GIFT OF W. H. Ivie ^ t. I tr WU THE REASONS-WHY: NATURAL HISTORY. Giving: Reasons for Hundreds of Interesting- Facts in connec- tion with. Zoology ; and throwing- Lag-lit upon the Pe- culiar Habits and Instincts of the Various Orders of the Animal Kingdom. BY THE AUTHOR OF ''•MI; HIBUCAL REASON WHY ;" " THE REASON WUY : GENERAL SCTENCB ;" *' i Wirui.v ;" l THAT'S IT : OR, PLAIN TEACHING ;*' " TIIE CORNER (.'.urmuKD ;" ETO. ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS. We proceed here by the luduct.ive Process, taking nothing on trust, nothing for granted, but reasoning upwards from the meanest fact established, and making every step sure before going one beyond it — like the engineer in his approaches to a fortress. We thus gain, ultimately, a roadway, a ladder, by which even a Child may, almost without knowing it, ascend to the summit of Truth, and obtain that immensely wide and extensive view which is spread beneath the feet of the aston- ished beholder. NEW YORK: DICK & FITZGERALD, PUBLISHERS, No. 18 ANN STREET. ( BIOLOGY LIBRARY G Ctf red According to Act of Congress in the year I860 V- DICK & FITZGERALD, IB U.M Cleric's Office of the District Court of the United States for ie SauUiern District of New York. GJFT OF PUBLISHER'S PREFACE. THE series of POPULAR INFORMATION volumes so happily introduced to the great public under the general title of THE REASON WHY, has met, through- out, with such a flattering reception, that the present valuable addition to it, might well present itself sans all preliminaries. Relieved, therefore, from the propitiatory embarrassments common to most prefaces, we feel at liberty to point out that " THE REASON WHY — NATURAL HISTORY " differs materially from all other works on the same subject, and will be found to depart very agreeably, in its main characteristics, from that ideal of it which the mind of the reader would naturally set up in advance. In other words, it is not a dry, formal disquisition, on animated nature, (like many useful things, very excellent and very insipid,) but a chatty, sociable, entertaining combination of scientific facts, with illustrative anecdotes, clothed in language that the ordinary reader will readily understand, and made piquant to the rudest taste, by a copious commentary in the shape of pictorial accompaniments. It will have been observed that THE REASON WHY, in all its phases of instruction, (In " THE BIBLICAL REASON WHY," for instance, in " INQUIRE WITHIN," in " THAT'S IT, or PLAIN TEACHING," and so on,) has made it a special endeavor to so combine mental amusement with mental education, that the most indifferent to the acquisition ol knowledge might be tempted into the pathways of learning, and discover themselves eagerly gathering the flowers of wisdom while fancying that they culled for pastime, a few blossoming weeds of quaint attractiveness. That endeavor has resulted in a success exceeding all anticipation, and has bestowed on THE REASON WHY a popularity surpassing its author's most extravagant estimate. This NATURAL HISTORY sequence has been prepared with a careful eye to the same acceptable peculiarity. It is free from everything calculated to shock the most delicate sensibility. It contains not a line to which the rigid purist can take exception. It sedulously avoids all sectarian, as well as all sectional differences of opinion. It treats the harmonies of nature in their manifold varieties of form and animation, with an amiable conservatism admirably in unison with the subject ; and it accomplishes its purpose with an engaging seductiveness that is irresistibly effective. PREFACE. " THE REASON WHY— NATURAL HISTOIIY," will particularly commend itself to most readers by the conversational freedom of its style— by the bold pertinence of some of its questions, and the frank, straightforwardness of its answers. It will thus b« seen that it is not a mere compilation of the arid facts of naturalists, or a drowsy catechism of the wonders of this branch of creation ; it is, on the contrary, a lively table-talk, as it were, between an eager, observant, curious inquirer, and a gossippy friend thor- oughly informed upon every point on which his friend is probing for en- lightenment and entertainment. Besides the grand basis, therefore, of acknowledged scientific truths relative to the higher order of animal life, (for the author has been compelled to crowd Entomology out of this work, and reserve it for a future volume,) THE REASON WHY — NATURAL HISTORY, gives us a vast accumulation of interesting facts from the private storehouse of current experience. The interrogatories are just those which an inquisitive student would be likely to put to his instructor in obedience to the sugges- tions of the text ; but, they are consequently those to which, in numberless instances, no work extant could furnish him with a satisfactory reply. He could obtain that reply from nothing but the practical knowledge of one familiar with the every day details, as well as the less common-place class of information on the subject. In this volume, all he seeks is grouped before him. The mental food he craves is prepaied to his hand, seasoned to his taste, and exquisitely fitted to his moral digestion. With this brief allusion to the nature of THE REASON WHY in its connec- tion with NATURAL HISTORY, the publishers leave it to the judgment of tho reader, confident of the lather's gratification, as well as of the merits of the work. The most erudite of us need, at times, a brushing up of the nap of that old familiar knowledge which, little by little, gets trodden down by the foot of tune, almost out of sight. The less fortunate require a convenient grasp at such knowledge, to atone for early inexperiences. The thoughtless may be amused by it into larger views of life. The philosopher will love it as a lesson in non-polemical theology ; for he knows that : " All are but parts of one stupendous whole, "Whose body Nature is, and God tho uouL" PREFACE. THE present volume of THE REASON WHY is calculated to give not merely an increased interest, but a new application, to the science of Natural History. The old system of study compre- hended merely a description of the external form, geographical habitation, and distinguishing habits, of individual species. The interest of the subject mainly rested upon anecdotes of animal sagacity or ferocity, and the perils of adventure into the wilds of nature. Few writers had ventured to inquire into reasons for the peculiarities of animal forms, or to seek Creative Design in their wonderful diversity, and mutual relations. In order to bring together the large number of reasons now presented to the reader, the Author has had to wade through numerous volumes, in many cases with a barren result. The works that have been found productive are enumerated in the accompanying Jist of authorities. Among those therein-mentioned, PALEY'S NATURAL THEOLOGY, DERHAM'S PHYSICO-THEOLOGY, and PARTINGTOX'S CYCLOPAEDIA, merit the most marked and grateful acknowledgment. It must not, however, be supposed that The Reason Why of Natural History is a mere compilation. The Author has from boyhood been a close observer of the habits of animals, and both upon sea and land he has delighted to endeavour to interpret Nature's works. Hence the conception of the plan of this volume, and the diversity — perhaps boldness — of the questions asked. The Author begs it to be understood that the limits of this volume, and the abundant matter supplied by the higher orders of animal life, left no space for the interesting facts of Entomology. It is probable that at some future time a volume may be added to the Reason Why Series, in which that branch of Natural History will be fully treated. The Author cannot do better than conclude this brief introduction by quoting from the British Quarterly Review some admirable sentiments perfectly relevant to the contents of ihe volume, and, indeed, to the REASON WHY Series : — VI PREFACE. " The argument from design, as commonly presented, is cumu- lative, it is an induction from a multitude of particulars. Every science furnishes its quota of materials, and every fresh step in discovery, if it cannot make the conclusion more certain, adds new splendour to the illustrations of it. Every being with which we are conversant, — every limb and fragment of every being,— every atom composing those fragments — is found to bear on it the stamp of purpose, — the very autograph of mind. It is a means or an end, or both means and end. " But the argument does not rest here. Innumerable particular instances irresistibly indicate mind as the agency at work in the universe. Starting from this conclusion, the argument take:? a wider and loftier range ; and on a contemplation of the com- bined phenomena of nature, the conclusion is irresistible, that all is the work of one mind. Harmony and analogy pervade nature. Part answers to part, so as inevitably to suggest the belief of a mighty whole. Many subordinate -purposes are found combining as means to the fulfilment of some higher purpose. As each being ascends in the scale of creation, it is seen multiplying its points of analogy and harmony with the rest of nature ; absorbing into itself a greater number of subordi- nate purposes, and rendering them subservient to its own ends. The question cannot but arise, where does this progression reach its limit 1 Are the harmonies which so widely obtain in nature, after all, but partial, to be supplanted on a wider acquaintance by discord or utter independence ; or do not all the parts of nature, number- less and widely scattered as they are, constitute one vast and accordant whole ? "These widely and subtilly interwoven analogies and corres pondences, and this scale of purpose, narrowing as it ascends, do they not clearly indicate that the whole is built upon one plan, and pervaded by a single purpose — TeAos^vptwrarov — to which all the rest are subordinate, and in which creation finds its unity, destiny, and reason? " And if so, What is that purpose ? This stupendous universe cannot be a mere disjointed maze of particular contrivance, — a labyrinth of worlds leading nowither, — a boundless temple, without altar, service, or in-dwelling Deity The purpose we are in search PREFACE. 711 of must exist ; and nowhere can it be conceived to exist but in the 'Creator.' The depth saith, 'It is not in me.' The heavens declare not their own, but their Maker's glory ; ' for all are his servants.' All lower ranks of being look up to man ; but man himself looks up, demanding by the entire constitution of hie being, some end beyond and above himself, and is by nature a worshipper. And when his ear is opened to hear the response given to his questionings by the very loftiest ranks of spiritual creatures, that response is one echoed from every region and limit of the material universe, — ' Thou art worthy, 0 Lord, to receive glory, and honour, and praise ; for thou hast created ell tilings, and for thy pleasure they are and were created."' LIST OF AUTHORITIES CONSULTED AND QUOTED IN THB REASON WHY NATURAL HISTORY. Bailey's Habits of the Fish Bechstein's Cage Birds. Bell on the Hand. Bell's British Reptiles. Bell's British Crustacea. Broclerip's Leaves from the Note Book of a Naturalist. Buckland's Curiosities of Natural Buffon's Natural History. [History. Burnett's The Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God. Carpenter's Physiology. (Palmer's Power, Wisdom, and Good- ness of God. Conversations on the Human Frame. Couch's Illustrations of Instinct. Crompton's Birds, Fishes, and Insects. Cross's Physiology of Human Nature. Cuvier's Animal' Kingdom. Davis's Naturalist's Practical Guide. Davy's Salmonia. Davy's Researches. Dixon's Domestic Poultry. Donovan's Natural History of British Insects. Donovan's Natural History of British Quadrupeds. Eflwards's Influence of Physical Agents. Elliotson's Human Physiology. Encyclopaedia Metropolitana. Fonnell's Natural History of Quadrupeds. Garratt's Marvels and Mysteries of Instinct. Goldsmith's Animated Nature. Gosse's Life in its Lower Grades. Henfrey's Natural History. Hoeven's Handbook of Zoology. Hewitt's Calender of the Seasons. Jardine's Naturalist's Library. Jesse's Gleanings from Natural History. Karr's Tour round my Garden. Kidd's Adaptation of "External Nature. Kirke's Handbook of Physiology. Kirby and Spence's Entomology. Lee's Elements of Natural History. Lcwes's Seaside Studies. London's Domestic Pets. I ardner's Animal Physiology. Latham's Varieties of Man. Lord's Popular Physiology. Laurence's Lectures on Comparative Anatomy. Magazine of Natural History. Magendie's Elementary Compendium. Martin's Birds and Domestic Fowls. Maunder's Treasury of Natural History. Mudie's Feathered Tribes. Natural History for Young People. Nuttall's Ornithology. Orr's Circle of the Sciences. Owen's Basis of Natural History. Paley's Natural Theology. Partington's Cyclopaedia. Penny Cyclopaedia. Philosophy of Common Things. Physiology of Health. Pliny's Natural History. Pritchard's Natural History of Man. Rennie's Bird Miscellanies. Rennie's Bird Architecture. Smellie's Philosophy of Natural History. Smith's Natural History of the Human Species. Stanley's Familiar History of Birds. St. Pierre's Studies of Nature. Swainson's Natural History of Quadrupeds. Swainson's Natural History of Birds. Swainson's Habits and Instincts of Animale. Swainson's Natural History of Fishes. Swainson's Natural History of Insects. Twining's Short Lectures. Universal Powers of Nature. Ward's Natural History of Mankind. Waterton's Essays on Natural History. Waterton's Wanderings in South America. Wesley's Compendium of Natural Philosophy. White's History of Selborne. Wilson's Diseases of the Skin. Wilson's Ornithology. Wonders of the Human Frame. Wonders of Organic Life. Yarrcll's History of British Birds. Yarrell's History of British Fishes. Youatt on the Horse. Youatt on the Sheep. Youatt on the Dog. INDEX. The numbers, except where othcncise indicated, refer to the Questions. A key to the pronunciation of scientifie and uncommon terms is supplied by the Index, Acanthoptera, a-knn-thop'-fer-a, why is the first sub-order of fishes so called 1102 Accipetres, ack-sip'-e-t*rs, why the first order of birds so called ... 647 Agama, why has it the power of inflating its body 1016 Age, why is the human body hard and angular when old 39 Ai, a'-i, why so called 403 Alligator, why, so called 1012 American, why the race so called 5 Amphibia 164 Amphibia, nm-fib'-e-o, why is the fourth order of reptiles s*o called 1026 Anacanthina, an-a-kan-thy'-na, why is the sub-order of fishes so named 1088 Anchovies, what are they 1061 Animal bcdies, why the variation of most common in the centre 16 Animals, why classified by na- turalists 161 Animals, why clo some undergo a state of torpor 628 Animals, why has every race its appointed enemies 1153 Animal*, table of their fecundity... 1155 Animals, why does their duration of life vary 1156 Animals, table of their life-periods 1157 Ant-eater, American, why such a long snout and protrusive tongue 422 Ant-eaters, how are the glands of, furnished 423 Ant-eaters, why of great import- ance in nature 424 Ant-hills, description of 425 Apes, how are they distinguished from jaboons and monkeys ... 172 Arm, how are its motions per- formed 63 Armadillo, ar-»iar-dil'-lo, why is it so called 416 Armadillo, how is its form pecu- liarly adapted to its mode of life 417 Armadillo, how is it able to cap- ture ants, although it is unpro- vided with an extensile tongue 418 Armadillos, why has the number of, increased in the colonies ... 419 Armadillos, why do Indians ascer- tain the presence of, by the movements of musqui toes ... 420 Articulata, ar-te-ku-lay'-ta, how classified 165 Ass, why better kept on commons than in pastures 501 Ass, why is the milk of, best for invalids 502 Aves, a'-vees 164 Avocet, a-po'-set, why is its bill shaped like a scoop 903 Badgers, why eiTonoous to sup- pose that they burrow into graves and devour bodies ... 239 Badger, why is the female more careful than the male in burrowing ... 240 Badgers, narrative of two, in a state of confinement 241 Badger-hunting, why an amuse- ment of former times 242 Badger, modes adopted of taking 243 Barbel, why so called 1076 Barbel, why is the first ray of its dor al flu deeply sei rated ... 1077 Barbel, why has it four wattles on its lower jaw 1078 Barbel, why do small fish attend it 1079 Bats, why not classed with birds 185 Bats, why are the wings of, hooked 186 Bats, why do they conceal them- selves during day 187 Bats, why do they fly by night ... 189 Bats, why have their wings nerves 188 Bats, use of 190 Bats, why do they hybernate ... 191 Bats compared with moles ... 194 Beagles, why they have large heads ... 264 Bears, why have they an awkward gait 235 Bears, why are they good climbers 236 Bears, why uninjured in exposed places .. .. 237 Bears, why do they easily stand upright " ... "... ." 238 INDEX. Boasts of prey, why do they roar before they spring on their victim 215 Beavers, why have they remark- ably broad and thin tails ... 375 Peavers, why are their tails with- out fur 376 Beavers, why are their incisor teeth remarkably developed ... 377 Beavers, the pcculiai habits of ... 378 Beavers, why are the hind feet better adapted for swimming than the front 379 Beavers, why do they build their dams straight and oblique ... 380 Beaver-hats, why called " castors " 381 Bee-eaters, why so called 793 Behemoth, be-h&-mo1h, of scrip- ture, identity with the hippo- potamus 454 BelicU'ns, /xWy'-rf/'ns, why does the long tailed, seldom descend to the '"round 346 Bima:-ia, bi-n a'-na 167 Bimana, *hy man only included in the order 168 Birds, insectivorous, uses of ... 220 Birds, why is the second order called incessores 684 Birds, why is the third order called scansores 694 Birds, why is the fifth order called gyratores 833 Birds, why is the fifth order called rasores 854 Birds, why is the sixth order called cursores 874 Birds, why is the seventh order called grallatores 888 Birds, why is the eighth order called natatores 918 Birds, why the first order called accipetres 647 Birds of prey, why they build their nests upon rocks 648 Birds of prey, why the legs and thighs of, are shorter than those of others 649 Birds of prey, why destitute of song 651 Birds of prey, why some destined to eat carrion 653 Birds of prey, instance of their voracity 654 Birds, why the eyes of those which prey by night are larger than those of others 672 Birds of paradise, why so called .. 765 Birds of paradise, A*hy supposed to ba suspended in air 766 Birds of paradise, plumage of ... 767 Birds of paradise, how is the pro- fuse plumage of, useful 768 Birds, why do thej swallow stones, shells, gravel, &c. 855 Birds, action of their digestive organs 856 Birds, how do gallinaceous, re- 6ciubk> ruminating animals ... 857 Birds, why do gallinaceous, lay ard hatch upon the ground ... 859 Birds, why are the legs of gallina- . ceous, soon developed 860 Birds, why do short-tailed throw their legs behind when flying ... 892 Birds, why have fish-eaters no crop 893 Birds, why are their pecks long and moveable 994 Birds, peculiarities in the bills of 906 Birds, why are aquatic, able to emerge from water perfectly dry 923 Birds, why do the old ones precede the young ones in migration ... 943 Birds, by what circumstance is their migration governed ... 944 Birds, why, when flying in flocks, do they arrange themselves into a triangular body 946 Birds, why do those, which take long flights, fly high 947 Birds, why have those, which winter out of England, black down under their feathers ... 949 Birds, why are those, brought to England from distant regions hard-billed 951 Birds, why have some, extremely hard bills ... 952 Birds, why do they lay eggs ... 953 Birds'-eggs, why do they contain white and yolk 954 Birds'-eggs, incubation of, de- scribed 955 Birds, why have young ones a hard scaly substance on their beaks... 956 Birds' egg, description of the shell 957 Birds, why can recently hatched chicks exist without food ... 958 Birds' eggs, why does the number vary 960 Birds, why do they select silk, cotton, wool, fur, &c., for nests 961 Bird's nests, how built and pre- pared 962 Birds' nests, why are their ma- terials varied 964 Birds' nest*, why are some warmer than others 965 Birds, why will they hesitate if observed while building nests . . . 967 Birds, why do some, require the parents' care longer than others 969 Birds, why do the male parents evince an exceptional fondness for their offspring 970 Birds, structui-e of their heads and ' necks 995 Birds, why does the breast-bone form an important part of their organization 996 Birds, why is the gizzard an im- portant organ 998 Birds, why do they moult ... 1000 Birds, why are the smaller species numerous and widely diffused... 972 Birds, why have they distinct voices ... ... ... ... 974 Bilds, why is the' j'lumagc of INDEX. Xl females more sombre than of males ............ 976 Birds, why is their plumage som- bre when young ......... 977 Birds, what provision is illustrated in the disposition of their feathers ............ 979 Birds, how is their varied plumage accounted for ......... 980 Birds, how do they maintain a standing position ......... 982 Birds, why do many roost upon one leg ............ 984 Birds, why do their beaks indicate their peculiar food ...... 985 Birds, why are their eyes adapted to any range of sight ... 987 Birds, why does their hearing mainly depend upon the internal structure of the organ ...... 989 Birds, why do they perch with their faces to the wind ...... 990 Birds, how are they able to sleep securely when perched on the branches of trees ......... 992 Bison, why able to use its horns with more effect than the ox... 530 Bittern, whv are its habits little known " ............ 914 Bittern, mode of squatting de- scribed ............ 915 Bleak, why called the water- swallow ............ rO'^1 Bleeding, why when the operation is performed, are the veins bound ............ 77 Blindness, a person cured of ... 118 Blindness, sensibility of touch in cases ............... 157 Blood, how formed ......... 69 Blood, the composition of ...... 70 Blood, how circulated and puri- fied ............... 71 Blood, illustration of the heart's action ............ 72 Blood, why so important an agent in animal economy ...... 73 Blood, the circulation of ...... 74 Bloodshot, why does the eye become ... ... ... ... 128 Bloodhounds, why efficacious in the pursuit of fugitives ...... 2G6 Bodies, animal, why they vary most in the centre ... ... 16 Bones, why covered with perios- teum ............. 43 Bones, the distinct and mutual uses of ... ... ... ... 45 Bones, softness of, in infancy ... 46 Bones, cylindrical ......... 47 Bones, why do they not touch... 57 Bones, why covered with cartilage 67 Bower-bird, why so called ... 692 Bower-bird, habits of ...... 693 Bruin, the composition of ... 89 Brain, functions of the gieat and 90 B i' > wh> not injured movement <>f the spine .. the Breathing, why it causes the chest to heave ... ... ... ... 86 Breathing, offices of the ribs and diaphragm ............ 87 Buffaloes, why the horns of, are useful to the animal ...... 523 Bull-frog, how does it produce a noise ............... 1030 Butcher-bird, why so called ... 689 Camel, difference between it and the dromedary ... ... ... 513 Camel, why so called ...... 544 Camel, why is its neck long and flexible ............ 516 Camel, why is the formation of the stomach of, adapted for long journeys over deserts ... 519 Camel, why have its feet large cushions ... ... ... ... 521 Camel, how are its eyes protected 522 Camel, adaptation of its teeth for food ............ 522 Canary, the plumage of ...... 763 Canine teeth, why are carnivorous animals provided with ...... 206 Carnaria, kar-nar'-i-a, why is the third division of the Mammalia so called ............ 183 Carnaria, why is the first sub- order called cheiroptera ...... 184 Carnaria, why is the second sub- order called insecti vora ...... 192 205 Carnaria, why is the third sub- order called carnivora ...... Carnivora, kar-niv'-o-ra, why is the third sub-order of carnaria so called ............ 2l 5 Carnivorous animals, why have they canine teeth ......... 20fc Carnivorous animals, why are their molar teeth fitted into each other ............ 207 Carnivora, how does their anatomy adapt itself to their modes of life ............... 208 Carnivorous animals, why are the pupils of their e^es vari- ously shaped ......... 216 Carnivorous animals, why in- cluded in all the natural classes 219 Cartilage ............ 66 Catalepsy ............ 107 Cat-bird, why so named ...... 694 Cats, why when playing do they turn on their backs and seize with their claws 22" 224 Cats, why does cropping their ears prevent their climbing trees ... Cats, why does their fur emit electrical sparks ......... 227 Cats, purpose served by their electricity ......... ... 227 Cats, why are they uneasy pre- vious to a sform ......... 228 Cats, by what means are they enabled to extend or withdraw their talons Cats, why do they refuse vege- table food ............ 229 231 Xll INDEX. Cats, why do they lap fluids slowly 232 Cats, why said to have "nine lives" 233 Cats, why have they great diffi- culty in masticating vegetables 302 Cattle, why is it customary in Switzerland to bell their necks 543 Cattle, why when flying from the hunter do they keep to the sides of copses 549 Cattle, why, when wild meditate an attack do they approach in circles 550 Cattle, why is the hair of tame, softer and smoother than that of wild 552 Cattle, why are the horns of tame, generally shorter than those of wild 554 Cattle, why do wild, feed in herds 556 Cattle, why when feeding do they scatter, and graze separately ... 556 Caucasian, kau-kas'-si-an, why is the race so called 2 Cetacea, se-ia'-ce-a, ... ... ... 577 Cctacca, habits und structure of ... 578 Cetacea, why separated from fishes 579 C}uv\odons,'chet'-o-rloiis, why are they so brilliantly coloured ... 1106 Chameleon, why has it the power of changing its colour 1014 Cheeks, why do they turn pale or red through fear or rage ... 79 Cheek, why is a pale one an indica- tion of disease 80 Chest, why does it heave when we breathe 86 Cheiroptera, ky-rop'-ter-a, ... 184 Chelonia, kel-lo'-ne-a, why is the first order of reptiles so called... 1002 Chinche, kin'-tche, animals with an offensive smell 243 Chondrostea, k-m-drost'-e-a, why is the second sub-order of ganoidca so called ... ... 1123 Civet, why called the civet cat ... 319 Civet perfume, how is it produced 320 Classification of animals, why adopted .". 161 Classification of animals, significa- tion of terms in 162 Classification of animals, principles of 325 Climbing animals, how is xhe supply (>f blood in the legs of, regulated 412 Coati, ko'-a-te, why does it burrow beneath trees 234 Cockatoos, why so called 815 Cod, why does it abound on tie Newfoundland coast 1091 Cold, why does it purple the skin 35 Cold, why does moderate, stimulate the system 78 Conirostres, con-c-ros' -trees, why is the sub-order so named ... 726 Conirostres, why are the hea.ds of, disproportionately Jfirgp ... 7?8 Cormorant peculiarity in the struc- ture of its foot ..'. 936 Coughing, why docs it increase headache 81 Coursing, why are two dogs em- ployed 263 Cow, anecdote of a ... ... 544 Cow, why has it four or more teats 547 Cows, management of the teats of when sucking 548 Coypou, koy-poo, why, though identical with the beaver in habits, has it a dissimilar tail ... 382 Creeper, why are its feet long and powerful 780 Crocodile, why does it allow the xic-zac to be familiar with it ... 1009 Crocodile, why do both of its jaws move 1011 Crows, why erroneous to suppose that they destroy grass 763 Crossbill, why is the beak of, peculiarly constructed 749 Crows, why said that they can smell gunpowder ... ... ... 741 Crows, why wrong to destroy them 744 Cuckoo, why does it deposit eggs in nests of other birds 821 Cuckoo, why does it drop its eggs in the nests of smaller birds . . . 822 Cuckoo, why does it deposit its eggs in the nests of sparrows, wagtails, &c 823 Cuckoo, why does it deposit its eggs with its foot 825 Cuckoo, why does it cause injury to the eggs of other birds ... 826 Cuckoos, why do they perch on the backs of oxen while grazing 827 Cursores, kur-so'-rees, why is the order so named* 873 Cuticle, why is it slightly rough ... 33 Cuticle, special provisions for, in various parts of the body ... 34 Cuvier, anecdote of 646 Cyclostomata, sy-klos-tom'-a-ta, why is the second sub-order of fishes so called 1039 Deaf persons, why do they place a hand behind their ears 148 Deaf persons, why do they hear more readily if addressed in a moderate tone 149 Deer, why furnished with supple- mentary breathing organs ... 536 Dentirosties, tlfH-te-rot' -trees, why is the sub-order so called ... 686 Diaphragm, di-a-fram 87 Dog and wolf, points of similarity between 263 Dog and wolf, why a difference in the pupils of their eyes 225 Dogs, why may it be supposed that all the varities of, spring from a common origin ... ... 258 Dogs, influence of climate upon ... 257 Dogs, Isle of, why so called ... 258 Dogs, why are two employed in coursing 2G? INDEX. JU11 Dogs, why should those used for sport be kept to their own game 265 Dogs, why is their sense of smell acute 268 Dogs, why do they lose their scent of game-birds during incubation 269 Dogs, why do those used for sport make "a point" 270 Dogs, what is the scent of ... 272 Dogs, why is a moist atmosphere best for" scent 274 Dogs, why is a wet day unfavour- able for scent ... 276 Dogs, why is there little scent when the ground is hard and dry 277 Dogs, why does scent sometimes lie breast high 278 Dogs, why does scent rarely lie with a north or east wind ... 279 Dogs, why is scent generally good when the wind is southerly, of dogs 281 Dogs, why does humidity favour sjent 282 Dogs, why is scent seldom good when cobwebs hang on bushes... 283 Dogs, why will scent sometimes be good in a hard rain and mild air 284 Dogs, why is scent destroyed by sudden storms 285 Dogs, why is scent not good on sunshiny days 862 Dogs, why is scent good on a warm day without sunshine 287 Dogs, why does scent lie badly upon fallows and beaten roads... 288 Dogs, why is scent good by hedge- rows 289 Dogs, why does scent differ in various ureeds ... ... ... 290 Dog, why is the Newfoundland, of greatest service to man . . . 293 Dog, anecdote of a Newfoundland 294 Dogs, -why do they toss their heads when masticating a tough sub- stance 295 Dogs, why are the habits of the shepherd's, the result of educa- tion rather than instinct... ... 296 Dogs, how may they be taught to perform tricks with cards ... 298 Dogs, why frightened at lame and stooping persons 299 Dogs, why do they turn round several times before lying clown 300 Dogs, why should their treatment be regulated by moral influence 301 Dogs, why have' they difficulty in masticating vegetable substances 302 Dog, Tyke the tire-dog 304 Dog, restoring a piece of hidden money to his master 305 Dog, memory and gratitude of a... 306 Dog acting as constable ... ... 307 Dog's revenge ... 308 Dog, clemency of a Newfoundland 309 Dog, Highland cur performing the part of a detective 310 Dog philanthropists... . .. 311 Dogs, influence of domestication upon 601 Dog. a stratagem to obtain food ... 624 Dolphin, why has its shape been misrepre en ted ... ... ... 589 Dolphin, why does it utter a sound resembling the human voice ... 591 Dolphins, why have they the flat surface of their tails placed hori- zontally 597 Dormouse, why does it become fat during the period of hyber- nation 360 Doves, why do they prefer artifi- cial pigeon houses 844 Dromedary, the difference between it and the camel 533 Dromedary, why so called... ... 514 Dromedary, why has it a hump on its back 517 Dromedary, why is stomach of, adapted for the journeys over deserts 519 Ducks, why are they assiduous in trimming their feathers 924 Ducks, why do they appear pleased at the approach of rain 926 Duck, why is its bill peculiarly sensitive 927 Eagle, why a courageous bird ... 655 Eagle, why is it called the king of birds 662 Eagles, why cannot they attack prey directly under them ... 663 Eagle, the white-headed 664 Eagles, why are they sometimes found dead, and fastened to fish 665 Eagles, why are the eyes of, fur- nished with nictating mem bran es 666 Eagles, why do they drive away their young 668 Eagles, why are the wings of broad and concave 669 Eagles, why are the wings of shorter than those of the Jfalcon 670 Ears, why are both used to deter- mine the direction of sound ... 146 Ears, why sometimes both, and at other times only one, used to distinguish sounds 147 Ear, how does a hand placed behind it operate 148 Edentata, e-dent-a'-ta, why is the sixth order of animals so named 402 Elephant, why furnished with a proboscis 432 Elephant, why is the trunk of, capable of a great variety of motions 434 Elephants, various functions the trunk is able to perform ... 485 Elephant, why provided with tusks 43» Elephant, why are the eyes of, small 438 Elephant, why are the ears of, large 439 Elephant, peculiar anatomical structure of the ear 440 xiv TNDEX. Elephant, why does it use its trunk to seize a man and not te attack a tiger 441 Elephant, why has it the power of bending- the hind lee: forward ... 443 Elephant, docility and intelligence of 444 Elephant, protecting the sick and dying 445 Elephant, going to a hospital to have its wounds dressed 446 Elephant, affection of, for its species 447 Elephant, revenge of 448 Elephant, sagacity of 449 Elk, why is its neck so short ... 534 Ethiopian, why is the race so called ... ... ... ... 4 Eye, why do the powers of vision greatly depend on mechanical exercise 113 Eye, the operation of in viewing 'objects 115 Eye, why is the motion of, essen- tial to vision 116 Eye, why do the powers of, depend on development 117 Eye, why does the pupil of, con- tract and dilate 121 Eye, chamber of 122 Eye, why unable to discern objects when passing from strong light into darkness 123 Eye, why inconvenienced when emerging from darkness into light 124 Eye, why is the pupil of, so called 125 Eye, why is it sometimes blood- shot ... 128 Eye, why does it lose its lustre in old age and sickness 131 Eye, what occasions squinting ... 132 Eye, why does it perceive colours 134 Eve, why does a blow produce a flash of light 136 Eyeball, sensitiveness of, how ac- counted for 137 Eye, why cannot it distinguish minute objects when immersed in water 138 Eyes, why furnished with lashes 139 Eyes, why protected by eyebrows 141 Eyes, furnished with eyelids ... 142 Eyelid, why the motions of, in- voluntary 141? Eyes of carnivorous animals, why are the pupils variously shaped 2»G Eyes of animals, why do they glare in darkness 221 Eyes of animals, why do they not glisten in the daylight 222 Fairy-rings, why supposed to be caused by moles 199 Falcon, why are its wings larger than those of the eagle 670 Falcon, why is the optic nerve in its eye folded into plaits ... 671 Fat, why necessary to the system 38 Fat, economy of 37 Fear, why does it cause pale cheeks 79 Feet, how are the nails formed ... 2? Ferrets, why dangerous to keep ... 250 Feline animals, why when a per- son is struck by, "should he not move 211 Ferret, why has the Nubian, valves to its ears 314 Fingers, peculiar functions of ... 22 Fingers, why are their extremities soft and round 24 Fingers, why are they of unequal length 25 Fingers, why are the tops of, guarded by cushions 26 Fingers, why furnished with nails 27 Fishes, why is the first order of, called leptocardia 1038 Fishes, why is the second order of, calle;i clyclostomata 1039 Fishes, why is the third older of, called teleostia 1044 Fishes, why do their spinous de- fensive weapons turn backwards 1104 Fishes, why are some furnished with a sucker 1111 Fishes, why is the fourth order named ganoidea 1121 Fishes, why is the fifth order called selachia 1124 Fishes, how is their breathing conducted 1131 Fishes, why is their flesh white ... 1132 Fishes, why do they not masticate their food 1133 Fishes, why are their teeth curved inwards 1134 Fishes, why do they gasp when out of water 1135 Fishes, why can some live long out of water 1136 Fishes, why are the crystalline lenses of their eyes round ... 1137 Fishes, why do they lie with their heads against the stream ... 1139 Fishes, why do some swim at the surface, and others near the bottom 1143 Fishes, why when they have broken away with a hook will they take another immediately... 1144 Fishes, why do their wounds rapidly heal 1146 Fishes, why are they exempt from disease 1146 Fishes, why the sub-order of ana- canthina so called 1088 Fishes, why do they float when dead 1094 Fishes, why is the sub-order of physomata so named 1046 Fishes, why may they be drowned while being caught 1147 Fishes, why are the migrations of, beneficial' 1149 Fishes, why do they spawn in shallow waters Fissirostres, fis-se-ros' -trees, why so designated ...... ..'. 1150 711 INDEX. Flamingo, why when feeding does it hc.ld its head and beak upside down in the water 899 Flamingo, why does it make its nest on mound-like elevations ... 901 Flat-lish, why do they float mare than others 1095 Fluids, their effect upon the body 40 Flying squirrels, why so called ... 358 Flying-fishes, why are they so called 1105 Foot, why is the sole arched ... 19 Fowls, why has the cock a stream- Ing tail 862 Fowls, why have they become do- mesticated 863 Fowls, why have they limited powers of flight 864 ? >wls, structure of their wings and feet 865 /•"owls, why do they roost in ele- vated places 866 fowls, why do they hustle them- selves in dust 871 Foxes, why are those found early in the day easily caught ... 292 Foxes, why are they less easily caught than hares 388 Frog, why does it keep its mouth shut when breathing 1027 Frogs, how are the reported showers of, accounted for ... 1029 Froijs, how is their croaking pro- duced 1031 Frogs, why are they frequently found dead in dusty roads ... 1032 Game-birds, why do dogs lose their -scent of them during the incubation 269 Ganoidea, gan-oyd'-e-a, why is the fourth order of fishes so named 1121 Gar- fish, why called the mackerel guide 1099 Geese, why do they " waddle " in their walk ... ' 925 Geese, why do, seemed pleased at the approach of rain 926 Genus, what is the meaning of ... 163 Giraffe, why does the lion wait for, in the neighbourhood of water 218 Giraff • and kanguroo, locomotion contrasted 342 Giraffe, why has it a small head ... 433 Giraffe, why has it a long tongue 559 Giraffe, enormous appetite of ... 560 Giraffe, why is the head sur- mounted by short horns ... 561 Giraffe, why are the nostrils thickly intersected with hairs ... 563 Giraffe, why are the eyes set prom- inently near the back of th,> head 564 Giiuffe, why attacked by the lion when in the act of drinking ... 56.3 Giriffe, why has it a long slender neck 557 Globe-fish, what are its peculiari- ties of structure and habit ... 1107 Goats, why suppose.! that they improve the health of horses ... 567 Goats, why can they subsist on vegetables which are poisonous 568 Goat-sucker, why has the mouth of, long bristly hairs ...... 725 Goldfinches, why do they bu'ld on flexible branches ........ 761 Gold-fish, how do they subsist apparently on water only ... 1085 Gold-fish, why do they so fre- quentlv come to the surface ... 1087 Goose, why is it considered a stupid bird ... ............ 919 Goose, why was it esteemed by the Romans Grallatores, gral-Ia-to'-rees, why Is the order so named 921 887 Greyhound, why does it hunt by sight sloop ... ..' ....... 259 Greyhounds, -why less attached to their masters than other dogs ... 2f>2 Greyhound, why should the neck of, be lonsj ............ 261 Guinea-fowls, why have their eggs hard sholls ............ 870 Gums, why well fitted to receive teeth " ............ 94 Gurnards, why are the Indian, called fljrin?-fi*hea ...... 1105 Gymnotus, gim-no'-tus, why has it the power of giving "electric shocks ............ 1048 Gyratores, jy-ra-to'-rees, why is the order so called Hair, why an appropriate covering for the head ......... Hamster, why has it enormous cheek pouches ......... Hamster, peculiar habits of ... Hand, why the most important member ............ Hand, why divided into several parts ............ Hands, why do they incline to- wards each other ......... Hands, why are the palms guarded by cushions ......... Hare-lip, why, when divided, is the lip so called ......... Hares, why, when pursued, do they make for rising ground ... Hares, why do they run down hill zig'-c/u-la ... 473 Solid ungulous animals, why found in a wild state on plains ...... 475 Souslik, sotcs'-lik, why has it pouches in its cheeks ...... 359 Sparrows, why useful to vegeta- tion ............... 751 Sparrows, why bolder than most birds ...... "• ...... 752 Sparrow, why does the house- sparrow take the nests of other birds ............... 753 Sparrow, why late in awaking ... 754 Species, what is the meaning of ... Ki3 Spectacles, why needed in old age 129 Spermaceti, what is it ...... 587 bpinal columr. why flexible ... 41 Spine, why do not its movements injure the brain 91 Spoonbill, why has it long man- dibles 905 Sprats, what are they 1057 Sprats, why do they usually ap- pear soon after herrings have spawned 1058 Squinting, why some persons afflicted 132 Squinting, how cured 133 Squirrels, why do they convey food to their mouths with both paws 351 Squirrels, why grouped as the genus sciurus 352 Squirrels, why are their hind legs only slightly shorter than their fore legs 353 Squirrels, why are their tails so long and bushy 355 Squirrels, why are their eyes fully developed 354 Squirrels, why they lay up stores 356 Squirrels, why some called flying 358 Stag, why so eager to reach water before they stand at bay 527 Stairs, why said to shed tears ... 535 Starlings,' why do they frequently accompany rooks ... ... ... 993 Statue, why cannot stand upright without support 17 Stickleback, why ai-e the fins nearest its gills continually moving 1141 Stomach, what is the form of ... 100 Stork, why an enemy of the cat species ' 907 Storks, why are they voracious eaters 908 Stork, why has it always been an object of favour and veneration 909 Swallows, why appoint a distinct range of elevation ... ... 712 Swallows, why adapted to migra- tion 713 Swallows, why are the nests made round 714 Swallows, why their mandibles open far back 726 Swallows, how do they build asninst walls 716 Swallows, why do they build near dwellings of man 717 Swallow, why is the esculent, so called " 719 Swallows, why does their high flight foretell fine weather ... 724 Swans, -why do they frequent shallow waters 928 Swans, whv are their wings capable of dealing a heavy blow 929 Swans, why do they fly high ... 928 Swans, whv is their flight governed by the wind 933 Swan, why is its plumage un- changeable 9:;4 Swan, why is its dying song fu'oulous ... ... ... ... 9UJ INDEX. Bwilt, why does it seldom alight on the ground 721 Swifts, how do they gather material for nests 722 Swifts, why appointed to a distinct range of eicv.ation ... ... 712 Sword-fish, why isits jaw furnished with a biadc-like weapon ... 1108 Syndactili, sun-dac-ti'-li, why so called 788 Tailor-bird, why so named ... 686 Tailor- bird, singular ... • ... 697 Tapir, why has it an indurated skin over the head and neck ... 468 Tasting, why are the organs of, situated so near those of smell- ing 154 Tasting, why is it the least im- paired by age of the senses ... 155 Tears, why are they globular ... 99 Tears, why have they a globular form 99 Teeth, why not covered with peros- teum... 43 Teeth, why is there a difference between the front and back ... 44 Teeth, why are the gums well adapted for 94 Teeth, fixture of, in the sockets ... 95 Teeth of infants, why hidden ... 96 Teeth, why imperfectly organized in comparison with adjacent parts 97 Teeth, why do new ones appear in advanced age 98 Teeth, why when a ticking watch .s placed against, do they conduct sound 150 Teleostia, tel-e-ost'-e-a, why is the third order of, so named ... 1044 Tendons, their relation to the muscles 61 Tendons, what are they 65 Tenuirostres. ten-u-e-ros' -trees, why so designated 770 Thick-headed peop;e, why so called 54 Thrushes, why dp they build near human habitations 708 Thrush, why are its front toes fastened by a skin ... ... 710 Tigers, their hearing very acute ... 213 Tiger, why the tongue of, rough... 214 Titmouse, why does it suspend its nest over a pond ... ... ... 762 Toad, instance of vitality 633 Toads, why are they useful in greenhouses 1033 Toads, why can they live em- bedded in rock or stone ... ... 1034 Tooth, carnivorous 645 Tortoises, why are their cheeks distended while breathing ... 1006 Toucan, tuic-kan' , why so named 816 Toucan, why does it toss back its head while eating 817 To'ii-.-m, why has it an immense bill 819 Touch, why considered the most important of the senses 156 Touch, extreme sensibility of, iu blindness 1*7 Touch, why more vivid when the circulation is active 158 Touch, why is the sense of, occa- sionally illusive 159 Trout, why are there many varieties 10(i8 Trunk-fish, why covered with long plates ..". 1120 Turtles, why are they covered with hard external shells ... 1004 Turtles, why have they no teeth... 1007 Veins, why have they a blue ap- pearance 75 Veins, why do they sometimes swell 76 Veins, why are they bound up when the operation of bleeding is performed 77 Ventricles, their action in the circulation of the blood 74 Vermes, ver'-meez, what are they 164 Vertebrata, ver-fe-bia'-ta 165 Vulture, why a cowardly bird ... 655 Vulture, description of the bearded 656 Vulture, why are the head and neck without feathers 657 Vulture, why does it soar to a great height 653 Vulture, why called the king ... 660 Wading-birds, why have they long legs and short tails 889 Wading-birds, why have they wide-spreading feet 891 Wagtails, why do they congregate about cows 707 Walrus, why has it large tusks ... 335 Water-shrew, why bright and silvery when swimming 202 Weasel, whence tie proverb, " Catch a weasel," &c 244 Weasel, why an excellent hunter of mice 245 Weasel, whence the proverb, " He builds closely with dry stones who can build out the weasel " 249 Whales, by what means are they enabled to eject water in a spout 581 Whales, what provision have they for the retention of heat 582 Whales, why is the enormous size of the head no impediment to locomotion 583 Whales, structure and habits of the spenriaceti 58' Whales, why have they the flat sin-face of their tails placed hori- zontally 59? Whalebone 58c White-bait, what are they 105? Wolf and dog, what are the points of similarity 25S Wolf and dog, why a difference in the pupils of the eyes 255 Wood-pigeon, why " are its notes associated with gentleness and love 845 Woodcocks, why do they disap- pear from cultivated districts ... 897 xxiv INDEX. Woodpeckers, why are their sup- posed ravages beneficial ... 797 Woodpeckers, why are the ex- tremities of their tails hard and elastic 789 Wren, why does it make several nests 698 Wren, why associated with the redbreast 703 Wren, why are the toes of golden- crested, fastened by a skin ... 7 IP Wry-neck, why so called 828 Youth, why is the human body soft and round 39 Zebra, why found in hilly and mountainous places 505 Zebra, beautiful form and colours 5M " Nothing is foreign, parts relate to wtoie ; One all-extending, all-preserving soul Connects each being, greatest with the least ; Made beast in aid of man, and man of beast." — V »* TEE! REASON WHY: NATURAL HISTORY. CHAPTER L THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN.* 1. What are the principal types of the varieties of the human race ? The types generally recognized are those pointed out by Blumen- bach, consisting of— 1. The Caucasian ; 2. The Mongolian 3. The Ethiopian; 4. The American ; 5. The Malay. 2. Why is the first of these types caUed the Caucasian f Because the tribes from which this great division of the human family descended have for many ages been the occupants of 'he mountain chain of the Caucasus. The characters of this variety are, a white skin, either with a ro^y • The chapter upon the Natural History of Man has been founded upon Johu- eon's Physical Atlas ; Prichard's Physical History of Mankind ; Lawrence's Lecturer, Latham's Varieties of Man ; The Encyclopaedia merieana, art. Man ; and the con- eluding pages of Humboldt's Cosmos. For the subsequent chapters, a grea* Dumber of authorities have been consulted, which are specified in the list of '• Authorities." THE REASON WHY : " lie prayeth best who loveth best All things hoth great and small; For the great God who loreth us, He made and loveth all." — COLERIDGE. tint, or inclining to brown ; red cheeks ; hair black, or of the various lighter, co- lours, abundant, and more or less curled or waving ; hides dark in those of brown skin ; light blue, grey, or greenish, in the fair or rosy complexioned ; large cranium with small face, the npper and anterior regions of the former particularly developed, and the latter falling per- pendicularly under them ; face oval and straight, with features distinct from each other ; expanded forehead, nr rrow =rad rather aquiline nose, and small mouth ; front tee4 h of Loth •aws perpendi«ular ; lips, particularly the lower, gently turned >nt ; chin full, rounded, and bearded. In this type the moral feelings and intellectual powers are most energetic, being susceptible of the highest development and culture. It includes all the ancient and modern Europeans, except the Laplanders and the rest of the Finnish race. The sub-divisions, or varieties of this type are — the Circassian, or true Caucasian ; the Syro- Arabian : Hindoo, Celtic, Grecian, Italian, German, Slavonic, &c^ and Gypsies, originally from the banks ot the Indus, from whence they have wandered over Europe. CAUCASIAN. NATURAL HISTORY. Know then thyself, presume not Ood to scan, The proper study of mankind is man." — POPE. 3. Why is the second of these types called the Mongolian ? From the vast region of Mongolia, over which they are generally spread. They are charac- terized by an olive colour, which in many cases is very light ; black eyes ; black, straight, strong, and thin hair ; little or no beard ; head of a square form, with small and low fore- head ; broad and flattened face, with the features run- ning together ; nose small and flat ; cheeks projecting ; eyes placed very obliquely ; slight projection of the chin ; with the cars krge and lips thick. The stature, par- ticularly in the countries within the Arctic circle, is inferior to that of Europeans. The sub-divisions of this type are the true Mongols, the Tibetans, Chinese, Burmese, Siamese, Samoeids, Yeniseians, Finns, Lapps, Esquimaux, Turks, &c. These tribes occupy Central and Northern Asia, the Asiatic Islands, and the Arctic coasts of Asia and America. 4. Why is the third type denominated the Ethiopian ? Because the primitive tribes were the occupants of Ethiopia, lr the country of the dark skinned, the ancient name of Africa. Th« MONGOLIAN. TI:E REASON WHY: " Be not of us afraid, Poor kindred man ! thy fellow-creatures, we Froia ilie -am,- Parent power our being drew. Th,- s:i , e our I/»nl, our laws, our great pursuit."— THOMSON. Ethiopian embra ces the African central tribes and their varieties, the Ne- groes of Western Africa, and the Kaffirs of the south. The Central Afri- cans are marked by an elongated, narrow cranium, crisp and curly hair, projecting jaws, thick lips, and black or dusky skin. In the Negro the skull is narrow, or compressed at the sides, and elongated from front to back, the dome arched and dense, the forehead convex, retreating, and narrow ; the contour of the head is smooth compared with the angular form of the Mongol ; the chesk bones project forward ; the bridge of the nose is small and flat, the nostrils round and wide ; mouth wide with thick lips ; hair crisp and woolly, except the eyebrows and eyelashes ; beard scanty on the upper lip, and chiefly confined to the point of the chin ; body strong, muscular, and symmetrical ; feet broad and heavy, and the soles flat. In the Kaffir the cranium rises higher, and is more rounded than in the Negro ; the cheek bones project, the eyes are small and dark, the eyelids occasionally oblique, the foce tapers towards the chin, and the jaws are much less prominent than those of the Negro, 5. Why is the American type so called ? Because it includes the aboriginals of the American continent^ NATURAL HISTORY. " Man superior walks Amid the glad creation, musing- praise. And looking livdv gratitude."— THOMSON. which, though dis- tributed over wide latitudes, and exhi- biting considerable diversity of form, have a general phy sical aspect which is common to the whole. The cheek bones are high, the forehead rather low and retreating ; the nose prominent, not unfrequently aquiline; jaws powerful, mouth large, lips full, eyes small, deep-set, and black ; hair coarse, black, and rather scanty, beard scanty. Skin of a red copper colour, and glossy in some North American tribes, and of a yellowish-red, light brown, and sallow hue in the various tribes of South America. This type includes all American aborigines except the Esquimaux, which are Mongolian. 6. Why is the fifth type called the Malay ? Because most of the tribes speak the Malay language, which, in the various ramifications of this race, may be traced from Mada- gascar to Easter Island in the South Pacific, half-way between Asia and America. The characteristics of this type are a brown colour, varying from a light tawny tint, not deeper than that of the Spaniards and Portuguese, to a deep brown, approaching to black ; black hair, more or less curled, and abundant ; head rather narrow ; bones of the face large and prominent ; nose full and broad towards AMERICAN — WOMAJf. THE REASON WHY" : 1 Truth bids me look on meu aa autumn leaves, And all they bleed for as the summer's dust Dnren by the whirlwind." — YOUNG. the point, arid mouth large. To this division belong the inhabitants of the peninsula of Malacca, of Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes, and the adjacent islands of Australia, Van Dieman's Land, New Guinea, New Zealand, and the numberless is- lands scattered throughout the South Sea. 7. Why have the primitive types re- tained their charac- teristic features chiefly in moun- tainous countries ? Because the stream of immi- MALAY. gratioii naturally takes place in the direction of rivers, by which the tribes of the plains become mixed and changed ; but mountains are less acces- sible, and frequently form almost impenetrable boundaries. We therefore find among mountaineers the remnants of the oldest races. 8. TF7i7/ are there so many different complexions in the tribes composing the various types ? The problem has occupied the attention of philosophers and divines in' all ages. The result of their investigations shows that no single cause, but a variety of causes, must be considered. The most important of them are, 1, climate ; 2, organization ; 3, inter- marriage ; 4, exceptional circumstances. The influence of climate is shown by the fact that every zone is more or less marked by a distinctive colour. Black prevails under the equator, copper coloui under the tropics, olive and fair towards the poles. NATURAL DISTORT. 'Tis vain to seek in man far more than maa, Though proud in promise big in previous thought, Experience damps our triumphs." — YOUNG. The influence of organization is shown in many instances : the Moors, who have lived for ages under a burning sun, still have white children, and the offspring of Europeans in the Indies have the original tint of their progenitors. Different complexions are in some cases intermixed by immigrant races, and white and black people dwell together ; and complexions are modified by the off- spring of marriages between members of the different races. But it is further and most conclusively demonstrated by an examination of the skins of the darkly-coloured races, in which a secreted colour- Ing matter is found. The skin is thicker and harder in black people than in white. The external skin of each is transparent and colour- less. The colouring matter of the coloured races lies in the rde mucosum, or inner skin, and this colour is seen through the trans- parent true skin, just as white people see the traces of their dark veins through the same cuticle. The influences of intermarriage are abundantly demonstrated by the fact that the union of black and white parents generally produces children of an intermediate cha- racter, which are called mulattoes ; and of exceptional circumstances in the less frequent occurrence of the birth of pie-bald negroes, having their skin diversified with black and white spots, and part of their woolly hair white ; of short parents producing very tall children, &c. 9. The ekange of colour in the human skin, from exposure to son and air, is well known to be temporary. The discoloration which we term " tanning," or being *' sun-burnt," as well as the spots called "freckles," are most incidental to fair ekins, and disappear when the parts are covered or no longer exposed to the sua. The children of tke husbandman or of the sailor whose countenance bears the marks of other climes, are just as fair as those of the most delicate and pale inhabitants of a city. 10. What imparted to various tribes the different habits and modes of life for which they are remarkable ? Chiefly the physical features of the countries in which they were born, or into which they wandered. The people who established them- selves in the frozen regions of the north not finding enough of vege- table nourishment, became hunters and fishers. Necessarily separated from each other for the pursuit of sustenance, they multiplied slowly, THE REASON WHY : So from the first eternal order ran, And creature link'd to creature man to man."— POPB. and civilization remained unknown. Among such people the arts are confined to the construction of huts, the preparation of skins for covering, and to the manufacture of spears and other weapons. The inhabitants of the northern and eastern parts of Siberia, and the savages of North America, are almost the only people who arf now to be found in this primitive state. Those people who feed numerous herds of cattle, in localities where it was necessary to seek new pastures for their maintenance, necessarily adopted a wandering life. Travelling in numbers, they acquired ideas ol property and of mutual rights ; and inequality of condition sooi gave one man power over another. But the wandering life in search i>f new pastures and more agreeable climates, kept them still within rery narrow limits of civilization. The Laplanders in the north of Europe, the Tartars, who inhabit the vast region in the interior of Asia, the Bedouin Arabs, who occupy the sands of Arabia and the aorth of Africa, and the Caflres and Hottentots in Southern Africa, are the principal wandering tribes that still remain. In countries where the nature of the soil and the value of the pro- ductions rendered an abiding residence essential, people took to agriculture, acquired property in land, developed themselves into classes, instituted laws, became less predatory and warlike ; and when, in the division of labour and duty, the functions of the civilian became separated from those of the soldier, the civil portion of society cultivated various improvements and assumed the habits of civilized men. 11. tVJiat is the chief physical distinction between man and the inferior animals ? The brain of man is proportionally much larger, and the jaws are much shorter than in any other being. The brain, by its great extent, forms the protuberance of the occipital bone, the forehead, and all that part of the head which is above the ears. In the inferior animals the brain is so small that most of them have no occiput, and the front is either wanting or but little raised. Man combines by far the largest cranium with the smallest face, NATURAL HISTORY " T:> man she gave, in that proud hour, The boon of intellectual power." — MOORE. and animals deviate from these relations ia proportion as they increase in stupidity and ferocity. *2. Why may we feel assured that all the varieties of man sprung from one original ? Because we have, first, the Scriptural history of man's creation ; Mid, secondly, scientific investigations entirely support the unity of man's origin. Whilst attention was exclusively directed to the extremes of colour and of form, the result of the first vivid impressions derived from the senses was a tendency to view these differences as character- istics, not of mere varieties, but of originally distinct species. The permanence of certain types in the midst of the most opposite in- fluences, especially of climate, appeared to favour this view, not- withstanding the shortness of the time to which the historical evidence applied. But the many intermediate gradations of the tint of the skin and the form of the skull, which have been made known by the rapid progress of geographical science in modern times ; the analogies derived from the history of varieties in animals, both domesticated and wild ; and to the positive observa- tions collected respecting the limits of fecundity in hybrids. So long as the western nations were acquainted with only a part of the earth's surface, partial views almost necessarily prevailed ; tropical heat and a black colour of the skin appeared to be insepa- rable. When the first Portuguese navigators sailed for purposes of discovery to the shores of Africa, it was confidently predicted by learned men of the time that if ever they returned they would be as black as the negro race. When we take a general view of the dark coloured African nations, and compare them with the natives of the Australasian Islands, and with the Papuas and Alfourous, we see that a black skin, woolly hair, and negro features, are by no means invariably associated. 13 Linnaeus was the first who ventured to class man in a scientific system with other animals ; and he did not escape the censure of some, as degrading the dignity of the human race by such an approximation ; but classification is a mere 1* [0 THE REASON WIIT : Happy the man who sees a God employed lu all the good and ill that chequer life ! "— COWPER. statement of a fact in anatomy, and the philosopher who observes and interprets nature, is not surely to blame. Man, then, whether considered as the head of the animal creation, and a part of it ; or as a sole genus and sole species, distinct from others, and lord of all ; whethei denned to be a biped without feathers, or a quadruped without hoofs, a monkey with a voice, or a monkey without a tail, — if viewed solely in a physical light, and setting aside his divine reason, and his immortal nature, — is a being provided with two hands, designed for prehension, and having fingers protected by flat nails, and two feet, with single soles, destined for walking ; with a single stomach, and with three kinds of teeth,— incisive, canine, and molar. His position is upright, his food both vegetable and animal, his body naked. It has been made a subject of dispute, whether there is more than one species in tho human race ; but it is merely a dispute of words ; and if the term species is used in its common scientific sense, it cannot bo denied that there is but one species There are, however, certain and constant differences of stature, physiognomy, colon nature of the hair or form of the skull, which have given rise to subdivisions of this species. CHAPTER II. THE STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN FRAME — THE BONES, MUSCLES, TENDONS, LIGAMENTS, NERVES, ETC. 14. Why is the position of the human face exactly adapted to the erect attitude ? . Because in that posture the plane of the orbits is nearly horizontal ; the cavities of the nose are in the best direction for inhaling odours proceeding from before or from below them ; the jaws do not project in front of the forehead and chin. If the posture were changed, as painful an effort would be required to examine an object in front of the body as is now necessary to keep the eyes fixed on the zenith, and the heavens would be almost hidden from our view ; the nose would be unable to perceive any other odours than those which pro- ceeded from the earth or from the body itself ; and the teeth and lips would be almost useless, for they would scarcely touch an ob- ject on tho ground before the forehead and chin were in contact NATURAL HISTORY. 