA.

169. What is the meaning of the term Quadrumana?

It is derived from the Latin quadra, four, mam s, hand, and
means four-handed.

170. Wliy are monkeys described as four-handed ?

Because those of their extremities which are apparently
analogous to the feet of man, are
provided with thumbs, free and oppos-
able to the other toes — the toes them
selves being long and similar to the
fingers of the hand.

In consequence of this peculiarity, all
the species of the order exhibit the
utmost facility in climbing trees, but
cannot sustain themselves, much less
walk, in an erect posture without considerable difficulty.

NATCJRAL HISTORY.

*' With monkey's ingenuity,
That love to practise what they see." — BUTLER.

171. In audition to this distinguishing feature, the canine teeth of monkeys are
longer than those of man ; while the bones of the pelvis are too narrow to
continually support their bodies in an erect position.

Mr. Partington regards it as incorrect to call the extremities of monkeys
" hands ; " they are. he says, properly paivs. All the paws consist of four fingers
and a thumb. The latter member is, however, very small, sometimes without a
nail, and cannot, in all the species, be said to perform the functions of a true
thumb, but often more resembles the callous pad which forms a point of resistance
against the fingers in several other climbing animals. The anterior extremities are
long, but much longer in some of the species than' in others ; tne fingers are also
long, the bones of some of the phalanges are often curved towards the palms, and
the muscular power in grasping and pulling is much greater than, from the size of
the animal or of the parts, one would be led to suppose. Similar grasping powers,
in proportion to their size, are, however, common to all the quadrumaua, and to all
climbing animals.

172. What is the difference between apes, baboons, and monkeys?

Apes are such as are destitute of tails ; Baboons have muscular
bodies, elongated muzzles, and their tails are usually short :

Monkeys are those whose
tails are in genera] long,
some of them, the Sapagos,

fit

having prehensile tails, which
can at pleasure be twisted
around any object, and there
by, in many instances, answer
the purpose of an additional
hand.

173. Why afe monkeys
divided into two principal
sub genera, " the monkeys of
the old world" and the
11 monkeys of the new world ?"

Because of a remarkable and uniform difference in the number
of their teeth. All the monkeys of the old world have the same
number of teeth as the human species ; but the monkeys of
America have four cheek-teeth more than the other monkeys —
thirty-six teeth in all — besides some minor distinguishing features.

3*

THE REASON WHY :

•' Stand by there. What are you?"

" My lady's ape, that imitated all her fashions ; falling as she did, arid running
she same course of folly." — NABBE.

174. Why are monkeys confined to certain geographical limits?

Because their chief office evidently is to prevent the too rapid
increase of birds, which they do by destroying vast numbers of
eggs that would otherwise be brought to maturity almost by the
sun's heat. This mission the monkeys carry out so perseveringly,
that they are perpetually on the watch to rob birds' nests, and
when they want appetite or inclination to devour them, they will
fling them on the ground. We therefore find that monkeys abound
in those latitudes where birds are most abundant.

175. Why should we not mistake the imitative propensities of
monkeys for a natural love of mischief?

Because in mimicking the actions of man they will as readily
engage in useful employment as in wilful sport. And during the
whole time they are so engaged their countenances assume a
reflective and serious air.

176. It is said that the Indians sometimes direct their imitative propensity to
useful purposes ; for, wishing to collect the cocoa-nuts and other fruits from the
trees in the woods frequented hy the apes, they repair to their places, setting the
example of gathering a few heaps first themselves, and then withdrawing, leave the
work to be performed by the animals at will. These creatures seeing a heap or two
commenced, descend with the certainty of carrying on the business, and when the
produce has been thus rather plentifully collected, the Indians approach and take
away the harvest.
>

177. Why have some monkeys tails of an extraordinary length ?

They are thus enabled to suspend themselves from the branches
of one tree and reach food from another. By the same means the
young of the animal sit securely on the back of the mother by
turning their tails around her's, and so escape from the pursuit of
their enemies

178. A sketch is here given of the Coaita, or Spider Monkey. The tail answers
aU the purposes of a hand, and the animal throws itself from branch to branch by

NATURAL HISTORY.

1 This apish and unmannerly approach,
This harness'd mask, and unadvised revel,
This unheard saucincss and boyish trooper,
The king doth smile at." — S

means of its tail. The prehensible
part of the tail is covered with skin
only, forming an organ of touch
as discriminating as the propel
extremities.

In monkeys the pectoral part of
the body is by far the most mus
cular and robust in its form, while
the ventral and sacral parts of its
trunk are attenuated, so much so
that this portion appears, in some
of the species, as if it were nothing
more than a stalk to the hind legs ;
at all events it is never such as to
impede their motions or encumber
them by its weight. Now the
young monkey so applies itself
to the body of its mother that
it in no way impedes her motions, and is, in fact, the least possible burden
to her that so much additional weight could be. The shoulder bones are
stout and long for her size, by which means the breadth of her chest is
ample, and the shoulder joints are thrown wide apart. The fore legs of the young
clasp her round her neck and hold on to the immoveable part of the shoulder,
between the shoulder-bone and the blade-bone, so that their points of adhesion do
not interfere with any of the moving parts. These members in the young monkey
are so long that it can reach the pectoral mammoa of the mother without weaken
ing its own hold or cramping her motions ; and then its hind legs clasp the body so
far forwards that they leave the hinder extremities free for every operation of
climbing. Therefore, a female monkey loaded with a young one has very nearly,
if not altogether, the same use of her organs as though she were without any load,
because the young one adheres by its own exertions, which exertion strengthens
in proportion to its weight.

179. Wliy is a particular description of monkey* called the
preacher ?

Because it is common for one of these creatures to ascend a lofty
tree while a congregation of others of the tribe assemble in the
lower branches ; the monkey who is elevated above the rest then
sets up a loud and shrill howl, which may be heard at a great dis
tance. The assembled monkeys afterwards join in a noisy choru*

Mycetes Beelzebub.

60 THE REASON WHY :

"All these are ours ; and I with pleasure see
Man strutting- on two legs, and aping me." — BKYDEN.

180. Why are lemurs included in the same order with the
monkey tribes?

Because although differing from the monkeys of the old and
new worlds in their teeth, they are quadrumanouSj having
opposable thumbs on the fore as well as the hind paws.

181. Why are they catted lemurs?

The Latin lemurs means sprites that walk by night ; and these
animals were so named by Linnaeus, because of their nocturnal
habits, and their large glaring eyes. They wander by night, and
subsist upon fruit, insects, and small birds.

182. In fhe jungles about Tillicherry, there is a large species of monkey
frequently tamed by the natives, and at a village a short distance from this
celebrated seaport there occurred an evidence of the extreme sagacity of this
animal. A few yards from the house of the person to whom it belonged, a thick
pole, at least thirty feet high, had been fixed into the earth, round which was an
iron ring, and to this was attached a strong chain of considerable length, fastened
to a band round the monkey's body. The ring being loose, it slid along the pole
when h • iscended or descended. He was in the habit of taking his station upon
the top 01' the bamboo, where he perched as if to enjoy the beauties of the prospect
around him. The crows, which in India are very abundant and singularly
audacious, taking advantage of his elevated position, had been in the habit of
robbing him of his food, which was placed every morning and evening at the foot
of the pole. To this he had vainly expressed his dislike by chattering, and other
indications of his displeasure equally ineffectual ; but they continued their depreda-.
tions. Finding that he was perfectly unheeded, he adopted a plan of retribution as
effectual as it was ingenious.

One morning, when his tormenters had been particularly troublesome, he appeared
as if seriously indisposed ; he closed his eyes, drooped his head, and exhibited
various other symptoms of severe suffering. No sooner were his ordinary rations
placed at the foot of the bamboo, than the crow?, watching their opportunity,
descended in great numbers, and according to their usual practice began to
demolish his provisions. The monkey now began to slide down the pole by slow
degrees, as if the effort were painful to him, and as if so overcome by indisposition
that his remaining strength was scarcely equal to such exertion. When he reached
the ground he rolled about for some time, seeming in great agony, until he found
himself close to the vessel which contained his food, but which the crows had by
this time well-nigh devoured. There was still, however, some remaining, which a
solita-y bird, emboldened by the apparent indisposition of the monkey, advanced to
Bebe. The wily creature was at this time lying in a state of apparent insensibility
at the foot of the pole and close to the pan. The moment the crow stretched ou>

NATURAL HISTORY. 61

Far different there from all that charmed before,
The various terrors of that horrid shore ;
Those matted woods where birds forget to sing,
But silent bats in drowsy clusters cling." — GOLDSMITH.

its head, and ere it could secure a mouthful of the interdicted food, the watchful
avenger seized the depredator by the neck with the rapidity of thought, and
secured it from doing further mischief. He now oegan to chatter and grin with
every expression of gratified triumph, while the crows flew around, cawing in
boisterous chime, as if deprecating the chastisement about to be inflicted upon their
captive companion. The monkey continued for a while to chatter and grin in
triumphant mockery of their distress ; he then deliberately placed the captive crow
between his knees and began to pluck it with the most humorous gravity. When
he had completely stripped it, except the large feathers in the pinions and tail, he
flung it into the air as high as his strength would permit, and, after flapping its
wings for a few moments, it fell on the ground with a stunning «hock. The other
crows, which had been fortunate enough to escape a similar castigation, now
surrounded it, and immediately pecked it to death.

The animal had no sooner seen this ample retribution dealt to the purloiner of
his repast, thap he ascended the bamboo to enjoy a quiet repose. The next time
his food was brought, not a single crow approached it.

ORDER III.— CA11NARIA.

183. Why is the third division of the Mammalia called
Carnaria ?

The name implies lovers of flesh, and is therefore employed to
denote those classes of animals which are flesh eaters. The term
carnaria is applied to the whole of a great ORDER, which is again
divided into sub-orders : 1. Cheiroptera ; 2. Insectivora ; 3.
Carnivora.

Sub-order I. — Cheiroptera.

184. Why is the flrst sui-order of Carnaria called Cheiroptera ?

Because the
wings of the spe
cies composing it,
as well as serving
iP\ tlie Purposes of
flight are to some
extent capable of
being used as

nands. The term is derived from two Greek words meaning wing

and hand, and signifies wing-handed.

THE REASON WHY:

Oil a bat's whir/ will 1 fty,
After sun-set inenih ! "

185. Why are bats not classed with birds, although they are
capable of flight ?

Chiefly because they suckle, their young, which habit refers them
to the class mammalia. They breed at the hottest time of the year ;
and the young, which are usually two in number, are naked and
helpless at their birth, capable only of clinging to the teats of their
mother, which they do with the greatest firmness. There is no nest
in which the mother can leave her young ones ; so she bears them
about attached to her body, until they are capable of flight.

186. Why is the wing of the bat furnished with a hook ?
Without this hook, the bat would be the most helpless of all

animals. It can neither run upon its feet, and can raise itself from
the ground only with great difficulty. The hook takes the form of
a bent claw, and is situated at an angle of the wing, by which
means the bat attaches itself to the sides of rocks, caves, and build
ings, laying hold of crevices, chinks, and protuberances. It hooks
itself by this claw, remains suspended, and takes its flight from this
position : which operations compensate for the decrepitude of its
legs and feet.

187. Why do bats conceal themselves in old ruins, fissures of
walls, <#c., by day ?

Because, being organised for nocturnal flight, the impressions of
light are too powerlul for them. Their wings being formed of a
highly sensitive membrane, they seek sheltered places, where
neither light nor currents of air can take effect upon them.

188. Why have bafs wings numerous nerves distributed
upon them ?

Their sight being defective, is compensated by the highly-
sensitive nature of their wings, ears, nostrils, &c., which vary in
different species. Their wings are so susceptible of impressions,
that bats, even after their eyes have been destroyed, can fly about
amidst numerous objects, and avoid them all with the greatest

NATURAL HISTORY. 63

" In chinks and holes
Ten thousand seek an unmolested end
As instinct prompts, self-buried ere they die." — CowrER.

precision. The extreme sensibility to light and touch is shown by
bats even in their dormant state. Be their torpidity ever so
great, they shrink from the touch, even before actual contact, and
appear disturbed at the presence of a candle, or any other light.

189. IVliy do bats fly by night ?

Because they feed upon night-flying insects. Hence they take
the place by night which the swallow occupies by day. Some of
the species occasionally fly by day, but that habit is by no means
common, and is confined to some of the foreign bats, which are
vegetable feeders.

1 90. Bats issue forth as darkness begins, and by their active flight capture sucli
insects as are then on the wing — gnats, mosquitoes, moths, beetles, &c., and their
wide gape with its formidable teeth is an excellent trap for the capture of such
prey. The service which they render to vegetation, by the destruction of insects
which in the larva state prey upon it, is very considerable, even in temperate
climates ; and some of the hot countries in which they swarm by myriads could not
but for them be inhabited. In humid places on the margins of tropical forests,
mosquitoes are trouble.-ome enough as it is ; but if the bats did not thin their
numbers they would be utterly unbearable. Those species, too, which frequent the
towns and settlements are useful in other respects. Most of the race are miscel
laneous in their feeding, and not very delicate in their taste. They devour
indiscriminately all animal substances, whether raw or dressed, and whether in a
recent or putrid state.

191. Why do bats hybernate during the winter months ?
Because, as they feed chiefly upon insects, their supply of food

fails as the winter approaches, and their office in the great scheme
ot nature can no longer be fulfilled. Therefore, as the time when,
for the same causes, the swallow departs for a sunnier clime where
insect food may be found, the bat retires into its hiding places, and
sleeps away tlie montlis of winter.

SUB-ORDER II.— INSECTIVORA.

192. Wliy is the second sub-order of Carnaria called
Tnsectivora ?

Because they live principally, if not wholly, upon insects. The
name is derived from two Latin words — insecta, insects, and voro,
to devour.

THE REASON WUY :

Well said, old Mole, can'st work in the earth.
So fast7 a worthy pioneer!" — SIIAKSPKRE.

193. In what respects is the anatomy of the m-ole admirably
to its mode of life ?

The animal burrows underground in pursuit of worms, upon
which it feeds" Its feet are so many shovels ; they determine the
action of rooting in the ground ; and everything about the animal's
body agrees with this destination. The cylindrical figure of the
mole, as well as its compact form, arising from the terseness of its
limbs, proportionably lessens its labour ; because, according to its
bulk, it thereby requires the least possible quantity of earth to be
removed from its progress. It has nearly the same structure of the
face and jaws as a pig, and the same office for them. The nose is
sharp, slender, tendinous, strong, with a pair of nerves going doAvn
to the end of it. The plush covering which, by the smoothness,
closeness, and polish of the short piles that compose it, rejects the

adhesion of almost every
species of earth, defends
the animal from cold and
wet, and from the im
pediment which it would
experience by the mould
sticking to its body.

194. Let us compare for a moment the bats with the moles with reference to their
iocomotion. Both are insectivorous, but how widely different in their conforma
tion ! The bat has to winnow its way through the air : the mole, like the bat, has
to re-act against a given medium — a very different one, certainly — and is endowed
with a power of moving through that medium by means of a modification of the
locomotive organs beautifully adapted to its density. Instead of the lengthened
bones of the fore-arm that so well assist the bat to make its way with outstretched
wing through the air, all in this part of the organisation of the mole is short and
compact, to enable it to bore through the dense medium where it is to live and
move and have its being. The development is all anterior. The fore part of the
mole forms an elongated cone ; the posterior part is narrow and Email, and the
whole of its proportions are admirably fitted to assist it, so to speak, in flying
through the earth. The long and almost round scapula, the expanded humerus,
the enormous power, in short, of the anterior extremities, and the great strength
and compactness of the fingers, are all fitted for the digging duty they have to do

NATURAL HISTORY.

*' The glass through -which an envious eye doth gaze,
Can easily make a mole-hill mountain seem." — FLETCHER.

Add to this a soft, short-cut vtivety coat, to which no particle of soil ever adheres
and you have the perfection of organisation for rapid progress through th»
ground.*

195. Why are moles beneficial to farmers ?

Because of the great number of worms which they devour,
which more than compensates for the injury they are supposed to
do to the soil, and to roots. It is said that where old mole-hills are
most abundant in sheep pastures, the latter animal is generally in a
healthy state, as it feeds on the wild thyme and other salubrious
herbs, which flourish on these heaps of earth. It is also said that
after the mole-hills had been destroyed in a park which belonged
to the Earl of Essex, the deer never throve.

The Rev. C. A. Bury has pointed out that' the good resulting to
the farmer from the drainage afforded by the mole-hills is
considerable.

196. Every one is aware of the fact that the mole burrows for its food, that its nest
is formed underground, that a larger hillock than the rest is raised for the reception
of its young ; but it is not so generally known that its subterranean excavations

are of the most distinct
and determinate charac
ter; that there are per
manent j>assages or high
roads for its ordinary tra
vels from one part of its
domain to another; that
into these roads open the

excavations in which it follows its daily labours in search of food ; that its fortress
— the house in which it resides from the autumn to the spring — is of a complex
and most ingenious structure, and that this domicile is always a distinct and almost
remote building from that in which the nest is formed.

The district or domain to which an individual mole confines himself may be
termed its encampment. Within its limits, or at least in immediate communication
with the district, all the labours of the animal are pursued. It consists of the
habitation or fortress, from which extends the high-road by which the animal
reaches the opposite extremities of the encampment, and of various galleries or
excavations opening into this road, which it is continually extending in search of
food, and which constitute, in fact, its hunting-ground. The fortress is formed
under a large hillock, which is always raised in a situation of safety and protection

Penny Encyclopaedia.

00 THE REASON WHY :

Pray you, tread softly, that the blind mou' n.ay not
Hear a foot fall ! " — SHAKSPEKE.

— either under t bank, against the foundation of a wall, at the root of a tree, or in
foine similar legality. The earth of which the dome covering this curious
h ibitation is con'posed is rendered exceedingly strong and solid by being pressed
i id beaten by the mole in forming it. It contains a circular gallery within the
b.ise, which communicates with a smaller one above by five nearly equidistant
passages ; and the domicile or chamber is placed within the lower and beneath the
upper circular gallery, to which last it has access by three similar passages. From
t'.ie chamber extends another road, the direction of which is at first downwards
for several inches ; it then rises again, to open into the high-road of the encanp-
oient. From the external circular gallery open about nine other passages, the
arirces of which are never formed opposite to those which connect the outer with
the inner and upper gallery : these extend to a greater or less distancp, and return,
each taking an irregular, semi-circular route, and opening into the high-road at
various distances from the fortress. Such is a very hasty description of this most
singular structure ; and nothing surely can be imagined more admirably calculated
to ensure the security or the retreat of the inhabitant than such an arrangement of
internal routes of communication as this. The chamber communicating beneath
directly with the road, and above with the upper gallery— this with the lower by
five passages, and the latter again with the road by no less than nine — exhibit
altogether a complication of arcluteciure which may rival the more celebrated
erections of the beaver." The nest is always distinct, and frequently remote from
the fortress, and is usually, but not always, covered by a hillock, vhich, when it
exists, is much larger than an ordinary mole-hill. It is formed simply by
excavating and enlarging the point of intersection by three or four passages. The
bjd of the nest is composed of a mass of herbage, grass, roots, or leaves. In one
which was examined by Geoffrey and Le Court, no less than two hundred and four
blades of young wheat were counted. This, however, can scarcely be considered as
an ordinary occurrence, as they generally prefer dry and soft substances. The
period of gestation is supposed to be about two months or upwards ; and the young
are brought forth in April — sometimes earlier, at others later, according to the
season : indeed, young moles have been found at all times from the beginning of
April till August, which has led some persons to believe that there are more than
one brood in the year. There are generally four or five, sometimes as few as three,
rarely six.*

197. Why were moles once thought to be destitute of eyes ?

Because, as organs of sight, if highly developed, would not only
be useless to a burrowing animal, but a hindrance to its mining
operations, the eyes are simply rudimentary, and are so hidden in
the fur that their existence was for a long time doubted.

• Maunder's "Treasury of Natural History.'

THE REASOX WHY: 6/

: The brooke is ready to o'rcflow the brim,
Or in the bancke the water having got
Some mole-hole runs, where he expected not." — BROWNS.

198. Why have moles elongated muzzles, endowed with a
vefmed sense of touch ?

Because, being nearly destitute of sight, they are gifted with an
exquisite sense of touch, which compensates for the loss of the
visual faculty, and enables them to find their food in the darkness
under the earth's surface.

199. Wliy are "fairy rings" attributed to moles?

It is supposed by some naturalists that the verdant circles thus
denominated are owing to the operations of these animals, who at
certain seasons perform their burrowmgs in a series of circles,
which, loosening the soil, give the surface a greater fertility, and
consequent rankness of grass.

200. Why is the collar-bone of the mole of extraordinary
thickness and length ?

Because the peculiar habit of the animal rendered superior
strength in this part of the body necessary in order to facilitate its
progress when mining its way through the ground. The collar-bones
are wanting in those animals that use their anterior extremities
for progression only, and there are rudiments of them in such as
hold a middle station.

201. IVliy when a female mole is caught in a trap, is the
male frequently found lying dead close beside her ?

Because the attachment between these animals is very great ;
and, in this instance, affection overcomes the calls of hunger, and
the fast proves fatal to the animal.

202. WJiy does the water-shrew appear to be of a bright silvery
irtour when swimming ?

Because its hairy coat repels the water, and forms numerous
bubbles upon the surface, producing a silver-like appearance.
When the little animal quits the water, these bubbles fall off,
and the coat remains dry.

THE REASON WHY :

" The beaut of prey,

Blood-stained, deserA'es to bleed ; but ye flocks,
What have you done; ye peaceful people, what,
To merit death ? " — THOMSON.

203. Wliy is the hedgehog covered with sliort bony spines ?

Being helpless and inoffensive these spines form a coat of armour
effective against its principal enemies. They are firmly fixed
in a tough skin, and are capable of resisting a great amount of
force. The natural enemies of the hedgehog are weasels, stoats,
ferrets, wild cats, and foxes. When attacked the hedgehog rolls
itself up, and waits till the danger has passed. It is rarely that its
enemies can gain advantage over it when once rolled within its coat
of prickly armour.

20 L Tlie hedgehog is destructive of snakes, against which it wages war in the
following curious manner : — The cunning quadruped makes a sudden attack on the
reptile, and, giving it a hard bite, instantly rolls itself up for safety ; then cau
tiously unfolds and inflicts another wound, repeating its attacks until the snake is
powerless. Then the hedgehog feeds upon its prey, generally beginning with the
tip of the tail, and proceeding upwards.

SUB-ORDER III.— CARNIVORA.

205. Why is the third sub-order of carnaria called carnivora ?

The term implies flesh-eaters, and is used to distinguish the sub
order carnivora, which consists of flesh-devouring quadrupeds, from
the general order carnaria, which includes insect and worm-eaters,
as well as flesh-eating quadrupeds, divided into three sub-orders, as
already explained.

20d. 1-Pliy have carnivorous animals large canine teeth ?

Being beasts of prey, they are furnished with these teeth as
weapons for seizing the creatures upon which they feed.

207. Why are their molar teeth tuberculated and fitted into the
surfaces of each other ?

Because the flesh which they devour requires to be lacerated by a
cutting motion. The jaws of carnivorous animals have simply an
upward and downward motion, and do not move, also, sideways likt?
the jaws of the ox, and other1 ruminants.

NATURA1 HISTORY.

Strong is the lion — like a coal
His eyeball — like a bastion's mole
His chest against the foes. — SMART.

208. What anatomical features of the carnivora exhibit a
remarkable adaptation to their modes of life ?

As they feed on living animals, they are generally swift to
pursue ; and, as well as being armed with canine teeth, have strong
talons, adapted for seizing their prey. These talons are retractile,
that is, they are capable of being drawn in between the toes, by
which they are protected from being blunted by contact with the
ground. Their sight is keen, and even more so by night than by
day. Their senses of hearing and of smell are highly developed ;
their nostrils are studded with whiskers, which are susceptible of
the slightest impression of touch, and their feet are padded, so that
they can tread noiselessly.

209. Why is the lion 'provided with such a large mane ?

The formidable clothing is with difficulty penetrated by an
ordinary weapon. When the animal is prowling, or using only his

ordinary powers of locomo
tion, in the use of which he
is generally slow and majestic,
his mane lies a considerable
way over the back, hangs
down over the shoulders, and
there protects the powerful
muscles, which put his de
structive arm in motion, from
all changes of temperature,
so that they are never stiffened
by cold, or relaxed by heat,
even when the animal finds
it necessary to prowl in the open deserts during the heat of the
day, or in the dead of night.

210. Why is the lion termed the king of the forest ?
Because there is a certain majesty in his mien and a nobleness

in his nature which raise him far above the scale of wild beasts in

70 THE REASON WHY:

" 'Tis the royal disposition of the beast, to prey on nothing
that doth seem'as dead."— SHAKSPEKE.

general. The courage and resolution of the lion are conspicuous ;
and he possesses such an incredible degree of strength, that he can
bear off a large heifer, or an antelope, as easily as a cat
would carry a rat.

211. Why when a person is attacked by a feline animal may
he be able to save his life by non-resistance after the first blow
is struck ?

Because it is the habit of this class of animals, having once
overcome their prey, to cease for a certain time to inflict injury on
it. The mere act of felling their victim to the earth appears foir
a time to appease the rage of a feline animal. Thus a" cat will sit
by the mouse it has captured for some minutes without venturing
to molest it until it tries to make its escape ; and the lion and the
tiger will, in the same manner, couch by the side of its prostrate
victim without offering to harm him until some movement is made.

212. The following interesting narrative, related by an eye-witness of tke scene,
will be found to illustrate the above-mentioned peculiarity of the feline race : — In
the month of July, 1831, two fine lions made their appearance in a jungle some
twenty miles distant from the cantonment of Rajcate, in the East Indies, where
Captain Woodhouse and his two friends, Lieutenants Delamain and Lang were
stationed. An elephant was despatched to the place on the evening on which the
information arrived ; and on the morrow, at the break of day, the three gentlemen
set off on horseback full of glee, and elated with the hope of a speedy engagement.
On arriving at the edge of the jungle, people were ordered to ascend the neigh
bouring trees, that they might be able to trace the route of the lions in case they
left the cover. After beating about in the jungle for some time, the hunters started
the two lordly strangers. The officers fired immediately, and one of the lions fell
to rise no more. His companion broke cover, and took off across the country. The
officers now pursued him on horseback as fast as the nature of the ground would
allow, until they learned from the men who were stationed in the trees, and who
held up flags by way of signal, that the lion had gone back into the thicket. Upon
this, the three officers returned to the edge of the j ungle, and having dismounted
from their horses, they got upon their elephant, Captain Woodhouse placing himself
'in the hindermost seat. They now proceeded towards the heart of the jungle, in the
expectation of rousing the royal fugitive a second time. They found him standing
under a large bush with his face directed towards them. The lion allowed them to
approach within range of kis spring, and then lie made a sudden dart at tlie

NATURAL HISTORY. '/]

"" When the gaunt lioness, with hunger bold,
Spring's from the mountains tow'rd the guarded fold ;
Through breaking woods her rustling cour.se they hear;
Loud and more loud the clamours strike the ear ! " — POPE.

^ephant, clung on his trunk with a tremendous roar, and wounded him j ust above
the eye. While he was in the act of doing this the two lieutenants fired at him, but
without success. The elephant now shook him off ; but the fierce and sudden
attack on the part of the lion seemed to have thrown him into the greatest con
sternation, and much exertion was used before his riders succeeded in urging him
on again in quest of the lion. At last he became somewhat more tractable ; but as
he was advancing through the jungle all of a sudden the lion, which had lain con
cealed in the high grass, made at him with redoubled fury. The officers now lost
all hopes of keeping their eleph-mt in order. He turned round abruptly and was
going away quite ungovernable, when the lion again sprang at him, seized on his
hinder parts with his teeth, and hung on them until the affrighted animal managed
to shake him off by repeated kicking. The lion then retreated further into the-
thicket. The officers now determined upon dismounting, and Captain Woodhouse
took the desperate resolution of proceeding on foot in quest of the lion. After some
difficulty he succeeded in tracing the print of the animal's feet, and resolved to
follow the track at all hazards. In the meantime Lieutenant Dclamain, who stood
outside the jungle, caught sight of the lion and fired at him. This irritated the
beast and caused him to rush towards his assailant ; in doing so he must inpvitably
cross the path where Captain Woodhouse was. The Captain saw this and resolved
to stand still, hoping that the lion would pass by without perceiving him ; in this,
however, he was undeceived, for the enraged animal saw him in passing, and flew
at him with a dreadful roar. In an instant the Captain's rifle was broken and
thrown out of his hand, his left arm at the same moment being seized by the claws,
and his right by the teeth of his desperate antagonist. While this conflict was
going on Lieutenant Delamain ran up and discharged his piece at the lion. This
caused the combatants to come to the ground together, while Lieutenant Delamain
hastened out of the jungle to reload his gun. The lion now began to worry the
Captain's arm; who, notwithstandir $ the pain he suffei-ed, had the presence of mind
to lie still ; the lion thereupon let i >e arm drop out of his mouth and quietly placed
himself in a crouching position, with br>th his paws upon the thigh of his fallen fue.
No sooner, however, had he moce'* *t, than the lion seized the lacerated arm a
second time, crushed it as before, and fractured *he bone still higher up. This
reminded the Captain that he had committed an act of imprudence on stirring which
he determined to profit by. He now lay bleeding and disabled under the foot of a
mighty and irritated enemy ; and with the terrors of death before his very eyes.
At this moment the two lieutenants were hastening to his assistance, and he heard
the welcome sound of feet approaching ; but, unfortunately, they were in a wrong
direction, as the lion was betwixt them and him. Aware that if his friends fired the
balls would hit him, after they had passed through the lion's b^", Captain Wood-
house quietly pronounced in a low and subdued tone, " To the other side ! to the
other side !" Hearing the voice they looked in the direction from whence it pro
ceeded, and to their horror saw their brave companion in his utmost need. Having
made a circuit they cautiously came up on the other side, and Lieutenant Delamain,
from a distance of about a dozen yards, fired at the lion over the person of his pros
trate friend. The lion merely quivered , his head dropped upon the ground, and in
an instant he lay dead on his aide close to his intended victim.

72

THE REASON WHY ;

' Wythin a large wyldernesse,
Where was lyon and lyonesse,
The leparde, and the tygre also." — GOWER.

213. Why may we conclude that the sense of hearing in
panthers, tigers, &c,, is very acute ?

Because many of them prey only in the woods, and all of them
lurk in brakes and thickets, and, therefore, quick hearing is

essential both to their dis
covering their prey and to
prevent their prey from dis
covering them. It is also
a confirmed law in the
economy of animals that
those which w?nk softly in
proportion to their weight
are always quick of hearing.
This extends even to human
beings, among whom it is
found that those who walk
lightly have quicks ears, while a dull ear and a heavy step are
always associated.*

214. Why is tlie tongue oj the tiger, lion, and some other
animals so rough upon its upper surface ? -

Because this condition of the tongue enables the animal to
scrape off the minute particles of flesh adherent to the bones.
The 'moderate degree in which this peculiar conformation in the
tongue exists in the tongue of the common cat is familiar to every
one ; in the lion and tiger, however, the roughness is so great that
one stroke of the tongue is sufficient to tear the skin from off
a man's hand.

215. WTiy do beasts of prey generally roar before they spring
upon their victim ?

Because they desire to terrify their prey, and thereby to
overcome them more easily. Some animals, however, such as

* Partingtou's *' Cyclopaedia."

NATURAL EISTORY. 73

' So when a lion shakes his dreadful mane,
And angry grows, — if he that first took pain
To tame his youth approach the haughty beast,
He bends to him."— WALLER.

the cat, seize their prey silently, and growl while they devour it
In these cases the growl is probably dictated by a fear of losing
what they have seized, and as a menace to others of their own
species who might seek to steal it from them.

216. Why are the pupils of the eyes of carnivorous animals
variously sliapcd?

Because the various habits of the animals require a different
exercise of the faculty of sight. The round pupil, contracting from
a large to a very small orifice, is found in animals which have
occasion to use the eyes with nearly equal readiness in all directions
— vertical, horizontal, or oblique ; the eye with the uprigM pupil
is found in those animals which have most occasion to use their
eyes in a vertical plane, especially above them ; and eyes with
the horizontal axis is found in those which have most occasion
to use them in the horizontal plane.

217. Thus in the dot/, which ranges the wide field for its subsistence, th« pupil is
round; in the cat, which, in a state of nature, feeds in copses, either upon small
quadrupeds upon the ground under it, or on birds in the branches above, has the
greatest power of the eyes in the vertical direction ; and in the hare, which h as
most occasion for view in the lateral direction only, the pupil contracts to a hori
zontal line. This is even more remarkable as between the lion and the tiger ; the
former, though he hides in bushes and thickets, generally preys upon animals
which are in the open places, and also has his haunt in places so bare as that he can
Bee what is going on about him, has the pupil round. The tiger, on the other hand,
which frequents the grassy bottoms of jungles, where the vegetation interrupts the
lateral view, has the pupil elongated in the vertical direction.*

218. Wliy does the lion lie in ivait for the giraffe in tJu
neighbourhood of water ?

Because when the giraffe stoops to drink it is obliged to assume
a position from which it cannot readily start, while it loses the
advantage of the large and watchful eyes which, when its head
is erect, at once detect the approach of the enemy from any
direction.

219. Why are there creatures of carnivorous habits in all th*
classes of the animal kingdom?

Because the prolific tendency of the herbivorous races would, if

• Partington's " Cyclopaedia.'*

i

74 THE REASON WIIT •

But, as an old booke saith, who will assay
About the enfa nceke to hang on a beU,
Had first need to cut the cat's clawes away."

tmchecked, speedily create famine. The design, therefore, IB
the universal distribution of carnivorous creatures is to restrain
the too rapid increase of vegetable feeders, by which scarcity of
our own food would soon be created.

220. The myriads of insects which find tbek subsistence on our forest-tires, if
allowed to increase -without restraint, would soon destroy the life that supports them,
and must all then perish together ; but another tribe (that of the insectivorous birds
as the ivoodpceker) is adapted to derive its subsistence from them', and thus to keep
within salutary bounds the numbers of these voracious- little beings. Sometimes,
however, they increase to an enormous extent. Whole forests have been destroyed
&y the ravages of a smgHe species of beetle, which is less than a quarter ef an inch
in length.

221. Wliy d& the eyes of pertain animals "glare" in iht
twilight or dark?

It was once supposed that the eyes of animals in which this
phenomena appears possessed the power of emitting light, and
acted as lanterns in the direction of the animal to seize its prey.
But this appears to be not the case. The light is reflected from
the choroid tissue, which has a sort of metallic lustre, and reflects,
after the manner of a concave mirror, a portion of the light which
enters the widely-distended pupil. It is not improbable that this
reflected light is thrown upon the object which the animal desires
to investigate or to seize. Although siiiall in amount, it May
sufficiently illuminate an object to impress the highly sensitive
retina of the eyes of such of the feline species in which this
peculiarity is most exhibited.

222. Why do not their eyes glisten in the daylight?

Because the aperture of the pupil is then contracted. The
light being thus excluded, the quantity which finds admission
to the eye, and falls upon the coat from which th» reflection
proceeds, is very small. But when the animal stands in a dark
shade, the pupil dilates, the reflecting coat is, as it wer< , exposed,
and the eyes glisten just as much during the day aa IP tha
right

NATURAL HISTORY. 75

You dread reformers of an impious age,
You awful cat-o'-nine-tails to the stage,
This once be just, and in our cause engage." — VANBTTRGH.

223. IPTiy-, when playing with a cat, does she turn upon her
back and seize your hand with her claws?

The cat, thus in play, imitates the habit of wild animals of her
species, which, when they seize an animal large enough to make
the capture difficult, hold it with their fore paws, turn on their
backs, and then by working rapidly with the claws of the hind
feet, they tear open the abdomen of their prey.

224. JPhy does cropping the ea,rs of cats close to the head
prevent their climbing trees and destroying birds ?

Because the interior ear of the cat is extremely sensitive, especially
to moisture. When, therefore, the external ear is removed, the
animal in moving about is subjected to constant and painful
annoyances, through the exposure of the ear.

This practice of clipping cats' ears is much resorted to in British
Guiana, where the settlements are near the woods, and birds so
numerous that the cats are continually straying after them.

225. Cats thus cropped cannot go into the open air at all during the rains ; and even
in the dry season they cannot pursue their feathered prey in the woods at night,
which is their favourite hunting time, because even then the leaves are generally
covered with heavy dew, which the progress of the cat causes to drop into the
openings of the ears, and thus the cat is obliged to stay at home and pursue her
mouse and rat-catching.*

226. Tfrhy does the fur of cats emit electrical sparks when
briskly rubbed?

Electricity is common to all animal bodies. Although not fully
understood, it may be regarded, if not as one of the elements, as at
least one of the conditions of life. With regard to the electricity
of the cat, it is probable that the emission of sparks under friction
arises from the peculiar dryness of the fur, which is free from the
oily substance common to the coats of other animals.

227. Hair of this kind is a very bad conductor of electricity, and as such it can be
made electric by friction. It will be readily understood that this non-conducting
power in the fur of the cat must act as a barrier between what goes on internally
and the external atmosphere. If great energy is by any means excited, this pro
perty must prevent that energy from being dispersed in the air; and this concU.

* Fartingtou's " Cyclopedia."

76 THE REASON WHY :

" She stretched in vain to reach the prize ;
\Vhat female heart can gold despise ?
"What cat 's averse to fish ?— OKAY.

tion results in the well-known phenomena, under this circumstance, of electrical
discharges assuming the form of sparks.

228. Why are, cats seen to change their position frequently, and
to lick themselves incessantly just previously to a storm ?

Because when a storm is approaching the air is overcharged with
the electrical fluid, to which cats are extremely sensitiAre. The
hair of the animal is the first thing to be affected, and instead of
lying down smoothly, it becomes ruffled, and probably produces
the sensation of itching ; hence she is constantly rubbing her coat
and ears to smooth down the hair, and wipe off the cause of the
irritation.

229. By what means is a cat enabled to extend or withdraw
its talons ?

In the foot of the cat, the bone to which the claw is attached
has a rotatory movement upon the preceding one ; this movement
is effected in one direction by a powerful muscle, which draws the
bone downward and causes the claws to project ; whilst there is a
ligament composed of elastic fibrous tissue which draws the bone
in the other direction, and retracts the claw within a kind of
sheath.

230. When the animal is walking, running, or leaping, the claws are thus drawn
in, without any exertion on the part of the animal, by the simple elasticity of the
ligament; and they are thus secured, either from receiving injury by wear against
the groxind, or from impeding the movements of the animal by becoming entangled
in the inequalities of its surface, or in the vegetation that covers it. In this state of
the claws the animal bears upon a number of soft cushions, one beneath each toe,
which enable it to steal with a noiseless step upon its prey, and thus, by surprising
them, to vanquish animals whose size would make their resistance formidable, or
whose swiftness would afford them a chance of escape from direct pursuit.

231. Why will a cat refuse vegetable food while a dog will
sometimes accept it ?

Because the cat is the more carnivorous animal of the two, and
its teeth and other apparatus are not fitted for the reception of
vegetable matter ; while the dog being less carnivorous, will some
times accept vegetable food, although ordinarily he prefers

NATURAL HISTORY. 77

"What though care kill'cl a cat, thou hast metal enough
in thee to kill care ?"— SHAKSPKUE.

232. Why do cats lap fluids so slowly ?

Because when they drink, they lap, not with the tongue bent up
wards at the tip and the sides, so as to form a kind of spoon, as is
the case with the dog, but with the tongue bent downwards at the
tip ; and hence they lap more slowly. They lap in this manner
for the purpose of filling the cup-shaped papilla of the tongne.

233. Why is a cat said to live " nine lives ? "

Because they escape without injury from falls and concussions
that would either kill or maim most other animals. This immunity
from peril may be attributed mainly to the freedom or litheness of
the joints of the animal ; for whatever part of them is struck or
made to strike against any obstacle gives way like a spring ; and
the weight of the bones of their fore paws partly conduces to bring
them to the ground on their feet.

234. Wliy d-oes the coati burrow beneath the roots of trees ?

Because from the peculiar nature of its snout, which it employs
as a burrowing instrument, it cannot construct a burrow with a
roof, as is the case with those animals which dig downward, or
laterally, with the paws. They, therefore, select the roots of trees,
the ramifications of which afford them roofed retreats, which the^
could not themselves construct. These animals burrow in company,
and it is said that they often undermine trees to such an extent
that when even a moderate wind comes, they are overturned in
great numbers.

235. Why have hears such an awkward and shuffling gait ?

Because there are no clavicles to keep the shoulder bones steadily
apartv and thus, as the fore-legs are moved, the blade bones " work"
much more on the sides than is usual in animals. The hind legs
have what is usually the finest flexure — or ankle joint in other
quadrupeds — at the ground, in bears, and thus the first joint of
the:r hind legs bends the contrary way to that with which we tire
most %miliar.

THE REASON WHY :

*' They have tied me to a stake ; I cannot fly ;
But, bear-like, I must fight my course." — SHAKSPEHK.

230. From these peculiarities of formation, we are apt to imagine that the bear
walks with pain and difficulty. Such, however, is not the case. The broad base
which the foot of the bear forms enables it to walk very securely, even in difficult
paths ; its progress is more rapid than we could suppose, and the firmness with
which it can stand on the flat soles of its hind feet, enables it to use the fore paws
in grasping. The want of clavicles enables it to grasp and hug between the fore
legs much more powerfully than could ba performed by a clavicled animal ; and this
power is of great service to it, not only in climbing, an operation to which it must
often have recourse for its food, but in hugging its enemies, which it does so
intensely, that a strong animal is in their grasp strangled by compression of the
chest. Climbing is, however, the proper function of the want of clavicles, and
climbing by grasping the bole of the tree between the paws, and not by grasping
with the single paws as monkeys do. And this mode of climbing answers remark
ably well in those places where bears most abound. Pine forests are its haunts,
and where pines grow closely together, they have no lateral branches till a
considerable height from the ground. Such trees could not easily be climbed by
animals which grasped out with the hands.

237. Why are bears able to live uninjured in exposed places ?
Because they possess a coat of almost impenetrable thickness,

and have also a quantity of fat accumulated under it. These
protections prevent the temperature from sinking, and prevent
them from feeling the cold and other effects of the elements.

238. Why is a bear enabled to stand in an upright position,
and to hug objects with his fore-paws ?

Because he possesses a more perfectly developed collar-bone than
most animals ; the offiae of this bone being to keep the shoulders
apart from the chest, and to thiow the action of the muscles
proceeding from the ribs upon the arm bone, which, with a very
imperfectly formed collar-bone, would be drawn inwards, and
contract the upper part of the trunk.

239. Why is it a vulgar prejudice against badgers, that thcg
burroiv into graves, and devour the bodies of the dead ?

This vulgar error arises from the burrowing habits of the badger,
coupled with its peculiarly offensive odour. Badgers, however,
burrow, not for the purpose of eating, but to obtain a place of
shelter and safe retreat. Their food consists only of those creatures,
•which come out to feed during the night, such as snails, worms,
*»ud other nocturnal creatures.

NATURAL HISTORY. 79

*' Some ia scarlet, some in purple cloth, all in
skins, as is prescribed." — SPELMAK.

240. Why is the famih b&dger more careful than the male m
burrowing in secure pl<w,es$

Because tlie male requires the burrow only as a place of shelter
daring the day and the winter ; the female requires the additional
accommodation cf a nursery for her young. Therefore, the female
is in part influenced by her natural instinct, and works in accordance
with that before she is of age to become a mother ; while the male,
into whose composition no such instinct enters, takes the work
more easily.

241. Two young badgers, a male and a female, were taken out of the burrow of
their mother, and placed in a paved yard, which was so fenced in that they could
not escape, and yet allowed tkera considerable range . They unpaved a portion of
the yard aad dug a burrow in which they spent the day, and came out in the night
cnly to eat tke food which was placed for them. After continuing a year in the
court they were put into a small enclosure walled round with stone, and having a
mound of earth in the centre. Trite to their hab'it of digging on sloping banks
where tkere are stones to support their entrance, they first tried the walls all round,
to find a place where they could dig a habitation. They then chose an opening
Between two stones which was & littie elevated above the ground, and had the
upper stone projecting over it. In nature the entrance to the badger's burrow i,j
often under & projecting stone, which partially conceals it, and protects it from the
rain. They had some difficulty in reaching this place, as it required nearly the
whole length of their bodies standing on the hind feet, and the fore feet had in
consequence little influence on the plaster and stones. They tried a resource,
however ; tke male lay down close by the bottom of the wall, and the female,
standing on hira, c«uld reach the desired place with more effect. All would not do,
so they abandoned the place and -tried the result at others, always selecting a place
under a projecting stone. In th^se attempts, which, though they all proved
tmsuceessful, were carried on with great energy and perseverance, the female was
the most active, selecting the places and being the principal operator. After many
fruitless attempts they abandoned tke walls and betook themselves to the mound of
earth, the female, as in other cases, leading the way. Even here they did not at
once begin to form the burrow, but ran trial lines or trenches over a considerable
part of tke surface, till they came to a place wkiek suited them, and here they
began their regular operations. In the first losening of the earth they used the
nose, then th-jy dug deeper with tke fore paws, flinging tke earth backwards
between th<? hind ones, and afterwards using tkem to remove the heap still furtner
in the rear. When the heap behind them accumulated, they retreated backward*
upon it, and using all tke paws gradually removed it from the hole. Sometimes
one of them, n ould lie down to rest by tke side of the other at work and. remain,
though half-buried in the earth, and apparently giving considerable interruption to
fts fellow. The male was most prone to indulge in these lazy fits, while the
was by far the most industrious in the labour.

80 THE REASON WHY :

" In hollow caverns vermin make abode,
The hissing serpent, and the swelling toad,
The corn-devouring iccascl here abides,
And the -wise ant her wintry store provides." — DHTDJN.

242. WJiy was badger hunting an amusement of former
times ?

Because the animal is of a very pugnacious disposition, posses
sing great muscular power and astonishing strength of jaws ; its
strong leathery hide also provides it with a defensive coat of mail,
and from these combined characteristics the animal is rendered a
formidable enemy to attack or to cope with.

243. The badger is taken in various ways. The favourite mode, and that which
is perhaps the most successful, is by catching him in a sack placed at the entrance
of his hole. The haunt of the badger being ascertained, a moonlight night is
chosen, when he is out feeding, and a small sack is placed within the mouth of the
hole, fastened at the outside, with the mouth of the bag outwards, and having a
running string round it. Two or three couples of hounds are then thrown off
at some distance, and as soon as the badger hears their cry,, he makes for his home
with all speed, and runs into the sack, which closes behind him by the tightening of
the running string round it. Another method is by digging him out. This,
however, is laborious, and not always successful, particularly in sandy soils, in
which the badger will easily foil the dogs which pursue him in his subterranean
passage, by throwing the earth back upon them and blocking up their way, whilst
he takes advantage of their loss of time and makes his way to the surface.

244. What gave, rise to the old proverb of (l Cateh a weasel
asleep," &e. ?

When awake weasels are particularly expert in eluding capture.
But it is scarcely possible to imagine an animal sleeping more
soundly than the weasel does when once it gives itself up to rest.
It may be taken up by the head, the heels, or the tail, and swung
about for a considerable time before it begins to awake. In fact,
although it is a snappish little animal when awake, there is not
one with which greater liberties may be taken when once asleep.

245. Why is the weasel peculiarly adapted for hunting mice in
wheat ricks ?

Because it possesses a long flexible body and an extraordinary
length of neck ; the closeness of its fur, and its extreme agility
and quickness of movement, combine to adapt it to suoh habits, in
which it is also much aided by its power of hunting by scenfc.

246. In pursuing a rat or a mouse the weasel not only follows it as long as i*
i f-nmius in sight, but continues the chase after it has disappeared, with the hea-'i

NATURAL HISTORY. 81

" Out of my door, you witch, you rag, you baggage, you
\jole-cat ! " — SHAKSPKKK.

raised a little above the ground, following the exact track taken by its destined
prey. Should it lose the scent, it returns to the point where it was lost, and
quarters the ground with great diligence till it has recovered it, and thus, by dint
of perseverance, will ultimately hunt down a swifter and even a stronger animal
*han itself. "But this is not all : in the pertinacity of its pursuit it will readily
take the water, and swim with great ease after its prey.

247. What gave rise to the saying of " Stinking like a
polecat ? "

The pole-cat is provided with small glands on the posterior part
of the body which secrete a fluid possessing a most offensive odour.
The purpose of this odour has been held to be the protection of
the pole-cat from animals that otherwise would prey upon it.

2*8. A similar power is possessed by numerous animals called mephitic (offensive to
the smell). Of these the chlnche appears to possess it in a high degree. The
offensive odour is confined exclusively to the apparatus by means of which it is
produced and emitted ; and when this is removed, the offensiveness ceases. When
the animal is pursued and annoyed the battery is discharged, not in mere gas, but in
a liquid, which instantly evaporates, and is so buoyant and dispersive, and
at the same time so powerful, that it will taint the air lor a mile or for several
miles round. When near at hand, it is perfectly intolerable, and the staunches! dog
is instantly arrested by it.

The following brief story is told by Kalmer : — "In the year 1749, one of
these animals came near the farm where I lived. It was in winter, during the
light, and the dogs that were on the watch pursued it for some time, until it
discharged against them. Although I was in my bed a good way off, I thought I
should be suffocated ; and the cows and oxen by their lowings showed how much
they were affected by the stench. About the end of the same year another of these
animals crept into our cellar, but did not exhale the smallest scent, because it was not
disturbed. A foolish woman, however, who perceived it at night by the shining
of its eyes, killed it, and at that moment its stench began to spread. The whole
cellar was filled with it to such a degree that the woman kept her bed for several
days afterwards, and all the bread and meat and other provisions that were kept
there were so affected that they were thrown out of doors."

249. }l hat originated the proverb, " He builds closely with dry
stones who can build out the weasel ? "

Because the animal has such extreme flexibility of body that it
has been known to worm its body through a hole less than three
inches in diameter. It is also a very expert climber, and can
ascend a wall or a tree with the utmost celerity.

T2 THE REASON WHY

" I ordered the proper officer of my court to ferret them out of their
respective lanes, and bring them before me." — TATL.KK.

250. Why are ferrets dangerous animals to keep in a state of

domestication ?

Because they are animals incapable of discriminating attachment,
and the tanieness they evince is deceptive, being nothing more than
the indifference and absence of fear
and anger, which are the result of
hereditary dependence upon and ^e&J&'m
association with mankind. But
when an opportunity arrives, and
this animal is tempted by the taste or smell of blood, the ferret
becomes indiscriminate and savage in its attack even on human
beings.

J51. The following anecdote related by Mr. Jesse in illustration of the ferocity of
tae ferret is recorded here with a view of discouraging persons from making pets
of these vicious creatures : — Some few years ago, a poor woman, holding a mangled
infant in her arms, rushed, screaming v. .th agony and fright, into my friend's house,
who is a surgeon, imploring him to save the child's life, who, she said, had been
almost killed by a ferret. The face, neck, and arms, were dreadfully lacerated, the
jugular vein had been opened, as also the temporal artery ; the eyes were greatly
inj ured, and, indeed, the child, who is still living, has lost the entire sight of one
of them, and has very imperfect vision in the other. Having stopped the still
bleeding vessels, my friend accompanied the mother to her cottage, on entering
which the child, in some degree recovering from its state of apparent death, began
to cry, when the ferret was in an instant seen rushing from behind some bavins
where he had taken shelter, and, with his head erect, boldly came forward ond met
the infuriated parent in the middle of the room, still holding the infant in her arms.
On my friend's kicking the ferret, as the fi "st impulse of protection, the animal
endeavoured to seize his leg, and not until his back was broken by repeated kicks
did he give over his earnest and reiterated attempts to renew his sanguinary feast ;
indeed, whilst in the agonies of death, the piteous screams of the child seemed
to rouse him to vain efforts to regain his prey. The ferret was of large growth,
and much distended with the infant's blood ; and, although formerly of peculiar
shyness, yet he lost sight of fear and became ferocious in the pursuit of the unfor
tunate infant. It appears the poor woman had left her child (about six months old)
in a cradle whilst she went to market, when it is supposed the infant's cry had
arrested the attention of the ferret, who managed to make his escape, and thus
effected his purpose. There is good reason to believe he must have passed more
than half an hour in the indulgence of his appetite, from the circumstances of the
neighbours having heard the piercing shrieks of the child for a long time without
the slightest suspicion of the mother's absence.

NATURAL msront,

" Th' amphibious otter bold, the weasel sly,
Piiferuig the yolk from its enclosing shell."— DODSLEY.

252. Why do otters, when hunting for fish, always swim
against the stream ?

Because fishes,, when reposing or waiting for food, have their
heads up the water ; and thus the other can come upon them
and capture them unawares.

Another reason is, thai as otters return to the neighbourhood of
their burrow with the fish they have captured, they can more
easily do so by swimming with their burthen in the direction
,*f the stream.

253. What are the points of similarity and difference between
the dog and tlw wolf, to which animal the origin of the dog is
attributed ?

The skeleton of the wolf does not differ materially from that of
the dog more than that of the different kinds of dogs vary ; the
cranium is similar, and they agree in nearly all the other essential
points ; the dog and wolf will readily breed with each other, and
their progeny thus obtained will again mingle with the dog. The
most prominent circumstance which marks a decided difference
between the two animals is the eye : this organ in the dog of every
country and species has a circular pupil ; but the position or form
of the pupil in the wolf is oblique. It should also be remembered
that in every part of the globe in which the wolf is found, a
peculiar setting on of the curve of the tail, and a singularity of
voice, cannot fail of being observed ; to which may be added, that
the dog exists in every latitude and in every climate, while the
habitation of the wok" is confined to certain parts of the globe.

254. There is, also, a marked difference in the temper and habits of the two. The
dog is, generally speaking, easily manageable, but nothing will, in the majority ot
cases, render the wolf moderately tractable. There are, however, exceptions to this.
M. F. Cuvier gives an account of a young wolf who followed his master everywhere,
and showed a degree of affection and submission scarcely inferior to the domesti
cated dog. His master being unavoidably absent, he was sent to the menagerie,
where he pined for his loss, and would scarcely take any food for a considerable
time. At length, however, he attached himself to his keepers, and appeared to
have forgotten his former associate. At the expiration of eighteen months his

84 THE REASON WHY I

" The poor dog ! in life the firmest
The first to welcome, foremost to defend ;
"Whose honest heart is still his master's own,
Who labours, fights, lives, breathes for him alone." — BYRON.

master returned, and, the moment his voice was heard, the wolf recognised him,
and lavished on his old friend the most affectionate caresses. A second separatior
followed, which lasted three years, and again the long-remembered voice was recog
nised, and replied to with impatient cries ; after which, rushing on his master, he
licked his face with every mark of joy, menacing his keepers, towards whom ht>
had just before been exhibiting fondness. A third separation occurred, and he
became gloomy and melancholy. He suffered the caresses of none but his keepers,
and towards them he often^manifested the original ferocity of his species.

255. Assuming the original identity of the dog and the wolf,
why is there a difference in the pupils of their eyes ?

Professor Bell attributes the forward direction of the eyes in
dogs, and the circular • pupil, to the constant habit, for many
generations, of looking forwards towards their masters.

256. Why may we, infer that all the varieties of dogs spring
from a common origin?

Because we have many opportunities of observing the varieties
produced by accidental causes, and we see those accidental varieties
diliger'ly cultivated into new species, altogether different in form
and use from any that preceded them.

257. We see the changes climate and breeding effect in dogs illustrated b>
the rough Irish or Highland greyhound and the smoother one of the southern
part of Britain ; the more delicate one of Greece, and the diminutive one
of Italy, and the hairless one of Africa and Brazils. One of the most striking
proofs of the influence of climate on the form and character of this animal occurs in
the bull -dog. When transported to India he becomes, in a few years, greatly
altered in form, loses all his former courage and ferocity, and becomes a perfect
coward.*

258. Why is the Isle of Dogs so called ?

Because in the reign of King John it was made the receptacle
and breeding ground of the greyhounds and spaniels of that
monarch. It was selected on account of its contiguity to Waltham
and other royal forests, where coursing was a frequent amuse
inent.

t "Youatt on the Tog,"

NATURAL HISTORY. 85

"The greyhounds forth are brought, for coursing then in case,
And choicely in the slip, one leading forth a brace;
The finder puts her up, and gives her coursers law." — DRAYTON.

259. Why does the greyhound hunt by sight alone ?

Because he has been
trained to depend upon
his speed, and that speed
is utterly incompatible
with the tracing of scent.

260. Packs of hounds run by sight when the nature of the country allows them
to have a full view of the hare. When thus running they nearly double their
speed, but are liable to lose ground by being thrown out in consequence of a sudden
turn, or change of country ; they have to seek the scent before they can again
take up the running. The English greyhound, on the contrary, is called off
the moment he loses sight of the hare, the re -finding of which is left to the
spaniel.

261. Wliy should the neck of the greyhound be long ?

Because it is necessary that this portion of the frame should
correspond with the length of the legs, and thus enable the dog to
seize and lift the game as he rapidly pursues his course, without
throwing any undue or dangerous weight on the fore extremities.
In the act of seizing the hare the short-necked dog may lose the
centre of gravity and fall.

262. Why are greyhounds less attached to their masters than
a/re other dogs ?

Because the greyhound has less opportunities of forming
individual attachments than other dogs ; the whole purpose of
his life being to follow game. The keeper exercises over him a
tyrannical power, and the owner seldom notices him in the
manner which begets affection or scarcely recognition. •

263. Jf'liy in coursing are two dogs employed?

Because hares make sudden turns, by which they frequently

SC THE REASON WHY :

" So flewed, so sanded, and their heads are hung
With ears that sweep away the morning dew ;
Oook-knee'd, and dew-lapp'd, like Tliessalian bulls ;
Slow in pursuit, but matched in mouth like bells." — SHAKSPERE.

escape from single dogs. A good greyhound will reach a hare if
&he runs straight ; but the moment he is about to strike at her she
turns short, and the dog, unable to stop himself, is thrown from
ten 'to twenty yards from her. When, however, pursued by a
couple of dogs, the hare has a more difficult game to play, as it
frequently happens that when she is turndd by the leading dog
she cannot avoid the strokes of the second.

264. JFliy should beagles have large heads ?

Because they depend almost
wholly upon scent for their
success in the hunt. A large
broad head is accompanied by
expanded nasal organs, contri
buting to acute smelling ; while
the same form of head is
adapted for the reverberation
of the sound for which the
beagle is remarkable.

265. Wliy should sporting dogs generally be kept to their own
game ?

Because by such restriction they become improved for their
special duty, having only one scent, and one style of hunting.

266. Wliy have bloodhounds proved so efficacious in the pursuit

of fugitives ?

Because special means have been carefully employed with the
horrible design of training these dogs to entertain an insatiable
thirst for human blood.

267. Bloodhounds were formerly much employed in pursuing criminals escape*!
from justice, or in tracing out robbers or enemies, whose course was invariably
discovered, when once the bloodhound was placed upon their trail. In the border

NATURAL HISTORY.

87

"Soon the sagacious brute, his curling tail
Flourished ia air, low bending, plies around
His busy no»e, the ^teaming vapour snuii's." — SOMEIIVILLE.

country of Scotland, they were formerly much employed for such uses, but at present

the race has become almost forgotten.
In the countries of South America, the
Spaniards employed fierce dogs to aid
them in conquering the Indians, but it
is not certain that the dogs, trained by
them to this cruel business, belonged
to the present variety.

All the varieties of hound, however,
have much sagacity, and most of the
larger and stronger breeds have great
acuteness of scent, and might, without
much difficulty, be trained to act as
bloodhounds.

268. Why is the sense of smell so acute in dogs ?

The olfactory nerve in the horse, the dog, the ox, and the swine, is
the largest of all the cerebral nerves, and of much greater compara
tive bulk in the quadruped than in the human being. The sense
of smell, in proportion to the size of the nerve upon which it depends,
is still more acute. The relative size of the nerve bears an invari
able proportion to the necessity for an acute sense of smell in the
various animals — large in the horse, compared with the olfactory
nerve in the ox, which is sent into the fields to shift for himself—
larger still in the swine, whose food is buried under the soil, or
deeply immersed in refuse — and still larger in the dog.

269. Why do dogs lose their scent for game-birds during the
season of incubation ?

It is a common notion that this arises from some temporary
defect in the organ of smell of the dog ; but it would appear more
probable that birds lose, or rather do not emit, scent during the
time in question, and this may be owing to the habits or condition
of the birds being changed during the period of incubation. In
this may be perceived a wise and merciful provision of nature to
protect the birds from harm during this trying and important
season.

85 THE REASON WHY ;

"Neglected Tray and pointer lie,
And covics unmolested fly." — PRIOR.

270. Why do sporting dogs make what is termed a "point ?*

Because they are conscious of having got too close upon the
birds, and halt suddenly for fear of disturbing them before a shot
can be given ; and this action not only accomplishes the end in
view, but serves to acquaint the sportsman that there is game
in the immediate locality.

271. The moment the pointer falls upon tha scent, he not only makes a sudden
halt, but assumes at once an attitude of very great peculiarity, and such as must be
seen before it can be fully appreciated or understood. In an instant he may be seen
standing on three legs, one of the fore feet being raised, and his face, back, and
tail all drawn into a line. This is his invariable position when the scent is taken
naturally, but when it is interfered, with, such as running with the wind, or barred
by an impenetrable fence, or any other circumstance, and the clog stumbles in
consequence suddenly upon the game, he then pulls himself up so instantaneously
that not one of his limbs is suffered to move after the instant the scent is dis
covered ; and however singular the conformation of his body at that moment, or
however painful to him that attitude, he will maintain it with unswerving1
steadiness until the sportsman arrives. Sometimes it has happened that when thy
pointer has been in the act of springing over a strong fence, such as a stone wall,
he has hit upon the scent of the birds lying close to it on the other side, and he has
then been seen to halt suddenly on the top of it with his four feet all collected
together, and his body almost all doubled up, thus fixing himself like a statue.

272. What is "scent?"

It is the odour, or effluvium, which is constantly issuing from
every animal, and especially when that animal is in more than
usual exercise. In a state of heat or excitement, the pores of the
skin appear relaxed, and a fluid or aqueous vapour is secreted
which, escaping in large quantities, adheres to the persons or
substances upon which it falls, and is particularly capable of
impressing the olfactory nerves.*

273. That an animal emitting odorous exhalations should leave behind it a
Bomewhat abiding scent, is no matter of surprise when we consider what some solid
substances are capable of doing, and that the odorous excretions of animals
derive their property from minute particles of similar solids. Some substances
possess very strong odorous properties, without losing weight in any appreciable
degree by the diffusion of their particles through the air. This is the case, for

* " Youatt on the Dog."

NATURAL HISTORY. 89

To erery shrub the warm effluvia cling,
Hang on the grass, im pregnant earth and skies,
With nostrils op'ning wide, o'er 1 .11 and dale, .
The vig'rous hounds pursue." — SOMERVILLE.

example, -with musk, which is obtained from the musk-deer, a grain of which has
oeen kept freely exposed to the air of a room, whose doors and windows were kept
constantly open for a period of ten years, during which time the air, thus continually
changed, was completely impregnated with the odour of musk ; and yet, at the
end of that time, the particle was found to have not perceptibly diminished ir
weight.

274. Why is a moist atmosphere the best for scent ?
Because moisture not only imbibes and holds the peculiar

matters yielding the odour, but presents it to the nerves of smell,
which are spread out upon the internal chambers of the nose in
that state which is best adapted to impress the nerves.

275. We know that just before rains set in, when the atmosphere is
humid, but not ivet, drains give forth unpleasant smells. Certain
bodies possess the property of exciting sensations of a peculiar nature,
which cannot be perceived by the organs of taste or touch, but seem to
depend upon the diffusion of the particles of the substances through
the surrounding air in a state of extreme minuteness. As the solubility
of a substance in liquid seems a necessary condition of its exciting the
sense of taste, so does its volatility or tendency to a vaporous state
appear requisite for its possession of odorous particles.

276. Why is a wet day unfavourable for scent ?

Because then the odorous effluvia becomes, as it were, " drowned "
by excess of moisture. It is absorbed and neutralised by water,
instead of being suspended in vapour. We know that persons having
colds, in which condition the mucous membranes of the nose are
in an extreme state of humidity, lose their power of smell.

277. Why, when the ground is hard and the air dry, is there
little scent ?

Because the vapour which serves as the rnenstrum of com
munication is absent,

278. Wliy does scent sometimes lie breast high ?

Because sometimes a stratum of humid air lies over the earth a
little above the surface. This arises from the difference between
the temperature of the earth and the air, and is frequently made

THE REASON WHY

1 Rut the milder ayre with season moderate,
Gently attempered, and disposed so well
That still it breathed forth sweet and holesome smell."— SPENSER.

manifest by the " creeping mists " of morning and evening. The
s *.ent is most manifest where a favourable condition of humidity
prevails, and hence it is strongest in the upper stratum.

2?9. IVTiy does scent rarely lie with a north or east wind ?

Because those winds being generally dry, and frequently cold,
are unfavourable to the retention of scent, which becomes diffused
and weakened instead of retained, as it were, in solution.

280. The different manners or attitudes in which the dog runs afford satisfactory
and pleasing illustrations of the nature of the scent. Sometimes they will be seen
galloping with their noses in the air, as if their game had flown away, and an hour
or two afterwards every one of them will have his muzzle on the ground. The
condition of the atmosphere has changed, and the scent has risen or fallen m
proportion.*

281. Why is scent generally good when the wind is southerly t
Because the south wind is generally humid and warm. For *

similar reason, a westerly wind is, next to the south wind, in its

favourable conditions.

282. In the evening when dews are forming, we recognise the fragrance of flowers
and the odour of sweet hay. This is a sufficient confirmation that a moderate
degreo of humidity is best adapted to the transmission of scents.

283. Why, when cob-webs hang on the bushes, is scent seldom,
good ?

Because spiders spread out their webs in dry air, and gather
them in when it is moist or wet. Therefore, when the webs are out
it is a sure indication that the dryness of the air is unfavourable
f o scent.

284. Why in a hard rain, if the air is mild, will scent sometimes
be very good?

Because after a heavy rain the air is left in a dry state, ready
immediately to absorb vapour. The mildness of the temperature
at once causes evaporation, and produces the same atmospheric
condition immediately after rain as generally occurs before it*.

• " Youatt on the Dog."

NATURAL HISTORY. 91

• ' Tis raging noon ; and, vertical, the sun
Darts on the head direct his forceful rays,
O'er heaven and earth, far as the ranging eye
Can sweep." — THOMSON.

235. Why do sudden storms destroy scent ?

Because they rapidly change the conditions upon which it
depends. Storms of rain produce a superabundance of wet ; storms
of wind dry the air, and disperse the effluvia ; storms of hail and
snow produce cold, and, if succeeded by an immediate thaw, result
in a wet surface, with sluggish evaporation ; but if no thaw occurs,
then a cold dry air rests over the earth.

286. Wliy are sunshiny days not good for scent ?

Because then there is a rapid movement of the vapours of the
earth, from the surface to a considerable elevation in the atmo
sphere. Tins may be observed in what is called the " steaming " of
the earth on a hot day. The scent is, in such a condition, borne
away, and dispersed above the reach of the dogs employed in
the hunt.

287. Why is a warm day without sunshine good for scent ?
Because then the evaporation from the earth's surface proceeds

gradually. Instead of rising rapidly under the glaring heat of the
sun, the vapours lie for a time upon the surface ; and when the
Tapours lie the scent lies also.

288. Why does scent lie badly upon fallows and beaten roads ?
Because there is nothing to detain it ; every blade of grass, or

moss, or frond of fern, serves to give stillness to the stratum of air
immediately over the earth's surface. But where there are no such
checks to atmospheric motion, every impulse of the air spreads far
and wide, and disperses all local exhalations.

289. Why is scent frequently good by hedgerows, when bad in
the coppice or in the open field ?

Because the coppice may be too wet, and the scent be drowned ;
and the open field, being quickly dried by the sun, or swept by a
brisk wind, the scent may be dispersed ; while the hedgerow,
sheltered from the wind, and partially so from the sun, may
preserve the conditions required.

THE REASON Will :

And, all -within, it full of wvndings is

And hidden wayes, that scarce a hound by smell

Can follow out "those false footsteps of his." — SPEXSER.

290. Why do dogs of different breeds exhibit a peculiar faculty
for particular scents ?

Those peculiarities are dependent partly upon organisation and
upon training. The short thick nose of the beagle is adapted for a
ground-scent, while the longer nose of the setter is better adapted
for catching the impregnated air.

In the breaking-in of dogs it is necessary to correct their falso
points a.t first ; they will stand at larks, blackbirds, thrushes, and,
indeed, at anything emitting an unusual odour. By discipline they
are taught to disregard all scents but those of their particular
game. The foxhound, well broken-in, will rarely challenge at the
scent of the hare, nor will he even change his fox.