11 Ye chief, for whom the whole creation smiles ; At once the head, the heart, the tongue of all, Crown the great hymn ! " — THOMSON. trith it ; while the view of that which they attempted to seize would be obstructed by the nose and cheeks. 15. Why is a horizontal posture unfitted for the human body ? Because if man were to attempt such a posture he would b« compelled to rest on his knees, with his thighs bent towards tha trunk ; an attempt to advance them would be painful, and with his legs and feet would be inmioveable and useless. Or, he must elevate his trunk on the extremities of his toes, throwing his head downwards, and exerting himself very forcibly at every attempt to bring forward the thighs by a rotary motion at the hip-joinfc. In either case, the only useful joint would be that at the hip, and the legs would be scarcely superior to wooden or rigid supports. 16. WJiy is tlie variation of animal bodies most common in the centre, whilst towards the extremities there is comparative uniformity ? Because the central parts, as 'the skull, spine, and ribs, are in their offices permanent ; whilst the extremities, as the hands and feet, are adapted to every exterior circumstance. In all animals the office of the cranial part of the skull is to protect the brain, that of the spine to contain the spinal marrow, and that of the ribs to perform the part of respiration. It is unnecessary, therefore, for these parts to vary in shape, while their offices remain the same. But the shoulder, on the contrary, must vary in form, as it does in motion, in different animals ; so must the shape of the bones and of the joints more distant from the centre be adapted to their va- rious actions, and the wrist, the ankle, and the bones of the fingers and toes must change more than all the rest, to accommodate the extremities to their diversified offices. 17. Why cannot a statue stand upright on its feet without support, although it may be a model of symmetry in all its parts, and is placed in that attitude which is the most adapted to man ? Because a statue has but one centre of gravity, and when that 12 THE REASON WHY : What if the foot, ordained the dust to tread, Or hand, to toil, aspired to he the heud ? "— PCPK. is so shifted as that the perpendicular through it to the centre of the earth falls in any way without the base of the statue — that is, without a figure formed by lines joining all the external points of the feet upon which the statue rests — the statue must necessarily fall to the earth with all the passiveness of a mass of matter of any other shape. The human body, on the other hand, has a muscular feeling of the centre of gravity, in consequence of which, if that centre inclines so much on one side that the position is beginning to become unstable, the motions and flexions of the limbs instantly shift the centre of gravity, or rather shift the attitude of the body, so as to accommodate it to that centre. 18. The centre of gravitv in the body is somewhere in the height of it, varying a little with the form ; and if this centre is kept in the perpendicular, the body will always maintain the position of the greatest stability, whatever may be the flexures or motions of the other parts ; or the centre of gravity may move so as to be over any one point in the base and yet be stable, only the stability will always be less the nearer that the body is to one side of the base, and the farther it is from the oppo- site side. The number of positions which the body can assume while on the same base of the two feet is almost beyond the power of arithmetic ; and as the positions of thp feet themselves may be also greatly varied, the command which we have of the bo i by means of our power of working it upon its centre of gravity is truly wondt/lul. 19. tVTiy is the sole of the foot arched ? Because by this arrangement the weight of the body is made to fall on the summit of the arch, which is supported by a strong liga- ment, and this method of support, as is demonstrated by bridges and other buildings, is the strongest and most secure that can be devised. 20. Why is the human hand the most important member of the whole body? Because it is the hand which gives the power of execution to the mind ; and it is the relative position of one of the fingers to the other four which principally stamps the character of the hand ; for the thumb, by its capability of being brought into Apposition with e$cl} of the other fingers, enables the hand to adapt NATURAL HISTORY. 1J All are but parts of one stupendous whole, Whose body nature is, and God the soul." — POPS. itself to every shape, and gives it that complete dominion which it possesses over the various forms of matter. 21. Why is the hand divided into several parts f Being thus constructed the hand is capable of applying a portion or the whole of its functions, according to the size, form, and weight of the object it designs to handle. 22. Thus the smallest things we take up with the tips of our fingers; those which are a little larger we take up with the same fingers, but not with the tips of them ; substances still larger we take up with three fingers, and so on with four or all the five fingers, or even with the whole hand ; all which we could not do were not the hand divided, and divided precisely as it is. 23. Why are the hands made equal to and inclined towards each other ? Because when bodies of a great weight and large size are to be grasped on opposite sides, it is necessary that the instruments which lift them should be capable of this combined action. 24. Why are the extremities of the fingers soft and round ? If they had been otherwise formed, or made of bc*e in- stead of flesh, we could not then lay hold of such minute bodies aa thorns or hairs. For, in order that a body may be firmly held, it is necessary that it be in some degree enfolded in the substance holding it ; which condition could not have been fulfilled by a hard or bony material. 25. Why are the fingers of an unequal length ? This difference in the length of the fingers serves innu- merable purposes in connection with the arts and ordinary opera- tions of life ; thus a pen, a pencil, a brush, an engraving tool, a sword, a hammer, &c., may be more securely grasped, and used with greater facility ; for if the fingers were of an equal length, one would get in the way of the other, and prevent the whole from performing their office properly. THE REASON WHY: " Man ! know thyself. All wisdom centres there : To none man seems ignoble, but to man " — YOUNG. 2G. Wliy are the palms of the hands and the insides and tipa of the fingers guarded by cushions of skin ? If it were not for this protection, the strain upon the blood- vessels and nerves would be too great, and the texture even of bones and muscles would not be able to sustain the demand made upon them. 27. Why are the fingers furnished with nails ? If the fingers were not thus furnished, the flesh would be forced out of its position and incapable of supporting hard sub- stances ; the assistance of the nails is also necessary in retaining minute objects which would otherwise elude the grasp. 28. The nails are applicable to many other purposes, and in polishing and scraping, In tearing and peeling off the skins of vegetables and animals, and in almost ever/ act where nicety of execution is required. "29. How are the nails of the hands and feet formed? The nails are a part of the scarf skin, and present the same pheno- menapf adaptation to the surface of the sensitive skin, but in a more striking manner. The portion of sensitive skin which gives support to the nail is formed into very delicate longitudinal folds, which stand up perpendicularly to the surface. The nail upon its under surface is fashioned into thin vertical plates, which are received between the folds of sensitive skin ; and in this manner the two kinds of lamina reciprocally embracing each other, the firmness of connect! »n of the nail is maintained. 30. If we took on the surface of the nail we sec an indication of its structure in the alternate red and white lines which are there observed; the former of these correspond with the sensitive laminae, the latter with the horny plates, and the ribbed appearance of the nail is due to the same circumstance. These sensitive lamina.-1 are provided with an unusual number of blood-vessels for the formation of the nail, and hence they give a red tint to that portion under which they lie ; but ni'.ircr tho root of the nail, there is a part which is not laminated, but merely ridged longitudinally, and is less abundantly supplied with capillary vessels. Tuu iui.u i part consequently voks pale if compared with the preceding. The root of the NATURAL HISTORY. 15 " Vast chai* of being ! which from God began, Natures etherial, human, angel, man." — POPE. nail is embedded in a fold of sensitive skin to the depth of about a twelfth part of an Inch for the fingers and toes, about the eighth part of an inch for the thumb, and the sixth of an inch for the great toe. 31. What are the papilla? Papillae arc the terminations of the nerves on the surface of the skin, soft and pulpy, and forming minute protuberances, resembling the nap of frieze cloth, though greatly inferior in magnitude. These nerves are a species of animal feelers, and are the immediate instruments of sensation. 32. When examining1 or enjoying any object, it is natural to enquire, What are the Changes produced in the nervous papillae or organs of sensation 1 If an object possessed of agreeable feeling is perceived, the nervous papilla; instantly extend themselves, and from a state of flaccidity become comparatively rigid. When a person in the dark inclines to examine any object, in order to discover its figure or other qualities, he perceives a kind of rigidity at the tips of his fingers. If the fingers are kept long in this state the rigidity of the nervous papillae will give him a kind of pain or anxiety, which is caused by the over distention of the papillae. If a small insect creep upon a person's hand, when the papillae are flaccid, ita movements are not perceived ; but if he happen to direct his eye to the aidmal, he immediately extends the papillae, and feels distinctly all the motions of the insect. 33. Why is the cuticle slightly rough, instead of being perfectly smootht as might be hastily considered its most appropriate characteristic ? Because the slightly rough surface endows it with a quality more adapted to convey sensation. An illustration of this truth is fur- nished by the imperfect sense of touch which contact with polished surfaces affords, as compared with the handling of rough bodies. 34. A provision for increasing friction is especially necessary in some parts of the skin. Thus the roughness of the cuticle in the palm of the hand, and in the sole of tb« foot, gives us a firmer grasp and a steadier footing. Nothing is so little apt to gb.p as the thickened scarf-skin, either of the hand or the foot. 35. Why has the skin a purple hue when exposed to cold ? Because the vigour of the nervous power is reduced by cold ; and in addition to the repulsion inward of most of the blood contained within the vessels of the skin producing pallor, that which remains 16 THE REASON WHY : Know, Nature's children, all divide h*r care, The fur that warms a monarch, warmed a bear." — P:>PE. behind moves so languidly through the capillaries, that the change from bright red to deep black red has time to be established before it completes its circuit and reaches the veins. 36. Wliy is fat necessary to the system ? Its principal uses are mechanical. It surrounds the organs like an elastic cushion, so as to protect the more delicate parts from sudden and injurious shocks. The soles of the feet, for example, upon which the whole weight of the body rests, and which in loco- motion are subject to frequent concussion and pressure, are pro- tected by a cushion of fat, which breaks the shooks which would otherwise take place between the foot and the ground, in the same manner as do the buffer-cushions which are placed between the carriages of a railway train. 37 There is another physical quality in fat which renders it of considerable utility in the animai economy. It is nearly a non-conductor of heat, and as it is pcnerally collected in a superficial stratum investing the organs, it prevents the undue escape of heat, and keeps the body warm ; it thus performs the part of a blanket or clothing, and it is found accordingly that fat persons are less chilly than thin persons. 38. Why does hair form so appropriate a covering for the head t The hairs by their number and the manner in which they are disposed, are well adapted to deaden any strokes which may fall on the head, and to prevent strong pressure from wounding the skin. Being bad conductors of heat, they form a sort of felt, whose meshes intercept the air, and by that means preserve a uniform temperature in the head, to a certain degree, independent of that, of the aii and of surrounding bodies ; besides, being impregnated with an oilv matter, the hair imbibes but a small quantity of water, and vcr\ MOOII dries. 89. Why is the human body soft and round in youth, r eve». ./n sudden fright, is, on the other hand, an instance of the inability of the »ones alone to preserve an attitude or execute motion, when the muscular system jveaUexied by disease. 47. Why is the cylindrical form of the long bones of the body advantaaes to structure of the human frame? The superior advaiilagea oi this arrangement are illustrated NATURAL HISTORY. 19 " The man who consecrates his hours By rigorous effort, a?id an honest aim, At once he draws the sting of life and death." — Youxo. is fVJows : — If a piece of timber supported on two point*. bear a weight upon it, it sustains this weight by different qualities in its different parts. For example, divide it into three equal parts, A, B, 0 ; ths uppsr p.irt, A, supports the weight by its solidity and resistance to compression ; the lowest part, B, on the other hand, resists by its toughness or adhesive quality. Between the portions acting in so different a manner, there is an intermediate, neutral, or central part, C, which may be taken away without materially weak- ening the beam, which shows that a hollow cylinder is the form of strength. 48. How is it that the joints of the body undergo so much use for many years without diminution of their action ? This durability is attributable to tho provision which is made for preventing wear and tear, first, by the polish of the cartilaginous surfaces ; secondly, by the healing lubrication of the mucilage, and in part to that astonishing property of animal constitutions, assimi- lation, by which in every portion of the body, let it consist of what it may, substance is restored and waste repaired. 49. The union of joints even where no motion is intended or required, carries narks of mechanism and mechanical wisdom. The teeth, especially the front teeth, are one hone fixed in another, like a peg driven into a board. The sutures of th« skull are like the edges of two saws clapped together in such a manner as jhat the teeth of one enter the intervals of the other. We have sometimes onebonp Lipping over another, and planed down at the edges ; sometimes, also, the tliir. lamella of one bone re-curved into a narrow furrow of another. In all of whn-h varieties we discover the same design ; namely, firmness of jiuulion w uhout 'umsiness o. *cam. 20 THE REASON WHY: " Each night we die, Each morn arc born anew : each day a life And shall .ve kill each day ? If trifling kills, Sure vice must butcher." — YOUNU. &0. How are the strength and lightness of the human body preserved independently of the bones ? By the pressure of the atmosphere, consequent on the air-tight character of the bag formed by the synovial membrane (which secretes the oily fluid of the joints), and which is of itself more than sufficient to keep the articulating surfaces of the bones in contract. 51. This admirable fact is most readily demonstrated by the hip-joint. The round head of the thigh-bone is received into a socket, thus constituting what is familiarly known as a ball-and-socket joint; and all communication between the cavity of the joint and external fluids is cut off by the synovial membrane. The power thus exercised by the atmosphere is about one-fifth greater than would be necessary to support a limb weighing thirty pounds, and the barometer would require to fall twenty-five inches to place the limb and the atmosphere in exact equilibrium. The pressure of the atmosphere on the shoulder joint is capable of supporting a weight nearly twice that of the arm, and the force thus exercised upon the elbow-joint, knee-joint, and highest joint of the fore-finger are respectively six times, nine times, and thirty-five times greater than are requisite for the support of the fore-arm, leg, and finger. 52. What is the structure of the ribs? The ribs are a frame of bones which enclose a hollow space. The lungs and heart are within them. The ribs are fastened in front to a bone called the breast-bone, and are joined at the oack to the backbone. In front, the rib-bones are joined to the breast-bone by gristle, and this gives them a certain amount of flexibility, and enables them to move more easily when the lungs fill with air. 53. Why is the skull the only cavity in the body that is not enclosed by a membrane ? Because the importance of the brain to life, and the extreme tenderness of its substance, make a solid case more necessary for it than is required for any other part. The skull also completely fturrounding its contents, Ls calculated not for motion, but solely for defence. KATURAL HISTORY. 2L Hope humbly then; with trembling pinions soar; Wait the great teacher Death, and God adore." — POPE. 54. Why are persons remarkable for their stupidity commonly termed '' thick-headed T The bones of the cranium which are in connection with those of the face, require to increase proportionately in their growth, so as to keep pace with the face, and preserve the symmetry of the parts. This they do, however, only in their external table, the internal remaining to preserve the symmetry of the bones of the cranium. From this inequality of development, spaces are left between the two tables termed sinuses. In the forehead, immediately under the eye- brows, there are two such named frontal sinuses. It sometimes happens that the brain shrinks from disease, as in idiocy. In such cases the internal table follows the brain, and the distance between the two tables is increased, the intervening space being either filled with a kind of refuse, or remaining empty, forming unusually large sinuses. 55. A female child about four months after birth was noticed to have an unusually large head. Till the fourth year, however, it did not excite much attention, and the mental powers up to this period seemed to be excited in the ordinary degree. At this period, however, the head began rapidly to enlargo, and the mind became more and more obscured, till complete idiocy supervened, and continued till Her death, which occurred in her twenty-second year. The head became too large to be supported by the puny muscles of the neck ; she therefore constantly lay on a pallet by the side of the fire. She appeared to have some slight glimmerings of mind, was readily amused, like a young child, with noise and brilliant objects, and for years kept rubbing a penny piece in her hands, which she would not part with day or night, and which became at length reduced to the thinness of a wafer. 56. Wliat purposes are served by the projection of the heel and the prominence of the Icnee-pan ? They increase by mechanical adjustment the power of the muscles ; for by such means the point of insertion of the muscles is removed to a distance from the centre of motion in the joint, and the lever power thus obtained is greatly increased. 57. Why is it, that although the bones are designed for the strength- ening and support of the frame, yet they never touch each other ¥ Because were it not for the fine elastic material, the cartilage, interposed between the bones, the frame would be deprived of its 22 THE REASON WHY 1 How poor, how rich, how abjest, how august, How complicate, how wonderful is man." — YOUNG. elasticity. Without such elasticity, a jar would reach the more delicate organs, even in the very recesses of the body, at every violent motion ; and every joint would crack by the attrition of the surfaces of the bones. 58. What is a muscle? A muscle is composed of long slender fibres, which possess the power of contracting, and are everywhere enveloped in common cellular membranes ; the fibres become fewer as they approach the extremity of the muscle, and ultimately terminate. The cellular substance that envelopes them being thus freed from the muscular fibres, joins more closely together, and forms itself into a white, round, or flattened tendon. When the muscular fibres contract, their power is united on the tendon, and drawing it up, makes it perform the action of a pulley. 59. Different muscles accomplish very different purposes. Some of them draw down the limb or part to which they are attached, if it has a moveable joint, and is placed under the part of the body in which it acts. Others elevate and ex- tend the moveable parts to which they belong, and are placed on the superior surface. Some muscles, also, move on the parts obliquely, as the oblique muscles of the eye, and others make them describe a semi-circle, as in the motions of the neck, arms, legs, &c. ; some elevate the upper eyelids ; others contract them, as the eyebrows ; or wrinkle them, as the extremities of the lips. The muscles also act on the legs, arms, fingers, toes, &c., in moving them to either side. Another example of their power is instanced in the forearm, legs, &c. The beauty of the mechanism of the muscles is also evinced in the abdomen, where some are transverse, others straight, oblique, &c. 60. What are the nerves ? They are a species of fine thread running from every part of the body, charged with exquisite sensibility, by which they convey the impression or commands between our will and our muscles. The vital power of a muscle resides in the nerves, and is nervous. Its irritablt power is the property by which it feels and acts, when stimulated without conscious- nets. It is an inherent principle belonging to its constitution, and remains some time after death. Ligaments and tendons support the same weight, whether dead or alive ; fcut a living muscle that lifts one hundred pounds with ease, cannot, after death, raise twenty pounds without danger of rupture. When a muscle is newly cut from a limb, it palpitates and trembles for a considerable time — it cannot be nervous power 'hat thus makes it irritable ; for the nerves being separated from their organ, aif NATURAL HISTORY. *' Look round our world ; behold the chain of Lore Combining all below, and all above."— Pors. dead and powerless. If the heart is newly separated from the body, it contracts if irritated. The bowels continue their penal ultic motion after death, until they be- come stiff and cold. This quality belongs absomte.y to themuscie. and exists, in some cases without nervous irritability altogether — hence, there is a distinction between nervous sensibility and muscular irritability. The former dies immediately with the animal ; the latter lives for a short time after the animal is dead. Muscles are irritab'e and contractile by the inherent principle of their fibres, and are sensible by the vitality communicated through their nerves. Though nerves are sensible, they are not contractile, and cannot perform the functions of muscular fibres. 61. Why do we find -muscles under a multiplicity of forms and attituaes, sometimes with double, sometimes with treble tendons, some- time* witft none, sometimes one tendon to several muscles, at other times one muscle to several tendons ? The nvison for this great mechanical variety in the figure of the muscles, »> owing to a fixed law that the contraction of a muscle shall be towards its centre. Therefore, the object for mechanism on each occasion is so to modify the figure and adjust the position cf the muscle as to produce the motion required agreeably with this law. This can only be done by giving to different muscles a diver- sity of configuration suited to their several offices, and to their situa- tion with respect to the work which they have to perform. 62. The illustration of this principle is as follows : A is the tendinous organ ; B the tendinous insertion, and the muscular fibres run obliquely be- tween them. This obliquity of the fibres is almost universal in the muscles of the limb, and the effect is very important. If we pull obliquely uron a weight, we sacrifice a great deal of power. For what ad- vantage, then, is power resigned in the muscle I If we wish to draw a tLiiig towards any place with the least force, we must pull directly in the line between the object and the place ; but if we wish to draw it as quickly as possible, without any regard to the loss of force, we must pull it obliquely by drawing it in two directions at once. Tie a string to a stone A, and draw it straight towards you at C with one baud ; then make a loop on ano- ther string, and running the first 24 THE REASON WHY : " Leisure is pain ; takes off our chariot wheels ; How heavily we drag the load of life; Blest leisure is our curse." — YOUNO. through it, draw one string: in each hand, B, B, not towards you in the \ir%' A, C- but sideways, till hoth strings are stretched in a straight line : you will see how much swifter the stone moves than it did before when pulled straight forward. Not* this is proved by mathematical reasoning to be the necessary consequence of iorces applied obliquely ; there is a loss of power but a great increase of velocity. The velocity is the quality required to be gained. 63. By what mechanism are the motions of the arm performed ? The arm is joined to the body, and moved by numerous powerful muscles ; and is fixed to the breast by the ligaments of the collar-bone. The muscles that move the shoulder-blade lie upon the trunk ; those that move the arm lie upon the shoulder-blade ; those that move the fore-arm lie upon the arm ; and those that move the hand and fingers lie upon the fore-arm. But as the arm requires easy, circular motions, it has a multiplicity of parts to perform them. It has the wrist, for turning it round ; the elbow, for its hinge-like motions ; and the shoulder-joint, on which it rolls ; and to assist all those, the moveable shoulder-blade becomes the centre of their motions ; for, after a certain point of elevation, the motion of raising the arm is performe J by the action of the shoulder-blade upon the trunk ; when cur shoulder-bone is raised to a horizontal position, it is checked by the upper part of the shoulder-joint which hangs over it -, and if we elevate our arm still higher, the shoulder-blade rolls, turning upon the point of the collar-bone ; and, as it turns, it glides easily upon those muscles, which lie like a fleshy cushion between it and the trunk over which it is placed. 64. Why are the muscles often removed by means of slender strings from the parts they are designed to rest upon ? Because, in many cases, the situation of the muscles where they are immediately required would be inconvenient. If the muscles which move the fingers had been plaoed in the palm or the back of the hand, they would have swelled that part to an awkward and clumsy thickness ; the beauty and the proportion of the part would have been destroyed. They are, therefore, disposed in the arm, and even up to the elbow, and act by long tendons strapped down at the wrist, and passing under the ligaments to the fingers %nd to the joints of the fingers which they are severally to NATURAL HISTORY. Since God is ever present, ever felt, In the void waste as in the city full ; And where he vital breathes there must be joy." — THOMSON. more. In like manner, the muscles which move the toes, and many of the joints of the foot, are disposed in the calf of the leg, instead of forming an unwieldy tumefaction in the foot itself. Thus, also, is it with the nictating membrane over the eye. Its office is in the front of the eye ; but its body is lodged in the back part of the globe, where it lies safe, and where it encumbers nothing. 65. What cure tendons? Tendons are not only necessary as pulleys tc the bones, but to give the limbs a proper form, and preserve their beautiful symmetry, Tendons are seldom required, except where muscles are inserted into bones. There is no tendon in the heart, the stomach, the bowels, or the gullet ; these do not require them, for the motions are wholly contractile, and need no lever power. But where tendons pass over bones and traverse joints, the force is concentrated into narrow bounds, and their long cords being fixed to the extremities of the muscles, pull the bones, and raise them in obedience to our will Tendons have no visible nerves, and little or no motion. 66. What is cartilage f Cartilage is intermediate in hardness with bone, and what are called the soft parts — it is firm and resisting, and yet it has a great deal of elasticity. In some parts of the body there are car- tilages serving for continuations of bones, such as those which con- tinue the ribs and connect them to the breast-bone, and they are exactly similar to bones from which the earthy parts have been dissolved by an acid. 67. The cartilaginous crusts which cover the auricular ends of bones are of a very beautiful and peculiar structure. If a piece of bone be sawn towards its articular end, till all be cut through, and then the remaining part, and the cartilage covering it be torn asunder, the cartilage will be found to present an infinity of fibres set perpendicularly on the surface of the bone. When a portion of the bone v. itli its articular cartilage has been soaked in "water for some weeks, the cartilage i found to have lost its smooth surface and cohesion, and looks exactly as if the b.j.tv !(.ul Uo«i covered with white vchx-t. 26 THE REASON WHY : " We censure Nature for a span too short ; That span too short we tax as tedious too; Fortune, invention, all expedients tire, To lash the lingering moments into speed." — Yovxo. 68. What are ligaments? Ligaments are composed of numerous straight fibres collected to- gether, and arranged into short bands of various breadth, parallel or radiating, and interwoven with others which cross them. Sometimes the ligament is so formed as to surmount the articular ends of two bones which move upon one another, and here it is called a capsule' Ligaments are not extensible nor elastic ; hence, when any attempt is made to stretch them too far, great pain is the result, and inflammation follows, and they are said to be sprained. CHAPTER III. THE INTERNAL ORGANS OF THE HUMAN FRAME! THE HEART, LUNGS, LIVER, STOMACH, BRAIN, ETC. 69. Haw is blood formed ? The food which we eat is masticated and afterwards swallowed ; it is then received into the stomach, where it is prepared by digestion for the nourishment of the body. Here tLe^e is a fluid formed which changes the food into a substance cu'Jcd chymer which, passing into the several intestines, is there con>.,rced into a milky liquour denominated chyle. This is the fluid isirrttar from which the blood is formed. 70. WJiat is the composition of blood? The blood may be described as consisting of innumerable cells suspended in a gelatinous fluid. These cells or globules are formed of thin transparent sacs, evolving a reddish fluid, tne quantity and quality of which undergo constant changes, hi consequence of its passing to and fro vessels containing a denser fluid. As a general rule, the deeper or lighter colour of the blood may be said to depend on the greater or smaller number of the globules. The colour may also become darker although the globules are uimin- ished ; and this is caused by the blood cells assuming a more globular form, through its action of passing in the vessel con NATURAL HISTORY. 27 " Blest son of foresight, lord of fate I That awful independent of to-morrow ! Whose work is done ; who triumphs in the past ; Whose yesterdays look backward with a smile." — YOUNG. taming the denser fluids, and reflects the rays of light in a different manner. 71. Howis the blood in the human body circulated and purified ? First, the heart sends the blood to all the capillaries through one set of blood-vessels called arteries. Then the blood is brought back to the heart by another set of blood-vessels called veins. Next by the blood which returns by the veins is impure, and is sent by another set of arteries from the heart into the lungs, to be purified by the air we breathe. Then it is brought back to the heart by another set of veins. Thus there are two sets of arteries and veins through which the blood is all made to pass ; first, through the body and back to the heart for the purpose of nourishment, and then through the lungs and back for the purpose of purification. 72. The right side of the heart receives and sends out the impure blood. The upper division receives it from the body through two large veins. Then the blood passes to the lower division of the heart, where it is sent to the lungs through one with two branches, large artery one for each lung. This is the pulmonary artery . The left side of the heart receives and sends out the pure blood. The upper portion receives it from the lunss through three large veins. Then the blood passes to the lower division of the heart when it is sent to the capillariet all over the body through one large artery called the aorta. 73. Why is the blood regarded as so important an agent in animal economy ? Because the blood is the vehicle of life to every atom of our organization. By properties peculiar to itself, all the various fluids of our body are produced from it, and every particle of bone, muscle, membrane, nerve, and vessel must have existed as an in- gredient of the blood, and have been conveyed to its appropriate 28 THE REASON WHY: 1 All men think all men mortal but themselves ; Themselves, when some alarming shock of fate Strikes through their wounded hearts the sudden dread." — YOUNO. place by this circulating spring of energy and nourishment. No vital action is maintained without blood, and should it cease to flow through the brain, all the sense would be speedily shut up, and every function speedily superseded. 74. In the accompanying engraving the circulation of the blood as performed by a single heart is depicted : V represents the ventricle, or strong muscular bag of th« heart, which when filled with blood contracts upon it, just as any other muscle does, and so forces out the contents through the pipe which arises from it, called the aorta, just as the contents of an india-rubber bag are squeezed out through a pipe fixed in its neck. The only difference is, that whereas an external force squeezes the bag, the heart, beir.g muscular, has a power of contraction of its own, and, as it were, squeezes itself ; and then, just like the india-rubber bag which regains its shape when the pressure is removed, so the heart, when it has squeezed out all the blood, dilates itself again, and is ready to con- tract anew. The blood having been poured into the great artery, goes through branches up to the head, and down to the lower part of the body, where its minute or capillary ter- minations are seen to end in veins. Those from the lower part <>f *Vu» body form an inferior great vein ; those from the upper, * superior : and the two veins terminate separately into a bag Ay called the auricle. The auricle is Inot nearly so strong as the ventricle, because it has nothing to do with forcing the blood over the body; it is intended merely as a receptacle for the venous blood, till the ventricle be ready to receive it. The auricle is constantly full of blood, which flows to it through the veins in an equable stream, so that when ever the emptied ventricle dilates, the blood from the auricle rushes in, and distends it for a renewed contraction. The arteries are a set of tubes both dilatable and elastic. Hence at the moment •when the ventricle contracts, the blood which is forced into them distends them, increasing their diameter, and producing the feeling communicated to the fingers placed over them, which is called the pulse. The number of the pulse is therefore the number of contractions which the heart is making in a minute ; and at the moment when the ventricle dilates, the artery, having the distending force taken off, contracts on its contents. It would now drive part of the blood back again into the ventricle were it not for a valve placed in the artery at its origin, which shuts down the moment the pressure comes on it backwards, so that the force of the elasticity of the artery is expended in propelling the blood forward, not in an equable stream but in successive waves. Again ; when the ventricle contracts to throw its blood into the aorta, it would throw back an equal portion into the Auricle, were not a valve placed there also, which shuts the moment the ventricle •on tracts. NATURAL H1STOR1 29 " At thirty man suspects himself a foo., Knows it at forty, and amends bis plun." — YOUNO. 75. IVliy have veins a blue or black appearance, although blood is of a red colour ? Because the oxygen which the blood originally contains is ab- sorbed as it passes through its course of circulation, and the blood is discoloured. But when it is again sent through the lungs, it receives a fresh supply of oxygen and regains its colour. 76. Wliy are the veins sometimes seen to swell ? As long as the veins that proceed from the organs are free, the blood that arrives in them from the arteries runs on and does not accumulate in them ; but if the veins are compressed, or cannot empty themselves of the blood always arriving by the arteries, and finding no place in the veins, accumulates on the tissue of the organ, distends the blood-vessels, and augments, more or less, its volume, particularly if its physical properties can undergo these changes. The swelling of the brain, by the difficulty of the circula- tion happens every time that the blood has more difficulty in passing through the lungs ; and as that generally takes place in expiration, the brain swells in this instance so much more in proportion as the expiration is more complete and of larger continuation. 77. Why is a ligature tied round the arm when it is bled ? Because the veins have valves placed in them at certain distances, which prevent the blood from flowing backward from the heatf towards the extremities ; when the ligature is tied the blood is constantly arriving from below, because the pressure is not great enough to obstruct the arteries, but it cannot get up past the bandage ; the veins are therefore distended and become prominent, so as easily to be seen and punctured ; and then as the blood cannot get down the arm again on account of the valves, it is necessitated to flow out at the orifice. 78. JVTiy does moderate cold act as a stimulant to the system? Because cold repels the blood from the surface, braces and con- tracts the integuments, and lessens the transpiration. The thinner and superfluous quantity of the circulating fluid is no longer thrown from the surface, but is drained off in the fluid state, and 30 JPHE REASON WHY : Then say not man's imperfect, Heaven in fault; Say rather, man's as perfect as he ought ; His knowledge measured to his state and place; His time a moment, and a point his space." — POPK. thus all the heat which would have been requisite for its conversion into vapour is preserved, and affords additional nourishment to the system. 79. Wliy does fear cause ike cheeks to turn pale, while rage makes them red ? Because, when persons are affected by fear, the respiration and the afflux of arterial blood are diminished, and paleness of the skin con- sequently ensues ; but when the passions are excited, respiration and the afflux of arterial blood are increased, and a flushed state of the cheeks follows. 80. Why is u, pale cheek and blanched lip an indication of Because the lesser or greater number of globules present in the blood is made known in the one case by the pallor of the cheek, and in the other by its florid appearance. And as these red globules are the carriers of oxygen, and consequently in a great measure the exciters of vital action, it follows that the general state of the health is necessarily regulated by the supply of these important agents. 81. Why is headache increased by a jit of coughing ? Because expiration assists the heart in propelling the blood, and as the act of coughing considerably increases expiration, the flow of blood to the brain is greatly augmented, and the consequent distended state of the vessels adds to the aching of the head. 82. What are the lungs? The two lungs are placed, on each side of the spine, in hollow sjaces formed by the arching of the ribs. They may be compared to large pieces of sponge, which alternately suck in and squeeze out the blood of the body and the air of the surrounding atmosphere. The air passes and re-passes by the same tubes. The air-tubes, com- mencing with the wind-pipe, and branching off frequently in different directions, become gradually smaller and more numerous, until they terminate in miimtf expansions, which are the air-cells HISTORY. " We gaze around ; We read their movements ; we sigh; and w] ile We sigh, we sink, and are what we deplored."— You»o. of the lungs. The blood is raised into the kings by one set of tubes or vessels termed arteries, and passes back by another set of vessels termed veins. When the ribs are raised and the floor of the chest drawn down by the muscles of inspiration, the walls of the chest fall in, or when they are brought nearer together by the muscles of expiration, the due proportion of air and blood is, by gentle pressure, sent out from the interior of the lungs. A firm and elastic membrane lines ths inside of the chest, and the same membrane passing back, covers in the lungs, forming their outer coat. By this doubling of the membrane, the lungs without being attached except at their roots, where the lobes enter, are held by their own elastic action in clou* contiguity to tfee chest, and thus they move freely with itn movements. 83. The right lung is divided into three parts or lobes; the left lung is divide*. into two lobes, between which is a space where the point of the heart lies. Each lung is contained in & email membranous bag called the pleura, and the air-vessels whi«A are connected with the windpipe, through which we breatiie, run. along between the blood-vessels in the lungs, and so give to them that quantity of air which is re- quired to change the colour of the blood and to render it fit for «ir- eulatiou. The accompanying en- graving will serve to illustrate the structure and position oft-h« lungs ; in the centre is a membrane which divides the chest. The ribs are cut ofl, so as to show the in- Bide of the chest. The diaphragm which divides the chest from the has been removed. Th* THE REASON WHY t 1 Man flies from tirae, and time from man ; too soon In sad divorce this double flight must end." — YOUNG. three lobes of the right lung and the two lobes of the left lung are shown in their proper positions, g is the windpipe through which air is admitted. 84. Why are the lungs capable of indicating whether an infant found dead has been still-born or not ? Because lungs which have never breathed are heavier than water, and sink ; but lungs which have breathed, if only once, are lighter than water, and swim. 85. The lungs, previously to birth, are compressed like a squeezed sponge, and ex- pand whenever the pressure is taken off. The moment they expand tbe air rushes in by the nostrils and mouth ; and the force with which it enters causes the expan- sion a little beyond the natural state. This acts as a stimulus upon the muscles, which immediately contract, diminish the cavity of the chest, and, in conjunction with the elasticity of the lungs, expel the air till the lungs are again reduced to less than their natural capacity, and this stimulates the antagonists of the former muscles, namely, those which expand the chest, and they assist the pressure of the atmosphere in again filling the lungs. The expansion of the lungs is always pro- duced by their own elasticity, for no muscular apparatus could work so fine a structure ; but the expansion of the chest gives room ; and the contraction of the chest again occasions the expulsion. Thus the lungs are set going by atmospheric pressure and elasticity ; and the action is kept up and regulated by this and muscular force conjointly. 8& Why does the chest heave when we breathe ? Because when we inspire the air, the ribs are drawn upward and outward, and the diaphragm at the same time is fouied down. When we expire the air, the ribs return to their natural place, whilst the diaphragm is again drawn up. 87. In the accompanying illustra- tion, the front half of the ribs being cut away, the interior cf the chest is exposed. C C is the cavity of the chest, empty. D D 1) D the dia- phragm, rising high in the centr" NATURAL HISTORY". " Life's cares are comforts ; such by Heaven designed ; lie that has none must make them or be wretched." — YOUNG. and descending very low at the sides and behind. The white space is its ten- donous portion. The lower part is muscle that contracts to draw it downward. A A is the abdomen. 88. Wliat is the liver, and how are its functions performed ? The liver lies horizontally on the right side of the body immediately below the diaphragm, and is protected by the interior ends of the lower ribs. Its function is to secrete the greenish-yellow fluid, the gall or bile, which is conveyed from the liver by a canal called the hepatic duct. On the lower surface of the liver is situated a small pear-shaped bag, the gall bladder, which is also famished with a duct, called the crystic duct, which unites with the duct from the liver, and forms the common biliary duct. 89. IVJiat is the composition of the brain ? The brain is composed of two substances, namely, of a grey- coloured pulp, and of a wlute fibrous texture. The grey pulp is the glandular or active substance, and is made up, like other glands, of minute points or cavities, from which proceed the finest conducting tubes. These tubes, intertwining and uniting in bundles within the brain, are called the cerebral fibres, and they constitute the white substance occupying, for the most part, the central and under portions of the brain. The grey substance lies chiefly on and near the surface, and also in the neighbourhood of those cavities within the brain, which .are called its ventricles. The brain is separated by a firm membrane into two distinct organs, the great brain and the small brain. The great brain is situated in the front and upper part of the skull, and its surface is marked by depressions and elevations which, resem- bling the folds of a garment, are called its convolutions. The small Drain lies und^irneath at the back of the skull ; its surface is formed bv close layers of the grey substance, presenting a laminated appear- ance. Four united roots or stems of the fibrous substance, two from each brain, with distinct portions of the grey or glandular substance u,t regular intervals interspersed, constitute the spinal cord. Nerves P;ISSS 01 m of the brain and spinal cord, and are distributed to every organ of the body. 2* 34 THE REASON WHY : " Far as creation's ample range extends, The scale of sensual, mental powers ascends." — POPE. 90. The functions of the great and small brain appear to be regulated by a system of mutual dependence and co-operation. During wakefulness the great brain, aided by the influence of the small brain, and also by that of the spinal cord, conducts and regulates the conscious movements of the body. But during sleep, when the great brain relaxes the reins of government, and pives them over to the small brain, this organ, being left to its own laws, directs, through its own fibres and those of the spinal cord, the movements of the heart, lungs, and other internal organs, acting at the same time on the muscles ; and while the small brain flows into all these, there results a plenary equilibrium of the body, and a general co-operation of all its parts for the mutual support of each other, and for the preservation of the whole. 91. IVhy is it that although the brain and the spinal cord are so intimately connected, yet the brain is not affected by the violent movements which the spine is constantly making ? The evil is partly obviated by the elastic and partly by the non- elastic properties of the matter interposed between the several layers of compact bone. By means of the elastic property of this matter, the head rides upon the summit of the column as upon a pliant spring, while the canal of the spinal cord remains secure and uninvaded. By means of the soft and pulpy portion of this matter, the vibrations excited in the compact bone are absorbed point by point as they are produced ; as many layers of this soft and pulpy substance, so many points of absorption of the tremors excited in the compact bone, so many barriers against the possibility of the transmission of a shock to the delicate nervous substance. 92. Why may the form of the skull be sometimes changed without injuring the brain ? Because the peculiar softness of the cerebral mass enables it to undergo those changes of its envelope without inconvenience The brain, in proportion to its softness, will suffer percussions am pressures with less danger ; and, on this account, new-born children whose bones are soft and moveable, may have their head? compressed, and even deformed, without any bad effect. 93. Among some of the savage tribes a low brow is regarded as a beauty • f^d *•> secure this, the heads of infants are subjected to pressure from plates fixed oil the top of the head, by which means, the crown of the head becomes periectty ua., while the back portion of it protrudes extensively. NATURAL HISTORY. 35 ; But of this frame the bearing and the ties, The strong connexions, nice dependencies, Gradations just, has thy pervading soul looked through?" — POPE. 94. Why are the gums admirably fitted to receive tJie teeth f Because they not only serve as firm elastic cushions whereby they rapidly diffuse the force, and powerfully support the teeth when forcibly employed, but by the vascular connection between them, in part supply them with nourishment 95. By the manner in which teeth are implanted in the sockets, they are afforded an extensive surface of support. The force is not concentrated at the point, as lu the case of a nail thrust into a board ; but is uniformly diffused over the whole L surface of the fang, as may be seen in the annexed engraving, where the fangs of the middle toota Press on a surface, a a «, equal to four times that of the crown, 6 ; so that supposing the pressure on the crown to be equai to four pounds, being extended over the surface of the fangs, it is reduced to one pound on any given point of the root, and with a similar force upon the sockets. 96. Why are ike teeth of infants hidden within the gums! Because the presence of teeth would not only be useless, but would interrupt the process of sucking, by which means the infant is for some time nourished, and which act can be performed more efficiently, and with greater ease and comfort to the nurse, whilst the inside of the mouth and edges of the gums are smooth and soft. 97. What renders it more probable that this is the effect of design is, that tho teeth are imperfect while all the other parts of the mouth are perfect. The lips are perfect ; the tongue is perfect; the cheeks, the jaws, the palate, the pharynx, tho larynx, are all perfect; the teeth alone are not so. All these parts are called into use from the beginning. 98. Why do new teeth sometimes make their appearance at an advanced age ? In such cases the jaw was too small to contain the full number of the second set of teeth at the ordinary period of their renewal ; some of the teeth, therefore, remain in the jaw, which when others drop out make their appearance. TUB REASON WHY: From an eye of tenderness, Let heavenly pity fall." — YOUNG. 99. Why have tears a globular form? Because the superfluous fluid secreted by the eye, of which fluid tears are composed, is discharged through a hole in the bone, of about the circumference of a goose quill, in these the tears become moulded to this form. 100. What is the form of the stomach ? The stomach has the shape of the pouch of a bag-pipe, lies across the body ; and the passage by which the food leaves it is some- what higher in the body than the orifice by which the food enters ; so that it is by the contraction of the muscular coat of the stomach, that the contents having undergone the application of the gastric juice, are gradually pressed out. 101. Why is the free action of the pores of the skin essential to the health of the body? Because they act as a species of pipes through which the expended refuse matter is conveyed from the body. These tubes open through the cuticle or outer skin, and descend into the fine or underneath skin, and then form themselves into a coil as seen in the drawing. These tubes are hollow, like a pipe-stem, and their inner surface consists of wonderfully minute capillaries filled with impure venous blood. The capillaries of these tubes through the whole skin of the body are thus constantly exhaling the noxious and decayed particles of the body. It is calcu- lated that about three or four pounds of waste matter pass off through the skin every twenty- four hours. 102. Why is watered milk the most suitable food for the nourishment of the infant? Because this aliment has a close analogy to blood, and the greatest amount of nutrition is therefore afforded in an agreeable forin, and by an easy method, whereas any other mode of supplying NATURAL HI3TOHY. 37 " Man marks not thee, marks not the mighty hand That, ever busy, wheels the silc-ut spheres; Works in the secret deep." — THOMSON. the same amount and quality of food would overtax the powers and functions of the infant. 103. If a small drop of milk be submitted to the microscope it will be found to manifest nearly the same appearances as a drop of blood will present. A multitude of minute pearly sphericles with the most perfect outline, reflecting light brilliantly from their centre, and varying in magnitude from the 12,500th to the 3,000th part of an inch in diameter, and even larger as seen floating in the fluid. The general magnitude and number of these globules vary much, not only in the case of one species of animal compared with another, but with different individuals ol the same species, and even with the same individual under different circumstances. The constituent upon which the nutritive properties of milk mainly depends is butter ; in this respect woman's milk is found to be by far the richest, as will be seen from the following comparative results : — Woman. Cow. Goat. Ass. Butter 8-97 2-68 4-56 1-29 Sugar of Milk 1-20 5-68 9-12 6-29 Cheesy Matter 1-93 8-95 4'38 1'95 Water ... .. 87-90 .. .. 82'69 .. .. 81-94 .. .. 90-47 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 104. Why is it better for mankind that the action of the L^^ organs of the body are hidden from sight ? Because were we sensible of the organic motions — di 'L ve when the heart beats, the lungs play, and the stoi'iv,'j the consciousness could not promote, but might di'j'Aib the due and orderly course of these processes. 105. We do not know when the heart dilates to receive the ^ Ol cutrent, nor when it contracts to propel it with renewed impetus through the jj r iMa ; nor when the blood rushes to the lungs to give out its useless and noxious y Jt'jlw ; nor when the air rushes to the blood to take up those particles, to rer L*ff '.roar; by others, and thus to purify and renovate the vital fluid. Many prov* jC» rf this kind are con- tinually going on within us during every moment of ru.- ei's'ence, but we are no more conscious of them than we are of the motion of tflt folds in the blade of grass on which we tread. On the contrary, when an »jx.tjrral object produces in a sentient nerve that change of state which we denot j "jy the words " an impression ;" when the sentient nerve transmits this impress '.CA to the brain ; when the brain is thereby brought into the state of perception , f AU animal life is in active operation, and percepient or conscious existence tatr , p\ace. 3S THE REASON WHY My pulse as yours doth temperately keep lime, And makes as healthful music." — SHAKSPERE. 106. Wliy may the organic life exist after the animal life hoe perished ? Because the animal life is extinguished when sensation is abolished, and voluntary motion can be performed no more. But disease may abolish sensation and destroy the power of voluntary motion, while circulation, respiration, secretion, excre- tion, and the entire circle of organic functions continue to be performed. 107. The disease known as catalepsy affords the most striking illustration jf this extraordinary condition of the system ; and the following is a case in point : A young lady was seized with a fit of catalepsy while employed in netting ; she was in the act of passing the needle through the mesh : in that position she became im- movably rigid, exhibiting in a pleasing form a figure of death — like sleep, beyond the power of art to imitate, or the imagination to conceive. Her forehead was serene, her features perfectly composed. The paleness of her colour, and her breathing, which at a distance was scarcely perceptible, operated in rendering the similitude to marble more exact and striking. The position of her fingers, hands, and arms, was altered with difficulty, but preserved every form of flexure they acquired; nor were the muscles of the neck exempted from this law, her head maintaining every situation in which the hand could place it, as firmly as her limbs. 108. Why is it erroneous to suppose that deep-seated vital organs have what is ordinarily termed "feeling ?" Because (taking the heart as an illustration) the pulsation of the heart may be felt through the side, and those arteries which lie near the surface may be felt to beat. After violent exertion or excitement, too, the pulsation of the heart may be felt, and in imagination at least, if not in reality, heard without the application of the hand to any part of the body. But the circulation of the blood is never felt, and the heart itself gives us no internal evidence of its existence. 109. A well-authenticated case of the insensibility of the heart to feeling of any kind, is furnished by the celebrated Harvey, the discoverer of the circulation of the vertebrae by :he pleura behind. It seems indeed to be the very use of the mediastinum (which is a membrane that goes straight through the middle of the thorax, from the breast to the back) to keep th<" contents of the thorax in their places ; in particular to hinder one lobe of the lungs from incommoding another, or the parts of the lungs from pressing upon each other when we lie on the side. The liver is fastened in the body by two ligaments ; the first, which is large and strong, comes from the covering of the diaphnisnn. and penetrates the substance of the liver ; the second is the umbilical vein, whicn, alter birth, degenerates into a lig-ament. The first, which is the principal, fixes the liver in its situation whilst the body holds an erect posture ; the second prevents it from pressing on the diaphragm when we he down ; and both together sling or suspend the liver when we lie upon our backs, so thnt it may not compress or obstruct the vein to which belongs the important office of returning the blood from the body to the heart. 40 THE REASON WHY : " What a piece of work is a man ! How noble in reason ! how infinite in faculties. In forin and moving, how express and admirable! In action, how like an angel ! in apprehension, how like a God.' CHAPTER IV. THE SENSES — SEEING, HEARING, SMELLING, TASTING, AND FEELING. 112. Why are the, senses of seeing, hearing, tasting, and smelling •pla-ced in the head? Because the head is the most elevated part of the body, and is capable of moving independently of the rest of the fabric. Thus the organs of sense, which put us in connection with the external world, which render us susceptible of pleasure, and which give us notice of the approach of objects capable of exciting pain, are placed where external bodies may be brought most conveniently and completely in contact with them, and where alone they can be efficient as the sentinels of the system. 113. How do we know that the powers of seeing depend more upon the mechanical exercise of the eye itself than upon mental capacity ? Because many persons in certain departments of life, are capable of discerning objects more readily in connection with their pursuits than better informed or more intellectual persons who have seldom or never seen those objects ; thus a sailor will descry the various phenomena of the elements, which are invisible to the learned and refined passenger ; and the ploughman will point out certain objects in a landscape to the wondering student who has just escaped from his labours. On the other hand, persons who are much accustomed to reading are enabled to take in, as it were, the contents of a wholo page of a book, while another person less accustomed to reading has only been able to master two or three lines. 114. Why is it erroneous to suppose, that on entering a, room wt tee all the objects in it at once ? Because this apparently simultaneous view arises from the motions NATCRAL HISTORY. 41 And ia the silence of his calm abode, In nature's works he worshipped nature's God." MATILDA HOUSTON. of the eye, which admit of great objects being successively presented to it with a rapidity of which we are unconscious, 115. It is easy to show that if the eye were without motion, steadily fixed in the socket, the vision would be quickly lost ; that objects of the greatest brilliancy would be obscurely seen, or disappear. For example, let us fix the eye on one point— a thing somewhat difficult to do, owing to the very disposition in the eye to be constantly moving ; but suppose that by repeated attempts we have at length acquired the power of directing the eye steadily on an object, when we have done so, we shall find that the whole scene becomes more and more obscure, and finally vanishes. Let us fix the eye on the corner of the frame of the principal picture in the room ; at first everything around the room will be distinct ; in a very little tune the impression will become weaker, objects will appear dim, and then the eye will have an almost uncontrollable desire to wander ; if this be resisted, the im- pressions of the figures in the picture will first fade ; for a time we shall see the gilded frame alone ; but this also will become faint. When we have thus ascer- tained the fact, if we change the direction of the eye but ever so little, the whole scene will at once again be perfect to us. 116. Why is incessant motion of the eye essential to the continued exercise of the organ ? Because when the eye is fixed upon a point, the lights, shades, and colours of objects continuing to strike upon the same part of the retina, the nerve is exhausted ; but when the eye shifts there is a new exercise of the nerve ; the part of the retina that was opposed to the lights is now opposed to the shades, and what was opposed to different colours is now opposed to other colours, and the variation in the exciting cause produces a renewed sensation. 117. Why do we know that the ideas we obtain of the size, shape, and distance of objects depend mainly upon the education of the tight? Because optical illusions, however nearly they resemble realities when they first meet the eye, are satisfactorily proved to have no existence, by the attentive and correct use of that very organ which gave rise to the error. 118. Dr. Cheselden, by a surgical operation, procured sight to a very intelligent person who was bora blind, arid he observed the manner in which this sense was developed in the young man. " When he saw the light for the first time, he knew BO little how to judge of distances, that Li believed the objects which he s%w 42 THE REASON WHY : " He that is giddy thinks the world turns round." — SIIAKBPERB. touched his eye§, as the things which he felt touched his skin." During the time of his blindness he had received such an imperfect idea of colours which, by a very strong light, he was then ahle to distinguish, that a sufficient impression had not been left by which he could again recognise them. Indeed, when he saw them, he said the colours he then saw were not the same as those he had seen formerly ; he did not know the form of any object ; nor could he distinguish one object from another, however different their sJze and configuration might be ; when objects were shown te him which he had known formerly by the touch, he looked at them with attention, and observed them carefully in order to recognise them again ; but as he had too many objects to retain at once, he forgot the greater part of them, and when he first learnt, as he said, to see and to know objects, he forgot a thousand for one that he recollected. It was two months before he discovered that pictures represented solid bodies ; until that time he had considered them as planes and surfaces differently coloured and diversified by a variety of shades ; but when he began to conceive that these pictures represented solid bodies, in touching the canvas of the picture with his hand he expected to find something solid upon it, and he was much astonished when, upon touching those parts which seemed round and unequal, he found them flat and smooth like the rest. He could not support much light at first, and every object seemed very large to him ; but after he had seen larger things, he considered the first smaller ; he thought there was nothing beyond the limits of his sight. The same operation was performed on the other eye about a year after the first, and it succeeded equally well. At first he saw objects with his second eye much larger than with the other, but not so large, however, as he had seen them with his first eye ; and when he looked at the same object with both eyes at once, he said that it appeared twice as large as with the first eye. 119. Why is sight essential to the firmness of most of our attitudes ? Because we judge of the position of our bodies by other bodies vrhich we see around us. Thus, when we are deprived of this means of judging of our equilibrium, as when we are on a house, or any elevated place where we are only surrounded by the air, our standing becomes uncertain, and it sometimes happens that we feel giddy, and cannot stand at alL 120. The utility of sight is still greater if the base of support is very narrow ; a rope dancer could not stand erect if he were not constantly directed by the eye as to the position necessary to be preserved, in order that the perpendicular drawn from his centre of gravity may fall upon the base of support. This connection between sight and attitude is further demonstrated by tjie uncertain pnstuics which bund persons assume. NATURAL HISTORY. 43 " Time wasted is existence, used is life, And bare existence, man, to live ordained, Wrings and oppresses with enormous weight." — YOTJNO. 121. Why does the pupil of the eye contract and dilate ? Because when it is necessary to exclude excess of light, the pupil through which the light enters may gradually or wholly exclude it by contraction ; and when a large amount of light is desired, the dilation of the pupil in a similar degree ensures the admission of a greater number of rays. 122. The chamber of the eye is a camera-obscura, which, when the light is too small, can enlarge its opening ; when too strong, can again contract it ; and that without any other assistance than of its own exquisite machinery. 123. Why is a person unable to discern objects when passing from, a strongly-illuminated room into one comparatively dark, or into the open air at night ? Because the contraction of the pupil, which was adapted to the strong light to which it had been previously exposed, admits so little light to the retina that no sensation is produced. The pupil, how- ever, after a while dilates, and, admitting more light, objects are perceived which were before invisible. 124. Why does the eye of a person suffer inconvenience and pain in passing from a dark room into a light one ? Because, while the observer remains in the dark or less illu- minated room, the pupil is dilated to that degree so as to admit into the eye as great a quantity of light as the structure of the organ allows of. When he passes suddenly into the strongly-illuminated room the flood of light arriving through the widely dilated pupil acts with such violence upon the retina as to produce pain, which necessarily calls for the relief and protection of the organ. The iris, then, by an action peculiar to it, contracts the dimension of the pupil so as to admit proportionally less light, and the eye is gradually opened with impunity. 125. Why is tlie pupil of the eye so called? Because if we look into the eye of another we shall perceive a little image of our own face, like a very minute child or pupil — hence the name. 44 THE REASON WHY . " There are more tilings in heaven and earth, Horatio, Than are dreamed of in your philosophy." — 126. Why are some persons short-sighted? Because the rays of light are brought to a focus before they reach the retina, and consequently produce an indistinct picture on the retina. This will be more clearly illustrated by the accompanying engraving. 127. The remote causes of this defect of the eye may be various ; as too great density of the humours — too great a convexity either of the cornea or the lens — and from the space between the retina and the lens being too short. Where it dcpcads on too much convexity, as age approaches, it may disappear ; but where too great density is the cause, age is apt rather to aggravate than to relieve it. For while in the young the convexity both of the cornea and the lens is greater than in advanced life, the less density of the humours counterbalances it ; and again as life advances, the more scanty supply of humours, along with the diminishing convexity, are neutralised by the increasing density ; therefore, if these keep pace with each other the eye remains to a very protracted period of life without the necessity for Artificial assistance. 128. WJiy do the eyes sometimes become "bloodshot?" Because when the eye is healthy its blood-vessels are so small that only the colourless portion of the blood finds its way through them. But when the eye is inflamed, the coats of these vessels be- coming weaker, they are readily distended by the impulse of the blood against them ; they then become enlarged, the red globules find their way into them, and they are rendered red and visible to the naked eye. 129. Why, when the sight is impaired in old age, are persons compelled to wear spectacles) or to hold objects at a distance from them in order to distinguish them perfectly ? Because the diminished refractive power of the organ is accom- panied by a divergence of the rays of light which tends to confuse and obscure the sight. By holding objects at a distance the divergence becomes diminished, and the same effect is produced by convex glasses. NATURAL HISTORY. 45 1 'Tis greatly wise to -walk with our best hours, And ask them what report they've borne to heaven." — YOUNG. 130. It is customary with opticians to place in the hands of a person requiring spectacles a book or newspaper, and by the distance at which the one or the othei is instantly held from the sight, the optician is enabled to judge of the degree of tho defect of the vision and the kind of glass that is required. 131. Why does the eye lose its lustre in old age and sickness ? Because the lustre of the healthy eye is produced by the aetion of the muscles of the eye-ball maintaining it firmly in its place, pres- sing it against the fatty cushion on which it rests, and giving to it that tension necessary to render the corner prominent, clear, and full. In old age and sickness the muscles of the eye partake of the general debility of the system, and its functions are thus deranged. 132. Wliy do some persons squint ? Strabismus, or squinting, is caused by one or more of the muscles of the eye being shortened or elongated ; and by the derangement of their action the pupil is consequently carried out of the proper axis of vision. 133. This defect is cured by a very simple operation. The shortened or elongated muscle is cut down by a skilful operator. The false position of the pupil is imme- diately rectified by the division of the disordered muscle that induced obliquity by its irregular action. The divided muscle in healing shortens or lengthens, and during the healing process suits itself to the exigencies of the case, and in a short time re-unites. 134. Wliy when we look for some time at a white spot upon a black ground, and afterwards direct the eye to a white ground, do we perceive a black spot ? Because the retina of the eye has become insensible in the point which was formerly fatigued by the white light. In the same manner, after the retina has been some time without acting in one of its points, whilst the others have icted, the point which has been in repose becomes of an extreme sensibility, and on this account objects seem as if they were spotted. 135. In this manner it is explained why, after having looked for a long time at a red spot, white bodies appear as if spotted with green ; in this case the retina has become insensible to the red rays, and we know that a ray of white light, from which the red is substracted, produces the sensation of green. 46 THE REASON WIIY : Ench friend by fate snatched from us, is a plume Plucked from the wing of vain humanity." — YOTJNO. 136. Why does a flash of light from the eye generally follow from a violent bloiv on that organ or the surrounding parts ? Because light, or some degree or modification of light, is the only impression of which the eye is susceptible ; and therefore every effect upon the parts of the eye which are essential to vision only must be a sensation of light. 137. A violent blow on the eye appears as an instantaneous flash of light, and this effect is produced, not only when the eye itself is struck, but when there is a violent concussion of the head, which we may suppose to be transmissable to the surround- ing parts of the eye, and so to the eyeball itself. If a person walking hastily and heedlessly in the dark strikes his forehead violently against an object of resist- ance, then instantly, and before any pain is felt in the part which has received the stroke, a flash of light is seen by both eyes, brighter in proportion as the stroke is more violent. Thus, any sudden agitation produced in the exterior coats of the eyeball, from whatever source it may arise, always tells upon the sentient part of the eye as light, and never as pain or any other sensation. 138. Why cannot a person distinguish minute objects in the water with his head likewise immersed in the fluid ? Because, although there is sufficient difference between the den- sity of the humours of the eye and that of the air, to bring the rays transmitted by the latter to a focus on the retina, there is not suffi- cient difference between the density of these humours and that of water, to do the same by rays transmitted through this fluid, so that such rays are not brought to a focus sufficiently soon. Hence divers in some places are in the habit, when they descend into the water, of using extremely convex glasses, in shape almost like the lens of fishes, and turning their eyes by this means, as it were, into those of an aquatic animal. 139. Why are the eyes furnished with lashes f Because they serve to ward off insects, and to protect the eye from particles floating in the air. Wlien the eyelashes are humid, the little drops of moisture decompose the rays of light, and, even independently of humidity, they also partly resolve the light passing into the interior of the eye. 140. When the eyelids are placed near each other, and the eyelashes admit only a •mall quantity of light to pass at a time, the eyelashes, by separating into pencils NATURAL HISTORY. 47 And as lie spoke a big round drop F"l' bounding1 on his ample sleeve ; A witness mat he could not stop, A witness that we all believe." — BLOOMFIELD. the light which penetrates the eye, make bodies in ignition appear during the night as if they were surrounded with luminous rays. This appearance does not take place if the eyelashes are inverted, or merely turned in another direction. The vision of those persons who have lost their eyelashes is always more or less imperfect. 141. Why are the eyes protected by eyebrows ? The eyebrows have many uses. The projection which they form protects the eye against external violence ; the hairs on account of their oblique direction, and the oily matter with which they are covered, prevent the perspiration from flowing towards or irritating the surface of that organ : they direct it towards the temple and the root of the nose. The colour and the number of hairs of the eye- brows have an influence upon their use. They have generally some relation to the climate. The inhabitants of hot countries have them very thick and black ; the inhabitants of cold countries may have them thick, but they are rarely black. The eyebrows protect tht eyes from excess of light, particularly when it comes from above , this effect is rendered still more conspicuous by the knitting of the brows. 142. Qf what use are eyelids? They cover the eye during sleep, and preserve it from the contact of extraneous particles flying about in the air, which might injure it ; they defend it from sudden shocks, by their almost instantaneous closure, and by their habitual motions, which aro renewed at nearly equal intervals, they preserve it from the effects of long-continued contact of the air. The eyelids also moderate the force of a too brilliant light, and prevent the passage of any more of this fluid than what is necessary for vision without offend- ing the eye. On the contrary, when the light is feeble, we separate the eyelids to a, considerable distance, in order to admit the passage cf as great a quantity of light as possible to the interior of the eye. 143. Wh,y is the involuntary closing of the eyelid more advantageous thin if it depended upon our will ? Because, if the clo'iin^ of the eyelid depended upon voluntary 48 THE REASON WHY I " Give every man thine ears, but few thy voice ; Take each man's censure, but reserve thy judgment." — SHAKSPKRE. power, we might have gone to sleep forgetting to have closed it, thereby exposing the eye to considerable danger. But under the involuntary arrangement the lid is made to fall over the eye as drowsiness comes on, is kept there during sleep, and in the morning, owing to the delicacy of its structure, it transmits a sufficient quantity of light to the eye to arouse sensibility, and we awake. 144. Hoiv is the process of hearing conducted ? The folds of the outward ear conduct to its entrance, and into an outer passage, which, after running inward a short distance, is closed by a membrane called the drum. Behind this membrane is an inner passage, which terminates in the throat, which is called the trumpet. Warm air from the lungs therefore supplies the inner passage, and the surrounding atmosphere fills the outer passage. When the modification of the atmosphere by which sounds are pro- duced, flow into the outer passage, the drum of the ear is put upon the stretch, more or less, according to the force or loudness of the sound, as shown by the trick of calling loudly under the pretence of whispering in the ear. Behind the drum, in the hard bone, or the rock-like wall of the inner passage, are two small openings termed mastoid, which communicate with the inner cavities or chambers of the ear. There are two other openings closed by a thin transparent membrane, and the chambers excavated, as it were, in the rock-like bone, are, with the mastoid cells, filled with fluid. Within these chambers (called the labyrinth and semi-circular canals) the nerve of hearing spreads out between the folds of a most delicate membrane, receiving the impressions conveyed by the atmosphere or other conducting media, an I And next in order sad, Old Age we found : His board all hoar, his eyes hollow and biuid : With drooping cheer still poring on the ground." — SACKVILLX. the selection of food. Were they placed in distant paits of the body, they could not so readily give mutual aid. 155. Why is taste the least deteriorated by age of any of the senses ? Because so long as the body exists it must necessarily be fed, and the organ by which this process is primarily accomplished is mercifully spared, while other senses less essential are subjected to decay. 156. Why is touch considered to be the tr>s>st important of all the senses ? Because by touch we are enabled to know with greater certainty the properties of bodies ; our hearing, seeing, and smelling may frequently deceive us and lead us into error, touch seldom does this, and in all cases of doubt when the other senses are engaged, touch steps in as umpire, and resolves the difficulty. 157. The extreme sensibility of the touch of the blind is well known. A blind person deciphering a book by the aid of touch wi1.1., in general, read with fewer mistakes than are made by persons of ordinary intelligence when perusing a book by the aid of their sight. There are many remarkable instances of the intensity with which one portion of the senses may be exercised, and especially that of touch, when others are wanting ; ordinary faculties taking upon themselves extraordinary functions, and thus in a great measure compensating for the deprivation which it has pleased Providence to inflict. A case in point is furnished by the following narrative : — James Mitchell, the son of a respectable parish minister in the County of Elgin, was deaf, dumb, and blind from birth. As he grew up, he discovered a most extraordinary acuteness in the senses of touch and smell, being very soon able by these to distinguish strangers from the members of his own family, and any little article that was appropriated to himself from what belonged to others. In child- hood the most noticeable circumstance relating to him was an eager desLe to strike upon his fore-teeth ; this he would do for hours. When a stranger arrived, his smell would invariably inform him of the circumstance, and direct him to the place where the stranger was, whom he proceeded to survey by the sense of touch. In the remote situation where he resided male visitors were the most frequent, and therefore the first thing he generally did was to examine whether or not the strangei wore boots ; if such were the case he would immediately quit the stranger and proceed to the stable, accurately examining the whip, and handling the horse with great care aiid the utmost seeming attention. It has occasionally happened that f>2 THE REASON WHY : " One touch of Nature makes the whole world kin." — SHAKSPEAE. visitors have arrived in a carriage, and on such occasions he has never failed to go to the place where the carriage stood, examining' the whole of it with much anxiety, and trying innumerable times the elasticity of the springs. When he felt hungry he would approach his mother or sister, touching them in an expressive manner, and pointing to the apartment where the victuals were usually kept. If a dry pair of stockings were wanting, he would point to his legs, and, in short, intimate his various wishes in a similar way. On one occasion a pair of shoes was brought, and on attempting to put them on he found they were too small. His mother took them and locked them in a closet. Soon after a thought seemed to strike him ; he contrived to obtain the key of the closet, opened the door, took out the shoes, and put them on the feet of a yon:;g lad who attended him, and whom they fitted "exactly. When he happened i-> be sick and feverish he would point to his head, or take his mother's hand anrl place it opposite his heart. He never attempted to express his feelings by utterance, except when angry, when he would utter a loud bellow. Satisfaction or complacency he expressed by patting the person or object which had excited that feeling. His smell being wonderfully acute he would be frequently offended through that sense when other persons near to him smelt nothing unpleasant. His elder sister seemed to have a much greater ascendancy over him than any other person. Touching his head with her hand was the principal method she employed in signifying her wishes to him respecting his conduct. This she did with various degrees of force and in different manners, and he seemed readily to understand the intimation intended to be conveyed. 158. WTiy is the sense of touch more vivid when the circulation is warm and active than when it is chilled and stagnant ? Because the papillae are' dependent for their life and action on a constant supply of blood, when, therefore, the nerves receive an abundant supply of the stimulating fluid the sense of touch becomes proportionately acute ; and when this supply is stinted or withheld, sensation may in some cases become so blunted, as to allow wounds to be inflicted without exciting pain. 159. Why is the sense of touch sometimes untrustworthy f Because it has its delusions like the other senses, so much so, that a body may be imagined to be felt, and yet have no real existence. 160. The following illusion of an extraordinary kind, which cannot be corrected e» en by the sight, proves that the senses alone unaided by the reasoning powers are not to be trusted ; cannot indeed be believed on all occasions : — If we place on NATURAL HISTORY. 53 " The universal cause Acts to one end but acts by A .irious laws ; Connects each being, greatest with the least ; Made beast in aid of man, and man of beast." — POPE. a table, or on the palm of the hand, a marble, or any other small globular body, and crossing it alternately with the fore and middle fingers so disposed that the marble shall touch only the outer edges or surfaces of the two fingers, the person will believe that he touches two marbles, although he knows that only one is present. The explanation of this illusion is as follows : The mind refers, involuntarily, all sensations experienced at different parts of the body to the position in which such parts are usually placed. Now the cross-ing of the fingers does not prevent us feeling either of them in contact with the marble, as if they were placed naturally side by side. But in the habitual position of the fingers side by side, it is impos- sible that the outer edges of any two fingers can be at the same time placed in sufficient contact with a single marble or other similar rounded body ; and thus when such contact actually takes place simultaneously, by the contrivance of crossing the fingers, then the mind involuntarily believes the thing to be impossible, takes it for granted that two marbles, not one, must be present ; and hence arises the sensation and perception of two distinct bodies. CHAPTER V. CLASSIFICATION OF THE VARIOUS ANIMALS. 161. WJiy are animals arranged by naturalists into classes, orders, sub-orders, families, &c. ? Classification prevents the necessity of frequently and fully describing any animal referral to ; it ensures correct identity in the observations and communications of naturalists. It also answers as a sort of dictionary wherein, from the properties of things, we proceed to discover their names, thus forming the inverse of ordinary dictionaries, where the names direct us to the properties. But no arrangement of animals can be perfect ; first, because we may not be acquainted with all the species ; secondly, because of some of the species we may know very little ; and, thirdly, because of those which we knifcv best, the greater part are known as more or less domesticated; and, further, because the M THE REASON WHY : " To Him, no hifth, no low, no great, no small ; He fills, He bounds, connects, and equals all." — POPE. great masters of natural history, differing in their views, produce systems of classification more or less varying from each other. Notwithstanding these difficulties, an approach to uniformity and identity may be obtained, eminently useful where the objects to be distinguished are remarkably numerous. 1G2. What are the significations of the terms class, order, sub-order, family, genus, species, &c. ? A class is a primary or leading division, a number of beings having one or more features in common. An order is a sub-division of a class. A sub-order is a further division of an order. Family is a still further division, and is used synonymously with tribe. Genus and species are more limited and definite than family or tribe ; they refer to groups of individuals that agree in all, or nearly all essentials. Genera is the plural of genus. 163. Swedes means tribes of animals or plants which have descended from tlae same stock, or from parentages precisely similar and in no way distinguished from each other. The ancients applied the term genus to any collective number of organised beings which are akin to each other, or the offspring cf the same ancestors. The idea of genus was then simple and definite, and just what we attach to the terms kind or kindred. By degrees, the meaning of genus was extended, and it was made to com- prehend all such creatures as by reason of some real or fancied resemblance in their form or nature were conjectured to have belonged to one original stock. Such groups were the " dog-kind," the " cat-kind," the " ox-kind." For the more developed state of science, these clauses were too comprehensive, and included tribes so remote from each other that they could not be regarded as the progeny of the same original tribes. The term species was therefore adopted, and made to express nearly what genus now does. 1C4. According to the LINN^AN SYSTEM, the whole animal kingdom is ranged under the following six CLASSES : — I. MAMMALIA (from the Latin mammce, the breasts or teats of a female). — Animals with warm red blood, viviparous, and suckling their young. II. AVES (birds). — Animals with warm red blood, oviparous, and feathered. NATURAL HISTORY. 6d " To me be Nature's volume broad displar'd ; And to peruse its all -instructing page, Or, haply catching inspiration thence, Some easy passage, raptur'd to translate."— THOMSON. III. AMPHIBIA (from two Greek words, meaning both and life). — Animals with cold red blood, breathing by lungs, capable of subsisting for a time either on land or in water. IV. PISCES (fishes). — Animals with cold red blood, breathing by gills, and not by lungs. V. INSECTA (insects). — Animals with cold white blood, having antennae (feelers) on the head, and articulated (jointed) horny organs of motion. VI. VERMES (worms). — Animals with cold white blood, without antennae, for the most part with tentacula (having simple thread- like organs for protrusion around their mouths), and without articulated organs of motion. 165. According to the SYSTEM of CUVIER, a leading grand divi- sion prevails over the whole of these, viz., the vertebrated, from th« invertebrated (from the Latin verto, to turn) ; the first being dis- tinguished by having a back-bone, the latter by the absence of this organ. The vertebrated animals are divided into four cla&set, thus:— DIVISION L VERTEBRATJL Class L Mammalia. II. Aves. III. Eeptilia. IV. Pisces DIVISION II. — MOLLUSCA. [This is the commencement of the invertebrated division, but the term is disused.] Class 1. Cephalapoda. II. Oteropoda. III. Gasteropoda. IV. Awphala. V. Brachiopoda. VI. Cirrhopoda. DIVISION III. — ARTICTJLATA. Class I. Annelides. II. Crustacea. III. Arachnids*. IV. Insecta. SUB-DIVISION IV. RADIATA. Class L Echinodermata. II. Entozoa. III. Acalephco IV. Polypi. V. Infusoria. THE REASON WHT : " When with a Reaumur's skill thy curious mind Has classed the insect tr.bes of human kind, Each with its busy hum, or gilded wing, Its subtle web-work, or its venomed sting." — ROGERS. 166. Why is the term invertebrated unemployed? Because it is merely of a negative character. [All animals may be referred to one or other of the foregoing classes, and ihose not included in the first Division are all invertebrated.] So MUCH or THE CLASSIFICATION AS WILL BE GIYEN IN THE FOLLOWING PACKS is A COMBINATION OP THE SYSTEMS OF LlNN.BUS AND CUVIER, WITH SUCH MODIFICATIONS AS ARE NOW GENERALLY ADOPTED. DIVISION I.— VERTEBRAE. CLASS I.— MAMMALIA. ORDER I.— BIMANA. 167. What is the meaning of the term Bimana ? It is derived from the Latin bis, twice, and mantis, a hand : it means two-handed. 168. Why is MAN the only individual included in this order ? Because he is the only two-handed animal. This fact will be further enforced by reference to ORDER II.— QUADRUMANA. 169. What is the meaning of the term Quadrumana ? It is derived from the Latin quadra, four, mani s, hand, and means four-handed. 170. Why are monkeys described as four-handed ? Because those of their extremities which are apparently analogous to the feet of man, are provided with thumbs, free and oppos- able to the other toes — the toes them- selves being long and similar to the fingers of the hand. In consequence of this peculiarity, all the species of the order exhibit the utmost facility in climbing trees, but cannot sustain themselves, much less walk, in an erect posture without considerable difficulty. NATURAL HISTORY. With monkey's ingenuity, That love to practise what they see." — BUTLKE. 171. In audition to this distinguishing feature, the canine teeth of monkeys are longer than those of man; while the bones of the pelvis are too narrow to continually support their bodies in an erect position. Mr. Partington regards it as incorrect to call the extremities of monkeys " hands ; " they are, he says, properly paws. All the paws consist of four fingers and a thumb. The latter member is, however, very small, sometimes without a nail, and cannot, in all the species, be said to perform the functions of a true thumb, but often more resembles the callous pad which forms a point of resistance against the fingers in several other climbing animals. The anterior extremities are long, but mueh longer in some of the species than' in others ; tne fingers are also long, the bones of some of the phalanges are often curved towards the palms, and the muscular power in grasping and pulling is much greater than, from the size of the animal or of the parts, one would be led to suppose. Similar grasping powers, in proportion to their size, are, however, common to all the quadrumana, and to all climbing animals. 172. What is the difference between apes, baboons, and monkeys? Apes are such as are destitute of tails ; Baboons have muscular bodies, elongated muzzles, and their tails are usually short : Monkeys are those whose tails are in general long, some of them, the Sapagos, having prehensile tails, which can at pleasure be twisted around any object, and there- by, in many instances, answer the purpose of an additional hand. 173. Why ah monkeys divided into two principal subgenera, " the monkeys of the old world" and the " monkeys of the new world ?" Because of a remarkable and uniform difference in the number of their teeth. All the monkeys of the old world have the same number of teeth as the human species ; but the monkeys of America have four cheek-teeth more than the other monkeys — thirty-six teeth in all — besides some minor distinguishing featurea. THE REASON WHY .' •.' Stand by there. What are you ? " " My lady's ape, that imitated all her fashions ; falling as she did, and running she same course of folly." — NABBE. 174. Why are monkeys confined to certain geographical limits? Because their chief office evidently is to prevent the too rapid increase of birds, which they do by destroying vast numbers of eggs that would otherwise be brought to maturity almost by the sun's heat. This mission the monkeys carry out so perseveringly, that they are perpetually on the watch to rob birds' nests, and when they want appetite or inclination to devour them, they will fling them on the ground. We therefore find that monkeys abound in those latitudes where birds are most abundant. 175. Why should we not mistake the imitative propensities of monkeys for a natural love of mischief? Because in mimicking the actions of man they will as readily engage in useful employment as in wilful sport. And during the whole time they are so engaged their countenances assume a reflective and serious air. 176. It is said that the Indians sometimes direct their imitative propensity to u&eful purposes ; for, wishing to collect the cocoa-nuts and other fruits from the trees in the woods frequented by the apes, they repair to their places, setting the example of gathering a few heaps first themselves, and then withdrawing, leave the work to be performed by the animals at will. These creatures seeing a heap or two commenced, descend with the certainty of carrying on the business, and when the produce has been thus rather plentifully collected, the Indians approach and take away the harvest. t 177. Why have some monkeys tails of an extraordinary length ? They are thus enabled to suspend themselves from the branches of one tree and reach food from another. By the same means the young of the animal sit securely on the back of the mother by turning their tails around her's, and so escape from the pursuit of their enemies 178. A sketch is here given of the Coaita, or Spider Monkey. The tail answers alJ the purposes of % hand, and the animal throws itself from branch to branch by NATURAL HISTORY. " This apish and unmannerly approach, This harness'd mask, and unadvised revel, This unheard sauciness and boyish trooper, The king doth smile at."— SHAKSPERE, means of its tail. The prehensible part of the tail is covered with skin only, forming an organ of touch as discriminating as the propet extremities. In monkeys the pectoral part of the body is by far the most mus- cular and robust in its form, while the ventral and sacral parts of its trunk are attenuated, so much so that this portion appears, in som? of the species, as if it were nothing more than a stalk to the hind legs ; at all events it is never such as to impede their motions or encumber them by its weight. Now the young monkey so applies itself to the body of its mother that it in no way impedes her motions, and is, in fact, the least possible burden to her that so much additional weight could be. The shoulder bones are stout and long for her size, by which means the breadth of her chest is ample, and the shoulder joints are thrown wide apart. The fore legs of the young clasp her round her neck and hold on to the immoveable part of the shoul«ier, between the shoulder-bone and the blade-bone, so that their points of adhesion do not interfere with any of the moving parts. These members in the young monkey are so long that it can reach the pectoral mammoB of the mother without weaken- ing its own hold or cramping her motions ; and then its hind legs clasp the body so far forwards that they leave the hinder extremities free for every operation of climbing. Therefore, a female monkey loaded with a young one has very nearly, if not altogether, the same use of her organs as though she were without any load, because the young one adheres by its own exertions, which exertion strengthens in proportion to its weight. 179. Wliy is a particular description of monkey* called the preacher ? Because it is common for one of these creatures to ascend a lofty tree while a congregation of others of the tribe assemble in the lower branches ; the monkey who is elevated above the rest then sets up a loud and shrill howl, which may be heard at a great dis- tance. The assembled monkeys afterwards join in a noisy choru% * Mycetes Beelzebub. 60 THE REASON WHY: 1 All these are ours ; and I with pleasure see Man strutting on two legs, and aping me." — DRYDEN. 180. Why are lemurs included in the same, order with the monkey tribes ? Because although differing from the monkeys of the old and new worlds in their teeth, they are quadrumanous, having opposable thumbs on the fore as well as the hind paws. 181. Why are they called lemurs ? The Latin lemurs means sprites that walk by night ; and these animals were so named by Linnaeus, because of their nocturnal habits, and their large glaring eyes. They wander by night, and sub.sist upon fruit, insects, and small birds. 182. In *he jungles about Tillicherry, there is a large species of monkey frequently tamed by the natives, and at a village a short distance from this celebrated seaport there occurred an evidence of the extreme sagacity of this animal. A few yards from the house of the person to whom it belonged, a thick pole, at least thirty feet high, had been fixed into the earth, round which was an iron ring, and to this was attached a strong chain of considerable length, fastened to a band round the monkey's body. The ring being loose, it slid along the pole when h • iscended or descended. He was in the habit of taking his station upon the top ef the bamboo, where he perched as if to enjoy the beauties of the prospect around him. The crows, which in India are very abundant and singularly audacious, taking advantage of his elevated position, had been in the habit of robbing him of his food, which was placed every morning and evening at the foot of the pole. To this he had vainly expressed hia dislike by chattering, and other indications of his displeasure equally ineffectual ; but they continued their depreda- tions. Finding that he was perfectly unheeded, he adopted a plan of retribution as effectual as it was ingenious. One morning, when his tormenters had been particularly troublesome, he appeared as if seriously indisposed ; he closed his eyes, drooped his head, and exhibited various other symptoms of severe suffering. No sooner were his ordinary rations placed at the foot of the bamboo, than the crowr, watching their opportunity, descended in great numbers, and according to their usual practice began to 'demolish his provisions. The monkey now began to slide down the pole by slow degrees, as if the effort were painful to him, and as if so overcome by indisposition that his remaining strength was scarcely equal to such exertion. When he reached the ground he rolled about for some time, seeming in great agony, until he found himself close to the vessel which contained his food, but which the crows had by this time well-nigh devoured. There was still, however, some remaining, which a solit»-y bird, emboldened by the apparent indisposition of the monkey, advanced to Bei?e. The wily creature was at this time lying in a state of apparent insensibility 4t the foot of the pole and close to the pan. The moment the crow stretched ou> NATURAL HISTORY. 61 " Far different there from all that charmed before, The various terrors of that horrid shore ; Those matted woods where birds forget to sin;?, But silent bats in drowsy clusters cling." — GOLDSMITH. is head, and ere it could secure a mouthful of the interdicted food, the watchful avenger seized the depredator by the neck with the rapidity of thought, and secured it from doing further mischief. He no^\ oegan to chatter and grin with every expression of gratified triumph, while the crows flew around, cawing in boisterous chime, as if deprecating the chastisement about to be inflicted upon their captive companion. The monkey continued for a while to chatter and grin in triumphant mockery of their distress ; he then deliberately placed the captive crow between his knees and began to pluck it with the most humorous gravity. When he had completely stripped it, except the large feathers in the pinions and tail, he flung it into the air as high as his strength would permit, and, after flapping its wings for a few moments, it fell on the ground with a stunning shock. The other crows, which had been fortunate enough to escape a similar oastigation, now surrounded it, and immediately pecked it to death. The animal had no sooner seen this ample retribution dealt to the purloiner of his repast, thap he ascended the bamboo to enjoy a quiet repose. The next time his food was brought, not a single crow approached it. ORDER III.— CA11NABIA. 183. Why is the third division of the Mammalia, called Carnaria ? The name implies lovers of flesh, and is therefore employed to denote those classes of animals which are flesh eaters. The term carnaria is applied to the whole of a great ORDER, which is again divided into sub-orders : 1. Cheiroptera ; 2. Insectivora ; 3. Carnivora. Sub-order I. — Cheiroptera. 184. Why is the first sub-order of Carnaria called Cheiroptera ? Because the wings of the spe- cies composing it, as well as serving the purposes of flight are to some extent capable of being used as nands. The term is derived from two Greek words meaning wing and hand, and signifies wing -handed. THE REASON WHY: " On a bat's wing will 1 fly, After sun-sot menih ! " 185. Why are bats not classed ivith birds, although they art capable of flight ? Chiefly because they suckle their young, which habit refers them to the class mammalia. They breed at the hottest time of the year ; and the young, which are usually two in number, are naked and helpless at their birth, capable only of clinging to the teats of their mother, which they do with the greatest firmness. There is no nest in which the mother can leave her young ones ; so she bears them about attached to her body, until they are capable of flight. 186. Why is the wing of the bat furnished with a hook ? Without this hook, the bat would be the most helpless of all animals. It can neither run upon its feet, and can raise itself from the ground only with great difficulty. The hook takes the form of a bent claw, and is situated at an angle of the wing, by which means the bat attaches itself to the sides of rocks, caves, and build- ings, laying hold of crevices, chinks, and protuberances. It hooks itself by this claw, remains suspended, and takes its flight from this position : which operations compensate for the decrepitude of its legs and feet. 187. Why do bats conceal themselves in old ruins, fissures of walls, &c., by day ? Because, being organised for nocturnal flight, the impressions of light are too powerful for them. Their wings being formed of a highly sensitive membrane, they seek sheltered places, where neither light nor currents of air can take effect upon them. 188. Why have bafs wings numerous nerves distributed upon them ? Their sight being defective, is compensated by the highly- sensitive nature of their wings, ears, nostrils, &c., which vary in different species. Their wings are so susceptible of impressions, that bats, even after their eves have been destroyed, can fly about amidst numerous objects, and avoid them all with the greatest NATURAL HISTORY. 63 " In chinks and holes Ten thousand seek an unmolested end As instinct prompts, self-buried ere they die." — COWPEH. precision. The extreme sensibility to light and touch is shown by bats even in their dormant state. Be their torpidity ever so great, they shrink from the touch, even before actual contact, and appear disturbed at the presence of a candle, or any other light. 189. Why do bats fly by night ? Because they feed upon night-flying insects. Hence they take the place by night which the swallow occupies by day. Some of the species occasionally fly by day, but that habit is by no means common, and is confined to some of the foreign bats, which are vegetable feeders. 190. Bats issue forth as darkness begins, and hy their active flight capture sucli insects as are then on the wing — gnats, mosquitoes, moths, beetles, &c., and their wide gape with its formidable teeth is an excellent trap for the capture of such prey. The service which they render to vegetation, by the destruction of insects which in the larva state prey upon it, is very considerable, even in temperate climates ; and some of the hot countries in which they swarm by myriads could not but for them be inhabited. In humid places on the margins of tropical forests, mosquitoes are troublesome enough as it is ; but if the bats did not thin their numbers they would be utterly unbearable. Those species, too, which frequent the towns and settlements are useful in other respects. Most of the race are miscel- laneous hi their feeding, and not very delicate in their taste. They devour indiscriminately all animal substances, whether raw or dressed, and whether in a recent or putrid state. 191. Why do bats hybernate during the winter months ? Because, as they feed chiefly upon insects, their supply of food fails as the winter approaches, and their office in the great scheme ot nature can no longer be fulfilled. Therefore, as the time when, for the same causes, the swalloiv departs for a sunnier clime where insect food may be found, the bat retires into its hiding places, and sleeps away the months of winter. SUB-ORDER II.— INSECTIYORA. 192. WJiy is the second sub-order of Carnaria called Tnsectivora ? Because they live principally, if not wholly, upon insects. The name is derived from two Latin words — insecta, insects, and voro, to devour. 64 THE REASON WIIY : " Well said, old Mole, can'st work in the earth. So fast ? a worthy pioneer ! " — SIIAKSPKRE. 193. In what respects is the anatomy of the mole admirably adapted to its mode of life ? The animal burrows underground in pursuit of worms, upon which it feeds. Its feet are so many shovels ; they determine the action of rooting in the ground ; and everything about the animal's body agrees with this destination. The cylindrical figure of the mole, as well as its compact form, arising from the terseness of its limbs, proportionably lessens its labour ; because, according to its bulk, it thereby requires the least possible quantity of earth to be removed from its progress. It has nearly the same structure of the face and jaws as a pig, and the same office for them. The nose is sharp, slender, tendinous, strong, with a pair of nerves going down to the end of it. The plush covering which, by the smoothness, closeness, and polish of the short piles that compose it, rejects the adhesion of almost every species of earth, defends the animal from cold and wet, and from the im- pediment which it would experience by the mould sticking to its body. 194. Let us compare for a moment the bats with the moles with reference to their .ocomotion. Both are insectivorous, but how widely different in their conforma- tion ! The bat has to winnow its way through the air : the mole, like the bat, has to re-act against a given medium — a very different one, certainly — and is endowed with a power of moving through that medium by means of a modification of the locomotive organs beautifully adapted to its density. Instead of the lengthened bones of the fore-arm that so well assist the bat to make its way with outstretched wing through the air, all in this part of the organisation of the mole is short and compact, to enable it to bore through the dense medium where it is to live and move and have its being. The development is all anterior. The fore part of the mole forms an elongated cone ; the posterior part is narrow and Email, and the whole of its proportions are admirably fitted to assist it, so to speak, in flying through the earth. The long and almost round scapula, the expanded humerus, the enormous power, in short, of the anterior extremities, and the gre.it strength and compactness of the fingers, are all fitted for the digging duty they have to do NATURAL HISTORY. The glass through which an envious eye doth gaze, Can easily make a mole-hill mountain seem." — FLETCHER. Add to this a soft, short-cut vuvety coat, to which no particle of soil ever adheres and you have the perfection of organisation for rapid progress through th» ground.* 195. Why are moles beneficial to farmers ? Because of the great number of worms which they devour, which more than compensates for the injury they are supposed to do to the soil, and to roots. It is said that where old mole-hills are most abundant in sheep pastures, the latter animal is generally in a healthy state, as it feeds on the wild thyme and other salubrious herbs, which flourish on these heaps of earth. It is also said that after the mole-hills had been destroyed in a park which belonged to the Earl of Essex, the deer never throve. The Rev. C. A. Bury has pointed out that' the good resulting to the farmer from the drainage afforded by the mole-hills is considerable. 196. Every one is aware of the fact that the mole burrows for its food, that its nest is formed underground, that a larger hillock than the rest is raised for the reception of its young; but it is not so generally known that its subterranean excavations are of the most distinct and determinate charac- ter; that there are per- manent .passages or high- roads for its ordinary tra- vels from one part of its domain to another; that into these roads open the excavations in which it follows its daily labours in search of food ; that its fortress — the house in which it resides from the autumn to the spring — is of a complex and most ingenious structure, and that this domicile is always a distinct and almost remote building from that in which the nest is formed. The district or domain to which an individual mole confines himself may be termed its encampment. Within its limits, or at least in immediate communication with the district, all the labours of the animal are pursued. It consists of the habitation or fortress, from which extends the high-road by which the animal reaches the opposite extremities of the encampment, and of various galleries or excavations opening into this road, which it is continually extending in search of food, and which constitute, in fact, its hunting-ground. The fortress is formed under a large hillock, which is always raised in a situation of safety and protection Penny Encyclopaedia. THE REASON WHY : M Pray you, tread softly, that the blind moii- iuay not Hear a foot fall ! " — SUAKSPERE. —cither under J bank, against the foundation of a wall, at the root of a tree, or in tome similar legality. The earth of which the dome covering this curious i\ ibitation is con-posed is rendered exceedingly strong and solid by being pressed t id beaten by the mole in forming it. It contains a circular gallery within the t; isc, which communicates with a smaller one above by five nearly equidistant passages ; and the domicile or chamber is placed within the lower and beneath the upper circular gallery, to which last it has access by three similar passages. From t'.ie chamber extends another road, the direction of which is at first downwards for several inches ; it then rises again, to open into the high-road of the oncarip- ment. From the external circular gallery open about nine other passages, the aripces of which are never formed opposite to those which connect the outer with the inner and upper gallery : these extend to a greater or less distance, and return, each taking an irregular, semi-circular route, and opening into the high-road at various distances from the fortress. Such is a very hasty description of this most singular structure ; and nothing surely can be imagined more admirably calculated to ensure the security or the retreat of the inhabitant than such an arrangement of internal routes of communication as this. The chamber communicating beneath directly with the road, and above with the upper gallery— this with the lower by five passages, and the latter again with the road by no less than nine — exhibit altogether a complication of architecture which may rival the more celebrated erections of the beaver." The nest is always distinct, and frequently remote from the fortress, and is usually, but not always, covered by a hillock, v hich, when it exists, is much larger than an ordinary mole-hill. It is formed simply by excavating and enlarging the point of intersection by three or four passages. The bad of the nest is composed of a mass of herbage, grass, roots, or leaves. In one which was examined by Geoffrey and Le Court, no less than two hundred and four blades of young wheat were counted. This, however, can scarcely be considered as an ordinary occurrence, as they generally prefer dry and soft substances. The period of gestation is supposed to be about two months or upwards ; and the young are brought forth in April — sometimes earlier, at others later, according to the season : indeed, young moles have been found at all times from the beginning of April till August, which has led some persons to believe that there are more than one brood in the year. There are generally four or five, sometimes as few as three, rarely six.* 197. Why were moles once thought to be destitute of eyes? Because, as organs of sight, if highly developed, would not only be useless to a burrowing animal, but a hindrance to its mining operations, the eyes are simply rudimentary, and are so hidden in th powerless. Then the hedgehog feeds upon its prey, generally beginning with the tip of the tail, and proceeding upwards. SUB-ORDER III.— CARNIVORA. 205. Why is the third sub-order of carnaria called carnivora ? The term implies flesh-eaters, and is used to distinguish the sub- Order carnivora, which consists of flesh-devouring quadrupeds, from the general order carnaria, which includes insect and worm-eaters, as well as flesh-eating quadrupeds, divided into three sub-orders, as already explained. 206. Why have carnivorous animals large canine teeth? Being beasts of prey, they are furnished with these teeth as weapons for seizing the creatures upon which they feed. 207. Why are their molar teeth tuberculated and fitted into the surfaces of each other? Because the flesh which they devour requires to be lacerated by a cutting motion. The jaws of carnivorous animals have simply an upward and downward motion, and do not move, also, sideways likt» the jaws of the ox, and other ruminants. NATURA1 HISTORY". Strong is the lion — like a coal His eyeball — like a bastion's mole His chest against the foes. — SMART. 208. What anatomical features of the carnivora exhibit a remarkable adaptation to their modes of life ? As they feed on living animals, they are generally swift to pursue ; and, as well as being armed with canine teeth, have strong talons, adapted for seizing their prey. These talons are retractile, that is, they are capable of being drawn in between the toes, by which they are protected from being blunted by contact with the ground. Their sight is keen, and even more so by night than by day. Their senses of hearing and of smell are highly developed ; their nostrils are studded with whiskers, which are susceptible of the slightest impression of touch, and their feet are padded, so that they can tread noiselessly. 209. Why is the lion provided with such a large mane ? The formidable clothing is with difficulty penetrated by an ordinary weapon. When the animal is prowling, or using only his ordinary powers of locomo- tion, in the use of which he is generally slow and majestic, his mane lies a considerable way over the back, hangs down over the shoulders, and there protects the powerful muscles, which put his de- str.' ctive arm in motion, from all changes of temperature, so that they are never stiffened .»v''-'^in.^^ by c°lcl> or relaxed by heat, ^ even when the animal finds it necessary to prowl in the open deserts during the heat of the day, or in the dead of night. 210. Why is the lion termed the king of the forest ? Because there is a certain majesty in his mien and a nobleness in his nature which raise him far above the scale of wild beasts ic 70 THE REASON WHY: " 'Tis the royal disposition of the beast, to prey on nothing that doth seem* as dead." — SIIAKSPEUE. general. The courage and resolution of the lion are conspicuous ; and he possesses such an incredible degree of strength, that he can bear off a large heifer, or an antelope, as easily as a cat would carry a rat. 211. Why when a person is attacked by a feline animal may he be able to save his life by non-resistance after the first blow is struck ? Because it is the habit of this class of animals, having once overcome their prey, to cease for a certain time to inflict injury on it. The mere act of felling their victim to the earth appears fox* a time to appease the rage of a feline animal. Thus a* cat will sit by the mouse it has captured for some minutes without venturing to molest it until it tries to make its escape ; and the lion and the tiger will, in the same manner, couch by the side of its prostrate victim without offering to harm him until some movement is made. 212. The following interesting narrative, related by an eye-witness of tke scene, will be found to illustrate the above-mentioned peculiarity of the feline race : — In the month of July, 1831, two fine lions made their appearance in a jungle some twenty miles distant from the cantonment of Rajcate, in the East Indies, where Captain Woodhouse and his two friends, Lieutenants Delamain and Lang were stationed. An elephant was despatched to the place on the evening on which the information arrived ; and on the morrow, at the break of day, the three gentlemen set off on horseback full of glee, and elated with the hope of a speedy engagement. On arriving at the edge of the jungle, people were ordered to ascend the neigh- bouring trees, that they might be able to trace the route of the lions in case they left the cover. After beating about in the jungle for some time, the hunters started the two lordly strangers. The officers fired immediately, and one of the lions fell to rise no more. His companion broke cover, and took off across the country. The officers now pursued him on horseback as fast as the nature of the ground would allow, until they learned from the men who were stationed in the trees, and who held up flags by way of signal, that the lion had gone back into the thicket. Upon this, the three officers returned to the edge of the jungle, and having dismounted from their horses, they got upon their elephant, Captain Woodhouse placing himself in the hindermost seat. They now proceeded towards the heart of the jungle, in the expectation of rousing the royal fugitive a second time. They found him standing under a large bush with his face directed towards them, The lion allowed them to approach within range of his spring, and then he made a sudden dart at the NATURAL HISTORY. /I "* When the gaunt lioness, with hunger bold, Springs from the mountains tow'rd the guarded fold ; Through breaking woods her rustling course they hear; Loud and more loud the clamours strike the ear ! " — POPK. ^ephant, clung on his trunk with a tremendous roar, and wounded him just above the eye. While he was in the act of doing this the two lieutenants fired at him, but without success. The elephant now shook him off ; but the fierce and sudden attack on the part of the lion seemed to have thrown him into the greatest con- sternation, and much exertion was used before his riders succeeded in urging him on again in quest of the lion. At last he became somewhat more tractable ; but as he was advancing through the jungle all of a sudden the lion, which had lain con- cealed in the high grass, made at him with redoubled fury. The officers now lost all hopes of keeping their elephant in order. He turned round abruptly and was going away quite ungovernable, when the lion again sprang at him, seized on his hinder parts with his teeth, and hung on them until the affrighted animal managed to shake him off by repeated kicking. The lion then retreated further into the- thicket. The officers now determined upon dismounting, and Captain Woodhouse took the desperate resolution of proceeding on foot in quest of the lion. After some difficulty he succeeded in tracing the print of the animal's feet, and resolved to follow the track at all hazards. In the meantime Lieutenant Delamain, who stood outside the jungle, caught sight of the lion and fired at him. This irritated the beast and caused him to rush towards his assailant ; in doing so he must inevitably cross the path where Captain Woodhouse was. The Captain saw this and resolved to stand still, hoping that the lion would pass by without perceiving him ; in this, however, he was undeceived, for the enraged animal saw him in passing, and flew at him with a dreadful roar. In an instant the Captain's rifle was broken and thrown out of his hand, his left arm at the same moment being seized by the claws, and his right by the teeth of his desperate antagonist. While this conflict wa» going on Lieutenant Delamain ran u p and discharged his piece at the lion. This caused the combatants to come to the ground together, while Lieutenant Uelamain hastened out of the jungle to reload his gun. The lion now began to worry the Captain's arm ; who, notwithstandir $ the pain he suffered, had the presence of mind to lie still ; the lion thereupon let t >e arm drop out of his mouth and quietly placed himself in a crouching position, with both his paws upon the thigh of his fallen foe. No sooner, however, had he inoce-' ,t. than the lion seized the lacerated arm a second time, crushed it as before, and fractured 'he bone still higher up. This reminded the Captain that he had committed an act of imprudence on stirring which he determined to profit by. He now lay bleeding and disabled under the foot of a mighty and irritated enemy ; and with the terrors of death before his very eyes. At this moment the two lieutenants were hastening to his assistance, and he heard the welcome sound of feet approaching ; but, unfortunately, they were in a wrong direction, as the lion was betwixt them and him. Aware that if his friends fired the balls would hit him, after they had passed through the lion's V^", Captain Wood- house quietly pronounced in a low and subdued tone, " To the other side ! to the other side !" Hearing the voice they looked in the direction from whence it pro- ceeded, and to their horror saw their brave companion in his utmost need. Having made a circuit they cautiously came up on the other side, and Lieutenant Delamain, from a distance of about a dozen yards, fired at the lion over the person of his pros- trate friend. The lion merely quivered , his head dropped upon the ground, and in an instant he lay dead on his side close to his intended victim. 72 . THE REASON WHY : Wythin a large wyldernesse, Where was lyon and lyonesse, The leparde, and the tygre also." — GOWER. 213. Why may we conclude that the sense of hearing in panthers, tigers, &c,, is very acute ? Because many of them prey only in the woods, and all of them lurk in brakes and thickets, and, therefore, quick hearing is essential both to their dis- covering their prey and to prevent their prey from dis- covering them. It is also a confirmed law in the economy of animals thttt those which w?