291. The scent of different animals possesses very various degrees of pungency
and distinctive qualities. Scents that are appreciable by some animals are im
perceptible by others : thus the exhalations of the fox, badger, or pole-cat, are
obvious to man ; but those of the hare, rabbit, and winged game, to their enemies
only. The animal effluvia themselves differ, not only according to the variety of
the animal they escape from, but also as the exhalations of each animal vary with
circumstances. The hunted stag is never changed — the hunted fox and the hunted
hare may be changed many times. " The Country Squire " on the same head
remarks : — " It is to be remembered that there is no small accidental differ
ence in the very particles of scent ; I mean, that they are stronger, sweeter, or
more distinguishable at one time than at another, and that this difference is found
not only in diverse, but often in the same individual creature, according to the
changes of the air or the soil, as well as of her own motions or conditions. That
there is a different scent in other animals of the same species is evident from
draught hounds, which were formerly made use of for tracking and pursuing
thieves and deer-stealers ; or rather from any common cur or spaniel, which will
hunt out their masters or their master's horse distinctly from all others ; and that
it is the same with the hare is no less visible with the old beag'es, which will not
readily change for a fresh one, unless she starts in view, or unless a fault happens
that puts them in confusion, and inclines them in despair to take up with the next
they can come by." Had the Country Squire been a stag-hunter also, he would
have noted this peculiarity of the scent of the hunted stag, which, as already ob
served, is never lost, though scores of this kind are near. This veteran judiciously
remarks on the nature of scent, that many circumstances may change it ; according
to his opinion, it is at one time composed of very fine particles, and at another
of particles equally gross, and that this difference Is frequently occasioned by
accidental circumstances. Thus, he says, the coursing of a cur dog, which
may follow the hare during the run, will :ommonly produce a different effluvium
to tne rest, and a fault is therefore almost always the consequence of tUis

NATURAL HISTORY. 93

" It was a comfort, too, to see

Those dogs that from him ne'er would rove,
And always eyed him reverently,
With glances of depending love."— HALLAM.

&co:<ient in the hare chase. "The hounds," he says, "must be again put
on the scent before they will acknowledge it for their game; ttie reason
is, the changing the motion causes one in the perspiring parh-.les. The
alterations of scent in a yielding hare are less frequently productive of faults,
because they are more gradual, and insensibly grow smaller ; but that alterations
there are every dog-boy knows, by the old hounds pressing forward with greater
earnestness as the hare is nearer her end.*

292. Why are foxes that are found early in the day easily
caught ?

Because, as they feed by night, they are incapable of fast running
before their nocturnal meal has been digested.

293. Why is the Newfoundland dog of greater service to man
than any other, especially as a water-dog?

Because he not only displays great sagacity and willingness in
assisting drowning persons, but he is also provided with semi-
webbed feet, which make him a good swimmer.

234. Innumerable instances of Newfoundland dogs having saved human life are
on record. The following is a case in point : — A person was once travelling in
Holland, accompanied by a Newfoundland dog. Not taking proper heed of his
steps on an evening walk along a high bank by the side of one of those deep canals
common in that country, his foot slipped, and he fell into the water ; and, being
unable to swim, he was soon deprived of his senses. In the mean time, the dog no
sooner discovered the danger to which his master was exposed, than he was in the
water, and engaged in the struggle to rescue him from peril. A party at a distance
saw the sagacious creature at one moment pushing, and at another dragging the
body towards a small creek, where at length he succeeded in landing his charge,
and placing it as far from the water as possible. This being done, the dog just
shook himself, and then licked the face and hands of his apparently dead master.
The body being conveyed to a neighbouring house, the efforts to restore animation
were successful. From the marks of teeth on the body, it appeared that the dog
had taken his first hold on the shoulder ; but finding that this did not keep the head
out of water, the instinct of the animal prompted him to change his grasp from the
shoulder to the neck, by which he was enabled to raise the head, and to keep it so
for a distance of a quarter of a mile.

295. Wliy does a dog toss his head about in such a variety oj
altitudes when endeavouring to masticate a tough substance?
Because, owing to a Hunted power of the mouth, he can divide

• Blain-'s " T1«Cvclopaedia of Rural Sports."

94 THE REASON WHY

"When I frown, they hang their most dejected heads,
Like fearful shecphoundfi ; show 'em a crust of bread,
They'll saint me presently, and skip like asses." — BEAUMONT and FLETCHER.

a portion of tough matter only by repeated vertical bites ; but it
he has much labour with the substance, and his hunger urges him
to eat it, he may be seen shifting his head, now higher at one side
and then higher at the other alternately, in order to bring the
whole under his teeth ; and he also flings his head upwards and
downwards, and gives a snap, so that the lower jaw may bite with
a momentum, while the substance to be divided rests against the
teeth of the upper jaw.

296. Why may it be inferred that the habits of the shepherd* *
dog are the result of instruction rather than instinct ?

Because the actions of these dogs appear to be governed by an
intelligence nearly allied to human reason ; and what is much too
artificial, and too greatly opposed to the nature of the animal, is to
be attributed to instruction.

297. Very different propensities are found in various breeds of dogs, and they are
always such as are particularly suited to the purposes to which each of these breeds
has long been and is still applied. No one can suppose tl\at nature has gwt-n to
these several varieties of the same species such very different instinctive propensities,
and that each of these breeds should possess those that are best suited for the uses
to which they are respectively applied. It certainly seems more probable that these
breeds, having been long treated as they now are, and applied to the same uses, should
have acquired habits by experience and instruction which, in course of time, have
become hereditary. In short, that by far the greater part of the propensities that
are generally supposed to be instinctive, are not implanted in animals by nature, but
are the result of long experience, acquired and accumulated through many genera
tions, so as in course of time to assume the character of instinct.

298. Sow may dogs be taught to distinguish playing cards, and
to pick them out from the pack correctly as they are named ?

The dog is taught to do this by frequently offering him food on
a card he is unacquainted with, after which they send him to find
it out from the rest, and he never mistakes. The habit of profiting
by that discovery and receiving caresses enables him by degrees to
grow acquainted with each particular card-

NATURAL HISTORY. 05

'• So true, so brave, a lamb at home,
A lion in the chase."

299. Wliy do dogs betray fear when a person who has a lamt
and stooping gait approaches ?

Because the action which the lame person uses in walking has a
close resemblance to the attitude of a person etcoping to pick up
a stone.

300. Why does a dog generally turn round three or four times
before he lies down to sleep ?

It is supposed that this singular and almost invariable practice
is one of the dog's natural instincts, altered or modified to his
domesticated life ; for, when in a wild state, he takes up his night's
quarters in a field of tall withered grass or among reeds or rushes,
thus wheeling round he separates the vegetation in the spot where
he is to lie, and forms a bed with overhanging curtains all
round for his protection and warmth.

301. Why should the treatment of dogs be regulated more by
moral than by brute force ?

Because the nervous system in this creature is largely developed,
exerting an influence over all his actions and giving character to
the species. The brain of the dog is seldom in repose ; even
when asleep the twitching of the legs, and the suppressed sounds,
inform us that the dog is dreaming. No animal is more
actuated by the power of imagination. To diseases of cerebral or
spinal character it is more liable that any other domesticated
a'himal. Its very bark is symbolical of temperament, and its
mode of attack energetically declares the excitability of its nature.
The most fearful of all diseases to which it is exposed (rabies) is
essentially of a nervous character. Delirium usually precedes
its death, and nervous excitability is the common accompaniment
of most of its disorders. This peculiar temperament of the animal
at once suggests how much may be done by gentle treatment ;
while on the other hand it makes known to us the fact that words
spoken to a dog in a harsh and unkind tone, and the inflictioD
of blows or kicks, may occasion indescribable pain.

THE REASON WHY .

: The dog, loud barking, 'mid the glittering rocks,
Hunts, where his master points, the intercepted flocks." — WORDS-WORTH.

302. Why have dogs and cats great difficulty in masticating
vegetable substances?

Because, being carnivorous animals, their teeth and the motion
of their jaws is ill-adapted to the mastication of vegetable sub
stances, which they sometimes eat when domesticated.

303. As even those carnivorous animals which are best adapted for living upon
vegetable food, and live most upon it, have no grinding motion of the jaws, they
divide vegetable substances with much more difficulty than those races which have
the grinding motion and the short teeth, or true molars ; and, as the number of com
paratively flattened teeth diminishes, the difficulty increases. One case of this
gradation may be seen in the domestic dog and cat. The dog is the less carnivorous
of the two, and as he uses the mouth only in the capture and killing of his prey,
he has much more powerful and varied action of the neck. He can divide a portion
of tough vegetable matter, as for instance a crust of bread, only by repeated vertical
bites; but if he has much labour with the substance, and his hunger is strong
enough to induce him to eat it, he may be seen shifting his head, now higher at the
one side, then higher at the other, alternately, in order to bring the whole under
his teeth, and he also flings the head upwards or downwards, and gives a snap, so
that the lower jaw may bite with a momentum, while the substance to be divided
rests against the teeth of the upper jaw. The cat has a great deal more trouble in
this imperfect mastication, as she cannot snap and derive advantage from the
momentum of the jaw as the dog does ; thus with her the division of hard vegetable
food, so as to prepare it for the stomach, is no easy matter.

" The dog," says Mr. Youatt, " is the only animal that is capable of disinterested
affection. He is the only one that regards the human being as his companion,
a:\d lollows him as his friend ; the only one that seems to possess a natural desire
to be useful to him, and from a spontaneous impulse attaches himself to man. We
take the bridle from the mouth of the horse, and turn him free into the pasture,
and he testifies his joy in his partially recovered liberty. We exact frcm the dog
the service that is required of him, and he still follows us. He solcits to be
continued as our companion and our friend. Many an expressive action tells us
how much he is pleased and thankful. He shares our abundance, and he ia
content with the scantiest and most humble fare. He loves us while -iving, and
has been known to pine away on the grave of his master."

A few anecdotes of this faithful animal will be interesting : —

TYKE THE FIRE DOG.

304. A few years ago the public were amused with an account given in a newspap«
•f a dog which possessed the strange fancy of attending all the firea that occurred io

BAT-URAL HISTORY. S7

" That instinct suggests for them everywhere what is most for
their safety, and makes them many times sagacious above our
apprehension." — Mo HE.

the metropolis. The discovery of this predilection was made by a gentleman
residing a few miles from town, who was called up in the middle of the night by
the intelligence that the premises adjoining his house of business were on fire.
" The removal of my books and papers," said he, in telling the story, " of course
claimed my attention ; yet, notwithstanding this, and the bustle which prevailed,
my eye every now and then rested on a dog which, during the hottest progress of
the conflagration, I could not help noticing running about, and apparently taking
a deep interest in what was going on ; contriving to keep himself out of everybody's
way, and yet always present amidst the thickest of the stir. When the fire was got
under, and I had leisure to look about me, I again observed the dog, which, with
the firemen, appeared to be resting from duty, and was led to make some enquiries
respecting him. ' Is this your dog, my friend ? ' said I to a fireman. ' No, Sir,'
answered he ; 'it does not belong to me, or to any one in particular. We call him
the firemen's dog.' ' The fLreuieu's dog ! ' I replied. ' Why so ; has he no
master?' 'No, Sir,' rejoined the fireman, 'he calls none of us master^ though
we are all of us willing enough to give him a night's lodging and a pennyworth of
meat. But he won't stay long with any of us. His delight is to be at all the fires
in London ; and, far or near, we generally find him on the road as we are going
along, aud sometimes, if it is out of town, we give him a lift. I don't think there
has been a fire for these two or three years past which he has not been at.'

" This communication was so extraordinary that I found it difficult to believe the
story until it was confirmed by the concurrent testimony of several other firemen.
None of them, however, were able to give any account of the early habits of the dog,
or to offer any explanation of the circumstances which led to this singular
propensity.

" Some time afterwards I was again called up in the night to a fire in the ^village
in which I resided (Camber well, in Surrey), and to my surprise here I again met
with 'the firemen's dog,' still alive and well, pursuing, with the same apparent
interest and satisfaction, the exhibition of that which seldom fails to bring with it
disaster and misfortune, oftentimes loss of life and ruin. Still he called no man
master, disdained to receive bed or board from the same hand more than a night or
two at a time, nor could the firemen trace out his resting-place."

Such was the account of this interesting animal, as it appeared in the newspapers,
to which were shortly afterwards appended several circumstances communicated by
a fireman at one of the police offices. A magistrate having asked him whether it
was a fact that the dog was present at most of the fires that occurred in the metro
polis, the fireman replied that he never knew " Tyke," as he was called, to be absent
from a fire upon any occasion that he (the fireman) attended himself. The magis-
"trate eaid the dog must have an extraordinary predilection for fires He theu
asked what length of time he had been known to possess that propensity. The
fireman replied that he knew Tyke for the last nine years ; and, although he was
getting old, yet the moment the engines were about, Tyke was to be seen as active
as ever, running off in the direction of the fire. The magistrate inquired whether
the dug liked auy particular fireman. The fireman replied that Tyke liked on*
5

THE REASON WHY:

But bold Tydide? to the rescue goes,

A single -warrior 'midst a host of foes." — POPE.

fcreinan as well as another. He had no particular favourites, bat passed his time
amongst them ; sometimes going to the house of one, and then to another, and off
to a third when he was tired. Day or night, it was all the same to him ; if a tire
broke out, there was he in the midst of the bustle, running from one engine to
another, anxiously looking after the firemen ; and, although pressed upon hy
crowds, yet, from his dexterity, lie always escaped accidents, only now and then
getting a ducking from the engines, which he rather liked than otherwise. The
magistrate said that Tyke was a most extraordinary animal ; and, having expressed
a wish to see him, he was shortly afterwards exhibited at the office, and some other
peculiarities re&pecting him were related. There was nothing at all particular in
the appearance of the dog. He was a rough-looking, small animal, of the terrier
breed, and seemed to be in excellent condition — no doubt from the care taken of him
by the firemen belonging to the different companies. There was some difficulty
experienced in bringing him to the office, as he did not much relish going any '
distance from where the firemen are to be found, except in cases of attending with
them at a conflagration, and then distance was of nc consequence. It was found
necessary to use stratagem for the purpose. A fireman commenced running ; Tyke,
accustomed to follow upon such occasions, set out after him ; bait this person having
slackened his pace on the way, the sagacious animal, knowing there was no fire,
turned back, and it was necessary to carry him to the office.*

The Author recently saw a fire-dog (but is not aware whether it is the same as
described by Mr. Jesse in the above narrative, though he thinks not from the
''escription} ; it wore a collar, bearing a suitable inscription, recording its feats in
connexion with various fires. This dog would run up the steps of the fire-escapes^
enter rooms, and, crouching along the floor, its head below the clouds of smoke,
•would find out persons lying in their beds in a half-suffocated state, and then, setting
up a loud howl, would inform the firemen. At the time the Author saw it, the dog
Buttered from falls, and wounds caused by the wheels of fire-escapes and engines*
passing over it. It was no longer able to ascend the steps of the fire-escape ; but,
Whenever a door was opened, it rushed in and ascended the stairs, and explore*
•very part of the house to which it could find access.

A PIECE OF MONEY SINGUIARLY RESTORED BY A DOG TO HIS
MASTER.

305. A gentleman in Suffolk, on an excursion with liis friend, was attended by •
Newfoundland dog, which soon became the subject of conversation. The roastes,
after a warm eulogium upon the perfection of his canine favourite, assured hii
companion that he would, upon receiving the order, return and fetch any article
he should leave behind, from any distance. To confirm this assertion, a marked
shilling was put under a large square stone by the side of the road, being first
ihown to the dog. The gentlemen then rode for three miles, when the doft

• Je**e'» " Anecdotes of Dogs." — <;

NATURAL HISTORY.

So scented the grim feature, and upturn'd
His nostrils wide into the inurkie air,
Sagacious of his quarry from so far." — MILTON.

received a signal from his master to return for the shilling he had seen put under
the stone. The dog turned back ; the gentlemen rode on and reached home, but to
their surprise and disappointment the hitherto faithful messenger did not return
during the day. It afterwards appeared that he had gone to the place where the
shilling was deposited, but the stone being too large for his strength to remove,
he had stayed howling at the place till two horsemen riding by, and attracted by
his seeming distress, stopped to look at him, when one of them alighting, removed
the stone, and seeing the shilling, put it into his pocket, not at the time conceiving
it to be the object of , the dog's search. The dog followed their horses for several
miles, remained undisturbed in the room where they supped, followed the chamber
maid into the bedchamber, and secreted himself under one of the beds. The
possessor of the shilling hung his trousers upon a nail by the bed-side ; but when
the travellers were both asleep, the dog took them in his mouth, and leaping out
of the window, which was left open on account of the sultry heat, reachod the
house of his master at four o'clock in the morning, with the prize he had made
free with, in the pocket of which were found a watch and money, that were
returned upon being advertised, when the whole mystery was mutually unravelled
to the admiration of all the parties.*

MEMORY AND GRATITUDE OF A DOG.

306. Mr. Youatt relates the following anecdote of a Newfoundland dog, who was
greatly attached to him. He says, as it became inconvenient to him to keep the dog,
he gave him to one who he knew would treat him kindly. Four years passed, and
he had not seen him, when one day as he was walking towards Kingston, and had
arrived at the brow of the hill where Jerry Abershaw's gibbet then stood, he met
Carlo and his master. The dog recollected Mr. Youatt in a moment, and they
made much of each other. His master, after a little chat, proceeded towards
Wandsworth, and Carlo, as in duty bound, followed him. Mr. Youatt had not,
however, got half-way down the hill, when the dog was again by his side, lowly
but deeply growling, and every hair bristling. On looking about he saw two
ill-looking fellows making their way through the bushes which occupied the
angular space between Roehampton and Wandsworth roads. Their intention was
scarcely questionable, and, indeed, a week or two before, he had narrowly escaped
from two miscreants like them. "I can scarcely say," proceeds Mr. Youatt,
" what I felt, for presently one of the scoundrels emerged from the bushes, not
twenty yards from me ; he no sooner saw my companion, and heard his growling,
the loudness and depth of which were fearfully increasing, than he retreated, and
I saw no more of him or his associate. My gallant defender accompanied me to
the direction post at the bottom of the hill, and there, with many a mutual and
honest greeting, we parted, and he bounded away to overtake his rightful owner.
We never met again ; but 1 need not say that 1 often thought of him with admira
tion and gratitude."

• Jesse's " Anecdotes of Dogs."

100 THE REASON WHY.

At Bruin flies the slavering, snarling cur,

But only fills his famished jaws with fur."— FALCONER.

A DOG CONSTABLE.

307. Mr. Tewes, who keeps a restaurant in William-street, New York, has a large
Newfoundland dog, a finer specimen of his kind than is ordinarily met with.
Among his other wonderful marks of intelligence, we witnessed this a day or two
ago. A gentleman entered the restaurant holding by a cord a dog which served
as watch on board a ship. While in the place, the gentleman supposed the dog
was safe, released his hold upon the string. The door was opened while the
parties were in conversation, and the dog made his escape. Mr. Tewes said to his
Newfoundland, "Go bring him back, Sir." The dog obeyed the mandate, and
within a block or two overtook the fugitive. He first proceeded to give the object
of his charge a slight reprimand for his delinquency by means of a smart shake or
two, and then took the rope in his mouth to lead the dog back to his master.
Some holding back was manifested, the string was dropped, and another shaking
administered. Finally, by alternate chastisements and pullings at the cord, the
runaway dog was brought into the restaurant, and the Newfoundland, with a sly
wink to his master, seemed to say, " There he is." The scene was witnessed by
many, and created no little excitement. — New York Paper.

A NEWFOUNDLAND'S REVENGE.

308. A cousin of the Author of this work was a timber merchant in a sea-port town
of England. He had two remarkably fine dogs that frequently afforded striking
evidences of sagacity. "Hector" and "Wallace" had often, in quitting the
timber-yard, to pass through a narrow lane which ascended a hill leading from the
sea. In this lane lived an old woman, who kept a snappish little cur, that always
ran out and barked at the Newfoundlands. Of this they took no notice, or only
answered the insolence of the cur by a dignified growl. At last the little culprit,
emboldened by the forbearance of the Newfoundlands, snapped at the hind leg of
one of them and bit it severely. Hector, the dog who was bitten, turned round,
and, seizing the cur by the neck, carried him leisurely down to the sea-side, plunged
in, and swam with him to what is called "boat's moorings" — about a hundred
yards or more from the shore. There he let the unhappy cur go, and as he attempted
to swim ashore, Hector every now and then struck him with his paw. The
cur was drowned ; the Newfoundland brought his body ashore and laid it out upon
the beach — a solemn warning to all curs against offending the dignity of the New
foundland. Mr. Youatt tells a similar story, but in this latter instance capital
punishment was not inflicted, a severe ducking having been considered a sufficient
penalty.

CLEMENCY OF THE NEWFOUNDLAND.

309. An instance of a soaiawhat different character is related by Mr. Partington.
While the Government harbour or pier at Donaghadee, Ireland, was building, a
battle took place between two powerful dogs. One was a Newfoundland, the otr er
a mastiff. They had a prolonged fight upon the pier, from the point of which they
both f«U into the sea ; and as the pier was long and steep, they had no means of

^ HISTORY. 101

" Whereunto I can none otherwise answere, but-; that h,e ,who
will throw a stone at every dot) which barkethj hita',need of >a
great satchel or pocket." — GASCOIGNE. ',/»*•> ' ' •

escape but by swimming a considerable distance. Eabh be£a^ ty,m'<ko for tile lat\dl
as best he could. The Newfoundland, being an excellent swimmer, very speedily
gained the shore, on which he stood shaking himself, but at the same time watching
the motions of his former antagonist, which, being a bad swimmer, was struggling
exhausted in the water, and just about to sink. In dashed the Newfoundland,
took the other gently by the collar, kept his head above water, and brought him
safely on shore. There was a peculiar kind of recognition between the two animals,
they had often fought before, but never did so afterwards ; and upon tae New
foundland dog being accidentally killed by a stone-waggon on the railway
passing over him, the mastiff languished and lamented for a considerable
time.

A CUR PERFORMS THE PART OF A DETECTIVE.

310. Mr. Youatt tells the following anecdote, vouching for its truth : A young man,
an acquaintance of the coachman, was walking, as he had often done, in Lord Fife's
stables at Banff. Taking an opportunity, when the servants were not regarding
him, he put a bridle into his pocket. A highland cur that was generally about the
stable saw him, and immediately began to bark ; and, when he got to the stable
door, would not let him pass, but bit him by the leg, in order to prevent him. As
the servants had never seen the clog act thus before, and the same young man had
been often with them, they could not imagine what had been the reason of the dog's
conduct. However, when they saw the end of a valuable bridle peeping out of the
young man's pocket, they were able to account for it ; and, on his giving it up, the
dog left the stable-door, where he had stood, and allowed him to pass.

DOG PHILANTHROPISTS.

31 1. Upon Mount St. Bernard, and near one of the most dangerous mountain passes,
is a convent, in which is preserved a breed of large dogs, trained to search for the
benighted and frozen wanderer. Every night, and particularly when the wind
blows tempestuously, some of these dogs are sent out. They traverse every path
about the mountains, and their scent is so exquisite that they can discover the
traveller, although he may lie many feet deep in the snow. Having found him ,
they set to work and endeavour to scrape away the snow, uttering a deep bark that
reverberates from rock to rock, and tells those who are watching in the convent that
some poor wretch is in peril. Generally, a little flask of spirits is tied round the
neck of the animal; by drinking which the benighted traveller may recruit his
strength until more effectual rescue arrives. The monks hasten in the direction of
the sound, and often succeed in rekindling the vital spark before it is quite
extinguished. Very many travellers have been thus rescued from death by these
benevolent men and their intelligent and interesting quadruped servants.

One of these Bernardine dogs, named Barry, had a medal tied round his neck as
a badge of honourable distinction, for he had saved the lives of forty persons. He
at length died nobly in his vocation. A Piedmontese courier arrived at St. Bernard
on a very stormy day, labouring to make his way to the little village of St. Pierre,
in the valley beneath the mountain, where his wife and children lived. It was in
vain that the monks attempted to check his resolution to reach his family. 1 hey at

102 THE REASON WHY :

Bchol<V yon mountain's hoary height,

hfi£ner ^ith new mounts of snow ;

'

•-AjStti-.t it)olix)kl the winter's weight
*t)p

)pprfos the labouring woods below." — DRYDKX.

' « '" ^ "

• Itst gtifr*? him two /jiudes, eaoh of whom was accompanied by a dog, one of which
was ;he remarkable creature whose services had been so valuable. Descending from
the :onvent, they were overwhelmed by two avalanches or heaps of falling snow,
and the same destruction awaited the family of the poor courier, who were
travelling up the mountain in the hope of obtaining some news of the husbaud
and father.*

312. Why is the jackal called "the lion's provider?"
Because, when jackals hunt their prey, they make hideous
noises. The lion, knowing that these sounds are signs that the
jackals are on the bunt, prowls about in their wake, and when the j
have killed an animal, he puts them to flight, and feeds upon the
carcase. The jackals keep aloof until the lion has satisfied his
hunger, and then they return and devour the fragments that may
remain.

313. The tiger, as well as the lion, follows the track of the jackal, and robs it of
prey. The idea that the jackal is instinctively " the lion's provider" is one of the
ingenious fictions that gather around every imperfect history.

314. Why has the Nubian ferret valves to its ears ?

Because it burrows in sandy ground ; the peculiar structure of
its ears is therefore adapted to preserve those most important
organs.

315. The ferret has unusually large ears, which renders it more than ordinarily

liable to inconvenience while bur
rowing in sandy ground. The valve
of the ear, as it has been termed,
consists of a plait or fold, Avhich
shows itself externally at the bottom.
The interior borders of the ears are
covered with thick white hair, but
the middle part is bare, and of a pink
or rose colour. The auditory cells
of the ferret are larger than those
of the common fox, though the
former is two-thirds less than the

fox in size. I* is probable that the ferret hears much more acutely than most

quadrupeds.

* " Youatt on the Dog."

NATURAL HISTORY. 103

Out, out, hyen<i; those thy wonted arts,
And arts of every woman false like thee ;
To break ail faith, all vows, deceive, betray,
Then as repentant to submit." — MILTOX.

31<J. Wliy are hyenas denominated " scavengers

Because they are so voracious
tliat they will feed upon putrefy
ing substances. They therefore
clear away putrid carcases which
in a hot climate would produce
dangerous consequences to man
kind.

~ 317. As carrion feeders, thep seem des-
~* tined to fill up an important station in the
economy of nature, by clearing the earth
of the decaying carcases of beast*, whose
remains might otherwise infect the air with pestilential effluvia. Their numbers is
commensurate to the importance of their office ; although solitary animals ia
general, they will sometimes assemble in troops and follow the movements of aa
irmy, in order to feast on the bodies of those wko perish on the battle-field. It is
Asserted, and. is not at all impossible, that they tear newly-buried bodies oat
of tke graves,

Mr. Bruce, tke Abyssinian traveller, tkus speaks of them: — "I do not think
there is any one that has hitherto written of this animal who ever saw tke tkousandtk
pa? t of them that I hare. Tkey were a plague in Abyssinia in every situation, botk
in the city and in tke field, and, I think, surpassed the sheep in number. Gondat
was full of them, from the time it turned dark till the dawn ef day, seeking the
different pieces of slaughtered carcases which this cruel and unclean people expose
in the stteets without burial, and who firmly believe that these animals are Falasha
from the neighbouring mountain^, transformed by magic, and come down to eat
human fiesk in tke dark in safety."

318. The spotted hyena is the most common species in the Cape of
Good Hope ; and although its presence requires caution on the part
of the shepherds in regard to their cattle, yet it is a very valuable
animal scavenger, as it is well known to come nightly to Cape
Town and clear away the offal, bones, &c., which are thrown out
in large quantities ; and Spurrman says that the dogs are so well
accustomed to it that they feed side by side without molestation,
and the hyena ia rarely known to do mischief when thus
satiated.

104

THE REASON WHY :

" Lady, I would descend to kiss your hand,
But that 'tis gloved, and civet makes me sick." — MASSINGEB.

3] 9. Why is the civet commonly called the " civet cat ? "

Merely from some slight
resemblance in the far of the
body, and the form of the
tail ; and from their habit of
catching mice. The name
cat is, in all other respects,
inapplicable. They are great
destroyers of eggs, are ex
pert in catching birds, and
some of them occasionally
pursue their prey by coursing. They frequent the banks of streams,
the woodlands, or open glades, preying upon the smaller reptiles
and the eggs of the larger in the first of those places, on birds and
small quadrupeds in the second, and on the smaller lizards in
the third.

320. The perfume called civet is produced from an orifice under the anus in bott
sexes, secreted by peculiar glands. The persons who keep them are said to procure
the ciret by scraping the inside of their legs twice a week with an iron spatula,
getting about a drachm each time ; but it is seldom sold pure, being mixed with
suet or oil to make it more weighty. The males yield the most, especially when
they are irritated. They inhabit India, the Philippine Isles, Guinea, Africa,
and Madagascar.

321. Why is the leopard so catted?

The name is composed of two words, leo (lion), and parent
(panther), and has a fabulous application: the fable being that
the leopard was a mule or hybrid between these two species,
partaking of the fabled generosity of the one, and the savage
disposition of the other.

322. IVJiat is the distinction between the panther and the
leopard ?

The only differences between them are in the size and marking,
and in the more active and playful disposition which seems to be
connected with smallness of size in this genus of animals. It

NATURAL HISTORY. 105

" Some say a sea-maid spawned her." — SHAKSPERE.

is possible that they are only varieties of the same original
species.

323. Why is the ocelot so called?

From the Latin ocellus, a small eye ; it refers to the animal being
spotted with small marks, or eyes.

324. Wliy are seals classed among carnivorous " quadrupeds ? "
Because they are flesh eaters, possess carnivorous teeth, and in

their skeletons the four extremities that distinguish quadrupeds are
represented in the fin-like members.

325. The principles pursued in the classification of animals may be thus fami
liarised '.—Seals belong to the first great division of the animal kingdom, Verte-
brata, because they possess a true back-bone formed of vertebras (from verto, to
turn). They belong to the class Mammalia (from mamma, the breast), because they
have teats and suckle their young. They belong to the sub-order Carnivora (from
caro, flesh, and voro, to eat), because they are flesh-caters, and possess carnivorous
teeth. They are of the family Phocidce (from a Greek word meaning a sea-calf),
because of their fancied resemb'ance to a calf, and of their marine habits ; they are
made the type ofjiumerous animals that resemble them ; and they are ranted with
Quadrupeds (frorn quadra, four, andped, foot), because in their skeletons the four
lower extremities that distinguish quadrupeds are well defined.

The dog, as another example, belongs to the Vertebrated division, as the sea
does ; and for the same reasons, it belongs also to the class Mammalia, and the sub
order Carnioora. But here the resemblance ceases, and the dog enters the order
Diyitiyrades (from digita, a finger or toe, and gradice, to walk), because it walks
principally on its toes ; and to the genus Canis, the Latiu name for a dog, on account
ct certain peculiarities of the teeth.
5-f

106 THE EEASON WHY :

" Proteus, thy song to heare,
Seas list'ning stand, and windes to whistle fear ;
The lively dolphins dance, and bristly scales give eare." — FLETCHER.

326. Why are seals found in greatest numbers in estuariw
and straits ?

Because the fishes upon which they feed are dispersed in the
open sea, but congregate in greater numbers in the currents of
narrow places.

327. In some districts seals are very numerous. In the Caspian Sea, for instance,
and in the Isle of Juan Fernandez. " Here," says Captain Dampier, " are always
thousands, I might say possibly millions of them, either sitting on the crags, or
going and coming with the sea round the island, which is covered with them (as
they lie at the top of the water playing and sunning themselves) for a mile or two
from the shore. They produce in the autumn two young ones, which for some
time are white and woolly, and are suckled for six or seven weeks, after which they
take to the sea ; and when the dams come out of the sea they bleat like sheep for
their young, and though they pass through hundreds before they reach their own,
will not permit any of them to suck."

328. ^VTiy do Greenland seal-hunters place themselves by holes
in the ice ?

Because the seals being obliged to breathe air make for
themselves holes in the ice, that they may rise for this purpose.
The hunter, therefore, knows when he sees a hole that seals are
about, and that some of them must soon come up to breathe.

329. Another stratagem employed in the capture of seals is as follows : — In the Gulf
of Bothnia, when spring is approaching, and the ice is forced from the shores by
the rivers emptying themselves into the sea, the seals are often found upon the
larger masses ; and in order to obtain them, the hunters set off in a boat. Having
taken the precaution to whiten the boat with lime, and put on white dresses to
render themselves less suspected, they go in search of their prey, and continue
rowing about from one block of ice to another, destroying many seals.

330. Why are the nostrils of seals surrounded with long bristly
hairs ?

These hairs, or whiskers, are instruments of touch, and serve a
similar purpose to the seal in its submarine excursions, as do those
of lions, tigers, and cats, in forests and jungles. No doubt these
instruments are exceedingly useful in exploring the crevices and
irregular surfaces of icebergs, beneath the water, where fishes may
sometimes take shelter and conceal

NATURAL HISTORY, 107

" These scales be hardly killed, unlessc a. man dash out their
bratnes. In their sleepe they seem to lowe or bleat, and. there
upon they be called sea-cali~c&," — HOLLAND.

831. In some of the species these hairs are jointed, and formed in a manner
resembling the antennae (feelers) of beetles. They have their roots in a sort of
cylindrical capsule, of horny consistency at the bottom, and meet there with some
small vesse.s connected with the muscles, and also with a fine membrane which
Ikies tne whole of the internal surface. These bulbous roots of the bristles,
especially in the fine membrane with which they are lined, are closely connected
with many ramifications of nerves.

332. Wliy are the nostrils of seals -made to close habitually?
Because, as the amphibious habits of the seal require the nostrils

to be sometimes open and at other times closed, an effort of the
animal must be required to produce one or other of these ends.
The natural state of the nostrils is to remain closed, and an effort
is required to open them when the seal reaches the air.

The wisdom of this provision is evident : the animal hunts its
prey beneath the water, and its nostrils being closed by their own
exquisite machinery, the seal has no care concerning them while
capturing its food. But when the capture is completed, and the
animal has no more effort to make for that purpose, it returns to
the air, and bestows an effort upon the necessity for breathing.

333. Wliy are the eyes of seals very fully and peculiarly
developed ?

Because it is by sight principally that they pursue their prey.
Their nostrils are necessarily closed when under water, so that they
probably have no sense of smell in that situation. Their ears are
also small, and become contracted under water ; the sense of sight
is therefore their chief guide.

334. The eye of the seal is fitted for a double action, for seeing either in the water
or the air. There is no eye which can be said to have, upon the whole, to perform
these offices so equally. They have to use their eyes deep in the water, and when
there is very little light, or indeed none, the water being sometimes frozen over,
and a deep stratum of snow lying upon the ice. The eyes are placed very near to
each other, thus indicating that they follow their prey from a forward view. The
schlerotic coat is composed of a thick, hard, and firm membrane, by which strength
is given to the eye under the pressure of water ; and there is a provision for
adj usting the focus of sight to the dissimilar conditions of seeing in air and in
fluid. While, to modify the change, the cornea of the eye is flat, there being
less difference 01 light from a flat cornea than from a convex one of the same
surface.

108

THE REASON WHY:

With snow, frost, hail, and sleet, and found stern winter strong,
With mighty isles of ice, and monsters huge and strong." — DRAYTCN.

335. Why has the walrus large tusks descending from its
upper jaw ?

These tusks consist of an enlargement of the canine teeth, which
in the carnivorous tribes are chiefly employed to capture and
kill the prey upon which they subsist.

They are thus enlarged in the walrus to enable the animal to
mow down, or to throw aside, the great fields of sea-weeds arnom*
which it finds crustaceous and molluscous animals, such as lobsters,
crabs, shell-fish, &c., upon which it feeds.

They are also useful to enable the animal, the body of which
is cumbrous and heavy, to clamber over the blocks of ice, among
which it lives. This it accomplishes by fixing its tusks in the
ice, using them as a lever to assist its movements. They enable
the animal to raise itself out of the water, by holding on upon
the rock or iceberg, just as the parrot steadies himself by its
bill. The tusks are also used as weapons of defence.

ORDER, IV.— MARSUPIALIA.

336. Why are kanguroos, opossums, &c., included in the order

Marsupialia ?

Because they are distinguished
by a pouch-like appendage on
the under-part of the females,
which pouch is supported by
two peculiar bones called Mar
supial — from the Latin word
Marsupium, meaning a purse
or pouch.

337. Why are these animah
provided with pouches ?

Because their young are born
in a very helpless state. They
are far more minute and formless
t>han the young of any other ol

NATURAL HISTORY. 109

" That natural affection, so connatural to all or most creatures
toward their young, what an admirable, noble principle it is,
implanted in them by a wise Creator ! "— DERHAM.

the mammalia, not excepting those which come into the world blind
and naked. The pouch answers as a description of second womb,
in which the young animals are brought to maturity.

338. The young of all the animals of this order are remarkable for their imperfect
development at the time of their birth. Even in the species without pouches (for
some have a mere fold of the skin, scarcely visible) the young hang under the belly
of the mother for a certain time ; then they mount on her back, and twist their tai s
round hers to fix themselves. The young of the kaola, which has no tail, fixes
itself on the parent's back, and fastens there with its hands. It is remarkable that,
in the unpregnant animal, the pouch is closed, being glued, as it were, to the body
of the parent by a peculiar secretion. As the pregnancy advances, this secretion
becomes absorbed, and the folds of the pouch are set free, so that just at the time
when the young within the body of the animal are prepared to leave it, the pouch
or nursery on the outside is fitted to receive them.*

339. Why are the young of these animals lorn in such a helpless
condition ?

Because by far the greater number of the marsupial animals are
either leapers or climbers ; and this peculiar arrangement of
the organs of gestation is evidently intended to enable the
loins to have more powerful action than they could have if the
body of the animal were encumbered with full-grown young.

340. It has not hitherto been noticed by naturalists (the Author believes) that the
peculiar gestation of the marsupialia forms an intermediate design between the
complete gestation of mammalia and the egg-laying capacity of birds. To animals
of flight, bearing their young, apart fi-om any consideration of the number of the
offspring, must De a serious impediment ; they are, therefore, endowed with tht
power of excluding the ova and maturing their young apart from their own bodies,
To animals that are terrestrial, and endowed with leaping powers, the encumbered-
womb must prove almost as great an impediment as to creatures of the air. The
gestation, therefore, is imperfect, and is completed after the young has passed from
the womb. It is also worthy of remark that as birds lay from two to fifteen ot
eighteen eggs, marsupial animals bear from one to twelve young ones.

The pouch of the opossum is thus described by M. D'Argaza: — " The female
has the whole length of the belly cleft or slit, and appearing like a person's waist
coat buttoned only at the top and bottom. This cavity the animal has the power of
firmly closing. Within it are thirteen teats, extremely small, one in the centre and
the rest ranged round it." The same authority speaks of one which he saw that
had thirteen young ones. They had ceased to suck, and the pouch, since they were

• Cavier'a " Regne Animal."

110

THE REASON WHY :

1 The trees, devouring caterpillars bare :
Parch ..-i was the grass, and blighted was the corn." — DBYDEN.

so much grown, was not large enough to contain them, but the mother carried
them about fixed to her tail, legs, and body.

The structure of these animals agrees with the contingencies under which
tl.ey exist. They are subjected to considerable hardships, arising from tlie
alternate parching and flooding of the countries in which they abound —
countries which are not adapted for the common mammalia in a state of
nature — and accordingly we find that in New Holland, which may be con
sidered the head quarters of marsupial animals, there are no native placental
mammalia, and such are not very common in the other localities of these animals.
New Holland, New Guinea, some of the other Islnnds of the Archipelago, South
America, and the warmer part of North America, in the case of a single species
only, are the localities of these animals, and it is not a little remarkable that
not one of them has been hitherto found in Africa, though they occur ou
both sides of it.*

341. Why has the kanguroo such powerful posterior organs'/

Because the hind feet and
the tail are employed as leap
ing organs, and also as weapons
of defence. The leap is of
very great length, and is
accomplished by the action
of the tail, almost as much as
by the legs.

By the pliability of its
spine and the flexibility of
its posterior members, the
animal can place icself pre
paratory to a bound so that,
the lower bones of the leg
being horizontal, the two
superior bones shall be inclined to them at something less than
a right angle, as shown in figures 1 and 2, representing the profile
and the skeleton of the kanguroo ; by which it will be seen
how greatly the structure of the animal favours its principle of
locomotion.

• Partington's " Cyclopaedia."

NATURAL HISTORY.

Ill

" And on the playn of these valleys there were roerualouse,
great marshes, and dangerous passages." — FROISSAHT.

342. These proportions are reversed in quadrupeds of slow locomotive powers, cf
which the giraffe is one of the most remarkable examples. In this animal a great
proportionate length is given to its fore-legs ; so that, notwithstanding the length
of its neck, it would be incapable of taking its food from the surface upon which it
stands. Nature has, however, beneficially adapted the wants of the animal to its
structure ; and, while its head is elevated to a height of twenty feet above the
ground, nourishment situated at a corresponding elevation is supplied in the foliage
of the trees.

343. Why is the bounding movement of the Tcanguroo admirably
adapted to the localities they inhabit?

Because kangaroos inhabit a country where there are enormous
tufts of the coarsest grass, growing on swamps or marshy ground,
several feet in height, and at a considerable distance from each
other ; or else they frequent rocky or bushy ground. By means
of the bound which they are enabled to execute they can clear
from twelve to twenty feet in length and several feet in height,
from one tuft of grass, or from one rock or bush, to another, and
thus escape from their pursuers.

344. In kanguroos Avhich have been bred and domesticated in this country, the
size and strength of the tail diminishes, and the animals more frequently use all
four of their feet in running. This is a strong illustration of the care taken by a
beneficent Px-ovideuce of its creatures, in furnishing them with the means best

112 THE REASOM WHY!

" It was observed of this animal, that he leaped or bounded
forward on two legs, instead of running upon four." — GAIT. COOK.

adapted for their relative conditions and situations in the protection of themselves,
and diminishing those means when they become no longer of the same importance
to them.

345. Why are the kanguroo's* head and fore paws so small ?
Because this conformation of the body is peculiarly adapted to

its leaping habits ; this form contributes to keep the body of the
animal almost erect in the air, while the weight of the lower
quarters brings it to the ground with precision, and in a natural
position, prepared immediately to repeat the leap.

346. Why does the long-tailed belidens seldom descend to the
ground ?

Because its structure, and especially the enormous length of its
tail, is ill adapted for terrestrial habits ; but it sometimes descends
for the purpose of passing to a tree too distant to be reached
by a spring.

The tops of trees are traversed by this animal with as much ease
as the most level ground is by such as are destined for terra firma.
If chased or forced to flight, it ascends to the highest branch, and
performs the most enormous leaps, sweeping from tree to tree. It has
a membrane at its sides, which extends and forms a description of
parachute, and which enables it to proceed to a considerable
distance, always ascending a little at the extremity of the leap ;
by this ascent the animal is prevented from receiving the shock
which it would otherwise sustain.

347. This fine little animal is common in all the bushes of New South Wales. In
those vast forests, trees of one kind or another arc perpetually flowering, and thus
offer a never-failing supply of blossoms, upon which the little creature feeds ; the
flowers of the vaiious kinds of gums, some of which are of great magnitude, ari
the principal favourites.*

• Commonly spelled "kangaioo," but more properly kunguroo.
+ Gould's " Mammals of Australia."

NATURAL HISTORY. 113

" By dreraes, by chirking of dores, or craking of houses, by
gnawing of rattes, and swiche like manner of wretchednesse."

CHAUCEK.

ORDER V. — RODENTIA.

348. WJiy are the animals of this order named rodents ?
Because of the peculiar formation of their teeth, and their habit
of gnawing — the Latin verb rodo meaning to gnaw.

349. In the order Rodentia the front teeth cut with a sharp edge. We know that
this is contrived in the tool of the carpenter, and we know that he must from time
to time apply his chisel to the grindstone. The front teeth of the beaver, the
porcupine, and the rat, are sharp, and yet not blunted by use ; the bone of the tooth
is the densest possible, consistent with the material ; but, were the whole tooth of
the same material, it would be ground down uniformly, and the original form of the
instrument would be lost. Accordingly, a different substance, the enamel, which
yields more slowly to friction than the bone, is, as it were, let in on the anterior
surface of the tooth. The consequence is, that the enamel stands up sharp and
exposed, so as to protect the bone of the tooth, and to give the surface which is
worn down a certain shape, suited to act like nippers. The friction and the
arrangement of the material of the tooth so far correspond, that the cutting form
is preserved, however much the surface may be worn down.

350. Why are the jaws of rodents remarkably light ?

Because strength in the jaws is not requisite, but rather light
ness, because the action is continued gnawing, or rubbing, and not
powerful biting. This may be seen in the different ways in which
a monkey and a squirrel go about to get at the kernel of a nut.
The monkey takes it between his strong jaws, and cracks it at once
by one lusty gripe, while the squirrel nibbles away till it makes a
hole in the nut.

351. Why do squirrels convey food to their mouths with two
paws while monkeys generally use but one?

Because their fore-arms have but little motion in the elbow
joints, and their two bones are often united. The paw, therefore,
cannot turn, but has merely a hinge motion in this particular joint.
Many of them, however, have tolerably perfect clavicles, and others
have imperfect ones, so that they can bring the paw to the mouth
without any turning of the elbow ; but, as they cannot turn up the
sole of the paw, they cannot bring any substance to the mouth
except by holding it between the two paws sideways.*

* Partington's " Cyclopaedia."

114 THE REASON WHY:

" Coridon unto her brought,
Or little sparrowes stolen from their nest,
Or wanton squirrels in the woods farre sought." — SPENSER.

352. Why are squirrels grouped as the genus sciurus?

The scientific name sciurus is derived from skia, a shade, and
oura, a tail, and refers to the tail of some of the species covering
the head, as with a shade. The common name squirrel is merely a
corruption of sciurus.

. 353. WTiy are the hind legs of squirrels only a little shorter
than the front ones ?

Because, although leaping animals, like the kanguroo, their style
of running along the branches of trees requires that they should
have nearly equal command and use of all their legs. In this may
be seen the difference between them and the hares and jerboas
on the one hand, and the tree apes, which have not the tails
prehensile, on the other. The leaping animal has the hind legs
long, and the muscular action of the body very much concentrated
upon them. The climbing animal has the fore-legs long, and the
concentration upon them. The squirrel holds an intermediate
place ; and this is the reason why we consider its motions on the
ground more graceful than the leaping of the jerboa, and its motion
in the tree more so than the climbing of the ape. Their motions
arc quite a study in animal mechanics ; and, on account of the
lightness, the gentleness, and the cleanliness of the animals, they
are very pleasing objects.

354. Why are the eyes of squirrels very fully developed ?

Because they have to find their food, and also their footing — the
latter very quickly — in the shade of thick leaves.

355. WJiy are the tails of squirrels so large and bushy ?

The tails of these creatures are exceedingly well adapted, and
indeed necessary, to their mode of life ; they serve to balance the
body while springing, and, acting as a kind of parachute, prevent
those jerks and falls which the animal would otherwise be likely
to receive.

NATURAL HISTORF. 115

" The morning came when neighbour Hodge,
Climbed like a squirrel to his dray,
And bore the worthless prize away." — COWPEE.

356. Why do squirrels lay up stores of provisions f
Because in the winter nuts, acorns, beech-nuts, the seeds of pines,

peas, beans, and other large seeds upon which they live, cannot
be found.

357. There does not appear to be much truth in the common saying, that
squirrels are great planters of the oak, by the acorns which they bury in the
ground and are afterwards unable to find out ; for, when an animal has the instinct
of hiding any substance as a supply of food, it has, as a matter of course, the instinct
of finding it again ; and that a squirrel should range the forest, burying acorn after
acoT, in places where they would be apt to germinate, is very incredible. Th«
store is always placed in dry situations, where it can be preserved from growing.*

It was said of old that " squirrels also foresee a tempest coming, and where the
wind will blow : for looke in what corner the wind is like to take a stand ; on that
side they stop up the mouth of their holes, and make an overture on the other side
against it.'H

358. Why are some of the members of this tribe called "flying
squirrels ? "

Because the skin of their sides is capable of great extension, and
being attached to both the anterior and posterior extremities, is
capable of being spread out, and answering the purpose of a
parachute. There is a bony appendage to the hind feet, which
furnishes an additional support to this membrane, in the extended
springs made by the animal from one tree to another. These flying
squirrels seem to differ physically in nothing from the squirrels,
properly speaking, except in the flying apparatus, and the bony
appendage which supports it.*

359. Why has the souslik§ pouches in its cheeks?

Because this pretty little rodent lays up for the winter seeds,
acorns, nuts, &c., which they convey to their borrows. Having no
other means of transporting them, their feet being all employed in
their movements, and their teeth ill-adapted to holding nuts while
the body is in motion, they are provided with little pockets or
pouches in their cheeks, in which they carry their winter's store t<
•Jieir burrows.

* Partington's " Cyclopaedia." + Holland : " Plinie."

$ Cuvier's " llegne Animal." \ Spermophihis ciiillus.

116 THE REASON WHY

Valour's a mouse-trap, wit a grin,

Which women oft are taken v/." — HUDIBRAS.

360. Why does the dormouse* become fat during its period of
hybei*nation, while other hybcrnating animals become thin ?

* Because its hybernation is imperfect ; it occasionally wakes and
eats of the store of food it has previously laid up. Thus feeding,
and being wholly inactive, its fat increases. But in the case of
animals that hybernate perfectly, and do not eat, the fat of their
bodies is consumed for the support of their organic functions.

361. WTiy is a small number of mice beneficial in some houses ?

Because they are great eaters of the beetles which infest houses
during the night.

362. Wliy are rats beneficial in -certain instances?

Because they frequently make the sewers or drains their principal
haunts, and by devouring putrefying substan je? contribute materially
to cleanliness and health.

363. As matters are at present, the drainage of London stains the water of the
Thames ; but when we take into consideration the countless millions of brown rats
which are supported in the sewers, and of which the greater part are produced,
live, feed, and thrive there, without any other store for their support, we can
readily understand what would be the case if it were not for them. Thus, whether
these animals come under the name of rats or mice they are, under certain circum
stances, highly useful, playing the part of scavengers for man in cases where he either
cannot or will not play it for himself. Every animal, indeed, which follows man in
all his migrations, and multiplies in proportion as his numbers multiply, is always
useful to him. Most of these animals are, no doubt, annoying, and many of them
are positively offensive ; but, in all cases where they are so, man will find that he
himself is generally to blame. They come to consume that which is atvariance wiih
health and cleanliness; and if the latter is properly attended to, there is no
place for them.+

Rats are exceedingly clean animals ; they invariably wash themselves all over
after eating, no matter what. The operation is performed in the same manner
as the cat does — by licking the paws. When a rat eats, he, by means of his sharp
front teeth, gnaws away a mouthful, which he deposits in a sort of pouch formed
between his grinding- teeth and his cheeks. Then he ceases gnawing, and masticates

• Myoxus glis. + Partington's "Cyclopaodia."

NATURAL HISTORY. 117

" Our natures do pursue,

Like rats that ravine down their proper bane,
A thirsty evil, and when we drink, we die." — SHAKSPERE.

kis food, by moving his jaws incessantly and without pausing. They move ten
times faster than the jaws of a rabbit. When a rat drinks, he laps up the fluid like
a dog. A rat generally tastes his food with his tongue previous to eating it. When
sleeping, the rat coils himself up into a ball, and places his nose down between his
hind legs ; his tail is curled up round the outside of the body, no part of him
projecting but his two delicate ears, which are beautifully adapted for catching the
least sound.

364. Why may black rats be most securely caught by means of a
wire snare fixed on a beam or rafter?

Because the black rat does not frequent low haunts, such as
cellars, pigsties, &c. ; nor does he burrow and run into holes, but lives
chiefly in the ceilings and wainscoats of houses, and under rafters
and beams. The snare alluded to, therefore, favouring their
peculiar habits, is better calculated to secure them than any other
contrivance.

365. Wliy is the tail of the rat so long and perfectly formed ?

Because it performs an important part in the animal's progress,
becoming a sort of hand by means of which he is enabled to crawl
along the tops of railings and along narrow ledges of walls, balancing
himself by it or entwining it round the projecting portions of the diffi
cult passages along which his course lies. By means of it, too, he
is enabled to spring up heights otherwise inaccessible, using it on
these occasions as a lever, or rather a projectile spring.

366. Why does the disappearance of the black rat prove the
greater solidity and cleanliness of our modern habitations?

Because the black rat was never much of a city rat, nor resorted
to houses built of masonry, and roofed with tiles or slates. But
it frequented thatched houses with boarded or plastered walls, and
became numerous ir dwellings where the rooms were uncleanly.
They were, in fact, the scavengers of dirty recesses and floors, just
as the brown rat is of sewers ; and the extermination of the black
?at is due to the absence of the conditions which once fostered it
—not to its having been driven away by the brown rat.

118 THE REASON WHY

And forth he goth, no longer would he tary,

Into the town unto a potecary,

And praied him that he him wolde sell

Some poison that he might his ratouns quell." — CHAUCEB.

367. Why is it said that rats ahvays quit a falling house?

The popular saying is founded upon the very obvious fact that
when houses become old and tottering, they are abandoned by
human beings, and then the rate finding no longer their usual
subsistence, quit the tenement ako.

368. But the popular mind has thwarted this very palpable lact into a kind of
superstition, believing that rats have the power of anticipating the sudden fail of
a house, and quitting it some hours before. Granting that a rat were of all animals
the most sensitive to coming changes, and that it felt them in the very dawn of
their existence, the fall of a house does not come within the class of occurrences
of which the sensibility of the animal would give it early warning.* In like manner
it is said that rats leave a sinking ship ; they have been seen to do so by walking
along the rope which fastened the ship to the shore, but they did this only when
the water had absolutely forced them from every other place.

369.. Why is a person shifting from one party or from one
cause to another said to be "ratting?"

This saying is founded on the previous notion of rats deserting
falling houses and sinking ships. It implies that as the individual
can no longer suit his own purposes, he deserts his former place or
cause. Tergiversation of this kind, more especially when it consists
in deserting one party in its weakness, and going over to the
opposite one in its strength for the sake of personal advantage, is
invariably called " ratting ;" and it is held, and very properly held,
to be the worst species of political crime of which a public man
can be guilty, and characteristic of the very meanest cast of mind,
and lowest depth of political corruption.*

370. Why may we suppose that rats can communicate intelligence
to each other when they find food ?

Because the depredations committed usually commence with one
rat, which soon afterwards is joined by other companions, and in
a few days large swarms frequently appear.

* Partington's " Cyclopaedia."

NATURAL HiS'.ORY.

119

" This purpose is sometimes carried on by a sort of migratory
instinct, some-times by the spirit of conquest ; at one time avarice
urives men from their .homes, at another they are actuated by a
thirst of knowledge." — BURKE.

371. Wliy has the hamster such enormous cheek pouches ?
Hamsters are a genus of rodent animals, remarkable for

the possession of cheek
pouches, which in some
of the species are of con
siderable size. The one
figured in the illustra
tion* has pouches so large
that they will hold a
quarter of a pint. These
pouches are useful us
stores of food for the
^;j\^ - * animal, which inhabits the

sandy districts of the North

of Europe and Asia, Austria, Silesia, and many parts of Germany,
Poland, &c., is liable to periods of deprivation from food, and also
undergoes an imperfect winter hibernation.

372. The quantity of grain which they consume is very great. On the approach
of winter, the hamster retires into his subterranean abode, the entry of which he
closes with great care ; and thus, remaining tranquil and secure, feeds on his col
lected store till the frost becomes severe : he then falls into a profound slumber.
It will be seen that this hybernation differs from that in which the animals imme-
di'-t^ly fall asleep, and either continue torpid during the whole of the cold season,
or awake occasionally to partake of food. There is a long underground preparation
for the winter sleep, during which a considerable quantity of food is needed. Hence
it is that the animal is provided with these ample pouches, which act as panniers
for the conveyance of its winter food to the place into which it retires. The fur of
the hamster is valuable ; and the peasant who goes " a hamster hunting" obtains not
only the sl^n of the animal, but his hoard, which amounts to as much as two
bushels of grain to each magazine.

373. Why do lemmings migrate frrm their settlements ?

Because they multiply so rapidly that they experience a deficiency
of vegetable food. They therefore set off in large bodies in search
of new grounds adapted to their habitations, and there they found
uew colonies. In this we see a more striking illustration of the

• Mut bursariu*.

120 THE REASON WHY:

It is not iron bands, nor hundred eyes,

Nor brazen walls, nor many wakeful skyes,

That can withhold their wilful wandering feet."— SPENSER.

instinct which prompts rats to quit an uninhabited house, and to
abandon an unseaworthy ship.

374. Lemmings are allied to the rat tribes. There are several species of them,
varying in size and colour, according to thfl
regions they inhabit. They are found in
Norway, Lapland, Siberia, and the northern

f ~"'7^SxVf •]'•• < ^tf&s >*>- ' '•' •' - -s parts of America; those of Norway being

^xv'.^K^ ,-iSv^v;/.i^' ••Kf /T^A'/"-- nearly the size of the water-rat, and of a
\*K<m !^^S^!W3: tawny colour, variegated with black, the

sides of the head and the under parts
-^ being white; while those of Lapland and
^.-"-S, ^r-^Y<nj^4^-.i£^v/<'. Siberia are scarcely larger than a field-

mouse, and much less distinctly marked.

They subsist entirely on vegetable food ; they form shallow burrows, in
the summer time, under the ground, and in winter make long passages under the
snow in search of food. Their hairy heads and short ears and tails admirably adapt
them for the latter labour. Their migrations are not regularly periodical, but are
undertaken at irregular epochs — upon an average about once in ten years.

The inclination, or instinctive faculty, which induces them, with one consent, to
assemble from a whole region, collect themselves into an army, and descend from
the mountains into the neighbouring plains in the form of a firm phalanx, moving
on in a straight line, resolutely surmounting every obstacle, and undismayed by
every danger, cannot be contemplated without astonishment. All who have
written upon the subject agree that they proceed in a direct course, so that the
ground along which they have passed appears at a distance as if it had been
ploughed ; the grass being devoured to the very roots in numerous stripes or
parallel paths of one or two spans broad, and at the distance of some ells from
each other. This army moves chiefly by night, or early in the morning, devouring
the herbage as it passes in such a manner that the surface appears to have D*ben
burnt. No obstacles will materially alter their route ; neither fires, nor deep
ravines, torrents, marshes, nor lakes ; they proceed obstinately in a right line, and
hence it happens that many thousands perish in the waters, and are found dead by
the shores. If a rick of hay or corn occurs in their passage, they eat through it ; but
if rocks intervene which they cannot pass, they go round, and then resume their
former straight direction. If disturbed or pursued while swimming over a lake,
and their phalanx is scattered by oars and poles, they will not recede, but keep
swimming directly on, and get into regular order again. Tk^y have evei been
kiiown to endeavour to board, or pass over a vessel.

On the passage overland, if attacked by men they will raise themselves up,
uttering a kind of barking sound, and fly at the legs of their invaders ; and will
fasten so fiercely at the end of a stick as to suffer themselves to be swung about
before they quit their hold. Sometimes an intestine war breaks out in these
armies during their march, when they fight desperately and destroy
each other.
On the march they »~ attacked by various enemies, and particularly by owls

NATURAL HISTOiiY.

Of beasts — the leaver plods his task,
While the sleek tigers roll and bask,
Nor yet the shades arouse." — SMART.

hawks, and weasels, so that but a small proportion of their number survive the penis
of their journey. In some instances they have been observed, after a lapse of time,
to return to their native mountains. Sometimes the females have borne young
during their migration, and have been seen carefully carrying them on their backs.
After crossing a stream, or an arm of the sea, upon landing on the opposite bank
they halt to sun and dry themselves, and after feeding again proceed upon their
journey.

It was once believed that these animals fell from the clouds at particular seasons;
and some persons positively affirmed that they had seen a lemming fall from the
skies— a not improbable occurrence, when it is remembered that birds of prey follow
these troops on their journey, and, swooping down upon them, carry into the air as
many as their talons can seize. One of these escaping, and falling to the earth,
would at once give rise to the above misconception. An eye witness once stood for
two hours watching a multitude of lemmings passing by.

375. Why have beavers remarkably broad and thin tails?

Because they spend the
greater part of their time in
the water, and pursue a
busy life by the side of
streams, and in the small
mounds or islands formed
by meandering waters. To
guide their movements in
the variable eddies and cur
rents which they have to
meet, they require a power
ful rudder; and this is
furnished by their broad, flat, and scaly tails.

376. The formation of their tails is the more remarkable, because, while their
bodies are covered with fur so fine that it constitutes a valuable article of commerce,
their flattened tails are not endowed with fur, but have scaly surfaces, which render
their action upon the water most efficient. (See 377.)

377. Why are the incisor teeth of beavers remarkably
developed ?

Because they require the branches and trunks of trees in the
construction of their houses, and these natural implements are
necessary to assist them in felling the timber. These teeth are
6

THE REASON WHY:

" I was surprised at all this civility, and knew not to what I
might ascribe it, except to my bright beaver and shining scarf
that were new that day."— THE TATLZH.

broad, flattened, and protected anteriorly by a layer of orange-
coloured enamel, the rest of the tooth being of a comparatively soft
•ubstonce, where a cutting chisel-like edge is obtained.

378. Not only does the bearer use its teeth with wonderful instinct, but the
method adopted in the application of these instruments is equally remarkable. It
begins the business of felling by gnawing round' the branch of a tree ; but, in order
to save itself a great deal of work, and to overcome an otherwise insuperable
difficulty — for it is necessary that the branch should fall across the stream, that it
may float with the current — the beaver operates mostly on one side, and that always
on the right one, and gnaws nearly through that side, leaving the other almost un
touched. The branches cut down are sometimes of considerable thickness, and th«
beavers select those which stand up the stream, from the place of their habitations-,
not those below it, because, in the latter case, they could not haul ^hcnx up
against the current.

The bearer presents one of the strongest instances of instinctive sagacity a:jd
industry which can be met with in the animal creation. It is gregarious, living in
societies of two or three hundred, whose labours are employed for the general goo«l,
and their settlements are made either in pond* so deep as not to allow of their bem$r
frozen to the bottom, and which have a stream of water running through them, »vr
hi rivers themselves. Having determined on the place in which to erect their habi
tations, the first business consists in forming a dam ; and for this purpose they stop
the stream in the most favourable place for their operations. The dam is raised by
driving stakes of five or six feet length into the ground at different distances, inter
weaving them with branches of trees, and filling up the interstices with clay, stones,
and sand, whick they ram down very firmly with their tails ; the foundation of the
dam is ten or twelve feet thick, the top i& not more than two or three feet broad,
presenting a perpendicular face to the stream, whilst the slope is placed on .the
outside, where, as grass grows, the dam is rendered more solid. In this way they
build a dam not unfrequently a hundred feet in length. Within the embankment
near the edge of the shore are built the houses, which are from ten to twenty-five
in number ; these are raised upon piles, and sometimes consist of two or three
rtories, for the convenience of change in case of ftoods. The houses are of a round
or oval form, with a vaulted roof; the walls about two feet thick, formed of earth,
Btones, and sticks, but neatly plastered within, and to each arc two entrances, one
towards the water, and the othev facing the land. Their height above the water is
about eight feet. In one habitation reside from two to thirty beavers, each animal
having its own bed of moss, and each family its own winter stock of provisions,
consisting of the bark and small branches of trees, which are kept in the water ami
fetched within as required.

"To effect these works," says Pennant, "a community of two or three
hundred assembles ; each bears his share of the labour ; some fell, by gnawing with
their teeth, trees of great size; to forra beauis or piles . these are gnawed all round

NATURAL HISTORY. 123

His beaver brushed, his shoes and gown,
Away he trudges into town." — SWIFT.

in as regular a manner as a cutter cuts in felling a tree, bringing the bottom of the
wood to a point ; others roll the pieces along to the water, others dive and with
their feet scrape holes, in order to place them in, while others exert their efforts
to rear them in their proper places ; another party is employed in collecting twigs
to wattle the piles with ; a third collecting earth, stones, and clay ; a fourth is
busied in beating and tempering the mortar ; others in carrying it on their broad
tails to proper places, and with the same instrument run it between the piles, or
plaster the inside of their houses. Whilst at work, one of the party acts as an
overseer, and by striking his tail indicates which parts are weakest. A certain
number of smart strokes with the tail is a signal given by the overseers for
repairing to such or such places, either for mending any defects, or at the
approach of an enemy ; and the whole society attend.

379. Wliy are the hind fed of the beaver far Idler adapted
for swimming than the front ones ?

Because when making way through lakes and streams ' it has
frequently to use the fore feet for purposes not connected with
swimming, but to assist in holding, directing, or propelling the
billets of wood, or such other matters as the animal may have
gathered, either for building or for food. The beaver has the
swimming power more highly developed in its hind feet than
has any other quadruped.

380. Why do beavers build their dams sometimes straight
across the stream, and at other times in an oblique direction ?

When the current is slow the dam is carried straight across ; but
if the current be rapid, the dam is carried in an oblique line. The
dam straight across is the shortest possible, and, therefore, costs
the least labour ; but it is the one upon which an equal volume
and velocity of water would act most powerfully ; therefore it is
used in those cases where the force of the current is least. The
oblique dam requires more labour in its construction, because it
must be longer for the same breadth of the river ; but as the action
of the water upon it diminishes in proportion to the obliquity with
which the current meets it, it resists better than the straight dam,
and its resistance increases with its obliquity ; therefore it is used
against the more rapid and powerful currents.

124 THE KEASON WHY I

" Make thy fovo eyes, like stars, start from their spheres ;
Thy knotted and combined locks to part,
And each particular hair to stand on end,
Like quills upon the fretful porcupine." — SHAKSPERE.

381. Why are beaver hats commonly called "castors?"

Because they are made from the fur of the beaver, the animal, in
zoological nomenclature, being called the castor fiber, from the
Greek name castor, and the Latin fiber, because it inhabits the
of the water.

382. Why has the coypou, though identical with the beaver in
many of its habits, a dissimilar tail 1

It has already been explained that the broad flat tail

of the beaver, as well as
being used as a rudder, is em
ployed by the animal in the
construction of dams and houses.
Now, the coypou differs from
the beaver in this respect, that
it never builds, but burrows;
nor does it construct dams.
For a burrowing animal, the
broad flat tail would be not only of no utility, but a positive
incumbrance, and hence the organ is modified to the uses of
the creature.

383. Why is the porcupine covered with such formidable
quills ?

As in the case of the hedge-hog, the spines of the porcupine are
weapons of defence, the animal having the same power of rolling
itself into the form of a ball. Why the spines of the hedge-hog
should be so short, and those of the porcupine so long, may find
explanation in the fact that the latter, being a native of Africa,
India, and the Indian Islands, is exposed to the atticks of far
more formidable enemies than such as the cat, the weasel, the
ferret, and the martin, by which the hedge-hog is attacked. The
porcupine is so called from porcus (a pig), and spinis (prickles
or thorns).

NATURAL HISTORY. 125

Well — one at least is safe. Our sbelter'd hare

Has never heard the sanguinary yell

Of cruel man exulting in her woes." — COWPER.

384. Why do hares when pursued generally make for rising
ground ?

Because the length of their hind legs, as compared with thoir
front ones, gives them a great advantage in ascending an inclined
surface.

385. Why do hares run down hill in a zig-zag course ?
Because the length of their hind legs, which gives them an

advantage over their pursuers in ascending a hill, is a disadvantage
to them when descending. They therefore modify the line of
descent by making a series of diagonal runs.

386. Hares are remarkable for their extreme timidity; but their inability to
save themselves from the attacks of their enemies has been in some degree compen
sated by their endowments for speed. When they run, their motions consist of a
series of leaps more or less extended according to the speed with which they move.
Indeed the animals of this genus make a near approach in their general form, their
gait when walking, and their mode of life to the kanguroos. The length and
strength of their hir.J legs very much exceeds that of their front ; they are further
assisted by the extreme flexibility of their spines, which enables them to bring the
hind feet'even before the front, and thereby throw the body forward with a mucli
stronger and greater spring. To give an idea of the prodigious leaps they make,
it may be here mentioned that a hare has been known to pass over a space of
twenty-five feet at a single bound. This structure, though well adapted for moving
on a level surface, and much more for going up a hill, is disadvantageous for descent ;
and, caiii-iequently, if a hare descend a steep place at speed, she may be noticed
rolling over and over frequently before she reaches the bottom.*

387. Why is the hare unable to run well upon fallows and
wet soils?

Because hares are unprovided with the smooth elastic padding
which covers the soles of the feet of dogs and other quadrupeds,
they are hairy-footed, which renders them ill-adapted for speed
upon wet and adhesive soils. When left to choose their own
track, they always select a dry one for treading on ; and it is plain
that their hairy socks admirably adapt their feet to resist the ill
effects of pressure from the rough surfaces they must pass over by
this preference.

• " Encyclopaedia Metropolitana."

126 THE REASON WHY :

" The hare,

Tho' timorous of heart, and hard beset
By death in various forms, dark snares, and dogs,
And more unpitying men, the garden seeks,
Urg'd on by fearless want." — THOMSON.