^ softly in proportion to their weight are always quick of hearing. This extends even to human beings, among whom it is found that those who walk lightly have quicks ears, while a dull ear and a heavy step are always associated.* 214. Why is the tongue of the tiger, lion, and some other animals so rough upon its upper surface? • Because this condition of the tongue enables the animal to scrape off the minute particles of flesh adherent to the bones. The moderate degree in which this peculiar conformation in the tongue exists in the tongue of the common cat is familiar to every one ; in the lion and tiger, however, the roughness is so great that one stroke of the tongue is sufficient to tear the skin from off a man's hand. 215. Why do beasts of prey generally roar before they spring upon their victim ? Because they desire to terrify their prey, and thereby to overcome them more easily. Some animals, however, such as • Partington's "Cyclopaedia." NATURAL BISTORT. 1 So when a lion shakes his dreadful mane, And angry grows, — if he that first took pain To tame his youth approach the haughty beast, He bends to him."— WALLER. the cat, seize their prey silently, and growl while they devour it. In these cases the growl is probably dictated by a fear of losing what they have seized, and as a menace to others of their own species who might seek to steal it from them. 216. Why are the pupils of the eyes of carnivorous animals variously shaped? Because the various habits of the animals require a different e* erase of the faculty of sight. The round pupil, contracting from a large to a very small orifice, is found in animals which have occasion to use the eyes with nearly equal readiness in all directions — vertical, horizontal, or oblique ; the eye with the upright pupil is found in those animals which have most occasion to use their eyes in a vertical plane, especially above them ; and eyes with the horizontal axis is found in those which have most occasion to use them in the horizontal plane. 217. Thus in the dog, which ranges the wide field for its subsistence, the pupil i* round; in the cat, which, in a state of nature, feeds in copses, either upon small quadrupeds upon the ground under it, or on birds in the branches above, has the greatest power of the eyes in the vertical direction; and in the hare, which has most occasion for view in the lateral direction only, the pupil contracts to a hori- zontal line. This is even more remarkable as between the lion and the tiger ; the former, though he hides in bushes and thickets, generally preys upon animals which are in the open places, and also has his haunt in places so bare as that he can see what is going on about him, has the pupil round. The tiger, on the other hand, which frequents the grassy bottoms of jungles, where the vegetation interrupts tlie lateral view, has the pupil elongated in the vertical direction.* 218. Wliy does the lion lie in wait for the giraffe in tlit neighbourhood of water ? Because when the giraffe stoops to drink it is obliged to assume a position from which it cannot readily start, while it loses the advantage of the large and watchful eyes which, when its head is erect, at once detect the approach of the enemy from any direction. 219. WTiy are there creatures of carnivorous habits in all th* classes of the animal kingdom? Because the prolific tendency of the herbivorous races would, »f • Partington's " Cyclopaedia." i 74 THE REASON WHY But, as an old booke saith, who will assay About the enfs nccke to bans; on a bett, Had first need to cut the cat's clawes away. nnchecked, speedily create famine. The design, therefore, in the universal distribution of carnivorous creatures is to restrain the too rapid increase of vegetable feeders, by which scarcity of the uight. NATURAL HISTORY. 75 You dread reformers of an impious age, You awful cat -o' -nine-tail 8 to the stage, This once be just, and in our cause engage." — VANBVRGH. 223. JPhy, when playing with a cat, does she turn upon her lack and seize your hand with her daws? The cat, thus in play, imitates the habit of wild animals of her species, which, when they seize an animal large enough to make the capture difficult, hold it with their fore paws, turn on their backs, and then by working rapidly with the claws of the hind feet, they tear open the abdomen of their prey. 224 Why does cropping the ears of cats close to the head prevent their climbing trees and destroying birds ? Because the interior ear of the cat is extremely sensitive, especially to moisture. When, therefore, the external ear is removed, the animal in moving about is subjected to constant and painful annoyances, through the exposure of the ear. This practice of clipping cats' ears is much resorted to in British Guiana, where the settlements are near the woods, and birds so numerous that the cats are continually straying after them. 225. Cats thus cropped cannot go into the open air at all during the rains ; and even in the dry season they cannot pursue their feathered prey in the woods at night, which is their favourite hunting time, because even then the leaves are generally covered with heavy dew, which the progress of the cat causes to drop into the openings of the ears, and thus the cat is obliged to stay at home and pursue her mouse and rat-catching.* 226. Why does the fur of cats emit electrical sparks when briskly rubbed ? Electricity is common to all animal bodies. Although not fully understood, it may be regarded, if not as one of the elements, as at least one of the conditions of life. With regard to the electricity of the cat, it is probable that the emission of sparks under friction arises from the peculiar dryness of the fur, which is free from the oily substance common to the coats of other animals. 227. Hair of this kind is a very bad conductor of electricity, and as such it can be made electric by friction. It will be readily understood that this non-conducting power in the fur of the cat must act as a barrier between what goes on internally and the external atmosphere. If great energy is by any means excited, this pro- perty must prevent that energy from being dispersed in the air; and this condi- * I'artington's " Cyclopaedia." 76 THE REASON WHY " She stretched in vain to reach the prize ; "What female heart can gold despise ? "What cat's averse to fis h ?— OKAY. tion results in the well-known phenomena, under this circumstance, of electrical discharges assuming the form of sparks. 228. WTiy are cats seen to change their position frequently, and to lick themselves incessantly just previously to a storm ? Because when a storm is approaching the air is overcharged with the electrical fluid, to which cats are extremely sensitive. The hair of the animal is the first thing to be affected, and instead of lying down smoothly, it becomes ruffled, and probably produces the sensation of itching ; hence she is constantly rubbing her coat and ears to smooth down the hair, and wipe off the cause of the irritation. 229. By what means is a cat enabled to extend or withdraw its talons ? In the foot of the cat, the bone to which the claw is attached has a rotatory movement upon the preceding one ; this movement is effected in one direction by a powerful muscle, which draws the bone downward and causes the claws to project ; whilst there is a ligament composed of ekstic fibrous tissue which draws the bone in the other direction, and retracts the claw within a kind of sheath. 230. When the animal is walking, running, or leaping, the claws are thus drawn In, without any exertion on the part of the animal, by the simple elasticity of the ligament ; and they are thus secured, either from receiving injury by wear against the gnnind, or from impeding the movements of the animal by becoming entangled in the inequalities of its surface, or in the vegetation that covers it. In this state of the claws the animal bears upon a number of soft cushions, one beneath each toe, which enable it to steal with a noiseless step upon its prey, and thus, by surprising them, to vanquish animals whose size would make their resistance formidable, or whose swiftness would afford them a chance of esoape from direct pursuit. 231. Why- will a cat refuse vegetable food while a dog will sometimes accept it ? Because the cat is the more carnivorous animal of the two, and its teeth and other apparatus are not fitted for the reception of vegetable matter ; while the dog being less carnivorous, will some- times accept vegetable food, although ordinarily he prefers NATURAL HISTORY. 77 "What though care kill'd a cat, thou hast metal enough in thee to kill care ?"— SHAKSPKRE. 232. Why do cats lap fluids so slowly ? Because when they drink, they lap, not with the tongue bent up- wards at the tip and the sides, so as to form a kind of spoon, as is the case with the dog, but with the tongue bent downwards at the tip ; and hence they lap more slowly. They lap in this manner for the purpose of filling the cup-shaped papillae of the tong~ie. 233. Why is a, cat said to live " nine lives ? " Because they escape without injury from falls and concussions that would either kill or maim most other animals. This immunity from peril may be attributed mainly to the freedom or litheness of the joints of the animal ; for whatever part of them is struck or made to strike against any obstacle gives way like a spring ; and the weight of the bones of their fore paws partly conduces to bring them to the ground on their feet. 234. Wliy does the coati burrow beneath the roots of trees ? Because from the peculiar nature of its snout, which it employs as a burrowing instrument, it cannot construct a burrow with a roof, as is the case with those animals which dig downward, or laterally, with the paws. They, therefore, select the roots of trees, the ramifications of which afford them roofed retreats, which the^ could not themselves construct. These animals burrow in company, and it is said that they often undermine trees to such an extent that when even a moderate wind comes, they are overturned in great numbers. 235. Why have hears such an awkward and shuffling gait ? Because there are no clavicles to keep the shoulder bones steadily apartv and thus, as the fore-legs are moved, the blade bones " work " much more on the sides than is usual in animals. The hind legs have what is usually the finest flexure — or ankle joint in other quadrupeds — at the ground, in bears, and thus the first joint of the:r hind legs bends the contrary way to that with which we are raost %miliar. THE REASON WHY : ' Thoy have tied me to a stake ; I cannot fly ; But, bear-like, 1 must fight my course." — SHAKSPEHK 236. From these peculiarities of formation, we are apt to imagine that the beat walks with pain and difficulty. Such, however, is not the case. The broad base which the foot of the bear forms enables it to walk very securely, even in difficult paths ; its progress is more rapid than we could suppose, and the firmness with •which it can stand on the flat soles of its hind feet, enables it to use the fore paws in grasping. The want of clavicles enables it to grasp and hug between the fore legs much more powerfully than could ba performed by a clavicle;! animal ; and this power is of great service to it, not only in climbing, an operation to which it must often have recourse for its food, but in hugging its enemies, which it does so intensely, that a strong animal is in their grasp strangled by compression of the chest. Climbing is, however, the proper function of the want of clavicles, and climbing by grasping the bole of the tree between the paws, and not by grasping with the single paws as monkeys do. And this mods of climbing answers remark- ably well in those places where bears most abound. Pine forests are its haunts, and where pines grow closely together, they have no lateral branches till a considerable height from the ground. Such trees could not easily be climbed by animals which grasped out with the hands. 237. Why are, bears able to live uninjured in exposed places? Because they possess a coat of almost impenetrable thickness, and have also a quantity of fat accumulated under it. These protections prevent the temperature from sinking, and prevent them from feeling the cold and other effects of the elements. 238. Why is a bear enabled to stand in an upright position, and to hug objects with his fore-paws ? Because he possesses a more perfectly developed collar-bone than most animals ; the office of this bone being to keep the shoulders apart from the chest, and to throw the action of the muscles proceeding from the ribs upon the arm bone, which, with a very imperfectly formed collar-bone, would be drawn inwards, and contract the upper part of the trunk. 239. Why is it a vulgar prejudice against badgers, that thcg burrow into graves, and devour the bodies of the dead ? This vulgar error arises from the burrowing habits of the badger, coupled with its peculiarly offensive odour. Badgers, however, burrow, not for the purpose of eating, but to obtain a place of shelter and safe retreat. Their food consists only of those creatures Mhich come out to feed during the night, such as snails, worms, *nd other nocturnal creatures. NATURAL HISTORY. 79 *' Some i» scarlet, some in purple cloth, all in badgers' skins, as is prescribed." — SPELMAK. 240. Why is the female badger more carefal than the taude ix burrowing in secwre places? Because the male requires the burrow only as a place of shelter during the day and the winter ; the female requires the additional accommodation cf a nursery for her young. Therefore, the female is in part influenced by her natural instinct, and works in accordance with that before she is of age to become a mother ; while the male, into whose composition no such instinct enters, takes the work more easily. 241. Two young badgers, a male and a feaiale, were taken out of Ike burrow of their mother, and placed in a paved yard, which was so fenced in that they could not escape, and yet allowed tkem considerable range. Tkey unpaved a portion of the yard aad dug a burrow in which they spent the day, and came out in the night cnly to eat tke food which was placed for them. After continuing a year in the court they were put into a small enclosure walled round with stone, and having a eiound of earth in the centre. Trae to their habit of digging on sloping banks where tkere are stones to support their entrance, they first tried tke walls all round, to find a place where they could dig a habitation. They then chose an opening Between two stones which was a little elevated above the ground, and had tiae upper stone projecting over it. In nature the entrance to the badger's burrow Ls often under a projecting stone, wfeieh partially conceals it, and protects it from the rain. They had some difficulty in reaching this place, as it required nearly the whole length of their bodies standing on the hind feet, and tie fore feet had ix consequence littlo influence on the plaster and stones. They tried a resource, however ; tke male lay down close by tke bottom of the wall, and the female, standing on him, cauld reach the desired place with more effect. All would next do, so they abandoned the place and tried the result at others, always selecting a place under a prsjeetiag stone. In th^se attempts, which, though they all proved onsuceessful, were carried on with great energy and perseverance, the female was the most active, selecting the places and being the principal operator. After many fruitless attempts they abandoned the walls and betook themselves to tie mound of earth, the female, as in other cases, leading tke way. Even here they did not at once begin to form the burrow, but ran trial lines or trenches over a considerable part of tke surface, till they came to a place which suited them, and here they began their regular operations. In the first losening of the earth they used the nose, then ttu-y dug deeper with tke fore paws, flinging tke earth backwards between the hind ones, and afterwards using them to remove the heap stiG. furtner in the rear. When tke heap behind them, accumulated, they retreated backwards upon it, and using all the paws gradually removed it from the hole. Sometimes one of them mould lie dowr. to rest by tke side of the other at work and remain, though half-buried in the earth, and apparently giving considerable interruption to fts fellow. The male was must prone to indulge in these lazy fits, while the fe»ak was by far the most industrious in the labour. THE REASON WHY : " In hollow caverns vermin make abode, The hissing serpent, and the swelling toad, The corn-devouring •weasel here abides, And the wise ant her wintry store provides." — DHYDJN. 242. Wliy was badger hunting an amusement of former times ? Because the animal is of a very pugnacious disposition, posses- sing great muscular power and astonishing strength of jaws ; its strong leathery hide also provides it with a defensive coat of mail, and from these combined characteristics the animal is rendered a formidable enemy to attack or to cope with. 2^3. The badger is taken in various ways. The favourite mode, and that which is perhaps the most successful, is by catching him in a sack placed at the entrance of his hole. The haunt of the badger being ascertained, a moonlight night is chosen, when he is out feeding, and a small sack is placed within the mouth of the hole, fastened at the outside, with the mouth of the bag outwards, and having a running string round it. Two or three couples of hounds are then thrown oft at some distance, and as soon as the badger hears their cry, he makes for his home with all speed, and runs into the sack, which closes behind him by the tightening of the running string round it. Another method is by digging him out. This, however, is laborious, and not always successful, particularly in sandy soils, in which the badger will easily foil the dogs which pursue him in his subterranean passage, by throwing the earth back upon them and blocking up their way, whilst he takes advantage of their loss of time and makes his way to the surface. 244. What gave rise to the old proverb of " Catch a weasel asleep" &e. ? When awake weasels are particularly expert in eluding capture. But it is scarcely possible to imagine an animal sleeping more soundly than the weasel does when once it gives itself up to rest. It may be taken up by the head, the heels, or the tail, and swung about for a considerable time before it begins to awake. In fact, although it is a snappish little animal when awake, there is not one with which greater liberties may be taken when once asleep. 245. \Yhy is the weasel peculiarly adapted for hunting mice in wheat ricks? Because it possesses a long flexible body and an extraordinary length of neck ; the closeness of its fur, and its extreme agility and quickness of movement, combine to adapt it to suoh habits, in which it is also much aided by its power of hunting by scenfc. 246. In pursuing a rat or a mouse the weasel not only follows it as long as i4 fpmains in sight, but continues the chase after it has disappeared, with the hea-'i NATURAL HISTORY. 81 " Out of my door, you witch, you rag, you baggage, you pole-cat .'" — SIIAKSPKKK. raised a little above the ground, following the exact track taken by its destined prey. Should it lose the scent, it returns to the point where it was lost, and quarters the ground with great diligence till it has recovered it, and thus, by dint of perseverance, will ultimately hunt down a swifter and even a stronger animal *han itself, tut this is not all : in the pertinacity of its pursuit it will readily take the water, and swim with great ease after its prey. 247. What gave rise to the saying of " Stinking like a polecat ? " The pole-cat is provided with small glands on the posterior part of the body which secrete a fluid possessing a most offensive odour. The purpose of this odour has been held to be the protection of the pole-cat from animals that otherwise would prey upon it. 2^8. A similar power is possessed by numerous animals called mephitic (offensive to the smell). Of these the chinche appears to possess it in a high degree. The offensive odour is confined exclusively to the apparatus by means of which it is produced and emitted ; and when this is removed, the offensiveness ceases. When the aukiial is pursued and annoyed the battery is discharged, not in mere gas, but in a liquid, which instantly evaporates, and is so buoyant and dispersive, and at the same time so powerful, that it will taint the air for a mile or for several miles round. When near at hand, it is perfectly intolerable, and the staunchest dog is instantly arrested by it. The following brief story is told by Kalmer : — " In the year 1749, one of these animals came near the farm where I lived. It was in winter, during the light, and the dogs that were on the watch pursued it for some time, until it discharged against them. Although I was in my bed a good way off, I thought I should be suffocated ; and the cows and oxen by their lowings showed how much they were affected by the stench. About the end of the same year another of these animals crept into our cellar, but did not exhale the smallest scent, because it was not disturbed. A foolish woman, however, who perceived it at night by the shining of its eyes, killed it, and at that moment its stench began to spread. The whole cellar was filled with it to such a degree that the woman kept her bed for several days afterwards, and all the bread and meat and other provisions that were kept there were so affected that they were thrown out of doors." 249. If hat originated the proverb, " He builds closely with dry stones who can build out the Because the animal has such extreme flexibility of body that it has been known to worm its body through a hole less than three inches in diameter. It is also a very expert climber, and cun ascend a wall or a tree with the utmost celerity. T 2 THE REASON WHY : "I ordered the proper officer of my court to ferret them out of their respective lanes, and bring them before me." — TATLKR. 250. Why are ferrets dangerous animals to keep in a state of domestication ? Because they are animals incapable of discriminating attachment, and the tanieness they evince is deceptive, being nothing more than the indifference and absence of fear and anger, which are the result of hereditary dependence upon and association with mankind. But when an opportunity arrives, and this animal is tempted by the taste or smell of blood, the ferret becomes indiscriminate and savage in its attack even on human beings. i51. The following anecdote related by Mr. Jesse in illustration of the ferocity of Hie ferret is recorded here with a view of discouraging persons from making pets of these vicious creatures :— Some few years ago, a poor woman, holding a mangled infant in her arms, rushed, screaming * .th agony and fright, into my friend's house, who is a surgeon, imploring him to save the child's life, who, she said, had been almost killed by a ferret. The face, neck, and arms, were dreadfully lacerated, the jugular vein had been opened, as also the temporal artery ; the eyes were greatly injured, and, indeed, the child, who is still living, has lost the entire sight of one of them, and has very imperfect vision in the other. Having stopped the still bleeding vessels, my friend accompanied the mother to her cottage, on entering which the child, in some degree recovering from its state of apparent death, began to cry, when the ferret was in an instant seen rushing from behind some bavins where he had taken shelter, and, with his head erect, boldly came forward snd met the infuriated parent in the middle of the room, still holding the infant in her arms. On my friend's kicking the ferret, as the fl ~st impulse of protection, the animal endeavoured to seize his leg, and not until his back was broken by repeated kicks did he give over his earnest and reiterated attempts to renew his sanguinary fenst ; indeed, whilst in the agonies of death, the piteous screams of the child seemed u> rouse him to vain efforts to regain his prey. The ferret was of large growth, and much distended with the infant's blood ; and, although formerly of peculiar shyness, yet he lost sight of fear and became ferocious in the pursuit of the unfor- tunate infant. It appears the poor woman had left her child (about six months old) in a cradle whilst she went to market, when it is supposed the infant's cry had arrested the attention of the ferret, who managed to make his escape, and thus effected his purpose. There is good reason to believe he must have passed more than half an hour in the indulgence of his appetite, from the circumstances of the neighbours having heard the piercing shrieks of the child for a long time without the slightest suspicion of the mother's absence. NATURAL HTSTOK.*, Th' amphibious otter bold, the weasel sly, Pilfering the yolk from its enclosing she'll."— DODSLEY. 252. Why do otters, when, hunting for fish, always swim against the stream? Because fishes,, when reposing or waiting for food, have their heads up the water ; and thus the other can come upon them and capture them, unawares. Another reason is, thai as otters return to the neighbourhood of their burrow with the fish they have captured, they can more easily do so by swimming with their burthen in the direction x#f the stream. 253. Wliat are the points of similarity and difference between the dog and the wo//, to which animal the origin, of the dog is attributed ? The skeleton of the wolf does not differ materially from that of the dog more than that of the different kinds of dogs vary ; the cranium is similar, and they agree in nearly all the other essential points ; the dog and wolf will readily breed with each other, and their progeny thus obtained will again mingle with the dog. The most prominent circumstance which marks a decided difference between the two animals is the eye : this organ in the dog of every country and species has a circular pupil ; but the position or form of the pupil in the wolf is oblique. It should also be remembered that in every part of the globe in which the wolf is found, a peculiar setting on of the curve of the tail, and a singularity of voice, cannot fail of being observed ; to which may be added, that the dog exists in every latitude and in every climate, while the habitation of the wok' is confined to certain parts of the globe. 254. There is, also, a marked difference in the temper and habits of the two. The dog is, generally speaking, easily manageable, but nothing will, in the majority ot cases, render the wolf moderately tractable. There are, however, exceptions to this. M. F. Cuvier gives an account of a young wolf who followed his master everywhere, and showed a degree of affection and submission scarcely inferior to the domesti- cated dog. His master being unavoidably absent, he was sent to the menagerie, where he pined for his loss, and would scarcely take any food for a considerable time. At length, however, he attached himself to his keepers, and appeared to have forgotten his former associate. At the expiration of eighteen months his 84 THE REASON WHY : " The poor dog ! in life the firmest f»iend, The first to welcome, foremost to defend ; Whose honest heart is still his master's own, Who labours, fights, lives, breathes for him alone."— BYROX. master returned, and, the moment his voice was heard, the wolf recognised him, and lavished on his old friend the most affectionate caresses. A second separation followed, which lasted three years, and again the long-remembered voice was recog- nised, and replied to with impatient cries ; after which, rushing on his master, he licked his face with every mark of joy, menacing his keepers, towards whom In. had just before been exhibiting fondness. A third separation occurred, and he became gloomy and melancholy. He suffered the caresses of none but his keepers, »nd towards them he often manifested the original ferocity of his species. 255. Assuming the original identity of the dog and the wolf, why is there a difference in the pupils of their eyes ? Professor Bell attributes the forward direction of the eyes in dogs, and the circular • pupil, to the constant habit, for many generations, of looking forwards towards their masters. 256. Why may we infer that all the varieties of dogs spring from a common origin? Because we have many opportunities of observing the varieties produced by accidental causes, and we see those accidental varieties diliger'ly cultivated into new species, altogether different in form and use from any that preceded them. 257. We see the changes climate and breeding effect in dogs illustrated b> the rough Irish or Highland greyhound and the smoother one of the southern part of Britain ; the more delicate one of Greece, and the diminutive one of Italy, and the hairless one of Africa and Brazils. One of the most striking proofs of the influence of climate on the form and character of this animal occurs in the bull -dog. When transported to India he becomes, in a few years, greatly altered in form, loses all his former courage and ferocity, and becomes a perfect coward.* 258. Why is the Isle of Dogs so called ? Because in the reign of King John it was made the receptacle and breeding ground of the greyhounds and spaniels of that monarch. It was selected on account of its contiguity to Waltham and other royal forests, where coursing was a frequent amuse ment. t M Y°uatt on the Pog.?' NATURAL HISTORY. 85 "The greyhounds forth are brought, for coursing then in case, And choicely in the slip, one leading forth a brace ; The finder puts her up, and gives her coursers law." — DRAT" ?59. Why does the greyhound hunt by sight alone? Because he has been trained to depend upon his speed, and that speed is utterly incompatible with the tracing of scent. 260. Packs of hounds run by sight when the nature of the country allows them to have a full view of the hare. When thus running they nearly double their speed, but are liable to lose ground by being thrown out in consequence of a sudden turn, or change of country ; they have to seek the scent before they can again take up the running. The English greyhound, on the contrary, is called off the moment he loses sight of the hare, the re -finding of which is left to the spaniel. 261. WJiy should the neck of the greyhound be long ? Because it is necessary that this portion of the frame should correspond with the length of the legs, and thus enable the dog to seize and lift the game as he rapidly pursues his course, without throwing any undue or dangerous weight on the fore extremities. In the act of seizing the hare the short-necked dog may lose the centre of gravity and fall. 262. JPTiy are greyhounds less attached to their masters than a/re other dogs? Because the greyhound has less opportunities of forming individual attachments than other dogs ; the whole purpose of his life being to follow game. The keeper exercises over him a tyrannical power, and the owner seldom notices him in the manner which begets affection or scarcely recognition. 263. JtTiy in coursing are two dogs employed ? Because hares make sudden turns, by which they frequently SC THE REASON WHY : " So flewcd, so sanded, and their heads are hung With cars that sweep away the morning dew ; Oook-knee'd, and dew-lapp'd, like Thessalian bulls ; Slow in pursuit, but matched in mouth like bells." — SHAKSPERE. escape from single dogs. A good greyhound will reach a hare if bhe runs straight ; but the moment he is about to strike at her she turns short, and the dog, unable to stop himself, is thrown from ten 'to twenty yards from her. When, however, pursued by a couple of dogs, the hare has a more difficult game to play, as it frequently happens that when she is turned by the leading dog she cannot avoid the strokes of the second. 264. JFTiy should beagles have large heads ? Because they depend almost wholly upon scent for their success in the hunt. A large broad head is accompanied by expanded nasal organs, contri- buting to acute smelling ; while the same form of head is adapted for the reverberation of the sound for which the Deagle is remarkable. 265. Why should sporting dogs generally be kept to their own * game? Because by such restriction they become improved for their special duty, having only one scent, and one style of hunting. 266. Wliy have bloodhounds proved so efficacious in the pursuit of fugitives ? Because special means have been carefully employed with the horrible design of training these dogs to entertain an insatiable thirst for human blood. 267. Bloodhounds were formerly much employed in pursuing criminals escapovt from justice, or in tracing out robbers or enemies, whose course was invariably discovered, when ouce the bloodhound was placed upon their trail. In the border NATURAL HISTORY. 87 "Soon the sagacious brute, his curling tail Flourished i.i air, lovv bending, plies around His busy no»e, the ^teaming vapour snuit's." — SOMEKVILLE. country of Scotland, they were formerly much employed for such uses, but at present the race has become almost forgotten. In the countries of South America, the Spaniards employed fierce dogs to aid them in conquering the Indians, but it is not certain that the dogs, trained by them to this cruel business, belonged to the present variety. All the varieties of hound, however, have much sagacity, and most of the larger and stronger breeds have great acuteness of scent, and might, without much difficulty, be trained to act as bloodhounds. 268. Why is the sense of smell so fwuie in dogs ? The olfactory nerve in the horse, the dog, the ox, and the swine, is the largest of all the cerebral nerves, and of much greater compara- tive bulk in the quadruped than in the human being. The sense of smell, in proportion to the size of the nerve upon which it depends, is still more acute. The relative size of the nerve bears an invari- able proportion to the necessity for an acute sense of smell in the various animals — large in the horse, compared with the olfactory nerve in the ox, which is sent into the fields to shift for himself — larger still in the swine, whose food is buried under the soil, or deeply immersed in refuse — and still larger in the dog. 269. Why do dogs lose their scent for game-birds during the season of incubation? It is a common notion that this arises from some temporary defect in the organ of smell of the dog ; but it would appear more probable that birds lose, or rather do not emit, scent during the time in question, and this may be owing to the habits or condition of the birds being changed during the period of incubation. In this may be perceived a wise and merciful provision of nature to protect the birds from harm during this trying and important season. THE REASON WHY : •Neglected Tray and pointer lie, And covies unmolested fly." — PRIOR. 270. Why do sporting dogs make what is termed a "point ?" Because they are conscious "of having got too close up'on the birds, and halt suddenly for fear of disturbing them before a shot can be given ; and this action not only accomplishes the end in view, but serves to acquaint the sportsman that there is game in the immediate locality. 271. The moment the pointer falls upon the scent, he not only makes a sucldon halt, but assumes at once an attitude of very great peculiarity, and such as must be seen before it can be fully appreciated or understood. In an instant he may be seen standing on three legs, one of the fore feet being raised, and his face, back, and tail all drawn into a line. This is his invariable position when the scent is taken naturally, but when it is interfered, with, such as running with the wind, or barred by an impenetrable fence, or any other circumstance, and the dog stumbles in consequence suddenly upon the game, he then pulls himself up so instantaneously that not one of his limbs is suffered to move after the instant the scent is dis- covered ; and however singular the conformation of his body at that moment, or however painful to him that attitude, he will maintain it with unswervirg steadiness until the sportsman arrives. Sometimes it has happened that when thu pointer has been in the act of springing over a strong fence, such as a stone wall, he has hit upon the scent of the birds lying close to it on the other side, and he has then been seen to halt suddenly on the top of it with his four feet all collected together, and his body almost all doubled up, thus fixing himself like a statue. 272. What is "scent?" It is the odour, or effluvium, which is constantly issuing from every animal, and especially when that animal is in more than usual exercise. In a state of heat or excitement, the pores of the skin appear relaxed, and a fluid or aqueous vapour is secreted which, escaping in large quantities, adheres to the persons or substances upon which it falls, and is particularly capable of impressing the olfactory nerves.* 273. That an animal emitting odorous exhalations should leave behind it a somewhat abiding scent, is no matter of surprise when we consider what some solid substances are capable of doing, and that the odorous excretions of animals derive their property from minute particles of similar solids. Some substances possess very strong odorous properties, without losing weight in any appreciable degree by the diffusion of their particles through the air. This is the case, for * " Youutt on the Dog." NATURAL HiSTORr. 89 " To erery shrub the -warm effluvia cling, Hang on the grass, im pregnant earth and skies, With nostrils op'ning wide, o'er 1 .11 and dale, . The vig'rous hounds pursue." — SOMERVILLE. example, with musk, which is obtained from the musk-deer, a grain of which has oeen kept freely exposed to the air of a room, whose doors and windows were kept constantly open for a period of ten years, during which time the air, thus continually changed, was completely impregnated with the odour of musk ; and yet, at the end of that time, the particle was found to have not perceptibly diminished IP weight. 274. Why is a moist atmosphere the best for scent ? Because moisture not only imbibes and holds the peculiar matters yielding the odour, but presents it to the nerves of smell, which are spread out upon the internal chambers of the nose in that state which is best adapted to impress the nerves. 275. We know that just before rains set in, when the atmosphere is humid, but not wet, drains give forth unpleasant smells. Certain bodies possess tbe property of exciting sensations of a peculiar nature, which cannot be perceived by the organs of taste or touch, but seem to depend upon the diffusion of the particles of the substances through the surrounding air in a state of extreme minuteness. As the solubility of a substance in liquid seems a necessary condition of its exciting the sense of taste, so does its volatility or tendency to a vaporous state appear requisite for its possession of odorous particles. 276. Why is a wet day unfavourable for scent ? Because then the odorous effluvia becomes, as it were, " drowned" by excess of moisture. It is absorbed and neutralised by water, instead of being suspended in vapour. We know that persons having colds, in which condition the mucous membranes of the nose are in an extreme state of humidity, lose their power of smell. 277. Why, when the ground is hard and the air dryt is there little scent? Because the vapour which serves as the menstrum of com- munication is absent. 278. Why does scent somciirms lie breast high ? Because sometimes a stratum of humid air lies over the earth n little above the surface. This arises from the difference between the temperature of the earth and the air, and is frequently made TIIE REASON WHY : " But the milder ayre with season moderate, Gtntly attempered, and disposed so well That still it breathed forth sweet and holesome smell." — SPENSER. manifest by the " creeping mists " of morning and evening. The a ^ent is most manifest where a favourable condition of humidity prevails, and hence it is strongest in the upper stratum. 2J9. Why does scent rarely lie with a north or east wind ? Because those winds being generally dry, and frequently cold, are unfavourable to the retention of scent, which becomes diffused and weakened instead of retained, as it were, in solution. 280. The different manners or attitudes in which the dog runs afford satisfactory and pleasing illustrations of the nature of the scent. Sometimes they will be seen galloping with their noses in the air, as if their game had flown away, and an hour or two afterwards every one of them will have his muzzle on the ground. The condition of the atmosphere has changed, and the scent has risen or fallen in proportion.* 281. Why is scent generally good when the wind is southerly t Because the south wind is generally humid and warm. For <* similar reason, a westerly wind is, next to the south wind, in its favourable conditions. 282. In the evening when dews are forming, we recognise the fragrance of flowers and the odour of sweet hay. This is a sufficient confirmation that a moderate degree of humidity is best adapted to the transmission of scents. 283. Why, when cob-webs hang on the bushes, is scent seldom good ? Because spiders spread out their webs in dry air, and gather them, in when it is moist or wet. Therefore, when the webs are out it is a sure indication that the dryness of the air is unfavourable lo scent. 284. Why in a hard rain, if the air is mild, will scent sometimes be very good? Because after a heavy rain the air is left in a dry state, ready immediately to absorb vapour. The mildness of the temperature at once causes evaporation, and produces the same atmospheric condition immediately after rain as generally occurs before it, * " Youatt on the Dog." NATURAL HISTORY. 91 " ' Tis raging noon ; and, vertical, the sun Darts on the head direct his forceful rays, O'er heaven and earth, far as the ranging eye Can sweep." — THOMSON. 235. Why do sudden storms destroy scent? Because they rapidly change the conditions upon which it depends. Storms of rain produce a superabundance of wet ; storms of wind dry the air, and disperse the effluvia ; storms of hail and snow produce cold, and, if succeeded by an immediate thaw, result in a wet surface, with sluggish evaporation ; but if no thaw occurs, then a cold dry air rests over the earth. 286. Wliy are sunshiny days not good for scent ? Because then there is a rapid movement of the vapours of the earth, from the surface to a considerable elevation in the atmo- sphere. This may be observed in what is called the " steaming " of the earth on a hot day. The scent is, in such a condition, borne away, and dispersed above the reach of the dogs employed in the hunt. 287. Why is a warm day without sunshine good for scent ? Because then the evaporation from the earth's surface proceeds gradually. Instead of rising rapidly under the glaring heat of the sun, the vapours lie for a time upon the surface ; and when the Tapours lie the scent lies also. 288. Why does scent lie badly upon fallows and beaten roads ? Because there is nothing to detain it ; every blade of grass, or moss, or frond of fern, serves to give stillness to the stratum of air immediately over the earth's surface. But where there are no such checks to atmospheric motion, every impulse of the air spreads far and wide, and disperses all local exhalations. 289. Why is scent frequently good by hedgerows, when bad in the coppice or in the open field ? Because the coppice may be too wet, and the scent be drowned ; and the open field, being quickly dried by the sun, or swept by a brisk wind, the scent may be dispersed ; while the hedgerow, sheltered from the wind, and partially so from the sun, may preserve the conditions required. 92 - THE REASON Will ! And, all -within, it full of wyndings is And bidden wayes, that scarce a hound by smell Can follow out those false footsteps of his'." — SPENSER. 290. Why do dogs of different breeds exhibit a peculiar faculty for particular scents? Those peculiarities are dependent partly upon organisation and upon training. The short thick nose of the beagle is adapted for a ground-scent, while the longer nose of the setter is better adapted for catching the impregnated air. In the breaking-in of dogs it is necessary to correct their falso points at first ; they will stand at larks, blackbirds, thrushes, and, indeed, at anything emitting an unusual odour. By discipline they are taught to disregard all scents but those of their particular game. The foxhound, well broken-in, will rarely challenge at the scent of the hare, nor will he even change his fox. 291. The scent of different animals possesses very various degrees of pungency and distinctive qualities. Scents that are appreciable by some animals are im- perceptible by others : thus the exhalations of the fox, badger, or pole-cat, are obvious to man ; but those of the hare, rabbit, and winged game, to their enemies only. The animal effluvia themselves differ, not only according to the variety of the animal they escape from, but also as the exhalations of each animal vary with circumstances. The hunted stag is never changed— the hunted fox and the hunted hare may be changed many times. " The Country Squire " on the same head remarks : — " It is to be remembered that there is no small accidental differ- ence in the very particles of scent ; I mean, that they are stronger, sweeter, or more distinguishable at one time than at another, and that this difference is found not only in diverse, but often in the same individual creature, according to the changes of the air or the soil, as well as of her own motions or conditions. That there is a different scent in other animals of the same species is evident from draught hounds, which were formerly made use of for tracking and pursuing thieves and deer-stealers ; or rather from any common cur or spaniel, which will hunt out their masters or their master's horse distinctly from all others ; and that it is the same with the hare is no less visible with the old beag'es, which will not readily change for a fresh one, unless she starts in view, or unless a fault happens that puts them in confusion, and inclines them in despair to take up with the next they can come by." Had the Country Squire been a stag-hunter also, he would have noted this peculiarity of the scent of the hunted stag, which, as already ob- served, is never lost, though scores of this kind are near. This veteran judiciously remarks on the nature of scent, that many circumstances may change it ; according to his opinion, it is at one time composed of very fine particles, and at another of particles equally gross, and that this difference Is frequently occasioned by Accidental circumstances. Thus, he says, the coursing of a cur dog, which may follow the hare during the run, will ;ommonly produce a different effluvium to the rest, and a fault is therefore almost always the consequence o/ tUis NATURAL HISTORY. 93 " It was a comfort, too, to see Those dogs that from him ne'er would rove, And always eyed him reverently, With glances of depending love."— HALLAM. &co;£ liked any particular fireman. The fireman replied that Tyke liked one 5 THE REASON WHY: But bold Tydides to the rescue goes, A single -warrior 'midst a host of foes." — POPE. Kreinan as well as another. He had no particular favourites, bat passed bis time amongst them ; sometimes going to the house of one, and then to another, and off to a third when he was tired. Day or night, it was all the same to him ; if a lire broke out, there was he in the midst of the bustle, running from one engine to another, anxiously looking after the firemen ; and, although pressed upon by crowds, yet, from his dexterity, he always escaped accidents, only now and then getting a ducking from the engines, which he rather liked than otherwise. The magistrate said that Tyke was a most extraordinary animal ; and, having expressed a wish to see him, he was shortly afterwards exhibited at the office, and some other peculiarities respecting him were related. There was nothing at all particular in the appearance of the dog. He was a rough-looking, small animal, of the terrier breed, and seemed to be in excellent condition — no doubt from the care taken of him l>y the firemen belonging to the different companies. There was soiae difficulty experienced in bringing him to the office, as he did not much relish going any " distance from where the firemen are to be found, except in cases of attending with them at a conflagration, and then distance was of nc consequence. It was found necessary to use stratagem for the purpose. A fireman commenced running ; Tyke, accustomed to follow upon such occasions, set out after him ; bait this person having slackened his pace on the way, the sagacious animal, knowing there was no fire, turned back, and it was necessary to carry him to the office.* The Author recently saw a fire-dog (but is not aware whether it is the same as described by Mr. Jesse in the above narrative, though he thinks not from the Ascription ) ; it wore a collar, bearing a suitable inscription, recording its feats in connexion with various fires. This dog would run up the steps of the fire-escapes^ enter rooms, and, crouching along the floor, its head below the clouds of smoke, would find out persons lying in their beds in a half-suffocated state, and then, setting up a loud howl, would inform the firemen. At the time the Author saw it, the dog Buffered from falls, and wounds caused by the wheels of fire-escapes and engines passing over it. It was no longer able to ascend the steps of the fire-escape ; but, whenever a door was opened , it rushed in and ascended the stairs, and explored •very part of the house to which it could find access. A PIECE OF MONEY SINGULARLY RESTORED BY A DOG TO HIS MASTER. 305. A gentleman in Suffolk, on an excursion with his friend, was attended by • Newfoundland dog, which soon became the subject of conversation. The roaste*, after a warm eulogium upon the perfection of his canine favourite, assured hii companion that he would, upon receiving the order, return and fetch any article he should leave behind, from any distance. To confirm this assertion, a marked shilling was put under a large square stone by the side of the road, being first ihown to the dog. The gentlemen then rode for three miles, when the doft • Jesse's " Anecdotes of Doff*." NATURAL HISTORY. 99 So scented the grim feature, and upturn'd His nostrils wide into the murkie air, Sagacious of his quarry from so far." — MILTON. received a signal from his master to return for the shilling he had seen put under the stone. The dog turned back ; the gentlemen rode on and reached home, but to their surprise and disappointment the hitherto faithful messenger did not return during the day. It afterwards appeared that he had gone to the place where the shilling was deposited, but the stone being too large for his strength to remove, he had stayed howling at the place till two horsemen riding by, and attracted by his seeming distress, stopped to look at him, when one of them alighting, removed the stone, and seeing the shilling, put it into his pocket, not at the time conceiving it to be the object of «the dog's search. The dog followed their horses for several miles, remained undisturbed in the room where they supped, followed the chamber- maid into the bedchamber, and secreted himself under one of the beds. The possessor of the shilling hung his trousers upon a nail by the bed-side ; but when the travellers were both asleep, the dog took them in his mouth, and leaping out of the window, which was left open on account of the sultry heat, reached the house of his master at four o'clock in the morning, with the prize he had made free with, in the pocket of which were found a watch and money, that were returned upon being advertised, when the whole mystery was mutually unravelled to the admiration of all the parties.* MEMORY AND GRATITUDE OF A DOG. 306. Mr. Youatt relates the following anecdote of a Newfoundland dog, who was greatly attached to him. He says, as it became inconvenient to him to keep the dog, he gave him to one who he knew would treat him kindly. Four years passed, and he had not seen him, when one day as he was walking towards Kingston, and had arrived at the brow of the hill where Jerry Abershaw's gibbet then stood, he met Carlo and his master. The dog recollected Mr. Youatt in a moment, and they made much of each other. His master, after a little chat, proceeded towards "VVandsworth, and Carlo, as in duty bound, followed him. Mr. Youatt had not, however, got half-way down the hill, when the dog was again by his side, lowly but deeply growling, and every hair bristling. On looking about he saw two ill-looking fellows making their way through the bushes which occupied the angular space between Roehampton and Wandsworth roads. Their intention was scarcely questionable, and, indeed, a week or two before, he had narrowly escaped from two miscreants like them. "I can scarcely say," proceeds Mr. Youatt, " what I felt, for presently one of the scoundrels emerged from the bushes, not twenty yards from me ; he no sooner saw my companion, and heard his growling, the loudness and depth of which were fearfully increasing, than he retreated, and I saw no more of him or his associate. My gallant defender accompanied me to the direction post at the bottom of the hill, and there, with many a mutual and honest greeting, we parted, and he bounded away to overtake his rightful owner. We never met again ; but 1 need not say that 1 often thought of him with admira- tion and gratitude." • Jesse'* " Anecdotes of Dogs." 100 THE REASON WHY. At Bruin flies the slavering, snarling cur, But only fills his famished jaws with fur." — FALCONEE. A DOG CONSTABLE. 307. Mr. Tewes, who keeps a restaurant in William-street, New York, has a large Newfoundland dog, a finer specimen of his kind than is ordinarily met with. Among his other wonderful marks of intelligence, we witnessed this a day or two ago. A gentleman entered the restaurant holding by a cord a dog which served as watch on board a ship. While in the place, the gentleman supposed the dog was safe, released his hold upon the string. The door was opened while the parties were in conversation, and the dog made his escape, Mr. Tewes said to his Newfoundland, "Go bring him back, Sir." The dog obeyed the mandate, and within a block or two overtook the fugitive. He first proceeded to give the object of his charge a slight reprimand for his delinquency by means of a smart shake or two, and then took the rope in his mouth to lead the dog back to his master. Some holding back was manifested, the string was dropped, and another shaking administered. Finally, by alternate chastisements and pullings at the cord, the runaway dog was brought into the restaurant, and the Newfoundland, with a sly wink to his master, seemed to say, " There he is." The scene was witnessed by many, and created no little excitement.— New York Paper. A NEWFOUNDLAND'S REVENGE. 308. A cousin of the Author of this work was a timber merchant in a sea-port town of England. He had two remarkably fine dogs that frequently afforded striking evidences of sagacity. "Hector" and "Wallace" had often, in quitting the timber-yard, to pass through a narrow lane which ascended a hill leading from the sea. In this lane lived an old woman, who kept a snappish little cur, that always ran out and barked at the Newfoundlands. Of this they took no notice, or only answered the insolence of the cur by a dignified growl. At last the little culprit, emboldened by the forbearance of the Newfoundlands, snapped at the hind leg of one of them and bit it severely. Hector, the dog who was bitten, turned round, and, seizing the cur by the neck, carried him leisurely down to the sea-side, plunged in, and swam with him to what is called "boat's moorings" — about a hundred yards or more from the shore. There he let the unhappy cur go, and as he attempted to swim ashore, Hector every now and then struck him with his paw. The cur was drowned ; the Newfoundland brought his body ashore and laid it out upon the beach — a solemn warning to all curs against offending the dignity of the New- foundland. Mr. Youatt tells a similar story, but in this latter instance capital punishment was not inflicted, a severe ducking having been considered a sufficient penalty. CLEMENCY OF THE NEWFOUNDLAND. 309. An instance of a somewhat different character is related by Mr. Partington. While the Government harbour or pier at Donaghadee, Ireland, was building, a battle took place between two powerful dogs. One was a Newfoundland, the ott er a mastiff. They had a prolonged fight upon the pier, from the point of which they both fell into the sea ; and as the pier was long and steep, they had no means of ^ HISTORY. 101 " Whereunto I can none otherwise answere, but- that, b,e /whp will throw a stone at every dog which barketh, hatli-'nee4 af ^a great satchel or pocket." — GASCOJGNE. escape but by swimming a considerable distance. as best he could. The Newfoundland, being an excellent swimmer, very speedily gained the shore, on which he stood shaking himself, but at the same time watching the motions of his former antagonist, which, being a bad swimmer, was struggling exhausted in the water,' and just about to sink. In dashed the Newfoundland, took the other gently by the collar, kept his head above water, and brought him safely on shore. There was a peculiar kind of recognition between the two animals, they had often fought before, but never did so afterwards ; and upon tue New- foundland dog being accidentally killed by a stone-waggon on the railway passing over him, the mastiff languished and lamented for a considerable time. A CUR PERFORMS THE PART OF A DETECTIVE. 310. Mr. Youatt tells the following anecdote, vouching for its truth : A young man, an acquaintance of the coachman, was walking, as he had often done, in Lord Fife's stables at Banff. Taking an opportunity, when the servants were not regarding him, he put a bridle into his pocket. A highland cur that was generally about the stable saw him, and immediately began to bark ; and, when he got to the stable door, would not let him pass, but bit him by the leg, in order to prevent him. As the servants had never seen the dog act thus before, and the same young man had been often with them, they could not imagine what had been the reason of the dog's conduct. However, when they saw the end of a valuable bridle peeping out of the young man's pocket, they were able to account for it ; and, on his giving it up, the dog left the stable-door, where he had stood, and allowed him to pass. DOG PHILANTHROPISTS. 31 1. Upon Mount St. Bernard, and near one of the most dangerous mountain passes, is a convent, in which is preserved a breed of large dogs, trained to search tor the benighted and fro/en wanderer. Every night, and particularly when the wind blows tempestuously, some of these dogs are sent out. They traverse every path about the mountains, and their scent is so exquisite that they can discover the traveller, although he may lie many feet deep in the snow. Having found him , they set to work and endeavour to scrape away the snow, uttering a deep bark that reverberates from rock to rock, and tells those who are watching in the convent that some poor wretch is in peril. Generally, a little flask of spirits is tied round the neck of the animal; by drinking which the benighted traveller may recruit his strength until more effectual rescue arrives. The monks hasten in the direction of the sound, and often succeed in rekindling the vital spark before it is quite extinguished. Very many travellers have been thus rescued from death by these benevolent men and their intelligent and interesting quadruped servants. One of these Bernardine dogs, named Barry, had a medal tied round his neck as a badge of honourable distinction, for he had saved the lives of forty persons. He at length died nobly in his vocation. A Piedmontese courier arrived at St. Bernard on a very stormy day, labouring to make his way to the little village of St. Pierre, in the valley beneath the mountain, where his wife and children lived. It was in vain that the monks attempted to check his resolution to reach his family. 1 hey at 102 THE REASON WHY ! " Bchol• 'Afti-i 7. Thtre does not appear to be much truth in the common saying, that squirrels are great planters of the oak, by the acorns which they bury in 'the ground and are afterwards unable to find out ; for, when an animal has the instinct of hiding any substance as a supply of food, it has, as a matter of course, the instinct of finding it again ; and that a squirrel should range the forest, burying acorn after nco^n in places where they would be apt to germinate, is very incredible. Tha store is always placed in dry situations, where it can be preserved from growing.* It was said of old that " squirrels also foresee a tempest coming, and where the wind will blow : for looke in what corner the wind is like to take a stand ; on that side they stop up the mouth of their holes, and make an overture on the other side against it."+ 358. Why are some of the members of this tribe called "flying squirrels ? " Because the skin of their sides is capable of great extension, and being attached to both the anterior and posterior extremities, is capable of being spread out, and answering the purpose of a parachute. There is a bony appendage to the hind feet, which furnishes an additional support to this membrane, in the extended springs made by the animal from one tree to another. These flying squirrels seem to differ physically in nothing from the squirrels, properly speaking, except in the flying apparatus, and the bony appendage which supports it.£ 359. Why has the souslik^ pouches in its cheeks? Because this pretty little rodent lays up for the winter seeds, acorns, nuts, &c., which they convey to their borrows. Having no other means of transporting them, their feet being all employed in their movements, and their teeth ill-adapted to holding nuts while the body is in motion, they are provided with little pockets or pouches in their cheeks, in which they carry their winter's store U burrows. • Partington's " Cyclopaedia." + Holland : " Plinle." J Cuvier's " Regne Animal." } Spermophitus cilillua. 116 THE REASON WHY Valour's a mouse-trap, wit a gin, Which women oft are taken v/." — HUDIBRAS. 360. Why does the, dormouse* become fat during its period of hybernation, while other hybcrnating animals become thin ? * Because its hybernation is imperfect ; it occasionally wakes and eats of the store of food it has previously laid up. Thus feeding, and being wholly inactive, its fat increases. But in the case of animals that hybernate perfectly, and do not eat, the fat of their bodies is consumed for the support of their organic functions. 361. Why is a small number of mice beneficial in some houses ? Because they are great eaters of the beetles which infest houses during the night. 362. WJiy are rats beneficial in -certain instances? Because they frequently make the sewers or drains their principal haunts, and by devouring putrefying substan _%e? contribute materially to cleanliness and health. 