388. Wliy is the hare, though more fled than the fox, generally
the soonest caught?

Because when the hare is started, she frequently exhausts herself
by her excessive efforts to immediately escape. The fox, on the
contrary, less timid than the hare, breaks away only at a moderate
speed, which gradually increases as he finds himself pressed by
the hounds.

389. Why is the hare generally lean, while rabbits are
frequently fat ?

The habitual timidity of the hare, and its perpetual apprehen
sion of danger, preserve it in a lean state ; but rabbits, having safe
places of retreat in their burrows, are less influenced by fear, and
are called upon for less exertion to escape from danger. It may
also be observed that the leanness of the hare, which is caused by
its timidity, is the condition of body best adapted for flight
irom danger.

390. Of the great speed of which the hare is capable, some idea may be gathered
from the following facts : — In February, 1800, a brace of greyhounds, in Lincoln
shire, ran a hare from her seat to where she was killed, a distance, measuring
straight, upwards of four miles, in twelve minutes. During the course there were
a great number of turns, which very considerably increased the space gone over.
The hare ran herself dead before the greyhounds touched her.

391. Why is the cavity of the chest of the young hare larger
than the contained lungs?

The condition of the lungs of the hare are liable to extreme
variation. When the animal sits upon its form in an inactive state
for many hours, the lungs are comparatively passive ; but when
chased, the lungs are in a continual state of violent expan
sion and contraction. This ultimately increases the size of the
lungs, which, in the old hare, will be found to fill the entire cavity
of the chest.

NATURAL HISTORY.

" You are the hare nf whom the proverb goes,
Whose valour plucks dead ii<r.is by the beard."— SHAKSPEARE.

" The prowling fox,
Whose nightly murders thiii the bleating fold." — DODSLEV.

392. Why are, the ears of hare* unusually long, and capable
of more varied motion than those of most other animals?

Tliis fact illustrates a prin
ciple in the great design
observable in nature, referring
to many animals, but to the
hare in particular.

The external ears of animals
of flight are turned backwards
to give notice of the approach
of an enemy from behind,
whence he may steal upon
them unseen ; while the ears
of beasts of prey, such as
lions, tigers, wolves, foxes,
&c., have their trumpet part
standing forwards, to seize
the sounds whioh are before
them ; viz~, the sounds of the
animals which they pursue.

The ears of the hare are long, and stand erect when the animal
is listening. Upon other occasions, when concealment is necessary,
they lie down close upon the animal's back. When being hunted,
and well a-head of the hounds, the hare will frequently throw one
ear forward and the other backward, that it may discriminate
not only whence to fly but whither to go.

393. The anatomy of the internal ear also favours its reception of sounds from
•very dii action. The auditive canal is in part soft, and in part bony, so tnat the
tube may be turned iu the direction of the outer ear. In general the ears are
naked, or very thinly covered with short hairs »nd the membranes of which they
tre composed are so thin that they are nearly transparent.

In order to enable this creature to perceive the most distant approaches of danger,
nature has provided it with these very long ears, which, like tubes applied to the
auditory organs of deaf persons, convey to it such sounds as are remote ; and the
motions of the hare are directed accordingly. Its large prominent eyes being placed
«o far backward as to receive tite rays of light oa every side, it can almost see

128 THE REASON WHY:

" What man art them ? quod he,
Thou lokest as thou woldest find an hare,
For ever on the ground I see thee stare." — CHAVCEE.'

distinctly behind -while it runs directly forward. The muscles of its body being
strong, and unencumbered with fat, it has no superfluous burden of flesh to carry ;
and to assist it in escaping from its pursuers, the hinder legs are considerably longer
than the fore, which adds to the svriftness of its motions. When the hare hears the
hounds at a distance, it flies for some time from a natural impulse, till having gained
some hill or rising ground, and left the dogs so far behind that their cries no longer
reach its ears, it stops, rears on its hinder legs, and looks back for the purpose of
satisfying itself whether its enemies are still in sight or not ; but the dogs having
once gained the scent, trace it with united and unerring skill; and the poor animal
Boon again receives indications of their approach. Sometimes, when hard hunted,
it will start a fresh hare, and squat in the same form ; at others, it will creep under
the door of a sheep-cot, and conceal itself among the sheep ; sometimes it will entor
a hole like the rabbit ; at others, it will creep up one side of a quickset hedge, and
down the other ; and it has been known to ascend the top of a cut edge and run a
considerable way, by which stratagem it has effectually evaded the hounds. It is
also not unusual for the hare to betake itself to furze bushes, and leap from one to
another, whereby the dogs are frequently misled ; and as it swims well, and takes
the water readily, it will cross a river with the same intent, if it has the opportu
nity. It may be observed, however, that the first doubling which a hare makes
generally affords a key to all its future attempts of that kind, the latter exactly
resembling the former. The hare is a short-lived animal, and is supposed rarely to
exceed the term of seven or eight years. Its voice, which is seldom heard but in the
distress of sudden surprise, or when wounded, resembles the sharp cry of an
infant. Its enemies are numerous and powerful. Every species of the dog kind
pursues it by instinct ; the cat and the weasel tribes exercise all their arts to ensnare
it ; and birds of prey, snakes, adders, &e., drive it from its form, particularly during/
the summer season ; these, with the more destructive pursuits of mankind, con
tribute to thin the number of these animals, which from their prolific nature would
otherwise multiply to an extravagant degree.*

394. Why do rabbits burrow, while hares make forms upon
the surface?

The burrowing of the rabbit is an instinctive contrivance conse
quent upon its defective speed. The rabbit cannot outrun its
enemies, therefore it obtains immunity from attack by contriving
a retreat in the ground.

Another distinction renders this difference of habit necessary:
the eyes of young hares are open at birth, and the dam suckles
them only for about twenty days, when they leave her and procure
their own subsistence. Young rabbits are born blind, art* very

• "Maunder's Treasury Nat. History." <*

NATURAL HISTORY. 129

' Never mole, hare-lip, nor scarrc,
Nor make prodigous, such as are."— SHAKSPERE.

scantily covered with hair, and for nearly six weeks the doe
continues to suckle them.

395. It is a curious circumstance that the individuals composing this genus
present very great differences in their habits. Some, as the hare, aro found
throughout the day resting oa one particular spot, frequently in a kind of arbour
formed of the high rank grass occasionally scattered over fields ; at other times in
hs dgerows, or against a clod of earth, but never attempting to burrow ; others, as
the rabbit, are most expert miners, sinking long galleries, without any regular
order, in which they rest during the day, and bring up their young ; and it is said
that the}7 never forsake the burrow which they have once inhabited ; whilst, again,
others make nests and squat either amongst heaps of large, loose stones, or in the
clefts of rocks, seeming to have a disposition to live in holes, without taking the
trouble of burrowing. It is a very curious fact with regard to rabbits, that if once
domesticated, they lose this disposition to burrow, and the produce of tame rabbits
d.) not attempt such a proceeding. Mr. Barrington accounts for this by supposing
that they do not burrow because not previously taught by the old rabbits. This
may be the reason, in some degree. We have all witnessed the efforts of an old cat
to teach its kittens to catch mice ; and, although kittens not so instructed still retain
the instinct to seize their natural prey, doubtless those that are properly instructed
become the best mousers.

396. Why is a divided Up in the human being called a
" hare-lip ? "

Because the upper lip of the hare is slit or divided on the mesial
line ; and from its resemblance to this, the divided lip, when it
occurs in the human being, is so called.

397. Why is it commonly said that persons of flighty conduct
are " mad as March hares ? "

Because in the month of March hares are characterised by
greater activity and boldness than at other times. It is their
rutting season ; the male pursues the female by the sagacity of its
nose, and when following the scent appears to lose its usual
timidity and sagacity. The country, too, is dry, and in the best
state for the running of the hare ; and the leverets of the last
season have acquired strength and agility.

398. Why is the hare so called ?

It is suggested that the name arises from the declaration
of P^ny that the hare is the "'hairiest creature of all others." Ic

6*

1 30 THE REASON WHY :

Thus gay, the hare with many friends,
Twice seven long years the court attends;
Who, under tales conveying truth,
To virtue formed a princely youth."— SWIFT.

is not improbable that the noun is of the same origin as the verb
to hare, and that the name was given to the animal because it i«
harried, or pursued by harriers.

399. Why do hares leap to and fro before they jump upon
their forms ?

Because their instinct tells them that their enemies pursue them
by scent. Hares themselves pursue their kind by scent, and being
practised in the exercise of that faculty, must know that a leap
from the ground breaks the trail. Hence, when they lay themselves
up for the day, they do not run in a direct line to their seat, but
work around it, and when near enough make a spring by which
they reach their form. In like manner, when pursued they will
sometimes throw themselves up by springing, and then remain
still on the spot upon which they alight ; and rabbits do
the same.

400. The doublings of the hare, before she goes to form, thereby to dodge and
deceive the dogs, is a notable instinct for an animal less famed for cunning than
the fox and some others. The means of defence and escape provided by the
Creator for various animals are worthy of consideration. Some are sufficiently
guarded against all common dangers by their natural clothing, by their armature
of shells, or such like hard and impregnable covering of their body. Others,
destitute of this guard, are armed, some with horns, some with *r>arp quills and
prickles, some with claws, others with stings. Some can shift and change their
colours, some can make their escape by the help of their wings, and others by the
swiftness of their feet ; some can screen themselves by diving beneath the waters,
others by tinging and disordering the waters can make their escape ; some by their
accurate sight, smell, or hearing, can foresee dangers ; others by their natural craft
can prevent or escape them ; and some even by the power of their excrements can
deter their enemies from pursuing them.*

Nature appears to have gifted the hare with some singularly preservative
properties, of which her diversified tintings offer a proof; these so harmoniously
blend wtfh the matters which surround her as to make her escape from all but the
practised eye very common. It is not that she lies concealed by cover; on the
contrary, she frequently forms on the loo side of a clod in a ploughed field, and yet,
although so situated, her mass looks so shapeless that she is, by those not
habituated to look for her, more frequently passed over than discovered. Her ears

* Derham's "Physico Theologv."

NATURAL HISTORY.

" Immortal maid !

I own thy presence, and confess thy aid ;
Not fear, thou know'st, withholds me from the plains,
Nor sloth has seized me, but thy word restrains." — POPE.

also are so mobile that she can take in sounds from every quarter ; her eyes am
never sbut, and although she without doubt sleeps, yet her visual organs are so
framed as never to be veiled, and her sleep is also so light as to instantaneously
communicate through them and her ears the approach of danger. If discovered,
her speed would in most eases save her from common foes ; but she is assailed on
one part by clogs artificially bred with superior scenting powers, or on the othei
with such as, though almost scentless, are fleet as the wind. — Poor puss ! ! *

401. Why are the eyes of hares never closed ?

Because they are unprovided with eye-lids. Instead thereof
they have a thin membrane which covers the eye when asleep, and
probably, also, when at rest. This membrane (like that which will
hereafter be described in connection with certain birds) folds
like a curtain in the corner of the eye, and by an instantaneous
action flies back, when sight is required, and leaves the eye
immediately and fully open for the exercise of sight

ORDER VI. — EDENTATA.

402. Wliy is the sixth order of animals named Edentata ?

Because they are toothless ; the name being derived from the
Latin edentatus, deprived of teeth.

Although this order includes animals which differ widely in their
habits, they all agree in the absence of teeth from the front jaw ;
all resemble eachot her in the great claws which encompass the
ends of their toes ; and they are distinguished by remarkable slow
ness, or want of activity, arising from the peculiar organisation of
their limbs.

403. IVTiy is the AI, or sloth, so called ?

Because it utters a peculiarly plaintive note, of which the sound
of the vowels ai is a close imitation.

404. Wliy do sloths utter this sound upon the approach of
storms ?

Because storms refresh the foliage upon which they feed, and

• Bl-cne's "Rural Sports,"

132 THE REASON WiIY :

" F->r all he did was to deceive good knights,
And draw them from pursuit of praise and fame,
To slug in slouth and sensual delights,
And end their daies with irrenowned shame." — SPENSER.

pat the sloths in motion to seek their cool and moistened meal.
During the day they suspend themselves in a motionless state
beneath the branches of trees ; but when the cooler night
approaches, and the leaves are covered with dew, they rouse and
regale themselves. Their note is, therefore, an expression of joy,
which is heightened on the approach of a storm.

405. Why is the sloth, and some other animals, enabled to exist
throughout the winter without food or motion ?

At the end of autumn, from the abundant supply of food which
these animals are able to procure, they retire to their winter
retreats loaded with fat. This serves as a reservoir of nourishment
adequate to the supply of the small expenditure that takes
place during their torpid state. On the return of spring, they
are aroused from their lethargy, the fat being generally
greatly diminished.

406. I'i animals thus circumstanced voluntary motion is altogether suspended, so
also in .he process of digestion ; several of the secretions are suppressed, as the
saliva and gastric juice, &c., the senses are likewise sealed up, and the circulation
is diminished. The hamster, in which the pulse beats 150 per minute in a state of
activity, has it reduced to 15 in its torpid condition. The dormouse, whose pulse
is so rapid as scarcely to he counted when in its ordinary state, has it reduced to
the same low standard when torpid. Respiration is also affected in a remarkable
degree, not only in the number, but in the fulness and regularity of recurrence.
Marmots in a state of health and activity, perform about 500 respirations in an
hour, but in the torpid state these occur only fourteen times during the same
period, a id are performed at intervals of four or five minutes absolute rest ; neither
is the chest enlarged to any considerable extent. Sensibility is much diminished ;
parts of the limbs may be cut off without the animal showing any signs of feeling.

407. .Why, although the sloth is apparently ill provided with
the means of defence and of procuring its food, is it in reality
well provided for these exigencies ?

Because, in the first place, their long shaggy hair defends them
from the insects which in the climate they inhabit are so trouble
some ; and, in the next place, the texture of its coat is very peculiar,
viorc resembling dry hay, or grass shrivelled and withered by the

NATURAL HISTORY. 133

Still, with your voice, the slothful soldiers raise,

Urge, by thy father's fame, their future praise." — POPE'S HOMER.

sun, than the hair of ordinary quadrupeds ; and its appearance so
much resembles that of the bark and moss of the branches on which
it lives as to prevent the animal from being easily detected,
except when moving.

408. Why is it erroneous to consoler the sloth an aivkwardly-
formed animal, and unfit for locomotion ?

Becauso the shortness of its hind legs, and the extraordinary
length of the arms and claws, although they impede the progress
of the animal upon level ground, are peculiarly calculated to assist
it in climbing among the branches of trees, where the sloth finds
food, and rests secure from his enemies.

409. If the sloth can with his claws reach the branch or rough bark of a tree then
will his progress be rapid ; he will climb hand over hand along the branches till
they touch, thus getting from bough to bough, and from tree to tree ; in the storm
he is most alive ; it is when the wind blows, and the trees stoop, and the branches
wave, that he is most active.

410. Why have sloths great difficulty in walking on the
ground ?

This difficulty arises from the peculiar structure of their feet ;
their hind ones are much smaller and shorter than their fore feet,
and they are articulated somewhat in the same way as those of the
handed animals which are the most expert climbers. In conse
quence of this, the side of the hind foot and part of the leg come
in contact with the ground, and the animal cannot walk but with
the greatest difficulty. The toes, which are two on the fore feet of
the one and three on those of the other, are united together so as
to form one single piece, and have no division of the foot except
the claws, which are long and crooked, and remain bent like hooks
by the action of ligaments, except when the animal stretches them
out by muscular exertion, which appears to be a slow and painfuJ
operation*

134

THE REASON WHY :

" The first point of slwth I coll
Lachesse, and is the chief of all,
And hath this property of kiade
To leven everything bbhinde."— GOWER.

411, From this structure the slotb
is entirely helpless on the ground ; but
among the branches of a tree, where it
catches by the feet, and suspends itself
without the least exertion or fatigue
this animal is as completely at home,
and as beautifully adapted to its place in
nature, as the fleetest creature which
sports in the meadow, or bounds over
the heath. The sloth is decidedly the
best climber among mammals, though
upon the ground it is the worst walker.

412. How is the supply of blood in the legs of climbing
animals specially regulated for the purpose ?

In animals which are the best climbers and the worst walkers,
the arteries which supply the limbs with blood are divided into a
number of small branches, which branches are again united to form
the principal artery of the limb. This structure renders the circu
lation in the limbs much slower than that in the body, and as both
the energy and exhaustion of an animal, or part of an animal, are
in proportion to the rapidity of the circulation, the legs of the sloth
and animals of a similar character, though moved with extreme
slowness, may be regarded as possessing greater power of endurance
than any other organs among vertebrated animals.

413. In what respect is the form of the sloth remarkably
adapted to the localities ivhich it inhabits?

Wherever the earth is green, there are browsing animals
appointed to consume the pasturage or the foliage, and to aid
the great scheme of nature in its successional changes.

In the trophical forests, the green is not upon the surface of
:he ground, but upon the tops of trees ; and the browsing animals
destined to consume it, must have an inverted position to enable
them to make the foliage of the trees their pasture.

A pasture suspended in the air must have those which feed

NATURAL HISTORY. 135

; So she him lefte, and did her?elfe betake
Unto her boat again, with which she clefte
The slouthful wave of that great griesy lake." — SPENSER.

upon it suspended in the same element ; and they cannot be
placed above the leaves, because the latter afford no footing for an
animal in size adequate to the consumption it is necessary to accom
plish : they are, therefore, suspended beneath the foliage, and in
this manner they are brought in closer connection with the
branches, which alone could afford them support.

414. In what respect are the habits of the sloth, as well at
being adapted to its own wants, in accordance with those of
external nature ?

The sloth inhabits the deep, extensive, and luxuriant forests
of South America, in which the trees are of giant growth, always
green, and so close that rarely a beam of the vertical sun
reaches the earth ; they extend over districts so wide, and so
festooned and interlaced with twining plants, that winds, which
would level a single tree to the ground, barely agitate their
tops, or disfigure a few on the sides of the openings.

In order that there may be seeds, and successions of races in
those luxuriant forests, it is necessary that there should be
consumers of the superabundant foliage, which otherwise would
completely exclude the sun and air, and the forest would perish
of excess of its own exuberance, leaving the naked and carpetless
earth to be converted, by the fervour of the tropical sun, into
an arid waste, upon which no living thing could exist.

If the forests were to be destroyed in this manner, or, indeed,
in any way but one in which their place should be occupied by a
close surface of vegetation, the rain would depart also, and the
land would be put beyond the power of human skill and labour
to bring it back to usefulness, either for himself, or for any other
living creature. " Once a desert, always a desert "— untie one of
those mightier movements of nature, of which the records are
written in the strata of the deepest mines and the loftiest
mountains, break the rain to pieces, and mould and temper its
elements anew.*

• Partingtou's " Cyclopaedia."

1 36 THE REASON WHY :

Weariness can snore upon flint,

When resty sloth finds the down pillow hard." — SHAKSPERE.

415. Mr. Waterton, in his "Wanderings in South Amei-ica," gives some interest
ing particulars of the sloth. He says: — "One day, as we were crossing the
Essequibo, I saw a large two-toed sloth on the ground upon the bank ; how he bad
got there, nobody could tell. The Indian said he had never surprised a sloth in
such a position before ; he would hardly have come there to drink, for both above
and below the place, the branches of the trees touched the water, and afforded him
an easy and safe access to it. Be this as it may, though the trees were not above
twenty yards from him, he could not make his way through the sand time enough
to escape before we landed. As soon as we got up to him, he threw himself upon
his back, and defended himself in gallant style with his fore-legs. ' Come, poor
fellow,' said I to him, ' if thou hast got into a hobble to-day, thou shalt not suffer
for it : I'll take no advantage of thee in misfortune ; the forest is large enough both
for thee and me to rove in : go thy ways up above, and enjoy thyself in theae
endless wilds ; it is more than probable thou wilt never have another interview with
man. So fare-thee-well.'

" On saying this, I took up a long stick which was lying there, held it for him to
hook on, and then conveyed him to a high and stately mora. He ascended with
wonderful rapidity, and in about a minute was almost at the top of the tree. He
now went off in a side direction, and caught hold of the branch of a neighbouring
tree : he then proceeded towards the heart of the forest. I stood looking on, lost
in amazement at his singular mode of progress. I followed him with my eye till
the intervening branches closed in betwixt us, and then I lost sight for ever of th«
two-toed sloth. I was going to add, that I never saw a sloth take to his heels in
such earnest ; but the expression will not do, for the sloth has no heels."

Having captured another of these animals, he had a good opportunity of making
some observations : — " The sloth was in my house with me for a day or two. Had
I taken a description of him as he lay sprawling on the floor, I should have misled
the world, and injured natural history. On the ground he appeai-ed really a
bungled composition, and faulty at all points ; awkwardness and misery were
depicted on his countenance ; and when I made him advance he sighed as though
in pain. Perhaps it was, that by seeing him out of his element, as it were, that the
Count de Buffon, in his 'History of the Sloth,' asks the question,—' Why should
not some animals be created for misery, since, in the human species, the greatest
number of individuals are devoted to pain from the moment of their existence ?'
Were the question put to me, I would answer — I cannot conceive that any of them
are created for misery. That thousands live in misery there can be no doubt ; but
then misery has overtaken them in their path through life, and wherever man has
come up with them, I should suppose they have seldom escaped from experiencing
a certain proportion of misery.

" After fully satisfying myself that it only leads the world into error to describe the
sloth while he is on the ground, or in any place except in a tree, I carried the one I
had in my possession to his native haunts. As sfv-n as he came in contact with a
branch all went right with him. I could see, as he limbed up into his own country
that he was on the right road to happiness ; and felt persuaded more than ever,
that the world has hitherto en-ed iu its conjectures concez-ning the slolli, oa

NATURAL HISTORY. 137

''It is remarkable that man, who is endowed with reason, is
born without armature, and is destitute of many powers which
irrational creatures have in a much higher degree than he."

DERHAM.

account of naturalists not having given a description of him when he was in the
only position in which he ought to have been described— namely, clinging to th^
branch of a tree."*

416. Why is the armadillo so catted?

The name, which was given to these animals by the Spaniards,
means "clad in armour," and refeis to the singular covering with

which nature has provided
them. It consists of a trian
gular or oval plate on the top
of the head, a large buckler
over the shoulders, and a
similar buckler over the
haunches, while between these solid portions there intervenes a
series of transverse bands or shelly zones, which accommodate this
coat of mail to the various postures of the body ; the tail also
is covered by a series of calcareous rings ; and the animal
altogether exhibits a striking deviation from the usual structure
and outward appearance of quadrupeds.

417. What are the most striking indications in the form, of the
animal of adaptability to its mode of life ?

The stiffness given to the neck and to the whole spinal column
by the ar.nour, and the bearing of the processes of the vertebrae
against that, evidently enables the armadillo to push forward into
the earth, so as to keep itself advanced to the full action of the
claws in burrowing downwards in an oblique manner, which it does
with very great rapidity, so fast, indeed, as almost to elude pur
suit ; for as he gets the body buried, it takes so powerful a hold of
the earth, that the tail may be pulled away, without bringing out
the animal.

In these cases it is probable that it holds on with the whole
body, and not merely with the feet. While digging, the legs are
not stretched, so that when it raises itself upon these, the body
is brought into firm contact with the upper part of the

•Watcrton's "Wanderings," page 283.

THE REASON WHY :

" You mii?ht have seen them throng out of the town,
Like ants when the}7 do spoil the bing of come,
For winter's dred, which they beare to their den." — SURREY.

burrow ; and the armour holds like a screw by means of its
transverse prominences.*

There a,re other points of adaptability worthy of observation.
The head is sharp and wedge-like, the eyes are small, and, in some
of the species, covered with a membrane which can be put in use
while the animal is burrowing, and so covered and protected.

418. How are the armadillos, being unprovided with extensile
tongues, able to capture ants, upon which they partly subsist?

As the structure of the tongues of armadillo* is not so well
calculated for the capture of ants as those of the true ant-eaters,
they do not devour these insects in such numbers ; but they are
said to exterminate them more speedily and completely from.
places where they abound. They effect this by mining obliquely
into the ant-hills in all directions, and especially by digging
down to those places where the chry solids of the young ants
are collected.

The holes which they make are also too deep and large to be
easily filled up by the ants ; and as they admit water to the very
lowest inhabited part of the hill, the ants are- either driven out, or
drowned the first rain that falls.

419. Why has the number of armadillos increased in the vicinity
of colonies, while that of other wild animals has decreased ?

Because, as well as eating insects and roots, armadillos devour
the carcases of animals. In the neighbourhood of colonies
a great many wild animals are killed for their skins, and the
increase of the number of carcases thus promotes the increase of
the number of armadillos, who act as scavengers to the field*
of slaughter.

* Partint*ton's " Cyclopaedia."

NATURAL HISTORY. 139

" Then as nede is, they weren nothing idel ;
Gnawing, and fast the armnrers also,
Like file and hammer, pricking to and fro." — CHAUCER.

420. Why do Indians ascertain the presence of armadillos in
their burrows by observing the movements of musquitoes ?

Because musquitoes enter the holes of armadillos for the purpose
of sucking their blood. When, therefore, the Indians see that a
number of musquitoes come out of a hole, they know that it
is inhabited.

421. As it often takes a considerable time to dig an armadillo out of his hole, it
'would be along and laborious business to attack each hole indiscriminately without
knowing whether the animal were there or not. To prevent disappointment the
Indians carefully examine the mouth of the hole, and put a short stick down it.
Now, if on introducing the stick a number of musquitoes come out, the Indians know
to a certainty that the armadillo is there ; whenever there are no musquitoes in the
hole, there is no armadillo. The Indian having satisfied himself that the armadillo
is there by the musquitoes which come out, he immediately cuts a long and slender
stick, and introduces it into the hole ; he carefully observes the line the stick takes,
and then sinks a pit in the sand to catch the end of it ; this done, he puts it farther
into the hole and digs another pit, and so on, till at last he comes up with the
armadillo, which has been making itself a passage in the sand till it had exhausted
all its strength through pure exertion. I have been sometimes (says Mr. Westerton)
three-quarters of a day in digging out one armadillo, and obliged to sink half-a-dozen
pits, seven feet deep, before I got up to it. The Indians and negroes are very fond
of the flesh, but I consider it strong and i-ank.

422. Wliy has the American cint-cxter such a long snout and
protrusive tongue?

Because, like the armadillo, it devours ants, but has not the
power of burrowing like that animal. The long tongue, which is
oovered with a viscid fluid, therefore enables the ant-eater to
capture the ants before they have time to run into the ground, after
being surprised.

The way in which the ant-eater proceeds is to approach the
ant-hill, and with its large hooked claws to destroy a portion of it.
By this partial spoliation of the building thousands of ants are
exposed, as they run to and fro in a state of alarm. Then the
long tongue, which is capable of being thrown out some eighteen
inches, goes rapidly to work, being projected about twice in a
second, and each time drawing in many dozens of ants.

140

THE REASON WHY.

On every side are seen, descending1 down,

Thick swarms of souldiers loaden from the town ;

Thus, in Battalia, inarch embody'd ants,

Fearful of winter, and of future' wants." — DKYDEN.

423. The ant-eater has two very large g ands situated below the roof of the
tongue. From this is emitted the glutinous liquid with which the long tongue is
lubricated when he puts it into the ants' nests. These glands are of the same
nature as those found in the lower jaw of the wood-pecker. The secretion when
•wet is very clammy and adhesive, but on being dried it loses those qualities, and
may be pulverised between the finger and thumb.

424. Wh-y are ant-eaters of great importance in the economy
of nature?

Because, without the check which they put upon the multi
plication of ants, the produce of the soil, even in the most fertile

parts of the world, would
inevitably be destroyed. It
seems almost incredible that
so robust and powerful an
animal as the ant-eater, or
ant-bear, can procure suffi-
1 ' ' ' cient subsistence from ants
alone ; but this circumstance
has nothing strange for those
who are acquainted with the
tropical parts of America,
where the ant-hills often
almost touch one another for
miles together.

^ -t - .

42f>. The ant-hills of South America are often more than twenty feet in diameter,
and many feet in height. These wonderful edifices are thronged with two-hundred
fold more inhabitants, and are proportionally far more numerous than the small
ones, with which we are better acquainted. Breeding in vast numbers, and
multiplying with great celerity and profusion, the increase of these insects would
soon enable them to swarm over the greatest extent of country, were not their
propagation and diffusion stinted by the active exertions of that part of the animal
creation which continually subsist by their destruction.

The following short passage from Mr. Darwin's " Observations on the Natural
History of Rio de Janeiro" will give the reader a good idea of the magnitude of ants'
nests there: — "Travelling onward we passed through tracts of pasturage, mucn
injured by the enormous conical ants' nests, which were nearly twelve feet high.
They gave to tho plain exactly the appearance of the mud volcanoes at Jorullo, a*
figure \ by Humboldt."

NATURAL HISTORY. 141

" And that if he wol sayn it is not thus,
I wol it prove, and finder good witnesse,
That soth is that my bitle wol expresse." — CHAUCER.

Mr. Waterton also remarks • — " In the far-extending wilds of Guiana, the travelled
will be astonished at the immense number of ants which he perceives on the ground
as well as in the trees. They have nests in the branches four or five times as large
as that of the rook ; and they have a covered way from them to the ground. In
this covered way thousands are continually passing and repassing, and if you
destroy part of it they immediately repair it. Other species of ants have no
covered way, but travel exposed to view upon the surface of the earth. You will
sometimes see a string of these ants a mile long, each carrying in his mouth to its
nest a green leaf the size of a sixpence.

426. Why is the ornythorynchus so called ?

From two Greek words, sig
nifying a fowl and a beak, in
allusion to the peculiar form of
its muzzle, which resembles
the bill of a duck ; it is called
also the duck-billed platypus,
and the water mole. It is
also web-footed, its feet being
equally adapted for digging or
swimming.

427. Why is the ornythorynchus provided with this duck-like
appendage ?

Because, although a quadruped, the animal inhabits the water,
living in burrows on its borders, and being insectivorous, finds
its food, as the duck in part does, by exploring the plants
and herbs along the margins of fresh-water rivers and lakes.
The broad beak acts as a kind of shovel. It is peculiar to
Australia and Van Dieman's Land, and has been regarded
by naturalists as a link between the aquatic birds and the
mammalia.

428. So peculiar is the formuMon of its muzzle, that when a specimen was first
sent to this country a general suspicion was excited that a hoax was designed
Dr. Shaw expressed the opinio-* that of all the mammalia, the ornythorynchus was
the most extraordinary in '** /onformation ; exhibiting a perfect resemblance to
the beak of a duck, engraf^d upon the head of a quadruped.

142 THE REASON WHY :

" As for such as are whole-footed, or whose toes are ivebbed
together (excepting some few) their legs are generally short,
which is the most convenient size for swimming." — DERHAM.

The ornythorynclius is ahout twenty inches long, having a long and flattened
body, like that of the otter, covered with a thick soft fur, moderately dark brown
above, and whitish beneath. The beak, like the bill of the duck, is furnished with
transverse plates. The teeth are situated in the back of the mouth, two on each
side, with flat tops and no roots. The feet are furnished with a membrane uniting
the toes, and in the anterior feet extending beyond the nails. The tail is flat and
obtuse. From the form of this animal it is fitted to reside in the water ; and it
must, feed on soft food, as the structure of the beak will not enable it to grasp
anything firmly. The central portion of the mandibles is a bony continuation from
the skull, and anterially and laterally, a cartilaginous substance, p.-r: ctly
movcable, extends some little distance from the bony portion. Feet, nve-t>xd and
webbed. In the fore feet the web extends a short distance beyond the claws, is
loose, and falls back when the animal burrows ; claws strong, blunt, the two
lateral shorter than the three middle ones. Hind feet short, narrow, turned
backwards, and, when the animal is at rest, somewhat resembling a fin. The male
ornitliorynchus is armed with a spur on each hind leg, having a canal in it similar
to that in the poison fang of venomous serpents, and, like this, also furnished with
a gland at the base, secreting a fluid ; hence it has been thought likely, though
there is no evidence of the fact, that wounds produced by them would b*
dangerous. They have no external ear, and their eyes are very small, but brilliant.
The motions of the mandibles in this animal, when seeking its food in the mud and
water, are the same as those of a duck when feeding in similar situations.

The young are produced in a very imperfect state, and ai-e very unlike the full-
grown animal. The skin is entirely destitute of fur ; the eyes are not formed,
and their place is merely indicated by the presence of a few wrinkles on the skin.
The margin of the bill is at that time soft and the tongue advances to its front
edge, so that the young animal can obtain nourishment by sucking, which was at
first thought impossible. The mammary gland is very simple in structure, and is
divided into a large number of separate lobes. The ornithorynchus, when asleep,
rolls itself up like a hedgehog, keeping its back warm by bringing over it the
flattened tail. It dresses its fur, combing it with its feet, and pecking at it with its
beak, and seems to take great delight in keeping it smooth and clean.*

ORDER VII. — PACHYDERMATA.

429. Why is the seventh order of mammalia called Pachyder-

Because they are characterised by thick skins or hides. The
term is derived from the Greek, and means thick-skinned.

* Maunder's " Treasury of Natural History."
t Tack-e-dcr-ma'-ta.

NATURAL HISTORY.

" Where the elephant browses at peace in his wood,
And the river-horse gambols unscathed in the flood,
And the mighty rhinoceros wallows at will,
In the pool where the wild ass is drinking his fill."— PRINOI.E.

430. A very imperfect notion of the appearance and texture of the skin of the
leading species of the pachydcnnatn, the elephant, rhinoceros, &c., is obtained
from examining the specimens which are confined in menageries, even in places
where they are treated with the greatest kindness and care. The skin of the
elephant in confinement is invariably callous, and often apparently chapped or
cracked into pieces, which have little or no sensibility. But when the animal is in
good health, and in its proper climate, the skin is smooth and soft, and is probably
almost as sensitive to the bite, even of a small insect, as the thinnest skin that can
be imagined. When the animal is in this condition, there is, indeed, a wonderful
power in the muscles of the skin, so that by agitation of these alone an elephant is
capable of shaking off a wild beast which may have sprung upon it.

The hide of the rhinoceros is probably thicker than that of any other pachyder
matous animal. Yet the creature is remarkably sensitive of the condition of its
Bkin, which, though not possessed of a high degree of feeling, exerts a considerable
influence over the comfort of the animal. Hence the rhinoceru* and other thick-
skinned quadrupeds inhabiting hot climates, will remain for hours in the water,
laving their skins, for which purpose it is absolutely necessary to provide baths for
these animals when they are kept in confinement.

431. The pacJiydermata are subdivided into —

1. Proboscidco,, o* those possessing a prolonged snout or proboscis

144 THE REASON WHY:

" The unwieldly elephant

To make them mirth used all his might, and wreathed
His lithe proboscis." — MILTON. • •

and having five toes on each foot, included in a very firm homy
skin, as certain extinct gigantic species, and the elephant, &c.

2. The Pachydermata ordinaria, in which the feet have two,
three, or four toes on each foot.

3. The Solidungula, or quadrupeds with only one apparent toe,
and a single hoof to each foot, although beneath the skin there are
bony points which represent two lateral toes.

By many naturalists, however, the solidungula are regarded as a
distinct order.

432. JPhy is the elephant furnished with a proboscis ?

Because the enormous head of the animal is so heavy that were
it placed at the end of a neck of a length proportionate to the
dimensions of that organ in other animals, an almost incalculable
amount of muscular force would be necessary to elevate and
sustain it. The shortness, and almost total absence of a neck,
obviates the difficulty j the provision of a trunk compensates the
absence of a neck.

433. Animals in general which feed on herbage or other productions situated
near the ground, require that the head should be attached to a neck the length of
which is proportionate to that of its fore legs, so that on lowering the head it can
apply its mouth to the ground without bending its legs. These conditions are
obviously incompatible with a large and ponderous head like that of the elephant,
and we accordingly find animals, such as the giraffe, having fore legs of
considerable length, and consequently a neck in proportion, furnished with
small light heads.

434. Why is the elephant's trunk capable of a great variety
of motions ?

Because it is made up of a great number of muscles with their
tendons. Those nr -scles have their insertions in the internal and
external coverings of the trunk ; and they lie in a great variety of
directions, some longitudinal, some nearly circular, and othera
oblique.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Lo ! from his trunk upturn'd aloft he flings

The grateful shower ; and now

He plucks the broad-leafed bough." — SOUTHKY.

There are in this trunk no less than four thousand muscles, which
is considerably greater than the number in the whole
human body. It is divided through its length by f>
septum, forming a sort of double tube, terminating in a
kind of finger-like appendage, or moveable hook.

435. The trunk of the elephant may justly be considered as one of
the miracles of nature, being at once the organ of respiration as well
as the instrument by which the animal supplies itself with food.
Nearly eight feet in length, endowed with exquisite sensibility, and
stout in proportion to the massive size of the animal, this organ will
uproot trees or gather grass— raise a piece of artillery or take up a
nut, kill a man or brush off a fly. It conveys the food to the mouth,
and pumps up enormous draughts of water, which by its recurvature
are turned into and driven down the capacious throat, or showered over the

body. Its length supplies the
place of a long neck, which
would have been incompatible
with the support of the large
head and weighty tusks. A glance
at the head of an elephant will
show the thickness and strength
of the trunk at its insertion ; and
the massy arched bones of the
face, and thick muscular neck,
are admirably adapted for
supporting and working this
powerful and wonderful instru
ment.*

436. Why is the ekphant provided with tusks?

They are weapons of defence, combining enormous powers upon a
fixed and irresistible base, in connection with a flexible trunk, by
which the moveable tusks are brought into effective operation.

That they are weapons of defence is obvious from the fact that
they are larger in the males than in the females, which is generally
the case with the horns of ruminants, some of the males only of
the latter order having these appendages.

Maunder's

'Treasury of Natural History.

7

146 THE REASON WHY :

" With turcoises divinely bine,

(Though doubts arise -where first they grew,

Whether chaste elephantine bone

By min'rals tinged, or native stone.)" — Jowns.

~*f^^~s*^~^s*s*~s*s^^^s*^^~*^~~^^~^*s*~^>~'~*~^s*~^^

437. It Is remarkable that while a great number of writers have fully discussed
the uses and curious anatomy of the elephant's trunk, they have been almost siient
as to the wse» of the tusks. It is obvious, however, that these prominent and
ponderous weapons must be of material consequence in t&e economy of the aniraal'9
existence. In Partington's " Cyclopaedia " we find the following speculations np >B
Hie subject; —

In the living elephants of both varieties the tusks are either nearly straigat
9t curved upwards ; or if their direction be nearly that of the line of the face they
are inclined forward at the points-. In the fossil elephant, on the other hand, (at
least in all the specimens which have been found,) the curvature of the tusks is the
"the other way, or downwards. What may be the use of this difference of structure
it is not easy to say, because we know nothing of the habits of the extinct elephant,
and very little of what the state of the country may have been when it was alive ;
but as tfze tusks in it are so constructed as that they might act as hooks in pulling
down substances higher than itself, and as it is probable that the northern marshes
were at that time covered with tree ferns, and those other palm-like plants, of
which the remains are abundant in the fossil state, though not a vestige of those
plants now appears on the surface of the same regions, we may perhaps venture to
conclude that such tusks had been employed in pulling* down the fronds of the
plants in order that the animal might feed upon them.*

The elephant rarely uses b» trunk as a weapon, but his tusks- enable him not
enly to clear his way through the thick forests m which he lives, by rooting up
small trees and tearing down cross branches, in doing which service they effectually
protect his face and proboscis from injury ; but they qualify him for warding ofi
the attacks of the wily tiger and the furious rhinoceros, often securing him the
victory by one blow, wMch transfixes the assailant to the earth.

438. Why are the eyes of the elephant remarkably small?

By their smallness they are more easily protected fron; >njury
while the animal is engaged in breaking down branches >f trees.
And they are also rendered more secure from the attacks of
insects which, in the geographical range of the elephant, are
exceedingly troublesome.

The eye is uot only protected by the comparative smallnesa
of its size, bat it is provided with a nictating membrane, by
which the elephant is enabled to free it from all accidental
fragments that may fall upon it. This membrane, which is
limilar to that possessed by birds, is not the ordinary eye-iiti,

• Partingtou's "Cyclopaedia."

NATURAL HISTORY. 147

" Trampling his patr through wood and brake,
And canes which crackling fall hcfore his way,
O'ertopping the young trees,
On comes the elephant." — SOUTHKY.

but a third provision, which is specially adapted for cleansing
the eye, but not for closing it.

439. Why are the cars of the elephant unusually large?

The office of the external ear in all animals is to facilitate
the transmission of sounds — to catch the impulses of the air, and
by condensing and transmitting them to a <given point, to impart
intensity to the impression.

An animal which habitually browses upon trees must be liable
to have its hearing frequently interrupted by the crackling of
branches and leaves. It seems highly probable that the size of the
external ear favours the reception of distant sounds ; in other
words, lengthens the focus of the ear. If this conjecture be
correct, the ear is adapted to receive sounds from a distance
with less interruption from noises that are near at hand, than
would be the case if the ear were smaller.

440. The structure of the elephant's ear has been investigated with great
accuracy by Sir Everard Home. (" Comparative Anatomy," vol. III., Lecture ix.)
The drum and every other part of the organ, are much larger in proportion than in
other quadrupeds, or in man ; and there is a remarkable difference in the
arrangement of the muscular fibres of the drum of the elephant's ear when
compared with man and some other quadrupeds. In the human ear these fibres
are radii of a circle, and in the horse, the hare, and the cat, they are of an uniform
length. But in the elephant's ear these fibres are so placed that some are more
than double the length of others. Sir E. Home argues from this remarkable
construction that the elephant has not a musical ear ; but that it has a peculiar
compensating power in this form of fibre, as its slower vibrations enable it to hear
sounds at a greater distance ; and this opinion is still further sustained by the
structure of the different parts of the internal organs, more particularly the cells
between the tables of the skull. Sir E. Home illustrates his position that the
elephant hears farther than other animals, and particularly that his hearing is me re
acute than that of man, by several interesting narratives.

We may also perceive the utility of the large flap of the ear as regards the
svTimetry and appearance of the animal. The huge form of the elephant is broken
"by less lines of beauty than may be observed in most other quadrupeds, and the
large ear, which falls gracefully over the shoulders, at once presents a point of
relief, and gives character and dignity to the whole.

l48 THE REASON WHY I

" The elephant hath joints ; but none for courtesy ; his
are for necessity, not flexure." — SHAKSPERE.

441. Why does the, elephant seize, a man with his trunk, yet
never use it when he attacks a tiger?

The elephant is gifted with a high order of instinct, which
prompts him to entertain great concern for the preservation of his
trunk, the most essential of his external members. The animal
knows that the terrible claws of the tiger might at one stroke
lacerate and destroy %that essential organ; but he does not fear
to attack man with it.

442. When the elephant is provoked to take vengeance on man, he does not
scruple to sei/.e him with his trunk, but never employs that member to grapple
with a tiger, nor to hurl him in the air with it. He scents the tiger's lair at a
distance, and instantly elevates his trunk on high, so that it may be as far as
possible removed from the reach or spring of his stealthy adversary. So much
does he dread the spring of the wild beast's attack upon this important organ, that
he will throw it out of reach even when a dead tiger is brought into his presence.
The following paragraph in an account of an elephant accidentally burnt at
Dublin serves to illustrate the elephant's care for his trunk still more strongly : —
" Doubtless the elephant's care to preserve his trunk was great, for when we
dissected him we found it thrust nearly two feet into the very ground, upon which
account we thought it had been burned, till the head was divided from the body,
and then we found it was kept fast to the ground by the trunk, which had actually
been buried therein.

443. Why has the elephant the unusual power of bending the
hind leg fomoard at the knee joint ?

By this arrangement, which brings all the muscular force of the
leg to act immediately underneath the
body, the animal is enabled to raise
its enormous bulk much more quickly
and certainly than it could possibly
do if its hind legs bent outwards, as
is the case with other animals.

The elephant is very fond of rolling
its unweildy form in the ooze and
mud of groves and jungles ; and in
this enjoyment it is assisted by
the facility by which it gets up or lies down.

NATURAL HISTORY. 149

" On high-rais'd decks the haughty Belgians ride,
Beneath whose shade our humble frigates go ;
Such port the elephant bears, and so defy'd
By the rhinoceros her unequal foe." — DRYDKX.

44 \. A ;a:na elephant is really the most docile, gentle, and obedient of all
aniiu-.ls. He forms an attachment to his keeper; comprehends signs; learns to
distinguish the various tones of the human voice, as expressive of anger,
approbation, or command ; is generous, grateful, and humane. Many ludicrous
stories, compounded of truth and fable, have been related of the elephant. But
there are sufficiently well-attested proofs of Ms sagacity without resorting to
the marvellous.

The following anecdotes and facts will be found interesting: —

AN ELEPHANT PROTECTS THE SICK AND DYING.

445. In the Laknaor, the capital of Soubah, during the rage of an epidemic
distemper, the principal road to the palace gate was covered with sick and dying
people, extended on the ground and incapable of moving, though at a time when
the Nabob was to pass on his elephant. The indifference of the prince about the
lives of his perishing subjects, the haste with which he sought to pass, and the
towering motions and heavy steps of the elephant, seemed to threaten inevitable
death to those unhappy wretches who chanced to be in his way. But the generous
quadruped, without receiving any command to the purpose, and even without
slackening his pace, dexterously assisted the poor creatures with his trunk,
removing some, raising othei's, and stepping over the rest ; so that none suffered
the slightest injury.

AN ELEPHANT GOES REGULARLY TO A HOSPITAL TO HAVE HIS
WOUNDS DRESSED.

446. An elephant, who, in the course of the war between the French and
English in the East Indies, in 1759, had received a wound by a cannon ball : after
being once or twice conducted to the hospital to have his wound dressed, constantly
attended of himself at the proper time, till it was healed. That the surgeon might
operate, he readily extended himself on the ground. He bore with patience the
application even of burning caustic to his wound. The acuteness of the pain
would sometimes force from him a plaintive groan ; but to the person who, by
inflicting momentary torments, sought to accomplish his cure, he expressed none
but emotions of gratitude.

AFFECTION OF THE ELEPHANT FOR ITS SPECIES.

447. A shot from one of the hunters had broken a male elephant's left fore leg,
which completely disabled him from running. On this occasion, there occurred
a touching instance of affection and sagacity in the elephant, which well illustrates
tbo character of this noble animal. Seeing the danger and distress of her mate,
the female, rcgai-dless of her own peril, quitted her shelter in the bush, rushed
out to his assistance, walked round and round him, chasing away the assailants,
and etill returr. _ig to his side and caressing him ; and when he attempted to walk

150 THE REASON WliY

Beneath his over-shadowing orb of hat,

And ample fer.ce of elephantine nose."— F. PHILLIPS.

she placed her flank under his wounded side and supported him. This scene
continued nearly half-an-hour, until the female received a severe wound, which
drove her again to the bush, where she speedily sank exhausted from the loi^s of
blood; and the male soon after received a mortal wound.

AN ELEPHANT'S REVENGE.

448. Carel Krieger, a celebrated elephant hunter, met with his death in the
following manner ;— He had been an indefatigable and fearless hunter ; and, being
also an excellent marksman, often ventured into the most dangerous situations.
One day, having with his party pursued an elephant which he had wounded, the
irritated animal suddenly turned round, and singling out from the rest the person
by whom he had been wounded, seized him with his trunk, and lifting his wretched
victim high in the air, dashed him with fearful force to the ground. His
companions, struck with horror, lied precipitately from the fatal scene, unable
to turn their eyes to behold the rest of the tragedy. But on the following day they
repaired to the spot, where they collected the few bones that could be found, and
buried them near the spring. The enraged animal had not only trampled his body
literally to pieces, but could not feel its vengeance satisfied till it had pounded the
very flesh into the dust, so that nothing of this unfortunate man remained
excepting a few of the larger bones.

SAGACITY OF THE ELEPHANT.

449. When an elephant is employed upon the banks of a muddy river, he
frequently begins to sink from his excessive weight. He will then endeavour to
throw himself upon his side to prevent his sinking deeper. The manner in which
he seconds the efforts which are made to extricate him, when situated as above
stated, is very remarkable. Liberal supplies of straw, boughs, and grass are
thrown to the distressed animal ; and these he forces down with his trunk till they
are lodged under his fore feet in sufficient quantity to resist his pressure. Having
thus formed a sufficient basis for exertion, the sagacious animal next proceeds to
thrust other bundles under his belly, and as far back under his flanks as he can
reach ; when such a basis is formed as may be, in his mind, proper to proceed
upon, he throws his whole weight forward, and gets his hind feet gradually upon
the straw, &c. Being once confirmed on a solid footing, he will next place the
surrounding bundles before him, pressing them well with his trunk so as to form a
causeway by which to reach the firm ground. The instinct of the animal, and
probably the experience of his past danger, actuates him not to bear any weignt
definitely, until, by trial with his trunk and the next foot that is to be planted, he
has completely satisfied himself of the firmness of the ground he has to tread
upon. When he succeeds in reaching dry ground, he evinces his pleasure in
unrnistakeable signs.

NATURAL HISTORY.

161

" On every side

They trembling stood, and made a long broad dyke,
That his swift cJiavct might have pat-sage wide,
Wkieh foure great hippcdaiiies did draw in teem-wise tide." — SFEXSER.

450. Why is the hippopotamus so colled f

From two Greek words, meaning horse, and river, and having
reference to the habits of the animaL

451. Why &re the water*
seen to bubble wh-en the
kippopo&tmMt -dives beneatk
them ?

Because the animal has
the power of expelling the
air contained in its lungs,
for the purpose of facilitating
its descent, and increasing
its specific gravity, so that
it may more readily walk at
die bottom,

452. The hippopotamus sbeps ia
the small ree-dy islets which are
found in the rivers it frequents. In
these spots it also produces its
young, having only one at a birth,
which, it nurses with great care.

453.

JKHS the hippopotamus such enormously large teeth?

Because the coarse vegetable matter which it eats is enormous
in quantity— much greater than is consumed by any other animal
Its mouth is adapted for tearing and dividing hard and tough
plants. The stomach of the hippopotamus is capable of containing
five or six bushels, and the large intestine is at least eight inches
in diameter.

These enormous teeth are also used as weapons of defence.
Dampier related that he had known the hippopotamus to set one

152 THE REASON WHY:

" Only these marishes and myrie bogs,

In which the fearful cwftes do build their bowres,
Yield me an hostry, 'mongst the croaking frogs,

And harbour here in safety from these rav'nous dogs." — SPKNCEE.

tooth in the gunwale of a boat, and another at, the distance of more
than four feet, and thus bite a hole through the plank, and sink
the boat.

454. Neither the elephant nor the rhinoceros, coarse as their subsistence may be,
could live on the same kind of food as the hippopotamus. Its life is the rudest,
and i<-« food the coarsest of all the mammalia. Its office is, to clear the riven oj
all ,/iose vegetable remains which, if allowed to accumulate in countries where
vegetation is rapid, ivott/d choke w/j all the passages, and turn all the flat lands
into at teast periodical marshes.*

VA>. The hippopotamus is understood to be tbe behemoth of Scripture r —

" Behold now behemoth which I made with thee ;. he eateth grass as an ox.

" His bones are as strong pieces of brass ; his bones are like bars of iron.

" He lieth under the shady trees, in the covert of the reeds and fens.

"The shady trees cover him with their shadow; the willows of the brook
compass him about.

" Behold he drinketh up a river, and hasteth not : he trusteth that he can draw
up Jordan into his mouth.

" He taketh in with his eyes : his nose pierceth through snares."— Job xl. 15, &c.

456. WJiy does the hippopotamus walk awkwardly upon
the land?

Because the shortness of its legs, which are well adapted for
walking underneath the water, presents an impediment to its free
movements upon the land. But it is also asserted that the body
of the hippopotamus is specifically heavier than that of any other
animal. This, while it promotes the movements of the animal in
the water, gives an awkward and cumbrous appearance to its
motions on the land.

The usual motion of the hippopotamus in the water is walking
tipon the bottom, although it is capable of swimming, when it
desires to change its quarters, or to rise to the surface.

457. Why has the hippopotamus been called the river "horse"
although possessing a very un-horselike body ?

The name is of very ancient origin, and was probably applied

* Partington's " Cyclopaedia."

NATURAL HiSTORf. 163

Man hath hi* daily work of body or mind,

And the rc.^rd of" heaven on all his ways;

While other animals inactive range,

And of their rf.oinss God takes no account." — MILTO.W.

before the form of the animal was well-known. Being generally
seen in the water, with its ears, eyes, and nostrils only emerging
therefrom, it is found thaf the partial profile thus afforded,
presents a considerable resemblance to the head of a horse ; and
hence the popular idea.

458. How are the eyes and nostrils of the hippopotamus
adapted in their structure and position to the habits of the
animal ?

It is necessary that the muscles of the eye should be powerful,
endowed with great versatility, and capable of protruding or
withdrawing the eyeball, which can be either projected remarkably,
or sunk within the orbit considerably, so as to adapt it - for vision
in the different media where it is to act, whether the animal be on
land, just under water, or far down beneath its surface. The
nostrils, which are so placed that they just appear above the
surface of the water, when the animal rises from below, can be
closed when the animal descends into the deep, and opened when it
comes up to take in a supply of air.

459. These two portions of the animal machinery of the hippopotamus are of the
greatest consequence to the well-being and safety of a creature that spends so
much of its time in the water. The beautifully contrived eye has the power o.
rolling round when it is ir a state of protrusion, and is admirably adapted for the
requirements of the animal. If danger threatens, the hippopotamus instinctively
rushes to the river ; and while there hidden can manage to just lift its head among
the water plants and take his observation. If all is safe, he can quit his retreat, or
if all be not right he can quietly sink and remain in his cool and unapproachable
retreat at the bottom, occasionally rising and protruding his muzzle only for ths
necessary air supply, and then down again.

4CO. WJiy is the rhinoceros so catted ?

From a Greek word signifying nose-horn, in reference to the
horny projection upon the snout, which is a characteristic of these
animals. The rhinoceros unicornis has one horn, and the rhinocem
focornis has two.

154

THE REASON WHY :

There is no beast but hath his enemy ; as the conv the
polecat, a sheepe the woolfe, the elephant the rhinoceros, and so
of other beasts the like." — HACKI.UYT.

4G1. Why
ap2'endages ?

the rhinoceros provided with these horny

Because the animal feeds upon the branches of trees and other

vegetable matter. Some of
the trees yielding con
siderable resistance, the
rhinoceros uses its horn, or
horns, as a kind of punch or
axe to sever the fibre, and
bring down its food.

Having obtained a branch,
he first devours the leaves
and smaller stems, and then,
placing his snout as low in
the trunk as he finds his
horns will enter, he rips up
the main trunk, splitting it
into thin pieces, like so many
laths ; and he then crushes
the pieces so prepared with
his powerful jaws.

462. When we speak of horns our imagination pictures such as we are familiar
with in the ox ; but it must not be supposed that the nasal horn of the rhinoceros
presents a similar structure. The nasal horn of the ox consists of a bony
cone, or process from the skull, encased in a horny sheath. The nasal horn of
the rhinoceros is a solid mass, structurally composed of agglutinate/ A fibres,
analogous to hair, and much resembling those into which whalebone is so easily
separable.

The horn of the rhinoceros, originating as it does in the skin only, has none of its
sensibility. The form of the disc of skin to which it is attached, and the fact of its
attachment equally to all parts of that disc, give it a strength of base which no
other horn possesses; and its fibrous structure throughout make it secure from
fracture from any cross: strain. The circumstance of its being placed over the bone
of the nose completely prevents any concussion of the brain, even from the most
violent use of it ; and its central position admits of its being employed with the
powur of the animal.

NATURAL HISTORY. 155

Down sank the monster bulk, and press'd the ground,

His anus and clattering shield on the vast body sound." — DUYDEN,

The horns are also used as tccapons of defence ; and in one cf the species, at least,
the horns, which are moveable in a quiescent state, become fixed and imtnoveabte
when the animal is enraged,. When moving through dense jungles, rhinoceri
carry their heads low, and p'/nigh. their way through the matted and entangled
vegetation.

463. Wliy are the, eye* of the rhinoceros placed so low down
in the head?

Because, from the great bulk of the body, the range of sight
would be much more limited were they placed higher in the head
at a point having a more restricted orbit of motion. Set upon a
lengthened axis, every partial turn of the head extends the range
of sight.

464. Why are the ears of the rhinoceros very moveable and
quick of motion ?

Because, notwithstanding the advantageous position of the eyes,
from the great bulk of the body, and low position of the head, the
range of sight is more restricted than in other animals. The
rhinoceros, therefore, relies to a great extent upon the sense
of hearing ; the ears are, consequently, exceedingly sensitive, and
endowed with moveable powers, which enable them to be instantly
turned to the point of danger. This mobility of the ears is all the
more remarkable when we consider the hardness of the general
covering of the rhinoceros.

465. IVliy does the skin of the rhinoceros exhibit numerous
folds ?

Dr. Parsons observes that if the head and inflexible skin of the
•rhinoceros were continued all over the creature, as the skins of
other animals, without any folds, he could not bend any way, nor
perform any necessary action ; but that suppleness in the skins of
other quadrupeds which renders them flexible in all parts, is very
well compensated in this animal by those folds ; for, since it was
necessary his skin should be hard for his defence, it was a noble
contrivance that his skin should be ?o soft and smooth underneath

156 THE REASON WHf :

The nose was ugly, long, and big,

Broad, and snouty like a pig ;

Which showed he would in dunghills love to dig." — OTWAY.

that when he bends himself any way, one part of his board-like
skin should slip or shove over the other ; and that these several
folds should be placed in such parts of his body as might facilitate
the performance of every voluntary motion he might be
disposed to make.

466. This view is further enforced by the fact, that in the rTiinoecros blcornis,
the hide of which is not so hard, the same extent of folding does not exist.
The Indian rhinoceros is the most remarkable for the density of its skin. In this
species it is thrown into large folds, which add to the uncouth appearance of the
animal, and form a sort of armour, very difficult to be pierced : hence it is manu
factured into shields and the like. The arrangement of the folds, or rather solid
plates with folded edges, is as follows : — Around the neck, which is short and deep,
the skin forms two large folds, of which the last hangs over the front of the chest.
The shoulders are covered with a thick hard plate, falling in a fold over the top of
the fore limbs, and separated also by a posterior fold for the plate covering of the
body. This is folded across the top of the crupper, the fold running down just
below the haunch-bones, and loosing itself on the belly. The crupper-plate is
divided by a longitudinal fold running to the root of the tail on each side from a
large crural plate, which hangs in a deep fold over the thighs. Between the folds
the skin is soft and flexible, and of a pale pink or flesh colour ; but everywhere else
It is Kai 1 and dense, and covered with horny incrustations. Hence, were it not for
thep-e folds, the animal would necessarily be restricted in his motions.

467. Why has the tapir an indurated skin over the head
and neck ?

Because, in seeking its food,
it pushes its way through
dense brush-wood. Being al
most defenceless, it also flies
from its enemies into the
densest thickets, which it does!
with considerable ease and
speed.

Its head is remarkably
well adapted for boring
through tangled places, being in the form of a conical wedge,
and so thick toward the posterior part, tjjat wherever it opena
a way, the rest of the bqdv can pasjf

NATURAL HISTORY. 157

" The bristled boar . . .

New grinds his arming1 usks and digs the ground,
He rubs his sides agair st a tree — prepares
And hardens both his sioulders for the wars." — CARKY.

The head and neck, as far as the shoulders, being fortified with
a shield of thickened skin, the tapir can the more readily plunge
through the thicket,- than if its fore quarters were covered only
with an ordinary skin.

468. Why have hogs thick muscular necks ?

Because their habit of rooting up the ground in quest of the
yege table stores that lie beneath its surface, renders considerable
force necessary. The form of the snout, the motions of which its
cartilaginous tip is capable, and the efficacy of the hind hoofs, and
powerful hocks, in 1 hrowing the neck and shoulders well up to their
work, are equally tributary to this natural habit.

Sir Charles Bell, adverting to the peculiar anatomy of the
hog, says : —

" The formation of the skull and of the spine, and the mass of muscle in the neck,
all show the intention that he shall drive onward with his whole weight and
strength, so that he may rend with his tusks. Accordingly, we see that the back
part of the skull rises in remarkable spines or ridges for the attachment of muscles,
and that, corresponding with these, spinous processes of the vertebrae of the neck
and back are of extraordinary length and strength. These processes distinctly
indicate the power of the muscles which pass from the neck to the head. We now
understand the reason of the shortness and inflexibility of the neck, because the
power of the shoulders is directed to the head, and, we may say, to these large
tusks. An elongated and flexible neck would have rendered these provisions
useless. The characteristic form of the wild boar, then, consists in the height o/
the back, the shortness and thickness of the neck, the wedge shape of the head,
the projection of the tusks, and the shortness of the four limbs, which must always
be in proportion to the neck."

469. Why is the Indian hog furnished with long crooked tush ?
It has been asserted by

some authors that the
animal is in the habit of
sleeping standing, and that
in doing so, it steadies its
body by hooking the
tusKs on to the branch of
a tree.

Independently of this

158 THE REASON WHY

11 And up and downe as he that forest sought,
He met, he saw, a bore, with luskes great
That slept agenst the bright sunne's heat." — CHAUCER.

doubtful application, the tusks, which rise out of the mouth,
and curl upwards before the eyes in a very singular manner,
afford protection to the organs of vision, while the hog rushes
through thick brushwood. These tusks are also used in extremity
as weapons of defence.

470. All weapons of attack which animals use when danger is apprehended, con
tribute directly to the killing or capture of that upon which they feed. But the
tusks of the hog species do not in any way assist them in the procuring of their
food. They never use them but for the purpose of defence, and though we are apt
to suppose that they make wanton and vicious attacks, we should, were we able to
analyse all the cases, invariably find that the apprehension of danger, of some
description or other, is the cause. If the defence of the animal is personal only, it
seldom, if ever, shows fight, unless directly assailed ; but almost all animals have
occasionally, at least, other defences besides that of their own persons. The temale,
the young, and even their pasture, are at times objects to be fought for ; and
those animals which are not carnivorous are generally more forward and more
valiant in those cases than when the object is simply their own safety. Hogs,
probably, have more powerful instruments of defence than most other vegetable
feeders. Their young are numerous, and quite defenceless, and their flesh at all
ages is, in a state of nature, sweeter, perhaps, than that of any other race of
animals.*

471. Why do pigs run about with straws in their mouths when
a high wind is approaching ?

Because they dread the discomfort which the blast will occasion
them, and are induced to take up the straws with an undefined
purpose of collecting a sufficient store to protect them from the
inclement storm. This object, however, they seldom or ever
accomplish. Instinct impels the animals to take up the straws,
but intelligence is wanting to direct them where to deposit
their store. The wild hog probably makes a bed for its shelter,
upon the approach of a storm ; and we see the same instinct
lingering in the domesticated animal.

472. Why is it commonly said that when two hogs are feedity

Jier, one of them is llsure to have his foot in the trough?"
Because when the hog meets with anything that requires cutting

• Partington's M Cyclopedia.**

NATURAL HISTORY. 159

" Necre to the shore that bord'red on the rocke,
No merry swaine was scene to feed his flocke,
No lusty neat-heard thither drove his kine,
No boorish hog-heard fed his rooting swine." — BROWNE.

or tearing, it brings the foot into action, iu order to strengthen
the hold, and for this purpose frequently set** its foot in the trough

473. Why is it said that pigs " cut their throats M when
swimming ?

Because they are bad swimmers ; their fore legs being set closely
under them, whenever they accidentally fall into the water they
lacerate their throats with the sharp points of their cloven feet.

ORDER VIII. — SOLID UNGULA.*

474. What is the meaning of the term solidunguia '/

It is derived from the Latin — solidus, solid, and ungula, a hoof.
A solidungulous animal is one the hoofs of which are entire. The
same animals are sometimes called solipeds} from solus, alone, or
solidus, and pes, foot.

475. Though there is only one toe fully developed, there are rudiments of two
others under the snin, but they make no appearance externally.

476. Why are solidungulous animals in a, wild state found
chiefly in plains ?

Because their solid feet enable them to bound lightly along hard
pastures and sandy plains ; and the comparative swiftness of some
of the species, and the power of endurance in others, fit them for
ranging over long distances in search of their food.

477. The wild ass, the zebra, the quagga, and also the wild horse of central Asia
are all found on the margins of great sandy deserts, or, at least, in those regions
where there is a great breadth of country, which is alternately drenched with rain
and burned with drought ; or where, as in central Asia, the general character is
dryness. They are not found on mountains, among rocks, or in close forests, like
leer and goats ; neither do they follow the lines of the great rivers and the rich
savannahs so much as the ox tribe.

« Ibis order is by some naturalists made a sub-division of the

itfO THE REASON WHY ;

" Fixed on the goal, his eye fore-run* *he course,
His hand, unerring, steers the steady horse,;
And 7iow contra::. s, or now extends the rein,
Observing still the foremost on the plain." — POPK'S HOMER.

478. Why do wild horses congregate in flocks ?

Because, as they shift their ground with the change ot seasons
in pursuit of new pasturage, the same necessity operating upon
large numbers at once, they become gregarious, and acquire habits
of association.

479. Why are the colourings and markings of horses so varied ?

Numerous conjectures have been entertained as to what was the
original colour of the horse, and what have been the causes of the
varieties that have since appeared, but the inquiry has not been
attended with success.

480. The various colours of horses would seem to be truly original and inherent ;
for sunh of them as have, from a state of domestication, been suffered again to run
wild, have retained the colour they carried with them, although their form has
altered by being submitted to the agencies of climate. Neither have the original
horses of different countries, according to the accounts of travellers, exhibited in
this particular any individual characteristic. The horses of the east are not darker
than those of the north ; on the contrary, we have white Arabians ; and we procure
the darkest breeds from the north of Europe, while in llussia, bright bay is as
common a colour as any other. Geographical distribution is not, however, wholly
without its influence on the hair ; for our heavy breeds, drawn from the northern
parts of Europe, are very frequently black ; but a full-blood black horse is very
seldom met with. Age has likewise a powerful effect on the tinting of the
hair ; that of the colt alters many shades ; in some cases it becomes much lighter,
and in others altogether much darker as the adult period arrives. But the
alteration which takes place between the time 4f full growth and that of old age.
is invariably from a darker to a lighter hue.

481. Why, when two horses are in a pasture, do we frequently see
jne of them nibbling the shoulder or neck of the other?

This action is performed for the purpose of extricating the
irritating fly known as the bot, which commonly attacks horses
in the parts mentioned. There cannot be a doubf that the animals
indicate the presence of this annoyance to each other, for when one
horse has had the fly removed from him, he will immediately render
the same service to his companion.

NATURAL HISTORY. 161

*' Th nk, -when we talk of horses, that you see them, printing
their proud hoofs in the receiving earth."— SHAKSPERE.

482. Why are horses furnished with strong hairs on the upper
and lower lips ?

These instruments are designed for keeping flies and insects from
annoying them, by getting into their nostrils while they are grazing.
They are sufficiently close together for that purpose ; and moving
as they do while the horse is feeding, serve to brush away
anything offensive.

483. Why does the appearance of much " white " in the eye of a
horse, indicate a vicious nature ?

Because a high-tempered horse constantly looks about, appre
hensive of danger, or desiring to do mischief. The quick motion
of the eyeball in opposite directions exposes an unusually large
surface of the white, which thus becomes an evidence of the temper
of the animal.

484. Why has the horse no eye-brows ?

Because, from the situation of the eyes, and the direction of the
horse's head, either when running or feeding, such organs would
be useless.

There are hairs on the upper eye-lid, and especially towards tho
outer corner, because the light comes from above ; and as the
animal stands, particularly when he is grazing, and from the lateral
situation of the eyes, the greater portion of the light, the
attacks of insects, and the running .down of moisture, would be
chiefly from the outside or temples. Towards the inner corner of
the upper lid there is little or no eyelash, because there is no
probable danger or obstruction in that direction. Only a small
quantity of light can enter from below, and therefore the lashes
are there short ; but as in the act of grazing, insects may more
readily climb up and be troublesome to the eye, towards the inner
angle, there the principal or only hair is found on the lower lid.

485. Although the horse has no syebrows, there are several hairs or bristles
scattered on the upper eyelid, an . there is a ^m>jectin$j fold cf the lid which

a

162

TIIE REASON WHY :

Epirus for th' Eleati chariot breeds

(In hopes of palms) a race of running: steeds." — DRYDEN.

discharges the same office. This is by some persons erroneously associated witfc
weakness or disease of the eye. But it is, in fact, a provision of nature to
accomplish a certain purpose, and is in no way connected with either health or
disease.

486. Why is the lest form of horse, such as the English racer,

peculiarly fitted for swift running ?

Because the mechanism
of the frame is based on
the most correct geometrical
principles, presenting a
series of lengthened levers
acting by means of a con
densed muscular and ten-
donous organization of great
power, on angles capable of
great flexion and extension ;
while his pointed form fits
him to cleave the atmos
phere, from which his deep

chest enables him to take extensive inspirations to invigorate

his exertions.

487. The essential points in the form of a horse differ as much as the uses he is
put to vary. That which would approach perfection in one variety would be
defective in another. The finest-formed racer that ever bounded over the turf at
Newmarket, would cut a sorry figure in a London coal- waggon ; while one of
Barclay's splendid specimens of the heavy draught-horse would be even more
misplaced if entered for the Derby. To be able to form a tolerably correct
estimate of the capability of each variety of the horse to perform the duties required
of it, from a view of the general figure, constitutes the very feather in the cap of
the horse amateur. But to accomplish it requires much experience, and a long
habit of observation, comparison, and reflection.*

488. Why has the horse a large square jaw under the ear?

To enable the teeth to bear great pressure, they are socketed
very deeply in the jaw ; and as the strength of the muscles of

* Blaine's " Rural Sports.'

NATURAL HISTORY.

163

There from the sunburnt hay field homeward creeps
The loaded wain ; while, lightened of its charge,
The wain that meets it passes swiftly by ;
The boorish driver, leaning o'er his team." — DRYDEX.

mastication is applied, is not merely to close the jaws, but to grind,
or to rub the teeth both laterally and to and fro, extraordinary
space is provided in the jaws for the lodgment of a powerful
muscle which has the double action of closing the teeth, and of
drawing the lower jaw across the upper.

489. Why does a " heavy shoulder " in a horse indicate that he it
slow, and apt to tumble ?

Because this heaviness, as it is commonly termed, results from

the uprig'it position of
the shoulder blade, which
position prevents it from
revolving freely, and so
retards the forward mo
tion of the foot.

The main condition of
swiftness in a horse is
that the shoulderbone
should be oblique, as
shown in the illustration,
and that the transition

from the neck to the shoulders instead of being abrupt, should

display a smooth undulating surface.

490. Why are horses with deep bellies, such as the Suffolk punch,
the best calculated for continuous employment ?

Because when their bodies are thus formed, they carry their food
for a long time, and consequently are enabled to bear a longer
and a harder day's work.

491. The Suffolk punch is particularly esteemed by the farmers of Norfolk,
Suffolk, and Essex ; and it is well known that in these districts where this kind of
horse is used, that the farmers are able to plough more land in a day than can be
performed in any other part of England.

Of all creatures, the horse has the smallest stomach relatively to its size. Had
he the quadruple ruminating stomack of the ox, he would not have been at all

164 THE REASON WHY :

And early with thy team the glebe in furrows turn,

That, while the turf lies open and unbound,

Succeeding suns may bake the mellow ground." — DK.YDKN.

times ready for exertion; the traveller could n ;': have baited his steed, and resumed
his journey. The stomach of the horse is not so capacious, even when distended,
as to impede his wind and speed; and the food passes onward with a greater
degree of regularity than in any other animal. If a horse drinks a pail of water,
in eight minutes none of this water is in the stomach ; it is rapidly passed off into
the large intestine, &c.

492. IVTiy has the horse no gall-bladder ?

Because the process of digestion in the horse is almost incessant,
and the bile passes off as rapidly as it is formed. In other cases
there is a gall-bladder, in which the bile is stored until required

Where the digestive process is performed in a large stomach,
and the food descends in large quantities, and at long intervals, a
gall-bladder is necessary ; and there is the sympathy between the
stomach and gall-bladder, that they are filled and emptied at
the same time *

493. Why have aged, horses cavities just above their eyes ?

Because in old horses most of the fat of the body, which is more
superficially placed in the young, becomes absorbed ; in this way,
the eye, which is usually embedded in a large quantity of this
matter, losing its assistance, sinks within the orbits, and thus the
ca.vities, called eye-pits, show themselves.

494. Why may the age of a horse be judged by the appearance
of the teeth?

Because on the upper surface of the incisors a hollow is to be
seen in the young tooth, which, not extending through the whole
substance, naturally wears out with the wear of the tooth, and as a
considerable degree of regularity occurs in the wearing away in all
horses, it has been adopted as the general criterion of age.

495. Why should the grain which is given to horses be
previously crushed ?

Because, owing to the unsuitableness of the 1 3eth for masticating
* Paley's " Natural Theology."

NATURAL HISTORY. 166

FOW, do thy speedy utmost, Meg,

And win the key-stane ot the brig;

There at them thou thy tail may toss,

A running; stream they dare not cross." — BURNS.

pure grain, which in a state of nature the horse would never be
called upon to do, the grains frequently find their way Into
the stomach whole, and consequently yield comparatively little
or no nourishment.

496. Why, when horses are early and hard- worked, do they
never arrive at their full size ?

Because the earthy deposit of the bones is usually proportioned
to the wants of the animal, and is most abundant in those whose
exertions are considerable. But from this very circumstance,
when the animal is subjected to premature exertion, the consoli
dation of the bones becomes more complete before their softer
portion has increased to its full dimensions, and hence growth is
arrested.

497. Why will a horse, if unchecked and unguided, find its
own way on a dark night ?

Because its eye, in addition to being well adapted for vision
during the day, is, from the form of the retina, peculiarly adapted
to receive impressions by night.

498. In the darkness of night, when the traveller knows not the way, and would
be incapable of reaching his home, his faithful horse will carry him in safety
through the most difficult places ; and be the path ever so intricate, and the
obstacles ever so many, if the rein is entirely given up, not a foot of his will slip or
be misplaced in the most difficult ground, and not one of the obstacles will he come
in contact with. This is a curious point in physiology, but it is as true as it is
worthy of admiration. The firm and entire hoof of the horse, even when shod
with iron, seems to acquire in the dark a sense of touch equal to the most delicate
finger ; and, though we cannot accour * for it, every hair upon the skin of
the animal appears to be instinct wit. all the senses necessary for guiding
him along, with the same certainty as though it were clear daylight all about him.
If the horse and the rider have been long acquainted with each other, and have
frequently made nocturnal journeys, it is of no consequence, if the journey is a
homeward one, whether the rider pays t e slightest attention to the matter or not ;
for there have baen many instances in which an old and trusty horse has carried
his rider asleep for a distance of more than twenty miles. There have been also
•Instances of favourite ponies carrying blind musicians from house to house for the
purpose of giving lessons ; and indeed it would be impossible to em merate half the

lt)8 THE REASON WHY .

He taught men the forth drawynge

Of bestaile, and eke the makynge

Of oxen, and of horn the same,

How men should them ride and tame." — GOWER.

which are well authenticated, of quiet and slow-going horses finding and
Keeping the wiy without any assistance from their riders, and the same applies to
horses habitually used in draught.*

499. }Vhy is the system pursued by Mr. Rarey so efficacious
in taming vicious horses?

Because, without inflicting pain upon the animal, it fixes upon his
memory the fact — that man is his master. All animals are subdued
that once become aware of this ; and they owe their subjection to
each other to a similar consciousness.

000. Mr. Ilarey's system consists of rendering a horse perfectly helpless— not by
punishment in the ordinary sense — but by depriving him of the use of one of his
legs by the simple contrivance of a buckle and strap, which doubles the near fore
leg upon the fore arm, and renders the animal helpless without inflicting pain.
While in this subdued condition the horse is laid or thrown upon his side, and ia
then attended, spoken to, caressed, shown different objects which he had hitherto
dreaded, and made familiar with sounds that, under other circumstances, would
alarm him. In connection with all these trials he is constantly caressed by the
operator until he gains assurance, and when at last he is released from subjection
by the hand of his attendant, he regards man as not only his master but his friend.
The communication of such a lesson demands patience, and an occasional repetition ;
but there can be no doubt of its efficiency in subduing, if not in eradicating, the
vice of horses.

The principles of Mr. Rarey's system are embodied in the following
propositions: —

1. That any horse may be taught to do anything that a horse can do, if taught in
a proper manner.

2. That a horse is not conscious of his own strength, until he has resisted and
conquered a man ; and that man, having the advantage of reasoning powers, can
handle a horse in such a manner that he shall not know his superior strength.

3. That by enabling a horse to examine erery object with which we desire to
make him familiar, with organs naturally used for that purpose, viz., seeing,
smelling, and feeling, you may take any object around, over, and on him, that does
not actually hurt him.+

Many animals live in a state of perhaps more close domestication than the horse
does ; and the dog especially, being one which in a state of nature requires more
art and stratagem for finding his food, is capable of evincing his attachment to his
master in a variety of ways. The dog will fight for his master, will fawn upon hia
master, and will watch and defend his master's property with a fidelity perhajr

* Partington's "Cyclopaedia." f "An of Taming TTnrfiou"

NATURAL HISTORY. 167

" As T hen a dull mill asse comes near a goodly field of corne,
Kept trom the birds by children's cries : the boys are overborne
By his insensible approach, and simply he will eat, [beat."—
About whom many wands are broke, and still the children CHAPMAN.

unequalled by the human race. The horse does not fight for himself, for his natura
is the very opposite of pugnacious ; ILe horse docs not fawn, for the spirit of the
hor*p is noble ; but, if the expression may be used, he stands to his lider
more in the relation of companion and equal than any other animal stands to man.
There is, also, in the gratified look, the erected eai-s, the arching neck, and the
subdued and murmuring neigh of the horse, at the sight of that rider with whom he
hixs ix'eu long associated, something more touching — or, if you will, more poetical —
thai. ir. the fawning of all the dogs in the world. Then there is no danger which the
aurse will not brave along with his rider, and on those occasions man very often
borrows courage of the spirit of the animal.*

501. Why is the ass better kept on commons, than in meadowg
and pastures ?

tecause it is naturally an inhabitant of the wilderness, and is
most at home browsing among rough and tall plants. In pastures,
although it becomes sleek and fat, it at the same time gets indolent
and less strong and enduring. Besides, if the ground is soft, the
hoofs of the ass, which are by nature adapted for hard and dry
surfaces, become enlarged and unnaturally extended, which makes
the feet unsightly, and the gait of the animal awkward —
circumstances which do not happen when it is located upon
the dry common.

502. IVliy is ass's milk so well adapted for invalids ?

Because it contains much saccharine matter, and but little
butter ; hence it is capable of being digested by stomachs unequal
to the task of assimilating the richer milk of the cow.

f»'">3. Why are mules said to be stubboi'n ?

Mules are commonly used for travelling over mountainous
countries and dangerous precipices. They are chosen for this
purpose, because they are sure-footed, and have great powers of
endurance. Being frequently heavily burdened they acquire a
habit of treading with great caution ; and this necessity influencing
the habits of successive generations, has imparted to them,
when travelling on ordinary roads, an air of sluggishness ftnd
•elf-will

* Fartington's " Cyrlopaodiu."

168

THE REASON WHY t

" This said, his brass-Aoo/etf winged horse he did to chariot binde,
Whose crest was fring'd with manes if gold, and golden garments shin'd.*

THE ILIAD.

504. "When these animal come to one of the descents alluded to, they stop of
themselves, without being checked by the rider ; and, if he inadvertently
attempt to spur them on, they remain immoveable. They seem to contemplate
the danger which lies before them, and prepare themselves for the difficulty. They
not only attentively view the road, but will sometimes tremble and snoi't at the
danger. Having prepared for their descent, they place their fore feet in a posture
as if they were stopping themselves ; they then also put their hinder feet together,
but a little forward, as if they were about to lie down; then, moving with
unerring caution, they proceed forward.

505. Why are the zebra and onaga found
mountainous places ?

hilly and

Because, although closely allied to horses and quaggas, which
are never found but on
plains, their hoofs are
differently formed, being
adapted to the nature of
the footing afforded by
hilly and mountainous
districts.

The hoofs of horses are
round and flat ; in the ass
they are oval and hollow,
and in zebras and onagas
they are oval at the toe,
and square at the heel, by
the spreading of that part
which is termed the " frog."
This causes the limb to
stand more vertically upon
the postern, and gives a
sharp, firm tread upon
declivities.

506. The zebra is, perhaps, of all quadrupeds the best made and the most beauti
fully clad by the hand of nature. To the figure and graces of the horse, it adds the
elegance of the stag ; and the black and white bands with which its body is
ornamented are arranged with such wonderful symmetry that we might almost b«

NATURAL HISTORY. 169

" Others, filled with pasturage, gazing sat,
Or bedward ruminating." — MILTON.

disposed to imagine that rule and compass had been employed in their formation.
These alternate bands are narrow, parallel, and exactly separated ; they extend
not only over the body, but the head, thighs, and legs, and even over the ears and
tail. They follow so exactly the contours of the different parts, enlarging more or
less according to the development of the muscles, and the roundness of the different
forms, that they exhibit the entire figure in the most advantageous point of view.
In the female these bands are alternately black and white, in the male they are
black and yellow, hut always of a lively and brilliant tint. They also rest upon a
ground of short, fine, and copious hairs, whose lustre considerably augments the
general beauty of the colours,*

ORDER IX.— RUMINANTIA.

507. WTiy are the animals of the ninth order called ruminants f

Because they chew again the food which has been swallowed,
slightly masticated. The word is derived from the Latin rumino,
from rumen, the cud.

508. Why do numerous herbivorous animals " cJiew the cud?"

Because in a state of nature they are liable to be surprised
and preyed upon by their carnivorous enemies while feeding.
They are therefore endowed with stomachs capable of receiving a
large quantity of food in a crude state, and with the power of
returning it again, to be brought under the action of the teeth,
when the animal has retired to a place of comparative security.

509. The class of ruminants feed on the coarser kind o* herbage where they arc
in abundance ; but the actual nutritious matter is small in quantity compared with
the mass. There is, therefore, an obvious necessity for a more complex apparatus to
extract the smaller proportion of matter capable of being animalized ; hence the
various preparations for digestion. When the mass is digested, the nutritious part
is still small in proportion to the whole ; and, to permit that smaller part to be pre
pared and carried into the system, the intestinal canal must be long and complex,
offering resistance to the rapid descent of the food, and giving it lodgment : and
thus there is always a correspondence between the complication of the stomach and
the length of the intestines, and between both and the nature of the food.

It is further remarkable, that when animals of the same species live in different
•limates, where there is more or less abundance of vegetabk food, there is -\n

• Buffon.
8

170 THE REASON 5VHT .

The condemned English

Sit patiently, and inly ruminate

The morning's danger." — SHAKSPF.RE.

adaptation of their digestive organs. When it is abundant, the configuration o*
the intestines which is intended to delay its descent is less complex ; when the
food is scarcer, the intestine is longer, and the obstruction afforded by the valves
is greater.

510. How is the process of rumination conducted ?

The stomachs of ruminating animals are divided into four
chambers, of which the first three are so disposed that the
aliment can enter at the will of the animal into any one of
them.

511. Tne first stomach, or paunch, is divided outwardly into two bag-like
appendages at its extremity, and is slightly separated into four parts on the inside.
Here are received the masses of herbage, rudely broken up by the first m«stication.
But no true digestion occurs here ; only a slight maceration, such as water would
produce in a degree of moderate heat. The herbage is afterwards transmitted in
this state to the second stomach, or honeycomb-bag, so called from the honeycomb
similarity of the surface of its coats Here the herbage is arrested, and com
pressed into small maws, or balls, which are thence returned at leisure successively
to the mouth for re-mastication.

During this operation the animal remains in a state of repose until all the herbage
swallowed has undergone the action of the molar teeth a second time. The aliment
thus re-masticated is transmitted into the third or smallest stomach, the laminfe on
the walls of which bear a resemblance to the edges of the leaves of a book when
slightly opened. From the third stomach the food is transmitted into the fourth,
which is next in size to the first stomach, or paunch, and with an internal villous
coat similar to that of the human stomach, with large longitudinal wrinkles. This
last is the chief organ of digestion.

The first three stomachs are connected with each other, and with the oesophagus, or
throat, in a very remarkable way. The latter tube enters just where the paunch and
the second and third stomachs approach each other ; it is then continued with the
groove, which ends in the third stomach. This groove is, therefore, open to the first
stomachs, which lie to its right and left. But the thick, prominent lips, which form the
margin of the groove, admit of being drawn together, so as to form a complete canal,
which then constitutes a direct continuation of the oesophagus into the third stomach.
The functions of this very singular part vary, according to its use as a simple groove,
or a closed canal. In the first case, the grass, &c., is passed, after a very slight degree
of mastication, into the paunch, as into a reservoir. Thence it goes, in small por
tions, into the second stomach, from which, after further maceration, it is
propelled into the oesophagus, and conveyed by a muscular backward motion
kito the mouth.

It is here ruminated, and again swallowed, during which the groove is closed.
And tLe food, aftei this second mastication, is thereby conducted directly into tho

NATURAL HISTORY. 371

" By Cinthia's light, and on the pleasant lawn,

The wanton fairy we were wont to chase,
Which to the nimble dor en -fooled fawn,
Upon the plain durst boldly bid the race." — DRAYTON.

third stomach. During1 the short time which it stays in this situation, between the
folds of the internal coat, it is still further prepared for digestion, which is com
pleted in the fourth or digestive stomach. The closing of the groove, as already
described, which determines the chamber or stomach into which the food shall be
passed, is an act of will on the part of the animal. While young ruminant* remain
at the teat, and live upon milk, the fourth stomach is the largest. The first stomach,
or paunch, only developes itself into its enormous volume, in proportion as it
receives supplies of herbage, which increases with the growth of the animal.

It is remarkable that this faculty of rumination, so important to the animals in
their wild state, is no less valuable in their domesticated condition :

Cows stand patiently while being milked, chewing the cud the while, and deriving
gratification thei-efrom.

Being driven to market, they are able to take with them a store of food, which
serves to mitigate their hunger during a period of abstinence from grazing.

Sheep disperse their flocks and fill their paunches, and then draw together to chew
the cud, by which they derive warmth during cold hours of the night, and
obtain shelter from occasional storms.

512. Why have all cawmali which chew the cud cloven feet?

Because the splitting of the foot into two parts adds to its
spring and elasticity, prevents its sinking deeply into soft ground,
and permits it to be more easily withdrawn. As these animals
usually feed upon pastures and other fertile places, it will be
seen that this conformation of the foot not only favours the
movements of the animal, but renders the tread less destructive
to vegetation.

513. What is the difference between the dromedary and the
camel ?

The dromedary, or Arabian camel, has one hunch on the back ;
the Bactrian camel has two hunches. The dromedary is a lighter
variety of camel, bearing much the same relation to the ordinary
camel as a race-horse or hunter does to a cart-horse. It is used
principally for journeys in which dispatch is required, and carries
oiJy a single rider or a very light burden. It can maintain a
trot at the rate of from six to eight miles an hour, for twenty-four
hours consecutively ; and a gentle easy amble of five miles an

i 72

THE REASON WHY

" Or camels knelt
To take their loads, or horsemen scour'd the plain." — CAMPBELL.

hour can be kept up by the dromedary for several days and nights
almost uninterruptedly.

514. Why are the" earner
and the "dromedary" so
called?"

The Arabic verb from
which the name camel is de
rived, signifies to please, or
to behave with kindness and
humanity, and, in its appli
cation, has reference to the
docility of the animal. The
Greek word from which the
name of the dromedary is
derived, means siviftness,
running ; and has reference
to the speed of the beast.

515. IVhy are the camel
and dromedary furnished with
callosities (or hardnesses of the
skin) ; namely, one on the

breast, and two on each side of the fore legs, and one on each
side of the hind legs ?

They are thus endowed because they do not lie on their sides,
but rest and sleep with their knees bent under their bodies, and
their breast upon the ground : these parts require to be particularly
guarded and strengthened, to resist the weight of the body, which
is brought to bear, both when the animal assumes its attitude of
repose, and when it rises up.

516. Wliy is the neck of the camel of great length, and extremely
flexible ?

Because this structure allows the animal to crop leaves from the

NATURAL HISTORY.

" The tre^s, devouring caterpillars bin-n :
Parch'a was the grass, and blighted was the corn." — DRYDEN.

tall trees upon which it feeds, and also to bend the neck when
drinking from springs, and other places where water is found ?

517. }Vliy has the dromedary a hump upon its back ?

This hump is an accumulation of a peculiar species of fat which
is not liable to be acted upon by the great heat to which the animal
is exposed. It consists chiefly of stearine, or hard fat. It is, in
fact, a store of nourishment beneficently provided against the day of
want, to which the animal in a wild state is often exposed, and from
which he is not entirely exempted in a state of domestication.
The dromedary or camel can exist for a long period upon this
hump alone, without any other food ; and it does not die of want
until the hump has been entirely absorbed, and applied to the
nourishment of the system.

518. Animals which exist chiefly upon vegetable matter, and which are subject
to seasonal vicissitudes in their supply of food, all make accumulations of fat on
some part of their bodies, as a provision against the failure of the supply of food ;
and their tendency to this habit is exactly in proportion to the need they have for it.
The parts of the body in which this accumulation is made, and the consistency of the
accumulated substance, are both very important points in the geographica' distribu
tion of animals. If the animal winters in cold latitudes, the accumulatiovi cf fat is
generally distributed over the surface, and the substance is of a soft and oily
nature. If, on the other hand, it inhabits warm latitudes, t ie accu
mulation is chiefly composed of a crystallizable fat, and is generally svoiated on
some part of the animal where it is least likely to interrupt its labour and progress.

519. Why is the formation of the stomach of the camel and th&
dromedary admirably adapted for enabling the animal to kdc*, long
journeys over parched deserts ?

Because the stomachs of these animals are capable oi retaining
large quantities of water unchanged for a considerable length of
time. A number of distinct sacs are observed to lie between the
membranes of the second stomach, and to open into the stomach
near the top by small square apertures. Through these orifices,
after the stoir.ich is full, the annexed bags are filled : aiu.

174 THE REASON WHY:

" Precisions and plain plodders such

Is this, and so is that
In love do swallow camels, whilste
They nicely straine a gnat." — WARREN.

the water so deposited is, in the first place, not liable to pass intc
the intestines ; in the second place is kept separate from the
solid element : and, in the third place, is out of the reach of
the digestive action of the stomach, or of mixture with the gastric
juice. It appears that the animal, by the conformation of its
muscles, possesses the power of squeezing back this water from the
adjacent bags into the stomach, whenever thirst excites it to put
this power into action.

520. Mr. Partington, from whose "Cyclopaedia" we have several times quoted,
calls in question this endowment of the camel. We have no doubt, however, of
the capability of the animal in this respect, though we think the fact has been
exaggerated and wrongly described. That travellers have ever killed camels, and
taken supplies of water from their second stomachs, is unfounded, though fre
quently stated. But that the animal is capable of long abstinence from water, and
that it derives this power from being able to receive and retain a store of the fluid
either in the cells or coats of one or all of his stomachs, there cannot be the slightest
question.

521. Why are the camel's feet provided with large cushions
or pads ?

Because a foot thus furnished is best adapted
for treading upon sand. The foot of the camel is
planted with a heavy downward stamp, and lifted
up straight and high. The oval cushion under
neath meets the sand with a dead pressure, and
therefore has little tendency to sink into it. The
extremities of the toes are fortified by flat nails,
which have a very slight resemblance to proper hoofs. These give
firmness to the cushion that lies underneath. The cushion also,
being a non-conductor of heat, prevents the heat ct the sands from
distressing the animal upon its journey.

522. With what other peculiar functions is the camel endowed,
mitable to its habits and employment?

The elevation of the camel's head and the acuteness of its sight
and smell, enable it to discern the green oasis, and to scent the
refreshing water, at a great distance.

NATURAL HISTORY. 175

Like a* a /nastiff'e having: at a bay

A salvage bull, whose cruell homes do threat

Desperate daunger, if he them assay." — SPENSER.

The eye is shielded from the intense glare of light by a prominent
over-hanging brow, and by long eyelashes, and the nostrils are so
constructed as to be closed by the animal at pleasure, so as to keep
out the fine sand which is being continually driven by the wind.

Its natural food consists, not of the meadow herbage and fat
pastures in which most of the ruminants delight, but of thorny
shrubs, date leaves, and the leaves and branches of the tamarisk ;
these, when it meets with them, together with dates, beans, and
cakes of barley, pounded by its master, constitute its supply of
food during the toilsome journey.

Hence we see the utility of its strong incisors, its canine teeth,
and its canine-like molars, which enable it to browse on the coarsest
shrubs with ease ; while its long prehensible lip serves to draw the
twigs and leaves to its mouth, or to hold the tuft of herbage which
is undergoing mastication.

These explanations with reference to the camel are equally applicable to
the dromedary.

523. Why are tJie toes of the llama separated and pointed ?

Because the llama is a mountaineer, cropping
the herbage of elevated ranges, but having
sometimes in its wanderings to cross barren
and heated tracts.

Its foot, therefore, instead of having the toes
bound to one solid oval cushion, as in the case
of the camel, is distinguished by having the toes well separated,
each one being provided with a complete pad.

This foot is remarkably well-adapted for holding on upon the
rough surfaces of precipices ; whilst it is also fitted for occasional
use upon heated and barren tracts.

524. Why are numerous animals of the order ruminantia
provided with variously-shaped horns ?

It is obvious that these organs are, with all tiie tribes,

176

THE REASON WHY :

" To the strong ram

Tie fast the rash offender. See at first

His homed companion, fearful and amazed,

Still drag him trembling o'er the rugged ground.'

weapons of defence: but that explanation does not puffice fi»
their various and singular shapes, and for certain circumstances
connected with their history. In the deer tribe, for instance
horns belong only to the male in most of the species ; ia

the rein-deer the female is furnished also with horns, but they
are smaller than those of the other sex. The horns are composed
of a bony substance, grow periodically, fall off annually, and
are again renewed of a larger size than in the preceding yeac
Their forms are various : sometimes they spread into broad palms,
which send out sharp snags around their outer edges ; sometime!!

NATURAL HISTORY. IV /

" That very portion which (by faithful skill
Employ'd) might make the smiling public rear
Her ornamented head." — THOMSON.

they divide fantastically into branches, some of which project
over the forehead, whilst others are reared upwards in the air ;
or they may be so reclined backwards that the animal seems
almost forced to carry its head in a stiff, erect posture. Yet, in
whatever vay they grow, they appear to give an air of grandeur to
ths animal

It may, then, speaking in general terms, be said that the easy
elegance of their form, the lightness of their motions, their size,
their strength, their fleetness, and the extraordinary development
of those branching horns, which seem fully as much intended for
ornament as defence, all contribute towards placing horned Animals
in the foremost rank of quadrupeds.

525. Paley remarks upon the general question : A third property of an'mal foriu
is beauty. I do not mean relative beauty, or that of one animal above aui-tLer of
the same species, or of one species compared with another of the same species ; but
I mean, generally, the provision which is made in the body of almost every animal
to adapt its appearance to the perception of the animals with which it converses.
He supports this hypothesis by an example • — The irides (colours) of the eyes of
animals are very beautiful, without conducing at all, by their beauty, to the
perfection of vision ; and Nature could in no part have employed her pencil to so
much advantage, because no part presents itself so conspicuously to the observer,
or communicates so great an effect to the whole aspect.

This argument seems to be fully borne out by the fact, that the period wh<?n the
deciduous horns arrive at perfection, is the season of love between the sexes.
They continue in the male until the season of pairing, and in the female during the
whole period of gestation ; and as they drop off in both as soon as these great
labours of the year are over, it is evident that they have some connection witu
the sexual system, and consequently with the affections.

But in point of utility much may be said. The horn of the deer tribe diffVis
materially in substance *rom the horn of the ox. The former supplied man wLa
some of his earliest an^ rudest instruments and weapons, and in the present days
of luxury and refinement contribute largely to ornamental and useful manufactures,
especially that of knife-handles, in which they are used in nearly their natural
state. The horns of the ox, goat, sheep, &c , are largely used for the manufacture
of ccmbs, boxes, lanterns, and other articles. The consumption in these various
nses throughout the world must be enormous. We see, therefore, ;^» the horn of
the ruminant, all those offices combined which are exhibited in other remarkable
productions of nature: use to the animal; individuality of character au/1
appearance ; and utility to man.

178 THE REASON WHY :

Th« stag, too, singled from the herd, where long
I1^ rang'd the branching monarch of the shades,
Before the tempest drives." — THOMSON.

£28. The te~»> horn is commonly applied to any hard projecting body on the head
of animals, revving as a weapon of defence ; but it is strictly applicable only to a
certain clat? rt such weapons. For instance, the antlers of the stag consist entirely
of bone, aur1 Uave no right to the denomination " horns ; " the weapons of the ox, the
sheep, anJ the antelope, consist of a sheath of true horny material on a bony core ;
while th» Vorns of the rhinoceros are wholly composed of horny matter. Bone and
horn are is distinct from each other, as both are from ivory ; yet the three are
often confounded by the application of the general term " horn" to antlers, tusks,
and true Aorns. Besides the horns on the head of animals, there are other horny
processes in the hoofs, claws, nails, &c., and there are various modifications of horn
in the scales of the armadillo, the plate armour of the tortoise, the spines of the
p'>rc'j,mne and hedgehog, and the quills of birds.

TIoiii consists principally of membranous animal matter, being1 a compound of
coagulated albumen, gelatine, and a small portion of phosphate of lime. It has
been well remarked of these proportions, " had the horns much more earth, they
would be brittle like bones ; had they much more gelatine, they would be soluble
like jelly or glue ;" as it is, they are easily convertable to the purposes of the
manufacturer, by whom they are so largely used, that considerable importations of
horns are necessary, in addition to the supply afforded by this country.

The horns chiefly applied to manufacturing uses are those of the bull and cow,
with the hoofs of those animals. Large quantities are imported from Russia, South
America, and Southern Africa. The horns of the bison and buffalo are also in
demand, the latter being frequently reserved, on account of their beauty, for
superior purposes. The horns of the chamois and antelope are polished and used in
their natural forms.*

527. Why does a, stag prefer to reach ivater before he stands
at bay?

Because, from his greater height, he can maintain a footing,
while the dogs, obliged to swim, become comparatively helpless.
He therefore strikes at them with his horns with great effect,
while they have little power to attack him.

528. Wliy are the horns of buffaloes of peculiar utility
to them?

Because these animals feed in close jungles, where their eyes
• Tomlinson's " Encyclopaedia of Useful Arts and Manufactures."

NATURAL HISTORY.

170

" In time the savage bull doth bear the yoke." — SHAKSPERH.

are of comparatively little use ; and though the ears may be
of service, in enabling them to avoid hostile animals and find
friendly ones, they can be of no use in guiding a grazing animal to
its food. Hence, the sense upon which they have chiefly to depend
for their subsistence is that of smell ; and, as the scent of their
food comes in the air, and is not on the surface of the ground,
they require the nose elevated while they are ranging the jungles.
In doing this, the horns act as powerful auxiliaries, as their
weight assists in balancing the weight of the head when the line
of the face is carried in an horizontal position.

529. The horns of buffaloes are of use to them in another way. These animals

change their pastures by crossing
rivers which flood when the rain?
fall on the mountains, and whei.
it is dry there they run low. The
animals float along apparently at
their ease, till they arrive at those
places which suit their habits.
The manner in which they carry
their heads in swimming is shown
in the accompanying engraving ;
from which it is obvious that they
use the weight of their horns as a
lever to elevate their eyes and
nostrils.

530. Why is the bison able to use his horns with more effect
than the ox ?

Because in this animal the horns are so situated that when its
neck is brought into that position which has its greatest strength,
the horn appears on the anterior and lateral part of the convex
skull as on the crown of an arch, and the axis of the whole body
passes between the two horns, and parallel to the direction of them,,
so that the animal can deliver its whole momentum from a rush or
bound either upon both horns, or upon one of them, with full
«ffect, and without injury to itself.

180 THE REASON WHY.

While doc and roe, and red deer good,

Have bounded by through gay greenwood. — SCOTT.

531. The characters of the bison, which chiefly appear in the head, are : the fore«

head arched or convex, instead of
being nearly flat, as in the domestic
ox ; the breadth, measured be
tween the orbits of the eyes,
greater than the height ; the
bases of the horns before the
ridge of the occiput : the whole
outlines of the crania, bines more
curved or convex ; the occiput
being rounded instead of quad
rangular, and passing into the
line of the forehead by an obtuse
and rounded angle instead of an
acute one. This form gives much

greater strength to the skull, and more firmness to the bases of the horns ; so that
the bison can dash the head with much move impetus than the ox, either
against an enemy or any obstacle, without the danger of equal injury either from
fracture of the skull or concussion of its contents.

532. How are the structure and the habits of the rein-deer
admirably adapted to the climate which it inhabits ?

The rein-deer possesses a keen scent by which it discovers the
lichens on which it feeds deep beneath the snow, and subsists
easily in a climate where the face of nature is sealed through long-
continued months of winter. As a beast of burthen it is invaluable
to the inhabitants of the dreary northern regions, its broad expan
sive hoofs enabling it to pass over the yielding surface of snow
with ease. For domestic purposes, where no substitute can be
found to meet even the limited wants of the inhabitants, its import
ance is incalculable ; its milk furnishes them with cheese, its flesh
with meat, its hide clothes them, and its horn supplies the
material for implements of use.

533. In what manner do the horns of the rein-deer prove
instrumental to the animal in procuring its food ?

By the aid of these instruments the rein-deer removes the deep
tnow from the ground, and thus arrives at the fopd destined for its

NATURAL HISTORY. 181

Tear-falling pity dwells not in this eye." — SHAKSPERK.

subsistence. The velvety down which covers the antlers prevents
the snow from adhering to them.

534. Why is the neck of the elk so short, and the head so
near to the trunk ?

Because the weight of the elk's horns is enormous, and if the
head and horns were placed at the extremity of an elongated neck,
they would inevitably overbalance, the body.

535. Why are stags said to shed tears ?

Such allusions are very frequent with the poets. Shakspere

says : —

"the big round tears

Coursed one another down his innocent nose
In piteous chase."

The eyes of the stag, and nearly all the deer tribe, display a
peculiarly weeping aspect. It depends on a remarkable glandular
sinus, or tear-pit, situate at the inner angle of each eye, close to
the nose, without having any communication with the eyes, cr
without what are termed the lachrymal passages.

536. Why are deer furnished with supplementary breathing
places in addition to the nostrils?

This would appear to be an extraordinary provision ot nature,
providing for a beast of the chase a freer respiration, by the
opening of additional nostrils when hard run.

Another advantage is derived from this peculiar apparatus
When deer are thirsty, they plunge their noses very deep undei
water while in the act of drinking, and continue them in that
situation for a considerable time ; but to obviate any inconvenience
or approach to suffocation by both the mouth and the nostrils
being stopped at the same time, these two vents are taken
ad vantage of, and by being opened, afford the necessary supply
of air.

182 THE REASON WHY .

" While in this park I sing, the list'iiing deer
Attend my passion, and forget to fear." — WALLER.

They are composed of folds of the skin, and are capable of being
opened or closed at the pleasure of the animal. At the bottom
they are furnished with a gland, which secretes an oily viscous
substance, of the colour and consistence of the wax of the ears,
and which hardens and becomes black when exposed to the air.
Each sinus acts as an extra breathing place ; the moistened moving
edges of the sinus have been mistaken for tears.

537. Why are the feet of the rein-deer deeply fissured, and liable
to open and close ?

Because the deer browses upon
lichens or mosses which it finds on
the mountains of Lapland ; it has
occasionally to walk upon deep snows,
and at other times upon craggy
mountainous places. The spreading
foot is efficacious in preventing its sinking into the snow, while the
firm and pointed toes, when the foot is closed, serve to obtain
a Jinn footing upon the crags.

538. Why is the ox one of the most valuable and useful
beasts to man ?

Because it not only affords wholesome and agreeable food in
this country, but is also serviceable as a beast of burden and of
draught in many lands ; and in some is commonly employed
for riding.

539. The readiness of acclimation which distinguishes the ox in every part of
the world, and in almost every range of temperature, is one of the most obvious
onuses of its extensive distribution and usefulness. -In the northern and frozen
parts of Europe, and under a tropical sun, the ox is found and cherished, and
is applied, in a greater or less degree, to the many purposes of utility. The
cow, uuring her life, provides us, in her copious and abundant supply of milk,
with one of the most nutritive and wholesome aliments. Thus useful when living,
its death seems to render it even more extensively serviceable. The flesh, the
various portions of the stomach, and the viscera, constitute the most important
articles of food ; the intestines and the bladder are employed for different uses i»

NATURAL HISTORY.

Some ruminating lie ; while others stand
Half in the flood, and, often bending, sip
The circling surface." — THOMSON.

domestic economy ; the horns are extensively used in manufacturing numerous
articles of utility, ornament, and amusement ; the ears and hoofs furnish the im
portant article of glue ; the bones form a strong manure, or are carved into
various implements, and are thus an excellent substitute for ivory ; or they yield by
decomposition several essential articles in medicine, domestic economy, and the
arts ; the hair is used in mortar ; the hide is tanned into leather ; and, in fact, there
is not a part of this most useful animal which does not, living or dead, contribute
to the advantage of mankind.

540. Why does the sight of blood, or anything of a red colour,
excite and infuriate the ox tribe ?

Because red is the complementary colour of green ; and the eyes
of oxen being long fixed upon the green herbage while feeding,
when they espy anything red it impresses their sight with a
greatly- increased intensity.

The same effect is doubtless produced upon all grazing
animals by a red colour ; but oxen, being more pugnacious
than others, show greater excitement, and often attack that
which surprises them.

541. Why do oxen frequently stand in shallow waters in
hot weather?

Because, having the power
of ruminating, they can
take in a store of food,
and by retiring to shallow
waters, which generally lie
in shady places, they ob
tain coolness, and escape to
a great extent the annoying
bites of insects, while they
contentedly chew the cud.
The water also softens and
cools their hoofs, and pre
vents cracks and humours
to which they are liable iq
hot weather.

184 THE REASON WHY :

One way a band select from forage drives
A herd 'of beeves, faire oxen and faire kine
From a fat meddow ground." — MILTON.

542. JFliy do oxen use a peculiar licking motion with the
tongue, when gathering heritage ?

Because their upper lip is not prehensible, like that of the
h : rse. They therefore use the tongue to gather in the grass,
which is afterwards divided by biting.

513. Why is it customary to hang bells around the necks o/
cattle in Switzerland ?

Because, as they are allowed to roam among the acclivities and
windings of the mountains, the sound of the bells tends to keep
them together, and also to inform the vachers, or herdsmen, of their
whereabouts. The bolls vary in form and size, from a small
tinkling instrument to a large deep-toned bell, worn by the leader
of a herd.

544. So accustomed and attached do the animals become to these bells, that the
deprivation of them is felt as a punishment. The cow, whose superior beauty,
sagacity, and good conduct, fit her to be the leader of the herd, is always on
gala-days distinguished by the largest and finest-toned bell, and the bravest
ornamental collar, and so down, through all the gradations of good, to the small
appendage that marks the indifferently good eft: clever animal, and the total absence
of ornament and distinction which points out the self-willed or vicious. If any cow
has been guilty of straying, of unseemly behaviour, breach of discipline, or any
vicious trick, the displeasure of the vacher is not testified by blows, but by the tem
porary deprivation of her bell ; and this seldom fails to reduce her to order and
prevent a repetition of the offence. It is only necessary to see the cow on a gala-
day, with her badge of distinction strapped round her neck, and then to see her
deprived of it, for some fault or other, to be convinced that this is true. She is
now gay, good-humoured, and frolicsome, and then, sulky and gloomy.

A certain cow, that had long worn the bell of honoui round her neck, had but
recently given birth to a calf, and was considered too wc-ak to bear the weight of the
large bell, or, indeed, of either one. Her master turned her out to go with the herd
to the upland pastures. This summer removal of quarters is always held as a
holiday. The peasants were dressed in their best clothes, the cows had on their
bells, and all went on gaily, except the poor matron who was deprived of hers
After proceeding a few paces, she began to show signs of great uneasiness ; this
increased. It was vainly attempted to coax her forward, and soon she lay down on
her side, and would not move. In this dilemma one of the old vachers came up,
aad seeing how the case stood, coolly went to the house, and brought out the bell
and collar, which the animal no sooner felt about her neck than she rose, sh^oh

NATURAL HISTORY. 185

" As from fresh pastures and the dewy field

(When loaded cribs their evening1 banquet yield)

The lowing herds return : around them throng,

"With leaps and bounds, their late imprisoned young." — POPE.

herself, and raising and throwing her tail o* er her haunches, in token of complete
satisfaction, went off prancing, kicking, ana curvetting, with every appearance of
heilth and gaiety ; and, taking her place in the van, was from that moment as well
as ever.*

545. Why has the ox (the most valuable of quadrupeds to
man) been so easily and universally domesticated ?

Because of its gregarious nature, which leads it readily to
associate with any other animal that evinces no disposition to
offer it direct injury.

546. Why has the ox, in common with other ruminating
animals, a divided hoof?

Because feet thus furnished take a firmer hold upon soft,
yielding, or irregularly disposed ground, supporting the body
better, and being less liable to injury than any other kind. Feet
thus formed also do less injury to vegetation than would result from
flat solid hoofs.

547. Why has the cow, which usually produces but one calf,
four or more teats ?

Because the calf, being born with teeth, and requiring a large
quantity of nourishment, the excess in the number of teats enables
the cow, by altering her position, to change the teat used by her young
one, and thus to prevent its becoming sore by continual sucking.

548. It is a well-known fact that human mothers change the side upon which
children suck, for a similar reason. When a child is very hungry and tenacious of
the breast, soreness is prevented by thus acting ; and the appearance of teeth in the
gums of her offspring is the usual indication that the time proper for weaning is
at hand.

In dairy economy, there is great advantage in the number of teats, because one
cow may be made to suckle two calves ; the second cow being kept for milch.

In the domesticated state, udders and teats are very liable to become disordered.
As the udder consists of four distinct glands, each having a teat, the inflammation
arising from one may not be communicated to the other, which can be milked 01
Slicked, and the mammary system relieved.

* Latrobe's " Alpenstock or, Sketches of Swiss Scenery and Manners."

1 86 THE REASON WHY :

" Th' ignoble never lived ; they walk awhile

Li.i3 swine, or other cattle here on earth 1
Their names are not recorded on the file
Of -ife, that fall so."— B. Jouxsox.

For the purposes of the calf, the division of the udder into four glands, each
having a teat, the advantage is, that the calf can always he supplied. One gland
forming milk, while another is heing exhausted.

549. Why do wild cattle, ivhen flying from tJie hunter, keep to the
sides of fields and copses ?

Because they are then sheltered on one side from attack,
and can the more readily take to the cover when they are
sufficiently a-head of their pursuers, or when a good "run"
offers an opening,

550. Wliy do wild cattle, when meditating an attack upon an
enemy — especially man — make their approaches in gradually
diminishing circles ?

Because, in all probability the animal intends, previously to
attacking its foe, to intimidate it by a show of its own power and
means of injury ; calculating that the obnoxious object will, under
the influence of fear, turn and present its most vulnerable side, or
retreat altogether, without the necessity of an actual combat

551. Many animals before making a dart at an enemy paw the ground, foam at
the mouth, lash themselves with their tail, and otherwise excite themselves to a
seeming anger. All these acts are doubtless intended to have the same effect as the
circuitous approaches, to appal the enemy.

552. Wliy is the hair of tame and domesticated cattle softer and
smoother than that of the wild varieties ?

On account of the protection afforded by the farmer and grazier
against the severity of the seasons, as also from the more regular
and choice supply of food which domesticated animals receive.

553. There is a marked difference between the texture of the hair of the highland
cattle and those bred in the lowlands of Scotland ; and even the same breed under
different circumstances differs in this respect. On their native pastures, where they
are not housed, they are extremely rough, shaggy, and wild-looking ; but when
driven to the lowlands, they become more polished, and, on a richer pasture in a
warmer climate, and with shelter at night, show a rich and glossy covering:.*

* Naturalists' Library.

NATURAL HISTORY: 18V

" If milk be thy design : with plenteous hand
Bring clover grass ; and from the marshy land
Salt herbage for the foddering rack provide,
To fill their bags, and swell the milky tide."— DRYDEN.

554. Why are horns of tame cattle generally shorter than those
of wild ?

Because these appendages, being obviously intended for weapons
of offence and defence, their development naturally followed the
ratio of their necessity, and decreased in proportion to their
domestication.

5.55. It would seem that while domestication softens the manners of animals, it
also smooths the asperities of their forms. All animals, when under the influence
of strong and angry passion, become much more rugged than when the)' are pleased,
The hair stands up, the muscles swell into ridges, the skin is puckered, and the
animal puts on an aspect as forbidding as possible.*

556. Why do wild cattle feed in flocks, while the tame varieties
scatter and browse separately ?

Because the former experience a sense of insecurity and dread
of attack ; they act instinctively upon the maxim that union is
strength, and thus guard against surprise. The domesticated ox
has no such dread, and follows its individual caprice, or sense
of enjoyment.

557. TFTiy has the giraffe such a long slender neck ?

Because it browses upon the branches of tall trees, for which
purpose its long neck is admirably adapted.

558. Why has the giraffe a head so small in proportion
to its size ?

Because a larger head at the extremity of the lever formed by
the long neck would possess a weight disproportioned to the
muscular power of the animal, and be a serious encumbrance.

* Fartington's " Cyclopaedia."

188

THE REASON WHY :

Whose heisrht the rising forest overlooks ;

And on tree-tops the eye-sight downward casts;
Where distant rivers seem bestrided brooks." — DAVENANT.

559. Why is

tongue ?

the giraffe endowed with a long prehmsibk

For the purpose of collect
ing together the tender twigs
and leaves upon which it
feeds. But for this tongue,
which gathers the leaves into
large bunches, the giraffe
could only bite the single
ends of the sprays, and in
this way could obtain only a
limited supply of food.

560. A giraffe m0re than two-thirds grown will eat daily in confinement eighteen
pounds of clover, hay, and eighteen pounds of a mixed vegetable diet, consisting of
carrots, mangold-wur/el, barley, split beans, and onions; and will drink four
gallons of water.

561. \VTiy is the head of the giraffe surmounted by short
erect horns ?

These horns are occasionally used as weapons of defence. We
have seen them wielded by the males against each other with
fearful and reckless force ; and they are much dreaded by
the keeper of the present living giraffes in the Zoological
Gardens, because they are sometimes very suddenly put
into use.

The giraffe does not butt by depressing and suddenly elevating
the head, like the deer, ox, or sheep, but strikes the callous
obtuse extremity of the horns against the object of his attack with
• sidelong sweep of the neck. The female in the gardens of tha

NATURAL HISTORY

189

*' The elephant with pond'rous tread,

The giraffe with exalted head." — NEWMAN.

Zoological Society once drove her horns through an inch
board.*

562. There is another use which may be assigned to the horns. Surrounded as
they are with a thick tuft of hair, we are inclined to think that they are used as
instruments of feeling. The ox looks down upon the pasture ; but with the giraffe,
the order is inverted, its food being over and around its head. As the giraffe
carries its head beneath and through the branches of the trees, the long hairs upon
the erect horns come in contact with the leaves above them, and the animal, without
a constant effort to look up — in fact, with its eyes turned downward and backward,
to guard against enemies, is able to apprehend its food. Buffaloes, oxen, deer, &c.,
have similar hairs upon their nostrils ; the giraffe is provided with them also upon
the points of its horns.

563. Why are the nostrils of the giraffe thickly intersectti
with stiff hairs ?

Because, while it browses among the branches of trees, it dis
turbs a great number of insects, whose attacks would cause great
annoyance without this defence. For the same protective purpose,
the eyes are surrounded with unusually large eyelashes, and also
provided with a third or nictating membrane, which sweeps all
foreign matters from their surface.

564. Wlnj are the eyes of the giraffe set prominently near the
back of the head ?

In that situation they are best adapted to keep watch against

enemies, which usually spring
from behind. The chief de
fence of the giraffe lies in that
direction ; from the vigour of its
muscles, the length of its legs,
and the consequent velocity of
the hoof, when it conies to the
position in which it can take
effect, the kick is truly a for
midable one, and is said to b«
sufficient to break the skull of
a lion.

Maunder'B " Natural History."

190 THE REASON WHY :

" A herd of goafs, each shining morn,
Midst scraggy myrtle, pointed thorn,
Quick glancing, to the sun display'd
Their spotted sides, and pierced the shade." — WHITEHEAD.

565. Why does the lion generally attack the giraffe while the
latter is drinking ?

Because at such times, the head being depressed, the giraffe
caiinot see the approach of an enemy ; and its fore-legs being
widely spread, so that its head may reach the water, the animal is
then in a very helpless position.

566. The lion lies in wait, usually in the morning, at some place near a stream,
and in a situation somewhat elevated over its intended prey. There the lion
waits in concealment the approach of his intended victim. As soon as th<
giraffe puts down its head to drink, all the advantage which its prominent eye givet,
it when the neck is elevated is gone. In this situation the lion springs, and fastens
upon its back ; and although the giraffe bounds off with terrific speed, the weight o \
the lion, and the pain of laceration, bring him to the ground.

567. Why is it imagined that goats, kept in stables with
horses, improve the health of the latter ?

This is one of those popular fancies which, seemingly absurd
at first, are found upon reflection to have some foundation. All
animals are kf.pt in better temper and greater cheerfulness by the
presence of a companion, than in solitude ; and the active and
good-humoured goat may, in this way, really perform the benefit
which has been attributed to it upon mistaken grounds.*

568. Why can goats subsist upon vegetables that are noxious,
or even poisonous, to other animals ?

This is probably a part of the great creative scheme, to provide
for the comsumption, and the keeping within necessary limits, those
species of vegetables which having their special utilities, would
acquire an undue preponderance if not kept in check.

569. In feeding, goats are very indiscriminate, and many plants which are not only
shunned by other ruminating animals, but act as poison to them, are not only eaten
with impunity, but relished by them. There have been instances in which tame
goats have chewed tobacco ; and, in the wild state, they eat the most bitter and
Aarcotio plants, such as euphorbium, hemlock, henbane, and e\en digitalie, without

• Bell's " British Quadrupeds H

SATURAL HISTORY. 191

" That shrcp-cot, which in }"ondcr vale you see
(Beset with groves, and those sweet springs hard by),
I rather would my palace wish to be
Than any roof of proudest majesty." — DANIET>.

laffering any injury. Few plants are more disrelished by cattle than the com
mon ragweed, and therefore the pastures on those lands in upland and humid
situations are very much infested by it ; but goats clear it off, if allowed to browse the
plants before they come into flower. There are many of the composite? which arc the
pests of our pastures, and which are, generally speaking, biennials, making roots the
first year, and bearing flowers the next, which might probably be cleared off by
pasturing with goats at proper times. The alternation with each other of animals,
one set of which can eat the plants that are disliked by another, is an important
point in the economy of our grazing districts, though it does not appear to hare
Tereived that attention to which it is entitled.*

570. Why do sheep make a nodding motion of the head

when feeding ?

This motion is owing to the peculiar formation of the jaw
and the teeth. Sheep have no teeth in the upper jaw, but the
bars or the ridges of the palate thicken as they approach the fore
part of the mouth ; there is also the dense, fibrous, elastic matter
of which they are constructed, which becomes condensed, and
forms a cushion or bed that covers the convex extremity of the
upper jaw, and occupies the place of the upper incisor or cutting
teeth, and partly discharges their functions. The herbage is
firmly held between the front teeth in the lower jaw and this pad,
and is brought away by a half biting, half tearing action, which
occasions the peculiar motion of the head alluded to.

571. The stalks of the common herbage of the field, bitten closely as they
are by sheep, are harder and more fibrous than the portions that are divided
and chopped by c itfle : and not only so, but some breeds of sheep are destined to
iive, iu part at least, on harder food than falls to the lot of cattle — as the different
kinds of heath, or substances almost as difficult to be broken off as the branches
of heath. The incisor teeth are evidently formed for browsing on these tough
productions of the soil, which would otherwise be altogether useless and lost. The
part of the tooth above the gum is not only, as in other animals, covered with
enamel to enable it to bear and to preserve a sharpened edge, but the enamel on the
upper part rises from the bone of the tooth nearly a quarter of an inch ; and, pre
senting a convex surface oatwards, and a concaTe one within, forms a little scoop er
youge, capable of wonderful execution. He who will take the trouble to compare
the incisor teeth of cattle and of sheep — both ruminants — both by means of the
hall cutting and half tearing action, having the stomach, in which the process

• Partington's " Cyclopjedia '

THE REASON WHY.

" First, with assiduous care, from winter keep
Well foddered in the stalls, thy tender sheep;
Then spread with straw the bedding of thy fold ;
With fern beneath, to fend the bitter cold." — DRYDKN.

of maceration is going forward, abundantly supplied with absorbent or alkaline
earth— the one, however, destined to crop little more than the summit of 'he grass,
and the other to go almost close to the roots, and occasionally to browse on harder
food— will have an interesting illustration of the manner in which every part
of every animal is adapted to the situation in which he is placed, and the destiny he
has to fulfil. The pad, also, is firmer and denser than in cattle, yet sufficiently
elastic, so that it is in no danger of injury from the sharp chisels below, while the
interposed substance is cut through with the greatest ease.

572. Why will sheep follow each other even into evident
danger ?

For two reasons. From the strength of their social instinct,
which leads them to move together in flocks, and seldom if ever
singly, or in an isolated manner. Secondly, there is no animal
in which the faculty of iznitation of the movements of their own
species is so strong as in sheep.

573. These instincts appear to have been wisely implanted in one of the most
valuable and defenceless of domesticated animals, in order that they might be
taken advantage of by the intelligence of man.

The leaders of the flock having been instructed and rendered manageable, t he
obedience of the rest is secured. Every one has seen an illustration of this, where
a butcher has succeeded in housing a large number of sheep by simply dragging in
01 e of them. So great is their dislike of solitude, that if an individual is thus kept,
it pines and very soon dies.

574. Why is the upper lip of the sheep divided?

Because it is thereby enabled to bite the herbage at a point
nearer to the roots than it otherwise would.

The sheep bites closer than the ox, and is enabled to follow the
latter, and to procure a sufficient sustenance where the latter
would starve. Two purposes are answered by this : all the
nutriment that the land produces is gathered from it, and the
pasture is made to produce more herbage than by any other
means.*

575. Wliy is there less difference between wild and cultivated
sheep than between wild and tame cattle of the ox kind ?

Because sheep, however highly cultivated, seldom or eve?

• For very manv interesting questions respecting the economy of sheep, ottttla
&o., see "The Reason Why: Gardening and Farming."

NATURAL HISTORY. 193

*' To his woundes worken, that with louely dart
Dinting his breast had bred his restlesse paine,
Like as tke wounded whale to shore flies from the maine." — SPEXSER.

become thoroughly tame, and are consequently less amenable to
the laws which accompany domestication.

576. Sheep, however domesticated, never evince any attachment *o their keepers.
When food is presented tr them they come to that, hut do not heed the person who
is in the habit of feeding them unless the food is shown. They require the care of
a shepherd to conduct them, and lead the flock to where it may be wanted ; for,
although they keep together, the whole would wander off, and never return to the
fold, unless conducted.

ORDER X.— CETACEA.

577. Why is the order Cetacea so named ?

From the Greek word ketos, and latin cete, signifying a whale.
The cetaceous animals include the genera Monodon (one tooth),
of wkich the narwhal is an example ; Balcena, or whalebone whale ;
Physeter, or spermaceti whale and Delphinus, or dolphins, which
include the porpoise and grampus.

578. They have no gills, but are furnished with an aperture for respiration on the
top of the head ; and they have a flat or horizontal tail. Their habits are in general
predacious, that is, they subsist by preying upon other animals. The whale tribe,
however, has been broadly divided into herbivorous and carnivorous cetacea. The
teeth of the herbivorous whales have a flat crown which determines their character.
These accordingly often leave the water to creep and feed upon the land, and are
without the distinguishing mark of the carnivorous cetaeea, namely, the singular
apparatus by which they cast up jets of water.

579. Why has the order of Cetacea, been separated from the
classification of fishes ?

Because, although their outward shape bears considerable
resemblance to the fish tribe, their anatomical conformation,
joined with various other characteristics, proclaim them to be true
aquatic mammalia.

580. frae fishes breathe by means of gills, in which the blood is sufficient!/ acted
on by the air that is contained in the water around them : on the other hand, tho
breathe b^ means of lunys, which require to b*j filled with air from thfl
9

1 94 THE REASON WHY :

" And one of them I saw myselfe sunke downright with the
abundance of water that this monstrous fish spouted, and filled
it withall."— HOLLAND.

iimosphere ; so that these animals are obliged to come occasionally to the surface
to breathe. Thus the function of respiration is conducted on a plan entirely
different in these two groups.

Again, the heart of the fish has only two cavities, and the blood does not return to
it after passing through the gills, but is immediately distributed to the body ; whilst
the heart of the whale has four cavities, and the blood returns to it after passing
through the lungs. Hence, the plan of circulation also is entirely different in the
two classes — being single in the one and double in the other.

Again, the blood of the fishes is cold, and that of the whale is warm ; another
character of great importance, in regard to the relative activity of the vital opera
tions in general, in these two classes respectively.

Further, fishes are oviparous, propagating by eggs, from which the young come
forth in due time, with little or no attention on the part of the parent ; whilst
whales are vivaporous, producing their young alive, and nourishing them afterwards
by suckling, precisely as other mammalia.

581. By what means is the whale enabled to eject water in
the form of a spout ?

The apparatus by which this is accomplished, consists of two
pouches or reservoirs, situated beneath the nostrils, and communi
cating with the back of the mouth by the usual nasal passage,
which is furnished with a valve.

When the animal wishes to eject water contained in its mouth,
it moves its tongue and jaws as if about to swallow the fluid ; but
by closing the pharynx, it compels the water to ascend through the
nasal passage, the valve of which it forces open, and also distends
the reservoirs. There it may be retained until the animal wishes
to eject it ; and this is effected by a forcible compression of the
pouches, which compels the water to escape by the nostrils ; its
return to the mouth being prevented by the valve just mentioned.

582. What provision have whales for the retention of their
internal heat ?

The whale tribes have smooth and polished skins, which do not
readily throw off the heat ; underneath these, there is a large
deposition of oily fat, which is a very bad conductor of caloric.

NATURAL HISTORY. 195

" And as he pranced before, still seeking for a snake,

As who would say, ' There is none here, I trow, will me forsake ' ;

I might perceive a wolf, as white as whales-bone." — SURREY.

583. Why is the enormous size of its head no impediment to
rapid locomotion ?

Because, being very light in proportion to the rest of the body,
it serves rather to buoy up the animal, and to act in the nature of
a balloon upon the vast mass with which it is connected.

584. In the spermaceti whale the great part of this bulk is made up of a large, thin
membranous case, containing during life a thin oil, of much less specific gravity than
water, below which, again, is the substance called the "junk," which, although
heavier than the spermaceti, is still lighter than the element in which the whale mo veth.
Consequently, the head, taken as a whole, is lighter specifically than any other part of
the body, and will alwa.ys have a tendency to rise, at least so far above as to elevate
the nostril, or " blow-hole," sufficiently for all purposes of respiration ; and, more
than this, a very slight effort on the part of the fish only would be necessary to
raise the whole of the anterior flat surface of the nose out of the water. In case
the animal shov.ld wish to increase its speed to the utmost, the narrow inferior
surface of the head, which bears a strong resemblance to the cutwater of a ship, and
answers the same purpose to the whale, would be the only part exposed to the
pressure of the water in front. Thus, he would be able to pass with the greatest
celerity and ease through the boundless tracks of his wide domain.

585. Wiat is whalebone?

The substance known under this name, sometimes called baleen,
is found in the monstrous mouth of the Balcena mysticetus, or
whalebone whale, where it forms the substitute for teeth, of which
otherwise the animal is destitute.

586. The whalebone depends vertically, or nearly so, from the palate like a port
cullis ; is rather elastic ; and its lower points are received by the tongue and lower
gums. Its function is to act like a sieve or strainer, or perhaps in the nature of a
mill, reducing the food which flows into the open mouth of the whale to a state
proper for digestion. It consists of an immense number of fibres slightly soldered
together, and covered with an epidermis (cuticle or skin). The maxillary
(jaw) and palatial (palate) bones of the whalebone whales form on their interior
surface two inclined planes, which are concave, but resemble slightly the roof of a
house inverted. It is to these bones that the blades or plates of whalebone are
attached. They are widest at a point of the mouth which is nearer to the bottom of
the gape than to the snout; and they diminish in size as they approach both
extremities. They are attached to the bone by an elastic cartilaginous substance.
The plates of the whalebone move upon these elastic hinges. When the mouth ia
shut, these blades lie or>f over the other like the folds of a fan, or the leaves in
flower -bud.

196 THE REASON WHY:

'Pampered with meats full, spermacetic, and fat." — DRAYTOW.

Whalebone forms one of the objects of the Greenland whale fishery, but it is
not the chief. The principal reward arising from the perilous employment of so
many men and ships is to be found in the large quantities of oil which are obtained
from the thick cutaneous layer of fat, or blubber, as it is usually termed. A whale
sixty feet in length will frequently yield more than twenty tons of pure oil ; and
pome of the pieces of baleen are twelve feet long. It is for these prizes that men
willingly expose themselves to the rigour of an arctic winter, the chance of falling
victims to the united effects of cold and hunger, or shipwreck in its most horrid
form, occasioned by the irresistible crush of icebergs ; and should the hardy
mariner escape from dangers such as these, the harpooner not unfrequently perishes
from the upsetting of the boat, owing to the violent plunges which the wounded
animal makes in the water, or the whirlpool produced by his rapidly rushing
down into the deep.*

587. What is spermaceti ?

It is a substance which concretes and crystallizes spontaneously
out of the oil of the spermaceti whale. It forms a very pure oil
for lamps, and is used in various ways in the arts and medicine.

588. In the right side of the nose and head of the cachalot or spermaceti whale, is
a large, almost triangular-shaped cavity, called by whalers the "case," which is
lined with a beautifully glistening membrane, and covered by a thick layer of
muscular fibres and small tendons running in various directions, and, finally, by the
common integuments. This cavity is for the purpose of secreting and containing
the spermaceti. The si/e of the case may be estimated, when it is stated that in a
large whale it not unfrequently contains upwards of a ton, or more than ten large
barrels of oil.

The pursuit of the sperm whale is accompanied with great danger. " In
calm weather, great difficulty is sometimes experienced in approaching the whale,
on account of the quickness of his sight and hearing. Under these circumstances
the fishers have recourse to paddles instead of oars, and by this means can quietly
get near enough to make use of the harpoon. When first struck, the whale
generally ' sounds,' or descends perpendicularly to an amazing depth, taking out,
perhaps, the lines belonging to four boats, 800 fathoms! Afterwards, when
weakened with loss of blood and fatigue, he becomes unable to sound, but passes
rapidly along the surface, towing after him perhaps three or four boats. If ho
does not turn, the men in the boats draw in the line by which they are attached to
the whale, and thus easily come up with him, even when going with great velocity;
be is then lanced, and soon killed."

Maucder's "Treasury.*

NATURAL HISTORY. 197

" An Antony it was,

That grew the more by reaping : his delights
Were dolphin-like ; they show'd his back above
The element they lived in." — SPENSER.

589. Why has the shape of the dolphin been frequently
and fancifully misrepresented ?

From two probable causes. 1. The principal action of cetaceous
animals is the vertical plane, or upwards and downwards, while
that of the true fishes is in the horizontal. The dolphin ir also a
very sportive animal, sometimes leaping entirely out of the water.

2. The spouting of dolphins, in common with other cetacea, lent
itself naturally to the artistic mind in the construction and
adornment of ornamental fountains ; and once in the hands of
the sculptor, the true form of the animal was soon lost.

590. The eye of a casual observer is. however, apt to be deceived in witnessing
these leaps, and the spectator imagines the back of a dolphin to be greatly curved,
while it is almost straight. The cause of this deception is in the eye following the
general curve in which the average mass of the body is carried during the leap ;
and, as the real shape is not very well seen while the animal is in motion, it ia
readily, and indeed necessarily, associated with this curve.*

591. WJiy does the dolphin utter a sound somewhat resembling
the human voice ?

Because it has lungs, and an air-tube leading to them. The
dolphin cannot exist long in the water without coming frequently
to the surface to exhale and inhale air ; and jt is in the performance
of this act that the sound is occasioned.

502. No animal but man has the faculty of articulate speech ; which consists of
vowels pronounced by means of the larynx, and of consonants formed by the
tongue and the lips. The dolphin having no lips, and with a tongue not readily
moveable, cannot therefore articulate.

593. Why is the porpoise said to (l roll " /

Because its mode of progression, in common with the other
cetacea, when near the surface of the water, consists of a series of
leaps, its body appearing and disappearing at intervals with a
wheel, or barrel-like .motion.

• Partington's " Cyclopaedia "

THE REASON WHY:

•With such accoutrements, with such a form,
Much like a porpoise, just before a storm." — CHUKCHILL.

594. This is th 3 mode of swimming in all the whale tribe ; and it is easy to see,
from the formation of the tail, the most powerful organ of motion they possess, this
must be the case. Their action, like that of land mammalia, is vertical, as distin
guished from the horizontal one of fishes. Their tails strike upward and down
ward, and those of fishes laterally. The resistance to the stroke upwards is less
than the stroke downwards, because the pressure of the water increases with its
depth : and thus, when cetaceous animals make great exertions in swimming, they
always have a tendency to " roll."

595. Wliy is the porpoise (or porcpesse) so named ?

The name, signifying sea-hog, was given to this animal from a
fancied resemblance to the hog in the character of its head, and in
its habits of rooting for food.

596. Why is its appearance at sea in numerous packs thought
by mariners to forewarn a storm ?

Because it has been frequently found that previous to rough
weather, when few sea animals can procure food, an instinct has
led porpoises to take advantage of the opportunity afforded by the
calm, and so to provide for a period of deprivation.

597. Why have whales, dolphins, &c., the flat surface of their
tails placed horizontally, instead of vertically ?

This difference to the ordinary fishes is to favour the important
function of respiration ; for these inhabitants of the sea must rise
to the surface to breathe the air, and their tails are thus directed
to enable them to elevate their heads above water.

MISCELLANEOUS.

598. Why is the omnivorous character of man beneficial to
the lower terrestrial creation ?

Because, by his appetite for various kinds of flesh, he is incited
to subdue and utilize every kind of animal substance. This tenda

NATURAL HISTORY. 199

For forms are variable, and decay

By course of kinde, and by occasion."— SPENSER.

to prevent the redundancy of species ; and equally prevents their
total extinction, which, on account of the unlimited powers of
destruction which man possesses, would sometimes occur, were
his choice more restricted.

From a love of vegetable food, man is led to cultivate and render
the productions of tha soil abundant and wholesome ; and, in like
manner to the operation of his appetite upon animal productions,
he is impelled, by his love of variety, to cultivate every kind of
herb, shrub, and tree.

599. The instinct of hunting — if such a term may be applied to a being gifted with
the superior faculty of reason — is universally diffused among, men. We find the
most untutored savage expert after his degree in the pursuits of the chase ; and,
under a regime of the most complete civilization, the gentleman is still a hunter.
Fortunately for him, he follows the chase no longer from necessity, or to procure
food, but simply to obtain from its mimic warfare a certain amount of relaxation
and excitement. The cultivation of the soil is a gauge of civilization. Where
agriculture and its kindred arts flourish, peace, health, and wealth are its attendants
upon man, while the fiercer and more ferocious animals either cease to exist, or are
kept within strong and impassable bounds.

600. By what means is man enabled to influence the forms
and qualities of various animals which belong to them at their
birth ; and to create, as it were, new varieties at will ?

Because all the individuals of the same species do not possess, to
the same degree, the physical and instinctive qualities with which
the species are generally endowed ; and by the exercise or the
influence of physical conditions, man can develop a particular
faculty, and consequently increase these differences.

He may, within certain limits, modify races at his pleasure ; for
he is able to choose, or even to produce, individual differences,
which are transmissable from one to the other ; and to regulate
the succession of generations, so as to remove from them all that
would tend to separate the race from the type which he wishes to
produce ; and he can thus influence the hereditary qualities of the
young, as he had done those of their parents.

200

THE REASON WHY :

" As Jacob used an ingenious invention to make Luban's
cattle speckled or ring-staked, so much the skill in making
tulips feathered and variegated, with stripes of divers colours,"

PtFttiBB.

601. This is especially the case with our various domesticated animals ; and ther»
are none that show it more strongly than dogs. Not only do the different races
of dogs vary in the colour and quantity of their hair, but also in the proportions ol
the different parts of their bodies, and even in their instincts. How different, fat
example, are the greyhound and the mastiff,

v*.

the bloodhound and the spaniel. We could scarcely imagine that any period of
time, or external influence, could ever convert one into the other. And yet they
had one common origin ; and it is found that their distinct forms are preserved
only so long as they are matched in breeds.

Among the problems of high theoretical interest which the recent progress of
geology and natural history has brought into notice, no one is move prominent,
and, at the same time, more obscure, than that relating to the origin of species. On
this difficult and mysterious subject Mr. Charles Darwin has bestowed long and
anxious attention ; and the result of some twenty years' observation and
experiments in zoology, botany, and geology, has established in his mind the
conclusion that those powers of nature which give rise to races and permanent
varieties in animals and plants, are the same as those which, in much longer
period's, produce species, and in a still longer series of ayes, give rise to difference*
oj generic rank,*

602. How is the distribution of animals over the surface oj
the, globe accounted for f

Several hypotheses have been set up to account for this

• Professor Lyeil*

NATURAL HISTORY. 201

" The heavenly bodies (as growne now lesse strong)
Doe seeme more stalke (as weary of their race)
All climats still new temperatures embrace,
What strange effects must follow them ere long 1 " — STIRMNO.

distribution. But it may not be unreasonable to assume that at
the beginning of the actual geological period, the various species
were limited to narrow regions, and that by degrees they afterwards
spread to a distance, so as to occupy a more or less considerable
portion of the surface of the globe.