363. As matters are at present, the drainage of London stains the water of the Thames ; but when we take into consideration the countless millions of brown rats which are supported in the sewers, and of which the greater part are produced, rive, feed, and thrive there, without any other store for their support, we can readily understand what would be the case if it were not for them. Thus, whether these animals come under the name of rats or mice they are, under certain circum- stances, highly useful, playing the part of scavengers for man in cases where he either cannot or will not play it for himself. Every animal, indeed, which follows man in all his migrations, and multiplies in proportion as his numbers multiply, is always useful to him. A£ost of these animals are, no doubt, annoying, and many of them are positively offensive ; but, in all cases where they are so, man will find that he himself is generally to blame. They come to consume that which is at variance with health and cleanliness; and if the latter is properly attended to, there is no place for Rats are exceedingly clean animals ; they invariably wash themselves all over after eating, no matter what. The operation is performed in the same manner as the cat does — by licking the paws. When a rat eats, he, by means of his sharp front teeth, gnaws away a mouthful, which he deposits in a sort of pouch formed between his grinding-teeth and his chwks. Then he ceases gnawing, and masticates • Myoxus glis. + Partington's "Cyclopaedia." NATURAL HISTORY'. 117 " Our natures do pursue, Like rats that ravine down their proper bane, A thirsty evil, and -when we drink, we die." — SHAKSPERE. kis food, by moving his jaws incessantly and without pausing. They move ten times faster than the jaws of a rabbit. When a rat drinks, he laps up the fluid like a dog. A rat generally tastes his food with his tongue previous to eating it. "When sleeping, the rat coils himself up into a ball, and places his nose down between his hind legs ; his tail is curled up round the outside of the body, no part of him projecting but his two delicate ears, which are beautifully adapted for catching the least sound. 364. Why may black rats be most securely caught by means of a wire snare fixed on a beam or rafter? Because the black rat does not frequent low haunts, such as cellars, pigsties, &c. ; nor does he burrow and run into holes, bu* lives chiefly in the ceilings and wainscoats of houses, and under rafters and beams. The snare alluded to, therefore, favouring their peculiar habits, is better calculated to secure them than any other contrivance. 365. WTiy is the tail of the rat so long and perfectly formed ? Because it performs an important part in the animal's progress, becoming a sort of hand by means of which he is enabled to crawl along the tops of railings and along narrow ledges of walls, balancing himself by it or entwining it round the projecting portions of the diffi- cult passages along which his course lies. By means of it, too, he is enabled to spring up heights otherwise inaccessible, using it on these occasions as a lever, or rather a projectile spring. 366. Why does the disappearance of the black rat prove the greater solidity and cleanliness of our modern habitations? Because the black rat was never much of a city rat, nor resorted to houses built of masonry, and roofed with tiles or slates. But it frequented thatched houses with boarded or plastered walls, and became numerous ir dwellings where the rooms were uncleanly. They were, in fact, the scavengers of dirty recesses and floors, just as the brown rat is of sewers ; and the extermination of the black ?at is due to the absence of the conditions which once fostered it • — not to its having been driven away by the brown rat. 118 THE REASON WHY : " And forth he goth, no longer would he tary, Into the town unto a potecary, And praied him that he him wolde sell Some poison that he might his ratouns quell." — CHATJCEB. 367. Why is it said that rats always quit a falling house ? The popular saying is founded upon the very obvious fact that when houses become old and tottering, they are abandoned by human beings, and then the rate finding no longer their usual subsistence, quit the tenement ako. 368. But the popular mind has thwarted this very palpable lact into a kind of superstition, believing that rats have the power of anticipating the sudden fall of a housey and quitting it some hours before. Granting that a rat were of all animals the most sensitive to coming changes, and that it felt them in the very dawn of their existence, the fall of a house does not come within the class of occurrences of which the sensibility of the animal would give it early warning.* In like manner it is said that rats leave a sinking ship ; they have been seen to do so by walking along the rope which fastened the ship to the shore, but they did this only when the water had absolutely forced them from every other place. 369.. Why is a person shifting from one party or from one cause to another said to be "ratting?" This saying is founded on the previous notion of rats deserting falling houses and sinking ships. It implies that as the individual can no longer suit his own purposes, he deserts his former place or cause. Tergiversation of this kind, more especially when it consists in deserting one party in its weakness, and going over to the opposite one in its strength for the sake of personal advantage, is invariably called " ratting ;" and it is held, and very properly held, to be the worst species of political crime of which a public man can be guilty, and characteristic of the very meanest cast of mind, and lowest depth of political corruption.* 370. Why may we suppose that rats can communicate intelligence to each other when they find food ? Because the depredations committed usually commence with one rat, which soon afterwards is joined by other companions, and in a few days krge swarms frequently appear. • Partington's «« Cyclopaedia." NATURAL H1S-.ORY. 119 " This purpose is sometimes carried on by a sort of migratory instinct, sometime* by the spirit of conquest ; at one time avarice tirives men from their .homes, at another they are actuated by a thirst of knowledge."— BURKE. 371. Wliy has the hamster such enormous cheek pouches ? Hamsters are a genus of rodent animals, remarkable for the possession of cheek pouches, which in some of the species are of con- siderable size. The one figured in the illustra- tion* has pouches so large that they will hold a quarter of a pint. These pouches are useful <*s stores of food for the animal, which inhabits the sandy districts of the North of Europe and Asia, Austria, Silesia, and many parts of Germany, Poland, &c., is liable to periods of deprivation from food, and also undergoes an imperfect winter hybernation. 372. The quantity of grain which they consume is very great. On the approach of winter, the hamster retires into his subterranean abode, the entry of which he closes with great care ; and thus, remaining tranquil and secure, feeds on his col- lected, store till the frost becomes severe: he then falls into a profound slumber. It will be seen that this hybernation differs from that in which the animals imme- dia^ly fall asleep, and either continue torpid during the whole of the cold season, or awake occasionally to partake of food. There is a long underground preparation for the winter sleep, during which a considerable quantity of food is needed. Hence it is that the animal is provided with these ample pouches, which act as panniers for the conveyance of its winter food to the place into which it retires. The fur of the hamster is valuable ; and the peasant who goes " a hamster hunting" obtains not only the sl^n of the animal, but his hoard, which amounts to as much as two btishels of grain to each magazine. 373. Why do lemmings migrate frnm their settlements ? Because they multiply so rapidly that they experience a deficiency of vegetable food. They therefore set off in large bodies in search of new grounds adapted to their habitations, and there they found new colonies. In this we see a more striking illustration of the Mut bursariu*. 120 THE REASON WHY! ; It is not iron bands, nor hundred eyes, Nor brazen walls, nor many wakeful skyes, That can withhold their wilful wandering feet."— SPENSER. instinct which prompts rats to quit an uninhabited house, and to abandon an unseaworthy ship. 374. Lemmings are allied to the rat tribes. There are several species of them, varying in size and colour, according to thfl regions they inhabit. They are found in Norway, Lapland, Siberia, and the northern parts of America; those of Norway being nearly the size of the water-rat, and of a tawny colour, variegated with black, the sides of the head and the under parts being white; while those of Lapland and Siberia are scarcely larger than a field- mouse, and much less distinctly marked. They subsist entirely on vegetable food ; they form shallow burrows, in the summer time, under the ground, and in winter make long passages under the snow in search of food. Their hairy heads and short ears and tails admirably adapt them for the latter labour. Their migrations are not regularly periodical, but are undertaken at irregular epochs— upon an average about once in ten years. The inclination, or instinctive faculty, which induces them, with one consent, to assemble from a whole region, collect themselves into an army, and descend from the mountains into the neighbouring plains in the form of a firm phalanx, moving on in a straight line, resolutely surmounting every obstacle, and undismayed by every danger, cannot be contemplated without astonishment. All who have written upon the subject agree that they proceed in a direct course, so that the ground along which they have passed appears at a distance as if it had been ploughed ; the grass being devoured to the very roots in numerous stripes or parallel paths of one or two spans broad, and at the distance of some ells from each other. This army moves chiefly by night, or early in the morning, devouring the herbage as it passes in such a manner that the surface appears to have iJben burnt. No obstacles will materially alter their route ; neither fires, nor deep ravines, torrents, marshes, nor lakes ; they proceed obstinately in a right line, and hence it happens that many thousands perish in the waters, and are found dead by the shores. If a rick of hay or corn occurs in their passage, they eat through it ; but if rocks intervene which they cannot pass, they go round, and then resume their former straight direction. If disturbed or pursued while swimming over a lake, and their phalanx is scattered by oars and poles, they will not recede, but keep swimming directly on, and get into regular order again. Th^y have ever been kiiown to endeavour to board, or pass over a vessel. On the passage overland, if attacked by men they will raise themselves up, uttering a kind of barking sound, and fly at the legs of their invaders ; and will fasten so fiercely at the end of a stick as to suffer themselves to be swung about before they quit their hold. Sometimes an intestine war breaks out in these armies during their march, when they fight desperately and destroy each other. On the march they »- attacked by various enemies, and particularly by owls NATURAL HiSTOilY. Of beasts — the bearer plods his task, While the sleek tigers roll and bask, Nor yet the shades arouse." — SMART. hawks, and weasels, so that but a small proportion of their number survive the perils of their journey. In some instances they have been observed, after a lapse of time, to return to their native mountains. Sometimes the females have borne young during their migration, and have been seen carefully carrying them on their backs. After crossing a sfcream, or an arm of the sea, upon landing on the opposite bank they halt to sun and dry themselves, and after feeding again proceed upon their journey. It was once believed that these animals fell from the clouds at particular seasons ; and some persons positively affirmed that they had seen a lemming fall from the skies— a not improbable occurrence, when it is remembered that birds of prey follow these troops on their journey, and, swooping down upon them, carry into the air as many as their talons can seize. One of these escaping, and falling to the earth, would at once give rise to the above misconception. An eye witness once stood for two hours watching a multitude of lemmings pasting by. 375. Why have beavers remarkably broad and thin tails? Because they spend th« greater part of their time in the water, and pursue a busy life by the side of streams, and in the small mounds or islands formed by meandering waters. To guide their movements in the variable eddies and cur- rents which they have to meet, they require a power- fill rudder; and this is furnished by their broad, flat, and scaly tails. 376. The formation of their tails is the more remarkable, because, while their bodies are covered with fur so fine that it constitutes a valuable article of commerce, their flattened tails are not endowed with fur, but have scaly surfaces, which render their action upon the water most efficient. (See 377.) 377. Why are the incisor teeth of beavers remarkably developed ? Because they require the branches and trunks of trees in the construction of their houses, and these natural implements are necessary to assist them in felling the timber. These teeth are 6 122 THE REASON WHY: " I was surprised at all this civility, and knew not to what I might ascribe it, except to my bright beater and shining scarf that were new that day."— THE TATLZ*. broad, flattened, and protected anteriorly by a layer of orange- floured enamel, the rest of the tooth being of a comparatively soft substance, where a cutting chisel-like edge is obtained. 378. Not only does the beaver use its teeth with wonderful instinct, but the method adopted in the application of these instruments is equally remarkable. It begins the business of felling by gnawing round the branch of a tree ; but, in order to save itself a great deal of work, and! to overcome an otherwise insuperable difficulty — for it is necessary that the branch should fall across the stream, that it may float with the current — the beaver operates mostly on one side, and that always on the right one, and gnaws nearly through that side, leaving the other almost un- touched. The branches cut down are sometimes of considerable thickness, and th* beavers select those which stand up the stream, from tbe place of their habitations-, not those below it, because, in the latter case, they could not haul them up against the current. The bearer presents one of the strongest m&tances of instinctive sagacity a:x? industry which can be met with in the animal creation. It is gregarious, living in societies of two or three hundred, whose labours are employed for the general good, and their settlements are made either in ponds so deep as not to allow of their bein^ frozen to the bottom, and which have a stream of water running through them, *>r in rivers themselves. Having determined on the place in which to erect their habi tations, the first business consists in forming a dam ; and for this purpose they stop the stream hi the most favourable place for their operations. The dam is raised bj driving stakes of five or six feet length into the ground at diffeicnt distances, inter- weaving them with branches of trees, and filling up the interstices with clay, stones, and sand, which they ram down very firmly icitk their tails ; the foundation of tbe dam is ten or twelve feet thick, the top is not more than two or three feet broad, presenting a perpendicular face to the stream, whilst the slope is placed on .the outside, where, as grass grows, the dam is rendered more solid. In this way they build a dam not unfrequently a hundred feet in length. Within the embankment near the edge of the shore are built the houses, which are from ten to twenty-five in number ; these are raised upon piles, and sometimes consist of two or three Tories, for the convenience of change in case of ftoods. The houses are of a round or oval form, with a vaulted roof; the walls about two feet thick, formed of earth, stones, and sticks, but neatly plastered within, and to each are two entrances, one towards the water, and the other facing the land. Their height above the water is about eight feet. In one habitation reside from two to thirty beavers, each animal having its own bed of moss, and each family its own winter stock of provisions, consisting of the bark and small branches of trees, which are kept in the water and fetched within as required. "To effect these works," says Pennant, "a community of two or three hundred assembles ; each bears his share of the labour ; some fell, by gnawing with their teeth, trees of great size, to form beams or piles , these are gnawed all round NATURAL HISTORY. 123 " His leaver brushed, his shoes and gown, Away he trudges into town." — SWIFT. in as regular a manner as a cutter cuts in felling a tree, bringing the bottom of the wood to a point ; others roll the pieces along to the water, others dive and with their feet scrape holes, in order to place them in, while others exert their efforts to rear them in their proper places ; another party is employed in collecting twigs to wattle the piles with ; a third collecting earth, stones, and clay ; a fourth is busied in beating and tempering the mortar ; others in carrying it on their broad tails to proper places, and with the same instrument run it between the piles, or plaster the inside of their houses. Whilst at work, one of the party acts as an overseer, and by striking his tail indicates which parts are weakest. A certain number of smart strokes with the tail is a signal given by the overseers for repairing to such or such places, either for mending any defects, or at the approach of an enemy ; and the whole society attend. 379. Wliy are the hind fed of the beaver far better adapted for swimming than the front ones ? Because when making way through lakes and streams* it has frequently to use the fore feet for purposes not connected with swimming, but to assist in holding, directing, or propelling the billets of wood, or such other matters as the animal may havo gathered, either for building or for food. The beaver has the swimming power more highly developed in its hind feet than has any other quadruped. 380. Why do beavers build their dams sometimes straight across the stream, and at other times in an oblique direction? When the current is slow the dam is carried straight across ; but if the current be rapid, the dam is carried in an oblique line. The dam straight across is the shortest possible, and, therefore, costs the least labour ; but it is the one upon which an equal volume and velocity of water would act most powerfully ; therefore it is used in those cases where the force of the current is least. The oblique dam requires more labour in its construction, because it must be longer for the same breadth of the river ; but as the action of the water upon it diminishes in proportion to the obliquity with which the current meets it, it resists better than the straight dam, and its resistance increases with its obliquity ; therefore it is used against the more rapid and powerful currents. 124 THE KKASON WHY: " Make thy two eyes, like stars, start from their spheres ; Thy knotted and combined locks to part, And each particular hair to stand on end, Like quills upon the fretful porcupine." — SHAKSPEHE. 381. Why are beaver hats commonly catted "castors?" Because they are made from the fur of the beaver, the animal, in zoological nomenclature, being called the castor fiber, from the Greek name castor, and the Latin fiber, because it inhabits the of the water. 382. Why has the coypou, though identical with the "beaver in many of its habits, a dissimilar tail ? It has already been explained that the broad flat tail of the beaver, as well as being used as a rudder, is em- ployed by the animal in the construction of dams and houses. Now, the coypou differs from the beaver in this respect, that it never builds, but burrows; nor does it construct dams. For a burrowing animal, the broad flat tail would be not only of no utility, but a positive incumbrance, and hence the organ is modified to the uses of the creature. 383. Why is the porcupine covered with such formidable quills ? As in the case of the hedge-hog, the spines of the porcupine are weapons of defence, the animal having the same power of rolling itself into the form of a ball. Why the spines of the hedge-hog should be so short, and those of the porcupine so long, may find explanation in the fact that the latter, being a native of Africa, India, and the Indian Islands, is exposed to the atticks of far more formidable enemies than such as the cat, the weasel, the ferret, and the martin, by which the hedge-hog is attacked. The porcupine is so called from porcus (a pig), and spinis (prickles or thorns). NATURAL HISTORY. 125 Well — one at least is safe. Our shelter'd hare Has never heard the sanguinary yell Of cruel man exulting in her woes." — COWPER. 384. Why do hares when pursued generally make for rising ground ? Because the length of their hind legs, as compared with their front ones, gives them a great advantage in ascending an inclined surface. 385. Why do hares run down hill in a zig-zag course ? Because the length of their hind legs, which gives them an advantage over their pursuers in ascending a hill, is a disadvantage to them when descending. They therefore modify the line of descent by making a series of diagonal runs. 386. Ilares are remarkable for their extreme timidity ; but their inability to save themselves from the attacks of their enemies has been in some degree compen- sated by their endowments for speed. When they run, their motions consist of a series of leaps more or less extended according to the speed with which they move. Indeed the animals of this genus make a near approach in their general form, their gait when walking, and their mode of life to the kanguroos. The length and strength of their hir.J legs very much exceeds that of their front ; they are further assisted by the extreme flexibility of their spines, which enables them to bring the hind feet'even before the front, and thereby throw the body forward with a much stronger and greater spring. To give an idea of the prodigious leaps they make, it may be here mentioned that a hare has been known to pass over a spade of twenty-five feet at a single bound. This structure, though well adapted for moving on a level surface, and much more for going up a hill, is disadvantageous for descent ; and, consequently, if a hare descend a steep place at speed, she may be noticed rolling over and over frequently before she reaches the bottom.* 387. Why is the hare unable to run well upon fallows and ivet soils ? Because hares are unprovided with the smooth elastic padding which covers the soles of the feet of dogs and other quadrupeds, they are hairy-footed, which renders them ill-adapted for speed upon wet and adhesive soils. When left to choose their own track, they always select a dry one for treading on ; and it is plain that their hairy socks admirably adapt their feet to resist the ill effects of pressure from the rough surfaces they must pass over by this preference. • « Encyclopaedia Metropolitana." 126 THE REASON WHY : " The hare, Tho' timorous of heart, and hard beset By death in various forms, dark snares, and dogs, And more unpitying men, the garden seeks, Urg'd on by fearless want." — THOMSON. 388. Wliy is the hare, though more fleet than the fox, generally the soonest caui Because when the hare is started, she frequently exhausts herself by her excessive efforts to immediately escape. The fox, on the contrary, less timid than the hare, breaks away only at a moderate speed, which gradually increases as he finds himself pressed by the hounds. 389. Why is the hare generally lean, while rabbits are frequently fat ? The habitual timidity of the hare, and its perpetual apprehen- sion of danger, preserve it in a lean state ; but rabbits, having safe places of retreat in their burrows, are less influenced by fear, and are called upon for less exertion to escape from danger. It may also be observed that the leanness of the hare, which is caused by its timidity, is the condition of body best adapted for flight irom danger. 390. Of the great speed of which the hare is capable, some idea may be gathered from the following facts :— In February, 1800, a brace of greyhounds, in Lincoln- shire, ran a hare from her seat to where she was killed, a distance, measuring straight, upwards of four miles, in twelve minutes. During the course there were a great number of turns, which very considerably increased the space gone over. The hare ran herself dead before the greyhounds touched her. 391. Why is the cavity of the chest of the young hare larger than the contained lungs? The condition of the lungs of the hare are liable to extreme variation. When the animal sits upon its form in an inactive state for many hours, the lungs are comparatively passive ; but when chased, the lungs are in a continual state of violent expan- sion and contraction. This ultimately increases the size of the lungs, which, in the old hare, will be found to fill the entire cavity of the chest. NATURAL HISTORY. " You aro the hare of whom the proverb goes, Whose valour plucks doud lions by the beard." — SHAKSPEARE. " The prowling for, "Whose nightly murders thin the bleating fold." — DOBSLEY. 392. Why are, the, ears of hart* unusually long, and capable of more varied motion than those of most other animals? This fact illustrates a prin- ciple in the great design observable in nature, referring to many animals, but to the hare in particular. The external ears of animals of flight are turned backwards to give notice of the approach of an enemy from behind, whence he may steal upon them unseen ; while the ears of beasts of prey, such aa lions, tigers, wolves, foxes, &c., have their trumpet part standing forwards, to seize tlie sounds which are before them ; visL, the sounds of the animals which they pursue. The ears of the hare are long, and stand erect when the animal is listening. Upon other occasions, when concealment is necessary, they lie down close upon the animal's back. When being hunted, and well a-head of the hounds, the hare will frequently throw one ear forward and the other backward, that it may discriminate not only whence to fly but whither to go. 393. The anatomy of tie internal ear also favours its reception of sounds from •very dii action. The auditive canal is in part soft, and in part bony, so that the tube may be turned in the direction of the outer ear. In general the ears are naked, or very thinly covered with short hairs »nd the membranes of which they tre composed are so thin that they are nearly transparent. In order to enable this creature to pereeive the most distant approaches of danger, nature has provided it with these very long ears, which, like tubes applied to the auditory organs of deaf persons, convey to it such sounds as are remote ; and the motions of the hare are directed accordingly. Its large prominent eyes being placed «o far backward as to receive the rays of Light on every side, it ^M almost see 128 THE REASON WHY: " What man art thou ? quod lie, Thou lokest as thou woldest find an hare, For ever on the ground I see thee stare." — CHAVCKB.' distinctly behind -while it runs directly forward. The muscles of its body being strong, and unencumbered with fat, it has no superfluous burden of flesh to carry ; and to assist it in escaping from its pursuers, the hinder legs are considerably longer than the fore, which adds to the swiftness of its motions. When the hare hears the hounds at a distance, it flies for some time from a natural impulse, till having gained some hill or rising ground, and left the dogs so far behind that their cries no longer reach its ears, it stops, rears on its hinder legs, and looks back for the purpose of satisfying itself whether its enemies are still in sight or not ; but the dogs having once gained the scent, trace it with united and unerring skill; and the poor animal Boon again receives indications of their approach. Sometimes, when hard hunted, it will start a fresh hare, and squat in the same form ; at others, it will creep under the door of a sheep-cot, and conceal itself among the sheep ; sometimes it will enter a hole like the rabbit ; at others, it will creep up one side of a quickset hedge, and down the other ; and it has been known to ascend the top of a cut edge and run n eonsiderable way, by which stratagem it has effectually evaded the hounds. It is also not unusual for the hare to betake itself to furze bushes, and leap from one to another, whereby the dogs are frequently misled ; and as it swims well, and takes the water readily, it will cross a river with the same intent, if it has the opportu- nity. It may be observed, however, that the first doubling which a hare makes generally affords a key to all its future attempts of that kind, the latter exactly resembling the former. The hare is a short-lived animal, and is supposed rarely to exceed the term of seven or eight years. Its voice, which is seldom heard but in the distress of sudden surprise, or when wounded, resembles the sharp cry of an infant. Its enemies are numerous and powerful. Every species of the dog kind pursues it by instinct ; the cat and the weasel tribes exercise aB their arts to ensnare it ; and birds of prey, snakes, adders, &c., drive it from its form, particularly during the summer season ; these, with the more destructive pursuits of mankind, con- tribute to thin the number of these animals, which from their prolific nature would otherwise multiply to an extravagant degree.* 394. Why do rabbits burrow, while hares make forms upon the surface? The burrowing of the rabbit is an instinctive contrivance conse- quent upon its defective speed. The rabbit cannot outrun its enemies, therefore it obtains immunity from attack by contriving a retreat in the ground. Another distinction renders this difference of habit necessary: the eyes of young hares are open at birth, and the dam suckles them only for about twenty days, when they leave her and procure their own subsistence. Young rabbits are born blind, aro very * "Maunder's Treasury Nat. History." <* NATURAL HISTORY. 129 " Never mole, hare-lip, nor scairo, Nor make prodigous, such as are."— SHAKSPEUE. scantily covered with hair, and for nearly six weeks the doe continues to suckle them. 395. It is a curious circumstance that the individuals composing this genus present very great differences in their habits. Some, as the hare, arc found throughout the day resting oil one particular spot, frequently in a kind of arbour formed of the high rank grass occasionally scattered over fields ; at other times in hedgerows, or against a clod of earth, but never attempting to burrow ; others, as the rabbit, are most expert miners, sinking long galleries, without any regular order, in which they rest during the day, and bring up their young ; and it is said that they never forsake the burrow which they have once inhabited ; whilst, again, others make nests and squat either amongst heaps of large, loose stones, or in the clefts of rocks, seeming to have a disposition to live in holes, without taking the trouble of burrowing. It is a very curious fact with regard to rabbits, that if once domesticated, they lose this disposition to burrow, and the produce of tame rabbits do not attempt such a proceeding. Mr. Harrington accounts for this by supposing that they do not burrow because not previously taught by the old rabbits. This may be the reason, in some degree. "We have all witnessed the efforts of an old cat to teach its kittens to catch mice ; and, although kittens not so instructed still retain the instinct to seize their natural prey, doubtless those that are properly instructed become the best mousers. 396. Why is a divided, lip in the human being called a "hare-lip?" Because the upper lip of the hare is slit or divided on the mesial line ; and from its resemblance to this, the divided lip, when it occurs in the human being, is so called. 397. Why is it commonly said that persons of flighty conduct are " mad as March hares ? " Because in the month of March hares are characterised by greater activity and boldness than at other times. It is their rutting season ; the male pursues the female by the sagacity of its nose, and when following the scent appears to lose its usual timidity and sagacity. The country, too, is dry, and in the best state for the running of the hare ; and the leverets of the last season have acquired strength and agility. 398. Why is the hare so called ? It is suggested that the name arises from the declaration of PMny that the hare is the ""hairiest creature of all others." Ic 6* 1 30 THE REASON WHY : 1 Thus gay, the hare with many friends, Twice seven long years the court attends; Who, under tales conveying truth, To virtue formed a princely youth." — SWIFT. is not improbable that the noun is of the same origin as the verb to hare, and that the name was given to the animal because it io harried, or pursued by harriers. 399. Why do hares leap to and fro before, they jump upon their forms ? Because their instinct tells them that their enemies pursue them by scent. Hares themselves pursue their kind by scent, and being practised in the exercise of that faculty, must know that a leap from the ground breaks the trail. Hence, when they lay themselves up for the day, they do not run in a direct line to their seat, but work around it, and when near enough make a spring by which they reach their form. In like manner, when pursued they will sometimes throw themselves up by springing, and then remain still on the spot upon which they alight ; and rabbits do the same. 400. The doublings of the hare, before she goes to form, thereby to dodge and deceive the dogs, is a notable instinct for an animal less famed for cunning than the fox and some others. The means of defence and escape provided by the Creator for various animals are worthy of consideration. Some are sufficiently guarded against all common dangers by their natural clothing, by their armature of shells, or such like hard and impregnable covering of their body. Others, destitute of this guard, are armed, some with horns, some with «r>arp quills and prickles, some with claws, others with stings. Some can shift and change their colours, some can make their escape by the help of their wings, and others by the swiftness of their feet ; some can screen themselves by diving beneath the waters, others by tinging and disordering the waters can make their escape ; some by their accurate sight, smell, or hearing, can foresee dangers ; others by their natural craft can prevent or escape them ; and some even by the power of their excrements can deter their enemies from pursuing them.* Nature appears to have gifted the hare with some singularly preservative properties, of which her diversified tin tings offer a proof; these so harmoniously blend wUh the matters which surround her as to make her escape from all but the practised eye very common. It is not that she lies concealed by cover; on the contrary, she frequently forms on the loo side of a clod in a ploughed field, and yet, although so situated, her mass looks so shapeless that she is, by those noi habituated to look for her, more frequently passed over than discovered. Her eara • Derham's "Physico Theologv." NATURAL HISTORY. " Immortal maid ! I own thy presence, and confess thy aid ; Not fear, thou know'st, withholds me from the plains, Nor sloth has seized me, but thy word restrains." — POPE. also are so mohile that she can take in sounds from every quarter ; her eyes am never shut, and although she without doubt sleeps, yet her visual organs are so framed as never to be veiled, and her sleep is also so light as to instantaneously communicate through them and her ears the approach of danger. If discovered, her speed would in most cases save her from common foes ; but she is assailed on one part by dogs artificially bred with superior scenting powers, or on the other with such as, though almost scentless, are fleet as the wind. — Poor puss 1 ! * 401. Wliy are the eyes of hares never closed ? Because they are unprovided with eye-lids. Instead thereof they have a thin membrane which covers the eye when asleep, and probably, also, when at rest. This membrane (like that which will hereafter be described in connection with certain, birds) folds like a curtain in the corner of the eye, and by an instantaneous action flies back, when sight is required, and leaves the eye immediately and fully open for the exercise of sight, ORDER VI. — EDENTATA. 402. Why is the sixth order of animals named Edentata 1 Because they are toothless ; the name being derived from the Latin edentatus, deprived of teeth. Although this order includes animals which differ widely in their habits, they all agree in the absence of teeth from the front jaw ; all resemble eachot her in the great claws which encompass the ends of their toes ; and they are distinguished by remarkable slow- ness, or want of activity, arising from the peculiar organisation of their limbs. 403. Why is the AI, or sloth, so called? Because it utters a peculiarly plaintive note, of which the sound of the vowels ai is a close imitation. 404. Why do sloths utter this sound upon the approach of storms ? Because storms refresh the foliage upon which they feed, and • BKine's "Rural Sports." 132 THE REASON WxIT : " For all he did was to deceive good knights, And draw them from pursuit of praise and fame, To slug in si out h and sensual delights, And end their daies with irrenowned shame." — SPENSER. put the sloths in motion to seek their cool and moistened meaL During the day they suspend themselves in a motionless state beneath the branches of trees ; but when the cooler night approaches, and the leaves are covered with dew, they rouse and regale themselves. Their note is, therefore, an expression of joy, which is heightened on the approach of a storm. 405. Why is the sloth, and some other animals, enabled to exist throughout the winter without food or motion ? At the end of autumn, from the abundant supply of food which these animals are able to procure, they retire to their winter retreats loaded with fat. This serves as a reservoir of nourishment adequate to the supply of the small expenditure that takes place during their torpid state. On the return of spring, they are aroused from their lethargy, the fat being generally greatly diminished. 406. TM animals thus circumstanced voluntary motion is altogether suspended, so also in .he process of digestion ; several of the secretions are suppressed, as the saliva and gastric juice, &c., the senses are likewise sealed up, and the circulation is diminished. The hamster, in which the pulse beats 150 per minute in a state of activity, has it reduced to 15 in its torpid condition. The dormouse, whose pulse is so rapid as scarcely to he counted when in its ordinary state, has it reduced to the same low standard when torpid. Respiration is also affected in a remarkable degree, not only in the number, but in the fulness and regularity of recurrence. Marmots in a state of health and activity, perform about 500 respirations in an hour, but in the torpid state these occur only fourteen times during the same period, a td are performed at intervals of four or five minutes absolute rest ; neither is the chest enlarged to any considerable extent. Sensibility is much diminished ; parts of the limbs may be cut off without the animal showing any signs of feeling. 407. Why, although the sloth is apparently ill provided with the means of defence and of procuring its food, is it in reality well provided for these exigencies ? Because, in the first place, their long shaggy hair defends them from the insects which in the climate they inhabit are so trouble- some ; and, in the next place, the texture of its coat is very peculiar, Viorc resembling dry hay, or grass shrivelled and withered by the NATURAL HISTORY. 133 " Still, with your voice, the slothful soldiers raise, Urge, by thy father's fame, their future praise."— POPE'S HOMER. sun, than the hair of ordinary quadrupeds ; and its appearance so much resembles that of the bark and moss of the branches on which it lives as to prevent the animal from being easily detected, except when moving. 408. Why is it erroneous to consider the sloth an awkwardly- formed animal, and unfit for locomotion ? Because the shortness of its hind legs, and the extraordinary length of the arms and claws, although they impede the progress of the animal upon level ground, are peculiarly calculated to assist it in climbing among the branches of trees, where the sloth finds food, and rests secure from his enemies. 409. If the sloth can with his claws reach the branch or rough bark of a tree then will his progress be rapid ; he will climb hand over hand along the branches till they touch, thus getting from bough to bough, and from tree to tree ; in the storm he is most alive ; it is when the wind blows, and the trees stoop, and the branches wave, that he is most active. ,410. Why have sloths great difficulty in walking on the ground ? This difficulty arises from the peculiar structure of their feet ; their hind ones are much smaller and shorter than their fore feet, and they are articulated somewhat in the same way as those of the handed animals which are the most expert climbers. In conse- quence of this, the side of the hind foot and part of the leg come in contact with the ground, and the animal cannot walk but with the greatest difficulty. The toes, which are two on the fore feet of the one and three on those of the other, are united together so as to form one single piece, and have no division of the foot except the claws, which are long and crooked, and remain bent like hooks by the action of ligaments, except when the animal stretches them out by muscular exertion, which appears to be a slow and painfuJ operation* 134 THE REASON WHY : The first point of shuth I coll Lachesse, and is the chief of all, And hath this property of kiade To leven everything behinde."— GOWER. 411, From this structure the sloth is entirely helpless on the ground ; but among the branches of a tree, where it catches by the feet, and suspends itself •without the least exertion or fatigue this animal is as completely at home, and as beautifully adapted to its place in nature, as the fleetest creature -which sports in the meadow, or bounds over the heath. The sloth is decidedly the best climber among mammals, though upon the ground it is the worst walker. 412. How is the supply of blood in the legs of climbing animals specially regulated for the purpose ? In animals which are the best climbers and the worst walkers, the arteries which supply the limbs with blood are divided into a number of small branches, which branches are again united to form the principal artery of the limb. This structure renders the circu- lation in the limbs much slower than that in the body, and as both the energy and exhaustion of an animal, or part of an animal, are in proportion to the rapidity of the circulation, the legs of the sloth and animals of a similar character, though moved with extreme slowness, may be regarded as possessing greater power of endurance than any other organs among vertebrated animals. 413. In what respect is the form of the sloth remarkably adapted to the localities which it inhabits ? Wherever the earth is green, there are browsing animals appointed to consume the pasturage or the foliage, and to aid the great scheme of nature in its successional changes. In the trophical forests, the green is not upon the surface of :he ground, but upon the tops of trees ; and the browsing animals destined to consume it, must have an inverted position to enable them to make the foliage of the trees their pasture. A. pasture suspended in the air must have those which feed NATURAL HISTORY. 135 So she him lefte, and did her^elfe betake Unto her boat attain, with which she clefte The slouthful wave of that great griesy lake."— SPENSER. upon it suspended in the same element ; and they cannot be placed above the leaves, because the latter afford no footing for an animal in size adequate to the consumption it is necessary to accom- plish : they are, therefore, suspended beneath the foliage, and in this manner they are brought in closer connection with the branches, which alone could afford them support. 414. In what respect are the habits of the sloth, as well as being adapted to its own wants, in accordance with those of external nature ? The sloth inhabits the deep, extensive, and luxuriant forests of South America, in which the trees are of giant growth, always green, and so close that rarely a beam of the vertical sun reaches the earth ; they extend over districts so wide, and so festooned and interlaced with twining plants, that winds, which would level a single tree to the ground, barely agitate their tops, or disfigure a few on the sides of the openings. In order that there may be seeds, and successions of races in those luxuriant forests, it is necessary that there should be consumers of the superabundant foliage, which otherwise would completely exclude the sun and air, and the forest would perish of excess of its ovvn exuberance, leaving the naked and carpetless earth to be converted, by the fervour of the tropical sun, into an arid waste, upon which no living thing could exist. If the forests were to be destroyed in this manner, or, indeed, in any way but one in which their place should be occupied by a close surface of vegetation, the rain would depart also, and the land would be put beyond the power of human skill and labour to bring it back to usefulness, either for himself, or for any other living creature. " Once a desert, always a desert " — untie one of those mightier movements of nature, of which the records are written in the strata of the deepest mines and the loftiest mountains, break the rain to pieces, and mould and temper it3 elements anew.* • Partingtou's " Cyclopaedia." 136 THE REASON WHY: Weariness can snore upon flint, When resty sloth finds the down pillow hard." — SHAKSPERE. 415. Mr. Watcrton, in his "Wanderings in South America," gives some interest- in? particulars of the sloth. He says : — " One day, as we were crossing the Essequibo, I saw a large two-toed sloth on the ground upon the bank ; how he had got there, nobody could tell. The Indian said he had never surpi'ised a sloth in such a position before ; he would hardly have come there to drink, for both above and below the place, the branches of the trees touched the water, and afforded him an easy and safe access to it. Be this as it may, though the trees were not above twenty yards from him, he could not make his way through the sand time enough to escape before we landed. As soon as we got up to him, he threw himself upon his back, and defended himself in gallant style with his fore-legs. ' Come, poor fellow,' said I to him, ' if thou hast got into a hobble to-day, thou shalt not suffer for it : I'll take no advantage of thee in misfortune ; the forest is large enough both for thee and me to rove in : go thy ways up above, and enjoy thyself in thetse endless wilds ; it is more than probable thou wilt never have another interview with man. So fare-thee-well.' " On saying this, I took up a long stick which was lying there, held it for him to hook on, and then conveyed him to a high and stately mora. He ascended with wonderful rapidity, and in about a minute was almost at the top of the tree. He now went off in a side direction, and caught hold of the branch of a neighbouring tree : he then proceeded towards the heart of the forest. I stood looking on, lost in amazement at his singular mode of progress. I followed him with my eye till the intervening branches closed in betwixt us, and then I lost sight for ever of th* two-toed sloth. I was going to add, that I never saw a sloth take to his heels in such earnest ; but the expression will not do, for the sloth has no heels." Having captured another of these animals, he had a good opportunity of making some observations : — " The sloth was in my house with me for a day or two. Had I taken a description of him as he lay sprawling on the floor, I should have misled the world, and injured natural history. On the ground he appeared really a bungled composition, and faulty at all points ; awkwardness and misery were depicted on his countenance ; and when I made him advance he sighed as though in pain. Pei'haps it was, that by seeing him out of his element, as it were, that the Count de Buffon, in his 'History of the Sloth,' asks the question,—' Why should not some animals be created for misery, since, in the human species, the greatest number of individuals are devoted to pain from the moment of their existence ?' Were the question put to me, I would answer — I cannot conceive that any of them are created for misery. That thousands live in misery there can be no doubt ; but then misery has overtaken them in their path through life, and wherever man has come up with them, I should suppose they have seldom escaped from experiencing1 a certain proportion of misery. " After fully satisfying myself that it only leads the world into error to describe the sloth while he is on the ground, or in any place except in a tree, I carried the one I had in my possession to his native haunts. As sfv-n as he came in contact with a branch all went right with him. I could see, as he limbed up into his own country that he was on the right road to happiness ; and felt persuaded more than ever, that the world has hitherto erred in its conjectures concerning the slolli, on NATURAL HISTORY. 137 " It is remarkable that man, who is endowed with reason, is born without armature, and is destitute of many powers which irrational creatures have in a much higher degree than he." DERHAM. account of naturalists not having given a description of him when he was in the only position in which he ought to have been described — namely, clinging to tki branch of a tree."* 416. Why is the armadillo so called? The name, which was given to these animals by the Spaniards, means "clad in armour," and refeis to the singular covering with which nature has provided them. It consists of a trian- gular or oval plate on the top of the head, a large buckler over the shoulders, and a similar buckler over the haunches, while between these solid portions there intervenes a series of transverse bands or shelly zones, which accommodate this coat of mail to the various postures of the body ; the tail also is covered by a series of calcareous rings ; and the animal altogether exhibits a striking deviation from the usual structure and outward appearance of quadrupeds. 417. What are the most striking indications in the form of the animal of adaptability to its mode of life ? The stiffness given to the neck and to the whole spinal column by the iunnour, and the bearing of the processes of the vertebrae against that, evidently enables the armadillo to push forward into the earth, so as to keep itself advanced to the full action of the claws in burrowing downwards in an oblique manner, which it does with very great rapidity, so fast, indeed, as almost to elude pur- suit ; for as he gets the body buried, it takes so powerful a hold of the earth, that the tail may be pulled away, without bringing out the animal. In these cases it is probable that it holds on with the whole body, and not merely with the feet. While digging, the legs are not stretched, so that when it raises itself upon these, the body is brought into firm contact with the upper part of the •Waterton's "Wanderings," page 283. T11E REASON WHY: You mi. The ant-hills of South America are often more than twenty feet in diameter, and many feet in height. These wonderful edifices are thronged with two-hundred- fold more inhabitants, and are proportionally far more numerous than the small ones, with which we are better acquainted. Breeding in vast numbers, and multiplying with great celerity and profusion, the increase of these insects would soon enable them to swarm over the greatest extent of country, were not their propagation and diffusion stinted by the active exertions of that part of the animal creation which continually subsist by their destruction. The following short passage from Mr. Darwin's " Observations on the Natural History of Rio de Janeiro" will give the reader a good idea of the magnitude of ants' nests there : — " Travelling onward we passed through tracts of pasturage, muco injured by the enormous conical ants' nests, which were nearly twelve feet high. They gave to tho plain exactly the appearance of the mud volcanoes at Jorullo, a* figure \ by Humboldt." NATURAL HISTORY. 141 " And that if he wol sayn it is not thus, I wol it prove, and finder good witnesse, That soth is that my bille wol expresse." — CHAUCER. Mr. Waterton also remarks • — " In the far-extending wilds of Guiana, the travellel will be astonished at the immense number of ants which he perceives on the ground as well as in the trees. They have nests in the branches four or five times as large as that of the rook ; and they have a covered way from them to the ground. In this covered way thousands are continually passing and repassing, and if you destroy part of it they immediately repair it. Other species of ants have no covered way, but travel exposed to view upon the surface of the earth. You will sometimes see a string of these ants a mile long, each carrying in his mouth to its nest a green leaf the size of a sixpence. 426. Why is the ornythorynchus so catted? From two Greek words, sig- nifying a fowl and a beak, in allusion to the peculiar form of its muzzle, which resembles the bill of a duck ; it is called also the ducJc-lilled platypus, and the water mole. It is also web-footed, its feet being equally adapted for digging or swimming. 427. Why is the ornythorynchus provided with this dude-like Because, although a quadruped, the animal inhabits the water, living in burrows on its borders, and being insectivorous, finds its food, as the duck in part does, by exploring the plants and herbs along the margins of fresh-water rivers and lakes. The broad beak acts as a kind of shovel. It is peculiar to Australia and Van Dieinan's Land, and has been regarded by naturalists as a link between the aquatic birds and the mammalia. 428. So peculiar is the foimu*ion of its muzzle, that when a specimen was first sent to this country a general suspicion was excited that a hoax was designed Dr. Shaw expressed the opinion that of all the mammalia, the ornythorynchus was the most extraordinary in »*« Conformation ; exhibiting a perfect resemblance to the beak of a duck, engraft***! upon the head of a quadruped. 142 THE REASON WHY : " As for such as are whole-footed, or whose toes are webbed together (excepting some few) their legs are generally short, which is the most convenient size for swimming."— DERHAM. The ornythorynchits is ahout twenty inches long, having a long and flattened body, like that of the otter, covered with a thick soft fur, moderately dark brown above, and whitish beneath. The beak, like the bill of the duck, is furnished with transverse plates. The teeth are situated in the back of the mouth, two on each side, with flat tops and no roots. The feet are furnished with a membrane uniting the toes, and in the anterior feet extending beyond the nails. The tail is flat and obtuse. From the form of this animal it is fitted to reside in the water ; and it must feed on soft food, as the structure of the beak will not enable it to grasp anything firmly. The central portion of the mandibles is a bony continuation from the skull, and anterially and laterally, a cartilaginous substance, p<-r. ctly movcable, extends some little distance from the bony portion. Feet, five-toi d and webbed. In the fore feet the web extends a short distance beyond the claws, is loose, and falls back when the animal burrows ; claws strong, blunt, the two lateral shorter than the three middle ones. Hind feet short, narrow, turned backwards, and, when the animal is at rest, somewhat resembling a fin. The male ornithorynchus is armed with a spur on each hind leg, having a canal in it similar to that in the poison fang of venomous serpents, and, like this, also furnished with a gland at the base, secreting a fluid ; hence it has been thought likely, though there is no evidence of the fact, that wounds produced by them would b« dangerous. They have no external ear, and their eyes are very small, but brilliant. The motions of the mandibles in this animal, when seeking its food in the mud and water, are the same as those of a duck when feeding in similar situations. The young are produced in a very imperfect state, and are very unlike the full- grown animal. The skin is entirely destitute of fur ; the eyes are not formed, and their place is merely indicated by the presence of a few wrinkles on the skin. The margin of the bill is at that time soft and the tongue advances to its front edge, so that the young animal can obtain nourishment by sucking, which was at first thought impossible. The mammary gland is very simple in structure, and is divided into a large number of separate lobes. The ornithorynchus, when asleep, rolls itself up like a hedgehog, keeping its back warm by bringing over it the flattened tail. It dresses its fur, combing it with its feet, and pecking at it with its beak, and seems to take great delight in keeping it smooth and clean.* ORDER VII. — PACHYDERMATA. 429. Why is the seventh order of mammalia called Pachyder- motoft Because they are characterised by thick skins or hides. The term is derived from the Greek, and means thick-skinned. * Maunder's " Treasury of Natural History." r Fack-e-der-ma'-ta. NATURAL HISTORY. 14S " Where the elephant, browses at peace in his wood, And the river-horse gambols unscathed in the flood, And the mighty rhinoceros wallows at will, In the pool where the wild ass is drinking his fill."— PEINOI.E. 430. A very imperfect notion of the appearance and texture of the skin of the leading species of the pachydermata, the elephant, rhinoceros, &c., is obtained from examining the specimens which are confined in menageries, even in places where they are treated with the greatest kindness and care. The skin of the elephant in confinement is invariably callous, and often apparently chapped or cracked into pieces, which have little or no sensibility. But when the animal is in good health, and in its proper climate, the skin is smooth and soft, and is probably almost as sensitive to the bite, even of a small insect, as the thinnest skin that can be imagined. When the animal is in this condition, there is, indeed, a wonderful power in the muscles of the skin, so that by agitation of these alone an elephant is capable of shaking off a wild beast which may have sprung upon it. The hide of the rhinoceros is probably thicker than that of any other pachyder- matous animal. Yet the creature is remarkably sensitive of the condition of its *kin, which, though not possessed of a high degree of feeling, exerts a considerable influence over the comfort of the animal. Hence the rhinoceros and other thick- skinned quadrupeds inhabiting hot climates, will remain for hours in the water, laving their skins, for which purpose it is absolutely necessary to provide baths for these animals when they are kept in confinement. 431. The pachydermctia are subdivided into — 1. Proboscidw, o* those possessing a prolonged snout or proboscis 144 THE REASON WHY! " The un wieldly elephant To make them mirth used all his might, and wreathed His lithe proboscis." — MILTOX. • • and having five toes on each foot, included in a very firm horny skin, as certain extinct gigantic species, and the elephant, &c. 2. The Pachydermata ordinaria, in which the feet have two, three, or four toes on each foot. 3. The Solidungula, or quadrupeds with only one apparent toe, and a single hoof to each foot, although beneath the skin there are bony points which represent two lateral toes. By many naturalists, however, the solidungula are regarded as a distinct order. 432. WTiy vs the elephant furnished with a proboscis ? Because the enormous head of the animal is so heavy that were it placed at the end of a neck of a length proportionate to the dimensions of that organ in other animals, an almost incalculable amount of muscular force would be necessary to elevate and sustain it. The shortness, and almost total absence of a neck, obviates the difficulty j the provision of a trunk compensates the absence of a neck. 433. Animals in general ^txich feed on herbage or other productions situated near the ground, require thar the head should be attached to a neck the length of which is proportionate to that of its fore legs, so that on lowering the head it can apply it* mouth to the ground without bending its legs. These conditions are obviously incompatible with a large and ponderous head like that of the elephant, and we accordingly find animals, such as the giraffe, having fore legs of considerable length, and consequently a neck in proportion, furnished with small light heads. 434. Why is the elephant's trunk capable of a great variety of motions ? Because it is made up of a great number of muscles with their tendons. Those nr jscles have their insertions in the internal and external coverings of the trunk ; and they lie in a great variety of directions, some longitudinal, some nearly circular, and others oblique. NATURAL HISTORY. 1 Lo ! from his trunk uptum'd aloft he flings The grateful shower ; and now He plucks the broad-leafed bough." — SOUTHKY. There are in this trunk no less than four thousand muscles, which is considerably greater than the number in the whole human body. It is divided through its length by * septum, forming a sort of double tube, terminating in a kind of finger-like appendage, or moveable hook. 435. The trunk of the elephant may justly be considered as one of the miracles of nature, being at once the organ of respiration as well as the instrument by which the animal supplies itself with food. Nearly eight feet in length, endowed with exquisite sensibility, and stout in proportion to the massive size of the animal, this organ will uproot trees or gather grass— raise a piece of artillery or take up a nut, kill a man or brush off a fly. It conveys the food to the mouth, and pumps up enormous draughts of water, which by its recurvature turned into and driven down the capacious throat, or showered over the body. Its length supplies the place of a long neck, which would have been incompatible with the support of the large head and weighty tusks. A glance at the head of an elephant will show the thickness and strength of the trunk at its insertion ; and the massy arched bones of the face> and tbick muscular neck, are admirably adapted for supporting and working this powerful and wonderful instru- 436. Why is the elephant provided with tusks? They are weapons of defence, combining enormous powers upon a fixed and irresistible base, in connection with a flexible trunk, by which the moveable tusks are brought into effective operation. That they are weapons of defence is obvious from the fact that they are larger in the males than in the females, which is generally the case with the horns of ruminants, some of the males only of the latter order having these appendages. • JIaunder's "Treasury of Natural History." 7 146 THE REASON WHY : " With turcoises divinely bine, (Though doubts arise -where first they grew. Whether chaste elephantine bone By min'rals tinged, or native stone.)" — Joints. 