COS. The circumstances which favour the dissemination of species are of two
kinds. The first is connected with or dependent on the nature of the animal ; the
second, with causes foreign to it. In the number of the first, the development of
the locomotive power holds an important place. All things being equal, the species
which live fixed to the soil, or which possess but imperfect instruments for
locomotion, occupy but a restricted portion of the surface of the globe, compared
with the species whose movements of translation are rapid and energetic. Thus,
birds have a most extended area, whilst reptiles, on the contrary, are generally
confined to narrow limits.

604. IVJi.y do differences of climate serve to arrest the march
of animals from- one region to another ?

Because there are throughout all nature, mutual adaptations of
animate and inanimate existences — of organic and inorganic forms.
This is seen in the growth of vegetables, as well as in the
development of animals.

605. Apes, which crowd the tropical regions, almost always die of pulmonary
consumption when they are exposed to the coldness and humidity of our climate ;
while the rein-deer, formed to support the rigours of a long and rude Lapland
winter, suffers from heat at St. Petersburg, and in general sinks quickly under the
Influence of a temperate climate.

Man and the dog are the only species that can support the two extremes of
arctic cold and tropical heat.

The influence of temperature on the animal economy explains to us why certain
species remain cantoned in a chain of mountains, without being able to spread
abroad into analogous localities. We know that the temperature decreases by
reason of the elevation of the soil ; and that, in consequence, animals which live at
considerable elevations could not descend into the low plains to reach other
mountains without traversing countries where the temperature is much superior
to that of their ordinary habitation.

202 THE REASON WHY :

" What means the bull, unconscious of his strength, to play
the coward, and flee before such a feeble thing as man ?"— BLAI&

606. Why are, the largest quadrupeds found in Africa, and
the largest reptiles in America?

Africa abounds in dry deserts, and is the most luxurious as to its
vegetable productions, which circumstances are favourable to the
growth of such animals as elephants, rhinoceri, and hippopotami.
The vast swamps which border the great American rivers naturally
favour the development of the reptile order, and there abound
the largest species and the greatest variety.

607. What relation exists between the elevation of temperature
in different zoological regions, and the organic perfection of the
animals inhabiting them ?

In the hottest climates the animals are found most to approach
man ; and those which in each great zoological division possess the
organization the most complex, and the faculties most developed ;
whilst in the polar regions we meet only with beings occupying a
rank but little elevated in the zoological series. The apes, for
example, are limited to the hottest parts of the two continents ; it
is the. same with parrots amon^ birds ; the crocodile and tortoise
amongst reptiles ; and of land-crabs amongst the Crustacea — all
animals the most perfect in their respective classes.

608. Wliij may we infer that animals are ignorant of the
strength which they possess ?

Because if animals knew their strength, it would be impossible
to harness the horse to a vehicle, or drive an ox to the slaughter.
It is the fact of man being able to acquire knowledge, and animals
being incapable, which gives the former that power over the latter
by which their movements are made subservient to his will.

609. Why are the fiercer preying animals generally solitary
in their habits ?

Because their nature, but for this instinct, would lead them to
exert their cornbativeness upon each other, and so extinguish
their own species.

NATURAL HISTOiiT. 203

" So dismal and amazing a devastation, as in all the circum
stances of it, is scarcely to be paralleled in history." — TILLOTSOX.

" That trample down the flowers and brush the dew." — DRYUEN.

Because, also, their chief purpose in creation seems to have been
to act as checks upon the redundancy of other animals, or as
scavengers clearing away the offal left upon the earth's surface.
To this end their solitariness contributes by spreading their
numbers over a wider surface, and with greater equality.

610. Why are carnivorous animals, and the larger quadrupeds,
less prolific than other species of the animal kingdom ?

If the number of carnivorous animals were excessive, their
rapacity would devastate the earth, while the larger quadrupeds
would desolate the land by trampling down vegetation, and by
the enormous quantity they would consume.

611. It should also be observed that these two classes have no natural enemies to
contend with ; the sanguinary character of the one, and the bulk of the other,
securing them from violence. Of herbivorous and other animals essential to man,
either as food, or for his other purposes, the increase Is surprising, and exactly
proportioned to his necessities and to the means the earth affords for their
subsistence ; and this rule applies equally to the wild districts, where the savage
tribes, in supporting their existence, check the exuberance of what would
otherwise be an evil rather than a blessing.

612. Why do animals usually seize their prey by the throat ?

Because their instinct guides them to select some vital part, or
at all events some part where death can be caused in the most
summary manner.

The weasel tribe divide the blood-vessels in the side of the neck,
even of animals much larger than themselves, with as much
accuracy and precision as if they had carefully studied the
anatomical structure of their prey ; and though the larger cats
throw themselves on the backs of those animals which they are
unable to beat to the ground by the force of their spring,
they tear the muscles of those parts on which the power of
escape of their prey depends, and thus bring it most easily to
the ground, when they speedily dispatch it, by lacerating the
vital parts.

204 THE REASON WHY :

" First take his head, then tell the reason why ;
Stand not to find him guilty by your laws :
You easier shall with him your quarrel try,
Dead than alive, who hath the better cause."—

613. Why do animals hunt amicably in company, a/nd
quarrel immediately the pursuit is over ?

Because the temporary association is generally occasioned by
the pressing calls of hunger, and by an instinct which leads
individuals to unite their strength for accomplishing an act of
rapine or of bloodshed. While engaged in this pursuit, good
fellowship continues ; but when the booty is obtained, all
community is dissolved, and they either quarrel over their prey,
or at once disperse.

614. Hyenas, wild dogs, wolves, jackals, and the hunting leopards, are all
striking and familiar instances of such associations. So long as food can be supplied
by individual exertion, each appears to provide for itself; but when food becomes
scarce, or a herd of peaceful antelopes are passing on their migration, they
instantaneously unite into bands, and commence a simultaneous attack upon
their prey.

615. How do we find that the safety of the weakest animals
is provided for as effectually as that of the strong?

TLe power of defence given to animals is peculiarly adapted to
meet those exegencies to which every species is more especially
exposed. The powers of protection are of two kinds : —

The first are offensive : these consist in the exertion of force, by
which assaults are made by weapons or instruments possessed by
the animal itself, and requiring his active exertion in their use ;
and such powers may obviously be employed either in offensive
or defensive warfare. The horns and the teeth of quadrupeds, the
stings and jaws of insects, and the poisonous fangs of reptiles,
are of this description.

The second class of defences are strictly passive ; they are as
effectual in most cases as the first class, but they require no
exertion of the animal to bring them into operation. We
accordingly find that these protections are given to the weakest
and most helpless animals.

616. The power which the toad has of inflating his body to prevent f.l}e possibility
of his Toeing swallowed by snake||

NATURAL HISTORY. 205

" The name of reason she obtains hy this :
But when by reason she the truth has found,
And standeth fixed, the Understanding is." — DAVIES.

Tht diffusion of an offensive smell by the pole-cat;

The emission of a black fluid by the cuttle-fish ;

The spiny hides of the hedge-hog and the porcupine, and the stinging hairs -which
envelope many caterpillars, are a few out of the innumerable instances of the
passive defences spoken of.

But there is still another property which does not come under either of these
definitions, namely, the astonishing vitality possessed by such beings as are most
exposed to injuries, and by which life is not only supported without food for an
amazing length of time, but dislocated portions grow and become new animals.

617. Why have quadruped* feet of small dimensions in
comparison with their bodies ?

Because when an animal is supported on four feet, the extent of
its base of sustentation, and therefore its stability, cannot be
augmented in a sensible degree by extending the magnitude of
the feet. In fact, to have done so would have increased their
weight and diminished their speed and activity, without
conferring upon them any counteracting advantage. The Creator,
therefore, while he gave bipeds stability by making them walk
on the soles of their feet, gave quadrupeds lightness and
swiftness by causing them to walk on their toes.

618. What is the difference between reason and instinct?

Reason means the comparison of one thing with another ; and
in its more general sense, as applicable to the thoughts and
conduct of man, it means the comparison of that which he purposes
to do, with that experience in the past, either felt in himself or
learned from others, and the result of which comparison is to be
the guide of his actions.

Instinct, though possessed by man up to a certain point, is the
proper badge and characteristic of the lower animals. Taken in
its general sense, it means the capacity which is within ; win h
borrows nothing from comparison and cannot piotifc by experience ;
but acts from the impulse of perfect objects on its organs of sense ;
also is indifferent to, and ignorant oij the past and the future.

206 THE REASOX WHY :

" But honest instinct comes a volunteer,
Sure never to o'ershoot, but just to hit;
While still too wide or short is human wit." — POPE.

The laws which govern reason are moral laws ; instinct is alone
under physical influence. A. moral law is given to man only
because man alone has a moral nature, i.e., a nature distinct from
his physical nature. The lower animals have only a physical law,
which they strictly fulfil. Man is said to be the only ungrateful
being which God has created, because, having received a moral
nature, he frequently choosos to follow the law of physical nature
only : ignoring, or openly disobeying, the law of his moral
being.

619. Of instinct we can know nothing further than that it is a name which we give
to those movements and actions of anim Is of which we can give no explanation.
The word instinct, though we can hardly avoid using it, is never anything else than
a subterfuge or our ignorance of the means by which any action of an animal is
brought about ; and we may rest assured that natural actions are no more per-
formed without means in the unexplained cases, than in the explained ones.*

620. Why will one, species of cmimal allow the young of
another species to suckle it ?

Because it has been most beautifully and providentially ordered
that the process of suckling should afford pleasure to tht
parent. So that when a dam has been deprived of its own
offspring, it derives some amount of gratification from the
suckling of another.

621. Cats have been known to suckle hares ; pigs to give nurture to puppies ; and
cows to goats. It has even been asserted that human beings, exposed to death in
woods by unnatural parents, have been indebted to wild beasts for their nurture,
an occurrence which is not a whit more marvellous than animals of one species

' allowing the offspring of a species totally opposed to it in habits and instinct to
suckle them.

622. Why does the attachment between young animals and
their parents decline when the former arrive at maturity?

Because, if the affections were allowed to operate for a longer
period, the dispersion of animals, which is as essential as the
scattering of the seeds of plants, would be materially checked

• Partingtou's " Cyclopaedia."

NATURAL HISTORY. 207

O imitators, servyle bcastcs,

How have your tumultcs vyle
Full oi'tens rasde my collor vp,

And oftens made me smyle."— DRANT.

There are also physiological reasons, which relate to the health,
increase, and purity of the species ; and economical reasons
comprehending the means of subsistence.

623. Why is the faculty of imitation in animals sometimes
subservient to their necessities?

Doubtless, in the wilds of nature, many -instances of imitation
occur unobserved. An animal, unaccustomed to that habit, may,
in great extremity, climb a tree in search of prey ; or an herbivorous
animal may dig into the earth to find roots. This may arise, either
from imitation, or from a latent instinct called into operation only
under the promptings of extreme hunger.

But there are evidences of animals in the domestic state frequently
imitating some action they have witnessed, when extremity compels
them to do so. Thus a dog will attempt to turn the handle of a door,
and sometimes successfully, when he wishes to obtain egress ; and
a cat, seeing a person eating, will extend its paw, as a human
being would his hand, for food.

624. The following is a remarkable account of a dog obtaining food by ringing a
bell : — At a convent in France, twenty paupers were served with a dinner at a
certain hour in the day. A dog belonging to the convent did not fail to be present
at this meal to receive the odds and ends which were now and then thrown down to
him. The guests, however, were poor and hungry, and of course not very waste
ful ; so that their pensioner did little more than scent the feast, of which he woul.1
fain have partaken. The portions were served by a person at the ringing of a bell,
and delivered out by what in a religious house is called a tour, which is ;i machine,
like the section of a cask, that, by turning round upon a pivot, exhibits whatever
is placed upon the converse side without discovering the person who moves it.

One day this dog, who had only received a few scraps, waited till the paupera
•were all gone, with the rope in his mouth, and rung the bell. This stratagem
succeeded. He repeated it the next day, with the same good fortune. At length
the cook, finding that twenty-one portions were delivered out instead of twenty,
was determined to discover the trick, in doing which he had no great difficulty ;
for, lying hidden, noticing the paupers as they came in, in great regularity, for
their different portions, and finding that there was no intruder except the dog,
he began to suspect the real truth, which he was soon confirmed in when he saw
the dog wait with great deliberation till the visitors were all gone, and then pull
\he bell The matter was related to the community ; and, to reward the dojf

THE REASON WHY :

What is his creation less

Than a capacious reservoir of means

Form'd for his use, and ready at his will." — COWI-KU.

for his h /enuity, he was permitted to ring1 every day for his dinner, when a
mass of bioken victuals was purposely served out to him.

To illustrate further the use of the imitative faculties under extremities, we
have only to adduce the simulation of death, practised by so many species, -with
intent to weaken the instinctive vigilance of their foes or prey. The fax has been
known to personate a defunct carcase, when sin-prised in a hen-house ; and it has
even suffered itself to be carried out by the brush, and thrown upon a dung-heap,
whereupon it instantly rose and took to its heels, to the astounding dismay of its
human dupe. In like manner, this animal has submitted to be carried for more
than a mile, swung over the shoulder, with its head hanging ; till, at length, it
effected its release by suddenly biting. The same animal has been known, when
hunted to crouch exposed upon a rock of nearly its own colour, in the midst of a
river, and so to evade detection by its pursuers ; and we perpetually hear such cases
brought forward as decisive proofs of its extreme sagacity.

625. How are the wisdom and goodness of Providence displayed
in the relation which subsists between the external organs of an
animal, by which it procures its food, and the internal organs by
which the food is digested ?

This beautiful relation is observable in several species of the
animal creation. Birds of prey, by their talons and beaks, are
qualified to seize and devour many species, both of birds and
quadrupeds. The construction of the stomach agrees exactly with
the form of the members. The gastric juice of a bird of prey,
an owl, a falcon, or a kite, act upon the animal fibre alone ; it will
not act upon seeds or grasses. .

On the other hand, the conformation of the mouth of the sheep
or the ox is suited for browsing upon herbage. Nothing about these
animals is fitted for the pursuit of living prey. Accordingly it has
been found by experiments, tried with perforated balls, that the
gastric juice of ruminating animals speedily dissolves vegetables,
but makes no impression upon animal substances.

626. How does the structure of the jaw and teeth of variow
animals indicate the kinds of food upon which they subsist?

The form of teeth may easily be understood to indicate whether

NATURAL HISTORY 209

" For, ere the beech and elm have cast their leaf
Deciduous, when now November dark
Checks vegetation in the torpid plant,
Expos'd to his cold breath, the task begins." — COWPER.

they are designed for cutting or grinding. The relation of the jaw,
and the muscular forces by which it is moved, requires a closer
examination.

In herbivorous animals, which have to grind down their food by
constant trituration, the jaw is fixed to the skull, so as to allow
the former to have a rotatory movement ; but such a movement
would be useless to carnivorous animals, where the grinding operation
is not required.

In carnivorous animals the jaw is locked in the cavity of the
skull by ligaments, in the same manner as the parts of a hinge are
fixed together. The cavity is deep and elongated, and the
articulating surface of the jaw-bone corresponds, so that the joint
can have only a hinge-like motion.

627. This is remarkably conspicuous in the eordycles of the lower jaw of the sea-
otter. The jaw of the sea-wotf is composed of several pieces, instead of being one
entire bone ; and these pieces are connected by ligaments, so that a greater freedom
of motion is allowed, and the concussion to the brain arising from the reduction
of crabs, muscles, and other shell-fish upon which the animal feeds, is diminished,
the jar being broken by being divided over a number of bones.

628. IVTiy do some, animals undergo a state of torpor during
the winter ?

Because during the winter they cannot produce more heat than
is sufficient to raise their temperature from 20° to 26° above the
surrounding atmosphere. It follows, therefore, that while in the
hottest part of summer their temperature is nearly the same as
that of other warm-blooded animals, it falls to a much lower
point in the cold season ; and whenever the depression of
temperature attains a certain limit, the circulation and respiration
decrease in frequency and energy, so that the animal falls into a
state of torpor, or lethargic sleep, which continues until the
temperature of the atmosphere is sufficiently elevated to re-establish
the activity of the \ital functions.

210 THE REASON WHY:

" The miijra'ion of birds from a hotter to a colder country,
or a c Ider to a hotter, according to the seasons of the year, as
their nature is, I know not how to give an account of it, it is
so strange and admirable." — RAY.

629. Wliy are certain species of animals destined to perform their
functions only periodically ?

Because it has been allotted to them to check superfluities
and remove nuisances.

"When vegetation develops its vast powers of reproduction, there
issue forth from their winter retreats innumerable creatures that
live variously upon the roots, leaves, or seeds.

When the vitality of vegetation diminishes, the natural office of
these creatures ends ; and they return again to their torpid
condition.

During the season when animal existence is vigorous, and the
destinies of nature are being fulfilled, the great harvest of death
strews millions of bodies upon the face of nature. Then the
scavengers are busy day and night ; and either devour upon the
surface, or bury in the earth, those substances which would other
wise diffuse pestilential influences.

630. Wliy do some portions of the animal creation migrate?

For two reasons : first, the welfare of the migrating animal is
promoted by finding milder regions, and a continual supply of
food; second, the blessings of creation are thus diffused, by
seasonable visitations of creatures useful to man, to those localities
where he stands in need of them.

631. Had the Creator so willed, all these animals might have been organised so as
not to require a warmer or colder climate for the breeding or rearing of their young ;
but His will was, that some of His best gifts should thus oscillate, as it were,
between two points, that the benefit they conferred might be more widely dis
tributed, and not become the sole property of the inhabitants of one climate. Time
the all-wise and beneficent Being has so organised certain classes of animals, and
circumstanced them, as to be directed annually, by some pressing want, to seek
distant climates, and, after a certain period, to return again to their former quarters ;
am1 that this instinct should be productive of so much good to mankind, anJ, at
the same time, be necessary, under its piesent circumstances, for the preservation***
propagation of the species of these several animals.*

* Partington's " Cyclopaedia."

NATURAL HISTORY. 211

" The wisdom of the Deity, as testified in the works of
creation, surpasses all idea we have of wisdom, drawn from the
highest intellectual operations of the highest class of intelligent
beings with whom we are acquainted." — PALEV.

632. How is the wisdom of Providence, shown in so constituting
the lower animals that they can exist for a long time on & limited
supply of air and moisture ?

Because animals thus circumstanced would otherwise find it im
possible to exist during the long intervals that many of them are
periodically or occasionally enclosed in inaccessible places ; so
that when confined in solid rocks, or sealed up in the hearts
of trees, so long as the smallest quantity of air or moisture
is supplied them, they live for an indefinite period
of time.

633. One of the most remarkable accounts of the long duration of the vital prin
ciple in animals is mentioned by Ur. Silliman, who, on the authority of Professor
Eaton, ..of New York, states that the diluvial deposit through which the Erie canal
was made, contains ridges of hard compact gravel, and that on cutting through one
of these near Rome village, sixteen miles west of Utir.a, the workmen found several
hundreds of live molluscous animals. The workmen fried and ate them. He adds :
"I was assured they were taken alive forty-two feet deep in the deposit. Several of
the shells are now before me. The deposit is diluvial. These animals must have
been there from the time of the deluge ; for the earth in which they were is too
compact for them to have been produced by a succession of generations. These
fresh-water clans of three thousand years old precisely resemble the species which
now inhabit the fresh water of that district ; therefore the lives of these animals
have been greatly prolonged by their exclusion from light and air for more than
three thousand years." A toad was buried in a flower-pot for twenty years, and
when taken out was found to be healthy and increased in size. That snails can
exist for a long period by means of the exclusion of air and the retention of moisture,
which they are enabled to accomplish by a sort of door at the aperture of the shell,
has been proved by Mr. Simon, who mentions the circumstance of having had one
in his cabinet for fifteen years ; and, for aught he knew, it might have been in his
father's possession many years before, as it was in his collection of fossils. Speak
ing of this snail, he says it had come out four several times, in the presence of
different people, each of whom assured him that they saw it. A day or two
after this, he brought the identical shell, as he declared, into the presence of several
other persons, that they might 'try if the snail would again make its appearance.
After the shell had lain ten minutes in a glass of warm water, the snail began to
appear, and in five minutes more they perceived half the body fairly pushed out
from the cavity of the shell. It afterwards crawled about, erected its horns, an'l
se?med in perfect health.

812 THE REASON WHY I

" If chance at length he find a greensward smooth,
And faithful to the foot his spirits rise,
He chomps brisk his par-erecting steed,
And winds his way with pleasure and with ease." — COWPER.

634. Why are the ears of some animals turned forwards, and
those of others backwards ?

The external ears of beasts of prey, as lions, tigers, and wolves,
have their trumpet-part or concavity standing forward, to seize
the sounds which are before them — namely, the sounds of the
animals which they pursue or watch. The ears of animals of flight
are turned backward, to give notice of the approach of an enemy
from behind, that he may not steal upon them unawares.
(See 392.)

635. Why, in animals of great speed; is the shoulder connected to
the trunk by the agency of muscles, and not by a collar-bone ?

Because, if animals possessing great speed had been formed with
a collar-bone, it could not have withstood the shock from the
descent of the whole weight of the animal when tbroTra forwards ;
and even though the structure of the fore legs had been as powerful
as the posterior extremities, they would have suffered fracture or
dislocation. This beautiful provision not only serves to diminish
the shock of descending, but contributes to the elasticity of the
anterior extremities.

636. Why are the knee-joints of the hind ler/8 of most swimming
animals tunud round, as in a person who is knock-kneed ?

Because by this mode of articulation the hind legs form a kind
of swimming sail ; and, in consequence of this they act more
horizontally, and thereby impel the animal forward in the water
with more velocity and with less exertion.

637. Animals which arc constructed principally for walking on the land make the
chief exertion with the fore feet when they swim ; and, therefore, they are sooner
fatigued than when they move even faster upon land ; hut quadruped animals
having a regular swimming habit, impel themselves chiefly by means of the hind
*eet, and on this account they are no more latigued in water than tbay are on laud.

NATURAL HISTORY.

213

" Whose snout hath rooted up

The fruitful vineyard of the commonwealth."

BEAUMONT A.ND FLETCHI

The reason of this will be readily understood by those who are aware how ir.-jch
more easily a boat is pulled by oars nearly on a level with the water than when th«
oars have to dip deeply into the water, and are used near the bows.

638. Why have certain species of animals sharp-pointed snouts ?

To enable them to seek their
nourishment from the ground.
Thus the tapir species, nearly
allied to the hog, have
their noses much prolonged in
front of the mouth, constitut
ing a little trunk, capable of
lengthening and shortening
itself. The shrews and small
insectivorous animals, nearly
allied to the shrew, but
formed to swim with ease, and

to live at the bottom of burrows hollowed in the banks of rivers,

also exhibit a similar conformation. (See 466.)

639. Why is the fur of some animals changed in the winter from
a dark to a white colour?

Because, although the darker colours absorb heat to a greater
degree than the lighter ones, so that dark-coloured clothing is much
warmer than light-coloured, where the wearer is exposed to the sun's
rays, the radiation of heat is also much greater from dark than from
light-coloured surfaces, and consequently the animal heat from
within is more completely retained by a white than by a dark
covering. The temperature of an animal, therefore, having whita
fur, would continue more equable than that of one clothed in
darker colours, although the latter would experience a greater
degree of warmth when exposed to the sun's rays. Another reason
may be that the mottled browns, which form the principal colours of
the animals alluded to, although well adapted for their concealment

214 THE REASON WHY :

" Nor with less waste the whisker"1 d vermin race,
A countless clan, destroy the lowland caue." — GKAINOKR.

amongst the brown heaths and fern of the summer and autumn,
would be too conspicuous by contrast for the safety of the animals
amongst the winter snow.

640. Why are certain quadrupeds — such as the argali
(mountain sheep of Armenia), the hare, and the sable, furnished
with a mixed coating of hair and wool ?

Because, while wool preserves the animal heat in winter, an outef
covering of hair is required to throw off moisture ; and without the
latter these animals would suffer both from wet, and from the
underwood through which they have to force their path.

641. Why is there so much bleating and confusion among sheep
after the ewes and lambs have been shorn?

After this operation, neither the dams nor the young are able to
distinguish one another as before. The embarrassment arises
not alone from the loss of the fleece, which may occasion
an alteration in their appearance, but from a defect in the odour,
by which animals discriminate each individual personally. The
confusion is also the greater on account of the strong scent of the
tar or other substance wherewith they are newly marked.

642. Why are some species of animals furnished with bristly
hairs, called whiskers ?

Because the skin of the upper lip, from which these hairs grow,
is so very sensitive as to feel the slightest bending or touch of any
one of those hairs ; and by this means they act as very important
instruments in keeping the animal free from contact with obstacles,
while it is advancing with its eye fixed intently on its prey.

643. Why is the situation of the nose eminently adapted to its
uses in all animals ?

Being turned downwards in all animals to which smell is
important, it receives the ascending effluvia. Being situated newt

NATURAL HISTORT.

215

" From forests, fields, from rivers, and from ponds,
All that have webs, or cloven -footed ones,
To the grand Ark together friendly cume,
Whose several species were too Isng to name."-— DRAYTOW.

ih,e mouth, it is ever active and watchful in determining the propei
(Dualities of food ; and, being located near the eyes, it is instantly
directed to objects which they examine, and assists them in
discriminating the qualities of objects.

644. How may the species of animals be determined by an
inspection of the detached organs ?

It is from the correspondence between single characters, and
general plans of structures, that the nature of the whole
animal is determined, from a single fragment of its skeleton,
or from one of its teeth. In no animal is the body made up
of a number of disconnected parts, united, as it were, at hazard ;
for all its organs hare a more or less intimate connection with
each other, so that there is a kind of harmony amongst them all,
and between every part and the entire structure.

645. Thus, the simple Inspection of the
tooth represented in the accompanying
figure, suffices to disclose to the scientific
natui'alist the following facts regarding the
animal to which it belonged. In the first
place, thei-e must have been a bony frame'
work, in which this tooth was planted, and
which gave support to the rest of the body ;
and as this internal framework does ti3\
exist in any other animals than those of the
vertebrated series, we know that the animal
in question had the brain and spinal card,
the complete set of organs of the senses, the
rod blood, &c., &c., which belong to th«
sub-kingdom only.

Further, there are certain characters about the roots of this tooth which enable
the anatomist to fee 1 certain that it must hare been implanted in a deep socket,
•which is only the case in mammals and reptiles ; and he may further determine
from them, that the animal belonged to the former, and that it must hare, therefore,
possessed the organization which is peculiar to it.

Again, by the form of the crown of the tooth, it is easily shown that it was
destined to divide animal flesh ; and that it consequently belonged to a carnivorous
quadruped. To digest the flesh, the animal must have had a stomach and intestinal

216 THE REASON WHY:

" He hath so well beset his ordinance,
That species of thinges and progressions
Shullen endurcn by successions,
And not eterne, withouten any lie." — CHAUCEE.

canal formed upon a certain plan ; and, in order to obtain its prey, it must have had
appropriate organs of locomotion and prehension. Its extremities must have
terminated in separate toes, and these must have been armed with claws. The
limbs must have been furnished with very powerful muscles, to enable the animal
to give chase to its prey, or to spring upon it unawares, and afterwards drag it to
its den. The head, also, must have been connected with the spinal column by
ligaments and muscles of great power, attached to elevated portions of the
vertebrae, in order that it might have the power of lifting the heavy bodies which the
animal desired to remove. The lower jaw must have been connected with the
upper by a hinge, admitting but a scraper-like action, by which the edges of the
cutting teeth were constantly kept sharp ; and the muzzle must not have been very
protruberant, otherwise the strength of the muscles which raise the jaw would
be applied at a great disadvantage. The cranial cavity must have been com
paratively large, in order that the size of the brain might correspond with tho
degree of vitality which the habits of the animal required. By inferences of this
kind, and under the guidance of our knowledge of the forms at present existing, all
the leading peculiarities of an animal may be deduced from any characteristic por
tion of it ; for if any part essential to the action of the remainder had been deficient,
the animal could not have maintained its existence.

646. We have heard an anecdote related of Cuvier, the great
naturalist. Some hair-brained students had determined to play
a trick upon him, and to try the strength of his nerves.
Accordingly one of them was disguised in a cow's skin, and
concealed under a table in the dessecting-roorn..: At a moment
when the Baron was engaged in closely examining some portion
of anatomical structure, a loud roar came from beneath the table.
The Baron turned round and inquired, " Who's there ?" A
voice replied, " I am the devil, and mean to devour you !" The
Baron looked down, and seeing a cloven hoof projecting, calmly
proceeded to classify the animal : " Ah ! divided hoof, herbivorous
teeth, ruminating stomach ; Class I., Order II., Sub-genus III.,
Species, Bos taurus — you can't eat flesh /" and he kicked tho
discomfited trickster from his hiding-place !

NATURAL HISTORY, 217

For when I see how they do mount on hie,

Waving their outstretched wings with libertie,

Then do I think, how bird-like in a cage [MIRROR FOR

My life I leade, and grief can never swage."— MAGISTRATES.

CLASS II. —A VES.

ORDER I.— ACCIPETRES.

647. Why is the first order of birds catted accipetres ?

From the Latin ad and capio to seize. The name has been
applied to this order to denote the rapacious character of its
members. From the same root we derive accipitrine, as the
accipitrine order of birds, or the rapacious order. The name
implies takers by force.

The accipetres have a hooked bill, the upper mandible near the
base being extended on each side beyond the inferior. The genera
include the vulture, the falcon or hawk, and the strix or owl, &c.

648. Why do birds of prey buUd their nests upon lofty and
barren rocks?

Their predatory nature seems to impel them to a species of
isolation ; they are the banditti of creation ; and, like them,
they affect the wildest retreats from which to issue, and hunt
down their prey.

An elevated situation gives them a better view of their quarry ;
and the barrenness of the soil protects their eggs from the reptiles
which would make them their prey.

Cliffs overhanging the sea, deep lakes or rivers, afford to them
facilities for taking fish, of which the falcon tribe in particular
are very fond.

649. Why are the legs and thighs of birds of prey shorter and
more robust than those of other species f

It is by means of these chiefly that they strike and hold their
prey ; the shortness and muscular development of the lower
extremities giving greater power to their possessor in the use of
the other members.

10

218 THE REASON WHY :

" Their proud eyes do not see

The radiance of my helmet there, whose beames had instantly
Thruste backe, and all these ditches filled with carrion of their flesh,
If Agamemnon, had been kinder." — CHAPMAN.

650. Those who remember the exhibition a few years since, of a certain dwarf
called Hervio Nano— (Harvey Leach) — will have seen a remarkable illustration of
this fact. That strangely formed individual, whose legs were not more than
eighteen or twenty inches long, but whose arms, head, and chest, were finely
developed, contrived with the greatest ease to scramble — somewhat like a lame
fly — along the front of a proscenium and across the ceiling of a theatre, by grasping
the inequalities of the moulding only. "The Black Dwarf" of Sir Walter Scott
•was a being thus formed, and was, by the great novelist, admitted to be a mere
transcript from the life.

651. Why are. kirds of prey generally destitute of the power of

The gift of song would be of no advantage to the accipetres ;
they generally live in solitary grandeur, or lie concealed under
circumstances where musical notes would prove a detriment, as
serving to warn off their victims.

652. There would appear to be some connection in this respect between the
ruminating animals and the song birds, as distinguished from the carnivorous
mammalia and birds of prey. The voice, if any, of ruminants is gentle, and not
unpleasing, like that of song-birds; while that of the predacious tribes of both
classes is either disagreeable or terrifying. There is something unamiable,
at the very least, about a bird of prey which ill assorts with our ideas of music,
and the warblings of the fields and groves. If the gift of melody had been at our
disposal we should certainly have decided to withhold it from that species .of being,
whose career, however necessary in the scale of creation, is one of terror and
rapacity. A song from the vulture — whatever might be the extent of its vocal
powers— would be the last thing asked for.*

653. Why are some birds of prey destined to eat carrion only ?
Because in doing this they act as scavengers to the countries which

they inhabit ; clearing the earth of that carrion which, if suffered
to remain, might cause infectious diseases among the people of the
country.

654. An instance of the manner in which the carrion eaters perform the operation
of devouring dead carcases, in obedience to their instincts, is affordeu in the
following description given by the Naturalist Wilson: — "A horse had dropped
iown in the street in convulsions, and dying, it was dragged out to Hampstead*

• Fartiugton'g " Cyclopaedia."

NATURAL HISTORY. 21.9

On his bosom sat

Tv/o ruftnres, digging through his carle of fat

Into his liver, with their crooked beaks."— CHAPMAN.

near Charleston, and skinned. The ground for a hundred yards around it was
black with cart ion croics ; many sat on the tops of sheds, fences, and houses
within sight ; sixty or eighty on the opposite side of a small run. I counted at
one time two hundred and thirty -seven, but I believe there were more, besides
several in the air over my head, and at a distance. I A'enturcd cautiously within
thirty yards of the carcase, where three or four dogs and twenty or thirty vultures
were busy tearing and devouring. Seeing them take no notice I ventured nearer,
till I was within ten yards, and sat down on the bank. Still they paid little
attention to me. The dogs, being sometimes accidentally flapped with the wings of
the vultures, would growl and snap at them, which would occasion them to spring
up for a moment, but they immediately gathered in again. I remarked the vultures
frequently attack each other, fighting with their claws or heels, striking like a
cock, with open wings, and* fixing their claws in each others heads. The females,
and I believe the males likewise, made a hissing sound, with open mouth, exactly
resembling that produced by thrusting a red-hot poker into water, and frequently
a snuffling like a dog clearing his nostrils, as I suppose they were theirs. On
observing that they did not heed me I stole so close that my feet were within one
yard of the horse's legs, and again sat down. They all slid aloof a few feet ; but,
seeing me quiet, they soon returned as before. As they were often disturbed by
the dogs, I ordered the latter home ; my voice gave no alarm to the vultures. As
soon as the dogs departed, the vultures crowded in such numbers, that I counted at
one time thirty-seven on and around the carcase, with several within, so that
scarcely an inch of it was visible. Sometimes one would come out with a large
piece of the entrails, which in a moment was surrounded by several others, who
tore it in fragments, and it soon disappeared. They kept up the hissing
occasionally. Some of them, having their whole legs and heads covered with
blood, presented a most savage aspect. Still, as the dog.s advanced, I would order
them away, which seemed to gratify the vultures ; and one would pursue another
to within a foot or two of the spot where I was sitting. Sometimes I observed
them stretching their neck along the ground, as if to press the food downwards."

655. Why is the vulture a cowardly bird, while the eagle is full
of courage ?

Because, while a character of fearlessness and daring are proper
and necessary for the eagle, whose instinct leads him to attack live,
and often large animals, it is in no way required in the case of the
vulture, contented as he is to feed upon carrion, and seldom
attacks his prey, until weakness or death has rendered it
unresisting.

556. There is a variety of the vulture tribe to which these remarks do not strictly
apply. The bearded vulture (Oyptetus barbatus) partakes somewhat of the nature

220

THE REASON WHY :

" Ye dregs of baseness, vultures amongst men,
That tyre upon the hearts of generous spirits."

BEAUMONT AND FLETCHEH.

and character of the eagle. Its appearance is less unpleasing than that of the
other vultures. It is nicer in its food— only eating offal when it can procure
nothing better. It is rather courageous ; but is less widely distributed than the
common vulture — the scavengers of creation. The bearded vulture is limited to a
few countries.

I

657. Why are the head and neck of vultures denuded of
feathers ?

Because, by this provision^
these parts are prevented
from being rendered foul by
the carrion with which they
come in contact when the
vulture is glutting itself
with food. Instinct also
guides the vulture to fre
quently cleanse its plumage'

658. Wliy does the vulture, whose food is only met with upon the
ground, soar to such a height as to be lost to view ?

The prey of this bird being offall, or carrion, it is of necessity
sparely and widely scattered. The high flight of the vulture,
joined with its wondrous powers of scent and vision, enable it
to take in a very wide extent of country, and the more readily to
obtain the object of its search.

659. It rises higher and higher till its enormous bulk is lost to human view, but
though beyond the sphere of man's vision the telescopic eye of the bird is at
work. Th» moment any animal sinks to earth in death, the distant vulture
detects it. When the hunter brings down some large quadruped beyond his
powers to remove, and leaves it to obtain assistance, on his return, however
speedy, he finds it surrounded with a band of vultures, where not one was to bo
quarter of an hour before.

NATURAL HISTORY. 22]

Truth, which itself is light, does darkness shun,
And the true eaglet safely dares the sun." — DIIYDEN.

600. Why is the sarcoramphus, or king vulture, so called?

From the circumstance frequently observed by naturalists, that
all other species of vultures defer to it, giving it the preference ; and,
in the case where a number of them have alighted upon a carcase,
standing quietly by until "his majesty" has gorged himself.

6G1. This is particularly related by Mr. Edwards in his " Voyage up the
Amazon." That traveller accounts for the fact by stating that the king vulture is
greatly superior to every other species, both in strength and courage. It has a less
repulsive appearance, and when caught has been tamed and domesticated.

662. Why is the eagle denominated the king of birds ?

Because it not only possesses great size, strength, and courage, but
is in the habit of soaring to a great height in the sky ; and of
frequenting localities which have a great deal of wild grandeur and
sublimity about them.

663. // hy have flying eagles little power of attacking prey that
lie immediately under them ?

Because the eagle cannot drop perpendicularly upon its prey, but
always does so in an oblique curve, by means of which it both
delivers its whole impetus upon the prey, and prevents unpleasant
collision with the ground.

664. The following description of the white-headed eagle is given by Audubon,
the celebrated naturalist • — " The eagle is seen perched, in an erect attitude, on the
highest summit of the tallest tree, by the margin of the broad stream ; his
glistening but stern eye looks over the vast expanse. lie listens attentively to every
sound that comes to his quick ear from afar, glancing now and then on the earth
beneath, lest even the light tread of the fawn should pass unheard; his mate is
perched on the opposite side, and should all be tranquil and silent, warns him by
a cry to continue patient. At this well-known call the male partly opens his broad
wings, inclines his body a little downwards, and answers to her voice in tones
not unlike the laugh of a maniac. The next moment he resumes his erect
attitude, and again all around is silent. Ducks of many species, the teal, the
widgeon, the mallard, and others, are seen passing with great rapidity, and following
the course of the current; but the eagle heeds them not; they are at that time
beneath his notice. The next moment, however, the wild, trumpet-like sound of a
yet distant, but approaching swan is heard. A shriek from the female eagle comes
across the stream, for she is as fully alert as her mate. The latter suddenly shakes

THE REASON WHY :

" We think tlie rarile-tpinge.d pride

Of sky-aspiring and ambitious thoughts,
With rival-hating envy, set you on
To wake our peace." SHAKSPKUK.

the whole of his body, and with a few touches of his bill, aided by the action of his
cutijular muscles, arranges his plumage in an instant. The snow-white bird is now in
signt, her long neck is stretched forward ; her eye is on the watch, vigilant as that
of her enemy ; her large wings seem with difficulty to support the weight of ha
body, although they flap incessantly. So irksome do her exertions seem, that her
very legs are spread beneath her tail to aid her in her flight. She approaches,
however. The eagle lias marked her for his prey. As the swan is passing the
dreaded pair, the male bird starts from his perch, in full preparation for the chase,
with an awful scream, that to the swan's ear brings more terror than the report of
a large duck-gun.

" Now is tlie morrent to witness the display of the eagle's powers. He glides
through the air like a falling star, and, like a flash of lightning, comes upon the
timorous quarry, which now, in agony and despair, seeks, by various mano?nvres,
to elude the prasp of his cruel talons. It mounts, doubles, and would willingly
plunge into t je stream, were it not prevented by the eagle, which, long possessed
of the knowledge that by such a stratagem the swan might escape him, forces it to
remain in the air by striking it with his talons from beneath. The hope of escape
is soon given up by the swan. It has already become much weakened, and its
strength fails at the sight of the courage and" swiftness of its antagonist. Its last
gasp is about to escape, when the ferocious eagle strikes with his talons the under
side of its wing, and with irresistible power forces the bird to fall in a slanting
direction upon the nearest shore.

" It is then that the cruel spirit of this dreaded enemy of the feathered race may
be seen ; whilst exulting over his prey, he for the first time breathes with ease. He
presses down his powerful feet, and drives his sharp claws deeper than ever into
the heart of the dying swan. He shrieks with delight as he feels the last
convulsions of his prey, which has now sunk under his unceasing efforts to render
death as painfully felt as it can possibly be. The female has watched every
movement of her mate ; and if she did not assist him in capturing the swan, it was
not from want of will, but merely that she felt full assurance that the power
and courage of her lord were quite sufficient for the deed. She now sails to the
spot where he eagerly waits her, and, when she has arrived, they together turn the
breast of the luckless swan upwards, and fill themselves with gore "

665. Why are an eagle and a fish sometimes found deadt and
tightly fastened together on the sea-shore f

Because the bird on these occasions has struck its talons with such
force into its prey that it cannot extricate them ; and the weight of
the fish proving too heavy, the eagle is dragged down under the
waves of the sea, and thus drowned.

NATURAL HISTORY. 223

JEt/e-tHHf/ht how them dost me deliver

My endlcsse ;id and comfort-giver." — SIR P. SIDNEY.

666. Why are the eyes of eagles furnished with nictating
membranes ?

Because sight is the chief sense upon which eagles depend for
their supply of food ; and in order to retain this organ as perfect as
possible, nature has accommodated it with this provision, which not
only tends to keep the eyes clean, but also shields them from strong
light when in sunny altitudes, and renders them more sensitive of
that reflected from below.

667. The nictating membrane, which has already been repeatedly mentioned, is a
most curious apparatus, with which animals of very opposite natures are endowed,
but all of which have their eyes liable to certain conditions that render the pro
tection afforded by this curious organ absolutely essential. The organ consists of
a thin semi-transparent membrane, which, when at rest, lies in the inner corner of
the eye, folded up like a drawn eu'-taia. By the combined action of two muscles,
it is capable of being drawn out, so us to cover the whole front of the eye-ball, like
a curtain . and its own elasticity restores it to the corner in which it previously
rested. The action of this beautiful membrane is very instantaneous. Wherevei
there are zoological gardens, it may be observed with great effect in the eyes of tht
Great South American Eagle.

This membrane is also found in the eyes of most quadrupeds, birds, and fishes ,
but its development and use are beautifully proportioned to the necessities of each
animal. It is largely developed, as already stated, in those birds of prey which
seek sunny altitudes, and are said to " gaze at the sun." When thus apparently
gazing upward from their rocky heights, the membrane is probably drawn, to modify
the force of the intense rays.

It is found, also, in the camel and the ostrich, because those aninv .s, being
frequenters of the sandy deserts, are liable to have their eyes injured y clouds
of sand.

Many animals that obtain their food by pushing their heads among c ranches of
trees, bushes, rushes, and grass, are also provided with it.

.j .s also found in fishes, which, having no eye-lids, because moisture is abun
dantly supplied to their eyes by the element in which they live, yet need an
occasional protection from sea-clouds of sand, and drifting marine vegetation ; and
also from excess of light, when they approach the surface, quitting the depths
where the light is greatly modified.

Man has no such membrane, because he has no occasion to thrust his head into
places which endanger his eyes ; an d when, in pursuit of sport, he enters the woods
and jungles, he is able, by the momentary application of his hands, to guard LJ
eyes from Injury.

224 THE REASON WHY :

" With ivingy speed outstrip the eastern wind,
And leave the breezes of the mom behind." — ADWSON.

668. Why do eagles drive away their young ?

Because, as these birds subsist by prey, they would soon
produce a famine among their race did many of them dwell ra
the same district. Therefore, the old birds drive aivay their
young at a certain age from their boundaries.

669. Why are the wings of eagles broad, and hollow in their
under surfaces?

Because the eagle, when in search of its prey, floats in the air
until its kaen eye discovers that of which it is in quest ; by this
peculiarity of structure, therefore, the wings can take a more
powerful hold on the air, and the whole body is enabled to float
with little labour.

670. Why are the wings of the eagle, though powerful, shorter
than those of the falcon, both being birds of prey ?

Because falcons catch their prey while on the wing, and therefore
have the faculty of rapid and uninterrupted flight ; but the eagle
strikes its victim to the ground, or the waters, and aftenvards rises
ivith it, thus requiring strengthin a greater degree than rapidity.

671. Why, in the eye of the falcon, crane, and other birds of
pieiving sight, has the flattened optic nerve one of its branches
folded info numerous plaits ?

By this arrangement, the extent of surface is considerably
augmented, and the powers of vision proportionally increased.

672. Why are the eyes of birds and animals who seek their
prey by night, or in the dark, larger than those of other animals ?

Because the large eye of the nocturnal animal admitting more
light, and taking in a wider field of view than a small one, enable*
the animal to find the object of its search more readily.

NATURAL HISTORY. 225

" Tt was the owl that shrick'd, the fatal bellman, which gives
the stern'st good night." — SIIAKSPKUE.

673. Animals that depend chiefly upon the eye, and especially if they be fenders
in the night, or in places to which little light can come, invariably have the eyes
very large. This is the case with owls, and other nocturnal birds. The same law
is observed even in connexion with the inhabitants of the sea. The surface Jishet
usually have the eyes small; and they get gradually larger, till, when we
come to those which inhabit the depths, and yet are active, feeding upon other
fishes, their eyes are very large — of which we have an example in the star-gazers.

674. Why are, the, eyes of nocturnal birds placed nearer to each
other than the eyes of birds which fly by day ?

Because, with nocturnal birds, the design is that they should
have the light concentrated in front of them, in order that they may
avoid flying against obstacles, which, under a different arrangement,
they would inevitably do in the darkness of the night.

But in birds that fly by day, their range being of greater extent,
it is intended to render their vision effective c^er as great an area
as possible, that they may command the expanse around them.

675. Why has the eye of the owl and other nocturnal birds a
shining substance deposited at the bottom of the eyeball ?

Because this substance, by reflecting the ray*, of light, endows
the eye with power to distinguish objects in th? dark.

676. Why are owls enabled to turn their heads mind in almost
a complete circle without moving their bodies ?

The owl has been gifted with this capability in order to
compensate for the absence of motion in the eye, the globe of which
is immoveably fixed in its socket by a strong elastic hard
cartilaginous case, in form of a truncated cone.

677. Why is the head of the owl so disproportionately large f

This is partly duo to the looseness of the plumage by which it is
covered and is further caused by the existence, between t^e i*rrw
10*

22(j THE REASON WHY :

" Ye solemn warblers of the gloomy night,

That rest in lightning— blasted oaks the day,
Thro' the black mantles take your slow-pac'd flight,
Rending the silent wood with shrieking lay." — CHATTERTON.

and outer tables (or bony layers) of the skull, of a number of large
cells, which communicate with the organ of hearing, and render
that sense more acute.

678. We find in owls an external ear, or conch, which exists in no other birds ;
this is concealed by the feathers, which are arranged in a sort of hollow cone around it,
and, in some species, it is covered with a sort of lid, which the bird has the power
of opening or closing at pleasure.

679. IVliy do owls possess feeble powers of flight ?

Because they are not intended to obtain their prey by swiftness
of pursuit, but by the stealthiness of their approach ; and the
remarkable powers of other functions are therefore counterbalanced
by the comparative incapacity of this particular one.

680. From the nature of their food, which is chiefly the different species of mice
and other small and destructive quadrupeds, of which they capture vast numbers,
owls may be regarded as the most serviceable of wild birds ; and those species which
are of the greatest use are so far from timid or retiring in their manner, that they
-esort to farm-yards, barns, and other places, and perform their services even iu
spite of the persecutions which they meet with from the thoughtless.

681. WTiy is the plumage of nocturnal birds of prey tapered
off to a fine and soft point ?

Because this structure enables them to glide noiselessly through
the air, and even among the leaves and sprays of the thick forests,
without disturbing their prey.

682. Why are the wings of the serpent-eater, or secretary bird,
with hard points ?

Because in attacking serpents, it covers its breast with one wing
as a shield, to protect itself from the bite of the reptile, and strikes
at his victim with the other — the two wings thus acting as a shield
and spear. Then, after breaking the cranium with its beak, the

NATURAL HISTOIir. 227

" The hosts of birds, that wing the liquid air

Percli'd in the boughs, had nightly lodgings there." — DRYDEN.

bird devours the serpent. This is the manner in which large and
venomous serpents are killed ; but the bird frequently swallows
non-venomous snakes alive.

683. The secretary bird destroys serpents, rats, and vermin, and is on that account
much esteemed in the southern parts of Africa, which abounds with venomous
serpents, snakes, scorpions, and noxious reptiles, also with lizards of many
descriptions ; the land-tortoise, grylloc, or locusts, in variety, abundance, and
depredation equalling their destructive hosts in other countries. Barrow relates a
very curious circumstance respecting living serpents in the stomach of one of thest
bii-ds after death. An English gentleman, who held an official situation at the Cape,
being out on a shooting party, killed a secretary bird, which he carried home with
the intention of having an accurate drawing made from it. He threw it on the floor
of the balcony near the house, when, after it had remained some time, and been
examined and tossed about, one of the company observed a large snake pushing
open the beak, out of which he speedily crawled in perfect vigour, and free from
any injury. On the supposition that others might be in the stomach, the bird was
suspended by the legs, and presently a second made its appearence, as large and
as lively as the first. The bird was afterwards open, when the stomach was found
to contain seven dead snakes, with a half-digested mass of lizards, scorpions,
Bcolopendrae, centipedes, and beetles.

ORDER II.— INCESSORES.

684. Why arc, the incessores so named ?

From their classification as perching birds : the word incessores
being derived from insideo, to lie in ambush ; indicating that
the proper habitat of the order, with its sub-orders, is a bush
or tree.

685. They are also called passcres or passerine birds, from passer, " a sparrow,"
to which bird the greater number of incessores bear a strong resemblance.
In all the true incessorial birds, the toes are three before and one behind.
The adaptation of the foot to grasping or perching is evident from the situation
of the hinder toe, which is invariably placed on the same level with those in
front, and by which they are distinguished from the rasores (scrapers) and
^llatores (waders). The toes are slender, flexible, and of moderate length;
the foot of the canary affords a very good example. The incessore»
ih on the wing ; their legs are therefore much less developed than tbos«

228

THE REASON WHY I

1 Better's the place, though homely and obscure,
Where we repose in safety and secure
Than where great birds with lordly talons siexe,
Not what they ought, but what their fancies please." — DRAYTON.

organs. The male bird surpasses the female in size, plumage, and song;
they live in pairs, and construct their nests in bushes, trees, &c., with
wonderful art.

The feet of birds present very
distinctive marks for observation.
In most species the toes are four
in number, and in the majority
of these three are directed forward,
and one turned back. This is the
case with the eagle, 1, and falcon,
2; the toes in these and other
birds of prey being pointed with
long, curved, and sharp talons.
The woodpecker has two forward
and two backward toes, 3; so also
has the parrot. The niaht-jar has
three forward toes, one of which
is extended to a considerable
length, 4. The swift has all toes
forward, 5 ; it clings with them to
walls and cliffs. Larks have the
backward claw long and slender, 6.
The ostrich has only two toes 7 ;
Domestic fowls, and others of the same

the ca suivari/ has three, all in front,
family, have four toes, and a spur.

The order INCESSORES is by many naturalists divided into
five sub-orders : 1. Dentirostres ; 2. Fissirostres ; 3. Conirostres ;
4, Tenuirostrts; 5. fiynd-actyli.

dub- Order 1 . — Dentirostres.

686. Why is the first sub-order named dentirostres ?

Dentirostres signifies tooth-billed: from dens, a "tooth," and
rostrum, a "beak;" this tribe of birds being characterised by
having a notch and tooth-like process on each side of the margin
of the upper mandible. This renders them capable of attacking
other birds ; and they are accordingly predacious. The shrike,
or butcher-bird, is the most formidable specimen of the
sub- order.

NATURAL HISTORY. 229

" 'Let's meete,' quoth Echo mockingly:

Which, heaving, he with speed,
(Believed that his shadow was
A nymph, and spake indeed)." — WARNER.

687. Why is the great grey shrike called the sentinel ?

It was thus named by Linneus, from its habit of sitting like a
sentry in an unconcealed manner near its nest, either watching
for its prey or on the alert against danger.

688. The shrike, or butcher bird, as it is frequently called, is generally dreaded by
the lesser birds. They, however, occasionally unite against it, and drive it by
clamour and mobbing from a cheYished neighbourhood. But although a predatory
bird, it has good qualities ; it is fond of its young, in whose defence it has been
known to attack the hawk, and even the eagle.

689. Why is the shrike called the " butcher-bird ? "

This bird has the singular habit of sticking the remains of
its prey, and sometimes the entire prey, upon the twigs of shrubs
in the hedges. His reason for doing so has given rise to various
conjectures, the most probable of which is, that it is for the
purpose of attracting other prey ; for when the trophies of
its previous capture are thus exhibited upon the hedge, the shrike
itself may often be observed beating about until some smaller
bird comes to peck at the bait ; and then the shrike drops down
and preys upon the bird thus ensnared.

690. Why is the mocking-bird so called?

Because it can imitate with the greatest ease and fidelity
not only the songs of other birds, but the sounds and cries of
animals and the barking of a dog, the mewing of a cat, &c.
It even carries its imitative powers to inanimate objects, such
as the grating of a grindstone, and the rushing of a torrent
of water.

691. The mocking-bird loses little of the power arc! energy of his song by coi.»

finement. In his domesticated slate, when he commences his career of song, it is

impossible to stand by uninterested. He whistles for the dog ; Caesar starts up,

wags his tail, and runs to meet his master. He squeaks out like a hurt chicken,

and the hen hurries about with hanging wings and bristled feathers, clucking

protect its injured brood. The barking of the dog, the mewing of the cat,

Breaking of a passing wheelbarrow, follow with great truth and rapidity.

230 THE REASON WHY :

" More happy ! laid where trees with trees eiitwin'd
In bowery arches tremble to the wind,
With innocence and shade like Adam blest,
While a new Eden opens in the breast." — BKOOMK.

He repeats the tune taught him by his master, though of considerable length,
fully and faithfully. He runs over the quaverings of the canary, and the clear
whistling of the Virginia nightingale or red-bird, with such superior execution
and effect, that the mortified songsters feel their own inferiority, and becoir.e
altogether silent; while he seems to triumph in their defeat by redoubling his
exertions.

This excessive fondness for variety, however, in the opinion of some, injures
his song. His elevated imitations of the brown thrush are frequently interrupted
by the crowing of cocks ; and the warblings of the blue-bird, which he exquisitely
manages, are mingled with the screaming of s\» allows or the cackling of hens ;
amidst the simple melody of the robin we are suddenly surprised by the shrill
reiterations of the whip-poor-will ; while the notes of the kildeer, the blue jay,
martin, baltioore, and twenty others, succeed with such imposing reality, that
we look around for the originals, and discover with astonishment that the sole
performer in this singular concert is the admirable bird now before us.
During this exhibition of his powers he spreads his wings, expands his tail,
and throws himself around the cage in all the ecstasy of enthusiasm, seeming
not only to sing, but to dance, keeping time to the measure of his own music.
Both in his native and domesticated state, during the solemn stillness of night, as
soon as the moon rises in silent majesty, he begins his delightful solo ; and
serenades us the livelong night with a full display of his vocal powers, making
the whole neighbourhood ring with his inimitable melody.

692. Why is the bower-bird so called ?

From a singular habit which it has of forming for itself and its
immediate associates of the same species a bower-like structure, for
die purpose of a playing ground, »r place of assembly.

693. One of the extraordinary buildings of the bower-bird is thus described by
Mr. Gould in his " Birds of Australia" : —

" The bower is usually placed under the shelter of the branches of some over
hanging tree in the most retired part of the forest ; the base consists of an extensive
and rather convex platform of sticks firmly interwoven, on the 'centre of which the
bower itself is built ; this like the platform on which it is placed, and with which
it is interwoven, is formed of sticks and twigs, but of a more tender and flexible
description ; the tips of the twigs being so arranged as to curve inwards, and nearly
meet at the top. In the interior of the bower, the materials are so placed that the
forks of the twigs are always presented outwards, by which arrangement not the
slightest obstruction is offered to the passage of the birds. The bower is used as a
place o1' resort for many individuals of both sexes, which, when there assembled,
•un thi ough und around it in a sportive and playful manner, and that so frequently
lliat it is seldom entirely deserted."

flATUUAL HISTORY. 231

' Some to the holly hedge
Nestling repair, and to the thicket some ;
Some t.) the rude protection of the thorn
Commit their feeble offspring." — THOMSON.

^xvyvxvxx^x/^x^ywv^xyvrs^wxw/xxx^wN/vxwxyNx^x

694. Why is the cat-bird so named ?

From its voice, which closely resembles at times the mewing
of a young cat.

695. Wilson, the American ornithologist, says : — " In spring and summer, on
approaching thickets, or brambles, the first salutation you receive is from the cat
bird ; and a stranger unacquainted with its note would instantly conclude that some
vagrant orphan kitten had got bewildered among the briars, and wanted assistance ; so
exactly does the call of the bird resemble the voice of that animal." Other circum
stances lend a claim to the title. The cat-bird is more familiar with man than any
other of the passerine order : building its nest in gardens, and courting the
familiarity of its owner, whom he salutes as he approaches.

696. Why is the tailor-bird so named ?

From a remarkable habit of sewing leaves together
with threads or veg stable fibres in the construction
of its nest.

697. When the tailor-bird has selected a branch for the site of its
nest, it procures a dead leaf, which it sews on to one still pendent
and Hving ; thus a pocket or bag is made, within which its nest is
arranged. The thread used by the tailor-bird has been sometimes
found actually knotted at the end. Colonel Sykes has described
the nest of an Indian variety of this bird with great minutene*j
He states that the nest thus secured is safe from the depredations
of reptiles and monkeys.

698. Why does the wren make several nests, and then leave
them when nearly finished, completing and using only one ?

It has been supposed by some that these are the work of the
male bird during the incubation of the female, who labours thus
for the sake of occupation.

Other naturalists conjecture that these are deceptive nests,
calculated to lead to the supposition that the birds have
accomplished their task and retired ; and, therefore, that further
search is useless.

232

THE REASON WHY :

Among the dwellings framed by birds
In lidd or forest with nice care,

Is none that with the little wren's

In snugness may compare." — WORDSWORTH.

699. Why is the material composing the exterior of the wren'i
nest varied according to the colour of the substance against
which the nest is built ?

Because by this means the nest is
rendered undistinguishable from the
surrounding objects, and thus best
answers the purposes of concealment.
If the nest is placed amongst ivy, it is
usually constructed of green moss ; but
if erected contiguous to some light-
coloured branches, it will then be formed
of grey lichens.

700. Beautiful and elaborate is the structure of this tenement, which is generally
placed in the middle of a bush, whose whole contracted stems and branches are
covere.1 with tufts of many-coloured lichens. To these branches it is not only so
assimilated as to seem of natural growth, but is so firmly connected as to render its
disengagement impossible, unless by destroying its form and aspect. To obtain if
perfect, the branches must be cut away, with the nest undisturbed. Other site*1 are
occasionally chosen, but in every instance the nest is so artfully hidden as to elude
a casual glance.

The art of concocting nests so as to protect them from depredation appears to
be perfectly well understood by some species of birds. No British bird conceals

its nest more effectually than the water
ouzel, a bird common along our trout
streams, especially where they wind
through rock-girt dales and glens. The
nest of this bird may be sometimes dis
covered in the fissure of a low jutting
crag, or block of stone, projecting over
the rushing and bubbling current, some
times in a crevice on the face of a rock,
over which tumbles a cascade, the spray
throwing a veil around the spot ; some
times between the rude stones of a
ruined bridge, or of a tenantless and dila
pidated water-mill long since deserted.
Wherever it is situated, the nest blends undistinguishably with the delicate minute
ferns, the moss and lichen, which fill up every chink, peep from every fissure, and
jjive a picturesque t>ne of mingled tints to the humid face of the grey limestone.

NATURAL HISTORY.

" Half afraid, the robin first
Against the window beats ; then brisk, alights
On the -warm hearth ; then hopping o'er the floor,
Eyes all the smiling family askance." — THOMSON.

The nest itself is of a large size, and of a domed figure, with a small aperture on it*
side. This aperture, from the nature of the materials of which the structure is
composed, yields to the passage of the bird, and then closes so as to be scarcely
disccrnable. Externally, the nest consists of interwoven mosses and lichens, having
an internal lining of dried vegetable fibres. Of a similar character as to details, but
differing in its site, is the nest of the long-tailed titmouse.

701. Why is the redbreast a solitary bird ?

Because, not being migratory, but remaining in the same
neighbourhoods the whole year round, an instinct teaches it that
a sufficient supply of food is better secured by individual than
°y gregarious search.

702. The redbreast is very attentive to its mate and rising brood, but in order, it
would seem, to enforce the character of separativeness upon its species, lives in a
constant state of hostility with its own tribe. The ancient writers were aware
of this peculiarity of the redbreast, hence the line —

" A hush contains but one robin."

703. Why is the robin the latest bird in retiring in the
evening ?

Because it possesses large strong eyes, which adapt themselves

to the weakest rays of light. This bird lives partly upon worms,

and is, therefore, enabled to catch those that venture forth
at dusk.

704. Why are robins called autumnal songsters, although they
sing throughout all the year ?

Because in the spring and summer, when birds generally
warble, the voice of the robin is drowned in the general chorus t
but in the autumn, when most birds have ceased to sing, the
song of the robin becomes more remarkable. Besides, many of
the robins that sing in the autumn are the male redbreasts of tLe
same year, which increase the number of warblers.*

• White's " Sclbourne."

THE REASON

" The thrush

And woodlark, o'er the kind-contending throng
Superior heard, run thro' the sweetest length of notes."

THOMSON.

705. Why has the ivren been associated in nursery literature
with the redbreast ?

The habits of the wren being very similar to those of the robin,
its anti-migratory character, its familiar bearing towards man,
and particularly its practice of paying him an annual wintei-
visit, may have led to this association.

706. The tiny fairy-like form of the wren would also, with children, render it an
appropriate consort for the smart vivacious " robin." The loves and woes of the
Batter in connection with "jenny wren" are, however, too precious a legacy for
the mind of childhood for science rudely to interfere with.

707. Why do wagtails and other birds frequently congregate
about the feet of cows when tJiose animals are feeding in moist
low pastures ?

They do this for the purpose of availing themselves of the flies
which settle on the animals' legs, and also to pick up the worms
and larvae that are roused by the trampling of the cows' feet.

708. Why do missel thrushes at times prefer building their
nests near house and in frequented garden ivalks?

Because the magpies destroy tlu broods of missel thrushes
whenever they can make their way to them, so that the latter
build in the neighbourhood of frequented places by way of
protection. The favourite haunt of the missel thrush is an
orchard, and orchards are generally in the neighbourhood of
human habitations, and of these magpies are shy.

709. How is the intelligence of the thrush manifested by its
manner of procuring food ?

When a thrush settles upon a lawn moistened with dew or rain,
he at first stands motionless, as if undetermined how he shall
proceed. Suddenly he bends his head on one side, as if in the act

NATURAL HISTORY. 235

" Who but the swallow triumphs now alone 1
The canopy of h -aven is all her own :
Her youthful offspring- to their haunts repair,
And glide along in glades, and skim in air." — DRYDEX.

of listening, his beak almost touches the ground, and he draws back
his head as if to make a determined peck.

Again he pauses and listens ; hops, perhaps, once or twice,
scarcely moving his position, and pecks smartly on the sod, then
once more stands motionless.

After a moment's pause, appearing to have ascertained that all is
right, he pecks away assiduously, and soon draws forth a worm,
which his keen sense of hearing had informed him was not far off,
and which his hops and previous peckings had driven to the
surface to escape the approach of what the worm apprehended,
from the manner of the pecking, was an under-ground enemy.

710. Wliy have the thrush, the golden-crested wren, and some
other birds the front toes fastened by a thin skin in contradistinc
tion, birds which have their toes quite separated from each
other ?

Because the birds named rest chiefly upon light bushes, and this
union of the two toes gives the foot a stronger foundation for
clasping the slender twigs than loose toes could do.

Sub-order II. — Fissirostree.

711. Why are the fissirostrcs so designated?

Because these birds are distinguished by the wideness of their
gape, hence they are called gapers ; the word is derived from findo,
to " divide," and rostrum, a " beak." The swallow is the type of
the species, hence its name.

712. Why are swifts, swallows, and martins appointed to their
different ranges of elevation when on the wing ?

The intention is, doubtless, to clear the air in some degree of its
over-abundance of living swarms. Very high in the atmosphere, the
fewest flies are to be found: there the rapid swift is stationed.
The chimney swallows take a lower region, and fly more slowly, for

230 THE REASON WHY:

" The breezy call of incense breathing morn,

The swallow t\vitteri»g from the straw-built shed,
The cock's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn,
No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed." — QUAY.

in their appointed track there are more insects to be met with. The
house martin, flying slower still, catches those insects which, except
when rain is near, move along at a height of from fifteen to forty
feet above the ground. The sand martin has his post still lower
down, for he usually skims after gnats and other flies just over
low flat grounds.

Thus, each bird accomplishing its work at a different altitude,
their united efforts clear the air of insects which would otherwise
be injurious to vegetation, and annoying to animals.

713. fHiy do the habits of swallows peculiarly adapt those
birds to migration?

Because their exercise renders
long flights endurable ; and the
capability of sustaining them
selves in the air for fourteen or
sixteen hours together in search
of food, renders these distant
journeys less fatiguing than
they would be to birds of
inactive habits.

714. Why are the holes made by swallows nearly as circular as
though they had been planned with a pair of compasses ?

Because, when the swallow is constructing its nest, it perches on
the circumference with its claws, and works with its bill from the
centre outwards ; a radius is thus formed by a part of the bird's
v>ody, whieh is subject to little variation.

715. Why do the mandibles of swallows open further back than
in most other birds ?

Because, with this bird, the food is caught when flying, which
requires a peculiar construction of the mouth, producing a large
gape, in which the insects are caught, as in a net.

NATURAL HISTORY.

237

With these the tnartin readily concurred,

A church begot, u.nd church-believing hird ;

Of little body, but of lofty mind.

Round belly'd for a dignity design'd. — DRYDEN.

716. How is a swallow enabled to build its nest on a perpendicular
wall where there is no projection underneath ?

The bird partly clings with its
claws, and partly supports itself
by strongly inclining its tail
against the wallt making that
a fulcrum, and, thus steadied,
it works, and plasters the
materials into the face of the
brick or stone.

- 0 -=

717. Why do martins and swallows prefer to build their nests
near to and within the habitations of man?

These tribes, living almost entirely upon insects, it is most
probable that such localities afford them, during their summer
residence, the most abundant supply of food.

718. Doubtless birds understand who are their friends ; the swallows, swifts, and
martins have ever been favoured by man. Even the savage Indian welcomes them,
and provides a receptacle for their nests. The Chectaws and Chicasaws cut off all
the top branches from a sapling near their cabins, leaving the prongs a foot or two
in length, on each of which they hang a gourd or calabosh, properly hollowed out,
for their convenience ; and the negroes upon the banks of the Mississippi provide
similarly for them. The reason why swallows and martins have always been
protected by man, is probably because they are inveterate foes to crows, hawks,
and eagles. Although so small in size, they vigorously attack these depredators,
and seldom fail to come off victorious. Of course, the swallow is moved to this
degree of combativeness in defence of its nest and brood ; but, as a result, h<;, and
his friend the martin, have been from time immemorial recognised as excellent
guardians of the poultry yard.

719. Why is the esculent swallow so called?

Because both the bird and its nest form a favourite foni in
Java, Japan, and China.

THE REASON WHY :

" The swift actually performs what has been in these
enlightened times disproved of the bird of Paradise ; except the
small time it take- in sleeping, and what 't devote.s to incubation;
every other action is done on the wing." — PENNANT.

720. The edible birds' nest of the extreme east of Asia have given rise to much
speculation, and their composition is still a matter of doubt. They are found
attached to the sides of cliffs, and the roofs of caverns opening upon the sea-coasts.
But whether their substance is derived from the gastric glands of the swallows, or
collected by the latter from the sea-shore, or elsewhere, it is impossible to say-
authorities being equally divided upon the point.' In outward appearance, the
esculent swallow's nest resembles that of the chimney swallow, being concave,
shallow, and lined with feathers ; but the crust, or shell, instead of being made of
clay is something in appearance like the fine manna of commerce, or isinglass. Fine
filaments appear to be cemented together by a transparent viscous matter, not
unlike what is left by the sea upon stones alternately covered by the tide, or those
gelatinous animal substances found floating upon every coast.*

About twenty-seven thousand pounds weight are annually exported from Java,
and about thirty thousand tons of Chinese shipping are engaged in the traffic. The
danger attendant upon the collecting of the nests in the awful caverns is described
as being imminent in the extreme.

721. Why does the, swift rarely alight on level ground ?

Because, owing to the extreme shortness of the feet, and the
disproportionate length of the wings, the bird cannot rise from a
flat surface, since its body is not sufficiently elevated to admit of
the downward stroke of the wings. Whenever the swift does
alight, therefore, it is always in such places as present a brink or
declivity, from the edge of which it can launch itself.

722. How do swifts, which seldom alight on the ground, gather
the materials for their nests ?

It has been conjectured that swifts gather the materials by
raising them as they glance along the ground, in the same way
that they drink by skimming over the surface of the water.
Others suppose that these birds catch the substances in the air
as they are carried up by the wind. Whilst the more common
and generally received opinion is, that the materials are purloined
from the nests of sparrows and swallows.

723. This latter surmise is corroborated by several circumstances : first, the swift's
nest consists of nearly the same substances as the sparrows; secondly, we know
that swifts enter sometimes into the nests of small birds, which we may suppose

* Sir G. Staunton.

NATURAL HISTORY.

239

" Ah ! would thou know'st how much it better were

To 'bide among the simple fisher-swaines ;
Ho shrieking owl, no night-jar lodgeth here,
Nor is our simple pleasure mixed with pains." — P. FLETCHER.

they do for the sake of pillaging the materials. With regard to the moss whicn
they employ, it is in very small quantity, and they may gather it with their
little claws, which are very strong, from trees, on which they can clamber, in the
hollows cf which they sometimes breed. Of seven nests found under the head of
a church porch, fifteen feet from the ground, there were only three which had a
regular cup-shape, and of which the materials were more or less interwoven, and
with greater order than usual in sparrows' nests ; they had also more moss and
fewer ft athers, and were in general less bulky. The best formed of all weighed
two ounces and a half; and the largest, five or six times more than the
smallest.

724. Why is it, said, when sivallows fly high, fine weather
may be expected ?

Because swallows follow flies and gnats, and these delight in
Warm air ; and as warm air is lighter, and usually moister than
cold air, when the warm strata of air are high, there is less change
of moisture being thrown down from them by the mixture with
cold air.

But when the warm and moist air is close to the surface, the
flies and swallows fly low, and it is almost certain that, as the cold
air flows down into it, a deposition of water will take place.

725. Why is the mouth of the goat-sucker, or night-jar,
furnished with long bristly hairs?

more securely to ensure
of

These birds puisne their
insect prey in the night, for
which purpose their eyes are
peculiarly adapted. When,
however, they have captured
an insect, their eyes are of
no further avail, and the
long bristles then act as
feelers, enabling the bird
prey, and to prevent all possibility

240 THE REASON WHY:

" His plumes were inky black, of vast extent ;
His hooky claws on spoil and ravine bent." — Hooue.

Sub-order III. — Conirostres.

726. Why is the sub-order conirostres so termed?

From ctwus, a cone, and rostrum, a beak, importing that birds
of this sub- order have a bill more or less conical, in shape.

727. The Conirostres are miscellaneous feeders ; but they differ s» much in their
character and habits, that no one species can be selected as properly descriptive of
the whole tribe. The texture of their bills is firm, and capable of bruising hard
substances — such as seeds — with tough coats ; and also for digging or boring into
the ground in quest of earth-insects, or of albuminous roots.

728. Why are the heads of birds of this sub-order large in
proportion to the size of their bodies ?

Because the muscles which move the bill are more powerful, and
consequently larger, than in the case of birds which feed exclusively
upon insects.

729. Many of the conirostres are voracious, and somewhat gross in their feeding.
They eat all manner of carrion and garbage, thus performing a highly useful service
to man ; they have no great objection to kill any animal which they can master,
especially if they find it in a sick or weakly condition. Some of them occasionally
hawk after small birds on the wing, but it is not a general habit with them : they
proceed by stealthiness and craft rather than by daring, and in general attack only
that which they can take at a disadvantage. They are also plunderers of the nests
of other birds.

730. How is the bill of the raven characterised ?

The structure of its bill is intermediate between those of the
vulture*, which feed chiefly upon carrion, and the woodpeckers and
analogous species, which obtain their food by digging or thrusting
into crevices in the barks of trees and fissures of rocks. It is
inlaying and straight, and can inflict a severe wound by thrusting ;
it is slightly hooked at the tip, so that it can keep a firm hold,
while the bird rips and tears by the motions of the neck ; and as
it is long, the snap of the point is very sharp, from the rapic!\ty of
the motion.

NATURAL HISTORY. 241

And the hoarse raven on the blasted bough,

By croaking from the left presaged the coming blow." — DRYDEN.

731. The raven, though not very numerous in any place, and though dwelling in
solitude, pairing for life, and not very prolific, is one of the most generally dis
tributed of birds. Almost every other species has some country which it can claim
to a considerable extent as its own ; and even though it is migrant, and passes the
different seasons in places some thousands of miles asunder, it returns with the
season, not only to the same latitude, and to the same land, but often to the very
same spot. The raven is no migrant, except in shifting a little with the seasons, as
the supply of food varies, but never quitting the same district ; and yet there is no
country in which the raven is not found native. The margin of the desert, of the
jungle, or of the forest, in the hottest climates, — the heights of alternate cliff and
copse in temperate climates, or the rocks and heaths, and even the lichen-clad
margins of the inhabited regions near the poles, are all equally the abode of the
raven. Let the sun blaze, the wind blow, the rain pelt, or the snow drive, with
ever so much intensity, his dusky wing, or firmly-set foot, is in its element, and tho
Wreck of nature to others proves to him a season of plenty.

732. Why is the raven termed tJie "herald of the year?"

Because, as early as the latter part of January, if the weather be
mild, these birds may be seen on the alert, looking into the state of
their nests, and making other preparations for the spring.

733. Why is the raven commonly associated with sickness,
misfortune, and other human ills?

Because his black plumage, discordant croaking cry, and wild
and funeral aspect, favour the superstitious feelings which arise
amongst ignorant persons.

734. It is said that the southern aborigines invoke the raven for those who are
sick, mimicking his voice ; and the natives of Missouri, assuming black as their
emblem of war, decorate themselves on those occasions with the plumes of this
dark bird. But all the knowledge of the future, or interest in destiny, possessed by
the raven, like that of other inhabitants of the air, is bounded by an instinctive
feeling of the changes which are about to happen in the atmosphere, and which he
has the faculty of announcing by certain cries and actions produced by these
external impressions. In the southern provinces of Sweden, as Linneus remarks,
•when the sky is serene, the raven flies very high, and utters a hollow sound, like
the word clonff, which is heard at a distance. Sometimes he has been seen in the
midst of a thunder-storm, amid electric fires which appeared to stream from his
bill — a natural, though extraordinary phenomenon, sufficient to terrify the super
stitious, and to stamp the harmless subject of it with the imaginary traits and
attributes of a demon.

11

242 THE REASON WHY :

" And the raven never flitting, still is sitting, still is sitting

On the pallid bust of Pallas, just above my chamber door;
And his eyes have all the seeming of a demon's that is dreaming1,
And the lamp-light o'er him streaming, throws his shadow -JA
the floor." — EDGAR POK.

735. Why are ravens more social than birds of prey ?

Because the food upon which they subsist is of a promiscuous
nature, and abundant in quantity, which allows a greater number
to subsist together without being urged to the storn necessity of
solitude or famine — a condition to which the true rapacious birds

are always driven.

i

736. Why is it erroneous to suppose that crows destroy grass ?

This error arisen out of the
following circumstance : In search
ing for grubs which are concealed
in the earth, and which are sup
ported by eating the roots of
the grass, the crow pulls at the
stem of the grass with its bill,
and when the grass conies up,
the crow knows that there are
under it insects which have de
stroyed its roots, and in this way detects them ; but if the stem of
grass is firm, the crow goes to another tuft, and proceeds in the
same manner.

737. Wliy is the rook the earliest bird stirring in the morning ?

Because its principal food is worms, which feed and crawl
upon the humid surface of the ground in the dark, and retire
before the light of day ; and, roosting higher than other birds,
the first rays of the sun as they dart from the horizon, become
visible to the rook.

738. Why is the flight of rooks popularly supposed to portend
rough or fine weather ?

Because it is proved by observation that when a gale of wind
is blowing, or about to blow, they descend into valleys, and just
skim over the tops of the intervening hills and trees ; but when

NATURAL HISTORY. 243

' Rooks unnumbered build their nest —
Deliberate birds, and prudent all ;
Their notes, indeed, are harsh and rude,
But they're a social multitude." — CKABBE.

the sky is calm and clear, they pass through the U2)per air in
regular and easy flight.

739. Sometimes these birds perform an evolution usually called the " shooting
of the rooks." When they have risen to an immense height in the air, so that, in
appearance, they are scarcely larger than the lark, they suddenly descend to the
ground, or to the tops of trees exactly under them. To effect this, they come
headlong down, on pinions a little raised, but not expanded, in a zig-zag direction
(presenting alternately their back and breast), through the resisting air, with a
noise resembling the rushing of the wind ; and when we consider the prodigious
height of the rooks at the time they begin to descend, we conclude that they cannot
effect their arrival at a spot immediately under them by any other process so
short and rapid.

740. Wliy are, rooJcs seen to busy themselves in autumn about
their nests, as though they were going to 'make immediate use of
them, and then desert them for the w inter ?

This curious proceeding probably arises from an instinctive
feeling that as the nests will be wanted early in spring, a few repairs
may be requisite to strengthen and prevent their being shattered
or blown to pieces by the storms of winter.

741. Why is it said that a crow can smell gunpowder ?

Because the natural wariness in most seasons of the year of this
bird, and the perpetual persecution which it has undergone from
man, cause it to keep a very sharp look-out ; and induces it to
take flight at the earliest approach of the gunner.

742. The rook is a bird of great sagacity. It has been known to fly from a man
carrying a crutch on his shoulder, and yet to endure the approach of the same
man when he walked with a limping gait, with the crutch under his arm. It has
also suffered the approach of a sportsman who put his gun under his arm, and pre
tended to use it as a crutch. "We doubt the presumption that rooks can smell gun
powder, although we have seen, in a fann-book of considerable authority, a rag
smeared with gunpowder recommended to scare away rooks. The moving rag may
have the effect, without the aid of the gunpowder.

743. In what respects are the bill and stomach of the rook
practically adapted to each other?

The bill is so constructed that it can lay hold of, and rend.

244

THE REASON WHY :

" Or in a shady tree

Nine maopies perch'd lament their altor'd state,

And what they hear are skilful to repeat." — MAYNWARINQ.

almost any kind of food; and the digestive organs extract
nutriment from a great variety of substances ; the stomach being
intermediate between the membranous, or thinly-muscular kind,
peculiar to the carnivorous families, and gizzards, or strongly-
muscular organs which are possessed by those animals that feed
on hard vegetable substances.

744. Why is the wholesale destruction of crows, as generally
practised by farmers, a mistaheji policy ?

Because these birds destroy an amazing number of grubs and
injurious insects, which, to all appearance, have no other enemies ;
their singular mode of following the course of the plough, both in
winter and spring, leaves no doubt of this fact.

745. Crows are persistency destroyed, because it is believed that when they
search after insects in newly-sown fields, they devour, also, the grain whit h they
meet with in their track. This may, at least in part, be true ; but no positive proof
can exist of such being: the case. Certain it is, that in particular parts of America,
where the crows were completely eradicated or driven away by incessant firing, the
numbers of noxious insects increased so prodigiously that the farmers, to the>i
sorrow, found the remedy worse than the disease ; the whole district agreeing to
suffer the persecuted crows to return, and occupy again their old quarters.

746. Why does the structure of the magpie adapt it either for
a tree or a ground bird?

Because the wings are only of
moderate length, which renders
them suitable for taking the air at
all angles, and also for turning.
The tail is also greatly developed,
capable of considerable action,
and wedge-shaped ; the first and
second properties being requisite
in the frequent ascents and
descents of the bird, and the last
hi avoiding the twigs and other
obstacles which the bird could
the tail had been square at

NATURAL HISTORY. 24J,

" So doth the magpie mischievously steal
Of wealth he knows not — only to" conceal." — NEWMAN.

747. Wliy have, magpies the reputation of being thieving birds f

These birds possess a strong degree of curiosity in observation,
and seem to have an especial perception for brilliancy of colour.
If, for instance, there were two small pieces of potters' ware, of the
same size, shape, and consistency, and if one piece were coaise and
brown and the other glazed, it is almost certain that the magpie
would carry off the glazed piece, but certainly not the other : so
also, if a shilling and a halfpenny were left in this bird's way,
the shilling would in all probability be carried off and the
halfpenny left.

This fondness for bright and shining articles tempts the bird
to steal articles of plate, &c., hence the incident upon which the
popular story is founded of " The Maid and the. Magpie" and a
number of other anecdotes, all illustrative of this thievish pro
pensity ; whilst their curious and observant disposition may
account for their stealing articles which hare no particularly
attractive qualities to recommend them.

748. Wliy is a magpie, when seen alone, said to foretell tod

weather ?

Because magpies generally fly in company, but on the approach
of wet or cold one remains in the nest to take carp- of the young,
while the other one wanders in search of food.

For the same reason, a single magpie is said to be an
unlucky omen to anglers, while two prognosticate fine, weather
and good sport.

749. Why is the crossbill furnished with a beak of peculiar
structure 1

Because it is a bird inhabiting forests in which vast pine trees
grow, and living as it does upon the seeds of the pine, the beak with
which it is furnished is best adapted for assisting it in obtaining
supplies of food.

246

THE REASON WHY :

" The sparrow, meanest of the feathered race,
riis iit companion finds in every place." — COWPKR.

750. The seeds of the pines, which, until the cone has been exposed to the action

of the weather for a consider
able time after the seeds are
ripe, are so firmly enclosed
between the ligneous scales as
to prevent the bill of an ordi
nary bird from reaching them
This bill consists of a very
powerful pair of levers, by
means of which the scales can
be wrenched open, and the
'

seeds arrived at in a mannei
the most effective. When the
two sharp points are brought
together, they can be inserted
into a very small opening, in which, the instant that they begin to operate, each takes
hold like a hook, and tends to draw itself in ; thus cutting open in the direction of
the face or plane of the scale, while by their action upon each other they pi-ess it
open by the power of a double wedge ; and by the time that the mandibles have
crossed to their full extent, the scale is so completely raised that the seed can be
taken from under it with the greatest ease. The position into which the oblique
action of the bill brings the head enables the bird to see the seed under the scale,
and while the mandibles keep the scale open, the tongue of the bird scoops out the
seed. The tongue is as curious as the mandibles. It terminates in a horny gouge,
supported by a bone, and furnished with muscles, by which it can be raised or
depressed so as to act as an independent instrument. The motion of the bill
divides a soft and pulpy substance with remarkable facility ; and when the birds
visit orchards, which they sometimes do in the autumn, they cut the apples
asundei, in order to get at the pips, with almost as great a nicety as one would
use a knife.

751. Why are sparrows useful to vegetation ?

Because they devour myriads of insects which would otherwise
do infinite injury ; this is particularly the case when they have
young ones, all of which are fed with insects and caterpillars.

752. Why is the sparrow bolder, and less fearful of being
caught or killed, than most other birds ?

Because its location in the neighbourhood of populous towns and
cities renders it accustomed to man, who, on his part, being intent
on other matters, passes hourly within a few yards of this bird
without ever giving it a thought.

NATURAL HISTORY. 247

" The cleft tree

Offers its kind concealment to a few,
Their food its insects, and its moss their nests."— THOMSON.

753. Why does the house-sparrow pertinaciously appropriate to
its own use the nest of other birds ?

Because sparrows occupy their
nests at night throughout the
year ; and, though they are
hardy birds, they require warm
shelter during severe frosts, and
therefore seize upon any con
venience which they can find
best adapted to their purpose.

754. Why is the sparrow comparatively late in awaking in the
morning ?

Because it roosts in holes, and under the eaves of ricks, or
sheds, where the light does not so soon enter as in open places.

755. Why is the claw upon the hind toe of the lark of greater
length than is to be found generally in other birds ?

Because the lark is a field bird, nestling on the ground, and
deriving its food from the earth ; and the peculiar conformation of
the foot enables the bird to run on thick matted grass, or to rise
from it, or alight on it, with much less inconvenience than almost
any other bird.

756. Larks are fleet runners, and they stand up for observation, with their heads
above the cover ; the head, which is generally crested, and has the crest erected,
not being easily distinguishable from a clod.

757. What especial use does the lark make of its disportionally
long claws ?

The lark makes its nest generally in grass fields, where it is

'248 THE REASON WHY I

" Ye birds

That singing up to Heav'n's gale ascend,
Bear on your wings, and in your notes, his praise." — MILTON.

liable to be injured, either by cattle grazing over it, or by the
mower. In case of alarm from these or other causes, the parent
birds remove their eggs by means of their long claws, to a place of
greater security.

758. Why does the song of the sky-larlc, when on the wing, change
with its ascent and descent., j,nd possess a uniform key only when
the bird is poised in the air ?

Because the windpipe is the musical organ, and birds require this
organ less for breathing than other animals having a windpipe and
lungs, because of the air-cells and breathing tubes with which all
parts of their bodies are furnished.

But those different breathing organs must act with less freedom
when the bird is making the greatest efforts in motion, that is,
when ascending or descending ; and in proportion as these cease
to act, the trachea is the more required for the purposes of
breathing.

The sky-lark thus converts the atmosphere into a musical
instrument of many stops, the song swelling as the bird ascends,
sinking with the downward flight, and with each wheel in the air
varying the pitch of the song. All birds that sing ascending or
descending have similar power, but the sky-lark has it in a degree
superior to any other.

759. Why is the female linnet often mistaken for the male ?

Because, when the male bird has attracted the atttention of his
intended captor, he instantly hops into the bush before his plumago
can be carefully noticed ; and, if the bush is beaten, the female bird
will fly out, and thus get credit for the song of her mate.

760 The deception is further increased by the male ceasing his song and raising
his alarm-call as soon as he is seen, and until he disappears in the bush, for he does
not generally 1y out ; but the female does, and vrilcs away the enemy from th«

NATURAL HISTORY.

249

Behold, -within the leafy shade,

Those speckled eg<>s together laid !

On me the chance-discovered sight

Gleamed like a vision of delight." — WOKDSWOHTB.

nest hy a series of short flights ; and when the coast is clear, she again flies into
the bush, chirping softly the note of safety, and soon after the male resumes
uis song.

761. Why do goldfinches build their nests on flexible branches
in preference to rigid ones ?

Because the young being th.ua
rocked to and fro in the nest,
are made accustomed to the
motion which they will after
wards experience when seeking
their food on the tops of tall
and flexible stems.

762. Wliy does the titmouse suspend its nest over a pond
or stream ?

In order to preserve it from the attacks of quadrupeds and
reptiles.

763. What is especially remarkable in the plumage of the
canary bird ?

Its light sulphur colour, which it has exchanged for the grey or
brown hue of its native islands.

764. This little captive songster was introduced to Europe early in the 16tb
century, and is believed to have spread from the coast of Italy, where a vessel,
which was bringing to Leghorn a number of these birds, besides merchandise, was
wrecked. The climate being favourable, they increased ; but they did not bccom*
naturalised, being entrapped by breeders for the purpose of sale.

765. W]iy are, birds of Paradise so called ?

Tu earlier ages these birds, which are peculiar in their stiuctur*
11*

THE REASON WHY :

' Resplendent Tvanderer ! followed with glad eyes
Where'er her course ; mysterious bird, "
To whom, by wandering' fancy stirred,
Eastern islanders have given
A holy name — the Bird of Heaven." — WORDWORTH.

^~~vy^~vx*V>XVW\X^X^XVXVVX>^\XVVVVVxrv^^>^NXVv~N/VVV\/VVVN/v\>^/V

and remarkable for the beauty and gloss of their plumage, were
supposed to whisk about like bright meteors in the equinoctial sun,
without the usual attributes of wings or feet ; and were also believed
to dwell in the air, and live upon the nectar of those flowers which,
in the climates where the birds are native, twine in garlands and
festoons at the topmost branches of the trees.

766. Why were the birds of Paradise
naturalists to be without legs, and to remain
in the cir ?

by

the older
suspended

These beautiful creatures
frequenting only the neigh
bourhood of the tropics, had,
until a comparatively recent
date, never been caught and
examined. The accounts of
them, therefore, were like
many "travellers' tales,"
much exaggerated. This is
partly excused and accounted
for by the extreme beauty
of their plumage and
motions.

It is certain that the birds of Paradise have legs, and these botn
large and strong ; but their flight is rapid and continuous : they are
the swallows of the tropics ; are seldom seen to alight ; and, while
pursuing the insects upon which they feed, go through a vast
number of the most beautiful evolutions.

767. These birds do not bear much resemblance to an ordinary bird, at least in
any part except the bill, head, neck, and shoulders, for the rest of the body is hidden
by supplemental feathers issuing from the flanks, the shoulders, or both, which

NATURAL HISTORY. 251

1 So on he fares, and to the border comes
Of Eden, -where delicious Paradise,
Now nearer, crowns with her enclosure green." — MILTON.

feathers are so loose, light, and airy towards their points that they bear some

resemblance to the tails of comets.
Some notion of the general form of
this species may be obtained from
the annexed figure, representing
the golden bird of Paradise"
This beautiful deep black species
is a native of New Guinea, and is
well named by the French slfilet,
from the six slender feathers, three
on each side of the head, which
are webs, except at the end
where they are without oval. The
breast has a rich, gilded, changeable
green gorget, which is very bril
liant. The female of this species
Is destitute of the six long shafted feathers and the gorgeous breast of the male ; but
instead, the feathers on the neck and side, and under parts of the body, are of a very
light brown colour, transversely marked with rather wide deep brown bars.

Birds of Paradise, which are allowed to exceed all others in beauty, variety, and
the peculiar construction of their plumage, associate in large flocks in the delightful
aromatic wood& and groves of their native islands ; and the inhabitants, sensil le
of their charms, give them the name of " God's birds."

768. What remarkable utility is connected, with the profuse
plumage of birds of Paradise ?

We know too little of the habits of these birds to recognise
all the specific purposes their singular and beautiful plumage
answers ; but it appears to be certain that they are directed to their
food by the profusion of their feathers.

769. This extraordinary fact has been pointed out and enlarged upon in a veiy
able mannei in " Partington's Cyclopaedia " : —

" We know this— the islands in which birds of Paradise are found, are subject to
alternations of rain and drought. Further, we know that in tropical countries
the fervent heat of the rainless period comes at last to have all the effect of a
winter, in the suspension of animal and vegetable action. As one part of those
countries in which they have their haunts becomes parched, the birds of Paradise
must remove to another, and we shall see that the profuse feathers, besides
enabling the birds to rise more easily and descend more softly on their shorten
excursions, in consequence of the hold which their countless floccuU take of th*

252 THE REASON WHY :

" Like birds, great nature's happy commoners, that haunt In
woods, in meads, and flow'ry gardens, rifle the sweets, and
taste the choicest fruits, yet scorn to ask the lordly owner's
leave." — HOWE.

air, assiit the birds in finding their way to those other places where there it
food for them,

" At those places where the earth and the upper part of the forest are parched,
and the ardour of the unclouded sun continues to beat, there is a constant
rarefaction of the whole mass of the atmosphere ; and in consequence of this the
winds from the more humid surfaces must bloio towards those parched placet
with velocities proportional to the differences between the one and the other.

" When the forest which is the haunt of these birds becomes parched, their food
lessens, and they are compelled to be more on the wing in searcli after it. But on
which side soever there then happens to be a place more humid, and more
abounding in those creatures on which they feed, and which on this account is
better suited to them for the time, there is a wind which Hows from that side
towards the part ivhich is parched and heated ; and as the action of that wind
upon their flocculent feathers turns them round on their centres of gravity like
weather-cocks, their heads are, as they fly, turned to the wind, and against the
current. Their feathers thus assist than in finding out the direction of those
places where they can obtain food ; and though this is more remarkable in the case
of birds of Paradise than any other species, it is probable that many of the
softer-feathered birds are also assisted in their tropical migrations by tht
tet of the wind."

Sub-order IV. — Tenuirostres.
770. Why is the sub-order Tenuirostres so designated?

From tenuis, long, and rostrum, a beak ; the birds comprehended
within it being characterise i by a long and slender bill.

771. They are also by some classed as " bee- eaters," or "honey-suckers,' the
great majority deriving their subsistence both from insects and the nectar of plants,
which they suck up by means of a long and filamentous tongue. The
representatives of this sub-order are the nuthatch, the creeper, the humming-bird,
the chough, and the hoopoe. They are clearly distinguishable from the sub-order
syndactyli by haying the toes separated from each other.

772. Why is it essential that the bodies of humming-birds
should be motionless in the air?

Because tj^e humming-bird seeks its food in the deep cups and
tubes which protect the seeds of various plants within the tropics.

NATURAL HISTORY. 253

' Upon mine honour, Sir, I heard a humming,
And that a strange one too, which did awake me." — SHAXSPERE.

It would be impossible for them to obtain a supply, which is only
to be found in these places, unless they had some power of
suspending their bodies ; for if they attempted to rest on the plant,
it would yield to their weight, and the insect would escape.

773. Why are the humming-birds so called ?

From the sound produced
by the rapid motion of their
wings, this name is univer
sally applied ; the species
being in the countries where
they most abound, known as
Murmunes, bourdons, and
Frou-frous, names of equiva
lent meaning.

774. The velocity with which these birds glance through the air is so great as to
elude the sight — the motion of their wings appears like a thin cloud of light, and
when hovering before a flower they seem to be absolutely supended in the air.

775. Why does the humming-bird, when molested, fly at and
p eck the eyes of its adversary ?

An unerring instinct has taught it that its feebleness can in no
letter way be protected than by this method of attack ?

776. Mr. Bullock says : " They attack the eyes of the larger birds, and their sharp
needle-like bill is a truly formidable weapon in this kind of warfare. Nothing can
exceed their fierceness when disturbed during the breeding season." An old writer,
Ferdinand Ovieds, adds : "When they see a man climb the tree where they have
their nests they flee at his face and stryke him in the eyes, coming, going, and
returning with such swiftness that no man would rightly believe it that had
not seen it."

777. Why is the nest of the humming-bird constructed
with a view to great warmth, although within the tropics ?

Because the diminutive size of the bird renders it incapable of

254 THE REASON' WHY :

" One part had the-- plumes al whyt, another hadde them al
redde, and the thyrde hadde them oi several colours." — HALL.

retaining for any length of time sufficient heat for the purposes
of incubation, unless this provision is made.

778. Why is so small a creature as the humming-bird more
plumed than any other bird ?

The probable reason is, that this brilliancy serves to attract
around the, humminy-bird the insects upon which it partly feeds,
and thus ministers to its means of sustenance : as we see that
moths and flies are attracted by a lighted lamp or candle, and rush
upon it to their own destruction.

779. " I have seen the humming-bird," says Wilson, " for half-an-hour at a time,
darting at those little groups of insects that dance in the air in a fine summer
evening, retiring to an adjoining twig to rest, and renewing the attack with a
dexterity that sets all other fly-catchers at defiance."

The colouring of the plumage of birds unquestionably depends upon the sun,
because they are gay and glossy in proportion as they are exposed to the action of
that luminary ; but the light of the sun must have a substance upon which it can
act; and it appears to act most powerfully upon the firm feather which grows
slowly, and, in the first instance, under cover. The colouration is an after process,
though an obscure one, and one upon which it does not appear easy to get more
information ; but it has no apparent connection with the colour oi the egg ; for the
bee-eaters have, in one or other of the species, all the colours of the rainbow, as
brilliant as in the rainbow itself, and yet the eggs are white. Whether the bright
colours are less sentient to the sun than the more sober hues of the birds of cold
climates we are unable to tell ; but the smooth surface and metallic lustre must
reflect the light, as well as decompose it by that refraction which shows the
colours ; and we find the same kinds of tint and gloss in the day-insects of sunny
climes, and in the birds of the same. We may therefore conclude that the
resplendent plumage of these birds answers as a sort of protection against the
ardour of the sun, just in the same manner as the half-furry clothing of the
northern owls protects them against the pelti:ig sleet and the driving snow, or as
the down upon sea-birds protects them against the action of the water.*

780. Why are the feet of the creeper very long and
powerful ?

Because by their means the bird is enabled to cling to the
perpendicular surface of trees, and is enabled to use its beak with
great effect in the obtaining of its food.

* Paiiington's " Cyclopaedia," Art., " Bee-eater."

NATURAL HISTORY. 255

" From purple violets, and the teile they bring

Their gathev'd sweets, and rifle all the spring."— ADDISON.

781. n-'rging by their feet, and resting upon the stiff quills of their tails, they
will even pass round a horizontal branch with their backs to the ground. This is
of importance to the bird, since many of the insects forming its food often seek
the under surface of a branch for security.

732. Why his the, nuthatch, whose, habits so closely resemble
the woodpecker, only a very short tail ?

Unlike the woodpecker, the nuthatch runs with the head down
wards as well as upwards ; and, indeed, the former position of the
head appears to be the favourite one : it generally alights on a
branch with the head in a downward position, and sleeps in that
posture. A long tail, therefore, would be useless to it, and an
incumbrance.

783. The nuthatch, in procuring its food, sometimes grasps the tree with his
powerful feet, and turns its body upon them as upon a pivot, striking with its
whole weight, and thus presenting with its body the appearance of the head of a
hammer in motion.

784. Why does the nuthatch make its nest in the decayed
trunks of trees ?

In order that the young may subsist upon the insects that
inhabit the decayed wood that surrounds the nest.

785. JVhy is the rijle-bird so called?

From the dark tints of its plumage — a bottle-green approaching
to black — and its habit of creeping upon the boles of trees, after
the manner of a sharpshooter.

786. Mr. Gould, the Australian naturalist, considers the rifle-bird the most
gorgeously-plumed of all the birds of that region. The general colour of the male
is a rich velvety black, varied with lilac and green. The female is less handsomely
furnished. The rifle-bird's powers of flight are very limited, owing to the
shortness and truncated form of the wing ; but this structure enables it to ascend
upright stems of trees precisely after the manner of the climacteri, many of
whose habits it possesses.

787. Why is the hoopoe so named ?

From its uttering the song or cry of hoop, hoop, hoop, as it sits
perched by its nest, or flits alone after its insect prey.

256

THE REASON WHY :

" That a kingfishtr hanged by the bill sheweth in what
quarter the wind is, by an occult and secret propriety, con
verting the breast to that point of the hori/on from whence
the wind doth blow, is a received opinion, and very strange."
— BROWN'S VULGAR ERRORS.

Sub-order V. — Syndactili.

788. Why are the birds of this group called syndactili f

From two Greek words meaning and toe, in allusion to their
having the external toe nearly as long as the middle one, and
united to it, as far as the second joint. Syndactylic means
having the toes together.

789. The bills of syndactalous birds differ considerably in their forms, because
their food differs in kind ; and this difference probably led Cuvier to name this
division after the structure of the feet, and not that of the bills.

790. What are, the peculiar examples of adaptation in the
structure of kingjishers ?

It is furnished with a long sharp bill, admirably adapted for
transfixing fish, as with a spear ; and the plumage is remarkably
smooth, and adapted to resist the action of water.

791. When watching for its prey, the kingfisher perches itself upon some over
hanging branch, with its long,
dagger-like bill pointed downwards,
and its eye intent upon the water
beneath. Suddenly, it darts down
wards, plunges headlong into the
watei-, and speedily re-appears with
a minnow or other small fish
between its mandibles. Without
loosing its hold, it passes the fish
through its bill until it is fairly
j grasped by the tail, and then de
stroys the life of its victim by
smartly striking its head three or
four times against a branch, aftei
which it gulps its prey at one
mouthful, except when it is borm
away to the nest for the supply of
the young.

NATURAL HISTORY. 257

" For both the boughs doe laughing blossoms beare,
And with fresh colours deck the wanton prime,
And eke at once the heavy trees they clime,
Which sccme to labour under their fruite's lode." — SPKNSEB.

792. Why has the Icing fisher remarkably small feet ?

Because the habits of the bird are neither those of wading,
walking, nor standing ; but simply of perching upon the points of.
small twigs that overhang the water. The kingfisher watches
patiently, generally from a naked twig, and when it quits that, flies
immediately to a similar station.

The feet of the kingfisher, which at first appear very imperfect,
and totally unfit for ordinary purposes, are, in fact, excellently
adapted to the wants of the bird.

793. Why are the bee-eaters so catted ?

Because bees form a considerable part of their food, though
they devour also wasps, hornets, and various other insects of
comparatively long and rapid flight.

ORDER III.— SCANSORES.

794. WJiy is the third order of birds termed scansores ?

The word scansores is derived from the Latin scando, to climb
and implies that these birds live and obtain their food in a
scaling position.

795. Their feet are adapted for clinging to the bark of trees ; and they ascend the
stems and branches with great facility. Their food, for the most part, consists of
insects, which they search for in the crevices and underneath the bark of unsound
trees, or in the wood of such as exhibit symptoms of decay. They also occasion
ally eat fruit. The order is very extensive, comprehending the ivoodpecker,
the cuckoo, the parrot, macaws, love birds, cockatoos, toucans, lories, &c.

796. Why is the name " zygodactyli " also given by ornithologists
to the scansores, or climbers ?

Because of a peculiarity in the feet ; two of their toes being
directed forwards, and two backwards.

258 THE REASON WHY :

" Rap, rap, rap, rap, I hear thy knocking bill,

Tlien thy strange outcry, when the woods are still." — MONTGOMERY.

The word zygodactyli is compounded of zygoo, "to join" and
daktylos, a finger.

797. WTiy are .the supposed ravages of woodpeckers beneficial
rather than otherwise?

Because they bore only those trees which insects have previously
attacked, and thus diminish very considerably the numbers of such
as are injurious to our forests.

798. Why are the extremities of the feathers in the tail of the
woodpecker hard and elastic like whalebone, and with the shaft
particularly prominent ?

Because this quality in the bird's
tail affords & prop, OT fulcrum, as it
rests against a tree ; and no other
contrivance could enable the bird to
maintain its position when throwing
back its head to give due force to
the bill in hammering at the bark
of the tree.

799. Why is tlie bill of the parrot so thick and powerful ?

This member, so unlike that of other frugivorous birds, is
admirably calculated for the principal offices it has to perform,
viz., breaking the shells and stones of the hardest fruits and seeds,
and as a strong organ of prehension and support when climbing or
moving from one position to another.

800. In their native woods, the movements of the parrot tribe are marked by an
ease and gracefulness we never see exhibited in a state of confinement. They
climb about the branches in every direction, and suspend themselves from them in
every possible attitude, hi all which movements they are greatly assisted by their
booked bills, which are used, like the foot, as an organ of prehension and support.*

* naturalists' Library.

NATURAL HISTORY. 259

In painted plumes superbly drest

A native of the gorgeous East,
Poll gains at length the British shore,

Part of the captain's precious store." — COWPER.

^^^^^f^f^^^^^^U^^^^^^^^^^^^^

801. WJiy is a parrot able to move its bill with unusual force,
and to peck out and divide its food with extreme nicety ?

Because loth mandibles of the parrot's beak are moveable (most
birds being able to move only one), and are endowed with a large
amount of muscular power.

802. The fleshy tongues of parrots are as peculiar as their bills, and are very useftu
to the hirds in turning a nut, or other food, into a convenient position for the power
of the hill to bear upon it. The fleshy tongue is found in all parrots, excepting the
Australian group, called the loniqets, which hirds feed on the honey of flowers,
and have tongues formed with bristles like a brush, with which they sweep
together the honey.

803. Why has each species of the parrot tribe its own peculiar
residence, and a very limited distribution around it?

This is partly accounted for by the shortness of the wings, and the
want of power of flight, which prevent their migration ; but it is
partly due also to the adaptation of each species to a peculiarity of
conditions, which would not be met with elsewhere.

804. Why among the parrot tribes are there marked differences
in the forms of their feet ?

Because, as there are various kinds of trees and plants upon
which they live, so a tfffiwntform and development of the climbing
organs is necessary to acutot the bird to its habitation.

805. Those who have examined the tropical forests, mention that there appears to
be a species of parrot adapted for each of the more conspicuous kind of trees which
are to be met with in those forests. Thus, if the tree is a palm, or anything else
which has a single stem, and can afford nourishment for a bird only at or near the
top of that stem, then the species of parrot set over it to consume the surplus of its
fruit is an air bird, capable of flying over the forest in search of such trees ; and,
when this is the case, the body of the bird is lighter in proportion to its lineal
dimensions, and us tail is generally very much produced, which assists it m ascending
and descending. On the other hand, the short-flighted parrots, which inhabit trees
which are very m-uch branched, and bear fruit in the axillae of the leaves of the
smaller twigs, have tKe bodies stouter in proportion to the dimensions, the tail

260 THE REASON N\ I1Y :

" Words learn'd by rot^ a parrot may rehearse,
But talking1 is not always to converse;
Not more distinct from harmony divine,
The constant creaking of a country sign." — COWPEK.

shorter, and th~ feathers more firm and scaly. Parrots of this last description
inhabit regions which are more perennially fertile than those inhabited by the
former, -whose more produced flying feathers and lighter bodies, and, generally
spoaking, also their more vigorous make, fit them better for ranging into a new
locality when food fails them in the old one ; and also for making daily excursions
of considerable length over the fields in the vicinity of those trees wherein they
roost during the night.*

606. Wliy are, the macaws so named ?

The name is derived from macro and cercus, the latter having
reference to the large naked space on the cheek and around
the eye.

807. Wliy are parrots, in their natural distribution, limited
to tropical climates ?

Because they are almost exclusively vegetable feeders, the
kernels of fruits, and the buds and flowers of trees, being the
chief sources on which they depend for their nourishment. They
are therefore unfitted for a locality where the woods are for
several months of the year fruitless, flowerless, and leafless.

808. Why do parrots suffer less from confinement than birds
in general ?

Because birds of flight, when brought within the narrow limits
of a cage, lose their necessary exercise. But parrots, being
climbing birds, are able to a great extent to keep up the
movements of the natural condition.

809. Why do parrots gnaw and chip pieces of wood?

The propensity which the whole of the parrot tribe have for
biting wood, and throwing the bits away, suggests that they
perform a very useful function in the scheme of nature.

In their distribution they are limited to tropical climatea.
Partington's "Cyclopaedia.''

NATURAL HISTORY. 261

" O who would e'er have thought that time could have decay'd
Those trees whose bodies seemed by their so massy weight
To press the solid earth, and with their wondrous height
To climb into the clouds."— DRAYTOX.

and in those climates to localities where the vegetation is so
'uxuriant that the forests are impenetrable by man.

It is the office of the parrot tribes to keep in check this excessive
vegetation, and to prune the trees which they inhabit. A parrot in
the woods has harder labour to perform than almost any other bird
which lives upon vegetable matter. And it is remarkable that
they gnaw and chip wood, not for the purposes of appetite ; but
because this occupation affords them a great degree of pleasure.

Through this biting propensity, they contribute to the removal
of decayed trees, by enlarging the holes in their trunks, and
exposing the woody fibre to the action of the rain
and atmosphere.

810. What important advantage does the parrot derive from
the moveability of its upper mandible?

The upper mandible being moveable, and not, as in other birds,
united to the cranium, prevents pressure or concussion being
communicated to the brain, while the bird performs the arduous
gnawing task assigned to it.

811. Why are paraquettes so called?

The term may be considered as a diminutive of parrot, and is
used to distinguish the smaller birds of the parrot tribes.

812. Why are paraquettes abundant in America.

In the great western valley of the United States, there grows
a wild plant, of the composite order, known as the cocldt^burr.
The seeds of these plants are the favourite food of paraquettes.
But for the check afforded by these birds to the diffusion of this
plant, it would probably spread itself over every piece of ground
which man has cleared of timber, or reclaimed from being
a swamp.

813. Why does the parrot construct no nest?

The soft dust accumulated at the bottom of the trunks of

IEASOX WHY :

The time shall come when chanticleer shall wish

His words unsaid, and hate his boasted bliss :

The crested bird shall by experience know,

Jove made him not his master-piece below." — DRYDBW.

decayed trees suffices for all the purposes of a nest, and precludes
the necessity of any artificial contrivance.

814. The instinctive liking for such a bed does not desert it in a state of captivity.
Buffon mentions a pair of parrots in France, that for several years successively
produced and brought up their young. The place they selected for this
purpose was a cask partially filled with sawdust.

815. Why are cockatoos so called f

Because of the peculiarly dis
tinct manner in which they
speak the word cockatoo, though
generally they are less capable of
articulating sounds than the
true parrot. Cockatoos are dis
tinguished from true parrots, and
all others, by a crest, or tuft of
feathers on the head, which they
can raise or depress at pleasure.

816. Why is the toucan tribe so named?

From the cry tu-cdno which it utters when upou ft-a watch,
or when apprehensive of danger.

817. Wliy does the toucan toss back its head wht'it eating

This habit is rendered necessary by the length of tit bill, and
the stiffness of the tongue, which prevent their eating as
other birds : they therefore, when the morsel has received its
first mastication, throw it into the gullet with a smart jerk.

818. The toucan has a practice of returning his food, some time aftr* ho has
transmitted it to his crop ; and, after masticating it for a second time in the hill,
again swallowing it; the whole operation bearing a strong resemblance to *he
process in ruminating animals.

NATURAL HISTORI. 263

" The merry cuckowr, messenger of spring,

His trumpet shrill has thrice already sounded ;
That warnes all louvers waite upon their king,

Who now is coming forth -with girland crowned." — SPENSER.

819. Why has the toucan such an immense bill?

In order to enable it to procure its food, consisting of small
birds and their eggs, found in deep nests, and various hard
vegetable substances.

820. The bill of the toucan, although large — in some instances being nearly a»
long as the body itself— is light and cellular. It 'serves as a hatchet, and at the
same time has all the delicate action of a very neat pair of pliers. The toucan is
not a swift or powerful flyer ; but its motions, as it hops from branch to branch, are
not ungraceful. The bill is, in fact, no incumbrance to the bird, however ill its
appearance may suit with our ideas of proportion.

821. Why is it ordained that the cuckoo should deposit its
eggs in the nests of other birds ?

Because the cuckoo is the largest of insectivorous birds, and
requires a great quantity of food, which, like the swallow, it
must make constant search for. If cuckoos sat upon their
eggs, they would be unable to obtain this large supply ;
and if they left their eggs to search for food, the eggs would
become chilled while they were on the wing.

822. Why does the cuckoo drop Tier eggs into the nests of
birds smaller than herself?

Because if she were to drop her eggs into the nest of a bird
which produced a large egg, and consequently a large nestling, the
young cuckoo would probably find an insurmountable difficulty in
solely possessing the nest, as its exertions would be unequal to the
labour of turning out the young birds.

823. Why does the female cuckoo deposit her eggs in the nests oj
the sparrow, the wagtail, &c., which are disproportionately small ;
and pass by the nests of the blackbird, thrush, &c., which appear
to be better adapted for the purpose ?

Because the various insects and flies upon which the sparrow,
toagtwil, &c., feed, form the best kind of jood, upon which tbe

264

THE REASON WHY :

" Since the cuckoo builds not for himself,
Remain in't as thou may'st." — SHAKSPERE.

young cuckoos can be reared. Whilst the aliment upon which the
Hackbird and the thrush usually subsist is not proper, and in
some respects would be injurious.

824. When the cuckoo is hatched
previously to the offspring of its fos
ter-parent, it throws the unhatched
eggs out of the nest by means of
its broad and depressed beak. It
•visits its lay companions with the
same treatment ; and, admitting no
rival, monopolises all the room and
all the food to itself; and such
is the voracity of this bird, that
the most untiring zeal and labour of
the foster-parent are scarcely able to
satisfy the cravings of the intruder.

825. Why does the cuckoo deposit her eggs in the nests of other
birds with her foot?

Because if the cuckoo sat upon the adopted nest while laying
the egg, the weight of its body would derange the nest,
and cause it to be forsaken ; thus defeating one of the ends
of Providence.

826. Why do injuries so frequently occur to the eggs of those
birds in whose nests cuckoos lay ?

These accidents are chiefly owing to the setting bird attempting
to accommodate herself to eggs of different sizes.

If comparatively large and small eggs are placed in the same
nest, some of the smaller ones are generally thrown out, or rendered
addle, by the hen bird endeavouring to arrange them so that she
may distribute nearly an equal degree of warmth and pressure to
ill : but the larger ones, which chiefly sustain her weight, and
ionsequently are less liable to be moved, usually remain uninjured.

NATURAL HISTORY. 265

" Harsh your /ore-notes thrill,
To me no pleasure Nature now can yield;
Alike the barren rock and woody hill,
The dark-brown blasted heath and fruitful field." — CHATTERTOH.

When the eggs of birds are exchanged for others of a uniform
magnitude, or provided the difference is not so great as to occasion
them to be forsaken, no disturbance ensues, whatever their
colour may be, the change either not being perceived, or
totally disregarded.

827. Wliy do birds of the cuckoo kind perch upon the backs of
oxen while grazing?

Many of them eat the insects which infest cattle ; and the latter
are so well aware of the fact, as well as grateful for it, that they
frequently lie down, in order that the bird may devour its prey
undisturbed.

828. Why is the bird known as the wry-neck so called?

Because it has a habit of moving its head in various directions,
not unlike a snake ; this is especially the case when discovered
in its nest, upon which occasions it writhes its head quickly
from shoulder to shoulder, with strange and apparently painful
contortions.

829. Why are love-birds so named ?

From the singular degree of attachment to each other which
they manifest ; sitting closely side by side caressing each other,
arranging each other's plumage, and exhibiting various marks oi
mutual regard.

830. Why is the oven bird so designated f
From the singular oven-like form of its nest.

831. it is a native of South America, but is occasionally found in Southern
Europe. The nest, whence it takes its name, is placed in the most exposed
situations, as the top of a post, a bare rock, or a cactus. It is composed of mud
and bits of straw, and has strong, thick walls : in shape it precisely resembles aa
even, or a depressed bee -hive. The opening is large and arched, and directly in
front. Within the nest there is a partition which reaches nearly to the roof : thu»
forming a passage, or anti-chamber, to the true nest.

12

266 THE REASON WHY :

Whilst wheeling round in airy wanton flights,

The glossy pigeons chase their sportive loves." — DODSLEY.

ORDER IV.— GYRATORES.

832. Why is the order gyratores thus designated ?

From the word gyratio, a " turning" or " wheeling round." It
refers to the ordinary mode of flight displayed by the birds
included in the order.

833. Why has the pigeon tribe a puffed-out appearance
about the breast ?

This arises from the presence of its unusually large crop ; an
organ which is capable of some of the uses of the paps
in mammalia.

834. By what remarkable process are the young pigeons and
other birds of the dove-kind fed by their parents ?

The parents of the dove kind support their young with the
curd-like contents of their crops, as the mammalia do with milk
in the early stages of the existence of their offspring.

835. This is performed by the faculty which the parent birds possess of throwing
up the contents of their crops, which assume the appearance of a granulated white
curd. It would appear that the young pigeon is fed for a little time Avith this
cui'd-like substance only, for about the third day some of the common food is found
mingled Avith it. As the pigeon grows older, the proportion of common food is
increased ; so that, by the time it is seven, eight, or nine days old, the secretion of
tne curd cea?es in the old bird, and of course no more will be found in the crop of
the young. It is a curious fact, that the parent pigeon has, at first, a power to
throw up this curd without any mixture of common food, although, afterwards,
both are thrown up according to the proportion required for the young ones.

No young birds are in so forlorn a state as young pigeons, if the parents are killed
before the young can provide for themselves. Birds of other species, stimulated
by the cries of the helpless young which have been deprived of parental aid, can
and do assist the little starvelings ; but none except an old pigeon, with its crop in a
proper state, can save the life of a nestling dove.

836. Why is the plumage of the rock pigeon very close
and compact?

They are thus furnished to enable them to encounter the s&wrt

NATURAL HISTORY. 267

" One silent eve I wander'd late,
And heard the voice of love ;
The turtle thus addrcss'd her mate,
And soothed the listening dove." — COWPER.

storms which they often experience, at those places \vhere
they frequent.

837. It does not appear that there is, generally speaking, much food for them in
tbe close vicinity of the rocks — their natural habitations. But, in order to keep up
the- powerful and long-continued muscular action which they must exert, they
require a high degree of action in the vital system, and consequently a copious
and freqmnt supply of food. In order to obtain this, they must range about in
all weathers, and consequently they require to be warmly as well as
ejinpactly clothed.

838. Why is the plumage of the pigeon tribe of a sombre hue ?

Thsir food consists chiefly of grain,pulse, acorns, beech-nuts, and
other seeds, and occasionally the tender shoots of particular plants.
These they gather on the ground, and hence the colour of their
plumage is so ordered as not to be readily distinguishable from
the vegetation among which they feed.

839. The structure of the pigeon tribe manifestly displays the unerring provision
of Nature. Their bills are slender, though still of average strength, for they have
no nuts or fruits to break. Their tails are generally square, and their wings strong
and pointed, thus fitting them for long and arduous nights.

840. Why does the rock pigeon prefer, among artificial
pigeon-houses, one that has been whitewashed ?

There may be two reasons for this : first, the whitened pigeon-
house is a more conspicuous object than the other ; and secondly,
a considerable quantity of carbonate of lime, may be required for
the eggs of the female, which, though only two in each batch, are
often numerous in the course of the year. This the bird obtains
by pecking at the lime.

841. Why is the rock pigeon, which never feeds upon fish, seen
to walk and pick upon the sea-beach ?

Probably for the purpose of taking into its crop bits of shell
Gxd small slonc.it, as means towards the digestion of its food.

268

THE REASON -WHY :

; I have heard her with sweetness unfold

How tiiat pity was due to a dove /
That it ever attended the bold,
And she called it the sister of love."— SHENSTONE.

842. Why does the ringdove feed greedily, and get very fat, in
the autumn months ?

In order to be better prepared for enduring the severer and less
abundant months of winter.

843. In autumn the ring pigeons begin to associate in flocks. At first they feed
upon the fruits of forest trees, and particularly the beech-mast, which at that
time is strewed upon the ground. The grains and seeds left, and small fallen fruits,
are their first subsistence ; but, as they are ravenous feeders, they, if in great
numbers, speedily exhaust these. After this, they migrate farther south, and
attack the more succulent green leaves which remain in the fields — such
as those of field-greens, turnips, and mangold-wurtzel.

844. Why does the dove tribe seek the vicinity of man, so as
to prefer an artificial pigeon-house to its native haunts in
rocks, &c.

The feet of the dove, or common pigeon, are walking feet, with
very little of the perching character. The external and internal
front toes are of equal length, the hind toe is short, and the claws
are not hooked, as in the decided perchers, but so placed as that
the foot may be wholly planted upon the ground. Hence A
regularly formed ground may have a charm for the pigeon, which
its wild rocks cannot supply.

845. IVhy are the notes of the wood-pigeon commonly associated
with gentleness and love?

Because the cooings of
these birds accord so inti
mately with our conception
of all that is gentle and
innocent, that one cannot
listen to them without being
impressed with feelings which
no other sounds in nature,
save that of the human
voice itself, could inspire.

NATURAL HISTORY.

O, ten times faster than Venus' pigeons fly

To seal love's bonds new made, than they are wont

To keep obliged faith forfeited." — SHAKSI-EHE.

846. A man, who was once 3 pirate, declared that several times while at certain
aclls dug in the burning shel'/ sands of a well-known bay, the soft and melancholy
cry of the wood-pigeons aw ice in his breast feelings which had long slumbered,
melted his heart to repe?;tance, and caused him to linger at the spot in a
state of mind which he only •« no compares the wretchedness of guilt with the
happiness of former innocence can truly feel. He said he never left the place
without increased fears of futurity ; and so deeply was he moved at length by the
notes of this bird, that through their influence he was induced to escape from his
vessel, abandon his lawless companions, and return to a family deploring his
absence. After paying a parting visit to these wells, and listening once more to
the voice of the bird, he poured out his soul in supplications for mercv, and once
more became an honest man.

847. Why is the song of the ringed pigeon heard at intervals
only of the spring and autumn ?

Because, except when engaged in constructing its nest, or the
process of incubation and the rearing of its young, this bird utters
no note : these cares over, it retires to the woods, and is silent
until the breeding-time again commences.

848. WJiy do pigeons return to the place from u'hich they set
out, after having accomplished a long journey ?

Because these birds are
conspicuous for their strong
attachment to locality or
home. And in training them
to carry missives, &c. the
bird is tried at easy dis
tances, which are gradually
extended until twenty or
thirty miles are accom
plished successfully, and
when this distance has been
attained, the pigeon wiU
travel to, and return from, any spot, however remote.

849. The following anecdotes will be found to illustrate the wonderful faculty of
the carrier pigeon : — In the year 1819, an experiment was tried between London
uul Antwerp. Thirty-two pigeons with the word "Antwerp" marked on their

270 THE REASON WHY.

" Say, mid that grove, in love-lorn state,
"While yon poor rinif-dorr mourns her mate,
Is all that meets the shepherd's ear,
Inspired by anguish and despair?" — MASON.

wings, and which had been reared in that city, were let loose in London at se^en
o'clock in the morning, after having their wings counter-marked " London." The
*ame day, towards noon, one arrived at home ; a quarter of an hour afterwards,
another arrived. The following day twelve others returned, making fourteen in
all; of the fate of the rest no tidings were gleaned. In July, 1829, anothei
experiment was made, in consequence of some wagers laid at Maestricht between
some merchants there, that pigeons taken to London would, when let loose, return
in six hours. Forty-two pigeons were accordingly brought to London, and after
be'ng properly marked, were thrown up at twenty-six minutes past eight in the
mrrning. If anyone of the number had arrived at Maestricht within six hours,
the principal wager, which was for 10,000 guilders, would have been gained; but
in consequence, as it was supposed, of a heavy rain, the first did not arrive till six
hours and a quarter from the time when it left London, having, nevertheless,
travelled at the rate of forty-five miles an hour, assuming that the journey was
performed in a straight line. The second arrived in seven hours, the third in seven
hours and ten minutes, the fourth in seven hours and a half, and in four days more
than twenty had returned. The missing birds are supposed to have met with
accidents, which might be reasonably supposed to occur in such a long journey,
such as being shot, or to have taken up their abode with wild flocks on
thc-ir way.

850. Why does the form of the ring-dove become considerably
changed in the evening ?

Because, when they have fed upon turnip-tops and other vege
tables during the day, the crop becomes so distended with food, a?
to give to the fore part of the body a very full appearance.
Tne contents of the stomach having been digested during the night
the body regains its ordinary proportions.

851. Why is the flesh of the wild pigeon less delicate and
palatable, than that of the tamed variety.

Because the violent and frequently repeated exercise to which
they are subjected hardens the muscles of birds in a state
of nature.

852. If the birds are brought up from their earliest stage, and kept upon rich
pastures where they have occasion to use the wing but little, the tenderness and
?lso the flavour of their flesh are greatly unproved.

NATURAL HISTORY. 271

" The careful hen

Calls all her chirping family around,
Fed and defended by the fearless cock,
Whose breast with ardour flames, as on he walks,
Graceful, and crows defiance." — THOMSOK.

ORDER V.— BASQUES.

853. IVTiy is the order rasores so called?

From rado, to scrape or scratch, the birds of this order compre
hending the gallinaceous tribe being distinguished by their habit
of scraping the earlh, to obtain food.

854. They are omnivorous; living equally upon seeds, grains, and insects. It ie
to this order that most of our domestic birds, the feathered tenants of the farm
yard, belong; and also most of those unreclaimed by man, celebrated for the
excellency of their flesh, as the arouse, partridge, quail, and pheasant.

855. Why do gallinaceous and other birds pick up small
stones, bits of shells, &c., and gravel, which are afterwards
found embedded in their gizzards?

The gizzard is a fleshy stomach, the substance of which con
sists of a strong muscle ; the dark part of the gizzard being the
muscle, and the shining part of it the tendon to which the
muscular fibres are attached Birds pick up small fragments of
stone, which pass with the grain to the gizzard, and there become
the mean's of grinding the food upon which the birds subsist.

856. There are two muscles, with a central tendon ; it is what anatomists call a
digastric, or double-bellied stomach.

The cavity within this muscle is lined with a dense, rough, insensible coat, and
there are always to be found contained in it small stones, generally of quartz, if it
be within the reach of the bird.

The grams are mixed with these portions of stone ; and if we place our ear close
to the bird, we may hear the grinding motions going on as distinctly as the
noise of the horse's jaws in a manger.

In fact, this digastric muscle, or gi/zard, is equivalent to the muscles of the jaws,
and the pebbles are a fair equivalent to the teeth, with this advantage, that when
they are ground down, the instinct of the bird provides more.*

857. In what respects do the gallinaceous birds resemble
ruminating animals ?

By a peculiar arrangement, the food taken up by the bill of
• Notes to raley's " Nat. Theology," by Sir Charles Bell.

"272 THE REASON WHY

" The cock, that is the trumpet to the morn,
Doth with his lofty and shrill sounding throat
Awake the god of day." — SHAKSPKKS.

thes» birds undergoes a triturating process in the gizzard, before
passing into the sto'fnach ; thus it submits to a double digestion,
somewhat analogous to the triple digestive action of
the ruminants.

858. The gallinidce have, generally speaking, three stomachs, and their intestines
are more lengthened than those of most birds, and furnished with two caecal
appendages, about six inches in length. These three stomachs are : the craw, or
pouch, into which the food is taken, as into little more than a simple store, where
it is sent gradually to the other parts of the digestive apparatus. In this viscus the
food undergoes very little change, though it may be partially softened. The craw
>pens laterally from the gullet. The second stomach is a dilatation of the gullet
itself, and is furnished with glands which secrete a peculiar ftuid ; and it is here,
also, thftt the drink of the bird mingles with its food. The third stomach is the
gizzard, the texture of which is very strong and muscular, and the inner coat so
hard and compact as to have the appearance of fii-m cartilage. The gizzard can
exert a very powerful action, so much so as to grind down glass and metals in* a
very short tune, without appearing to sustain injury.

859. IVTiy do the gallinaceous birds lay and hatch their eggs
in nests upon the ground ?

Because, being indifferent flyers, their young after incubatiou
are thus enabled to reach their proper habitat without the risk
of injury.

860. Why are the legs of gallinaceous birds developed at
a very early stage of their existence?

Because they are ground birds ; feed upon their feet ; and pass
the greater portion of their lives in walking and scraping.

861. The newly-hatched birds require these organs developed very early,
being lesis provided with a formal nest than the young of any of the preceding
orders.

862. Why has the cock a streaming and elegant tail ?

In all probability this appendage, which is useless to him in
flying, while it adds to the dignity and importance of his bearing
in the eyes of his mates, assists and balances his body, which it
largely developed on the breast.

NATURAL HISTORY.

273

• While the cock with lively din,
Scatters the rear of darkness thin,
And to the stack or the harn door,
Stoutly struts his dames before." — MILTON.

863. Why has the
domesticated ?

fowl become thoroughly

Because, being omnivorous
it delights in that great
variety of food which
proximity to man affords ;
while its hardy nature enables
it to support great variations
of season and temperature.

This rule is not without
limitation : the barn-door fowl
does not thrive or breed in
very cold climates. Every
attempt to introduce it to
fcuch countries as Siberia has
hitherto failed.

864. Why have common poultry limited powers of flight ?

Because they have little use for wings : only requiring those
organs to assist their legs when alarmed, or in reaching the
perches upon which th-ay pass the hours of repose.

865. The chief usr of the wings of the gallinidse, besides enabling those which
perch during the n^ght to reach their perches, appears to be safety agiinst
quadrupedal foes. Their fluttering gets them, perhaps, sooner above the reach of
these than if they had a more steady and forward style of flight. From birds of
prey they may be said, one and all, to be incapable of escaping on the wing : their
safety from these consists in crouching among the clods or lurking among the
herbage. Their wings are short, broad, and concave ; and also looser in the
plumage of their under sides than the wings of almost all other birds. All these
qualities enable them to take a firm hold on the air, which assists them in working
upwards ; though it renders flight more laborious.

866. Why do fowls prefer to roost in elevated places?

Because they have an instinctive dread of vermin which inaj
12*

274 THE REASON WHY :

See from the brake the whirring: pheasant springs,
And mounts triumphant on exulting wings." — POPE.

molest them on the ground during the hours of darkness. Hence
poultry, if left to themselves and not housed, will perch the winter
through on yew trees and fir trees ; and turkeys and guinea fowls,
heavy as they are, get up into apple trees around their owner's
house for security, let the weather be ever so boisterous.

SG7. Partridges roost on the ground, not having the faculty of perching ; but the
same fear prevails with them ; for, through apprehension of polecats and
stoats, they never trust themselves to coverts, but nestle together in the midst of
large fields, far removed from hedges and coppices. As to ducks and geese, their
awkward web-feet preclude them from settling on trees; they, therefore, in
the hours of darkness and danger, betake themselves to their own element, the
water, where, amidst large lakes and pools, like ships riding at anchor, they float
the whole night long in peace and security.

868. Why does the plumage of the pheasant taper off to a
point ?

The haunts of these birds are among shrubs, bushes, and tall
herbage, through which they have to make their way ivith as little
rustling as possible: this their pointed tails enable them to do
most perfectly.

869. Why do pheasants prefer larch trees to p^rch upon ?

Because the branches of this tree grow at nearly right angles
from the stem ; which renders the sitting position of the birds
peculiarly easy.

870. Why have the eggs of guinea fowls so hard a shell ?

.» . Because these birds deposit
their eggs on the ground,
and were the shells not
harder than those of ordi
nary eggs, they would be
broken by many accidental
causes. The eggs, though
laid on the ground, are
usually concealed.

NATURAL HISTORY.

275

O'er the wild waste the stupid ostrich strays

In devious search to pick her scanty meal,

Whose fierce digestion gnaws the temper'd steel." — MICKLJC.

871. Why do fowls and other birds hustle themselves in
the dust?

Because by this action they rid themselves of the vermin with
which they are liable to be troubled.

872. On the same principle, swine wallow in the mire, and the rhinoceros and
the elephant roll their bodies in the mud to defend them from the breeze-fly.

ORDER VI.— CURSORES.

873. Why is the order cursores so termed?

Because the birds comprehended therein are distinguished by
possessing great powers of locomotion a-foot.

874. The word cursores ia
derived from the Latin verb
curro, " I run." These birds are
strictly and exclusively terres
trial : have powerful and even
massive legs, moved by volumi
nous muscles ; and wings which
are scarcely more than rudi
mentary, barely enabling the
bird to rise above the surface
of the earth. The ostrich, dodo,
and cassowary are the chief
examples of this order.

875. Why is the ostrich the swiftest, of animals ?

Because of the very wide and scanty distribution of its food,
and the consequent large area over which it must travel in order
to obtain it.

876. Why does the
extraordinary power?

ostrich possess digestive organs of

Because the scanty supply of food which the deserts
afford, renders it necessary that the bird should bo able to

276 THE REASON WHY:

"At both these times they were motherless and helplesse,
concernynge theyre owne strengthes ; but were yet cared for
of God."— BIBLE NOTES, 1551.

extract the whole nourishment which that supply is capable
of rendering.

877. Why does the hen ostricl continue to lay eggs, while
engaged in incubation ?

Because she thus provides for her young brood a means of
subsistence which they would otharwise need. The, eggs laid
during incubation are destined to nourish the brood ?

8*S. Although as large as pullets when first hatched, the young ostriches are
then unable to digest the hard and acrid food on which the old ones subsist. The
eggs laid for this purpose are not deposited in the nest, but placed outside it, which
alone would be a proof of the use they are intended to serve.

879. JFTiy does the hen ostrich sometimes abandon her nest for
a long period ?

Because the absence of moisture in the desert diminishes the
quantity of food which the bird can meet with : and this compels
her to take long journeys in order to preserve her life.

880. Under such circumstances, she also actually requires more food ; for the
amount necessary to the healthy state of an animal increases with the increase of
its labour. That this is the only reason why the ostrich should for a while abandon
her eggs, is made clear by the fact that where food is more plentiful — i.e., in
districts better watered — she takes a narrower range, and is less frequently absent
from the nest. Und^r the tropics, where vegetation abounds, she seldom, if ever,
quits it till the eggs are hatched.

881. Why has the hen ostrich been cited as a type of the
neglectful mother ?

Because of an apparent inclination to abandon her eggs to
chance, by leaving them uncovered during some hours of
the day.

882. This carelessness is, however, only apparent. During the heat of the
African day the vertical rays of the sun are sufficient to keep the eggs at a proper
temperature, and the mother takes that opportunity to procure food foi
herself.

During such an exmrsion she still hovers about her nest, and if surprised,
makes a short circuit, and returns to the object of tier core.

"NATURAL HISTORY. 277

I'll make thee eat iron like an ostrich, and swallow my
sword like a preat pin, ere thou and I part." — SHAKSPEUE.

The expressions in the Book of Job, derogatory to tha character of the ostrich,
ure to be understood as spoken by an individual, not as coming from the lips of
inspired wisdom. God has looked upon the creation of his hands and pronounced
it " very good." Job (in chap, xxxix.) t-poke according to his limited knowledge
of the habits of birds, and might pardonably err.*

In the dry desert, where the hen ostrich deposits her eggs, scarcely any dew is
formed during the night ; and she can without injury to them afford to be absent
from the nest during the whole twenty-four hours, if such an absence should be
necessary. For the radiation of heat from the sand during the night would be
quite sufficient to keep up a stimulus to vitality in the eggs until the direct sun of
another day came upom them.

883. Why does the fool of the ostrich resemble that of
a camel ?

Because it inhabits the same, regions, and is subject to the same
set of circumstances ; with this difference, that as its pace is
more swift, the foot of the ostrich is therefore proportionally
hard and callous.

884. The resemblance between the ostrich and camel has always been a subject of
remark. Ey the ancient authors it was called the camel-bird. Aristotle asserts it
to be purtly bird and partly quadruped ; and Pliny does the same. Its powers of
digestion assimilate it to the ruminating animals ; it does, in fact, occupy the
place among birds which the camel, "the ship of the desert," does among
mammalia.

885. Why has the ostrich small and light wings ?

It is a rule in nature that whenever one species of action is
required in a very high degree the organization of an animal is
concentrated upon that. Flight would have been of comparatively
little use to a "vegetable feeding bird, where its height, standing on
foot, is quite sufficient to reach the top of the tallest shrub
on its pastures.

886. Wings sufficient to bear up so weighty a bird as the ostrich in swift motion
through the air would have demanded a waste of muscular exertion, for the
supply of which sufficient food could not have been found in the region
inhabited by it.

* See "The Biblica. Reason Why" foi many interesting explanations of

Scripture texts.

278

THE REASON WHY:

A giantess she seems ; but, look behind,
And then she dwindles to the pigmy kind,
Duck-legged, short waisted." — DKYUEN,

ORDKR VII.— GRALLATORES.

887. Wliy is the order grallatores so tcrined?

From the circumstance that the birds comprehended in it are
waders, distinguished by the length of their legs, and generally
of their bilk. The word is formed from grallce, " stilts ;" grallatores,
therefore, means literally "stilt walkers"

888. These birds feed upon
worms and the smaller species of
fish found on the banks, and hold
an intermediate place between land
and aquatic birds ; and though
not provided with any apparatus to
enable them to swim, the provision
thus made, as in the case of the
long-lagged plover seen in the
engraving, enables them to wade
in the water in search of their
prey, and to seize it without any
difficulty.

889. Why have long-legged wading birds generally short tails f

Because tails of any considerable length would be inconvenien
to such birds : coming in contact with water, they^ would be liable
to become wet, heavy, and cumbersome. For, although the
plumage of water-birds is provided with an oil which repels
water, it operates chiefly upon the closer plumage, to prevent
the water from penetrating to the flesh of the body.

890. Another reason why wading birds have short tails is to be found in the
fact that many of them are of hiding habits, and fond of concealing themselves in
tall vegetation. Birds which have these habits are always small-tailed, or thai
member is so disposed, as in the pheasant, that it trails the earth, and in no way
interferes with their concealment.

891. Why have wading birds wide-spreading feet ?

Because, in searching after their food, they have frequently tc

NATURAL HISTORY. 279

There's not a better steerrr in the realm,

I hope, my lord, you'll call him to the helm." — SWIFT.

stand by the slippery edges of the water, and to steady themselves
on doping batiks of wet grass, neither of which could they effect
securely were their feet formed with a narrower base.

892. Why do short-tailed birds generally throw their has
behind them when flying ?

Because, being destitute of
the steerage power usually
afforded by the tail, they find
a substitute in their long legs,
which they throw back to
occupy its place : thus they get
rid of the inconvenience of
long legs while flying, and are
compensated for the absence of the tail.

893. Wliy have, fish-eating birds in general no crop ?

Because all they swallow, however large it may be, enters at
once into the stomach, and undergoes immediate digestion.

894. Why has the snipe a long tapering bill?

Because it derives its food by penetrating its bill into the moist
earth. This is exactly the instrument which the animal wanted.
It did not require strength in its bill, which was inconsistent with
the slender form of the animal's neck, as well as unnecessary for
the kind of aliment upon which it subsists ; but it wanted length
to reach its object.

895. Why are the eyes of snipes placed more backward in
the head, than in most other birds ?

Because these organs are not much wanted in the immediate
capture of their prey, and are thus placed so as to best guard
against enemies. And besides, the eyes being thus situated,
enables the bill to bore its whole length in the mud, when
searching for worms.

•280 THE REASON WHY :

But if I know when you come next a burding,
I'll have a stronger noose to hold the woodcock."