437. It is remarkable that -while a great number of -writers have fully dfecuswi fiie uses and curious anatomy of the elephant's trunk, they have been almost siient as to the use* of the tasks. It is obvious, however, that these prominent and ponderous weapons seatst be of material consequence in the economy of the animal's existence. In Partington's " Cyclopaedia " we find the following speculations tip IB the subject:— In the Bving elephants of both varieties the tusks are either nearly straigat 9t curved upwards ; or if their direction be nearly thart of the line of tbe face they are inclined forward at the points. In the fossil elephant, on the other hand, (at least in all the specimens which have been found,) the curvature of the tusks is the 'the other way, or downwards. What may be the use of this difference of structure it is not easy to say, because we know nothing of the habits of the extinct elephant, and very little of what the state of the coou-try may have been when it was alive ; but as the tusks in it are so constructed as that they might act as hooks In pulling down substances higher than itself, and as it is probable that the northern marshes were at that time covered1 with tree ferns, and those other palm-like plants, of which the remains are abundant in the fossil staste, though not a vestige of those plants now appears on the surface of the same regions, we may perhaps venture to conclude that such tusks had been employed in pulling* clown the fronds of tbe plants in onler that the animal might feed upon them.* The elephant rarely uses his trunk as a weapon, but his tusk* enable him not enly to ckar his way through the thick forests in which he lives, by rooting up small trees and tearing down cross branches, in doing which service they effectually protect his face and proboscis from injury ; but they qualify him for warding ofl the attacks of the wily tiger and the furious rhinoceros, often securing him the victory by one bkxw, which transfixes the assailant to the earth. 438. Why are the eyes of the elephant remarkably ymaU? By their smallness they are more easily protected froir. >njury while the animal is engaged in breaking down branches >f trees. And they are also rendered more secure from the attacks of insects which, in the geographical range of the elephant, are exceedingly troublesome. The eye is uot only protected by the comparative smallnesa of its size, but it is provided with a nictating membrane, by which the elephant is enabled to free it from all accidental fragments that may fall upon it. This membrane, which i» Bmilar to that possessed by birds, is not the ordinary • Partington's "Cyclopaedia." NATURAL HISTORY. 147 " Trampling his pa*fr through wood and brake, And canes which crackling fall before his way, O'ertopping the young trees, On comes the elephant.'" — SOUTHET. but a third provision, which is specially adapted for cleansing the eye, but not for closing it. 439. Why are the ears of the elephant unusually large? The office of the external ear in all animals is to facilitate the transmission of sounds — to catch the impulses of the air, and by condensing and transmitting them to a «given point, to impart intensity to the impression. An animal which habitually browses upon trees must be liable to have its hearing frequently interrupted by the crackling of branches and leaves. It seems highly probable that the size of the external ear favours the reception of distant sounds ; in other words, lengthens the focus of the ear. If this conjecture be correct, the ear is adapted to receive sounds from a distance with less interruption from noises that are near at handy than would be the case if the ear were smaller. 440. The structure of the elephant's ear has been investigated -with great accuracy by Sir Everard Home. (" Comparative Anatomy," vol. III., Lecture ix.) The drum and every other part of the organ, are much larger in proportion than in other quadrupeds, or in man ; and there is a remarkable difference in the arrangement of the muscular fibres of the drum of the elephant's ear when compared with man and some other quadrupeds. In the human ear these fibres are radii of a circle, and in the horse, the hare, and the cat, they are of an uniform length. But in the elephant's ear these fibres are so placed that some are more than double the length of others. Sir E. Home argues from this remarkable construction that the elephant has not a musical ear ; but that it has a peculiar compensating power in this form of fibre, as its slower vibrations enable it to hear sounds at a greater distance ; and this opinion is still further sustained by the structure of the different parts of the internal organs, more particularly the cells between the tables of the skull. Sir E. Home illustrates his position that the elephant hears farther than other animals, and particularly that his hearing is me re acute than that of man, by several interesting narratives. We may also perceive the utility of the large flap of the ear as regards the •VTtinietry and appearance of the animal. The huge form of the elephant is broken "by less lines of beauty than may be observed in most other quadrupeds, and the large ear, which falls gracefully over the shoulders, at once presents a point of relief, and gives character and dignity to the whole. 148 THE REASON WHY I " The elephant hath joints ; but none for courtesy ; his re for necessity, not flexure."— SHAKSPEKB. leg. 441. Why does the elephant seize a man with his trunk, yet never use it when he attacks a tiger? The elephant is gifted with a high order of instinct, which prompts him to entertain great concern for the preservation of his trunk, the most essential of his external members. The animal knows that the terrible claws of the tiger might at one stroke lacerate and destroy %that essential organ ; but he does not fear to attack man with it. 442. When the elephant is provoked to take vengeance on man, he does not scruple to sei/.e him with his trunk, but never employs that member to grapple with a tiger, nor to hurl him in the air with it. He scents the tiger's lair at a distance, and instantly elevates his trunk on high, so that it may be as far as possible removed from the reach or spring of his stealthy adversary. So much does he dread the spring of the wild beast's attack upon this important organ, that he will throw it out of reach even when a dead tiger is brought into his presence. The following paragraph in an account of an elephant accidentally burnt at Dublin serves to illustrate the elephant's care for his trunk still more strongly : — " Doubtless the elephant's care to preserve his trunk was great, for when we dissected him we found it thrust nearly two feet into the very ground, upon which account we thought it had been burned, till the head was divided from the body, and then we found it was kept fast to the ground by the trunk, which had actually been buried therein. 443. Wliy has the elephant the unusual power of bending the hind leg forward at the knee joint ? By this arrangement, which brings all the muscular force of the leg to act immediately underneath the body, the animal is enabled to raise its enormous bulk much more quickly and certainly than it could possibly do if its hind legs bent outwards, as is the case with other animals. The elephant is very fond of rolling its unweildy form in the ooze and mud of groves and jungles ; and in this enjoyment it is assisted by the facility by which it gets up or lies down. NATURAL HISTORY. 149 " On high-rais'd decks the haughty Belgians ride, Beneath whose shade our humble frigates go ; Such port the elephant bears, and so defy'd By the rhinoceros her unequal foe." — DRYDEX. 44 1. A :a:ne elephant is really the most docile, gentle, and obedient of all animus. He forms an attachment to his keeper; comprehends signs; learns to distinguish the various tones of the human voice, as expressive of anger, approbation, or command ; is generous, grateful, and humane. Many ludicrous stories, compounded of truth and fable, have been related of the elephant. But there are sufficiently well-attested proofs of his sagacity without resorting to the marvellous. The following anecdotes and facts will be found interesting : — AN ELEPHANT PROTECTS THE SICK AND DYING. 44.3. In the Laknaor, the capital of Soubah, during the rage of an epidemic distemper, the principal road to the palace gate was covered with sick and dying people, extended on the ground and incapable of moving, though at a time when the Nabob was to pass on his elephant. The indifference of the prince about the lives of his perishing subjects, the haste with which he sought to pass, and the towering motions and heavy steps of the elephant, seemed to threaten inevitable death to those unhappy wretches who chanced to be in his way. But the generous quadruped, without receiving any command to the purpose, and even without slackening his pace, dexterously assisted the poor creatures with his trunk, removing some, raising others, and stepping over the rest ; so that none suffered the slightest injury. AN ELEPHANT GOES REGULARLY TO A HOSPITAL TO HAVE HIS . WOUNDS 446. An elephant, who, in the course of the war between the French and English in the East Indies, in 1759, had received a wound by a cannon ball : after being once or twice conducted to the hospital to have his wound dressed, constantly attended of himself at the proper time, till it was healed. That the surgeon might operate, he readily extended himself on the ground. He bore with patience the application even of burning caustic to his wound. The aeuteness of the pain would sometimes force from him a plaintive groan ; but to the person who, by inflicting momentary torments, sought to accomplish his cure, he expressed none but emotions of gratitude. AFFECTION OF THE ELEPHANT FOR ITS SPECIES. 447. A shot from one of the hunters had broken a male elephant's left fore leg, which completely disabled him from running. On this occasion, there occurred a touching instance of affection and sagacity in the elephant, which well illustrates tbo character of this noble animal. Seeing the danger and distress of her mate, the female, regardless of her own peril, quitted her shelter in the bush, rushed out to his assistance, walked round and round him, chasing away th« assailants, and etill returr. ug to his side and caressing him ; and when he attempted to walk 150 THE REASON WHY . " Beneath his over-shadowing orb of hat, And ample fence of elephantine nose."— F. PHILLIPS. she placed her flank under his wounded side and supported him. This scene continued nearly half-an-hour, until the female received a severe wound, which drove her again to the bush, where she speedily sank exhausted from the loi\s o/ blood; and the male soon after received a mortal wound. AN ELEPHANT'S REVENGE. 448. Carel Krieger, a celebrated elephant hunter, met with his death in the following manner ; — He had been an indefatigable and fearless hunter ; and, being also an excellent marksman, often ventured into the most dangerous situations. One day, having with his party pursued an elephant which he had wounded, the irritated animal suddenly turned round, and singling out from the rest the person by whom he had been wounded, seized him with his trunk, and lifting his wretched victim high in the air, dashed him with fearful force to the ground. Hig companions, struck with horror, fled precipitately from the fatal scene, unable to turn their eyes to behold the rest of the tragedy. But on the following day they repaired to the spot, where they collected the few bones that could be found, and buried them near the spring. The enraged animal had not only trampled his body literally to pieces, but could not feel its vengeance satisfied till it had pounded the very flesh into the dust, so that nothing of this unfortunate man remained excepting a few of the larger bones. SAGACITY OF THE ELEPHANT. 449. When an elephant is employed upon the banks of a muddy river, he frequently begins to sink from his excessive weight. He will then endeavour to throw himself upon his side to prevent his sinking deeper. The manner in which he seconds the efforts which are made to extricate him, when situated as above stated, is very remarkable. Liberal supplies of straw, boughs, and grass are thrown to the distressed animal ; and these he forces down with his trunk till they are lodged under his fore feet in sufficient quantity to resist his pressure. Having thus formed a sufficient basis for exertion, the sagacious animal next proceeds to thrust other bundles under his belly, and as far back under his flanks as he can reach ; when such a basis is formed as may be, in his mind, proper to proceed upon, he throws his whole weight forward, and gets his hind feet gradually upon the straw, &c. Being once confirmed on a solid footing, he will next place the surrounding bundles before him, pressing them well with his trunk so as to form a causeway by which to reach the firm ground. The instinct of the animal, and probably the experience of his past danger, actuates him not to bear any weignt definitely, until, by trial with his trunk and the next foot that is to be planted, he has completely satisfied himself of the firmness of the ground he has to tread upon. When he succeeds in reaching dry ground, he evinces his pleasure in unmistakeable signs. NATURAL HISTORY. 161 "On every side They trembling stood, and made a long broad dyke, That his swift charot might havp passage wide, Wkieh fourc great hippo4am«t did draw in teem-wise tide." — SPENSER. 450. Why is the hippopotamus so caUed f From, two Greek words, meaning horse, and river,, and reference to the habits of the animal 451. Why curt the iv&ter* seen to bubble when the hippopote!,&iii£ dives beneath them / Because tlie animal has the power of expelling the air contained in its lungs, for the purpose of facilitating its descent, and increasing its specific gravity, so that it may more readily walk at tiie bottom, 452. The hippopotamus steeps in the small reedy islets which are found in the rivers it frequents. In these spots it also produces its young, having only one at a birth, which, it nurses with great care. 453. WTv$ has the hippopotamus such enormously large forth t Because the coarse vegetable matter which it eats is enormous in quantity — much greater than is consumed by any other animal Its mouth is adapted for tearing and dividing hard and tough plants. The stomada of the hippopotamus is capable of containing five or six: bushels, and the large intestine is at least eight inches in diameter. These enonnoiis teetk are also used as weapons of defence. Dampier related that he had known the hippopotamus to set one 152 THE REASON WHY: " Only these marishes and myrie bogs, In which the fearful cwftes do build their bowres, Yield me an hostry, 'mongst the croaking frogs, And harbour here in safety from these rav'nous dogs." — SPENCER. tooth in the gunwale of a boat, and another at the distance of more than four feet, and tnus bite a hole through the plank, and sink the boat. 454. Neither the elephant nor the rhinoceros, coarse as their subsistence may b*, could live on the same kind of food as the hippopotamus. Its life is the rudest, and i<-« food the coarsest of all the mammalia. Its office is, to clear the rivers oj all niose vegetable remains which, if allmved to acciinndate in countries where vegetation is rapid, wou/d choke itp oil the passages, and turn all theJSat lands into at least periodical marshes.* \.>i*. The hippopotamus is understood to be the behemoth of Scripture : — " Behold now behemoth which I made with thee ;. he eateth grass as an ox. " His bones are as strong pieces of brass ; his bones are like bars of iron. " He lieth under the shady trees, in the covert of the reeds and fens. " The shady trees cover him with their shadow ; the willows of the brook compass him about. " Behold he drinketh up a river, and hasteth not : he trusteth that he can draw up Jordan into his mouth. " He taketh in with his eyes : his nose pierceth through snares."— Job xl. 15, &c. 456. Why does the hippopotamus walk awkwardly upon the land? Because the shortness of its legs, which are well adapted fop walking underneath the water, presents an impediment to its free movements upon the land. But it is also asserted that the body of the hippopotamus is specifically heavier than that of any other animal. This, while it promotes the movements of the animal in the water, gives an awkward and cumbrous appearance to its motions on the land. The usual motion of the hippopotamus in the water is walking upon the bottom, although it is capable of swimming, when it ilesires to change its quarters, or to rise to the surface. 457. Why has the hippopotamus been called the river "horse" although possessing a very un-horselike body? The name is of very ancient origin, and was probably applied • Parting-ton's " Cyclopaedia." NATURAL HISTORY . 163 " Man hath hi.- daily woi-k of body or mind, And the reu^rd of heaven on all his ways ; While other animals inactive range, And of their H.oiugs God takes no account." — MIT/TOW. before the form of the animal was well-known. Being generally seen in the water, with its ears, eyes, and nostrils only emerging therefrom, it is found that the partial profile thus afforded, presents a considerable resemblance to the head of a horse ; and hence the popular idea. 458. How are the eyes and nostrils of the hippopotamus adapted in their structure and position to the habits of the animal ? It is necessary that the muscles of the eye should be powerful, endowed with great versatility, and capable of protruding or withdrawing the eyeball, which can be either projected remarkably, or sunk within the orbit considerably, so as to adapt it -for vision in the different media where it is to act, whether the animal be on land, just under water, or far down beneath its surface. The nostrils, which are so placed that they just appear above the surface of the water, when the animal rises from below, can be closed when the animal descends into the deep, and opened when it comes up to take in a supply of air. 459. These two portions of the animal machinery of the hippopotamus are of the greatest consequence to the well-being and safety of a creature that spends so much of its time in the water. The beautifully contrived eye has the power O- roiling round when it is ir a state of protrusion, and is admirably adapted for the requirements of the animal. If danger threatens, the hippopotamus instinctively rushes to the river ; and while there hidden can manage to just lift its head among the water plants and take his observation. If all is safe, he can quit his retreat, or if all be not right he can quietly sink and remain in his cool and unapproachable retreat at the bottom, occasionally rising and protruding his muzzle only for the necessary air supply, and then down again. 4CO. Wliy is the rhinoceros so called ? From a Greek word signifying nose-horn, in reference to the horny projection upon the snout, which is a characteristic of these animals. The rhinoceros unicornis has one horn, and the bicomis has two. 7* 154 THE REASON WHY : " There is no beast but hath his enemy ; as the conv the polecat, a sheepe the woolfe, the elephant the rhinoceros, and so of other beasts the like." — HACKMJYT. 4G1. Why is the rhinoceros provided with these horny appendages ? Because the animal feeds upon the branches of trees and other vegetable matter. Some of the trees yielding con- siderable resistance, the rhinoceros uses its horn, or horns, as a kind of punch or axe to sever the fibre, and bring down its food. Having obtained a branch, he first devours the leaves and smaller stems, and then, placing his snout as low in the trunk as he finds his horns will enter, he rips up the main trunk, splitting it into thin pieces, like so many laths ; and he then crushes the pieces so prepared with his powerful jaws. 462. When we speak of horns our imagination pictures such as we are familiar with in the ox ; but it must not be supposed that the nasal horn of the rhinoceros presents a similar structure. The nasal horn of the ox consists of a bony cone, or process from the skull, encased in a horny sheath. The nasal horn of the rhinoceros is a solid mass, structurally composed of agglutinate/ \ fibres, analogous to hair, and much resembling those into which whalebone is so easily separable. The horn of the rhinoceros, originating as it does in the skin only, has none of its sensibility. The form of the disc of skin to which it is attached, and the fact of its attachment equally to all parts of that disc, give it a strength of base which no other horn possesses; and its fibrous structure throughout make it secure from fracture from any cross Gtrain. The circumstance of its being placed over the bone of the nose completely prevents any concussion of the brain, even from the most violent use of it ; and its central position admits of its being employed with the who!* powisr of the animal. NATURAL HISTORY. 155 Down sank the monster bulk, and press'd the ground, His anus and clattering shield on the vast body sound."— DRTBEN, The horns are also used as tveapons of defence ; and in one of the species, at least, the horns, which are moveable in a quiescent state, become fixed and immoveabte when the animal is enraged. When moving through dense jungles, rhinoceri carry their heads low, ajul p'/nigh their way through the matted and entangled vegetation. 463. Wliy are the ey&» of the rhinoceros placed so low down in ike head? Because, from the great bulk of the body, the range of sight would be much more limited were they placed higher in the head at a point having a more restricted orbit of motion. Set upon a lengthened axis, every partial turn of the head extends the range of sight 464. Why are the ears of the rhinoceros very moveable and quick of motion ? Because, notwithstanding the advantageous position of the eyes, from the great bulk of the body, and low position of the head, the range of sight is more restricted than in other animals. The rhinoceros, therefore, relies to a great extent upon the sense of hearing ; the ears are, consequently, exceedingly sensitive, and endowed with moveable powers, which enable them to be instantly turned to the point of danger. This mobility of the ears is all the more remarkable when we consider the hardness of the general covering of the rhinoceros. 465. Wliy does the skin of the rhinoceros exhibit numerous folds ? Dr. Parsons observes that if the head and inflexible skin of the •rhinoceros were continued all over the creature, as the skins of other animals, without any folds, he could not bend any way, nor perform any necessary action ; but that suppleness in the skins of other quadrupeds which renders them flexible in all parts, is very well compensated in this animal by those folds ; for, since it was necessary his skin should be hard for his defence, it was a noble contrivance that his skin should be so soft and smooth underneath 166 THE REASON WHf : The nose was ugly, long, and big, Broad, and snouty like a pig ; Which showed he would in dunghills love to dig." — OTWAT. that when he bends himself any way, one part of his board-like skin should slip or shove over the other ; and that these several folds should be placed in such parts of his body as might facilitate the performance of every voluntary motion he might be disposed to make. 466. This view is further enforced by the fact, that in the rhinoceros bicornis, the hide of which is not so hard, the same extent of folding does not exist. The Indian rhinoceros is the most remarkable for the density of its skin. In this species it is thrown into large folds, which add to the uncouth appearance of the animal, and form a sort of armour, very difficult to be pierced : hence it is manu- factured into shields and the like. The arrangement of the folds, or rather solid plates with folded edges, is as follows : — Around the neck, which is short and deep, the skin forms two large folds, of which the last hangs over the front of the chest. The shoulders are covered with a thick hard plate, falling in a fold over the top of the fore limbs, and separated also by a posterior fold for the plate covering of the body. This is folded across the top of the crupper, the fold running down just below the haunch-bones, and loosing itself on the belly. The crupper-plate is divided by a longitudinal fold running to the root of the tail on each side from a large crural plate, which hangs in a deep fold over the thighs. Between the folds the skin is soft and flexible, and of a pale pink or flesh colour ; but everywhere else It is Karl and dense, and covered with horny incrustations. Hence, were it not for thep< folds, the animal would necessarily be restricted in his motions. 467. Why has the tapir an indurated skin over the head and neck? Because, in seeking its food, it pushes its way through dense brush-wood. Being al- most defenceless, it also flies from its enemies into the densest thickets, which it does with considerable ease and speed. Its head is remarkably well adapted for boring through tangled places, being in the form of a conical wedge, and so thick toward the posterior part, tftat wherever it opens u way, tl}e rest of the body can pas? NATURAL HISTORY. 157 " The bristled boar . . . New grinds his arming usks and digs the ground, He rubs his sides agair st a tree— prepares And hardens both his sioulders for the wars." — CARET. The head and neck, as far as the shoulders, being fortified with a shield of thickened skin, the tapir can the more readily plunge through the thicket, than if its fore quarters were covered only with an ordinary skin. 468. Why have hogs thick muscular necks? Because their habit of rooting up the ground in ^uest of the \egetable stores that lie beneath its surface, renders considerable force necessary. The form of the snout, the motions of which its cartilaginous tip is capable, and the efficacy of the hind hoofs, and powerful hocks, in 1 hrowing the neck and shoulders well up to their work, are equally tributary to this natural habit. Sir Charles Bell, adverting to the peculiar anatomy of the hog, says : — " The formation of the skull and of the spine, and the mass of muscle in the neck, all show the intention that he shall drive onward with his whole weight and strength, so that he may rend with his tusks. Accordingly, we see that the back part of the skull rises in remarkable spines or ridges for the attachment of muscles, and that, corresponding with these, spinous processes of the vertebrae of the neck and back are of extraordinary length and strength. These processes distinctly Indicate the power of the muscles which pass from the neck to the head. We now understand the reason of the shortness and inflexibility of the neck, because the power of the shoulders is directed to the head, and, we may say, to these large tusks. An elongated and flexible neck would have rendered these provisions useless. The characteristic form of the wild boar, then, consists in the height o/ the back, the shortness and thickness of the neck, the wedge shape of the head, the projection of the tusks, and the shortness of the four limbs, which must always be in proportion to the neck." 469. Why is the Indian hog furnished with long crooked tusks ? It, has been asserted by some authors that the animal is in the habit of sleeping standing, and that in doing so, it steadies its body by hooking the tusKs on to the branch of a tree. Independently of this 158 THE REASON WHY" : " And up and downe as he that forest sought, He met, he saw, a bore, with 1mkes great That slept agenst the bright sunne's heat."— CHAUCER. doubtful application, the tusks, which rise out of the mouth, and curl upwards before the eyes in a very singular manner, afford protection to the organs of vision, while the hog rushes through thick brushwood. These tusks are also used in extremity as weapons of defence. 470. All weapons of attack which animals use when danger is apprehended, con- tribute directly to the killing or capture of that upon which they feed. But the tusks of the hog species do not in any way assist them in the procuring of their food. They never use them but for the purpose of defence, and though we are apt to suppose that they make wanton and vicious attacks, we should, were we able to analyse all the cases, invariably find that the apprehension of danger, of some description or other, is the cause. If the defence of the animal is personal only, it seldom, if ever, shows fight, unless directly assailed ; but almost all animals have occasionally, at least, other defences besides that of their own persons. The lemale, the young, and even their pasture, are at times objects to be fought for ; and those animals which are not carnivorous are generally more forward and more valiant in those cases than when the object is simply their own safety. Hogs, probably, have more powerful instruments of defence than most other vegetable feeders. Their young are numerous, and quite defenceless, and their flesh at all ages is, in a state of nature, sweeter, perhaps, than that of any other race of animals.* 471. Why do pigs run about with straws in their mouths when a high wind is approaching? Because they dread the discomfort which the blast will occasion them, and are induced to take up the straws with an undefined purpose of collecting a sufficient store to protect them from the inclement storm. This object, however, they seldom or ever accomplish. Instinct impels the animals to take up the straws, but intelligence is wanting to direct them where to deposit their store. The wild hog probably makes a bed for its shelter, upon the approach of a storm; and we see the same instinct lingering in the domesticated animal. 472. Why is it commonly said that when two hogs are feeding togethert one of them is "sure to have his foot in the trough?" Because when the hog meets with anything that requires cutting • Partington's u Cyclopaedia." NATURAL HISTORY. 159 " Necre to the shore that bord'red on the vocke, No merry swaine was scene to feed his flocke, No lusty neat-heard thither drove his kine, No boorish hog-heard fed his rooting swine." — BROWNE. or tearing, it brings the foot into action, iu order to strengthen the hold, and for this purpose frequently setrf its foot in the trough 473. Why is it said that pigs "cut their throats*' whm swimming ? Because they are bad swimmers ; their fore legs being set closely under them, whenever they accidentally fall into the water they lacerate their throats with the sharp points of their cloven feet. ORDER VTII. — SOLID UNGULA.* 474. What is the meaning of the term soliduriguia? It is derived from the Latin — solidus, solid, and ungula, a hoof. A solidungulous animal is one the hoofs of which are entire. The same animals are sometimes called solipeds, from solus, alone, or solidus, and pes, foot. 475. Though there is only one toe fully developed, there are rudiments of two others under the sidn, but they make no appearance externally. 476. Why are solidungulous animals in a wild state found chiefly in plains? Because their solid feet enable them to bound lightly along hard pastures and sandy plains ; and the comparative swiftness of some of the species, and the power of endurance in others, fit them for ranging over long distances in search of their food. 477. The wild ass, the zebra, the quagga, and also the wild horse of central Asia are all found on the margins of great sandy deserts, or, at least, in those regions where there is a great breadth of country, which is alternately drenched with rain and burned with drought ; or where, as in central Asia, the general character is dryness. They are not found on mountains, among rocks, or in close forests, like leer and goats ; neither do they follow the lines of the great rivers and the rick savannahs so much as the ox tribe. » Ibis order is by some naturalists made a sub-division of the Pachvdfrt*«*a itfO THE REASON WHY: " Fixed on the goal, his eye fore-run*- *he course, His hand, unerring, steers the steaar horse; And now contra.; s, or now extends the rein, Observing still the foremost on the plain." — POPE'S HOMER. 478. Why do wild horses congregate in flocJcs ? Because, as they shift their ground with the change ot seasons in pursuit of new pasturage, the same necessity operating upon large numbers at once, they become gregarious, and acquire habits of association. 479. Why are the colourings and markings of horses so varied ? Numerous conjectures have been entertained as to what was the original colour of the horse, and what have been the causes of the varieties that have since appeared, but the inquiry has not been attended with success. 480. The various colours of horses would seem to be truly original and inherent ; for such of them as have, from a state of domestication, been suffered again to run wild, have retained the colour they carried with them, although their form has altered by being submitted to the agencies of climate. Neither have the original horses of different countries, according to the accounts of travellers, exhibited in this particular any individual characteristic. The horses of the east are not darker than those of the north ; on the contrary, we have white Arabians ; and we procure the darkest breeds from the north of Europe, while in Russia, bright bay is as common a colour as any other. Geographical distribution is not, however, wholly without its influence on the hair ; for our heavy breeds, drawn from the northern parts of Europe, are very frequently black ; but a full-blood black horse is very seldom met with. Age has likewise a powerful effect on the tinting of the hair ; that of the colt alters many shades ; in some cases it becomes much lighter, and in others altogether much darker as the adult period arrives. But the alteration which takes place between the time if full growth and that of old age. is invariably from a darker to a lighter hue. 481. Why, when two horses are in a pasture, do we frequently see we of them nibbling the shoulder- or neck of the other? This action is performed for the purpose of extricating the irritating fly known as the bot, which commonly attacks horses in the parts mentioned. There cannot be a doubC that the animals indicate the presence of this annoyance to each other, for when one horse has had the fly removed from him, he will immediately render the same service to his companion. NATURAL HISTORY. 161 " Th nk, -when we talk of horses, that you see them, printing their proud hoofs in the receiving earth." — SHAKSPERE. 482. Why are horses furnished with strong hairs on the upper and lower lips? These instruments are designed for keeping flies and insects from annoying them, by getting into their nostrils while they are grazing. They are sufficiently close together for that purpose ; and moving as they do while the horse is feeding, serve to brush away anything offensive. 483. Why does the appearance of much "white" in the eye of a horse, indicate a vicious nature ? Because a high-tempered horse constantly looks about, appre- hensive of danger, or desiring to do mischief. The quick motion of the eyeball in opposite directions exposes an unusually large surface of the white, which thus becomes an evidence of the temper of the animal. 484. Why has the horse no eye-brows ? Because, from the situation of the eyes, and the direction of the horse's head, either when running or feeding, such organs would be useless. There are hairs on the upper eye-lid, and especially towards the outer corner, because the light comes from above ; and as the animal stands, particularly when he is grazing, and from the lateral situation of the eyes, the greater portion of the light, the attacks of insects, and the running .down of moisture, would be chiefly from the outside or temples. Towards the inner corner of the upper lid there is little or no eyelash, because there is no probable danger or obstruction in that direction. Only a small quantity of light can enter from below, and therefore the lashes are there short ; but as in the act of grazing, insects may more readily climb up and be troublesome to the eye, towards the inner angle, there the principal or only hair is found on the lower lid. 485. Although the horse has no jyebrows, there are several hairs or bristles scattered on the upper eyelid, an . there is a projecting fold cf the lid which a 162 THE REASON WHY: Epirus for th' Elean chariot breeds (In hopes of palms) a race of running; steeds." — DRYDEN. discharges the same office. This is by some persons erroneously associated -wilfc weakness or disease of the eye. But it is, in fact, a provision of nature to accomplish a certain purpose, and is in no way connected with either health or 486. Why is the best form of horse, such as tJie English racer, peculiarly fitted for swift running ? Because the mechanism of the frame is based on tjie most correct geometrical principles, presenting a series of lengthened levers acting by means of a con- densed muscular and ten- donous organization of great power, on angles capable of great flexion and extension ; while his pointed form fits him to cleave the atmos- phere, from which his deep chest enables him to take extensive inspirations to invigorate his exertions. 487. The essential points in the form of a horse differ as much as the uses he is put to vary. That which would approach perfection in one variety would be defective in another. The finest-formed racer that ever bounded over the turf at Newmarket, would cut a sorry figure in a London coal- waggon ; while one of Barclay's splendid specimens of the heavy draught-horse would be even more misplaced if entered for the Derby. To be able to form a tolerably correct estimate of the capability of each variety of the horse to perform the duties required of it, from a view of the general figure, constitutes the very feather in the cap of the horse amateur. But to accomplish it requires much experience, and a long habit of observation, comparison, and reflection.* 488. Why has the horse a large square jaw under the ear f To enable the teeth to bear great pressure, they are socketed very deeply in the jaw ; and as the strength of the muscles of * Elaine's " Rural Sports." NATURAL HISTORY. 163 There from the sunburnt hay field homeward creeps The loaded wain ; while, lightened of its charge, The wain that meets it passes swiftly by ; The boorish driver, leaning o'er his team." — DRYDEN. r^v^xW>~>/X/V*>^VX~XXXXV\X\XX/X/V/>/\~VV'V\/>*-NX>^/X/V>/\XV/X^ mastication is applied, is not merely to close the jaws, but to grind, or to rub the teeth both laterally and to and fro, extraordinary space is provided in the jaws for the lodgment of a powerful muscle which has the double action of closing the teeth, and of drawing the lower jaw across the upper. 489. Why does a " heavy shoulder " in a horse indicate that he it stow, and apt to tumble? Because this heaviness, as it is commonly termed, results from the uprig'it position of the shoulder blade, which position prevents it from revolving freely, and so retards the forward mo- tion of the foot. The main condition of swiftness in a horse is that the shoulderbone should be oblique, as shown in the illustration, and that the transition from the neck to the shoulders instead of being abrupt, should display a smooth undulating surface. 490. Why are horses with deep bellies, such as the Suffolk punch, the best calculated for continuous employment ? Because when their bodies are thus formed, they carry their food for a long time, and consequently are enabled to bear a longer and a harder day's work. 491. The Suffolk punch is particularly esteemed by the fanners of Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex ; and it is well known that in these districts where this kind of horse is used, that the farmers are able to plough more land in a day than can be performed in any other part of England. Of all creatures, the horse has the smallest stomach relatively to its size. Had he the quadruple ruminating stomach of the ox, he would not have been at all 164 THE REASON WHY : " And early with thy team the glebe in furrows turn, That, while the turf lies open and unbound, Succeeding suns may bake the mellow ground." — DIIYDEN. times ready for exertion; the traveller could n ; : have baited his steed, and resumed his journey. The stomach of the horse is not so capacious, even when distended, as to impede his wind and speed; and the food passes onward with a greater degree of regularity than in any other animal. If a horse drinks a pail of water, in eight minutes none of this water is in the stomach ; it is rapidly passed off into the large intestine, &c. 492. Why has the horse no gall-bladder? Because the process of digestion in the horse is almost incessant, and the bile passes off as rapidly as it is formed. In other cases there is a gall-bladder, in which the bile is stored until required Where the digestive process is performed in a large stomach, and the food descends in large quantities, and at long intervals, a gall-bladder is necessary ; and there is the sympathy between the stomach and gall-bladder, that they are filled and emptied at the same time* 493. Why have aged horses cavities just above their eyes ? Because in old horses most of the fat of the body, which is more superficially placed in the young, becomes absorbed ; in this way, the eye, which is usually embedded in a large quantity of this matter, losing its assistance, sinks within the orbits, and thus the cavities, called eye-pits, show themselves. 494. Why may the age of a horse be judged by the appearance of the teeth? Because on the upper surface of the incisors a hollow is to be seen in the young tooth, which, not extending through the whole substance, naturally wears out with the wear of the tooth, and as a considerable degree of regularity occurs in the wearing away in all horses, it has been adopted as the general criterion of age. 495. Why should the grain which is given to horses be previously crushed ? Because, owing to the unsuitableness of the 1 3eth for masticating • Paley's " Natural Theology." NATURAL HISTORY. 166 Fow, do thy speedy utmost, Meff, And win the kcy-sfane ot the brig; There at them thou thy tail may toss, A running stream they dare not cross." — BTTRNS. pure grain, which in a state of nature the horse would never be called upon to do, the grains frequently find their way into the stomach whole, and consequently yield comparatively little or no nourishment. 496. Why, when horses are early and hard- worked, do they never arrive at their full size ? Because the earthy deposit of the bones is usually proportioned to the wants of the animal, and is most abundant in those whose exertions are considerable. But from this very circumstance, when the animal is subjected to premature exertion, the consoli- dation of the bones becomes more complete before their softer portion has increased to its full dimensions, and hence growth is arrested. 497. Why will a horse, if unchecked and unguided, find its own way on a dark night ? Because its eye, in addition to being well adapted for vision during the day, is, from the form of the retina, peculiarly adapted to receive impressions by night. 498. In the darkness of night, when the traveller knows not the way, and would be incapable of reaching his home, his faithful horse will carry him in safety through the most difficult places ; and be the path ever so intricate, and the obstacles ever so many, if the rein is entirely given up, not a foot of his will slip or be misplaced in the most difficult ground, and not one of the obstacles will he come in contact with. This is a curious point in physiology, but it is as true as it is worthy of admiration. The firm and entire hoof of the horse, even when shod with iron, seems to acquire in the dark a sense of touch equal to the most delicate finger; and, though we cannot accour* for it, every hair upon the skin of the animal appears to be instinct wit. all the senses necessary for guiding him along, with the same certainty as though it were clear daylight all about him. If the horse and the rider have been long acquainted with each other, and have frequently made nocturnal journeys, it is of no consequence, if the journey is a homeward one, whether the rider pays t e slightest attention to the matter or not ; for there have baen many instances in which an old and trusty horse has carried his rider asleep for a distance of more than twenty miles. There have been also instances of favourite ponies carrying blind musicians from house to house for tha puipose of giving lessons ; and indeed it would be impossible to em merate half tk« lt>8 THE REASON WHY . He taught men the forth drawynge Of bestaile, and eke the makynge Of oxen, and of hors the same, How men should them ride and tame." — GOWER. which are well authenticated, of quiet and slow-going horses finding and ueeping the w-iy without any assistance from their riders, and the same applies to horses habitually used in draught.* 499. Why is the system pursued by Mr. Earey so efficacious in taming vicious horses ? Because, without inflicting pain upon the animal, it fixes upon his memory the fact — that man is his master. All animals are subdued that once become aware of this ; and they owe their subjection to each other to a similar consciousness. jOO. Mr. Rarey's system consists of rendering a horse perfectly helpless — not by punishment in the ordinary sense— but by depriving him of the use of one of his legs by the simple contrivance of a buckle and strap, which doubles the near fore leg upon the fore arm, and renders the animal helpless without inflicting pain. While in this subdued condition the horse is laid or thrown upon his side, and is then attended, spoken to, caressed, shown different objects which he had hitherto dreaded, and made familiar with sounds that, under other circumstances, would alarm him. In connection with all these trials he is constantly caressed by the operator until he gains assurance, and when at last he is released from subjection by the hand of his attendant, he regards man as not only his master but his friend. The communication of such a lesson demands patience, and an occasional repetition ; but there can be no doubt of its efficiency in subduing, if not in eradicating, the vice of horses. The principles of Mr. Rarey's system are embodied in the following propositions: — 1. That any horse may be taught to do anything that a horse can do, if taught in a proper manner. 2. That a horse is not conscious of his own strength, until he has resisted and conquered a man ; and that man, having the advantage of reasoning powers, can handle a horse in such a manner that he shall not know his superior strength. 3. That by enabling a horse to examine erery object with which we desire to make him familiar, with organs naturally used for that purpose, viz., seeing, smelling, and feeling, you may take any object around, over, and on him, that does not actually hurt him.+ Many animals live in a state of perhaps more close domestication than the horse does ; and the dog especially, being one which in a state of nature requires more art and stratagem for finding his food, is capable of evincing his attachment to his master in a variety of ways. The dog will fight for his master, will fawn upon hia master, and will watch and defend his master's property with a fidelity perhap • Partington's " Cyclopaedia." + " Art of Taming nnreob." NATURAL HISTORY. 167 •' As ^heri a dull mill asse comes near a goodly field of come, Kept from the birds by children's cries : the boys are overborne By his insensible approach, and simply he will eat, [beat." — About whom many wands are broke, and still the children CHAPMAH. unequalled by the human race. The horse does not fight for himself, for his nature is the very opposite of pugnacious ; the horse does not fawn, for the spirit of the ho r rang'd the branching monarch of the shades, Hefore the tempest drives." — THOMSON. S2Q. The te-«» horn is commonly applied to any hard projecting body on the head of animals, rawing as a weapon of defence ; but it is strictly applicable only to 8 certain clas,? "1 such weapons. For instance, the antlers of the stag consist entirely of bone, aur* ^ave no right to the denomination " horns ; " the weapons of the ox, the sheep, anJ the antelope, consist of a sheath of true horny material on a bony core ; while th» ^orns of the rhinoceros are wholly composed of horny matter. Bone and horn are is distinct from each other, as both are from ivory ; yet the three are often confounded by the application of the general term " horn" to antlers, tusks, and true ftoms. Besides the horns on the head of animals, there are other horny processes in the hoofs, claws, nails, &c., and there are various modifications of horn in the sciles of the armadillo, the plate armour of the tortoise, the spines of the and hedgehog, and the quills of birds. Horn consists principally of membranous animal matter, being a compound of coagulated albumen, gelatine, and a small portion of phosphate of lime. It has been well remarked of these proportions, " had the horns much more earth, they would be brittle like bones ; had they much more gelatine, they would be soluble like jelly or glue ;" as it is, they are easily convertable to the purposes of the manufacturer, by whom they are so largely used, that considerable importations of horns are necessary, in addition to the supply afforded by this country. The horns chiefly applied to manufacturing uses are those of the bull and cow, with the hoofs of those animals. Large quantities are imported from Russia, South America, and Southern Africa. The horns of the bison and buffalo are also in demand, the latter being frequently reserved, on account of their beauty, for superior purposes. The horns of the chamois and antelope are polished and used in their natural forms.* 527. Why does a stag prefer to reach water before he stands at bay ? Because, from his greater height, he can maintain a footing, while the dogs, obliged to swim, become comparatively helpless. He therefore strikes at them with his horns with great effect, while they have little power to attack him. 528. Why are the horns oj buffaloes of peculiar utility to them? Because these animals feed in close jungles, where their eyes • Tomlinson'9 " Encyclopaedia of Useful Arts and Manufactures.** NATURAL HISTORY. 179 In time the savage bull doth bear the yoke."— SHAKSPERK. are of comparatively little use ; and though the ears may be of service, in enabling them to avoid hostile animals and find friendly ones, they can be of no use in guiding a grazing animal to its food. Hence, the sense upon which they have chiefly to depend for their subsistence is that of smell ; and, as the scent of their food comes in the air, and is not on the surface of the ground, they require the nose elevated while they are ranging the jungles. In doing this, the horns cat as powerful auxiliaries, as their weio-ht assists in balancing the weight of the head when the line of the face is carried in an horizontal position. 529. The horns of buffaloes are of use to them in another way. These animals change their pastures by crossing rivers which flood when the rain* fall on the mountains, and whet, it is dry there they run low. The animals float along apparently at their ease, till they arrive at those places which suit their habits. The manner in which they carry their heads in swimming is shown in the accompanying engraving ; from which it is obvious that they use the weight of their horns as a lever to elevate their eyes and nostrils. 530. Why is the bison able to use his horns with more effect than the ox ? Because in this animal the horns are so situated that when its neck is brought into that position which has its greatest strength, the horn appears on the anterior and lateral part of the convex skull as on the crown of an arch, and the axis of the whole body passes between the two horns, and parallel to the direction of thern^ so that the animal can deliver its whole momentum from a rush or bound either upon both horns, or upon one of them, with fall effect, and without injury to itself. 180 THE RKASON WHY. While doe and roe, and red deer good, Have bounded by through gay greenwood. — SCOTT. 531. The characters of the bison, -which chiefly appear in the head, are : the fore- head arched or convex, instead of being nearly flat, as in the domestic ox ; the breadth, measured be- tween the orbits of the eyes, greater than the height; the bases of the horns before the ridge of the occiput : the whole outlines of the crania, b->nes more curved or convex ; the occiput being rounded instead of quad- rangular, and passing into the line of the forehead by an obtuse and rounded angle instead of an acute one. This form gives much greater strength to the skull, and more firmness to the bases of the horns ; so that the bison can dash the head with much more impetus than the ox, either against an enemy or any obstacle, without the danger of equal injury either from fracture of the skull or concussion of its contents. 532. How are the structure and the habits of the rein-deer admirably adapted to the climate which it inhabits ? The rein-deer possesses a 'keen, scent by which it discovers the lichens on which it feeds deep beneath the snow, and subsists easily in a climate where the face of nature is sealed through long- continued months of winter. As a beast of burthen it is invaluable to the inhabitants of the dreary northern regions, its broad expan- sive hoofs enabling it to pass over the yielding surface of snow with ease. For domestic purposes, where no substitute can be found to meet even the limited wants of the inhabitants, its import- ance is incalculable ; its milk furnishes them with cheese, its flesh with meat, its hide clothes them, and its horn supplies the material for implements of use. 533. In what manner do the horns of the rein-deer prove instrumental to the animal in procuring its food ? J5y the aid of these instruments the rein-deer removes the deep tnow from the ground, and thug arrives at $fye fop4 destined for its NATURAL HISTORY. 181 Tear-falling pity dwells not in this eye."— SHAKSPEKB. subsistence. The velvety down which covers the antlers prevents the snow from adhering to them. 534. Why is the neck of the elk so short, and the head 30 near to the trunk ? Because the weight of the elk's horns is enormous, and if the head and horns were placed at the extremity of an elongated neck, they would inevitably overbalance the body. 535. Why are stags said to shed tears ? Such allusions are very frequent with the poets. Shakspere says : — "the big round tears Coursed one another down his innocent nose In piteous chase." The eyes of the stag, and nearly all the deer tribe, display a peculiarly weeping aspect. It depends on a remarkable glandular sinus, or tear-pit, situate at the inner angle of each eye, close to the nose, without having any communication with the eyes, cr without what are termed the lachrymal passages. 536. Why are deer furnished with supplementary breathing places in addition to the nostrils? This would appear to be an extraordinary provision ot nature, providing for a beast of the chase a freer respiration, by the opening of additional nostrils when hard run. Another advantage is derived from this peculiar apparatus When deer are thirsty, they plunge their noses very deep undei water while in the act of drinking, and continue them in that situation for a considerable time ; but to obviate any inconvenience or approach to suffocation by both the mouth and the nostrils being stopped at the same time, these two vents are taken ad vantage of, and by being opened, afford the necessary supply of air. 182 THE REASON WHY . While in this park I sing, the list'ning deer Attend my passion, and forget to fear." — WALLER. They are composed of folds of the skin, and are capable of being opened or dosed at the pleasure of the animal. At the bottom they are furnished with a gland, which secretes an oily viscous substance, of the colour and consistence of the wax of the ears, and which hardens and becomes black when exposed to the air. Each sinus acts as an extra breathing place ; the moistened moving edges of the sinus have been mistaken for tears. 537. Why are the feet of the rein-deer deeply fissured, and liable to open and close ? Because the deer browses upon lichens or mosses which it finds on the mountains of Lapland ; it has occasionally to walk upon deep snows, and at other times upon craggy mountainous places. The spreading foot is efficacious in preventing its sinking into the snow, while the firm and pointed toes, when the foot is closed, serve to obtain a firm footing upon the crags. 538. Why is the ox one of the most valuable and useful beasts to man ? Because it not only affords wholesome and agreeable food in this country, but is also serviceable as a beast of burden and of draught in many lands ; and in some is commonly employed for riding. 539. The readiness of acclimation which distinguishes the ox in every part of Hie world, and in almost every range of temperature, is one of the most obvious causes of its extensive distribution and usefulness. «in the northern and frozen parts of Europe, and under a tropical sun, the ox is found and cherished, and is applied, in a greater or less degree, to the many purposes of utility. The cow, uuring her life, provides us, in her copious and abundant supply of milk, with one of the most nutritive and wholesomo aliments. Thus useful when living, its death seems to render it even more extensively serviceable. The flesh, the various portions of the stomach, and the viscera, constitute the most important tu-ticles of food ; the intestines and the bladder are employed for different uses ia NATURAL HISTORY. " Some ruminating lie ; while others stand Half in the flood, and, often bending, sip The circling surface." — THOMSON. domestic economy ; the horns are extensively used in manufacturing numerous articles of utility, ornament, and amusement ; the ears and hoofs furnish the im- portant article of glue ; the bones form a strong manure, or are carved into various implements, and are thus an excellent substitute for ivory ; or they yield by decomposition several essential articles in medicine, domestic economy, and the arts ; the hair is used in mortar ; the hide is tanned into leather ; and, hi fact, there is not a part of this most useful animal which does not, living or dead, contribute to the advantage of mankind. 540. Why does the sight of blood, or anything of a red colour, excite and infuriate the ox tribe? Because red is the complementary colour of green ; and the eyes of oxen being long fixed upon the green herbage while feeding, when they espy anything red it impresses their sight with a greatly- increased intensity. The same effect is doubtless produced upon all grazing animals by a red colour ; but oxen, being more pugnacious than others, show greater excitement, and often attack that which surprises them. 541. Why do oxen frequently stand in shallow waters in hot weather? Because, having the power of ruminating, they can take in a store of food, and by retiring to shallow waters, which generally lie in shady places, they ob- tain coolness, and escape to a great extent the annoying bites of insects, while they contentedly chew the cud. The water also softens and cools their hoofs, and pre- vents cracks and humours to which they are liable in hot weather. 184 THE REASON WHY : One way a band select from forage drives A herd of beeves, faire oxen and faire kine From a fat meddow ground." — MILTON. 542. Jfliy do oxen use a peculiar licking motion with the tongue, when gathering herbage ? Because their upper Up is not prehensible, like that of the Ji.rse. They therefore use the tongue to gather in the grass, which is afterwards divided by biting. 513. Why is it customary to hang bells around the necks oj cattle in Switzerland? Because, as they are allowed to roam among the acclivities and windings of the mountains, the sound of the bells tends to keep them together, and also to inform the vachers, or herdsmen, of their whereabouts. The bolls vary in form and size, from a small tinkling instrument to a large deep-toned bell, worn by the leader of a herd. 544. So accustomed and attached do the animals become to these bells, that the deprivation of them is felt as a punishment. The cow, whose superior beauty, sagacity, and good conduct, fit her to be the leader of the herd, is always on gala-days distinguished by the largest and finest-toned bell, and the bravest ornamental collar, and so down, through all the gradations of good, to the small appendage that marks the indifferently good dr clever animal, and the total absence of ornament and distinction which points out the self-willed or vicious. If any cow has been guilty of straying, of unseemly behaviour, breach of discipline, or any vicious trick, the displeasure of the vacher is not testified by blows, but by the tem- porary deprivation of her bell ; and this seldom fails to reduce her to order and prevent a repetition of the offence. It is only necessary to see the cow on a gala- day, with her badge of distinction strapped round her neck, and then to see her deprived of it, for some fault or other, to be convinced that this is true. She is now gay, good-humoured, and frolicsome, and then, sulky and gloomy. A certain cow, that had long worn the bell of honoui round her neck, had but recently given birth to a calf, and was considered too weak to bear the weight of the large bell, or, indeed, of either one. Her master turned her out to go with the herd to the upland pastures. This summer removal of quarters is always held as a holiday. The peasants were dressed in their best clothes, the cows had on their bells, and all went on gaily, except the poor matron who was deprived of hers After proceeding a few paces, she began to show signs of great uneasiness ; this increased. It was vainly attempted to coax her forward, and soon she lay down on hor side, and would not move. In this dilemma one of the old vachers came up, aad seeing how the case stood, coolly went to the house, and brought out the bell and collar, which the animal no sooner felt about her neck than she rose, sb/ob NATURAL HISTORY. 185 *' As from fresh pastures and the dewy field (When loaded cribs their evening banquet yield) The lowing herds return : around them throng, With leaps and bounds, their late imprisoned young." — POPE. herself, and raising and throwing her tail o' er her haunches, in token of complete satisfaction, went off prancing, kicking, ana curvetting, with every appearance of health and gaiety ; and, taking her place in the van, was from that moment as well 545. Why has the ox (the most valuable of quadrupeds to man) been so easily and universally domesticated ? Because of its gregarious nature, which leads it readily to associate with any other animal that evinces no disposition to offer it direct injury. 546. Why has the ox, in common with other ruminating animals, a divided hoof? Because feet thus furnished take a firmer hold upon soft, yielding, or irregularly disposed ground, supporting the body better, and being less liable to injury than any other kind. Feet thus formed also do less injury to vegetation than would result from flat solid hoofs. 547. Why has the cow, which usually produces but one calf, four or more teats ? Because the calf, being born with teeth, and requiring a large quantity of nourishment, the excess in the number of teats enables the cow, by altering her position, to change the teat used by her young one, and thus to prevent its becoming sore by continual sucking. 543. It is a well-known fact that human mothers change the side upon which children suck, for a similar reason. When a child is very hungry and tenacious of the breast, soreness is prevented by thus acting ; and the appearance of teeth in the gums of her offspring is the usual indication that the time proper for weaning is at hand. In dairy economy, there is great advantage in the number of teats, because one cow may be made to suckle two calves ; the second cow being kept for milch. In the domesticated state, udders and teats are very liable to become disordered. As the udder consists of four distinct glands, each having a teat, the inflammation arising from one may not be communicated to the other, which can be milked 01 Bucked, and the mammary system relieved. * Latrobc's "Alpenstock or, Sketches of Swiss Scenery and Manners." 