BEAUMONT AND FLKTCHER.

806. Why are birds of the snipe family without the ioti<j
hind toe of other birds?

Because in wading in the mud, where the feet must necessarily
sink deeply, a long hind toe would be an incumbrance, and tend to
throw the bird on to its head in the water.

897. Why do snipes and woodcoclcs gradually disappear from
cultivated districts ?

Beca'use the three essentials to the tribe are solitude, shelter,
and humidity — consequently, population, clearance, and drainage
drive them into more sequestered places.

898. The grand resort of woodcocks in summer is understood to be marshy
woods to the north of the Baltic ; and the farther north, so long as the place is
wooded, the better, as the insect food for the birds is not only more plentiful, but
the sludge of the marshes is more exclusively the nest of larvjB.

899. Why docs the flamingo, when feeding, hold its head and
beak upside-down in the water ?

The feet of the bird while feeding are moved in a trampling
manner, in order to stir the sand or mud beneath the water ;
the food thus disturbed, whether insects, fish, or stones, are conti
nually falling into their former position. The flamingo, by
placing its head in that peculiar way, catches in its mouth, tests
upon its tongue, and appropriates to its use whatever is
suitable for food.

900. The structure of the flamingo's tongue is admirably adapted to its purpose.
The spines with which the upper surface is armed are arranged in an irregular and
alternate series, and act with the notches on the edge of the upper mandible, on
which they press when the bird feeds with the head reversed. In this reversed
position, the weight and size of the tongue supply a very efficient instrument for
entrapping the food. The bird muddles and clutters the bill, and dabbles about ;
and the tongue receives, and holds as a strainer, whatever the water offers foi
food.*

* Maunder's "Treasury."

NATURAL HISTORY.

281

What is this misrhtv breath, ye sages, say
That, in a powerful language, felt, not heard,
Instructs the fowl& of heaven ?" — THOMSON.

901. Why does the flamingo make its nest upon mound-Ufa

i.tifi.ti.nri.s ?

elevations

Because the great length
of the legs of the flamingo
preclude the possibility of
its conducting incubation
in the ordinary manner
Inhabiting inarshy places,
the nests are thus raised
above the wet soil, to a dry
and warm situation, in
which the process of hatch
ing can more effectually he
accomplished.

902. These elevated nests are constructed by the bird out of loose earth or mud,
formed into the shape of a hillock, with a hollow cavity at the top ; the eggs are
two or three in number, white, and as large as those of a goose, but of a longer
figure. The female sits upon her nest during incubation, the attitude being that
of a person sitting upon a high stool — the legs resting on marshy giound, and
sometimes even in the water. Sometimes, if the female finds a low projecting
rock, she makes her nest on the edge thereof, and raises no hillock.

903. Why has the avocet a bill shaped like a scoop ?

Avocets are fen birds ; but, in feeding, they frequent only
those parts of the fens which are alternately flooded and left dry
by tidal waters. Their bills are not adapted for taking any kind
of food upon land ; neither are they fitted for fishing in the waters.
Their food is contained in mud, ooze, or light gravel ; and consists
of worms, larvae, and small molluHCOus and crustaceous animals,
which are there found in great plenty. The greater number of
these are embedded to a certain depth, and are not seen by birds
that feed by sight.

282

TiiE REASON WIIT :

" The machine, which we arc inspecting, demonstrates by its
construction, contrivance, and design. Contrivance must have
had a contriver, design a designer ; whether the machine imme
diately proceeded from another machine or not." — PALEY.

904. In searching for its food among various accumulated matters, the avocet

moves along with slow hut rather
lengthy steps, and scoops ooze or
mud in curves, right and left, as it
proceeds. In performing this opera
tion, it does not use the bill only,
but the whole body. It alights in
the middle with its head in the
stream, and the one foot a little in
advance of the other. It then
stretches and depresses the neck,
and gives it a twist, so that the
extremity of the bill, \\hich is on a
level with the ooze, is turned to
the other side. The foot farthest in
advance is the pivot on which it is
to turn, in making the stroke which
sweeps one curve. Then it slowly
advances the rearmost foot, which elevates the hinder part of the body, depresses
the fore part, and throws the support on the advanced foot, while, supported by
that, and moved by the lever power of the other as it is brought forward, the axis
the body is caused to cross the stream obliquely in an opposite direction : by this
motion the bill makes another scoop. The head and bill are then elevated for the
purpose of conveying to the gullet the food which the bill has thus collected.

905. Why has the spoon-bill long, flattened mandibles ?

Because these birds inhabit
the borders of rivers and
sea-coasts, where they feed
upon small fish, shrimps,
frogs, quails, and aquatic
insects; and the form of the
bill is admirably adapted
for seizing such descriptions
of prey. Their beaks consist
of long, flat, and broad mandi
bles, widening and flattening
at the end, so as to tomi a
roundish spatula.

NATURAL HISTORY. 283

The stork assembly meets ; for many a day,
Consulting1 deep, and various, ere they take
Their arduous voyage through the liquid sky."— THOMSON.

90G. Paley makes these general and interesting remarks upon the forms of the
bills of birds : — In birds, the mouth assumes a new character ; new both in sub
stance and in form, but in both wonderfully adapted to the wants and uses of a
distinct mode of existence. We have no longer the fleshy lips, the teeth of
enamelled bone ; but we have, in the place of these two parts, and to perform
the office of both, a hard substance, of the same nature with that which composes
the nails, claws, and hoofs of quadrupeds, cut into proper shapes, and mechanically
suited to the actions which are wanted.

The sharp and tempered point of the sparrow's bill picks almost every kind of
seed from its concealment in the plant; and not only so, but hulls the grain,
breaks and shatters the coats of the seed, in order to get at the kernel. In the
same way it breaks the shells of snails, to get at the animal food within.

The hooked beak of the hawk tribe separates the flesh from the bones of the
animals which it feeds upon, almost with the cleanliness and precision of a
dissecting knife.

The butcher-bird transfixes its prey upon the spike of a thorn, whilst it picks
the bones. In some birds of this class we have the cross bill — i.e., both the upper
and lower bill hooked, and their tips crossing ; and these bills are used for splitting
the cones of firs, and other seed-vessels, harder than the ordinary grains and seeds
which are dissected by the beak of the sparrow.

The spoon bill enables the goose to graze, to collect its food from the bottom of
pools, or to seek it amidst the soft substances with which it is mixed.

The long tapering bill of the snipe and woodcock penetrates deeply into the bed
of the moist earth. But the species of bill which belong to the birds that live by
suction deserves to be described in relation to that office. They are what naturalists
call serrated, or dcntated bills ; the inside of them towards the edge being thickly
set with parallel or concentric rows of short, strong, sharp-pointed prickles.
These form a filter, flic duck, by means of them, strains the mud ; examining with
great accuracy the puddle, the brake — every mixture which is likely to contain
her food.

907. Wliy is the stork an enemy to the cat species ?

Because probably their habits and tastes are too similar for
them to reside peaceably together.

The stork is fond of small birds ; so is the cat, who loves
young storks. The parent stork is partial to kittens, as an article
of food, and finds them an easy and wholesome prey. Hence the
enmity of the two species.

908. Why are birds oj the stork tribe generally voracious
eaters ?

Because they are subject to great vicissitude* of season ; at

284

THE REASON WHY.

Who bade the stork, Columbus-like, explore

Heavens not his own, and worlds unknown before ?

Who c.ills the council, states the certain day,

Who forms the phalanx, and who points the way." — POPE.

times rejoicing iu plenty — at others suffering from scarcity.
Their hearty feeding during favourable seasons enables them to
bear a period of abstinence without material injury.

909. Wliy has the stork been from the most ancient periods an
object of favour and veneration?

Because its usefulness is great ; especially in hot countries, where
it acts as a vigilant scavenger, removing the causes of disease
and death, and eating the most annoying species of reptiles.

910. Its beneficial labours in Egypt doubtless led to the deification of the ibis,
a bird of similar character and form. In Holland, and the northern parts of
Germany, the stork is still protected as a precursor of "good luck."

911. Why has the
jacana toes of extraor
dinary length ?

Because it inhabits the
borders of waters which
are frequently over-grown
with the broad leaves
of aquatic plants. Its
spreading toes, coupled
with the lightness of its
body, enable the bird to
walk upon the leaves,
whilst it gathers the in
sects, worms, and small
fishes that surround
them.

them.

912. Why has the jacana sharp hard spurs on the corner
each wing ?

i each wing ?
Because snakes of various sizes, all rapacious, and to be dreaded.

NATURAL HISTORY.

285

The sitting bird looks up with jetty eye,
And waves her head in terror to and fro,
Speckled and vein'd with various shades of brown." — CLAHE.

abound in the haunts of the bird. The spurs on the wings are
effective weapons against these reptiles, the horny appendages
of the beak assisting also in their destruction.

913. Why are herons furnished with wings which appear to
be too cumbersome for their slight bodies ?

Because those vast hollow wings are necessary in carrying
burdens, such as large fishes and the like, with which they would
be dragged to the earth were it not for the resisting force thus
provided.

914. Why is so little known of the habits of the bittern ?

Because it is a bird that loves seclusion, and fixes its haunts in
wild and desolate places. No temptation will bring it upon
cultivated or improved lands as a permanent resident ; and when
the scarcity of winter forces it from the upland, it comes down
reluctantly and stealthily, and seeks those streams and banks
which are the rudest and least frequented.

915. Even when not upon the nest, the bittern squats among the rushes, or other

tall stems, during the greater

"X \ \ \V \ V s/ Part of tne day. The mode of

squatting is rather peculiar,
and may be understood from
the accompanying figure. The
neck, when the head is in this
posture, is raised, and the
point of the bill directed
upwards, the body and legs
being at the same time in
such a position that a violent
thrust may be given by the
bill, if necessary ; and, as the
neck is powerful, and, at the
same time, readily moveable
in such a manner as to secure
the whole body from attack,
there are few birds of prey
that would venture to descend
upon the bittern in this posi
tion, even if they should
see it.

286

THE REASON WHY.

1 Shall I, like Curtius, desperate in my zeal,
O'er head and ears plunge for the common weal
Or rob Home's ancient ycese of all their glories,
And cackling save the monarchy of tories?" — POPE.

ORDER YIIL— NATATORES.

916. Why is the eighth order of birds called natatores?

From nato, to swim, this being an equivalent term for swimmers,
or water-fowl.

917. The head of this order is the goose, and by Linneus it was termed arseres,
or the goose family. These birds display decidedly aquatic habits, swim with
facility, and are able to pass the greater part of their lives upon the water.

918. Why are the natatores sometimes called by the name of
"palmipedes" ?

From palma, the flat front
of the hand, and pes, a
foot — implying that the birds
are palm, or web-footed, the
toes of the feet being con
nected by a web or mem
brane.

919. Why has the goose bun considered a stupid bird?

It has occasionally a stupid
look ; its walk, or rather waddle
give it also an absurd and im
becile appearance ; but the ready
way in which its apprehensions
are excited seems to have been
the first cause for this imputed
character.

NATURAL HISTORY. 287

So have I seen, within a pen,
Young1 rjiickfinys fostered bjr a hen ;
But, when let out, they run and muddle,
As instinct leads them, in a puddle." — SWIFT.

920. The number of geese sent from the northern and eastern counties to London for
sale annually is immense. They are now conveyed by rail, but former *y tsed to be
driven by gooseherds (gozzards). These were furnished with long sticks, having a
piece of red rag fastened at one end as a lash, and a hook at the other. Of this reJ
rag the geese always had an unaccountable dread. The goose grazes, and, like the
ox, is alarmed at a red colour, probably from the same cause, (see 540).

921. Why was the goose an object of respect to the
ancient Roman people ?

On account of a circumstance by which a flock of geese saved
the capitol of Rome from surprise and capture.

The goose, although regarded as an emblem of stupidity,
is a very watchful bird, and when anything strange appears, sets
up a loud and unmistakeable gabbling.

922. The Gauls, under Brennus (year of Rome, 364), were in possession of the
greater part of the city. The garrison, however, still held the capitol, and that
with such obstinacy that the Gaulish general had no hope but to starve it out. One
day, Brennus was informed of a secret path by means of which he would be able
to enter, and surprise the capitol. Accordingly, a chosen body of his men weje
ordered by night upon this dangerous service, which they, with great labour and
difficulty, almost effected ; when suddenly the garrison was awakened to vigilance
by the voices of some sacred geese kept in the Temple of Juno. They instantly
flew to arms, and the capitol was saved.

923. Why are aquatic birds enabled to plunge into water and
to emerge from it perfectly dry ?

Because their feathers are coated with an oily matter, which
renders them not only impermeable to water, but repellanl of it ;
so that no perceptible effect is produced by that element.

924. Why are ducks and other water-birds more assiduous in
Brimming their feathers than land-birds ?

Because their plumelets being of very close texture, any slight
derangement in them is readily felt from the air getting access to
the skin through the breach thence occasioned.

925. Why do geese " waddle" in their walk ?

Because their legs are placed wide apart, so that they may act

288 THE REASON WHY :

" The swan with arched neck

Between her white wings mantling proudly, rowes
Her state with oarie feet." — MILTON.

free of the sides in swimming ; and the weight of the body in
consequence swings from side to side as the bird walks, producing
a zigzag motion

926. Why do ducks and geese make a gleeful noise upon the
approach of rain ?

Because the bills of these birds are very sensitive; when im
mersed in water, or in mud rendered soft by the admixture of
water, the functions of the bill are favoured ; but when the atmo
sphere is dry, the sensitive membrane stiffens, and becomes hard ;
and thus renders the circulation on the delicate tissues interrupted
j»,nd laborious.

927. Why is the bill of the duck more sensitive than the same
organ usually in other birds?

Because the whole of the duck tribe find their food more by the
sense of touch than by that of sight, and the bill is favourably
organized accordingly. It is covered by a sentient membrane, and
the edges which come in contact are covered with papillae, and
abundantly furnished with nerves, so that, when a duck dabbles in
the water, the feeling of the bill enables it to distinguish
eatable substances from the sludge and pebbles with which they
are mixed.

928. Why do swans frequent shallow waters and the
fides only of deep lakes?

The chief reason of this is, that they are vegetable feeders ; and
although their long necks enable them to reach the bottom at
considerable depths, they never dive, and rarely feed upon the
land, or in any other mode than by floating upon the water.

929. Why is a blow from the swan's wing powerfully
effective ?

The angle or elbow of the wing is the part with which it strikes ;

NATURAL HISTORY.

** The swan uplifts his chest, and backward flines
His neck, a varying arch, between his towering wings. — "WonnswoRTH.

and the motion is so rapid that the stroke is much more weighty
than would at first be supposed from the mere volume of the
striking instrument.

930. When we consider that the effect of a stroke Is made up of two elements, the
quantity of matter and the velocity, and that the effect increases only as the quantity
of matter, while it does so as to the square of the velocity, \vecan easily understand
how soon rapidity of motion will make up for any inferior weight in the moving
instrument. One-fourt!i the quantity of matter moving with four times the velocity,
has an effect in the proportion of sixteen to four, that is, it has an effect four times
ay great.

931. Why do sterns in their migrations fly very high ?

They take a very high flight in order to avoid the attach of
the eagles and falcons, against whom their powers of resistance
would ill defend them if the latter got "the sky" of them.

932. To everything above it in the air, the falcon is comparatively harmless ; by
taking "the sky" of tii? falcon, the swan is enabled to perform its migratory
trip in safety.

933. Why are swans in making their migratory flights
governed by the state of the wind ?

Because, on account of their bulk and the weight of their closely
set feathers, they cannot make way against the wind. Hence
they almost invariably go with the wind; and wait, or even
halt on their journey, if the wind is adverse.

934. Why has the plumage and character of the swan
remained for many centuries unclianged ?

Because of its wild nature; it is less subject to domesti
cation than almost any kind of bird, pining in captivity, and
never breeding, unless allowed to do so within its own haunts.

935. Why should the alleged "dying song" of the sioan
be rejected as fabulous?

That the swan, usually mute, should utter a pleasing musical
ttote at its death is contrary to all experience and philosophy.

13

290 THE REASON WHY :

" A cormorant flew several times round the ship. As these
birds are seldom, if ever, known to fly far out of si^ht of land,
I judged that some was not far distant." — CAFT. COOK.

That it should be true, indeed, would be in contradiction to the
whole analogy of nature, the voices of pain in animals, and
especially at the hour of death, being without a single exception
unpleasant to the ear.

936. What peculiarity is there in the structure of the foot
of the cormorant ?

The tarsi are stronge rand more tendinous than in swimming
birds ; they are straighter set ; the toes collapse more, and thus
the birds can walk better, and also stand firm on the slippery

points of rocks. The pecu
liarity in form is the web
continued to the hind toe,
and the general position of
the web being inwards rather
than forwards, as may be
seen in the annexed figure of
the right foot of the cormo
rant, with the side outwards,
which is turned towards the
centre of the bird.

937. If the prey is on the surface, and small, these birds can capture it by a snap
of the bill, and ascend again without losing the wing, in the same manner that the
skimming birds take the greater part of their food ; but if the prey is under the
eurface, and large, the wing must not only suspend its action, but be partially
closed, and the bird must thus enter the water, using it wings as agents in again
ascending.

938. Why are stormy petrels enabled to run upon the surface
of the water ?

Because the lightness of their bodies, and the action of the
wind upon their wings, enable them with ease to assume this
position during a storm. In calm weather they perform the same
manoeuvre, by keeping their wings just so much in action as to
prevent their feet from sinking below the surface.

NATURAL HISTORY.

291

" Such murmur fill'd

Th' assembly, as when hollow rock? retain

The sound of blustering winds, which all night long

Had rous'd the sea." — MILTON.

939. There are few persons who have crossed the Atlantic that have not
observed these wanderers of the deep skimming along the surface of the wild and

wasteful ocean ; flitting past the

-rx^"""~" vessel like swallows, or following in

J" her wake, gleaning their scanty

pittance of food from the rough and
whirling surges. Habited in mourn
ing, and making their appearance
generally in greater numbers previous
to, or during a storm, they have
long been regarded by the ignorant
and superstitious, not only as the
foreboding messengers of tempests
and dangers to the hapless mariner, but as wicked agents, connected somehow or
other in creating them. " Nobody," they say, " can tell anything of where they
come from, or how they breed, though (as sailors sometimes say) it is supposed that
they hatch their eggs under their wings as they sit on the water." This mysterious
uncertainty of their origin, and the circumstances above recited, have doubtless
given rise to the opinion so prevalent among seafaring men, that they are in
some way or other connected with supernatural powers in the air. In every
country where they are known, their names have borne some affinity to this belief.
They have been called witches, stormy petrels, the devil's birds, and Mother Gary's
chickens, probably from some celebrated hag of that name ; and their unexpected
and numerous appearance has frequently thrown a momentary damp on the
mind of the hardiest seaman.

940. Why are sea-birds enabled to breast the waves in
tempestuous weather ?

Because the waves, instead of rolling with the velocity of the
wind (as is commonly imagined), roll very little. When we look
at them from the shore and with a side wind, they seem to roll
on, and they always appear to move slower in a fresh breeze.
They heave and sink, the times being as the square roots of their
lengths, so that, if a wave four feet broad changes from ridge
to trough in four seconds, one of sixteen feet will change in eight
seconds. Now, as the apparent forward motion is half the width,
the four-feet wave will appear to move at the rate of rather
less than a mile and a half in the hour, the sixteen-feet
wave at rather less three-quarters of a mile in the hour, which ia
very slow motion.

292

THE REASON WHY :

By them there sat the loving pelican,

Whose young ones, poisoned by the serpent's sting,

With her own blood to life again cloth bring." — DRAYTON.

941. Thus in the case of single waves, the middle of the slope is a point of rest,

on which the sea-bird can
sit with little more difficulty
than on the calm surface.
This will, perhaps, be made
plainer by the accompanying
diagram, in which two birds
are represented as being at
rest on the wave : a b is the
mean level or calm line of
the sea, cutting both the

black and dotted curve on the points o o. The figure 1 represents the ridge, and 3
the hollow, at one end of the vibration ; 4 the ridge, and 2 the hollow, as shown
by the dotted line at the other. The bird at b on the turning-point is not moved
either up or down ; and as that point is alternately on the windward and the
leeward of the wave, the wave keeps the bird from drifting in the first case, and
shelters it in the second.

942. Why has the, pelican a large pouch attached to its
lower mandible ?

The pouch answers nearly
the same- purposes that the
crop does in birds which
possess such an organ. The
food is taken into it in much
^ larger quantities than the
^^^ digestive stomach can receive
at once ; and is gradually
received into the stomach
as the process of digestion
goes on.

But the pouch serves
another and a remarkable
purpose. The pelican,
though seeking its food in
the sea, builds its nest at
gg- a distance from it, gene
rally in ruins which have
become dry and waste ; and this is the reason why the name

NATURAL iIlSTORY. 293

" Every copse

Deep tangled, tree irregular, and bush
Bending with dewy moisture, o'er the heads
Of the coy quiristers that lodge within,
Are prodigal of harmony." — THOMSON.

of the pelican is so frequently associated in writings with thafc
of the wilderness.

The pouch, therefore, serves as a receptacle, in which the pelican
conveys food to its young, in nests which lie remote from the
shore. The food designed for the young becomes macerated or
softened by the action of the pouch ; and when the nest is situated
in a very arid district, the old bird uses the pouch to carry water
to its young.

MISCELLANEOUS.

943. Why when birds migrate, do the old ones generally
precede the young ones ?

Because the moulting of young birds takes place at a later
period than that of old ones ; so that they are not sufficiently
recovered from the weakness which attends this process, to
endure the fatigues of a journey at a time when the old birds
are ready to undertake it.

944. By what circumstances is the migration of birds
governed ?

The time at which birds of passage arrive in Britain, or quit
it, varies according to the species. Natives of the northern
countries of Europe come to us at the end of autumn or the
beginning of winter ; and in the first fine weather avoid our heat,
as they had done excess of cold ; they return to lay their egga
in the north.

Other birds, which are born in our own country, and which may
be considered as properly belonging to it, quit us in autumn ; and
after passing the winter in warm climates, they revisit us in
the spring, or perhaps, avoiding the moderate warmth of our
summer, they emigrate to Arctic regions. Others again, natives of
southern climates, come to the north to escape from the ardouj

294 THE REASON WHY :

" The bird that hath been limed, with trembling wings rnis-
doubtetii every bush." — SiiAKbPEUJi.

of a summer's sun ; and arrive in the midst of our own
fine weather.

There are also some which never remain in temperate climates,
but merely pass through them on their annual migrations. The
time of the arrival and departure of these travellers is generally
fixed definitely for each species, and in many instances may be
calculated upon to a day.

945. Another fact not less curious in the history of birds is the power by which
they direct their course in unknown countries, and distinguish at immense
distances the immediate vicinity of their nests. Swallows furnish a remarkable
instance of this, . These little birds make very long journeys at the time of
migration ; and yet, by a singular instinct, they know, in the following spring, how
to find again the places where they had formerly established themselves, and
always return to them. This fact has been ascertained by attaching to the feet of
several swallows small silken threads to establish their identity. They build their
first nest near that in which they were born ; the chimney-swallow makes its nest
every year above that of the preceding year, and the house-swallow establishes
itself in that which it had quitted the autumn before. Indeed, it has been known
for the same couples to repair to their old nests, almost without taking the trouble
to rt-pair them, for eighteen years consecutively. Swallows show on other occa
sions, also, a singular power of directing themselves towards a particular place from
which they are at a considerable distance. If a hen that is sitting is carried to a
distance, confined in a cage, and liberty afterwards given to her, she first rises to a
considerable height, as if to reconnoitre the country, and then flies in a straight
line to the spot where she has left her brood.

946. Wliy do birds when flying in flocks settle themselves into
a triangular body '/

Because the position so assumed is the one best fitted to cut the
air with the greatest ease and rapidity.

In this mode of flight, the leading bird, which divides the air in
advance of the others, has the most arduous post ; and in order to
obtain relief, the bird occupying this place goes to tiie rear after a
certain time, and is succeeded by another.

947. Why do birds which take long flights usually fly high ?
It is supposed that high flight is less fatiguing, owing to a

NATURAL HISTORY. 295

" The wanderers of heaven
Each to his home retire, -ave those that love
To take their pastime in the troubled air,
Or skimming flutter round the dimply pool." — THOMSON.

certain density of the atmosphere, which is best suited to the
weight and action of the wings of birds and which cannot be
found nearer the earth.

Another reason also may be, that the upper regions to which
birds thus ascend are exempt from the momentary gusts and
squalls to which the lower atmospheric strata are subject.

948. Eagles are heavy birds, even for their powerful wings, and yet they are
high flyers, although their abodes are at great elevations in the mountains.
Wild geese and herons take the sky when they set out on long journeys.
Rooks may be seen to adjust the height of their daily excursions from the rookeries
to the distance at which the pasture upon which they feed lies ; and the swallow
tribe wheel about far more rapidly and gracefully when they fly high before rain,
than when they skim, the pools in fine weather. When birds are in long and
swift flight, they acquire a momentum in proportion to their velocity, and the
difference between their specific gravity and that of the air. In consequence of this
momentum, they continue their progressive motion with much less effort, which is
of itself sufficient to explain why they prefer flying high.

949. Why are, birds which winter out of England supplied
with a cover of black down under their feathers ?

Because black is a colour capable of retaining the greatest
amount of heat, and in this instance the object is, to keep in
the heat arising from the heart and the circulation of
the blood.

950. It is likewise remarkable that this provision is not found in larger
birds— for which there is also a reason. Small birds are much more exposed to the
cold than large ones, forasmuch as they present, in proportion to their bulk, a much
larger surface to the air. It is necessary, therefore, that small birds should be more
warmly clad than larger ones ; and this appears to be the expedient by which that
exigency is provided for.

951. Why are the birds which are brought alive to England
from distent regions generally hard-billed?

Becau*^ hard-billed birds subsist on seeds which are easily
carried OIL board ship ; while the soft-billed birds, which are
supported by worms or insects, or as a substitute, fresh raw meat,
can obtain neither in long voyages.

296

THE REASON WHY:

" Meanwhile the tepid caves, and pens, ?.j,I sLoarcs,
Their brood as numerous hatch, for the cf/g that soon
Bursting with kindly rupture forth diseios'd
Their callow young." — MILTON.

952. WJty have, some species &f birds extremely s&ft bills?

Because the class of birds thus famished have to seize theiy
prey quickly, as they often catch it while it is on the wing ; though
they do not fly after it, rapidity of motion both in darting at the
food, and in opening and shutting both with firmness and sharpness
at the tip, are the requirements of such a bill ; and lightness in its
general structure is essential to quick motion. These bills are,
in yery many species, so thin and weak that they are not able
to break the coat of a vegetable seed.

953. Why do Urds lay egg* ?

Because, to bear their yonng
in any other manner, would
encumber the, body, and mate
rially interfere with the active
movements that are charac
teristic of the feathered tribes.
As soon as an egg becomes
large and heavy enough to
be cumbersome to the bird,
it is removed from the body,
and deposited in a nest, which,
in some respects, may be re

garded as an artificial womb.

A shell impervious to air protects the germ of life within, until
from two to twenty eggs have accumulated, and then, although
laid at different intervals, the incubation commences, and the
young birds are hatched at the same time.

954. Why do the eggs of birds contain two distinct substances^
the white and the yolk ?

The white, or albumen, of the egg> supplies nourishment to the

NATURAL HISTORY. 297

" Tlie man who can see without pleasure a hen gather her
chickens under her wintr, or the train of ducklings follow their
parent into the i^ond, ie like him who has no music in his
soul." — Kxox.

chick whilst it is in the shell ; the yolk is embraced in the
of the chick when excluded from the shell, and a duct leads from
the membrane enclosing this mass of nutriment into the first
intestine. Thus the chick is nourished, not only wliilst enclosed
in the shell, but also during its first feeble existence,

955. When we hold an egg steadily, and chip it at the upper part, we find the
yolk close to the shell, and on the upper surface a pale vesicle, 3, which contains the

embryo chick. When the hen sits, the heat of her
body developes the action of the living- principle in
the embryo, and on the second and third day a little
zone of blood-vessels, 4, 4, 4, appears ; these vessels
run towards the embryo, and carry nourishment to
it ; and day by day we may watch its sensible
growth. From the delicacy of this action, we may
perceive how necessary it is that the embryo at an
early period should be close to the breast of the hen,
and not at the cold bottom of the nest. We shall
now see how it is accomplished • — The yolk is a globe
of nutritious matter, and the little vesicle with the
embryo is involved in the surrounding membrane,
and consequently is at the surface of the globe. If
this globe had the axis of its revolution in the

centre, it would not move with the change of the position of the egg. But the axis
being below the centre, it must turn round with every change in the position of the
egg, whether the globe be heavier or lighter than the surrounding white : were it
heavier, it would revolve so as to bring the embryo to the lower part of the shell
—were it lighter, to the upper part of the shell. It is lighter, and the matter stands
thus : — The yolk is, as it were, anchored at two points, and the attachments being
below the centre, and the yolk being lighter than the surrounding white, it
revolves like a buoy, and the vesicle containing the embryo is thus kept
always uppermost.*

956. Why has the young chick a hard scaly substance upon
its beak?

This curious provision is designed to assist the young bird in
breaking the shell, at a time when its bill is too soft for
that purpose.

The manner in which the young chick breaks the egg is one of

* Paley's " Natural Theology."
13*

298 THE REASON WHY :

" The yolke of the egge cannot be without the whyte, nor the
•whyte -without the yolke ; no more raaye the clergy and the
lordes be one without another." — FROISSAKT'S CHUOMCLKS.

the most wonderful operations of instinct. The instrument which
it employs is a small protuberance on its upper mandible, called
the bill-scale, which has no other use, and accordingly drops off
soon after the bird is hatched.

957. This bill-scale is provided with a sharp cutting edge, the use of which is to
cut through the membrane which fines the shell. Were it not for this, the shell

would break, while the membrane would stretch, and the chicken would still
remain a prisoner.

The egg-shell is formed by a solidified deposit from the blood-vessels of the
egg-duct of the parent bird ; but it is permeable to air, which is necessary to the
life of the embryo. The shell is lined by two membranes : the one external and
roxigh, so that it adheres to the shell ; the other exceedingly smooth, so that it
allows of the rotation of the contained parts. And, at one extremity of the egg,
there is a little sack hlled with air containing an unusual proportion of oxygen,
which is employed in giving vitality to the awakening germ.

958. Wliy can a recently hatched bird exist for many hours
without food ?

Because a portion of the yolk of the egg yet remains in its
body, and by that it continues to be nourished.

959. The wisdom of this provision is obvious : had the first-born bird needed
immediate food, it must either have been starved, or the mother, whilst providing
for it, must have deserted her other ef/ys, and thus destroyed the rest of her family :
but, under this arrangement, the mother may, without injury to her first-born,
continue to sit on her nest till all her little ones are hatched, which somet.Jaes
takes more thrui a day.

NATURAL HISTORY. 299

" Some to the rude protection of the thorn
Commit their feeble offspring : the cleft tree
Offers its kind concealment to a few,
Their food its insects, and its moss their nests." — THOMSOX.

960. Wliy do the, number of eggs laid by the different
species of birds vary so considerably ?

The number of eggs laid by birds is wisely and beneficently
regulated by the difficulty or ease with which the particular kind
of food upon which the bird subsists may be obtained. Thus,
large birds of prey which live upon flesh, such as eagles, vultures,
and falcons, usually lay two eggs, rarely more than three, and
frequently only one. Birds that live principally upon seeds and
insects, and thus find abundance of food, not only lay a larger
number of eggs, but often hatch two and three broods in the year
so that these families increase rapidly.

961. Why do birds select silk, cotton, wool, fur, and doivn as
materials for lining their nests ?

B3cause these substances are non-conductors of heat ; and as it is
very essential that the nest should be kept perfectly warm, they
could not possibly select more appropriate materials for tho
purpose.

962. In what manner do birds build and prepare their nests ?

As the laying season approaches, the bird, conscious of the
coming event, occupies herself in the construction of a dwelling,
suited by its materials and form to the little beings to which she
is about to give life.

Such a structure must fulfil several conditions. In its magnitude
and form it must correspond with the magnitude and number of
eggs to be laid, and with the body of the motiier who is to sit
upon them.

It must be so shaped as to keep the eggs securely together, and its
materials must be soft, so as not to injure by undue pressure its
tender occupants.

ri'o prevent the escape of the warmth imparted by the mother,

300

THE REASON WHY :

" When unobserved

Pluck from the barn a straw, till soft and -warm,
Clean and complete their habitation grows. — THOMSON.

it must be thickly lined with non conductors of heat. All tbesa
conditions are fulfilled with the skill of a natural philosopher.

963. The nests of the larger class of birds of hardier nature are of rude con
struction ; but those of the smaller species display, in a remarkable manner, the

qualities here indicated. The parents
of the coming offspring, father and
mother, co-operate in the construction
of the nest, for the external part c-1
which straw and twigs are collecteo.,
and woven into a sort of basket-work.
This not possessing the requisite
durability, and allowing, moreover,
the air to penetrate, and the heat to
escape, a quantity of fine clay is
collected with considerable labour, and
worited into a sort of mastic by moans
of a viscous fluid secreted by glands
placed under the tongue of the bird.
With this mastic, the parents plaster
the interior of the nest, carefully stopping up every crevice and air-hole. The floor
of the nest, however, formed by such plaster is necessarily hard, and would injure
the yo"ti(rlings by its pressure. The parents, therefore, fabricate a carpet, which
they spread upon the floor of the nest, over which they place a soft mattress, the
materials of which consist of wool and hairs taken from the backs of animals and
the cottony parts of certain plants. The countless journeys and fatiguing labour
necessary to accumulate hair by hair, and filament by filament, may be easily
conceived. Sometimes the bird strips its own breast of natural down to form
a bed for its young. Thus the eider duck provides for the comfort of its
offspring, by taking from its own body part of that down which is sought for and
collected at such a cost for the pillow of luxury.

964. Why do some birds frequently vary the materials of
iheir nests ?

This is doubtlessly done for the purpose of assimilating the
nest in appearance to surrounding objects, so as to accommodate
their habitation "to existing circumstances, anu to secure it
from observation.

965. Why do some birds maJce their nests warmer than
the nests of other birds ?

Because the first-mentioned are those which are necessarily

NATURAL HISTORY.

301

" Enjoy the spring of love and youth,

To some good angel leave the rest;
For timL' will teach thee soon the truth,

There are no birds in last year's nest." — LONGFELLOW.

a longer time away from their nests, while the latter birds are
those which procure their food more readily.

966. Thus we see the duck, and many aquatic birds, which have a voracious
appetite, and have often to go over a considerable space of ground in search of food,
and aro consequently a long time absent from their nest, cover up their eggs
with a quantity of down and feathers, in order to prevent them from being
chilled.

In like manner, the long-tailed
tiimfiuse, who, having from twelve
to fifteen young ones to provide
for, must necessarily be a long
time away from them in search of
food, so that she cannot herself
impart the necessary warmth to
her torood by sitting on them, as
most birds do, not only lines her
nest with a profusion of the softest
feathers and down, but makes it
almost in the shape of a ball, with
a small hole hi the side to enter at,
so that the young are effectually
protected from cold ia their snug
abode.

The thrush, on the contrary, who can so readily procure worms on a lawn, or in
a meadow, so that it is not necessary for both the parent birds to be absent in search
of food at the same time, lines its nest with clay. The nest &f the rook, also, which,
in an exposed situation, has but little warmth of lining in it ; but then the hen
seldom leaves it, and is fed during the period of incubation by the male bird.

967. Why will birds sometimes hesitate in their flight, when
upon carrying building materials to their nest, they we
observed f

Because they are cautious not to betray the locality of their
nests, the knowledge of which might subject them to
future depredations.

968. Mr. Broderip relates the following incident illustrative of this caution :—
" As I was one day passing the National Gallery, I saw a sparrow fly down to
the neighbouring cab-stand and pick up a very long straw, with which it flew 'vith
some labour towards the building. The long streaming straw attracted the
atu-ntion of some of the pedestrians, who stopped and looked at the loaded little

302 THE HEASON WHY :

Oft when returning with her loaded bill,

Th' astonished mother finds a vacant )iest,

Uobb'd by the hard hand of unrelenting clowns." — THOMSON.

bird, which was directing its flight towards the portico of the Gallery; but rinding
its motions watched, it turned short round and perched with its straw on one of
the window-sills, and the people then passed on. Presently it flew again towards
the portico, but the people again stopping and looking, it came back to the
window, until the second lot of gazers went their way. The little bird then
started again with its straw towards one of the same pillars, and, cutting round
it so as to avoid prying eyes as much as possible, bore it to the capital of one of the
pilasters and disappeared, straw and all, into the snug nook made by a part of the
projecting ornament, which it had chosen as the place for making its nest.

069. Why do the young birds of some species demand the
parents' care for a longer period than others ?

The condition of young birds depends upon the state in which
they emerge from the shell. The partridge and the plover come out
of the shell in full activity, and may be said, in part at least, to find
their own food in the very same hour. Even at this stage they
run very rapidly, and have a clothing of down, which protects
them from change of temperature during the early period of
their existence.

The 7*00/4;, on the contrary, comes forth from the shell callow, and
in a helpless state, so that it would perish if not fed by the
parent bird ; and if not, in the early stage, sheltered by that
bird during the night. Its feathers are not preceded by a downy
coat, but first appear in little tufts issuing from those sheathes in
which they are produced. The young rook is accordingly fed by
its parent for a considerable time, and does not perch apart from
the nest ; nor does it take flight, or in anyway provide for itself,
until it is fully fledged.

970. Why do male birds evince an affection for their offspring,
while on the other hand, in many other species of the animal
creation, the male parent neglects, and docs not even recognise,
its young?

This exceptional instance of parental affection on the part of the
male bird is a beautiful provision of Providence in accordance
with the necessities and habits of the creature. Amongst birds,
food for the young has in most instances to be brought from, a

NATUIIAL HISTORY. 303

4« Encourag'd thus, she brought her younglings nigh,
Watching the motions of her patron's eye, .'
And drank a sober draught; the rest amaz'd,
Stood mutely still, and on the stranger gazed." — DHTDEK.

distance, and much assiduity is required to collect it in sufficient
quantity, the voracity of nestlings being almost insatiable.

Therefore, the assistance of the male in this work is in most
species almost indispensable. When the brood is numerous, it
would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, for the female
alone to procure the requisite supply.

But in animals which suckle their young, the assistance of the
male parent is not needed.

971. The affection of both male and female birds for their young has been
manifested in a remarkable degree in instances that have fallen under human
observation. " When I was a boy," says Smellic, " I carried off a nest of young
sparrows, about a mile from my place of residence. After the nest was completely
removed, and while I was marching home with them in triumph, I perceived,
with some degree of astonishment, both the parents following me at some distance,
and observing my motions in perfect silence. A thought then struck me that they
might follow me home, and feed the young according to their usual manner.
When just entering the door I held up the nest, and made the young ones utter the
cry expressive of the desire of food. I immediately put the nest and the young in
the corner of a wire cage, and placed it on the outside of a window. I chose a
situation in the room where I could perceive all that should happen without being
myself seen. The young animals soon cried for food. In a short time both
parents, having their bills filled with small caterpillars, came to the cage, and
after chatting a little, as we do with a friend through the lattice of a prison, gave a
small worm to each. This parental intercourse continued regularly for some time,
till the young ones were completely fledged, and had acquired a considerable
degree of strength. I then took one of the strongest of them and placed him on
the outside of the cage, in order to observe the conduct of the parents after one of
their offspring was emancipated. In a few minutes both parents arrived, loaded,
as usual, with food. They no sooner perceived that one of their children had
escaped from prison, than they fluttered about and made a thousand demonstrations
of joy, both with their wings and with their voices. These tumultuous expressions
of unexpected happiness at last gave place to a more calm and soothing conversa
tion. By their voices and their movements it was evident that they earnestly
entreated him to follow them, and to fly from his present dangerous state. He
seemed to be impatient to obey their mandates ; but, by his gestures, and the feeble
Bounds he uttered, he plainly expressed that he was afraid to try an exertion he
had never before attempted. They, however, incessantly repeated their solicita
tions ; by flying alternately from the cage to a neighbouring chimney-top, they
endeavoured to show him how easily the journey was to be accomplished. He at
last committed himself to the air, and alighted in safety. On his arrival, another
scene of clamorous and active joy was exhibited. Next day, I repeated the same
experiment, by exposing aiother of the voimg ones on the top of the cage. I

304 THE REASON

; You curious chanters of the -wood,
That warble forth dame Nature's lays,
Thinking your voices under.-tood. "—\Vorrox.

observed the same conduct with the remainder of the brood, which consisted of four.
I need hardly add that not one either of the parents or children ever afterwards
revisited the execrated cage."

Although sparrows are ordinarily regarded in a very indifferent light, they
are, in addition to their utility, birds of a very kindly nature, living in habits of
great sociability with each other. Several instances are related of their having been
observed feeding the young of other birds which have been in a state of captivity ;
and there is one well-attested anecdote of a sparrow, which, having been caught by
the leg by a piece of worsted, from which it could not extricate itself, was tended
and fed by some bird-; of its own species through a whole winter ; and, when it was
released, was greeted with evident marks of satisfaction by all its former com
panions and friends. A farmer's servant placed a nest of young sparrows in a trap-
cage, and caught forty old birds, all coming with food in their mouths to feed the
helpless young. A lady residing in the neighbourhood of London hung out a cage
near her balcony, in which was a young bird, and it was fed for many weeks by
sparrows. Similar instances of kindness and solicitude on the part of these birds
might be multiplied to infinity.

972. Why are small birds, such as those of the sparrow and
swallow tribes, so numerous and widely diffused ?

Because they f\re the chief agents for lueping insect life within
proper limits. Without them the myriads of minute creatures
that would prey upon vegetables would so multiply, that famine
would be of frequent occurrence, and industry would meet onl}
with a precarious reward.

973. It appears from the papers, that in New Zealand the country, at particular
seasons, is invaded by armies of caterpillars, which clear off the grain crops as
completely as if mowed down by a scythe. With the view of counteracting this
plague, a novel importation has lately been made. M^. Brodie shipped three
hundred sparrows, carefully selected from the best hedgerows in England. The
food alone put on board for them cost £18. This sparrow question has been a long
standing matter of discussion in Auckland ; but the necessity to farmers of small
birds to keep down the grubs is admitted on all sides. There is no security in New
Zealand against the invasion of myriads of caterpillars, which devastate the crops
Mr. Brodie has already acclimatised the pheasant, which is abundant in the north.
The descent from the pheasant to sparrows is somewhat of an anti-climax ; but
should the latter multiply, the greatest benefit will have been conferred on
the country.

974. Why have the different species of birds distinct volets, 01
cries ?

This provision has doubtless been made in order that the

NATURAL HISTORY. 305

" The gay troops begin

In gallant thought to plume the painted wing,
And try again the long forgotten strain,
At first faint warbled."— THOMSON.

members of each species might make kjiown their wants and
dangers, and otherwise communicate with each other.

That some of the notes of birds are a language designed to convey
a meaning is obvious from the very different sound uttered by these
creatures at particular periods ; the spring voices become changed
ao summer advances, and the requirements of the early season
have ceased : the summer excitements and informations are not
needed in autumn, and the notes conveying such intelligence are
no longer heard

The periodical calls of uaimals, the croaking of frogs, &c., afford
the same reason for concluding that the sound of their voices by
elevation, depression, or modulation, convey intelligence adapted to
their wants and feelings.

975. Rennie relates • — " We recollect having our attention once drawn to the loud
scolding of a pair of chaffinches in a copse, a circumstance of very frequent
occurrence during summer, but rendered peculiar in the instance in question by the
birds darting down almost to the roots of the bashes at some distance from where
we stood, from which we concluded their scolding was not directed to us. The
loud " pink, pink " of the chaffinches soon attracted to the spot a crowd of their
woodland neighbours, among whom a redbreast took the lead, followed by a green-
bird, a song-thrush, and about a dozen of the smaller summer birds, all brought
together by curiosity to learn what the chaffinches were scolding about. From all
of these clamorous creatures giving rent to the same expression of feeling, we con
cluded that some common enemy had made his appearance ammg them; and,
upon looking narrowly into the bushes, we perceived a pine-martin stealing along,
occasionally throwing a sly, or rather contemptuous look at his vociferous railers,
but otherwise continuing a careful prying search into every hole and bosh for a nest
of eggs or young of which he might make a breakfast."

White, of Selborne, remarks : — " When the hen turkey leads forth her young
brood, she keeps a watchful eye, and, if a bird of prey appear, though ever so high
in the air, the careful mother announces the enemy with a little inward moan, and
•watches him with a steady and attentive look ; but, if he approach, her note
becomes earnest and alarming, and her outcries are redoubled." In the instance of
a cock bird expressing fear, or giving an alarm to the hen of the approach of danger
near the nest, the tones seem to be varied so as to give her due notice either to keep
close and still, or to make her escape with as much caution as she can."

976. Why is the plumage of female birds generally more
sombre than that of males?

This would -se.-m to be a prov;-i->n inndc- by providence to favour

306 THE REASON WHY :

" She plume? her feathers, and lets grow her wings
That in the various bustle of resort
Were all too ruffled, and sometimes impaired." — MILTON.

tJie personal concealment of female birds, and consequently that of
their young, from the depredations of birds of prey. It is remarkable
that most birds that are under no apprehension of being attacked,
such as eagles, owls, hawks, etc., the females are uniformly
covered with plumage as rich as that of the males.

977. Why is the plumage of young birds sombre, and less
marked than when they bwome older ?

Because, if the young had their full plumage the first year, or
when they quitted their nest, they would in their then feeble state
be more, exposed to be killed by birds of prey and other enemies.
It seems, therefore, a benevolent design that the more humble
plumage should remain on them until they are better able to
protect themselves.

978. The activity and watchfulness of birds when they have young is most
surprising. Dr. Macgillivray records the observations made by a friend on a pair
of blue titmice when rearing their young. The parent birds began their labour of
love at half-past three o'clock in the morning, and did not leave off till eight o'clock
in the evening, after being almost incessantly engaged for nearly seventeen hours.
Mr Weir counted their various returns to the nest, and found them to be 475. Up
to four o'clock, as a breakfast, they were fed twelve times ; between five and six
o'clock, forty time.0, flying to and from a plantation more than 150 yards from their
nest ; between nine and ten o'clock they fed their offspring forty-six times ; and
they continued at their work till the time specified, sometimes bringing in a single
largo caterpillar, and at other times two or three small ones.

979. How is a beautiful provision of nature illustrated in the
disposition of the feathers upon the body of a bird ?

The feathers are all placed in such a manner that the action
of the wind from before shall tend to smooth them down. The
shoulders and the front edges of the wings are the places, however,
on which the beautiful application of the feathers is the most
striking, as they are not only most difficult to fit from their greater
curvature, but are those which are most exposed during flight. The
feathers on these parts are so placed that, let the wind take what
dn-ection it may, it can hardly raise or ruffle them.

NATURAL HISTORY. 307

" 'Tis reigning noon ; and, vertical, the sun
Darts on the head direct his forceful rays.
O'er heaven and earth, far as the ranging1 eye
Can sweep, a dazzling deluge reigns."— THOMSON.

980. How is the varied colouring of the plumage of birds
accounted for ?

The variation is supposed to depend upon the sun, the colour
being gay and glossy according as birds are exposed to the action of
that luminary. Whether the bright colours of tropical birds are
less sentient to the sun than the more sober hues of the birds of
cold climates it is difficult to say ; but the smooth surface and
metallic lustre must reflect the light, as well as decompose it by
that refraction which shows the colours ; we may, therefore,
conclude that the variegated plumage of birds answers as a sort of
protection against the ardour of the sun in those climates where
such protection is most needed.*

981. The brighter colours of male birds may be in some degree accounted for
upon this hypothesis : the male is more exposed to the sun than the female ; his
more active life and greater daring, her seasons of retirement and incubation, at
once explain this. That light has great influence, not only in illuminating, but in
developing the colours of bodies, is borne out by the fact that all night-flying birds
and insects are of sombre hues, while those which are active by day are, with only
a few exceptions, more brilliantly arrayed.

•

982. Upon what mechanical principles do birds maintain a
standing

In standing, a base of sustentation must be given to birds of
sufficient magnitude, and in such a position as to keep the line of
direction of the centre of gravity within it, without too fatiguing
exertion of the muscles.

983. This is accomplished partly by giving the leg such a structure that the tarsal
bones, which extend from the foot to the body, have a sufficient length, and are in
clined to the leg bones, so as to direct the foot forwards ; while the body, on the other
hand, assumes such a position that the spinal column is inclined more or less upwards.
The flexibility of the neck, which enables the animal to throw the head more or
less backwards, and in bringing the centre of gravity into the desired position, as
eh* *rn in fig. 1, which represents the ibis. In the position of the bird here shown,

Partington's " Cyclopaedia."

308

THE REASON WHY :

More certain was the crowing of the cock

To number hours, than is the abbey clock ;

And sooner than the matin bell was rung,

He clapp'd his wings upon his roost and sung." — DKYDEN.

the centre of gravity is thrown a little behind the centre of articulation of the wings,
<tnd therefore nearer the centre of the base of sustentation by the backward position
1 2

of the head. In the case of birds, such, for example, as the penguin, fig. 2, having
a short and neai-ly inflexible neck and legs, which are incapable of being advanced,
the animal, when it stands, is obliged to assume the vertical position.*

984. Why do many birds roost upon one leg ?

Because the heavier the body presses upon the bent joint, from
the peculiar construction of the foot, the tighter the claws are
pulled round the branch or perch ; and it follows that the weight
of ihe bird must pull more when it falls upon one set of muscles,
than when it is divided between the two sets ; a firmer and
steadier position is by this means achieved.

985. Why does the formation of the beak of birds indicate
the substances they feed upon ?

Because nature has adapted the instrument to its employment
with such nicety that the forms of the beak are as various as the
qualities of the substances used as food ; and so close and
invariable is this relation between the mechanical structure of
the instrument of prehension and the aliment, that a praclical

Larclner's " Animal Physics.'

NATURAL HISTORY.

309

Sight is the most perfect and most delightful of all the
senses. It fills the mind with the largest variety of ideas,
converses with objects at the greatest distance, and continues
tht longest in action without being satiated."— SPKCTATOR.

naturalist can infer the one from the other with unerring
certainty.

986. Examples of the agreement between the formation of the beak and the food
of the bird are furnished as follows :— Sea-birds, which feed on fish too large to

be swallowed at a mouthful, are furnished
with a large beak, hooked at the end.
But this instrument is much longer, and
therefore less powerful, though sufficiently
so relatively to their prey. When birds
feed on such fishes and reptiles as are
small enough to be seized and easily
swallowed, the beak is straight, still
greater in length and resembling a pair of
pincers, as those of the martin pecker,
fig. 1. Birds living on insects as the
bee-eater, fig. 2, have slender and very
long beaks, either straight or very slightly
hooked, except when they catch their prey
in flight, as do the swallow and the
goatsucker, fig. 3, in which the bill ia
short, broad, deeply cut, so as to enable
them to present a large mouth to receive
their prey. Birds which live on grain, on
the contrary, such as the sparrow,
fig. 4, have a short, thick bill, con
vex above, or conical, and in general
straight, the upper mandible not
projecting over the lower. A singular
modification of this organ of prehen
sion is presented in the case of the
3 4 pelican, which has a membranous

receptacle, consisting of a pouch or pocket, attached to its lower mandible, in
•which it collects prey, which it swallows afterwards at leisure. (See 942.)

987. Why have the, eyes of birds
discerning near or distant objects than

greater facility for
of other animals ?

Because, in the first place, birds in general procufe their food
by the aid of their beak ; and, the distance between the eye and the
point of the beak being small, it becomes necessary that they
should have the power of seeing very near objects distinctly.

On the other hand, from being often elevated much above the
ground, living in the air, and moving through it with great

310 THE REASON VTHY :

"The eye is not that which sees; it is only the organ by
which we see. The car is not that which hears, but the organ
by which we hear ; and so on of the rest." — REID.

velocity, they require for their safety, as well as for assisting them
in descrying their food, a pDwer of seeing at a great distance.

938. Two peculiarities are found in the eyes of birds. The one is a bony, yet, in
most species, a flexible rim or hoop, surrounding the broadest part of the eye,
which, confining the action of the muscles to that part, increases the effect of their
lateral pressure upon the orb, by which pressure its axis is elongated for the
purpose of looking at very near objects. The other peculiarity is an additional
muscle to dra^, on occasions, the cystalline lens back, and to fit the same eye for
the viewing of very distant objects. By these means, the eyes of birds can pass
from one extreme to the other, on a scale of adjustment as convenient as it
is remarkable.

989. Why is the hearing of birds dependent upon the internal
structure, rather than the outward development of the organ ?

Because, if the external ear existed as in quadrupeds, it would
obstruct the rapid progress of birds through the air, and be
inconvenient in other respects. This appendage is therefore with
held, but is amply compensated for by a peculiarity in the internal
structure, which enables them to hear with perfect distinctness

. 990. Why do birds perch with their faces to the wind ?

Because, if a bird were to roost with its tail to the wind it
would frequently be driven from its perch : the wind would, by
turning the feathers, and even getting under the wings, have
great power ; and the action of that power would unbend the
legs, and thereby loosen the feet from the perch. But, by perching
with its head to the wind, the latter becomes a means of
stability to the bird.

991. The birft keeps its hold on the perch by tendinous elasticity ; the flexure of
the neck is beyond that position which would be repose in a quadruped, so that the
tendons of the extensors are tightened ; and any cause which agitates the perching
feet, at the same instant brings the neck into action, and extends, elevates, or
depresses the head, to the exact extent which the balance requires. Thus, there is,
in the very structure of the bird, a means of resisting any casualty that might drive
it from its perch, and that without the exercise of any more volition than
icaompinics the breathing of a human being when asleep.

NATURAL HISTORY. 311

" The starlinff, distinguishable from the rest of the sparrow
tribe, by the plossy green of its feathers, in some lights, and
purple in others, breeds in caves of houses, ruins, hollow trees,
cliffs, and high rocks."— GOLDSMITH.

992. Whij are birds enabled to sleep securely when perched
on the branches of trees?

Because the claws of birds are so organized, that the flexor
muscles pass over the joints of the knee and heel in such a manner,
that, when the latter bend, they necessarily press on the tendons
of the muscles, and make them bend the toe,-; the weight of the
body pressing down the thighs and legs, necessarily produces
this action ; and, as a consequence, the bird grasps, ivithout
effort, the branch on which it is perched, and maintains itself in
a fixed position without watchfulness.

993. Why do starlings frequently accompany rooks in
their flight ?

Because rooks have a more discerning scent than starlings,
and lead them to spots productive of food.

The superior power of finding food is owing to rooks having
two large nerves which run down between the eyes into the upper
mandible, which invests their beaks with a more delicate sensitive
ness than other round-billed birds, and enables them to grope for
their food when out of sight.

994. Why are the necks of birds long, and easily moveablc?

Because the beak is generally the only organ of prehension by
which they pick their food from the ground ; and the extent of
the neck is augmented, in order to admit of the head being
brought freely to the ground without incommoding the body.

995. How is the wisdom of the Creator shown in &**
structure of the head and neck of birds ?

In the heads of birds teeth are dispensed with, and, as a conse
quence, along with them, the thick and massive jawbones iat(
which they must have been implanted, and which are replaced
by a light strong bill.

Hence mastication is very limited, and the muscles subservient

THE REASON WHY :

" To these, an overgrowne justice of peace,

With a clarke like a gizzard thrust under each arm ;
And warrants for sippets laid in his own grease,
Set o're a chafing dish to be kept warme."— B. JOHNSOK.

to this function are proportionately small. Everything thus
combines to render the head light, and consequently a long and
slender neck is sufficient for its support.

Had it been necessary to sustain heavier a head at the extremity
of a long neck, great muscular development in this region would
have been required, and the weight so much increased, as to have
materially diminished the powers of flight. Moreover, the heavy
head at the extremity of the lever of the neck would have deranged
the centre of gravity, and in this way also have interfered
with flight.

j9Q. Why does the breastbone form an important part of the
organization of a bird?

Because it imparts solidity to the whole of the framework, and
supplies a wide base upon which the muscles of the wings are
fastened down and steadied. The breastbone also forms a kind
of box, which, during the time the body is stretched out in flight,
securely retains and supports the soft interior of the bird.

The more the movements of the wings excite the great muscles
which are spread over the inside of the breastbone, the more do
those muscles brace and strengthen the frame of the bird. They
bear its weight up to the wings, and the wings again, by their long
arched form, lay it upon the air. Thus as the bird flies, it is
almost insensible of the fact that its body is heavy.

997. The breast-bone of a bird secures the whole length of the body, and the great
central spire of that bone, called the keel, rises from it, so as to give lodgment and
attachment to the great muscles of the wings. It will be easily understood that
this keel is more largely developed in birds of passage, since its greater prominence
implies strength of wing for long-continued flight. Under the breast-bone, and
between the back-bone, is a considerable space, occupied by air-cells. These cells
represent a curious provision for the extension of the body of the bird, indepen
dently of weight. The air does not only pass into the lungs of birds, but through
them, so as to fill a series of cells, composed of fine membranes, which are inter
woven with all the viscera. The heart is surrounded by such a cell. Two great
cells are attached to the liver, and in the same manner all the viscera of the
abdomen are interspersed with air-cells, and these all communicate. The air thus
admitted into the interior of the body extends even into the bones. By inflating
tiwse cells, birds have the power of instantly rendering their bodies specijicall*

NATURAL HISTORY. 313

Thy style's the same whatever be thy theme,

As sonic digestions turn all meat to phlegm." — DOKSBT.

lighter, and of rising upon the air with greater case : when they detcend, they
txhaust the cells, and alight with greater case,

998. Why is the gizzard such an important organ in the
structure of birds ?

Because it compensates for the absence of teeth, by triturating or
grinding the food, so as to render it fit for digestion. Every
particle of food which requires to undergo this operation, is sub
mitted to the action of the two gristly surfaces which form a
portion of the organ, and produce a rotatory motion on
the food.

999. In order to ascertain the peculiar powers of the gizzard, several experiments
have been resorted to, some of which would appear at first sight to be cruel, but
which in the end proved to be harmless. " Twelve strong tin needles," says
Spallanzani, "were firmly fixed in a ball of lead, the points projecting about a
quarter of an inch from the surface. Thus armed, it was covered with a case of
paper, and forced down the throat of a turkey. The bird retained it for a day and
a half without showing the least symptoms of uneasiness. Why the stomach
should have received no injury from so horrid an instrument I cannot explain : the
points of the twelve needles were broken off close to the surface of the bail, except
two or three, of which the stumps projected a little higher. Two of the points of
the needles were found among the food. The other ten I could not discover, either
in the stomach or the long track of the intestines ; and therefore concluded that
they had passed out."

In another experiment, which, without knowing the previous facts, we might
justly have deemed still more cruel, Spallanzani tells us he fixed twelve small
lancets, very sharp both at the point and edges, in a similar ball of lead. " They were
such as I use for the dissection of small animals. The ball was given to a turkey
cock, and left eighteen hours in the stomach, at the expiration of which time that
organ was opened ; but nothing- appeared except the naked ball, the twelve lancets
having been broken to pieces ; I discovered three in the large intestines, pointless
and mixed with the other contents ; the other nine were missing, and had probably
been voided. The stomach was as sound and entire as that which had received
the needles.

" Two capons, of which one was subjected to the experiment with the needles and
the other with the lancets, sustained them equally well. My next wish was to know
how much time elapsed before the beginning of the fractures; and by repeated
experiments on turkeys I found that these sharp bodies begin to be broken, and lose
their shape, in two hours. This, at least, happened in two individuals of the species :
in one, four of the lancets, and in the other, three of the needles, were broken
within that apace ; the others were blunted, but continued fixed in the balls."

14

314 THE REASON WHY :

" He that has humanity, forewam'd, will tread aside, and let
the reptile live." — COWPER.

1000. Why do birds moult, or change their feathers,
periodically ?

The moulting of birds is a process analogous to the nutrition,
expenditure, and decay, which occurs in all animal bodies. When
an atom, or it may be an organ, has fulfilled its functions, it dies ;
and when completely dead, it separates and falls, because a dead
substance cannot co-exist with a living.

Moulting is nothing else but this natural death of some
part of the bird, in consequence of the development of other
interior parts, which are being matured to carry on the
functions of the parts undergoing decay.

1001. "We find the germs of leaves, flowers, and fruits, in vegetables, and the hairs,
feathers, scales, horns, epidermis, &c., in animals increasing and developing them
selves in spring, to flourish in succession, at least for the duration of the summer.
But at the approach of the autumnal equinox, plants and animals, being more or
less exhausted by the vast expenditure of their vital forces in the great work of
reproduction, and also by the increased energy with which those vital forces acted
in proportion to the surface, their external functions begin to be enfeebled, and by
so much the more as the heat of the sun diminishes. Then these external partsf
these vernal productions, cease to receive aliment through the body : they have,
besides, arrived at the full term of their augmentation, and can admit of no further
nutriment. They dry up, wither, are detached, and fall. Thus is produced, sooner
or- later, the fall of flowers, leaves, and fruits, and the change of hairs, feathers,
horns, epidermis, scales, &c.

CLASS III— EEPTILIA.

ORDER I.— CHELONIA.

1002. Why is the first order of reptiles called chelonia?

From a Greek word meaning a tortoise ; the order including the
various species of tortoise and turtle. They have horny cases, are
destitute of teeth, have thick fleshy tongues, well developed eyes,
and their limbs differ from an elephantine club foot, to feet
divided and webbed.

NATURAL HISTORY. 315

" A tortoi&r, introduced here (Lambeth Palace) in 1633, lived
till the year 1753, and possibly might have continued much
longer, had it not been for the carelessness of the gardener."

PENNANT.

1003. Why arc reptiles so called ?

The term is derived from a Latin word rcpo, I creep ; since the
imperfection of the legs and feet in some cases, and the total
absence of these members in others, necessarily entail a creeping
movement to enable the animal to move along the ground.

1004. Why are turtles and tortoises covered with hard external
shells?

Because they are destitute of bony skeletons within, and the horny
covering is made to answer all the purposes of the usual osseous
structure.

But, besides this, they are defenceless animals, except so far as
the shell affords a retreat to the head, legs, and tail, which are
withdrawn within the shell upon the occurrence of any danger.

1005. It may appear at first sight that there is a great affinity between the
armour, or rather box, in which the tortoise is enclosed, and the coat of mail with
which many quadrupeds are covered, as, for instance, the armadillo (416). But
there is this important difference : the coat of mail in the latter quadruped is a
simple horny addition to the skin itself, resting upon, and supported by, processes
of the skeleton ; whereas the osseous shell of the tortoise is part and parcel of the
skeleton itself, which is so modified as to protect the internal organs, enclosing them
as in a casket, which is covered either with horny plates variously arranged,
or with a tough leathery skin.*

1006. Why do the cheeks of tortoises and turtles appear to be
frequently distended ?

Because they swallow air instead of breaking it by the ordinary
process. The jaws being firmly closed, the cavity of the mouth is
enlarged by the drawing down of the root of the tongue ; and into
the vacuum thus formed the air rushes through the nostiils. The
free part of the tongue is then applied to the posterior openings of
the nostrils, so as to stop them ; the gullet is also closed, the root

the tongue is elevated, the broad muscles of the throat contract,

• Knight's " Museum of Animated Nature."

o!6 THE REASON WHY :

A lizard's body lean and long,

A fish's head, a serpent's tongue." — MERRICK.

and the air is forced down the windpipe into the lungs, which
become filled by a repetition of the process.

1007. Why have tortoises and turtles no teeth ?

Because, for cropping the tender vegetation upon which they
live, teeth are less adapted than the serrated horny coverings with
which they are provided, and by which they are enabled to crop
and mince the vegetable aliment upon which they subsist.

ORDEIl II.-SAURIA.

1008. Why is the second order of reptiles denominated sauria ?

From a Greek word meaning a lizard. The mouths of these
animals are always armed with teeth, and the toes are generally
furnished with claws. They have all a tail more or less long, and
generally very thick at the base.

1009. Wliy does the crocodile, which devours birds, beasts, and
even human beings, allow one species of bird, the zic-zac, to be on
familiar terms icith him ?

It is said that when the crocodile comes on shore, he opens his

jaws, and this bird enters
and swallows the leeches
which are found about the
animal's jaws and teeth, and
which have collected dere
owing to the creature being
for so long a time in ths
water ; the relief afforded
by having the leeches with
drawn, induces the croco
dile not only to tolerate the
advances of the bird, but to encourage them.

NATURAL HISTORY. 317

An alligator stuffed, and other skins of ill-shap'd fi?hes."

SlIAKSPERK.

1010. This is a disputed point in natural history, and is doubted simply on account
of its apparent improbability, rather than from any evidence which has been
adduced to the contrary. The following anecdote, however, related by Mr. Curzon,
goes far to confirm this seemingly incredible account :— " I had always," says Mr.
Curzon, " a strong predilection for crocodile shooting, and had destroyed several of
these dragons of the water. On one occasion, I saw a long way off a large one,
twelve or fifteen feet long, lying asleep under a perpendicular bank, about ten feet
h-igh on the margin of the river. I stopped the boat at some distance ; and, noting
the place as well as I could, I took a circuit inland, and came down cautiously to
the top of the bank, whence, with a heavy rifle, I made sure of my game. I
nad already cut off his head in my imagination, and was considering whether it
should be stuffed with its mouth open or shut. I peeped over the bank : there he
was within ten feet of the sight of the rifle. I was on the point of firing at his eye,
when I observed that he was attended by a bird called the zic-zac. It is of the
plover species, of a greyish colour, and about the size of a small pigeon." The
remainder of the narrative corroborates the fact.

1011. Why do both jaws of the crocodile move?

Because its habits of life render it necessary to be able to seize
its prey with great rapidity — the prey often lying on the surface of
the water. The power of moving both jaws facilitates this kind
of seizure, by bringing the level of the water surface instantly
and equally within the action of the upper and lower jaws.

1012. Why is the alligator so catted?

Either from the Spanish and Portuguese lagarto, meaning a
lizard, or from the Latin lacertus, the arm, in reference to the
arm-like appearance of the legs.

1013. Wliy are the monitor lizards so catted?

It is said that when the larger reptiles approach them they
utter a cry of alarm, which gives warning to other creatures of
the dangerous approach of the crocodile and the alligator.

1014. W7ty has the chameleon the power of changing
its colour ?

This faculty has been attributed to the protective instinct of the
animal, by which it seeks to render itself less observable by
enemies, by assuming the colour of the bed upon which it lies.

318 THE REASON WH Y :

"Wak'd by his warming ray, the reptile young
Come win.2-'d abroad ; by the Ii4ht air upborne,
Lighter, and full of soul." — THCMSOX.

1015. The means by which this change of colour is accomplished is a matter
of doubt. Some naturalists attribute it to tho distension of the chameleon's
body occasioning differences in the cuticle, afftcting its reflect ice properties;
others, that the animal has the power of throwing into its skin a different
pigment, or colouring matter, from the blood ; others, to nervous or galvanic action.
The chameleon, though long an object of interest and study, still presents many
remarkable characteristics demanding explanation.

It appears, from the observations of Dr. \Veisser..born, who had a chameleon for
some time in his possession, that the nervous currents in one half of the animal may
go on independently of those in the other, and that the animal has two lateral
centres of perception, sensation, and motion, besides the common one in which
must reside the faculty of concentration. " Notwithstanding the strictly symmetrical
structure of the chameleon, as to its two halves, the eyes move independently of
each other, and convey different impressions to their centres of perception.
The consequence is, that when the animal is agitated, its movements appear like
those of two animals glued together. Each half wishes to move its own way, and
there is no concordance of action. The chameleon, therefore, is not able to swim
like other animals ; it is so frightened if put into water, the faculty of con
centration is lost, and it tumbles about as if in a state of intoxication. On
the other hand, when the creature is undisturbed, the eye which receives
the strongest impression propagates it to the common centre, and prevails
upon the other eye to follow that impression, and direct itself to the same
object The chameleon, moreover, may be asleep on one side, and awake on the
other. When cautiously approaching my specimen at night with a candle, so as
not to awaken the wh le animal by the shaking of the room, the eye turned towards
the flame would open and begin to move, and the corresponding side to change
colour, whereas the other side would remain for several seconds longer in its torpid
and changeable state, with its eye shut."

1016. Why has the agama the power of inflating its body
with air ?

The use of this peculiar endowment
is not clearly r nderstood, though it is
believed that the animal has the
power of bri- tying down insects, by
directing upon them a smart current
of air? Assuming this to be the
case, the function is analogous to that
possessed by certain fishes, in the
chaetodon family, of bringing down
insects by emitting jets of water.

NATUKAL HISTORY. 319

' Lo ! the preen serpent, from his dark abode,
Which e'en Imagination fears to tread,
At noon forth issuiner, gathers up his train
In orbs immense."— THOMSON.

ORDER III.— OPIIIDlA.

1017. Why is the third order of reptiles termed ophidia ?

From the Greek ophis,
meaning a serpent or snake
The order includes all the
serpents and snakes, whatever
may be their nature or modes
of life. They are the only
vertebrated animals which
have the power of infusing
a poison into wounds,
though many of them are
destitute of this power.

1018. Why are serpents unprovided with fed ?

One reason, at least, may be found for this deprivation in the
fact that, as they are adapted for fulfilling certain ends within
particular geographical limits, they are confined to those limits by
the absence of locomotive organs ?

If creatures like the boa and the rattle-snake could spread
themselves from the hot to the temperate latitudes, and diffuse
themselves generally through these, they would prove serious
pests, and formidable enemies to a great number of
useful races.

10 1£. How are serpents enabled to move along the ground-
without feet or legs ?

Locomotion is effected by the contractile force of the muscles,
alternately drawing up and extending the body, combined with
the adhesion of the tegumentary covering with the ground.

The animal attaching to the ground a point near its head
contracts its body, or bends it int<> an arch, bringing forward the

320 THE REASON WHY :

Snakes breathe their amorous sighs in hisses.
This dialect no creature misses." — SHERBPRNZ.

hinder part, some point of which is then attached to the ground,
liberating at the same time the fore part.

The posterior point of attachment then becoming a fixed point,
the animal throws forward its length by the action of its extensor
muscles, after which it again attaches a point in the foremost pars
of its body to the ground, and repeats the same process.

1020. Why do serpents let themselves fall from trees without
sustaining injury ?

Because their peculiar form, and the elasticity of their parts,
prevent concussion from such falls. On reaching the ground,
the shock they sustain, instead of proving hurtful, impels them
forward, and serves as a stimulus to their subsequent
movements.

1021. How does the snake throw its whole body from the
ground in a kind of leap ?

This is performed by placing the body upon the ground in
form of a twisted spiral, the folds of the anterior part forming
the centre of the figure ; then suddenly extending itself in the
manner of a spring, it throws itself to a distance.

1022. This movement may sometimes be seen in very hot weather by the banks of
the stream, where snakes often lie basking with their bodies coiled in the mannei
just described, the neck and head being directed from the centre to the circumference
above the folds. This position seems to be preferred to any other by the snake while
reposing ; and it is one from which the animal is enabled to perform the most rapid
movement upon a sudden surprise ; for, in a wood, from this position they will leap
by an instantaneous effort into the brushwood, and thus elule our most energetic
efforts to secure them, or even to get sight of them ; but by the side of a stream this
movement may be better seen, for on a sudden approach they will leap from the
bank into the midst of the stream, swim to the opposite side, ascend the bank, and
secrete themselves.

1023. Why is the rattlesnake provided with a rattle at the
extremity of its tail ?

The use of this curious apparatus is unknown, though so
obvious a contrivance cannot be without its specific uses.

NATURAL HISTORY. 321

Where at each step the stranger fears to wake

The rattling terrors of the vengeful snake.'" — GOLDSMITH.

It has been alleged that it is a signal of warning to keep
away animals that might hear it, from the deadly venom of
the snake. But it is altogether opposed to the economy of nature
to endow an animal with means to scare away the prey upon
which it must subsist. It is not unlikely that, as the snake does
not climb trees, nor move about with the graceful evolutions of
other tribes, but glides along the ground in low and secret places,
the rattle is used as a call to members of its own

1024. Why have serpents the power of fascination ?

Being deficient in organs of locomotion, the power of fascination
has probably been bestowed upon them as a compensatory endow
ment. Otherwise, what chance would there be of a snake bringing
down a bird, or pursuing successfully a swift rabbit ?

1025. Why are the Indian snake-catchers enabled to charm,

It seems to be well-established by observation that certain kinds
of serpents are exceedingly impressible by musical sounds. A
similar fact has been noted with respect to seals, rats, mice, and
other animals. But serpents appear to be impressible in a higher
degree, and the Indians, who study their habits, learn the exact
notes by which the serpents are most affected, and acquire the
power of what has been termed " charming them."

ORDER IV.— AMPHIBIA. "

1026. Why is the fourth order of reptiles called amphibia 1

From two Greek words, meaning both and life. Amphibials are
animals formed to live on land, and to be also capable of living
for a long time under water. Their hearts have but one ventricle ,
their blood is red and cold ; and they have such a command of the
lungs, as for a considerable time to suspend respiration. These
peculiarities, which characterise the amphibia in particular, apply
also generally to all the order of reptiles.

14*

322

THE REASON WHY :

" Onely these marishes and myrie bogs,

In which the fearefull ewftes do build their bowres,
Yield me an hostry 'mongst the croaking froys." — SPENSER.

1027. Why when the frog is breathing does it keep its
mouth firmly shut, and also continually raising and lowering
the skin between the bones of the under jaw ?

Because, owing to its peculiar
structure, it cannot breathe with
the mouth open ; and if it
were forcibly kept open, the
animal would die of suffo
cation.

1028. The explanation of this ap
parent anomaly is as follows : — The
frog receives the air which is to be
conveyed to the lungs through the
nostrils, but there is no vacuum or
cavity formed by the expansion of
the thorax, so that the mere pressure
of the atmosphere following the expansion, does not, in this instance,
inflate the lungs. An effort is required after the air is taken ii,to the
body, and that is performed chiefly by the tongue. The depression of the skin ol
the lower jaw lasts much longer than the elevation, because there is a double
operation to be performed— the expulsion of the air already in the lungs,
and the re-admission of fresh air into the body. When that skin first descends,
there is a contractile action of the abdomen, by which the air in the lungs is
driven out ; and when that is all expired, the abdomen returns to its natural state ;
but being without bones it cannot form a vacuum, and thus the lungs could not be
inflated but by some other action capable of overcoming the resistance of
their cells.

1029. How are the showers of frogs, ivhich are often reported
as taking place, accounted for ?

The explanation of this apparent phenomenon is as follows : It
is generally about the month of August, and often after a season
of drought, that these hordes of frogs make their appearance ; the
animals have been hatched, and quitted their tadpole state, and
native pond. Finding the fields hot and parched, they seek the
coolest and dampest places, and conceal themselves undej

NATURAL HISTORY. 323

" I had rather be a toad, and live upon the vapour of a
dungeon, than keep a corner in the thing I love for others,
uses." — SHAKSPKUE.

clods and stones, where, on account of their dusky colour, they
escape notice. When the rain descends, they come forth in
hundreds from their hiding places, and hence are supposed to
have fallen to earth in a shoiver.

1030. How is the bull-frog enabled to make the bellowing noise
from which it takes its no me ?

This sound is produced by certain portions of the larynx of
the animal being convex externally and concave internally, so
that when the entrance to the larynx is closed, they form a
dome over the windpipe, which, from its vibratory properties, has
been compared to a kettle-drum.

1130. How is the croaking of the frog produced?

This peculiar sound, which is supposed to be expressive of
pleasure, is produced by means of the air which it forces into the
globular vocal sacs, which are situated near the corners of the
mouth, and causes to vibrate in them. The female being without
these organs, produces only a slight noise.

1032. Why are frogs frequently found dead in dusty roads ?

Because their skin co-operates with their feeble lungs in
the aeration of the blood. This internal respiration can only take
place when the skin is bedewed with moisture. For this purpose
the frog is endowed with certain glands that secrete a fluid to
moisten the skin. In dusty roads this fluid becomes clogged
with dust, and the respiration of the skin being stopped, the
animal dies.

1033. WHiy are toads useful in greenhouses and other horti
cultural buildings ?

Because they destroy ants ; an 1 devour earwigs, caterpillars,
small bedlfs, slugs, and all insects which chance to fall in
their way.

324 THE REASON WHY :

Thou cold-blooded slave,

Hast thou not spoke like thunder on my side?

Beene sworne my soldier, * *

And dost thou now fall over to my foes ? " — SHAKSPERK.

1034. Why are toads enabled to live embedded in rock
or stone ?

Because their skins are capable of effecting the necessary change*
in the system when the function of the lungs is altogether ar
rested ; and, requiring an inconceivably small portion of air, they
are enabled to live by the supply which penetrates the pores of
the material in which they are embedded.

MISCELLANEOUS.

1035. Wliy have most reptiles a hind of moveable lid at the
iperture of their nasal organs ?

Reptiles are thus provided, so that when they are under water,
the organ of smell may be exercised or protected as circumstances
may require. The proper vehicle of the impression of smell in
reptiles is air ; and this they draw through their nasal cavities
durirg inspiration, effecting the operation by depressing their
lingual bone, and thus enlarging the cavity of the mouth.

1036. WTiy can reptiles abstain for an extraordinary length
of time from food and drink ?

Because the languid circulation of their blood, their rare secre
tions, low temperature, and scaly and impermeable envelope,
render their losses by evaporation from the skin very incon
siderable ; so that the frequent supplies which are wanted in
other animals, to compensate for the incessant waste, are not
required for reptiles.

1037. Why are reptiles termed cold-blooded?

Because they do not produce enough heat to have a temperature
sensibly higher than that of the surrounding air.

The whole of their body is heated qr cooled at the same time ai

NATURAL HISTORY.

" Forthwith the sounds and seas, each creek and bay,
"With frie innumerable swarme, and shoales
Of fish, that with their finnes and shining scales
Glide under the greene wave." — MII.TOX.

the surrounding medium ; and the changes of temperature "which
they thus experience have great influence upon all their
functions.

A warmth of from 105° to 120° is soon fatal to most of these
animals ; and cold tends to depress all their natural operations.
In winter, most of them could no longer digest the food introduced
into their stomach, and do not take nourishment. Their respiration
also diminishes in a most remarkable manner. Thus, during the
cold season, the action of the air on the skin is sufficient for
the maintenance of the life of the frog ; and the lungs of one
of these animals may be removed without producing asphyxia ;
whilst in summer they have need not only of the pulmonary
respiration, but also of their cutaneous ; and death soon occurs
when the air does not act on the skin, or is excluded from
the lungs.

CLASS IV.— PISCES.

ORDER I.— LEPTOCARDIA.*

1038. Why is the first order of fishes called leptocardia 1

From two Greek words signifying small and heart, with reference
to the rudimentary formation of the heart, which, indeed, is said
to be absent, and to consist entirely of the contractile power
of the arteries.

1039. This order includes only a single small fish, which rarely attains a length
of two inches, and which presents so many remarkable characters that its position
in classification has been much disputed. This is the Amphioxus lanceolatus, a
little, slender, transparent creature, found on sandy coasts in various parts of the
world. Its body is of the lamprey form, with a narrow membranous border .
The vertebral column is represented by a gelatinous cord, wlrch supports the axis
of the nervous system; the latter terminates anteriorly by a rounded extremitj,
without any signs of a brain. The head bears a pair of eyes, which are connected
with the end of the nervous axis by short filaments, and there is an apparent

• The classification here pursued combines the systems of Cuvier and Agassiz,
as blended by M tiller.

326 THE REASON WHY :

" Lie there, Lycaon : let the fish surround
Thy bloated corpse, and suck thy gory wound."— POPE.

rudiment of an olfactory organ. The mouth is at the front of the head, -where it
forms an oval opening without jaws, but surrounded by a number of cartilaginous
points ; the oval cavity leads into a large branchial sac. By the action of cilia,
with which these cavities are lined, currents are produced in water, the water
passing off through numerous slits in its walls into the general cavity of the body,
•whence it escapes by an opening in the ventral surface.*

ORDER II.— CYCLOSTOMATA.

1040. Why is the second order of fakes called cyclostomata ?

From two Greek words meaning a circle and a mouth, in
reference to the circular mouth which distinguishes the members
of the order.

1041. They are of an elongated, cylindric, and worm-like form; the skin is
tough and destitute of scales ; the pectoral and ventral fins are wanting ; the
skeleton is cartilaginous ; breathing orifices, little sacs that open exteriorly by
separate vents ; heart muscular, composed of two chambers.

1042. Why has the lamprey a circular, cartilaginous mouth ?

Because it lives by suction, some species living upon insects and

worms : others upon the
juices of the larger fishes.
One species, the hag, con
trives to enter the mouths

\ I /^*^5£i^HnHK^^^ of tislies> and extracts tneir

s'.ibst,-ince by sucking. Fish

\W&&^^sBiB| tha have been hooked on

litu s and allowed to remain
in the water for some time afterwards, have been attacked by
these creatures, and when drawn up have been found to consist
of little more than empty skin.

1043. Formerly the lamprey was a fi*h of considerable importance. It was
taken in great quantities in the Thames, and sold to the Dutch as bait for turbot,
cod, and other fisheries. Four hundred thousand have been sold in one season fo*

• Orr's 'T'rcle of the Sciences."

NATURAL HISTORY.

Let riches never breede a lofty minde,

Let nature's giltes make no man oner blinde,

For these are all but lladlers full of winde." — TURBERVILLK.

this purpose, at the rate of forty shillings a thousand. From five pounds to eight
pounds a thousand has been given ; but a comparative scarcity of late years, and
consequent increase in price, have obliged the line fishermen to adopt other
substances for bait.*

ORDER III.— TELEOSTIA.

1044. IVliy is the third order of fishes named teleostia '/

From two Greek words signifying perfect, and bones, in
reference to the perfect bony skeletons which they possess.

1045. In fishes of this order the skill1, is
always of a very complicated structure,
composed of numerous bones ; the gills
are supported upon free bony arches,
and the water passes away from them
by a single aperture, protected by bony
gill covers, The mouth is always
formed by a pair of jaws, and usually
armed with teeth.

The ORDER is again divided into six Sub-orders: 1. Physoto-
mata ; 2. Anacanthina ; 3. Pharyngognatha ; 4. Acanthoptera ;
5. Lopobranchia ; 6. Plectognatha

Sub-order I. — Physotomata.
1046. Wliy is the sub-order physotomata so named?

From the Greek phuaso, to blow, or inflate, in allusion to the
possession of an air-bladder, connected with the pharynx by a
duct, which only occurs in these fishes, of all the teleostia.

1047. The fishes belonging to this group are usually furnished with a complete
series of fins, -which are always composed entirely of soft rays, with the exception

• Yarrell's " History of British Fishes."

328 THE EEASON WHY .*

" Genius, piercing as the electric flame,
When waked in one, in others wakes the same." — SCOTT.

of the first ray in the dorsal, anal, and pectoral fins, which are sometimes spir.ous.
The ventral fins are sometimes wanting' ; when present, they are always abdominal
in position. The skin is sometimes naked, at other times more or less covered with
oony plates ; in most cases, however, it is thickly clad with scales. The air
bladder is connected with the pharynx by a sort of duct. The sub-order includes
most of the important fishes that are sought for as food by man, and one species
which possesses electrical powers.

1048. JHiy has the gymnotus the power of communicating
electric shocks ?

For (he purpose of defending itself from enemies, and also to
benumb its prey, which is generally swifter in motion than the
eel, until the latter can overtake it.

1049. That these are the reasons why this animal is endowed with this wonderful
power there can be no doubt, since the uses made of the electric force by the eel
have been well ascertained.

The electric eel is not only one of the most extraordinary of fishes, but it is one of
the most wonderful productions of living nature. And yet it is no more wonderful
than the serpent which fascinates it prey; than the bird which baits with insects
the branches of shrubs, in order to attract small birds thither ; than the fish which
emits jets of water to knock down flies ; or ttie spider which constructs a beautiful
snare, and waits silently and motionless the entrapment of its victim.

These various means to the same end, with which different animals are endowed,
illustrate the boundless resources of the Creative Wisdom.

The apparatus in which the electric power is lodged is a very singular one,
consisting of four organs, which are placed longitudinally in the tail of the fish.
The organic part of this singular apparatus consists of a countless assemblage of
cells, which have some analogy to the divisions of a galvanic battery.

The nature of the shock transmitted appears to be galvanic or electrical. Nearly
the same substances are conductors and non-conductors of the shock, as are
conductors and non-conductors of common electricity. The eel may with perfect
impunity be touched with a glass rod, or the hand wrapped in a dry silk handker
chief ; but metals, water, and almost all moist bodies conduct it readily. If the
animal is touched with one hand only, that is, if it is touched only in one place, no
shock is felt ; but if it is touched in two places considerably apart from each other,
the shock is very violent

TJie manner in which the force is applied is as follows :— The gymnotus approaches
as nearly as possible its intended prey; the latter endeavour to escape, when the
gymnotus discharges its battery, which has been found to be powerfully effective al
a distance of fifteen fee'. The creature taus benumbed is incapable of any further
effort, and the eel swims leisurely towards and devours it.

The degree of force which can be thus exerted is considerable. Horses entering

NATURAL HISTORY. 329

" Barefoot may no neighbour wade
In thy cool streams, wife nor maid,
When the spawns c-n stones do lye,
To wash their hemp, and spoil the fry."

BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER.

jonds where electric eels abound are frequently knocked down by its violence ; and
the Indians of South America, where the gymnotus abounds, are frequently
Irowned while bathing, being stunned by the shock from these animals.

It is remarkable that in tropical lands there are found the choicest fruits, the
most beautiful flowers, the grandest plumage, the richest perfumes ; • and there,
too, the rattle-snake has the deadliest poison, and the gymnotus its strange
electrical power.*

1050. Why is the herring so called?

From the German hcer, an army, with reference to the numbers
in which they move from place to place.

1051. Why do herrings migrate ?

The migrations of the herring are analogous to those of certain
birds. Impelled by unfailing instinct, the herring leaves the
depths of our surrounding seas to deposit its spawn in the
shallower waters of the coast, there to be vivified by the genial
influence of the sun ; and after accomplishing its purpose, it
retires to the remoter deeps.

1052. The herring is es?entially a northern fish ; seldom has it been found so fai
south as the Bay of Biscfc/, in Europe, or the coast of Carolina, in America. Likt
plants that, flourishing in certain climates only, become fewer and more stunted
the nearer they approach the limits of their zone, herrings decrease in number
and si/e as they approach their assigned southern boundary — those caught on the
southern shores of England being considerably smaller that those which frequent
the coast of Norway. Thus it is that about the month of July, the grand array of
herrings is found to the northward of the Shetlands, in distinct columns five and six
miles long, three and four miles broad. Pressing for the shallows, they drive the
sea before them in a continuous ripple. Sometimes they sink down fathoms deep
for a few minutes, then again rising to the surface, sparkle in the sun like a prairie
strewn with diamonds. Nor even during the calm summer night is the sceno less
brilliant, from the intense scintillations of phosphoric light exhibited by the count
less myriads of moving fish. The quantity of life in these shoals would be completely
beyond belief if we did not recollect that 36,000 eggs have been counted in the
spawn of one herring.

1053. Why do herrings swim, in shoals ?

Because, like migratory birds and quadrupeds, large numbers of

* Pennant.

330 THE REASON WHY ;

" The scaly herd, a numerous throng,
Beneath her silver billows glide along,
Whose still increasing shoals supply
The poor man's wants, the great one's luxury." — SOMERVILLE.

them are acted upon by the same necessity at the same time ; they
therefore move together by a common impulse, to fulfil an
uniform end. Herrings, and all fishes that are known to swim
in shoals, are solitary except when the necessity for spawning
approaches, and then the prevailing need brings them together
in enormous numbers.

1054. No adequate conception can be formed of the myriads of herrings and
pilchards that move together in what are called shoals, which often extend many
wiles in length and breadth. In some of the lochs, or arms of the sea, on the west
coast of Scotland, herrings have often been cast ashore by storms in such numbers
that they have been used as manure for land.

Upon one occasion, the bellman of Crail, at the eastern extremity of the
peninsula of Fife, was sent round with the bell to announce that any one who
chose to go to the shore would get a cart-load of live herrings for a shilling. This
passed without much notice; but, by-and-bye, the bellman again went round, pro
claiming that any one who chose might go and obtain a cart-load of live herrings
for nothing. This announcement, of course, excited some speculation ; but it was
speedily followed by a third one— that any one who would be kind enough to go to
the shore of Crail would get a shilling for taking away a cart-load of herrings. The
explanation was, that a storm which was then prevailing continued to drive large
skoals of herrings upon the shore ; so that, when left by the ebb-tide, they lay in
countless thousands for at least a mile and a half or two miles along the coast.
The reason for the latter announcement was a fear on the part of the authorities of
Ci'ail, that such a quantity of animal matter remaining to putrify on the beach
would taint the atmosphere, and cause disease.

1055. Why are jew herrings and pilchards caught in the cold
months ?

Because they then resort to deep waters, beyond the reach of
nets. They keep to the bottom of the sea, where they feed upon
small crustaceous animals and a minute species of shrimp not
larger than a flea.

This being their natural food and mode of feeding, it is
impossible to take them with a hook, though a rare instance
of a pilchard being hooked with a worm is upon record.

Pilchards are, however, frequently found in the stomachs of
large voracious fishes, caught during the colder months.

NATURAL HISTORY. 331

" Before that, a plump vintner

Kneeling, and offering' incense to his deitie,
Which shall be only this, red sprats and pilcbers."

BEAUMONT AND FLKTCHEB.

1056. What is the, difference between tlu pilchard and tin
herring ?

The pilchard is a different species, thicker and smaller than the
herring ; the scales large, while those of the herring are small. The
posterior edge of the dorsal fin is nearly over the centre of gravity,
so that when a pilchard is held by this fin, the head rises, and the
tail droops down, which is the reverse of what happens with
the herring.

The pilchard is a more southerly and more local fish than the
herring, being found chiefly on the Cornish coasts ; and it is rare
that one is found beyond Dover, or even in the narrow part of
the Channel.

1057. What are sprats ?

Sprats are a distinct species offish, though of the herring family,
of which those usually sold are full grown.

1058. Why do sprats usually appear soon after herrings
have spawned ?

Because sprats approach the shore for the like purpose of
spawning, their season being a little later than the herrings. The
resemblance of the sprat to the herring, and their becoming
abundant soon after the herring season, has led to the erroneous
supposition that sprats are young herrings.

1059. What are whitebait?

They are a distinct species* and not, as generally supposed,
the fry of a larger kind.

1060. About the end of March, or early in April, whitebait begin to make their
appearance in the Thames, and are then small, apparently but just changed from
the albuminous state of very young fry. In September, specimens of whitebait,
tue young fish of the year, may be taken as long as four or five inches but *hey

* Clapea alba. Yarrel.

332 THE REASON WHY ;

' The lusty salmon, then, from Neptune's wat'ry realm,
When as his season serves, stemming my tideful stream."— DRAYTON.

are even then mixed with others of very small size, as though the roe had
continued to be deposited throughout the summer. In their habits they appear to
oe similar to the young of the herring, always keeping in shoals, and swimming
occasionally near the surface of the water, where they often fall a prey to aquatic
buds. Whitebait live upon minute Crustacea.

1061. What are anchovies?

Anchovies are a genus of soft-finned fishes,* belonging to the
family of herrings, but separated from that genus by certain
structural differences of habit and haunt.

1062. The habits of all the herring family are similar : they are migratory, and
swim in shoals ; and, with the exception of the shad, and those species which
frequent the great freshwater lakes and do not migrate to the sea, they all remain
in salt water. The anchovies inhabit waters nearer to the equator than the
herrings, and may be said to take up the occupation of the sea where the
herrings leave it off.

1063. Wliy do salmon arrive in some rivers earlier than in
others ?

It has been suggested that this depends upon the varying warmth
of the waters ; those highland rivers which arise from large locks
being all early, owing to the warmer temperature and great mass of
their sources ; while those rivers which are swollen by melting
snows in the spring mouths are later in their fish-producing
season.

1064. Why do female salmon in the spawning season ascend
the rivers before the males ?

Because the former are impelled by a necessity which probably
operates in a higher degree with them than with the latter : the
males, therefore, follow the females, and pair, and attend them
during their spawning, and afterwards become, as it were, their
escort to the sea.

1065. The sexes of fishes, if we except the sharks and rays, offer no very decided
external characters. In the males, the respiratory organs occupy more space than

* Engraulis encrasicolus.

NATURAL HISTORY.

" The salmon, (which at spring forsakes
Thetis' salt waves,) to look on him,
Upon the water's top doth swim." — SHKRBVRNE.

in the females ; and the abdomen is larger in the females than in the males : the
males may he distinguished by their somewhat sharper and more pointed
head, the greater length of gill cover, and the body, from the dorsal fin downwards,
being not so deep compared with the whole length of the fish.

The organs of reproduction consist of two elongated oval lobes of roe, one on
each side of the body, placed between the ribs and the intestinal canal ; the lobes
in the female called hard roe, contain a very large number of roundish ova, or
eggs, enclosed in a membranous bag. In the male, the lobes of roe are smaller
than in the females, and have the appearance of two elongated masses of fat, which
are called soft roe. In the spawning season, these soft rows become fluid, and are
voided during the time of spawning, the ova of the female being impregnated
thereby.

1066. Why do salmon, when either ascending or descending
rivers, halt in the brackish water where fresh and salt water
mingle ?

By so doing, they accustom themselves gradually to the
change of element which they have to undergo. And here they
obtain a release from numerous parasitic animals, those of the
salt water being destroyed by contact with fresh, and vice versd.

1067. Why is the flesh of the salmon red ?

It has been assumed by Dr. Knox, that this redness is owing to
the peculiar food upon which the salmon subsists when at sea —
consisting of the eggs of various kinds of small marine animals.

Salmon are known to eat, also, sand-eels, small fishes, and various
diminutive marine animals. Mr. Morrison stated before the
Highland Society, that he had taken salmon within flood mark,
some of which had two, and others three, full-sized herrings in
their stomachs.

1068. WTiat circumstances give rise to the various varieties of
trout ?

It is probable that there are not only varieties, but that there is
more than one species of river trout. But when we consider
geologically the various strata traversed by rivers in their course,
the effect these variations of soil must produce upon the water

334 THE REASON WHY1:

" Lure

From his dark haunt, beneath the tan pled roots
Of pendant trees, the monarch of the brook." — THOMSON.

and the influence which the constant operation of the water is likely
to have upon the fish that inhabit it ; when we reflect also on the
great variety of food afforded by different rivers, we shall be able
to assign very probable reasons for the variations both in size and
colour which are found to occur.

1069. Lord Howe remarks, that " There are two considerable streams which take
their rise at no great distance from each other, the Whit eadder and the Blackadder,
the latter tributary to the former. The Whitcadder from head to foot flowing along
a very rocky and gravelly bed, while the Blackadder (Blackwater) rises in the deep
mosses near Weddcrlea, and the Dorrington laws (high hills), and flows for about
half its course through a rich and highly cultivated district. The trout of White-
adder ("Whitewater) are a beautiful silvery fish, but good for nothing ; those of the
other dark, almost black, with bright orange fins, and their flesh excellent. Nothing
can be more various than the appearance of the trout of these two rivers ; and
surely nothing can be more easier at once to see the cause of this difference."

1070. Why do young pike frequently appear in ponds where
there were none before ?

Because the spawn of the pike is covered with a sticky
viscous fluid ; this adheres to the plumage of water-birds, and
is by them borne into new waters, causing the unexpected and
somewhat unaccountable appearance of pike in new waters.

1071. Why do smaller fish at certain seasons appear to be
familiar with the pike, while at others they avoid his
presence ?

Because the pike, which is remarkable for its voracity, never
theless undergoes periods of abstinence. During the summer
months their digestive functions are somewhat torpid, and in warm
sunny weather they lie basking in a sleepy state for hours together.
The smaller fish appear to be aware when this abstinent state
of their foe is on him ; they are then less alarmed at his presence,
and may be seen swimming round him with indifference.*

• Bluine's "Rural Sports."

NATURAL HISTORY. 335

' The goodly well grown trout I -with my angle strike,
And Mith my bearded wire I take the rav'nous pike." — DEATTON.

1072. Wliy does the pike undergo this state of torpidity ?

It is remarkable that this peculiarity in the animal economy of
the pike differs materially from the habits of other fishes, which,
after the emaciation from the effects of spawning, require an
increase of food to repair the exhaustion. But with the pike, the
return of appetite appears to be suspended : a wise provision ;
for, were this fish as voracious as usual, few of the small fry
which are then abundant would escape, and the stock of fish
would be materially reduced.

1073. Why are "pike" called also "jack"?

These are verbal distinctions referring to the size and age of
the same fish. When the fish does not exceed four or five
pound weight, it is called in England " a jack " ; and when above
that weight it is a "pike"

1074. Why is the pike exceedingly voracious at certain
seasons ?

Because it is a fish of rapid growth, and consequently vigorous
digestion. The young fry grow rapidly, attaining two pounds
weight in the first year ; and they gain from two to three pounds
weight every subsequent year.

Besides, the enormous amount of exercise which the pike takes
produces a great expenditure, and creates a corresponding demand
for food. There is no more active fish : it sometimes darts
through the water with the speed of an arrow.

1075. It has been offered in illustration of the great digestive powers of the pike,
that after in part swallowing a fish little smaller than itself, those parts that have
entered into the stomach are dissolved with amazing rapidity, while those in the
mouth and throat which are yet entire make a constant progress downwards as the
process of digestion makes way for them.

The pike has always been remarkable for extraordinary voracity. Eight pike, of
koout five pounds weight each, consumed nearly eight hundred gudgeons in threv
weeks; "and the appetite of one of these pikes," says Mr. Jesse, "was almost
One morning I threw to Mm, one after another, five roaches, each

336 THE REASON WHY.

" The lavish slave

Six thousand pieces for a barbel gave ;

A sestrice for each pound it weigh'cl, as they

Gave out, that hear great things, but greater say." — DUKE.

e.bout four inches in length ; he swallowed four of them, and kept the last in his
mouth for about a quarter of an hour, when it also disappeared." Digestion in the
pike goes on very rapidly, and they are therefore most expensive fish to maintain.
In default of a sufficient quantity of fishes to satisfy them, moor-hens, ducks,
and indeed any animals of small size, whether alive or dead, are constantly
consumed ; their boldness and voracity are equally proverbial. Dr. Plot relates,
that at Lord Gower's canal, at Trentham, a pike seized the head of a swan as she
was feeding under water, and gorged so much of it as killed them both ; the servants
perceiving the swan with its head under water for a longer time than usual, took
the boat, and found both swan and pike dead. Gesner relates that a pike in the
Rhone seized on the lips of a mule that was brought to water, and that the beast
drew the fish out before it could disengage itself. Walton was assured by his
friend Mr. Segrave, who kept tame otters, that he had known a pike in extreme
hunger fi^ht with one of his otters for a carp which the otter had caught, and was
then bringing out of the water; proving the old adage, that, "it is a hard thing
to persuade the belly, because it has no ears." A woman in Poland had her foot
seized by a pike as she was washing clothes in a pond ; and the same thing is said to
have happened at Killingworth pond, near Coventry. The head keeper of Richmond
Park was once washing his hand over the side of a boat in the great pond in that
park, when a pike made a dart at it, and he had but just time to withdraw it. Mr.
Jesse adds, that " a gentleman now residing at Weybridge, in Surrey, walking one
day by the side of the River Wey, near that town, saw a large pike in a shallow
creek. He immediately pulled off his coat, tucked up his shirt-sleeves, and went
into the water to intercept the return of the fish to the river, and to endeavour to
throw it out upon the bank by getting his hands under it. During this attempt,
the pike, finding he could not make his escape, seized one of the arms of the
gentleman, and lacerated it so much that the marks of the wound are still
visible."*

1076. Why is the barbel so called?

From the Latin barbalatus, meaning barbs, or beards, in
reference to the appendages to its lower jaw.

1077. Why is tJie first ray of the dorsal Jin of the, barbel
deeply serrated ?

The serrations arise from certain additions to the ray, which
impart a greater degree of strength to it. This increased strength
facilitates the movements of the fish in the rapid currents and
mill streams which it frequents.

• YarreU's " British Fishe*."

NATURAL HISTORY. 337

" The dainty gudgeon, roche, the minnow, and the bleak,
Since they but little are, I little need to speak."— DRAYTON.

1078. Why has the barbel four wattles, or barbs, on Us
lower jaw?

The barbel, as well as devouring small fish, bores in the loose
soil for slugs and worms, and these wattles serve as feelers, in the
pursuit of food.

1079. Why may small fish be seen attending the barbel while
& bores in the soil ?

Because they eat the minute animalcules thrown up from
the soil by the movements of the barbeL

1080. Why, when angling for roach, is it necessary to try
the water at all depths f

Because, being miscellaneous feeders, roach swim at various
depths ; and, being gregarious, they move in shoals : so that at
one level there may be plenty of fish, and at another none
at all.

1081. Why is the bleak commonly called the water swallow?

Because it sometimes occupies one part of a river, then takes
its departure to another ; the deeps, the shallows, and the surface,
are alternately their resorfc ; and they further resemble swallows iu
their nimbleness when in pursuit of prey, and particularly in
the catching of flies.

1082. Why has the roach a very small mouth without
teeth?

The roach lives principally upon insects and fresh-water mol-
lusca, which it finds adhering to the weeds ; but which it would
be unable to obtain were it not for this peculiar structure of
the mouth,

1083. Why does the shanny habitually hide itself behind
ttones, rocks, &c.

Being destitute of a swimming-bladder, this fish is co^Jtued to

338 THE REASON WHY:

Their scaly armour's Tyrian hue,
Through richest purple to the view,
Betray'd a gulden gleam." — GRAY.

the bottom, where it takes up its residence on a rock or stone,
from which it rarely wanders far, and beneath which it seeks
shelter from ravenous fishes and birds.

1084. When the tide is receding, many of these fishes hide beneath the stones, or
in pools, but the larger individuals quit the water, and, by the use of the ventra*
fins, creep into convenient holes, rarely more than one in each, and there, with the
head dow nward, they wait for a few hours, until the return of the water restores
them to Lberty. If discovered or alarmed in these chambers, they return by a
backward motion to the bottom of the cavity.

1085. How do gold and silver fish kept in globes subsist
upon whti appears to us to be water only ?

Because the water abounds in animalcules, which, although
invisible to the human eye, are visible to the eyes of fish,
and consumed by them as food.

1086. The necessity for frequently changing the water in which gold and silver
fish are confined is thus made obvious enough ; for if this precaution is neglected,
the fish being deprived of their- food must eventually die.

1087. Why do gold fishes kept in vases so frequently come to
the surface of the water ?

When the water becomes vitiated, the fishes come to the surface
to swallow air; after the air has been changed, they may be
observed to reject it again by a kind of eviction, and seek the
surface once more for a fresh supply ; so that in this way they are
enabled to alleviate the evil consequences which result from the
unhealthy state of their surrounding medium.

Sub-order II. — Anacanthina.

1088. Why are the fishes of the sub-order anacanthina so
called?

Because they are without the sharp spines which support the fins
*f other fishes ; these organs in the anacanthina being arranged

XATURAL HISTORY. 339

And o'er the ocean's crystal mirror,

Taught the unnumber'd scaly throng

To trace their liquid path along." — MOORE.

upon soft rays. The word is derived from a, "without," and
acantha, a " spine," or " thorn."

1089. These fishes also present a difference in the stracture of the air-bladder,
•which, instead of communicating with the throat by a duct, as is the case in the
physostomata, is here more completely closed, and there is no connection between
the anterior part of the bladder and the throat.

1090. Why have the sand-eel and the sand-launce a projecting
lower jaw ?

Because it is the habit of these fishes to bury themselves in the
sand, and by the sharpness and muscular power of the jaw, and the
slenderness of their bodies, they are able to bury themselves in wet
sand five or six inches deep with great rapidity.

1091. Why is the cod found in great abundance upon the
coast of Newfoundland ?

Because in that region there exist vast submarine mountains
upon which crustaceous and molluscous animals are abundant.
These constitute the natural food of tlie cod.

1092. Why does the skin of a sole act as a clearer for coffee ?

Because it contains a large proportion of albumen, which, being
driven from the skin by the action of hot water, afterwards
coagulates, and fixes and precipitates the floating grains of
coffee.

1093. Why are soles and other flat fish destitute of air
bladders /

Because, being bottom fish, and seldom elevating their range in
the water, they do not require an apparatus, the purpose of which
is to vary the specific gravity of the moving body.

1094. Why do dead fishes usually float ?

It appears to be a creative design that when these inhabitants of

840 THE REASON WHY :

" Here's a very fat carp, shall we dress you a brace ?
Would you chuse any soles, or a mullet, or plaice?" — CAMBRIDGE.

the deep die in any other manner than as prey to larger species,
they shall rise to the surface, and be presented as food to sea birds,
the scavengers of the sea.

The bodies of fishes are always so near to the specific gravity of
wa,ter, that the slightest development of gases in their tissues, which
would arise from the first stage of decomposition, brings them
to the surface.

1095. Why are bottom, or flat fishes, more commonly found
floating than others ?

Because, being occupants of the bottom of the sea, their bodies
half sunk in the earth, and, concealed by the unity of their colour
with that of the bed upon which they lie, they are less liable to be
preyed upon than other fishes.

The peculiar shape of their bodies is also a great protection to
them, since they cannot be swallowed whole, as is the case with
many fishes.

Larger numbers of flat fish, therefore, may be supposed to die
from natural causes than is common with other species. Hence
they are more frequently found floating dead than other kinds
of fish.

1096. VTny do soles swim upon their sides?

Because their eyes are placed upon one side only, by which,

being bottom fish, they are
able to lie upon the ground,
and look upward for their
prey. For a relative reason,
too, their upper sides are
dark, and of the colour of the
bed which they inhabit, while
their undersides are white.

NATURAL HISTORY. 341

" Of fishes— every size and shape,
Which nature frames of light escape,
Devouring man to shun."— SMART.

Sub-order III. — Pharyngonatha.

1097. Wl> y is the third sub-order designated pharyngonatha ?

The name is derived from pharynx, the pharynx, the muscular
fang at the back part of the mouth ; and gnathos, thc> jaw,
indicating that the pharyngeal bones are united.

1098. This sub-order includes an assemblage of fishes of diverse forms, in -which
there are both soft and spinous rayed ; the pharynxed bones of this sub-order are
completely united, so as to form a single bone, which is usually armed with teeth.
The air-bladder is always completely closed.*

1099. Why is the garfish usually called the mackerel guide ?

Because it commonly approaches the shore to spawn, a little
prior to mackerel doing so. Hence the popular idea that the
garfish guides mackerel to the shore.

1100. Why is the parrot fish so called?

Because of the peculiar hooked formation of its mouth, and
the brilliancy of its colours.

1101. Why has the parrot fish rounded jav;s and scale-
like teeth?

Because they browse on newly-formed layers of stony cora/s,
digesting the animal matter therein contained, and setting free the
carbonate of lime in a chalky state. Their jaws and teeth possess
immense strength.

Sub-order IV. — Acanthoptera.

1102. Why is the fourth sub-order called acanthoptera ?

From acanthos, a thorn, and pterygion, a fin, — meaning thcrn-
finned. One of the most distinguishing features of these fishes is,

• Orr's " Circle of the Sciences."

342

THE REASON WHY :

" The -west part of the land was high browed, much like the
head of a. gurnard."— HACKLUYT.

that the spinous rays of their fins constitute formidable defensive
weapons.

1103. The number of fishes belonging to this sub-order is exceedingly great, and
they present a considerable diversity of structure.

1104. Why do the spinous defensive weapons of fishes
turn backwards ?

Because their enemies at
tack them from, behind ; the
direction of the sharp spines
is therefore most efficient
for their protection.

1105. Why are the Indian gurnards called "flying fishes ?

Because, when pursued by the dolphin, or other large creature
of prey, they spring from, the sea, in which action their large
pectoral fins support them upon the air, in the manner of a para
chute. Their action, however, is not that of flying, but
springing from the sea,

1106. Why are the chcetodons remarkable for brilliancy
of colours ?

•,-.*, V%v IV

These are tropical fishes, and,
like other animals of the tropics,
remarkable for their beauty,
which may be attributed in this,
as in other instances, to the in
tense action of the sun, although
the nature of that action cannot
be explained.

The chsetodons have been
described as occupying a similar place in the tropical seas to

NATURAL HISTORY.

343

Thick in yon stream of light, a thousand ways,
Upward, and downward, thwarting, and convolv'd,
The quivering nations sport." — THOMSON.

those which parrots occupy in tropical forests : they even excel
the parrots in brilliancy while living. All the colours have a
metallic lustre, and though some of them are of one very intense
colour, as golden, yellow, ultra-marine, or rich bronze, when the
fish is at rest ; yet, when it moves, they are irridescent, and
sparkle with gem-like lustre. The chcetodon striatus is sometimes
called the zebra, on account of its beautiful stripes.

1108. What, peculiarity does the structure and habits of
globe fishes present ?

These fishes possess the power
of distending themselves into a
globular form, by inflating with air
a large sac contained in the
abdomen. When thus distended,
they float along the water with the
back downwards, swimming on
wards by means of their pectoral
fins. They are covered with a
series of large spines ; which are
raised up when the body is thus
inflated, so as to form a very
efficient means of defence.

Tax

1108. Why is the upper jaw of the sword-jish elongated into

blade-like weapon ?

The sword-fish inhabits seas where the monsters of the deep,

wliales, sharks, and throws abound Here these monsters battle

34<1 THE REASON WHY.

1 Straight as above the surface of the flood
They wanton rise, or, urg'd by hunger, leap,
Then fix, with gentle twitch, the barbed hook." — THOMSO

with each other ; and the sword-fish, being among the smaller of
the races, is armed with a weapon which makes him as formidable
as the larger and more powerful kinds.

1109. The sword-fish living, at least in part, upon the bodies of fishes larger than
itself, tises its formidable weapon to lacerate and divide their substance intc
convenient morsels.

The prolonged snout forms an excellent cut-water when the fish makes its arrow-
like darts through the water ; and the powerful tail is calculated to drive home the
\ccapjn with enormous force.

1110. Why is the "John Dory" so called?

This name evidently arises from a corrupt pronunciation of a
French term, designating the colour of the lighter parts of the fish,
which is yellow, with metallic reflections, and, ^therefore, styled
jaune doree, or golden yellow.

1111. Why are some fishes provided with an apparatus
resembling a boy's sucker?

Because, by pressing this organ against any surface they are
enabled to retain their hold without using teeth or fins ; and by
this means retain their position in the water at the same time
that they catch their food.

1112. The himp-fish fastens itself by an apparatus on the lower part of its body,

while the sucking-fish has a similar
provision on his back, by which it
attaches itself to the shark, or to
whatever is afloat, or the bottom of
ships. In the cuttle-fish there is to
be seen a modification of the same
kind of apparatus, which can be
turned by the animal in any direc
tion, either to fix itself or to drag
itself from place to place. There is
another fish, called the " Harlequin
angler." The appearance of this
fish is grotesque and singular; th«
pectoral fins resemble short arms, and are palmated at their tips. These fins art
converted into feet, and the fish has bet n known to live .hree days out of
«nd walk about like a dog.*

* Bell on the Hand.

S ATLT UAL HISTORY.

Cold welle streams, nothing dcde,

That swormmen full of smale fishes light,

With fimies red, and scales silver bright." — CHAUCER.

Sub-order V. — Lophobranchia.
1113. Wliy is the fifth sub-order named lophobranchia f

From lophon, a crest, and branchia, gills — meaning crest'
yilled.

1114. In the lophobranchia the gills are arranged in little tufts, disposed in pairs
along the branchial arches. The aperture f jr the exit of water is very small. The
body is elongated in its form, and covered with bony plates. The fins are imper
fectly developed. The bones of the face are prolonged, forming a snout. This
sub-order includes only a single family, composed of small fishes, of very
singular appearance.

1115. IVliy has the sea-horse a small pouch-like opening upon
its abdomen ?

In the course of the summer, this curious sac is filled with
eggs ; and at a later period, when the fry are hatched, they
continue for a time to seek shelter within this singular cavity.

1116. Mr. Yarrell describes this curious provision nearly us follows :—" The
male differs from the female in the belly, from the vent to the tail fin, being much
broader, and in having, for about two-thirds of its length, two soft flaps, which
fold together and form a pouch. They breed in summer, the females depositing
their roe in the pouches of the males.

1117. Why has the sea-horse* a pointed tail, destitute of the
usual Jin ?

It uses the long tapering tail
to support itself by twisting it round
the stems of sea-weed and other objects.
moving about slowly ainongst sea
weed, by a scries of undulations, feeding
upon minute Crustacea, worms, mol-
lusca, &c. As the creature cannot pur
sue its prey, a caudal fin would be of uo
utility ; the tail is therefore converted
into a kind of fulcrum, from which the
animal srrikes its prey.

* Hippocampus.

15*

346 THE REASON WHY :

And over all with scales was arm'd,

Like plated cote of steele, so couched neare

That nought mote perce." — SPENSKH.

Sub-order VI. — Plectognatha.
1118. Why is the sixth sub-order termed plectognatha ?

From plecto, to connect, and gnathos, a jaw — signifying that
the bones of the upper jaw and palate are connected with those
of the cranium.

1119. The head is large, the mouth small, and the gills so covered with skin and
muscles that only a small aperture is left for the exit of water employed in respira
tion. The body is usually short and stout, and covered with a thich rough skin, or
sometimes with bony plates.

1120. Why is the trunk-fish covered with a complete suit of
bony plates ?

These plates furnish to the trunk-fish a coat of armour analogous

to that worn by the arma-
dillo, and doubtless for
similar purposes. The body
is covered with plates, so as
to form a perfect coat of
armour, leaving only the tail,
fins, mouth, and a small
portion of the gill-opening, capable of motion, all of which move-
able parts pass through openings of the armadillo-like coat of mail,
the joints being protected and rendered flexible by a leathery

substance.

t

ORDER IV.— GANOIDEA.

1121. Why is the fourth order of fishes named ganoidea ?

From ganos, splendour, and edios, appearance. Of the remark
able fishes belonging to this order, very few exist at present in our
waters. But their fossil remains occur in abundance in almost all
the fossiliferous strata of the earth. They are divided into two
tub-orders :—

NATURAL HISTo RY . 347

From that clear space, where, in the cheerful ray
Of the warm sun, the scaly people play." — CRABBE.

Sub-order I. — Holostea.

1122. }Hiy is the first sub-order of tlie ganoidea called
kolostea f

From olos, the whole, and osteon, a bone, in reference to the
feet of their being covered with a suit of scales or bone.

Sub-order II. — Chondrostea.

1123. Why is the second sub-order of ganoidea called
uhondrostea ?

From chondros, a cartilage, and osteon, a bone, signifying
the gristly nature of the fish.

ORDER V.—SELACHIA.

1124. Why is the fifth order of fishes called selachia?

From selachos, a Greek common noun, signifying a gristly, or
cartilaginous fish.

The skeleton in the selachia is entirely of a cartilaginous nature. The skull
consists of a cartilaginous capsule, composed of a single piece without any
indications of suture. The structure of the jaws varies considerably. Thev are
divided into two sub-orders : —

Sub-order I. — Holocephala.

1125. Why is the first sub-order of selacia called holocephala?
From olos, whole, and cephale, head, meaning that the head ic

one entire piece or skull.

1 1 26. The holocephala are all oviparous, and their eggs, like those of the sharks
and rays, are enclosed in a strong, horny capsule.

Sub-order II. — Plagiostomata,

1127. Why is the second sub-order of selachia called plagiosto-
mata ?

From plagios, transverse or oblique, and stoma, inouth, in
reference to the oblique form of the inouth, which is always arched,
and contains numerous rows of teeth. The mouth is also wide, and

348

THE REASON WHY :

" Increasing still the terrors of those storms,
His jaws horrific arm'd with threefold fate,
Here dwells the direful shark. Lured by the scent
Of steaming crowds, of rank disease, and death." — THOMSON.

placed on the lower surface of the body at some distance from the
extremity of the snout.

1129. Why are sharks said to follow in the wake of ships
on board which there may be sick people ?

Sharks instinctively follow ships, with the object of picking
up refuse matters which are constantly being thrown overboard.

The well-known voracity of the shark — the manner in which it
seizes upon the body of man alive or dead — gives it an ominous
aspect when following in the wake of a ship having a sick crew.
And hence has arisen the popular error, that sharks follow ships,
waiting for dead bodies to be thrown overboard.

1130. Why have the eggs of sharks and
rays long filamentous processes attached
to them ?

For the purpose of attaching the eggs to
tea-weeds, so that they may not be damaged
by being beaten on the shores, nor preyea
upon by crustaceous animals. Each egg con
sists of a horny case, filled with a nutritious
fluid. The empty cases are frequently found
by the sea-side, and aje commonly called
mermaids' purses.

1131. Why have the rays, and kindred
fishes, long tails armed with spines?

These organs, as well as being used for
propulsion, are employed as weapons of
defence, and from the muscular strength of
the fish, are very formidable when seized or
terrified : its habit is to twist its long and
flexible tail round the, object of attack, and,
with the serrated spine, tear the surface,
lacerating it in an effective inanner.

NATURAL HISTORY. 349

" Had I like fish, with fins and gills, been made,
Then mi^ht I in your element have play'd ;
With ease have dived beneath your azure tide."— FAWKES.

MISCELLANEOUS.

1132. How is the breathing of fakes conducted?

The breathing of fishes takes place by gills. The water,
which is impregnated by atmospheric air, is taken in by the mouth,
and forced out again by the apertures on each side of the neck.
It is thus made to pass between the gills, which form a set of
comb-like vascular fringes, supported upon a system of bones
termed the branchical arches, and during this passage the air is
absorbed by the blood of the fish.

These fringes are generally four in number on each side, and
are attached by one extremity to an intermediate chain of bones
situated opposite the middle of the neck, behind the hyoid bone,
while by their opposite extremity they are joined by ligaments to
the under surface of the skull.

1133. Why is the flesh of fishes white?

Because the oxidized blood is chiefly confined to a few internal
organs, as the heart, liver, kidneys, lungs, arid gills ; the flesh
is consequently white and apparently bloodless.

1134. Why do fishes swallow their food hastily, and without
mastication ?

Because they are obliged unceasingly to open and close the
jaws for the purpose of respiration, and cannot long retain food
in the mouth when quite shut.

1135. Why are the teeth of fishes slightly curved inwards?
Because this form is best adapted for taking a firm hold of

prey, which is frequently alive, and which without such a pro
vision would, in its struggles, easily escape from the mouth of
the captor.

1136. W!AJ does a fish gasp violently when taken out of
the water ?

Because it endeavours to separate the gill filaments, by which

THE REASON WHY :

" See how she gasps, and struggles hard for life." — LLOYD.

it is supplied with breath, and which adhere together when
deprived of their natural element.

1136. Why are certain species of fish constituted to live for
period out of water '{

Because they inhabit ponds and streams in warm countries,
where, in many situations, there is an ample supply both of food
and water for fish during the rainy season; but a complete
deficiency of both when this is succeeded by a periodical drought.
Such receptacles can only be tenanted by fish which are fur
nished with the peculiar apparatus for keeping the gill -moist ; since,
when one pond or stream is dried up, they can migrate in search of
another. In the course of these journeys, they climb up steep
banks, and even trees ; and, by a remarkable instinct, they
seem always to travel to the nearest water.

1137. Why is that part of the fish's eyes known as the
crystalline lens, much rounder than in the eyes of the terrestrial
animals ?

Because the rays of light, in passing from water into the eye,
require to be refracted by a more convex surface than when it
passes out of air into the eye.

1138. As an illustration of the instances adduced here, of the adaptation of the flsh'a
eye to the medium in which it lives, we may observe that the power in the human
eye, for example, of drawing the pencil of rays to a focus, and producing an accurate
image upon the retina in the bottom of the eye, depends principally upon two circum
stances—the form of the cornea and
the convexity of the iens. That t'ae
cornea may produce this effect, it is
not only necessary that it should be
convex, as in fig. 1 , but that the rays
should enter it from a rarei medium.
As this cannot be effected in the water,
the lens or crystalline humour,
which is much denser than water, i§
brought into operation. In the eye of an animal living in the atmosphere, the lens

NATURAL HISTORY.

The sounds and seas, with all their finny drove,

Now to the moon in wavering morrice move." — MILTON.

is removed backwards, and resembles the optician's double convex lens ; but in the
fiijh it is a sphere, and being brought in contact with the transparent cornea, it
not only has the power to concentrate the rays of light coming through the water,
but by its altered position it increases greatly the sphere of vision (fig. 2). It
may be added that it is not exactly the cornea that is deficient in the fish, but tha
aqueous humour behind it. An aqueous fluid being thus both behind and befor»
the cornea, and that membrane being in a very slight degree thicker in the
centre than in the margin, this part of the organ which is so efficient in the atmo
sphere is rendered useless in water. A man diving, for example, sees imperfectly,
somewhat in the condition of an aged person who requires spectacles.

1139. Why does a fish lie with his head against the stream?

Because when a fish is situated with his head down the
stream, he is compelled to travel more rapidly than the waters,
or the latter will find its way into the gills, and, by becoming
stationary, suffocate him.

1140. A trout may be seen lying for hours stationary, while the stream is running
past him ; and it sometimes appears to remain so for whole days and nights. In
salmon-fishing the fly is played upon the broken water in the midst of a torrent,
and there the fish shows himself, rising from a part of the river where men could
not preserve their footing, though assisted by poles, or locking their arms
together.

1141. Why do the jack and stickleback keep up a continual
'motion of the fins nearest their gills ?

Because they frequent still shallows, and require the water to be
perpetually brought to their gills. In this case, the water does not
come of itself, and, therefore, the fish moves his pectoral fins con
tinually to create a perpetual change in the water, propelling
that which has already passed through the gills, bringing fresh iu
its place, and thus keeping up a constant current.

1142. Neither to the jack nor the stickleback does the motion appear to cause
any exertion ; it seems natural to them, and a distinct function apart from the
motion of the fins for swimming purposes. It is, in fact, somewhat analogous to
the perpetual motion of the heart, lungs, and internal viscera in the human
body.

THE REASON WHY :

" A man may fish with the worm that ha-;h eat of a kin^
and eat of the fish that hath fed of that worm."— SHAKSPERE.

1143. Why do fishes which swim vertically inhabit near ih<
surface, while those which swim horizontally keep to tht
bottom ?

The fish which swims on
edge has the tail much
more effectively formed as
a swimming organ, and the
fins much firmer, as well
as more produced ; they
are, therefore, rapid swim
mers, and rather discursive
in their motion. From
an opposite development,

fishes swimming on the flat of their bodies can only progress

slowly, and do not, on that account, range far.

1144. Why will a fsh which has broken away ivith a hook,
frequently take another hook immediately afterwards ?

Because the mouths of fishes are usually cartilaginous, and
furnished (at least in the part where the hook strikes) with few
nerves, or they are altogether absent. In such a case the fish
experiences little inconvenience from the presence of a hook, and
boldly strikes at a fresh bait.

1145. Sir Humphrey Davy says :— " I have caught pike with four or five hooks
in their mouths, and tackle which they had broken away with only a few minutes
before ; and the hooks seemed to have had no other effect than that of serving as a
sauce piquante, urging them to seize another morsel of the same kind."*

1146. IVhy do wounds in fish heal rapidly, and why do they
appear to he generally exempt from disease ?

Because the temperature of the medium in which they reside is
uniform, and they are consequently not subject to those alterations
of the atmosphere, which are a fruitful source rf morbidity te
other portions of the animal creation.

Salmonia.'

NATURAL HISTORY. 353

" Being moody, give him line and scope ; till that his
passions, like a whale on ground, confound themselves with
working." — SHAKSPERE.

1147. Why may a fish be "drowned" when leing "played"
ly an angler?

Because fishes breathe by passing water, which always holds
common air in solution, through their gills, by the use of a series
of muscles connected with them.

When a fish is hooked in the upper part of the mouth, it is
scarcely possible for him to set the muscles in action which
move the gills, while the rod is applied as a lever to the
line, so that no aerated water can be respired.

1148. A fish, hooked in a part of the mouth where the force of the rod will render
his efforts to respire unavailing, is much in the same state as that of a deer caught
round the neck by the lasso of a South American peon, who gallops forwards
dragging his victim after him, which is killed by strangulation in a very short
time. When fishes are hooked foul— thai is, on the outside of the body, as in the
fins or tail — they will often fight for many hours, and in such cases Tery largo
salmon are seldom caught, as they retain their powers of breathing unimpaired :
and if they do not exhaust themselves by violent muscular efforts, they may bid
defiance to the temper and the skill of the fisherman.*

1149. Why is the migration of fishes of great importance
to mankind 1

It is by these migrations that the blessings of fissh diet are
periodically bestowed upon the inhabitants of shores remote from
each other. If such fishes were constant residents in any one
locality, we might feed on them to satiety ; but, by a temporary
privation, we learn to estimate the value of the treat, and to
hope for the periodical return.

1150. Why do fishes generally spawn in shallow waters?
Because a certain degree of solar heat and light is necessary

for quickening the eggs into life ; and also because the young fry
are thereby protected from large fish.

1151. Why does the sea sometimes + exhibit a luminous
appearance ?

Because of the great numbers of medusa, or jelly animalculse,
which, being congregated in one part, under certain conditions
emit a phosphorescent light.

* " Salmoiiia."

354 THE REASON WHY!

Order is Heaven's first law ; and, this confess'd,
Some are, and must be, greater than the rest." — POPE.

1152. Wliy does the sea contain a certain proportion of
saline matter?

These saline matters have the effect of raising the freezing point,
and diminishing the tendency to give off vapours ; and, also,
because it renders the water more buoyant, and thus makes it
better fitted to support the animals which it contains.

[The Author finds himself reluctantly compelled to omit the
various Orders comprising the Division MOLLUSCA. Tlie Entomo
logical series alone would supply matter for a highly interesting
volume ; and in the Jiope that he may be soon able to present such
a work to his readers, the Author will close his present labours,
with a few questions of leading application.]

1153. Why has every race of animals its appointed enemy,
or enemies ?

Because birth, life, and death, constitute the order of nature
appointed by a Divine Being. This order established, it may be
accepted that the Infinite Wisdom whose works exhibit such
marvellous adaptation and perfection, has chosen the best means
to a necessary end. The death of an animal, as the prey of an
appointed superior, is doubtless a more rapid and painless process
than we, with a dread of death, conceive.

1154. Paley reasons upon this proposition in a conclusive manner: — " Perha-ps
there is no species of terrestrial animals whatever, which would not overrun the
earth if it were permitted to multiply in perfect safety ; or of a fish which would
not fill the ocean : at least, if any single species were left to their natural increase
without disturbance or restraint, the food of other species would be exhausted by
their maintenance.

"It is necessary therefore, that the effects of such prolific faculties be curtailed.
In conjunction with other checks and limits, all subservient to the same purpose,
tre the thinnings which take place among animals by their action upon one another.
In some instances, we ourselves experience, very directly, the use of thcso hos
tilities. One species of insects rids us of another species, or reduces their ranks ; a
third species, perhaps, keeps the second within bounds ; and birds or lizards are a
fence against the inordinate increase by which even these might infest us."

To this may be added, that MAN alone appears to be without a natural cn^my,
gifted \vith a special instinct and an organization intended to effect his conuue^.

NATURAL HISTORY.

355

Cease, then, nor order imperfection name :

Our proper bliss depends on what we blame." — POPE.

The web of the spider is a beautiful contrivance, evidently designed to ensnare flies.
The scent by which the stoat pursues the rabbit ; the teeth with which the former
perforates the neck of its victim, and the instinct which guides it to attack the
neck, are three special means bestowed for a given end. The gaping mouths of
swallows and night-jars are manifestly conceived for the purpose of capturimg
insects in the most certain manner. Although man is born the most defenceless of
all creatures, there is not a single animal gifted with an instinct to pursue him,
and armed icith weapons adapted to give effect to that instinct. The elephant, the
lion, and the tiger, although endowed with strength by which they could imme
diately crush him, all retire from and avoid his presence, unless he trespasses upon
their haunts, or they are driven to extremities of rage or hunger by restraints which
he imposes upon them. Regarded as enemies to man, their armatures are too
formidable : the tusks of the elephant, and the talons or teeth of the lion and tiger,
might be dispensed with, and they would still be immensely his superiors in the
balance of natural powers. Even the vermin that sometimes surround and annoy
man, are the enemies of his negligence and vices, and not of himself. On the
contrary, the whole of the animal creation, in some form or other, are friends of
man, and contributors to his need.

1155. TABLE OF THE FECUNDITY OF VARIOUS ANIMALS.

Bears
Elephant .
Hippopotamus

1
1
1

Wren .
Fish.

10 to 16
Eggs at a spawning.
205,000

Leopard
Lion

2 to 4
2 to 4

Codfish

, . 3,686,000

Rhinoceros.
Birds.

1

Eggs at a sitting.

Flounders
Herring .
Mackerel
Perch .

, . . 1,357,000
36,000
. MG.OOO
28,000
49,000

Eagle

2 to 3

81,000

Falcon

2 to 4

Smelt

38,000

Fowl (domestic)

. 6 to 20

Sole

100,000

Hawk. . .
Owl

2 to 4
2 to 6

Tench .

. 383,000

Partridge .
Pheasant

14 to 20
. .. 10 to 20
4 to 6

Insects.

Eggs in a season.
10,000

2 to 5

2,000

Stork .

2 or 3

House-fly

. 20,000,000

In five generations one aphis may produce 5,000,000,000, and there are 20
generations in a year. The numbers are beyond calculation.

1156. Why does the duration of life of different tribx
greatly vary ?

The longevity of eninial races appears to be in the inverse
ratio of their fecundity. The wisdom of this arrangement i«

356

THE REASON WHY :

NO MORE THE PATHS OF MISTY DOUBT I TROD I
MY REASON SAW, MY SOUL CONFESSED, A GOD I '

apparent : if musquitoes and locusts prolific as they are, were
appointed to live from a quarter to half a century, in spite of all
existing natural checks, they would render every other form of
existence impossible. If lions and tigers, living for. half a century,
and possessed of enormous powers, were to multipy as rapidly as
insects, they would overrun creation, unless, indeed, they
destroyed each other.

1157. TABLE OF THE LIFE PERIODS OF VARIOUS ANIMALS.

Ass, from " . . .

Years.
25 to 50

Years.
14 to 23

Antelope . . . .

16 to 18

60

Bee (female) ....

4

Llama ...

15

Bear

20

Lynx

16

Beetle

Blackbird .

50
1 to 4

10 to 12

Mar gay . . . .

10
16 to 17
16 to 18

Blackcap ....

15
10

Nightingale
Ocelot

16 to 18
16 to 19

Bull
Camel, from .

30
50 to 60

Ox employed in agriculture

It

100

Canary, if it does not couple
Carp, from ....
C'lt

24
100 to 150

18

Peacock ....
Pelican ....

24
Ifl to 50
15

Chaffinch . . • .

20 to 24

20

Chamois ....
Civet cat .

25
12 to 14

Pike, sometimes more than

100
30

Cod

14 to 17

g to 9

Cow sometimes more than .

20

12

24

Raven ....

\00

Cray-fish . . . .

20

16

Crocodile ....

100
100

Rhinoceros.
Redbreast ....

20
10 tc 12

20

Salmon ....

10

30

Scorpion. ...

23 to 28

Serval ....

16 to IS

Eel

10

10

Eagle
Ephemera (from egg to imago)
Ephemera (as a perfect fly)

100
3

Skylark ....
Sparrow-hawk . .

10 to 30
40
1

2 or 3

7

Ehcmera (other kinds) hours.

2 or 3

150 to 200

Stag, under

50
10 tc 12

15

10)

10

Tench .

10

Goat ....

10

Thrush . .

8 to 10

Goldfinch ....

10 to 16

5' >

Tiger and Leopard .

25
16 to 18

7 to 8

Titlark .

5 to 6

60

Toad ...

20 to 30

20

100

Horse

25 to 30

6 to 7

Hyenas ....

25 to 30
25

Wheatear ....
Wolf ....

2
20

Lark .....

16 to 18

Wren

2 to 3

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ety of Curious Deceptions, which may be performed witii tue aid of simple appa
ratus ; the whole illustrated and clearly explained,, with 121 engravings. Paper

covers, price 30 tts.

Bound in boards, with cloth back 5O cts.

TIOOK OF RIDDLES and 500 Home Amuse-

-"-* twills. Containing a Choice and Curious Collection of Riddles, Charades,
Enigmas, Rebuses, Anagrams, Transpositions, Conundrums, Amusing Puzzles,
Queer Sleights, Recreations in Arithmetic, Fireside Games, and Natural Magic, em
bracing Entertaining Amusements in Magnetism, Chemistry, Second Sight, and
Simple Recreations in Science, for Family and Social Pastime, illustrated with sixty

engravings. Paper covers, price 30 1 1 -;.

Bound in boards, with cloth back 50 cts»

BOOK OF 500 CURIOUS PUZZLES. Contain-

ing a large collection of Entertaining Paradoxes, Perplexing Deceptions in
Numbers, and Amusing Tricks in Geometry. Illustrated with a great variety of en
gravings. This book will have a large Bale. It will furnish fun and amusement for

a whole winter. Paper covers, price 3O cts.

Bound in boards, with cloth back 5O cts.

YALE COLLEGE SCRAPES ; or, How the Boys Go It
at New Haven. Containing accounts of all the famous " Scrapes " and " Sprees,"
of which students of old Yale have been guilty for the last quarter of a century.
>rice... 35 cts.

Send Cash Orders to DICK & FITZGERALD, New Yorlt.

Popular Books sent Free of Postage at the Prices annexed.
HHHE TWELTE DECISIVE BATTLES OF THE

•*- WAR. A History of the Eastern and Western Campaigns, in relation to the
actions that decided their issue. By WILLIAM SWINTON, author of " The Campaigns
of the Army of the Potomac." Illustrated by seven steel engravings of Generals
Grant, Sherman, Sheridan, McClellan, Meade, Rosccrans and Thomas ; with nine
beautiful maps of battle. 520 pages, octavo. Bound in extra cloth, beveled

edge, price $3 50

Half call', marbled edge $6 CO

HHHE MODERN POCKET HOYLE. Containing all the

-*- Games of Skill and Chance as played in this country at the present time, being
" an .authority on all disputed points." By "TECMPS." This valuable manual is
all original, or thoroughly revised from the best and latest authorities, and includes
the laws and complete directions for playing one hundred and* eleven different
Games, comprising Card Games, Chess, Checkers, Dominoes, Backgammon, Dice.

Billiards, and all tJo 1'icld Games. 18mo., 388 pp. Paper cover, price 5O tig.

Bound in boards, clotii back 75 cts.

Bound ia cloth, gilt side and back .31 25

TEST'S ORIGINAL LETTER-WRITER. A com-

-*- plete collection of Original Letters and Notes, upon erery imaginable subject
of Every-Day Life, with plain.directions about everything connected with writing a
Letter. Containing Letters of introduction, Letters on Business, Letters answering
Advertisements, Letters of Recommendation, Applications for Employment, Letters
of Congratulation, of Condolence, of Friendship and Relationship, Love-Letters,
Notes of Invitation, Notes accompanying Gifts, Letters of Favor, of Advice, and
Letters of Excuse, together with an appropriate answer to each. The whole embrac
ing tiiree hundred letters and notes. By S. A. FROST, author of " The Parlor Stage,"
" Dialogues for Young Folks," etc. To which is added a comprehensive Table of
Synonyms alone worth double the price asked for tae book. Bound in boards, cloth
back, with illuminated sides, price 5O cts.

WORTH'S BOOK OF LOVE-LETTERS. With directions

•*-' how to write them and when to use them, and 120 specimen Letters, suitable
for Lovers of any age and condition, and under all circumstances, interspersed with
the author's comments thereon. The whole forming a convenient Hand-book of
valuable information and counsel for the use of those who need friendly guidance
and advice ia matters of Love, Courtship and Marriage. By INGOLDSBY NORTH.

Bound ia cloth, price. 7 5 cis.

Bound ia boards 50 cts

HOW GAMBLERS WIN; or, The Secrets of Advantage
Playing Exposed. Being a complete and scientific expose of tiie manner of
playing all tiie "various advantages ia the Games of Potter, All-Fours, Euchre,
Vingtun, Whist, Cribbagc, etc., as practiced by professional gamblers on the un
initiated, together with a, brief analysis of legitimate play. By a Retired Profession
al. This little work is designed as a warning to the unwary, and a caution to self-
confident card-players. 16ino. , paper cover, price 3W cts.

Bound ia boards, with cloth back 5O cts.

FINGER POST TO PUBLIC BUSINESS.

Containing the mode of forming and conducting Societies, Clubs and other
Organized Associations ; full Ilules of Order for the government of their debates
and business ; complete directions how to compose Resolutions, Reports and
Petitions ; and the manner of managing Conventions, Public Meetings, Celebrations,
Dinners, Barbecues and Picnics; Models of Constitutions for Lyceums, Institutes
and other Societies. With rules of Cricket, Baso Ball, Shinny, Quoits, Yachting
and Rowing, and Instructions concerning Incorporations, Rules' for Debating and
the Composition and Delivery of Public Addresses, together with other valuable
matter. By aa Ex-Member of the Philadelphia Bar. 12nio., cloth, price $1 5O

"FROST'S BOOK OF TABLEAUX. Containing one

-"- hundred and sixty Tableaux Vivants, with directions for arranging the stage,
costuming the characters, and forming appropriate groups. By S. ANNIE FROST.
Author of " The Parlor Stage," " Amateur Theatricals," etc. To those who desire
to get up an evening's entertainment, this book will prove an invaluable assistant.

Paper covers, price 3O cts.

Bound m boards, cloth back 5O cts.

Send Cusli Orders to DICK & F1TZGERAJLD, New York.

The reason

why

foOV 9 1936

935180

BIOLOGY
UBRARY

8

THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY

m