186 THE REASON WHY! " Th' ignoble never lived ; they walk awhile Li.-,? swine, or other cattle here on earth! Then names are not recorded on the file Of jfe, that fall so."— B. JOHNSON. •^^^^^xvxw^^v^xxys^^xwNy^s^^v>xs^w>^^v>^^^^s> For the purposes of the calf, the division of the udder into four glands, each having a teat, the advantage is, that the calf can always be supplied. One gland forming milk, while another is being exhausted. 549. Why do wild cattle, when flying from the hunter, keep to the sides of fields and copses ? Because they are then sheltered on one, side from attack, and can the more readily take to the cover when they are sufficiently a-head of their pursuers, or when a good "run" offers an opening. 550. Why do wild cattle, when meditating an attack upon an enemy — especially man — make their approaches in gradually diminishing circles ? Because, in all probability the animal intends, previously to attacking its foe, to intimidate it by a show of its own power and means of injury ; calculating that the obnoxious object will, under the influence of fear, turn and present its most vulnerable side, or retreat altogether, without the necessity of an actual combat 551. Many animals before making a dart at an enemy paw the ground, foam at the mouth, lash themselves with their tail, and otherwise excite themselves to a seeming anger. All these acts are doubtless intended to have the same effect as the circuitous approaches, to appal the enemy. 552. Why is the hair of tame and domesticated cattle softer and smoother than that of the wild varieties ? On account of the protection afforded by the farmer and grazier against the severity of the seasons, as also from the more regular and choice supply of food which domesticated animals receive. 553. There is a marked difference between the texture of the hair of the highland cattle and those bred in the lowlands of Scotland ; and even the same breed under different circumstances differs in this respect. On their native pastures, where they are not housed, they are extremely rough, shaggy, and wild-looking ; but when driven to the lowlands, they become more polished, and, on a richer pasture in a climate, and with shelter at night, show a rich and glossy covering:.* * Naturalists' library. NATURAL HISTORY: 187 " If milk be thy design : with plenteous hand Bring clover grass ; and from the marshy land Salt herbage for the foddering rack provide, To fill their bags, and swell the milky tide."— DRYDEN. 554. Why are horns of tame cattle generally shorter than those of wild? Because these appendages, being obviously intended for weapons of offence and defence, their development naturally followed the ratio of their necessity, and decreased in proportion to their domestication. 5.55. It would seem that while domestication softens the manners of animals, it also smooths the asperities of their forms. All animals, when under the influence of strong and angry passion, become much more rugged than when they are pleased, The *hair stands up, the muscles swell into ridges, the skin is puckered, and the animal puts on an aspect as forbidding as possible.* 556. Wliy do wild cattle feed in flocks, while the tame varieties scatter and browse separately? Because the former experience a sense of insecurity and dread of attack ; they act instinctively upon the maxim that union is strength, and thus guard against surprise. The domesticated ox has no such dread, and follows its individual caprice, or sense of enjoyment. 557. Why has the giraffe such a long slender neck? Because it browses upon the branches of tall trees, for which purpose its long neck is admirably adapted. 558. Why has the giraffe a head so small in proportion to its size ? Because a larger head at the extremity of the lever formed by the long neck would possess a weight disproportioned to the muscular power of the animal, and be a serio'js encumbrance. • Partington's " Cyclopaedia." 188 THE REASON WHY : Whose hei8 THE REASON WHY" : With such accoutrements, with such a form, Much like a porptrise, just before a storm." — CHURCHILL. 594. This is th 3 mode of swimming in all the whale tribe ; and it is easy to see, from the formation of the tail, the most powerful organ of motion they possess, this must be the case. Their action, like that of land mammalia, is vertical, as distin- guished from the horizontal one of fishes. Their tails strike upward and down- ward, and those of fishes laterally. The resistance to the stroke upwards is less than the stroke downwards, because the pressure of Ihe water increases with ita depth : and thus, when cetaceous animals make great exertions in swimming, they always have a tendency to "roll." 595. Wliy is the porpoise (or porcpesse) so named ? The name, signifying sea-hog, was given to this animal from a fancied resemblance to the hog in the character of its head, and in its habits of rooting for food. 596. Why is its appearance at sea in numerous packs thought by mariners to forewarn a storm ? Because it has been frequently found that previous to rough weather, when few sea animals can procure food, an instinct has led porpoises to take advantage of the opportunity afforded by the calm, and so to provide for a period of deprivation. 597. Why have whales, dolphins, &c., the flat surface of their tails placed horizontally, instead of vertically ? This difference to the ordinary fishes is to favour the important function of respiration ; for these inhabitants of the sea must rise to the surface to breathe the air, and their tails are thus directed to enable them to elevate their heads above water. MISCELLANEOUS. 598. Why is the omnivorous character of man beneficial to the lower terrestrial creation? Because, by his appetite for various kinds of flesh, he is incited to subdue and utilize every kind of animal substance. This tends NATURAL HISTORY. 199 For forms are variable, and decay By course of kinde, and by occasion." — SPENSEK. to prevent the redundancy of species ; and equally prevents their total extinction, which, on account of the unlimited powers of destruction which man possesses, would sometimes occur, were his choice more restricted. From a love of vegetable food, man is led to cultivate and render the productions of tha soil abundant and wholesome ; and, in like manner to the operation of his appetite upon animal productions, he is impelled, by his love of variety, to cultivate every kind of herb, shrub, and tree. 599. The instinct of hunting — if such a term may be applied to a being gifted with the superior faculty of reason — is universally diffused among, men. We find the most untutored savage expert after his degree in the pursuits of the chase ; and, under a regime of the most complete civilization, the gentleman is still a hunter. Fortunately for him, he follows the chase no longer from necessity, or to procure food, but simply to obtain from its mimic warfare a certain amount of relaxation and excitement. The cultivation of the soil is a gauge of civilization. Where agriculture and its kindred arts flourish, peace, health, and wealth are its attendants upon man, while the fiercer and more ferocious animals either cease to exist, or are kept within strong and impassable bounds. 600. By what means is man enabled to influence the forms and qualities of various animals which belong to them at their birth ; and to create, as it were, new varieties at will ? Because all the individuals of the same species do not possess, to the same degree, the physical and instinctive qualities with which the species are generally endowed ; and by the exercise or the influence of physical conditions, man can develop a particular faculty, and consequently increase these differences. He may, within certain limits, modify races at his pleasure ; for he is able to choose, or even to produce, individual differences, which are transmissable from one to the other ; and to regulate the succession of generations, so as to remove from them all that would tend to separate the race from the type which he wishes to produce ; and he can thus influence the hereditary qualities of the young, as he had done those of their parents. 200 THE REASON WHY " As Jacob used an ingenious invention to make Laban's cattle speckled or ring-staked, so much the skill in making tulips feathered and variegated, with stripes of divers colours," FUI.LKS. 601. This is especially the case with our various domesticated animals ; and ther» are none that show it more strongly than dogs. Not only do the different races of dogs vary in the colour and quantity of their hair, but also in the proportions ol the different parts of their bodies, and even in their instincts. How different, fot example, are the greyhound and the mastiff, the bloodhound and the spaniel. We could scarcely imagine that any period of time, or external influence, could ever convert one into the other. And yet they had one common origin ; and it is found that their distinct forms are preserved only so long as they are matched in breeds. Among the problems of high theoretical interest which the recent progress of geology and natural history has brought into notice, no one is move prominent, and, at the same time, more obscure, than that relating to the origin of species. On this difficult and m}'sterious subject Mr. Charles Darwin has bestowed long and anxious attention ; and the result of some twenty years' observation and experiments in zoology, botany, and geology, has established in his mind the conclusion that those powers of nature which give rise to races and permanent varieties in animals and plants, are the same as those which, in much longer periods, produce species, and in a still longer series of ayes, give rise to difference* oj generic rank,* ,602. How is the distribution of animals over the surface oj the globe accounted for f Several hypotheses have been set up to account for this • Professor LyeiU NATURAL HISTORY. 201 " The heavenly bodies (as growne now lesse strong) Doe seeme more stalke (as weary of their race) All cliniats still new temperatures embrace, What strange effects must follow them ere long ! " — STIRLING. distribution. But it may not be unreasonable to assume that at the beginning of the actual geological period, the various species were limited to narrow regions, and that by degrees they afterwards spread to a distance, so as to occupy a more or less considerable portion of the surface of the globe. 603. The circumstances which favour the dissemination of species are of two kinds. The first is connected with or dependent on the nature of the animal ; the second, with causes foreign to it. In the number of the first, the development of the locomotive power holds an important place. All things being equal, the species which live fixed to the soil, or which possess but imperfect instruments for locomotion, occupy but a restricted portion of the surface of the globe, compared with the species whose movements of translation are rapid and energetic. Thus, birds have a most extended area, whilst reptiles, on the contrary, are generally confined to narrow limits. 604. IVTiy do differences of climate serve to arrest the march of animals from' one region to another ? Because there are throughout all nature, mutiuil adaptations of animate and inanimate existences — of organic and inorganic forms. This is seen in the growth of vegetables, as well as in the development of animals. 605. Apes, which crowd the tropical regions, almost always die of pulmonary consumption when they are exposed to the coldness and humidity of our climate ; while the rein-deer, formed to support the rigours of a long and rude Lapland winter, suffers from heat at St. Petersburg, and in general sinks quickly under the Influence of a temperate climate. Man and the dog are the only species that can support the two extremes of arctic cold and tropical heat. The influence of temperature on the animal economy explains to us why certain species remain cantoned in a chain of mountains, without being able to spread abroad into analogous localities. We know that the temperature decreases by reason of the elevation of the soil ; and that, in consequence, animals which live at considerable elevations could not descend into the low plains to reach other mountains without traversing countries where the temperature is much superior to that of their ordinarv habitation. 202 THE REASON WHY : " What means the bull, unconscious of his strength, to play the coward, and flee before such a feeble thing as man?"— BLAIK 606. Why are, the largest quadrupeds found in Africa and the largest reptiles in America? Africa abounds in dry deserts, and is the most luxurious as to its vegetable productions, which circumstances are favourable to the growth of such animals as elephants, rhinoceri, and hippopotami. The vast swamps which border the great American rivers naturally favour the development of the reptile order, and there abound the largest species and the greatest variety. 607. What relation exists between the elevation of temperature in different zoological regions, and the organic perfection of the animals inhabiting them ? In the hottest climates the animals are found most to approach man ; and those which in each great zoological division possess the organization the most complex, and the faculties most developed ; whilst in the polar regions we meet only with beings occupying a rank but little elevated in the zoological series. The apes, for example, are limited to the hottest parts of the two continents ; it is the. same with parrots among birds ; the crocodile and tortoise amongst reptiles ; and of land-crabs amongst the Crustacea — all animals the most perfect in their respective classes. 608. WTiy may we infer that animals are ignorant of the strength which they possess ? Because if animals knew their strength, it would be impossible to harness the horse to a vehicle, or drive an ox to the slaughter. It is the fact of man being able to acquire knowledge, and animals being incapable, which gives the former that power over the latter by which their movements are made subservient to his will. 609. Why are the fiercer preying animals generally solitary in their habits ? Because their nature, but for this instinct, would lead them to exert their combativeness upon each other, and so extinguish iheir own species. NATURAL HISTORY. 203 " So dismal and amazing a devastation, as in all the circum- stances of it, is scarcely to be paralleled in history." — TILLOTSOX. «' That trample down the flowers and brush the dew."— DRYUEN. Because, also, their chief purpose in creation seems to have been t<) act as checks upon the redundancy of other animals, or as scavengers clearing away the offal left upon the earth's surface. To this end their solitariness contributes by spreading their numbers over a wider surface, and with greater equality. 610. Why are carnivorous animals, and the larger quadrupeds, less prolific than other species of the animal kingdom ? If the number of carnivorous animals were excessive, their rapacity would devastate the earth, while the larger quadrupeds would desolate the land by trampling down vegetation, and by the enormous quantity they would consume. 611. It should also be observed that these two classes" have no natural enemies to contend with ; the sanguinary character of the one, and the bulk of the other, securing them from violence. Of herbivorous and other animals essential to man, either as food, or for his other purposes, the increase Is surprising, and exactly proportioned to his necessities and to the means the earth affords for their subsistence ; and this rule applies equally to the wild districts, where the savage tribes, in supporting their existence, check the exuberance of what would otherwise be an evil rather than a blessing. 612. Why do animals usually seize their prey by the throat ? Because their instinct guides them to select some vital part, or at all events some part where death can be caused in the most summary manner. The weasel tribe divide the blood-vessels in the side of the neck, even of animals much larger than themselves, with as much accuracy and precision as if they had carefully studied the anatomical structure of their prey ; and though the larger cats throw themselves on the backs of those animals which they are unable to beat to the ground by the force of their spring, they tear the muscles of tUose parts on which the power of escape of their prey depends, and thus bring it most easily to the ground, when they speedily dispatch it, by lacerating the vital parts. 204 THE REASON WHY I " First take his head, then tell the reason why ; Stand not to find him guilty by your laws : You easier shall with him your quarrel try, Dead than alive, who hath the better cause."— DANIM.. 613. Why do animals hunt amicably in company t and quarrel immediately the pursuit is over ? Because the temporary association is generally occasioned by the pressing calls of hunger, and by an instinct which leads individuals to unite their strength for accomplishing an act of rapine or of bloodshed. While engaged in this pursuit, good fellowship continues ; but when the booty is obtained, all community is dissolved, and they either quarrel over their prey, or at once disperse. 614. Hyenas, wild dogs, wolves, jackals, and the hunting1 leopards, are all striking and familiar instances of such associations. So long as food can be supplied by individual exertion, each appears to provide for itself; but when food becomes ecarce, or a herd of peaceful antelopes are passing on their migration, they instantaneously unite into bands, and commence a simultaneous attack upon their prey. 615. How do we find that the safety of the weakest animals is provided for as effectually as that of the strong ? TLo power of defence given to animals is peculiarly adapted to meet those exegencies to which every species is more especially exposed. The powers of protection are of two kinds : — The first are offensive : these consist in the exertion of force, by which assaults are made by weapons or instruments possessed by the animal itself, and requiring his active exertion in their use ; and such powers may obviously be employed either in offensive or defensive warfare. The horns and the teeth of quadrupeds, the stings and jaws of insects, and the poisonous fangs of reptiles, are of this description. The second class of defences are strictly passive ; they are as effectual in most cases as the first class, but they require no exertion of the animal to bring them into operation. We accordingly find that these protections are given to the weakest and most helpless animals. 616. The power which the toad has of inflating his body to prevent ^e possibility of his being swallowed by snakef } NATURAL HISTORY. 205 The name of reason she obtains by this : But when by reason she the truth has found, And standeth fixed, the Understanding is." — DAVIES. Tht diffusion of an offensive smell by the pole-cat ; The emission of a black fluid by the cuttle-fish; The spiny hides of the hedge-hog and the porcupine, and the stinging hairs -which envelope many caterpillars, are a few out of the innumerable instances of the passive defences spoken of. But there is still another property which does not come under either of these definitions, namely, the astonishing vitality possessed by such beings as are most exposed to injuries, and by which life is not only supported without food for an amazing length of time, bat dislocated portions grow and become new animals. 617. Why have quadruped* feet, of small dimensions in comparison with their bodies ? Because when an animal is supported on four feet, the extent of its base of sustentation, and therefore its stability, cannot be augmented in a sensible degree by extending the magnitude of the feet. In fact, to have done so would have increased their weight and diminished their speed and activity, without conferring upon them any counteracting advantage. The Creator, therefore, while he gave bipeds stability by making them walk on the soles of their feet, gave quadrupeds lightness and swiftness by causing them to walk on their toes. 618. What is the difference between reason and instinct? Reason means the comparison of one thing with another ; and in its more general sense, as applicable to the thoughts and conduct of man, it means the comparison of that which he purposes to do, with that experience in the past, either felt in himself or learned from others, and the result of which comparison is to be the guide of his actions. Instinct, though possessed by man up to a certain point, is the proper badge and characteristic of the lower animals. Taken in its general sense, it means the capacity which is within ; win h borrows nothing from comparison and cannot proftfc by experience ; but acts from the impulse of perfect objects on its organs of .sense ; also is indifferent to, and ignorant olj the past and the future. 206 THE REASON WHY: r But honest instinct comes a volunteer, Sure never to o'ershoot, but just to hit; While still too \vidc or short is human wit." — POPE. The laws which govern reason are moral laws ; instinct is alone under physical influence. A moral law is given to man only because man alone has a moral nature, i.e., a nature distinct from his physical nature. The lower animals have only a physical law, which they strictly fulfil. Man is said to be the only ungrateful being which Grod has created, because, having received a moral nature, he frequently chooses to follow the law of physical nature only : ignoring, or openly disobeying, the law of his moral being. 619. Of instinct we can know nothing further than that it is a name which we give to those movements and actions of anim Is of which we can give no explanation. The word instinct, though we can hardly avoid using it, is never anything else than a subterfuge or our ignorance of the means by which any action of an animal is brought about ; and we may rest assured that natural actions are no more per- formed without means in the unexplained cases, than in the explained ones.* 620. Why will one species of animal allow the young of another species to suckle it ? Because it has been most beautifully and providentially ordered that the process of suckling should afford pleasure to the parent. So that when a dam has been deprived of its own offspring, it derives some amount of gratification from the suckling of another. 621. Cats have been known to suckle hares ; pigs to give nurture to puppies ; and cows to goats. It has even been asserted that human beings, exposed to death in woods by unnatural parents, have been indebted to wild beasts for their nurture, an occurrence which is not a whit more marvellous than animals of one species ' allowing the offspring of a species totally opposed to it in habits and instinct to suckle them. 622. Why does the attachment between young animals and their parents decline when the former arrive at maturity? Because, if the affections were allowed to operate for a longer period, the dispersion of animals, which is as essential as the scattering of the seeds of plants, would be materially checked • Partingtou's " Cyclopaedia." NATURAL HISTORY. 207 O Imitators, servyle beastes, How have your tumultes vyle Full oftcns rasde my collor vp, And oftens made me smyle."— DRANT. There are also physiological reasons, which relate to the health, increase, and purity of the species ; and economical reasons comprehending the means of subsistence. 623. Why is the faculty of imitation in animals sometimes subservient to their necessities? Doubtless, in the wilds of nature, many 'instances of imitation occur unobserved. An animal, unaccustomed to that habit, may, in great extremity, climb a tree in search of prey ; or an herbivorous animal may dig into the earth to find roots. This may arise, either from imitation, or from a latent instinct called into operation only under the promptings of extreme hunger. But there are evidences of animals in the domestic state frequently imitating some action they have witnessed, when extremity compels them to do so. Thus a dog will attempt to turn the handle of a door, and sometimes successfully, when he wishes to obtain egress ; and a cat, seeing a person eating, will extend its paw, as a human being would his hand, for food. 624. The following is a remarkable account of a dog obtaining food by ringing a bell :— At a convent in France, twenty paupers were served with a dinner at a certain hour in the day. A dog belonging to the convent did not fail to be present at this meal to receive the odds and ends which were now and then thrown down to him. The guests, however, were poor and hungry, and of course not very waste- ful ; so that their pensioner did little more than scent the feast, of which- he wouli fain have partaken. The portions were served by a person at the ringing of a bell, and delivered out by what in a religious house is called a tour, which is a machine like the section of a cask, that, by turning round upon a pivot, exhibits whatever is placed upon the converse side without discovering the person who moves it. One day this dog, who had only received a few scraps, waited till the paupers •were all gone, with the rope in his mouth, and rung the bell. This stratagem succeeded. He repeated it the next day, with the same good fortune. At length the cook, finding that twenty-one portions were delivered out instead of twenty, was determined to discover the trick, in doing which he had no great difficulty ; for, lying hidden, noticing the paupers as they came in, in great regularity, for their different portions, and finding that there was no intruder except the dog, he began to suspect the real truth, which he was soon confirmed in when he saw the dog wait with great deliberation till the visitors were all gone, and then pull the bell The matter was related to the community ; and, to reward the do? THE REASON WHY: " What is his creation less Than a capacious reservoir of means Form'd for his use, and ready at his will." — COWPFR. for his h /enuity, he was permitted to ring every day for his dinner, when a mass of broken victuals was purposely served out to him. To illustrate further the use of the imitative faculties under extremities, we have only to adduce the simulation of death, practised by so many species, with intent to weaken the instinctive vigilance of their foes or prey. The fax has been known to personate a defunct carcase, when surprised in a hen-house ; and it has even suffered itself to be carried out by the brush, and thrown upon a dung-heap, whereupon it instantly rose and took to its heels, to the astounding dismay of its human dupe. In like manner, this animal has submitted to be carried for more than a mile, swung over the shoulder, with its head hanging ; till, at length, it effected its release by suddenly biting. The same animal has been known, when hunted to crouch exposed upon a rock of nearly its own colour, in the midst of a river, and so to evade detection by its pursuers ; and we perpetually hear such cases brought forward as decisive proofs of its extreme sagacity. 625. How are the wisdom and goodness of Providence displayed in the relation which subsists between the external organs of an animal, by which it procures its food, and the internal organs by which the food is digested ? This beautiful relation is observable in several species of the animal creation. Birds of prey, by their talons and beaks, are qualified to seize and devour many species, both- of birds and quadrupeds. The construction of the stomach agrees exactly with the form of the members. The gastric juice of a bird of prey, an owl, a falcon, or a kite, act upon the animal fibre alone ; it will not act upon seeds or grasses. . On the other hand, the conformation of the mouth of the sheep or the ox is suited for browsing upon herbage. Nothing about these animals is fitted for the pursuit of living prey. Accordingly it has been found by experiments, tried with perforated balls, that the gastric juice of ruminating animals speedily dissolves vegetables, but makes no impression upon animal substances. 626. How does the structure of the jaw and teeth of various animals indicate the kinds of food upon which they subsist? The form of teeth may easily be understood to indicate whether NATURAL HISTORY 209 " For, ere the beech anrt elm have cast their leaf Deciduous, when now November dark Checks vegetation in the torpid plant, Expos'd to his cold breath, the task begins." — COWPER. they are designed for cutting or grinding. The relation of the jaw, and the muscular forces by which it is moved, requires a closer examination. In herbivorous animals, which have to grind down their food by constant trituration, the jaw is fixed to the skull, so as to allow the former to have a rotatory movement ; but such a movement would be useless to carnivorous animals, where the grinding operation is not required. In carnivorous animals the jaw is locked in the cavity of the skull by ligaments, in the same manner as the parts of a hinge are fixed together. The cavity is deep and elongated, and the articulating surface of the jaw-bone corresponds, so that the joint can have only a hinge-like motion. 627. This is remarkably conspicuous in the eordycles of the lower jaw of the sea- otter. The jaw of the sea-wolf is composed of several pieces, instead of being one entire bone ; and these pieces are connected by ligaments, so that a greater freedom of motion is allowed, and the concussion to the brain arising from the reduction of crabs, muscles, and other shell-fish upon which the animal feeds, is diminished, the jar being broken by being divided over a number of bones. 628. Why do some animals undergo a state of torpor during the 'winter? Because during the winter they cannot produce more heat than is sufficient to raise their temperature from 20° to 26° above the surrounding atmosphere. It follows, therefore, that while in the hottest part of summer their temperature is nearly the same as that of other warm-blooded animals, it falls to a much lower point in the cold season ; and whenever the depression of temperature attains a certain limit, the circulation and respiration decrease in frequency and energy, so that the animal falls into a state of torpor, or lethargic sleep, which continues until the temperature of the atmosphere is sufficiently elevated to re-establish the activity of the "vital functions. 210 THE REASON WHY I " The mi,/ra'ion of birds from a hotter to a colder country, or a c Ider to a hotter, according to the seasons of the year, as their nature is, I know not how to give an account of it, it is so strange and admirable."— RAY. 629. Wliy are certain species of animals destined to perform their functions only periodically ? Because it has been allotted to them to check superfluities and remove nuisances. When vegetation develops its vast powers of reproduction, there issue forth from their winter retreats innumerable creatures that live variously upon the roots, leaves, or seeds. When the vitality of vegetation diminishes, the natural office of these creatures ends ; and they return again to their torpid condition. During the season when animal existence is vigorous, and the destinies of nature are being fulfilled, the great harvest of death strews millions of bodies upon the face of nature* Then the scavengers are busy day and night ; and either devour upon the surface, or bury in the earth, those substances which would other- wise diffuse pestilential influences. 630. Why do some portions of the animal creation migrate? For two reasons : first, the welfare of the migrating animal is promoted by finding milder regions, and a continual supply of food ; second, the blessings of creation are thus di/used, by seasonable visitations of creatures useful to man, to those localities where he stands in need of them. 631. Had the Creator so willed, all these animals might have been organised so as not to require a warmer or colder climate for the breeding or rearing of their young ; but His will was, that some of His best gifts should thus oscillate, as it were, between two points, that the benefit they conferred might be more widely dis- tributed, and not become the sole property of the inhabitants of one climate. Time the all-wise and beneficent Being has so organised certain classes of animals, and circumstanced them, as to be directed annually, by some pressing want, to seek distant climates, and, after a certain period, to return again to their former quarters ; am' that this instinct should be productive of so much good to mankind, ami, at the same time, be necessary, under its piesent circumstances, for the preservatk-iuw propagation of the species of these several animals.* * Partington's " Cyclopaedia." NATURAL HISTORY. 211 " The wisdom of the Deity, as testified in the works of creation, surpasses all idea we have of wisdom, drawn from the highest intellectual operations of the highest class of intelligent beings with whom we are acquainted." — PALKV. 632. How is the wisdom of Providence shown in so constituting the lower animals that they can exist for a long time on a limited supply of air and moisture ? Because animals thus circumstanced would otherwise find it im- possible to exist during the long intervals that many of them are periodically or occasionally enclosed in inaccessible places ; so that when confined in solid rocks, or sealed up in the hearts of trees, so long as the smallest quantity of air or moisture is supplied them, they live for an indefinite period of time. 633. One of the most remarkable accounts of the long duration of the vital prin- ciple in animals is mentioned by Ur. Silliman, who, on the authority of Professor Eaton,.,.of New York, states that the diluvial deposit through which the Erie canal was made, contains ridges of hard compact gravel, and that on cutting through one of these near Rome village, sixteen miles west of Utica, the workmen found several hundreds of live molluscous animals. The workmen fried and ate them. He adds : " I was assured they were taken alive forty-two feet deep hi the deposit. Several of the shells are now before me. The deposit is diluvial. These animals must have been there from the time of the deluge ; for the earth in which they were is too compact for them to have been produced by a succession of generations. These fresh-water clans of three thousand years old precisely resemble the species which now inhabit the fresh water of that district ; therefore the lives of these animals have been greatly prolonged by their exclusion from light and air for more than three thousand years." A toad was buried in a flower-pot for twenty years, and when taken out was found to be healthy and increased in size. That snails can exist for a long period by means of the exclusion of air and the retention of moisture, which they are enabled to accomplish by a sort of door at the aperture of the shell, has been proved by Mr. Simon, who mentions the circumstance of having had one in his cabinet for fifteen years ; and, for aught he knew, it might have been in his father's possession many years before, as it was in his collection of fossils. Speak- ing of this snail, he says it had come out four several tunes, in the presence of different peop»e, each of whom assured him that they saw it. A day or two after this, he brought the identical shell, as he declared, into the presence of several other persons, that they might 'try if the snail would again make its appearance. After the shell had lain ten minutes hi a glass of warm water, the snail began to appear, and in five minutes more they perceived half the body fairly pushed out from the cavity of the shell. It afterwards crawled about, erected its horns, au'l se?med in perfect health. £12 THE REASON WHY": " If chance at length he find a srcensward smooth, And faithful to the foot his spirits rise, Ho cherups hri.sk his ear-erecting steed, And -winds his way with pleasure and with ease." — COWPER. 634. Why are the ears of some animals turned forwards, and those of others backwards? The external ears of beasts of prey, as lions, tigers, and wolves, have their trumpet-part or concavity standing forward, to seize the sounds which are before them — namely, the sounds of the animals which they pursue or watch. The ears of animals of flight are turned backward, to give notice of the approach of an enemy from behind, that he may not steal ' upon them unawares. (See 392.) 635. Why, in animals of great speed,- is the shoulder connected to the trunk by the agency of muscles, and not by a collar-bone ? Because, if animals possessing great speed had been formed with a collar-bone, it could not have withstood the shock from the descent of the whole weight of the animal when thrown forwards ; and even though the structure of the fore legs had been as powerful as the posterior extremities, they would have suffered fracture or dislocation. This beautiful provision not only serves to diminish the shock of descending, but contributes to the elasticity of the anterior extremities. 636. Why are the knee-joints of the hind ley* of most swimming animals turned round, as in a person who is knock-kneed ? Because by tnis mode of articulation the hind legs form a kind of swimming sail ; and, in consequence of this they act more horizontally, and thereby impel the animal forward in the water with more velocity and with less exertion. 637. Animals which are constructed principally for walking on the land make the chief exertion with the fore feet when they swim ; and, therefore, they are sooner fatigued than when they move even faster upon land ; hut quadruped animals having a regular swimming habit, impel themselves chiefly by means of the hind "eet, and on this account they are no more latigued in water than tbay are on Land, NATURAL HISTORY. 213 " Whose snout hath rooted up The fruitful vineyard of the commonwealth." BEAUMONT AND FLETCHEB. The reason of this will be readily understood by those who are aware how mach more easily a boat is pulled by oars nearly on a level with the water than when th« oars have to dip deeply into the water, and are used near the bows. 638. Why ham certain species of animals sharp-pointed snouts ? To enable them to seek their nourishment from the ground. Thus the tapir species, nearly allied to the hog, have their noses much prolonged in front of the mouth, constitut- ing a little trunk, capable of lengthening and shortening itself. The shrews and small insectivorous animals, nearly allied to the shrew, but .formed to swim with ease, and to live at the bottom of burrows hollowed in the banks of rivers, also exhibit a similar conformation. (See 466.) 639. Why is the fur of some animals changed in the winter from a dark to a white colour? Because, although the darker colours absorb heat to a greater degree than the lighter ones, so that dark-coloured clothing is much warmer than light-coloured, where the wearer is exposed to the sun's rays, the radiation of heat is also much greater from dark than from light-coloured surfaces, and consequently the animal heat from within is more completely retained by a white than by a dark covering. The temperature of an animal, therefore, having whita fur, would continue more equable than that of one clothed in darker colours, although the latter would experience a greater degree of warmth when exposed to the sun's rays. Another reason may be that the mottled browns, which form the principal colours of the animals alluded to, although well adapted for their concealment 2 1 4 THE REASON WHY : " Nor with less waste the whiskered vermin race, A countless clan, destroy the lowland cane." — GRAINGER. amongst the brown heaths and fern of the summer and autumn, would be too conspicuous by contrast for the safety of the animals amongst the winter snow. 640. Why are certain quadrupeds — such as the argali (mountain sheep of Armenia), the hare, and the sable, furnished with a mixed coating of hair and wool ? Because, while wool preserves the animal heat in winter, an outer covering of hair is required to throw off moisture ; and without the latter these animals would suffer both from wet, and from the underwood through which they have to force their path. 641. Why is there so much bleating and confusion among sheep after the ewes and lambs have been shorn? After this operation, neither the dams nor the young are able to distinguish one another as before. The embarrassment arises not alone from the loss of the fleece, which may occasion an alteration in their appearance, but from a defect in the odour, by which animals discriminate each individual personally. The confusion is also the greater on account of the strong scent of the tar or other substance wherewith they are newly marked. 642. Why are some species of animals furnished with bristly hairs, called whiskers? Because the skin of the upper lip, from which these hairs grow, is so very sensitive as to feel the slightest bending or touch of any one of those hairs ; and by this means they act as very important instruments in keeping the animal free from contact with obstacles, while it is advancing with its eye fixed intently on its prey. 643. Why is the situation of the nose eminently adapted to its uses in all animals? Being turned downwards in all animals to which smell is important, it receives the ascending effluvia. Being situated neat NATURAL HISTORY. 215 " From forests, fields, from rivers, and from ponds, All that have webs, or cloven-footed ones, To the grand Ark together friendly cume, Whose several species were too l»ng to name."— DBAYTOW. tht mouth, it is ever active and watchful in determining the propel (junlities of food ; and, being located near the eyes, it is instantly directed to objects which they examine, and assists them in discriminating the qualities of objects. 644. How may the species of animals be determined by an inspection of the detached organs ? It is from the correspondence between single characters and general plans of structures, that the nature of the whole animal is determined, from a single fragment of its skeleton, or from one of its teeth. In no animal is the body made up of a number of disconnected parts, united, as it were, at hazard ; for all its organs have a more or less intimate connection with each other, so that there is a kind of harmony amongst them all, and between every part and the entire structure. 645. Thus, the simple mspection of the tooth represented in the accompanying figure, suffices to disclose to the scientific naturalist the following facts regarding the animal to which it belonged. In tha first place, there must have been a bony frame- work, in which this tooth was planted, and which gave support to the rest of the body ; and as this internal framework does not exist in any other animals than those of the vertebrated series, we know that the animal in question had the brain and spinal cord, the complete set of organs of the senses, the red blood, &c., &c., which belong to ths sub-kingdom only. Further, there are certain characters about the roots of this tooth which enable the anatomist to fee 1 certain that it must have been implanted in a deep socket, which is only the case in mammals and reptiles ; and he may further determine from them, that the animal belonged to the former, and that it must have, therefore, possessed the organization which is peculiar to it. Again, by the form of the crown of the tooth, it is easily shown that it was destined to divide animal flesh ; and that it consequently belonged to a carnivorous quadruped. To digest the flesh, the animal must huve had a stomach and intestinal 216 THE REASON WHY: He hath so -well beset his ordinance, That species of thinges and progressions Shullen enduren by successions, And not eterne, withouten any lie."— CHAUCER. canal formed upon a certain plan ; and, in order to obtain its prey, it must have had appropriate organs of locomotion and prehension. Its extremities must have terminated in separate toes, and these must have been armed with clows. The limbs must have been furnished with very powerful muscles, to enable the animal to give chase to its prey, or to spring upon it unawares, and afterwards drag it to Its den. The head, also, must have been connected with the spinal column by ligaments and muscles of great power, attached to derated portions of the vertebrae, in order that it might have the power of lifting the heavy bodies which the animal desired to remove. The lower jaw must have been connected with the upper by a hinge, admitting but a scraper-like action, by which the edges of the cutting teeth were constantly kept sharp ; and the muzzle must not have been very protruberant, otherwise the. strength of the muscles which raise the jaw would be applied at a great disadvantage. The cranial cavity must have been com- paratively large, in order that the size of the brain might correspond with tho degree of vitality which the habits of the animal required. By inferences of this kind, and under the guidance of our knowledge of the forms at present existing, all the leading peculiarities of an animal may be deduced from any characteristic por- tion of it ; for if any part essential to the action of the remainder had been deficient, the animal could not have maintained its existence. 646. We have heard an anecdote related of Cuvier, the great naturalist. Some hair-brained students had determined to play a trick upon him, and to try the strength of his nerves. Accordingly one of them was disguised in a cow's skin, and concealed under a table in the dessecting-roonu At a moment when the Baron was engaged in closely examining some portion of anatomical structure, a loud roar came from beneath the table. The Baron turned round and inquired, " Who's there V A voice replied, " I am the devil, and mean to devour you !" The Baron looked down, and seeing a cloven hoof projecting, calmly proceeded to classify the animal : " Ah ! divided hoof, herbivorous teeth, ruminating stomach ; Class I., Order II., Sub-genus III., Species, Bos taurus — you can't eat flesh T and ho kicked tho discomfited trickster from his hiding-place ! NATURAL HISTORY. 217 For when I see how they do mount on hie, Wavinp their outstretched wing.s with libertie, Then do I think, how bird-like in a cage TMiRROR FOR My life I leade, and grief can never swage."— MAGISTRATES. CLASS II.— AVES. ORDER I.— ACCIPETRES. 647. Why is the first order of birds called accipetres ¥ From the Latin ad and capio to seize. The name has been applied to this order to denote the rapacious character of its members. From the same root we derive accipitrine, as the accipitrine order of birds, or the rapacious order. The name implies takers by force, The accipetres have a hooked bill, the upper mandible near the base being extended on each side beyond the inferior. The genera include the vulture, the falcon or hawk, and the strix or owl, &c. 648. Why do birds of prey buUd their nests upon lofty and barren rocks* Their predatory nature seems to impel them to a species of isolation ; they are the banditti of creation ; and, like them, they affect the wildest retreats from which to issue, and hunt down their prey. An elevated situation gives them a better view of their quarry ; and the barrenness of the soil protects their eggs from the reptiles which would make them their prey. Cliffs overhanging the sea, deep lakes or rivers, afford to them facilities for taking fish, of which the falcon tribe in particular are very fond. 649. Why are the legs and thighs of birds of prey shorter and more robust than those of other species f It is by means of these chiefly that they strike and hold their prey ; the shortness and muscular development of the lower extremities giving greater power to their possessor in the use of the other members. 10 218 THE REASON WHY "Their proud eyes do not see The radiance of my helmet there, whose beames had Instantly Thruste backe, and all these ditches filled with carrion of their flesh, If Agamemnon had been kinder." — CHAPMAX. 650. Those who remember the exhibition a few years since, of a certain dwarf called Hervio Nano— (Harvey Leach) — will have seen a remarkable illustration of this fact. That strangely formed individual, whose legs were not more than eighteen or twenty inches long, but whose arms, head, and chest, were finely developed, contrived with the greatest ease to scramble — somewhat like a lame fly — along the front of a proscenium and across the ceiling of a theatre, by grasping the inequalities of the moulding only. "The Black Dwarf" of Sir Walter Scott was a being thus formed, and was, by the great novelist, admitted to be a mere transcript from the life. 651. Why are, birds of prey generally destitute of the power of song ? The gift of song would be of no advantage to the accipetres ; they generally live in solitary grandeur, or lie concealed under circumstances where musical notes would prove a detriment, as serving to warn off their victims. 652. There would appear to be some connection in this respect between the ruminating animals and the song birds, as distinguished from the carnivorous mammalia and birds of prey. The voice, if any, of ruminants is gentle, and not unpleasing, like that of song-birds ; while that of the predacious tribes of both classes is either disagreeable or terrifying. There is something unamiable, at the very least, about a bird of prey which ill assorts with our ideas of music, and the warblings of the fields and groves. If the gift of melody had been at our disposal we should certainly have decided to withhold it from that species .of being, whose career, however necessary in the scale of creation, is one of terror and rapacity. A song from the vulture — whatever might be the extent of its vocal powers — would be the last thing asked for.* 653. Why are some birds of prey destined to eat carrion only ? Because in doing this they act as scavengers to the countries which they inhabit ; clearing the earth of that carrion which, if suffered to remain, might cause infectious diseases among the people of the country. 654. An instance of the manner in which the carrion eaters perform the operation of devouring dead carcases, in obedience to their instincts, is afforded in the following description given by the Naturalist Wilson:— "A horse had dropped down in the street in convulsions, and dying, it was dragged out to Hampstead* • Partington'a " Cyclopaedia." NATURAL HISTORY. 219 " On his bosom sat Two vultures, dimmer through his carle of fat Into his liver, with their crooked beaks."— CHAPMAN. near Charleston, and skinned. The ground for a hundred yards around it was black with cari ion crows ; many sat on the tops of sheds, fences, and houses within sight ; sixty or eighty on the opposite side of a small run. I counted at one time two hundred and thirty-seven, but I believe there were more, besides several in the air over my head, and at a distance. I ventured cautiously within thirty yards of the carcase, where three or four dogs and twenty or thirty vultures were busy tearing and devouring. Seeing them take no notice I ventured nearer, till I was within ten yards, and sat down on the bank. Still they paid little attention to me. The dogs, being sometimes accidentally flapped with the wings of the vultures, would growl and snap at them, which would occasion them to spring up for a moment, but they immediately gathered in again. I remarked the vultures frequently attack each other, fighting with their claws or heels, striking like a cock, with open wings, and* fixing their claws in each others heads. The females, and I believe the males likewise, made a hissing sound, with open mouth, exactly resembling that produced by thrusting a red-hot poker into water, and frequently a snuffling like a dog clearing his nostrils, as I suppose they were theirs. On observing that they did not heed me I stole so close that my feet were within one yard of the horse's legs, and again sat down. They all slid aloof a few feet ; but, seeing me quiet, they soon returned as before. As they were often disturbed by the dogs, I ordered the latter home ; my voice gave no alarm to the vultures. As soon as the dogs departed, the vultures crowded in such numbers, that I counted at one time thirty-seven on and around the carcase, with several within, so that scarcely an inch of it was visible. Sometimes one would come out with a large piece of the entrails, which in a moment was surrounded by several others, who tore it in fragments, and it soon disappeared. They kept up the hissing occasionally. Some of them, having their wholij legs and heads covered with blood, presented a most savage aspect. Still, as the dogs advanced, I would order them away, which seemed to gratify the vultures; and one would pursue another to within a foot or two of the spot where I was sitting. Sometimes I observed them stretching their neck along the ground, as if to press the food downwards." 655. Why is the vulture a cowardly bird, while the eagle is full of courage ? Because, while a character of fearlessness and daring are proper and necessary for the eagle, whose instinct leads him to attack live, and often large animals, it is in no way required in the case of the vulture, contented as he is to feed upon carrion, and seldom attacks his prey, until weakness or death has rendered it unresisting. 556. There is a variety of the vulture tribe to which these remarks do not strictly apply. The bearded vulture (Gypcetus barbatua) partakes somewhat of the nature THE REASON WHY 1 Ye dregs of baseness, vultures amongst men, That tyre upon the hearts of generous spirits." BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER. and character of the eagle. Its appearance is less unpleasing than that of the other vultures. It is nicer in its food — only eating offal when it can procure nothing better. It is rather courageous ; but is less widely distributed than the common vulture— the scavengers of creation. The bearded vulture is limited to a few countries. 657. Why are the head and neck of vultures denuded of feathers ? Because, by this provision^ these parts are prevented from being rendered foul by the carrion with which they come in contact when the vulture is glutting itself with food. Instinct also guides the vulture to fre- quently cleanse its plumage- 658. Why does the vulture, whose food is only met with upon the ground, soar to such a height as to be lost to view ? The prey of this bird being offall, or carrion, it is of necessity sparely and widely scattered. The high flight of the vulture, joined with its wondrous powers of scent and vision, enable it to take in a very wide extent of country, and the more readily to obtain the object of its search. 659. It rises higher and higher till its enormous bulk is lost to human view, but though beyond the sphere of man's vision t he telescopic eye of the bird is at work. Tho moment any animal sinks to earth in death, the distant vulture detects it. When the hunter brings down some large quadruped beyond his powers < to remove, and leaves it to obtain assistance, on his return, however »peedy, he finds it surrounded with a band of vultures, where not one was to bo H0oti a quarter of an hour before. NATURAL HISTORY. 22] Truth, which itself is liarht, does darkness shun, And the true eaglet safely dares the sun." — DRYDEN. 600. Why is the sarcoramphus, or king vulture, so called? From the circumstance frequently observed by naturalists, that all other species of vultures defer to it, giving it the preference ; and, in the case where a number of them have alighted upon a carcase, standing quietly by until "his majesty" has gorged himself. 6G1. This is particularly related by Mr. Edwards in his " Voyage up the Amazon." That traveller accounts for the fact by stating that the king vulture is greatly superior to every other species, both in strength and courage. It has a less repulsive appearance, and when caught has. been tamed and domesticated. 662. Why is the eagle denominated the king of birds ? Because it not only possesses great size, strength, and courage, but is in the habit of soaring to a great height in the sky ; and of frequenting localities which have a great deal of wild grandeur and sublimity about them. 663. // hy have flying eagles little power of attacking prey that lie immediately under them ? Because the eagle cannot drop perpendicularly upon its prey, but always does so in an oblique curve, by means of which it both delivers its whole impetus upon the prey, and prevents unpleasant collision with the ground. 664. The following description of the white-headed eagle is given by Audubon, the celebrated naturalist • — " The eagle is seen perched, in an erect attitude, on the highest summit of the tallest tree, by the margin of the broad stream ; his glistening but stern eye looks over the vast expanse. He listens attentively to every sound that comes to his quick ear from afar, glancing now and then on the earth beneath, lest even the light tread of the fawn should pass unheard; his mate is perched on the opposite side, and should all be tranquil and silent, warns him by a cry to continue patient. At this well-known call the male partly opens his broad wings, inclines his body a little downwards, and answers to her voice in tones Dot unlike the laugh of a maniac. The next moment he resumes his erect attitude, and again all around is silent. Ducks of many species, the teal, the widgeon, the mallard, and others, are seen passing with great rapidity, and following the course of the current; but the eagle heeds them not; they are at that tune beneath his notice. The next moment, however, the wild, trumpet-like sound of a yet distant, but approaching swan is heard. A shriek from the female eagle comes across the stream, for she is as fully alert as her mate. The latter suddenly shakes 222 THE REASON WHY '. " We think tlie raule-icinged pride Of sky-aspiring and ambitious thoughts, With rival-hating envy, set you on To wake our peace." - SHAKSPEKE. the whole of his body, and with a few touches of his bill, aided by the action of his cuticular muscles, arranges his plumage in an instant. The snow-white bird is now in sigut, her long neck is stretched forward ; her eye is on the watch, vigilant as that of her enemy ; her large wings seem with difficulty to support the weight of 1m body, although they flap incessantly. So irksome do her exertions seem, that her very legs are spread beneath her tail to aid her in her flight. She approaches, however. The eagle has marked her for his prey. As the swan is passing the dreaded pair, the male bird starts from his perch, in full preparation for the chase, with an awful scream, that to the swan's ear brings more terror than the report of a large duck-gun. " Now is the moment to witness the display of the eagle's powers. He glides through the air like a falling star, and, like a flash of lightning, comes upon the timorous quarry, which now, in agony and despair, seeks, by various manoeuvres, to elude the grasp of his cruel talons. It mounts, doubles, and would willingly plunge into toe stream, were it not prevented by the eagle, which, long possessed of the knowledge that by such a stratagem the swan might escape him, forces it to remain in the air by striking it with his talons from beneath. The hope of escape is soon given up by the swan. It has already become much weakened, and its strength fails at the sight of the courage and" swiftness of its antagonist. Its last gasp is about to escape, when the ferocious eagle strikes with his talons the under- side of its wing, and with irresistible power forces the bird to fall in a slanting direction upon the nearest shore. " It is then that the cruel spirit of this dreaded enemy of the feathered race may be seen ; whilst exulting over his prey, he for the first time breathes with ease. He presses down his powerful feet, and drives his sharp claws deeper than ever into the heart of the dying swan. He shrieks with delight as he feels the last convulsions of his prey, which has now sunk under his unceasing efforts to render death as painfully felt as it can possibly be. The female has watched every movement of her mate ; and if she did not assist him in capturing the swan, it was not from want of will, but merely that she felt full assurance that the power and courage of her lord were quite sufficient for the deed. She now sails to the spot where he eagerly waits her, and, when she has arrived, they together turn the breast of the luckless swan upwards, and fill themselves with gore " 665. Why are an eagle and a fish sometimes found dead, and tightly fastened together on the sea-shore ? Because the bird on these occasions has struck its talons with such force into its prey that it cannot extricate them ; and the weight of the fish proving too heavy, the eagle is dragged down under the waves of the sea, and thus drowned. NATURAL, HISTORY. 223 J£i/t'-tHH(/ht how thou dost me deliver My endl'esse lid and comfort-giver." — SIR P. SIDNEY. 666. Why are the eyes of eagles furnished with nictating membranes ? Because sight is the chief sense upon which eagles depend for their supply of food ; and in order to retain this organ as perfect as possible, nature has accommodated it with this provision, which not only tends to keep the eyes clean, but also shields them from strong light when in sunny altitudes, and renders them more sensitive of that reflected from below. 667. The nictating membrane, which has already been repeatedly mentioned, is a most curious apparatus, with which animals of very opposite natures are endowed, but all of which have their eyes liable to certain conditions that render the pro- tection afforded by this curious organ absolutely essential. The organ consists of a thin semi-transparent membrane, which, when at rest, lies in the inner corner of the eye, folded up like a drawn cu>-taia. By the combined action of two muscles, it is capable of being drawn out, s>o us to cover the whole front of the eye-ball, like a curtain , and its own elasticity restores it to the corner in which it previously rested. The action of this beautiful membrane is very instantaneous. Wherevei there are zoological gardens, it may- be observed with great effect in the eyes of tht Great South American Eagte. This membrane is also found in the eyes of most quadrupeds, birds, and fishes , but its development and use are beautifully proportioned to the necessities of each animal. It is largely developed, as already stated, in those birds of prey which seek sunny altitudes, and are said to " gaze at the sun." When thus apparently gazing upward from their rocky heights, the membrane is probably drawn, to modify the force of the intense rays. It is found, also, in the camel and the ostrich, because those aninv J5, being frequenters of the sandy deserts, are liable to have their eyes injured y clouds of sand. Many animals that obtain their food by pushing their heads among c ranches of trees, bushes, rushes, and grass, are also provided with it. .5 .8 also found in fishes, which, having no eye-lids, because moisture is abun- dantly supplied to their eyes by the element in which they live, yet need an occasional protection from sea-clouds of sand, and drifting marine vegetation ; and also from excess of light, when they approach the surface, quitting the depths where the light is greatly modified. Man has no such membrane, because he has no occasion to thrust his head into places which endanger his eyes ; and when, in pursuit of sport, he enters the woods and jungles, he is able, by the momentary application of his hands, to guard LJ eyes from Injury. 224 THE REASON WHY: " With tvingy speed outstrip the eastern wind, And leave the breezes of the mom behind." — ADDISON. 668. Why do eagles drive away their young? Because, as these birds subsist by prey, they would soon produce a famine among their race did many of them dwell in the same district. Therefore, the old birds drive away their young at a certain age from their boundaries. 669. Why are the wings of eagles broad, and hollow in their under surfaces? Because the eagle, when in search of its prey, floats in the air until its keen eye discovers that of which it is in quest ; by this peculiarity of structure, therefore, the wings can take a more powerful hold on the air, and the whole body is enabled to float with little labour. 670. Why are the wings of the eagle, though powerful, shorter than those of the falcon, both being birds of prey ? Because falcons catch their prey while on the wing, and therefore have the faculty of rapid and uninterrupted flight ; but the eagle strikes its victim to the ground, or the waters, and afterwards rises \vith it, thus requiring strengthin a greater degree than rapidity. 671. Why, in the eye of the falcon, crane, and other birds of pieioing sight, has the -flattened optie nerve one of its branches folded ir*t/> numerous plaits ? By this arrangement, the extent of surface is considerably augmented, and the powers of vision proportionally increased. 672. Why are the eyes of birds and animals who seek their prey by night, or in the dark, larger than those of other animals ? Because the large eye of the nocturnal animal admitting more light, and taking in a wider field of view than a small one, enable* the animal to find the object of its search more readily. NATURAL HISTORY. 225 " It was the owl that shriek'd, the fatal bellman, which gives the stern'st good night." — SIIAKSPKUE. 673. Animals that depend chiefly upon the eye, and especially if they be feoders in the night, or in places to which little light can come, invariably have the eyes very large. This is the case with owls, and other nocturnal birds. The same law is observed even in connexion with the inhabitants of the sea. The surface fishet usually have the eyes small; and they get gradually larger, till, when we come to those which inhabit the depths, and yet are active, feeding upon other fishes, their eyes are very large — of which we have an example in the star-gazers. 674. Why are the eyes of nocturnal birds placed nearer to each other than the eyes of birds which fly by day ? Because, with nocturnal birds, the design is that they should have the light concentrated in front of them, in order that they may avoid flying against obstacles, which, under a different arrangement, they would inevitably do in the darkness of the night. But in birds that fly by day, their range being of greater extent, it is intended to render their vision effective over as great an area as possible, that they may command the expanse around them. 675. Why has the eye of the owl and other nocturnal birds a shining substance deposited at the bottom of thr, eyeball ? Because this substance, by reflecting the ray. of light, endows the eye with power to distinguish objects in th? dark. 676. IVTiy are owls enabled to turn their heads r^und in almost a complete circle without moving their bodies ? The owl has been gifted with this capability in order to compensate for the absence of motion in the eye, the globe of which is immoveably fixed in its socket by a strong Clastic hard cartilaginous case, in form of a truncated cone. 677. Why is the head of the owl so disproportionately large ? This is partly duo to the looseness of the plumage by which it is covered and is further caused by the existence, between t'^e j^re* 10* 22(5 THE REASON WHY I " Ye solemn warblers of the gloomy night, That rest in lightning— blasted oaks the day, Thro' the black mantles take your slow-pac'd flight, Kending the silent wood with shrieking lay." — CUATTERTON. and outer tables (or bony layers) of the skull, of a number of large cells, which communicate with the organ of hearing, and render that sense more acute. 678. We find in owls an external ear, or conch, which exists in no other birds ; this is concealed by the feathers, which are arranged in a sort of hollow cone around it, and, in some species, it is covered with a sort of lid, which the bird has the power of opening or closing at pleasure. 679. Wliy do owls possess feeble powers of flight ? Because they are not intended to obtain their prey by swiftness of pursuit, but by the stealthiness of their approach ; and the remarkable powers of other functions are therefore counterbalanced by the comparative incapacity of this particular one. 680. From the nature of their food, which is chiefly the different species of mice and other small and destructive quadrupeds, of which they capture vast numbers, owls may be regarded as the most serviceable of wild birds ; and those species which are of the greatest use are so far from timid or retiring in their manner, that they -esort to farm-yards, barns, and other places, and perform their services even iu spite of the persecutions which they meet with from the thoughtless. 681. Why is the plumage of nocturnal birds of prey tapered off to a fine and soft point ? Because this structure enables them to glide noiselessly through the air, and even among the leaves and sprays of the thick forests, without disturbing their prey. 682. Why are, the wings of the serpent-cater, or secretary bird, tipped with hard points ? Because in attacking serpents, it covers its breast with one wing as a shield, to protect itself from the bite of the reptile, and strikes at his victim with the other — the two wings thus acting as a shield and spear. Then, after breaking the cranium with its beak, the NATURAL HISTORf. 227 " The hosts of birds, that win.? the liquid air Perch'd in the boughs, had nightly lodgings there." — DRYDEW. bird devours the serpent. This is the manner in which large and venomous serpents are killed ; but the bird frequently swallows non-venomous snakes alive. 683. The secretary bird destroys serpents, rats, and vermin, and is on that account much esteemed in the southern parts of Africa, which abounds with venomous serpents, snakes, scorpions, and noxious reptiles, also with lizards of many descriptions ; the land-tortoise, grylloe, or locusts, in variety, abundance, and depredation equalling their destructive hosts in other countries. Barrow relates a very curious circumstance respecting living serpents in the stomach of one of thest birds after death. An English gentleman, who held an official situation at the Cape, being out on a shooting party, killed a secretary bird, which he carried home with the intention of having an accurate drawing made from it. He threw it on the floor of the balcony near the house, when, after it had remained some time, and been examined and tossed about, one of the company observed a large snake pushing open the beak, out of which he speedily crawled in perfect vigour, and free from any injury. On the supposition that others might be in the stomach, the bird was suspended by the legs, and presently a second made its appearence, as large and as lively as the first. The bird was afterwards open, when the stomach was found to contain seven dead snakes, with a half-digested mass of lizards, scorpions, scolopendne, centipedes, and beetles. ORDER II.-INCESSORES. 684. Why are the incessores so named f From their classification as perching birds : the word incessores being derived from insideo, to lie in ambush ; indicating that the proper habitat of the order, with its sub-orders, is a bush or tree. 685. They are also called passcres or passerine birds, from passer, "a sparrow," to which bird the greater number of incessores bear a strong resemblance. In all the true incessorial birds, the toes are three before and one behind. The adaptation of the foot to grasping or perching is evident from the situation of the hinder toe, which is invariably placed on the same level with those in front, and by which they are distinguished from the rasores (scrapers) and \llatores (waders). The toes are slender, flexible, and of moderate length; the foot oi the canary affords a very good example. The incessore» on the wing ; th«ir legs are therefore much less developed than tbose 228 THE REASON WHY I " Better's the place, though homely and obscure, Where we repose in safety and secure Than where great birds with lordly talons sieze, Not what they ought, but what their fancies please." — DRAYTON. organs. The male bird surpasses the female in size, plumage, and song; they live in pairs, and construct their nests in bushes, trees, &c., with wonderful art. The feet of birds present very distinctive marks for observation. In most species the toes are four in number, and in the majority of these three are directed forward, and one turned back. This is the case with the eagle, 1, and falcon, 2; the toes in these and other birds of prey being pointed with long, curved, and sharp talons. The woodpecker has two forward and two backward toes, 3 ; so also has the parrot. The night-jar has tlrree forward toes, one of which is extended to a considerable length, 4. The swift has all toes forward, 5 ; it clings with them to walls and cliffs. Larks have the backward claw long and slender, 6. The ostrich has only two toes 7 ; Domestic fowls, and others of the same the ca * the rude protection of the thorn Commit their feeble offspring." — THOMSON. xxvxxvxyx^vvv^Nxvx^vx^^N/x/vfx/x/vrvNxvvvxv/vvr* 694. Why is the cat-bird so named? From its voice, which closely resembles at times the mewing of a young cat. 695. Wilson, the American ornithologist, says : — " In spring and summer, on approaching thickets, or brambles, the first salutation you receive is from the cat- bird ; and a stranger unacquainted with its note would instantly conclude that some vagrant orphan kitten had got bewildered among the briars, and wanted assistance ; so exactly does the call of the bird resemble the voice of that animal." Other circum- stances lend a claim to the title. The cat-bird is more familiar with man than any other of the passerine order : building its nest in gardens, and courting the familiarity of its owner, whom he salutes as he approaches. 696. Why is the tailor-bird so named ? From a remarkable habit of sewing leaves together with threads or veg3table fibres in the construction of its nest. 697. When the tailor-bird has selected a branch for the site of its nest, it procures a dead leaf, which it sews on to one still pendent tad Hving ; thus a pocket or bag is made, within which its nest is arranged. The thread used by the tailor-bird has been sometimes found actually knotted at the end. Colonel Sykes has described the nest of an Indian variety of this bird with great minutenesjj He states that the nest thus secured is safe from the depredations of reptiles and monkeys. 698. Why does the wren make several nests, and then leave them when nearly finished, completing and using only one ? It has been supposed by some that these are the work of the male bird during the incubation of the female, who labours thus for the sake of occupation. Other naturalists conjecture that these are deceptive nests, calculated to lead to the supposition that the birds have accomplished their task and retired ; and, therefore, that furthel search is useless. 232 THE REASON WHY " Among the dwellings framed by birds In field or forest with nice care, Is none that with the little wren's In snugness may compare." — WORDSWORI 699. Why is the material composing the exterior of the wrt.tt't nest varied according to the colour of the substance against which the nest is built ? Because by this means the nest is rendered undistinguishable from the surrounding objects, and thus best answers the purposes of concealment. If the nest is placed amongst ivy, it is usually constructed of green moss ; but if erected contiguous to some light- coloured branches, it will then be formed of grey lichens. 700. Beautiful and elaborate is the structure of this tenement, which is generally placed in the middle of a bush, whose whole contracted stems and branches are covered with tufts of many-coloured lichens. To these branches it is not only so assimilated as to seem of natural growth, but is so firmly connected as to render its disengagement impossible, unless by destroying its form and aspect. To obtain if perfect, the branches must be cut away, with the nest undisturbed. Other site*- are occasionally chosen, but in every instance the nest is so artfully hidden as to elude a casual glance. The art of concocting nests so as to protect them from depredation appears to be perfectly well understood by some species of birds. No British bird conceals its nest more effectually than the water ouzel, a bird common along our trout streams, especially where they wind through rock-girt dales and glens. The nest of this bird may be sometimes dis- covered in the fissure of a low jutting crag, or block of stone, projecting over the rushing and bubbling current, some- times in a crevice on the face of a rock, over which tumbles a cascade, the spray throwing a veil around the spot ; some- times between the rude stones of a ruined bridge, or of a tenantless and dila- pidated water-mill long since deserted. Wherever it is situated, the nest blends undistinguishably with the delicate minute ferns, the moss and lichen, which fill up every chink, peep from every fissure, and give a picturesque t ->ne of mingled tints to the humid face of the grey limestone. NATURAL HISTORY. 233 " Half afraid, the rubin first Against the -window beats ; then brisk, alights On the warm hearth ; then hopping o'er the floor, Eyes all the smiling family askance." — THOMSON. /v*v^v^^v^^yv\yv\xv^xxr%xv*vv^y\^y\^yN^^x^vvv%^^^xvvvN*^^y%^^^*\xsrf-vv%* The nest itself is of a large size, and of a domed figure, with a small aperture on it* side. This aperture, from the nature of the materials of which the structure is composed, yields to the passage of the bird, and then closes so as to be scarcely discernable. Externally, the nest consists of interwoven mosses and lichens, having an internal lining of dried vegetable fibres. Of a similar character as to details, but differing in its site, is the nest of the long-tailed titmouse. • 701. Why is the redbreast a solitary bird? Because, not being migratory, but remaining in the same neighbourhoods the whole year round, an instinct teaches it that a sufficient supply of food is better secured by individual than by gregarious search. 702. The redbreast is very attentive to its mate and rising brood, but in order, it would seem, to enforce the character of separativeness upon its species, lives in a constant state of hostility with its own tribe. The ancient writers were aware of this peculiarity of the redbreast, hence the line— " A bush contains but one robin." 703. Why is the robin the latest bird in retiring in the evening ? Because it possesses large strong eyes, which adapt themselves to the weakest rays of light. This bird lives partly upon worms, and is, therefore, enabled to catch those that venture forth at dusk. 704. Why are robins called autumnal songsters, although they sing throughout all the year ? Because in the spring and summer, when birds generally warble, the voice of the robin is drowned in the general chorus , but in the autumn, when most birds have ceased to sing, the song of the robin becomes more remarkable. Besides, many of the robins that sing in the autumn are the male redbreasts of tLe same year, which increase the number of warblers.* * White's " Sclbourne." THE REASON WHY : " The thrush And woodlark, o'er the kind-contending throng1 Superior heard, run thro' the sweetest length of notes." THOMSON. 705. Why lias the wren been associated in nursery literature vrith the redbreast? The habits of the wren being very similar to those of the robin, its anti-migratory character, its familiar bearing towards man, and particularly its practice of paying him an annual wintei1 visit, may have led to this association. 706. The tiny fairy-like form of the wren would also, with children, render it an appropriate consort for the smart vivacious " robin." The loves and woes of the Batter in connection with "jenny wren" are, however, too precious a legacy for the mind of childhood for science rudely to interfere with. 707. Why do wagtails and other birds frequently congregate about the feet of cows when tJiose animals are feeding in moist low pastures ? They do this for the purpose of availing themselves of the flies which settle on the animals' legs, and also to pick up the worms and larvae that are roused by the trampling of the cows' feet 708. Why do missel thrushes at times prefer building their nests near house and in frequented garden walks? Because the magpies destroy Hit broods of missel thrushes whenever they can make their way to them, so that the latter build in the neighbourhood of frequented places by way of protection. The favourite haunt of the missel thrush is an orchard, and orchards are generally in the neighbourhood of human habitations, and of these magpies are shy. 709. How is the intelligence of the thrush manifested by its manner of procuring food ? When a thrush settles upon a lawn moistened with dew or rain, he at first stands motionless, as if undetermined how he sh;ill proceed. Suddenly he bends his head on one side, as if in the act NATURAL HISTORY. 235 " Who but the swallow triumphs now alone ? The canopy of h .-aven is all her own : Her youthful offspring to their haunts repair, And glide along in glades, and skim in air." — DRYDEX. of listening, his beak almost touches the ground, and he draws back his head as if to make a determined peck. Again he pauses and listens ; hops, perhaps, once or twice, scarcely moving his position, and pecks smartly on the sod, then once more stands motionless. After a moment's pause, appearing to have ascertained that all is fight, he pecks away assiduously, and soon draws forth a worm, which his keen sense of hearing had informed him was not far off, and which his hops and previous peckings had driven to the surface to escape the approach of what the worm apprehended, from the manner of the pecking, was an under-ground enemy. 710. Wliy have the thrush, the golden-crested wren, and some other birds the front toes fastened by a thin skin in contradistinc- tion, birds -which have their toes quite separated from each other ? Because the birds named rest chiefly upon light bushes, and this union of the two toes gives the foot a stronger foundation for clasping the slender twigs than loose toes could do. Sub-order II. — Fissirostree. 711. Why are the fissirostres so designated? Because these birds are distinguished by the wideness of their gape, hence they are called gapers ; the word is derived fromfindo, to " divide," and rostrum, a " beak." The swallow is the type of the species, hence its name. 712. Why are swifts, swallows, and martins appointed to their different ranges of elevation when on the wing ? The intention is, doubtless, to clear the air in some degree of its over-abundance of living swarms. Very high in the atmosphere, the fewest flies are to be found: there the rapid swift is stationed. The chimney swallows take a lower region, and fly more slowly, for 23(5 THE REASON WHY: " The breezy call of incense breathing morn, The swallow twittering from the straw-built shed, The cock's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn, No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed." — QUAY. in their appointed track there are more insects to be met with. The house martin, flying slower still, catches those insects which, except when rain is near, move along at a height of from fifteen to forty feet above the ground. The sand martin has his post still lower down, for he usually skims after gnats and other flies just over low flat grounds. Thus, each bird accomplishing its work at a different altitude, their united efforts clear the air of insects which would otherwise be injurious to vegetation, and annoying to animals. 713. Why do the habits of swallows peculiarly adapt those birds to migration ? Because their exercise renders long flights endurable ; and the capability of sustaining them- selves in the air for fourteen or sixteen hours together in search of food, renders these distant journeys less fatiguing than they would be to birds of inactive habits. 714. Why are the holes made by swallows nearly as circular as though they had been planned with a pair of compasses ? Because, when the swallow is constructing its nest, it perches on the circumference with its claws, and worlcs with its bill from the centre outwards ; a radius is thus formed by a part of the bird's ^ody, whieh is subject to little variation. 715. Why do the mandibles of sivallows open further back than in most other birds ? Because, with this bird, the food is caught when flying, which requires a peculiar construction of the mouth, producing a large gape, in which the insects are caught, as in a net. NATURAL HISTORY. 237 With these the martin readily concurred, A church begot, u.nd church- believing; bird; Of little body, but of lofty mind, Round belly'd for a dignity design'd. — DRYDEN. 716. How is a swallow enabled to build its nest on a perpendicular wall where there is no projection underneath ? The bird partly clings with its claws, and partly supports itself by strongly inclining its tail against the wall, making that a fulcrum, and, thus steadied, it works, and plasters the materials into the face of the brick or stone. 0 ^ 717. Why do martins and swallows prefer to build their nests near to and within the habitations of man? These tribes, living almost entirely upon insects, it is most probable that such localities afford them, during their summer residence, the most abundant supply of food. 718. Doubtless birds understand who are their friends ; the swallows, swifts, and martins have ever been favoured by man. Even the savage Indian welcomes them, and provides a receptacle for their nests. The Chectaws and Chicasaws cut off all the top branches from a sapling near their cabins, leaving the prongs a foot or two in length, on each of which they hang a gourd or calabosh, properly hollowed out, for their convenience ; and the negroes upon the banks of the Mississippi provide similarly for them. The reason why swallows and martins have always been protected by man, is probably because they are inveterate foes to crows, hawks, and eagles. Although so small in size, they vigorously attack these depredators, and seldom fail to come off victorious. Of course, the swallow is moved to this degree of combativeness in defence of its nest and brood ; but, as a result, he, and his friend the martin, have been from time immemorial recognised as excellent guardians of the poultry yard, 719. Why is the esculent swallow so called? Because both the bird and its nest form a favourite fool in Java, Japan, and China. THE REASON WHY : " The swiff acttmlly performs what has been in these enlightened times disproved of the bird of Paradise ; except the small time it take- in sleeping, and what H devotes to incubation, every other action is done on the wing." — PENNANT. 720. The edible birds' nest of the extreme east of Asia have given rise to much speculation, and their composition is still a matter of doubt. They are found attached to the sides of cliffs, and the roofs of caverns opening upon the sea-coasts. But whether their substance; is derived from the gastric glands of the swallows, or collected by the latter from the sea-shore, or elsewhere, it is impossible to say — authorities being equally divided upon the point." In outward appearance, the esculent swallow's nest resembles that of the chimney swallow, being concave, shallow, and lined with feathers ; but the crust, or shell, instead of being made of clay is something in appearance like the fine manna of commerce, or isinglass. Fine filaments appear to be cemented together by a transparent viscous matter, not unlike what is left by the sea upon stones alternately covered by the tide, or those gelatinous animal substances found floating upon every coast.* About twenty-seven thousand pounds weight are annually exported from Java, and about thirty thousand tons of Chinese shipping are engaged in the traffic. The danger attendant upon the collecting of the nests in the awful caverns is described as being imminent in the extreme. 721. Why does the swift rarely alight on level ground? Because, owing to the extreme shortness of the feet, and the disproportionate length of the wings, the bird cannot rise from a fiat surface,, since its body is not sufficiently elevated to admit of the downward stroke of the wings. Whenever the swift does alight, therefore, it is always in such places as present a brink or declivity, from the edge of which it can launch itself. 722. How do swifts, which seldom alight on the ground, gather the materials for their nests ? It has been conjectured that swifts gather the materials by raising them as they glance along the ground, in the same way that they drink by skimming over the surface of the water. Others suppose that these birds catch the substances in the air as they are carried up by the wind. Whilst the more common and generally received opinion is, that the materials are purloined from the nests of sparrows and swallows. 723. This latter surmise is corroborated by several circumstances : first, the swift's nest consists of nearly the same substances as the sparrows; secondly, we know that swifts enter sometimes into the nests of small birds, which w« may suppose * Sir G. Staunton. NATURAL HISTORY. " Ah ! would thou know'st how much it better were To 'bide among the simple fisher-swaines ; No shrieking owl, no night-jar lodgeth here, Nor is our simple pleasure mixed with pains." — P. FLETCHER. they do for the sake of pillaging the materials. With regard to the moss whicn they employ, it is in very small quantity, and they may gather it with their little claws, which are very strong, from trees, on which they can clamber, in the hollows c f which they sometimes breed. Of seven nests found under the head of a church porch, fifteen feet from the ground, there were only three which had a regular cup-shape, and of which the materials were more or less interwoven, and •with grtater order than usual in sparrows' nests ; they had also more moss and fewer fe athers, and were in general less bulky. The best formed of all weigbca two ounces and a half; and the largest, five or six times more than the smallest. 724. Why is it said, when may be expected ? sivallows fly high, fwe weather Because swallows follow flies and gnats, and these delight in Urarm air ; and as warm air is lighter, and usually moister than cold air, when the warm strata of air are high, there is less change of moisture being thrown down from them by the mixture with cold air. But when the warm and moist air is close to the surface, the flies and swallows fly low, and it is almost certain that, as the cold air flows down into it, a deposition of water will take place. 725. Why is the mouth of the goat-sucker, or night-jar, furnished with long bristly hairs? These birds pursue their insect prey in the night, for which purpose their eyes are peculiarly adapted. When, however, they have captured an insect, their eyes are of no further avail, and the long bristles then act as fed&rSt enabling the bird more securely to ensure its prey, and to prevent all possibility of escape. 240 THE REASON WHY: " His plumes were inky black, of vast extent ; His hooky claws on spoil and ravine bent." — Ilooiat. Sub-order III. — Conirostres. 726. Why it the sub-order conirostres so termed? From conus, a cone, and rostrum, a beaJc, importing that birds of this sub-order have a bill more or less conical, in shape. 727. The Conirostres are miscellaneous feeders ; but they differ s« much in their character and habits, that no one species can be selected as properly descriptive of the whole tribe. The texture of their bills is firm, and capable of bruising hard substances — such as seeds — with tough coats ; and also for digging or boring into the ground in quest of earth-insects, or of albuminous roots. 728. Why are the heads of birds of this sub-order large in proportion to the size of their bodies ? Because the muscles which move the bill are more powerful, and consequently larger, than in the case of birds which feed exclusively upon insects. 729. Many of the conirostres are voracious, and somewhat gross in their feeding. They eat all manner of carrion and garbage, thus performing a highly useful service to man ; they have no great objection to kill any animal which they can master, especially if they find it in a sick or weakly condition. Some of them occasionally hawk after small birds on the wing, but it is not a general habit with them : they proceed by stealthiness and craft rather than by daring, and in general attack only that which they can take at a disadvantage. They are also plunderers of the nests of other birds. 730. How is the bill of the raven characterised ? The structure of its bill is intermediate between those of the vultures, which feed chiefly upon carrion, and the woodpeckers and analogous species, which obtain their food by digging or thrusting into crevices in the barks of trees and fissures of rocks. It is inlaying and straight, and can inflict a severe wound by thrusting ; it is slightly hooked at the tip, so that it can keep a firm hold, while the bird rips and tears by the motions of the neck ; and as it is long, the snap of the point is very sharp, from the rapicHty of the motion. NATURAL HISTORY. 241 And the hoarse raven on the blasted bough, By croaking from the left presaged the coming blow." — DRYDEN. 731. The raven, though not very numerous in any place, and though dwelling in solitude, pairing for life, and not very prolific, is one of the most generally dis- tributed of birds. Almost every other species has some country which it can claim to a considerable extent as its own ; and even though it is migrant, and passes the different seasons in places some thousands of miles asunder, it returns with the season, not only to the same latitude, and to the same land, but often to the very same spot. The raven is no migrant, except in shifting a little with the seasons, as the supply of food varies, but never quitting the same district ; and yet there is no country in which the raven is not found native. The margin of the desert, of the jungle, or of the forest, in the hottest climates, — the heights of alternate cliff and eopse in temperate climates, or the rocks and heaths, and even the lichen-clad margins of the inhabited regions near the poles, are all equally the abode of the raven. Let the sun blaze, the wind blow, the rain pelt, or the snow drive, with ever so much intensity, his dusky wing, or firmly-set foot, is in its element, and tho wreck of nature to others proves to him a season of plenty. 732. Why is the raven termed the "herald of the year?" Because, as early as the latter part of January, if the weather be mild, these birds may be seen on the alert, looking into tfw state of their nests, and making other preparations for the spring. 733. Why is the raven commonly associated with sickness, misfortune, and other human ills? Because his black plumage, discordant croaking cry, and wild and funeral aspect, favour the superstitious feelings which arise amongst ignorant persons. 734. It is said that the southern aborigines invoke the raven for those who are sick, mimicking his voice ; and the natives of Missouri, assuming black as their emblem of war, decorate themselves on those occasions with the plumes of this dark bird. But all the knowledge of the future, or interest in destiny, possessed by the raven, like that of other inhabitants of the air, is bounded by an instinctive feeling of the changes which are about to happen in the atmosphere, and which he has the faculty of announcing by certain cries and actions produced by these external impressions. In the southern provinces of Sweden, as Linneus remarks, when the sky is serene, the raven flies very high, and utters a hollow sound, like the word clong, which is heard at a distance. Sometimes he has been seen in the midst of a thunder-storm, amid electric fires which appeared to stream from his bill — a natural, though extraordinary phenomenon, sufficient to terrify the super- stitious, and to stamp the harmless subject of it with the imaginary traits and attributes of a demon. 11 242 THE REASON WHY : " And the raven never flitting, still is sitting, still is sitting On the pallid bust of Pallas, just above my chamber door; And his eyes have all the seeming of a demon's that is dreaming, And the lamp-light o'er him streaming, throws his shadow -JA the floor."— EDGAR POK. 735. Why are, ravens more social than birds of prey ? Because the food upon which they subsist is of a promiscuous nature, and abundant in quantity, which allows a greater number to subsist together without being urged to the storn necessity of solitude or famine — a condition to which the true rapacious birds are always driven. i 736. Why is it erroneous to suppose that crows destroy grass ? This error arises out of the following circumstance : In search- ing for grubs which are concealed in the earth, and which are sup- ported by eating the roots of the grass, the crow pulls at the stem of the grass with its bill, and when the grass comes up, the crow knows that there are under it insects which have de- stroyed its roots, and in this way detects them ; but if the stem of grass is firm, the crow goes to another tuft, and proceeds in the same manner. 737. Why is the rook the earliest bird stirring in the morning f Because its principal food is worms, which feed and crawl upon the humid surface of the ground in the dark, and retire before the light of day ; and, roosting higher than other birds, the first rays of the sun as they dart from the horizon, become visible to the rook. 738. Why is the flight of rooks popularly supposed to portend rough or fine weather ? Because it is proved by observation that when a gale of wind is blowing, or about to blow, they descend into valleys, and just skim over the tops of the intervening hills and trees ; but when NATURAL HISTORY. 243 1 Rooks unnumbered build their nest — Deliberate birds, and prudent all ; Their notes, indeed, are harsh and rude, But they're a social multitude." — CRABBK. Ihe sky is calm and clear, they pass through the uj)per air in regular and easy flight. 739. Sometimes these birds perform an evolution usually called the " shooting of the rooks." When they have risen to an immense height in the air, so that, in appearance, they are scarcely larger than the lark, they suddenly descend to the ground, or to the tops of trees exactly under them. To effect this, they come headlong down, on pinions a little raised, but not expanded, in a zig-xag direction (presenting alternately their back and breast), through the resisting air, with a noise resembling the rushing of the wind ; and when we consider the prodigious height of the rooks at the time they begin to descend, we conclude that they cannot effect their arrival at a spot immediately under them by any other process so short and rapid. 740. Wliy are roolcs seen to busy themselves in autumn about their nests, as though they were going to make immediate use of them, and then desert them for the iv inter ? This curious proceeding probably arises from an instinctive feeling that as the nests will be wanted early in spring, a few repairs may be requisite to strengthen and prevent their being shattered or blown to pieces by the storms of winter. 741. Why is it said that a crow can smell gunpowder ? Because the natural wariness in most seasons of the year of this bird, and the perpetual persecution which it has undergone from man, cause it to keep a very sharp look-out ; and induces it to take flight at the earliest approach of the gunner. 742. The rook is a bird of great sagacity. It has been known to fly from a man carrying a crutch on his shoulder, and yet to endure the approach of the same man when he walked with a limping gait, with the crutch under his arm. It has also suffered the approach of a sportsman who put his gun under his arm, and pre- tended to use it as a crutch. We doubt the presumption that rooks can smell gun- powder, although we have seen, in a f arm-book of considerable authority, a rag smeared with gunpowder recommended to scare away rooks. The moving rag may have the effect, without the aid of the gunpowder. 743. In what respects are the bill and stomach of the rooJc practically adapted to each other? The biU is so constructed that it can lay hold of, and rend. 244 THE REASON WHY : " Or in a shady tree Nine maopies percli'd lament their altar'd state, And what they hear are skilful to repeat."— MAYNWARING. almost any kind of food; and the digestive organs extract nutriment from a great variety of substances ; the stomach being intermediate between the membranous, or thinly-muscular kind, peculiar to the carnivorous families, and gizzards, or strongly- muscular organs which are possessed by those animals that feed on hard vegetable substances. 744. Why is the wholesale destruction of crows, as generally practised by farmers, a mistaken policy ? Because these birds destroy an a/mazing number of grubs and injurious insects, which, to all appearance, have no other enemies ; their singular mode of following the course of the plough, both in winter and spring, leaves no doubt of this fact. 745. Crows are persistently destroyed, because it is believed that when they search after insects in newly-sown fields, they devour, also, the grain whit h they meet with in their track. This may, at least in part, be true ; but no positive proof can exist of such being the case. Certain it is, that in particular parts of America, where the crows were completely eradicated or driven away by incessant firing, the numbers of noxious insects increased so prodigiously that the farmers, to then sorrow, found the remedy worse than the disease ; the whole district agreeing to suffer the persecuted crows to return, and occupy again their old quarters. 746. Why does the structure of the magpie adapt it either for a tree or a ground bird? Because the wings are only of moderate length, which renders them suitable for taking the air at all angles, and also for turning. The tail is also greatly developed, capable of considerable action, and wedge-shaped ; the first and second properties being requisite in the frequent ascents and descents of the bird, and the last in avoiding the twigs and other obstacles which the bird could not have so well avoided, if the tail had been square at the end. NATURAL HISTORY. 24*. So doth the magpie mischievously steal Of wealth he knows not — only to conceal." — NEWMAN. 747. Wliy have magpies the reputation of being thieving birds f These birds possess a strong degree of curiosity in observation, and seem to have an especial perception for brilliancy of colour, If, for instance, there were two small pieces of potters' ware, of the same size, shape, and consistency, and if one piece were coarse and brown and the other glazed, it is almost certain that the magpie would carry off the glazed piece, but certainly not the other : so also, if a shilling and a halfpenny were left in this bird's way, the shilling would in all probability be carried off and the halfpenny left. This fondness for bright and shining articles tempts the bird to steal articles of plate, &c., hence the incident upon which the popular story is founded of " The Maid and the Magpie" and a number of other anecdotes, all illustrative of this thievish pro- pensity ; whilst their curious and observant disposition may account for their stealing articles which have no particularly attractive qualities to recommend them. 748. Why is a magpie, when seen alone, said to foretell bad weather ? • Because magpies generally fly in company, but on the approach of wet or cold one remains in the nest to take car* of the young, while the other one wanders in search of food. For the same reason, a single magpie is said to be an unlucky omen to anglers, while two prognosticate fine weather and good sport. 749. Why is the crossbill furnished with a beak of peculiar structure ? Because it is a bird inhabiting forests in which vast pine trees grow, and living as it does upon the seeds of the pine, the beak with which it is furnished is best adapted for assisting it in obtaining supplies of food. 246 THE REASON WHY I " The sparrow, meanest of the feathered race, His fit companion finds in every place." — COWPER. 750. The seeds of the pines, which, until the cone has heen exposed to the action of the weather for a consider- able time after the seeds are ripe, are so firmly enclosed between the ligneous scales as to prevent the bill of an ordi- nary bird from reaching them This bill consists of a very powerful pair of levers, by means of which the scales can be wrenched open, and the seeds arrived at in a mannei the most effective. When the two sharp points are brought together, they can be inserted into a very small opening, in which, the instant that they begin to operate, each takes hold like a hook, and tends to draw itself in ; thus cutting open in the direction of the face or plane of the scale, while by their action upon each other they press it open by the power of a double wedge ; and by the time that the mandibles have crossed to their full extent, the scale is so completely raised that the seed can be taken from under it with the greatest ease. The position into which the oblique action of the bill brings the head enables the bird to see the seed under the scale, and while the mandibles keep the scale open, the tongue of the bird scoops out the seed. The tongue is as curious as the mandibles. It terminates in a horny gouge, supported by a bone, and furnished with muscles, by which it can be raised or depressed so as to act as an independent instrument. The motion of the bill divides a soft and pulpy substance with remarkable facility ; and when the birds visit orchards, which they sometimes do in the autumn, they cut the apples asundei, in order to get at the pips, with almost as great a nicety as one would use a knife. 751. W-hy are sparrows useful to vegetation ? Because they devour myriads of insects which would otherwise do infinite injury ; this is particularly the case when they have young ones, all of which are fed with insects and caterpillars. 752. Why is the sparrow bolder, and less fearful of being caught or killed, than most otlur birds ? Because its location in the neighbourhood of populous towns and cities renders it accmtomed to man, who, on his part, being intent on other matters, passes hourly within a few yards of this bird without ever giving it a thought. NATURAL HISTORY. 247 " The cleft tree Offers its kind concealment to a few, Their food its insects, and its moss their nests." — THOMSOV. 753. Why does the house-sparrow pertinaciously appropriate to its oion use the nest of other bints ? Because sparrows occupy their nests at night throughout the year ; and, though they are hardy birds, they require warm shelter during severe frosts, and therefore seize upon any con- venience which they can find best adapted to their purpose. 754. Why is the sparrow comparatively late in awaking in the morning ? Because it roosts in holes, and under the eaves of ricks, or sheds, where the light does not so soon enter as in open places. 755. Why is the claw upon the hind toe of the lark of greater length than is to be found generally in other birds ? Because the lark is a field bird, nestling on the ground, and deriving its food from the earth ; and the peculiar conformation of the foot enables the bird to run on thick matted grass, or to rise from it, or alight on it, with much less inconvenience than almost any other bird. 756. Larks are fleet runners, and they stand up for observation, with their heads ahove the cover ; the head, which is generally crested, and has the crest erected, not being easily distinguishable from a clod. 757. What especial use does the lark make, of its disportionally long claws ? The lark makes its nest generally in grass fields, where it is '248 THE REASON WHF : " Ye birds That singing up to Heav'n*s gate ascend, Bear on your wings, and in your notes, his praise." — MILTON. liable to be injured, either by cattle grazing over it, or by the mower. In case of alarm from these or other causes, the parent birds remove their eggs by means of their long claws, to a place of greater security. 758. Why does the song of the sky-larJc, when on the wing, change with its ascent and descent^ u,ruZ possess a uniform key only when the bird is poised in the air ? Because the windpipe is the musical organ, and birds require this organ less for breathing than other animals having a windpipe and lungs, because of the air-cells and breathing tubes with which all parts of their bodies axe furnished. But those different breathing organs must act with less freedom when the bird is making the greatest efforts in motion, that is, when ascending or descending ; and in proportion as these cease to act, the trachea is the more required for the purposes of breathing. The sky-lark thus converts the atmosphere into a musical instrument of many stops, the song swelling as the bird ascends, sinking with the downward flight, and with each wheel in the air varying the pitch of the song. All birds that sing ascending or descending have similar power, but the sky-lark has it in a degree superior to any other. 759. WTiy is the female linnet often mistaken for the male ? Because, when the male bird has attracted the atttention of his intended captor, he instantly hops into the bush before his plumago can be carefully noticed ; and, if the bush is beaten, the female bird will fly out, and thus get credit for the song of her mate. 760 The deception is further increased by the male ceasing his song and raising his alarm-call as soon as he is seen, and until he disappears in the hush, for he does not generally fly out ; but the female does, and wiles away the enemy from tu« NATURAL HISTORY. 243 Behold, within the leafy shade, Those speckled eggs together laid ! On me the chance-discovered sight Gleamed like a vision of delight." — WORDSWORTH. best by a series of short nights ; and when the coast is clear, she again flies into the bush, chirping softly the note of safety, and soon after the male resumes 761. Why do goldfinches build their neste on flexible branches in preference to rigid ones ? Because the young being thua rocked to and fro in the nest, are made accustomed to the motion which they will after- wards experience when seeking their food on the tops of tall and flexible stems. 762. Wliy does the titmouse suspend its nest over a pond or stream ? In order to preserve it from the attacks of quadrupeds and reptiles. 763. What is especially remarkable in the plumage of the canary bird ? Its light sulphur colour, which it has exchanged for the grey or brown hue of its native islands. 764. This little captive songster was introduced to Europe early in the 16tb century, and is believed to have spread from the coast of Italy, where a vessel, which was bringing to Leghorn a number of these birds, besides merchandise, w;is wrecked. The climate being favourable, they increased ; but they did not become naturalised, being entrapped by breeders for the purpose of sale. 765. Wliy are birds of Paradise so catted ? Tu earlier ages these birds, which are peculiar in their structur* 11* THE REASON WHY: " Resplendent wanderer ! followed with glad eyes . Where'er her course ; mysterious bird, To whom, by wandering fancy stirred, Eastern islanders have given A holy name — the Bird of Heaven." — WORDWORTH. and remarkable for the beauty and gloss of their plumage, were supposed to whisk about like bright meteors in the equinoctial sun, without the usual attributes of wings or feet ; and were also believed to dwell in the air, and live upon the nectar of those flowers which, in the climates where the birds are native, twine in garlands and festoons at the topmost branches of the trees. 766. Why were the birds of Paradise said by the older naturalists to be without legs, and to remain always suspended in the, air ? These beautiful creatures frequenting only the neigh- bourhood of the tropics, had, until a comparatively recent date, never been caught and examined. The accounts of them, therefore, were like many "travellers' tales," much exaggerated. This is partly excused and accounted for by the extreme beauty of their plumage and motions. It is certain that the birds of Paradise have legs, and these botn large and strong ; but their flight is rapid and continuous : they are the swallows of the tropics ; are seldom seen to alight ; and, while pursuing the insects upon which they feed, go through a vast number of the most beautiful evolutions. 767. These birds do not bear much resemblance to an ordinary bird, at least in any part except the bill, head, neck, and shoulders, for the rest of the body is hidden by supplemental feathers issuing from the flanks, the shoulders, or both, which NATURAL HISTORY. 251 ' So on he fares, and to the border comes Of Eden, -where delicious Paradise, Now nearer, crowns with her enclosure green." — MILTON. feathers are so loose, light, and airy towards their points that they bear some resemblance to the tails of comets. Some notion of the general form of this species may be obtained from the annexed figure, representing the golden bird of Paradise- This beautiful deep black species is a native of New Guinea, and is well named by the French sifilet, from the six slender feathers, three on each side of the head, which are webs, except at the end where they are without oval. The breast has a rich, gilded, changeable green gorget, which is very bril- liant. The female of this species Is destitute of the six long shafted feathers and the gorgeous breast of the male ; but instead, the feathers on the neck and side, and under parts of the body, are of a very light brown colour, transversely marked with rather wide deep brown bars. Birds of Paradise, which are allowed to exceed all others in beauty, variety, and the peculiar construction of their plumage, associate in large flocks in the delightl ul aromatic woods and groves of their native islands ; and the inhabitants, sensil le of their charms, give them the name of " God's birds." 768. What remarkable utility is connected with the profuse plumage of birds of Paradise 1 We know too little of the habits of these birds to recognise all the specific purposes their singular and beautiful plumage answers ; but it appears to be certain that they are directed to their food by the profusion of their feathers. 7G9. This extraordinary fact has been pointed out and enlarged upon in a veiy able mannei in " Partington's Cyclopcedia " : — " \Ve know this— the islands in which birds of Paradise are found, are subject to alternations of rain and drought. Further, we know that in tropical countries the fervent heat of the rainless period comes at last to have all the effect of a winter, in the suspension of animal and vegetable action. As one part of those countries in which they have their haunts becomes parched, the birds of Paradise must remove to another, and we shall see that the profuse feathers, besides enabling the birds to rise more easily and descend more softly on their shorte* excursions, in consequence of the hold which their countless flocculi take of tb> 252 T1LK REASON WHY : " Like birds, great nature's happy commoners, that haunt In woods, in meads, and flow'ry gardens, rifle the sweets, and taste the choicest fruits, yet scorn to ask the lordly owner's leave." — HOWE. air, assist the birds in finding their way to those other places where there it food for them. " At those places where the earth and the upper part of the forest are parched, and the ardour of the unclouded sun continues to beat, there is a constant rarefaction of the whole mass of the atmosphere ; and in consequence of this the winds from the more humid surfaces must blow toicards those parched placet with velocities proportional to the differences between the one and the other. " When the forest which is the haunt of these birds becomes parched, their food lessens, and they are compelled to be more on the wing in search after it. But on which side soever there then happens to be a place more humid, and more abounding in those creatures on which they feed, and which on this account is better suited to them for the time, there is a wind which blows from that side towards the part which is parched and heated; and as the action of that wind upon their flocculent feathers turns them round on their centres of gravity like weather-cocks, their heads are, as they fly, turned to the wind, and against the current. Their feathers thus assist them in finding out the direction of those places where they can obtain food; and though this is more remarkable in the case of birds of Paradise than any other species, it is probable that many of tht softer-feathered birds are also assisted in their tropical migrations by tht tet of the wind." Sub-order IV. — Tenuirostres. 770. Why is the sub-order Tenuirostres so designated? Prom tennis, long, and rostrum, a beak ; the birds comprehended within it being characterise i by a long and slender bill. 771. They are also by some classed as " bee- eaters," or "honey-suckers,' the great majority deriving their subsistence both from insects and the nectar of plants, which they suck up by means of a long and filamentous tongue. The representatives of this sub-order are the nuthatch, the creeper, the humming-bird, the chough, and the hoopoe. They are clearly distinguishable from the sub-order syndactyli by having the toes separated from each other. 772. Why is it essential that the bodies of humming-birds should be motionless in the air? Because t^e humming-bird seeks its food in the deep cups and tubes which protect the seeds of various pjaiits within the tropics. NATURAL HISTORY. 253 ' Upon mine honour, Sir, I heard a humming, And that a strange one too, which did awake me." — SHAKSPERE. It would be impossible for them to obtain a supply, which is only to be found in these places, unless they had some power of suspending their bodies ; for if they attempted to rest on the plant, it would yield to their weight, and the insect would escape. 773. Why are the humming-birds so called? From the sound produced by the rapid motion of their wings, this name is univer- sally applied ; the species being in the countries where they most abound, known as Murmunes, bourdons, and Frou-frous, names of equiva- lent meaning. 774. The velocity with which these birds glance through the air is so great as to elude the sight— the motion of their wings appears like a thin cloud of light, and when hovering before a flower they seem to be absolutely supended in the air. 775. Why does the humming-bird, when molested, fly at and peck the eyes of its adversary? An unerring instinct has taught it that its feebleness can in no better way be protected than by this method of attack ? 776. Mr. Bullock says : " They attack the eyes of the larger birds, and their sharp needle-like bill is a truly formidable weapon in this kind of warfare. Nothing can exceed their fierceness when disturbed during the breeding season." An old writer, Ferdinand Ovieds, adds : " When they see a man climb the tree where they have then: nests they flee at his face and stryke him in the eyes, coming, going, and returning with such swiftness that no man would rightly believe it that had not seen it." 777. Why is the nest of the humming-bird constructed with a view to great warmth, although within the tropics ? Because the diminutive size of the bird renders it incapable of 254 THE REASON WHY : 'One part had the-r plumes al whyt, another hadde thorn al redde, and the thyrde hadde them of several colours." — HALL. retaining for any length of time sufficient heat for the purposes of incubation, unless this provision is made. 778. Why is so small a creature as the humming-bird more gorgeously plumed than any other bird? The probable reason is, that this brilliancy serves to attract around the humminy-bird the i?isects upon which it partly feeds, and thus ministers to its means of sustenance : as we see that moths and flies are attracted by a lighted lamp or candle, and rush upon it to their own destruction. 779. " I have seen the humming-bird," says Wilson, " for half-an-hour at a time, darting at those little groups of insects that dance in the air in a fine summer evening, retiring to an adjoining twig to rest, and renewing the attack with a dexterity that sets all other fly-catchers at defiance." The colouring of the plumage of birds unquestionably depends upon the sun, because they are gay and glossy in proportion as they are exposed to the action of that luminary ; but the light of the sun must have a substance upon which it can act ; and it appears to act most powerfully upon the firm feather which grows slowly, and, in the first instance, under cover. The colouration is an after process, though an obscure one, and one upon which it does not appear easy to get more information ; but it has no apparent connection with the colour ol the egg ; for the bee-eaters have, in one or other of the species, all the colours of the rainbow, as brilliant as in the rainbow itself, and yet the eggs are white. Whether the bright colours are less sentient to the sun than the more sober hues of the birds of cold climates we are unable to tell ; but the smooth surface and metallic lustre must reflect the light, as well as decompose it by that refraction which shows the colours ; and we find the same kinds of tint and gloss in the day-insects of sunny climes, and in the birds of the same. We may therefore conclude that the resplendent plumage of these birds answers as a sort of protection against the ardopr of the sun, just in the same manner as the half-furry clothing of the northern owls protects them against the pelting sleet and the driving snow, or as the down upon sea-birds protects them against the action of the water.* 780. Why are the feet of the creeper very long and powerful ? Because by their means the bird is enabled to ding to the perpendicular surface of trees, and is enabled to use its beak with great effect in the obtaining of its food. • Partington's " Cyclopaedia," Art., " Bee-eater." NATURAL HISTORY. 255 From purple violets, and the teile they bring Their gather'd sweets, and rifle all the spring."— ADDISON. 781. frging by their feet, and resting upon the stiff quills of their tails, they •will even pass round a horizontal branch with their backs to the ground. This is of importance to the bird, since many of the insects forming its food often seek the under surface of a branch for security. 732. Why his the nuthatch, whose ttabits so closely resemble the woodpecker, only a very short tail ? Unlike the woodpecker, the nuthatch runs with the head down- wards as well as upwards ; and, indeed, the former position of the head appears to be the favourite one : it generally alights on a branch with the head in a downward position, and sleeps in that posture. A long tail, therefore, would be useless to it, and an incumbrance. 783. The nuthatch, in procuring its food, sometimes grasps the tree with his powerful feet, and turns its body upon them as upon a pivot, striking with its whole weight, and thus presenting with its body the appearance of the head of a hammer in motion. 784. Why does the nuthatch make its nest in the decayed trunks of trees? In order that the young may subsist upon the insects that inhabit the decayed wood that surrounds the nest. 785. Why is the rifle-bird so catted? From the dark tints of its plumage — a bottle-green approaching to black — and its habit of creeping upon the boles of trees, after the manner of a sharpshooter. 786. Mr. Gould, the Australian naturalist, considers the rifle-bird the most pcrgeously-plumed of all the birds of that region. The general colour of the mnle is a rich velvety black, varied with lilac and green. The female is less handsomely furnished. The rifle-bird's powers of flight are very limited, owing to the shortness and truncated form of the wing ; but this structure enables it to ascend upright stems of trees precisely after the manner of the cUmacteri, many of whose habits it possesses. 787. Why is the hoopoe so named ? From its uttering the song or cry of hoop, hoop, hoop, as it sits perched by its nest, or flits along after its insect prey. 25C THE REASOX WHY : " That a kingfisher hanged by the bill sheweth in what quarter the wind is, by an occult and secret propriety, con- verting the breast to that point of the horizon from whence the wind doth blow, is a received opinion, and very strange." — BROWN'S VULGAR ERRORS. Sub-order V. — Syndactili. 788. Why are the birds of this group called syndactili? From two Greek words meaning and toe, in allusion to thcb having the external toe nearly as long as the middle one, and united to it, as far as the second joint. Syndactylic means having the toes together. 789. The bills of syndactalous birds differ considerably in their forms, because their food differs in kind ; and this difference probably led Cuvier to name this division after the structure of the feet, and not that of the bills. 790. What are the peculiar examples of adaptation in the structure of kingfishers? It is furnished with a long sharp bill, admirably adapted for transfixing fish, as with a spear ; and the plumage is remarkably smooth, and adapted to resist the action of water. 791. When watching for its prey, the kingfisher perches itself upon some over- hanging branch, with its long, dagger-like bill pointed downwards, and its eye intent upon the water beneath. Suddenly, it darts down- wards, plunges headlong into the water, and speedily re-appears with a minnow or other small fish between its mandibles. Without loosing its hold, it passes the fish through its bill until it is fairly grasped by the tail, and then de- stroys the life of its victim by smartly striking its head three or four times against a branch, aftei which it gulps its prey at one mouthful, except when it is borm iway to the nest for the supply of the young. NATURAL HISTORY. 257 " For both the bonglis doe laughing blossoms beare, And with fresh colours deck the wanton prime, And eke at once the heavy trees they clime, Which sceme to labour under their fruite's lode." — SPKNSEH. 792. Why has the kingfisher remarkably small feet? Because the habits of the bird are neither those of wading, walking, nor standing ; but simply of perching upon the points of small twigs that overhang the water. The kingfisher watches patiently, generally from a naked twig, and when it quits that, flies immediately to a similar station. The feet of the kingfisher, which at first appear very imperfect, and totally unfit for ordinary purposes, are, in fact, excellently adapted to the wants of the bird. i 793. Why are the bee-eaters so called ? Because bees form a considerable part of their food, though they devour also wasps, hornets, and various other insects of comparatively long and rapid flight. ORDER III.— SCANSORES. 794. Why is the third order of birds termed scansores ? The word scansores is derived from the Latin scando, to climb and implies that these birds live and obtain their food in a scaling position. 795. Their feet are adapted for clinging to the bark of trees; and they ascend the stems and branches with great facility. Their food, for the most part, consists of insects, which they search for in the crevices and underneath the bark of unsound trees, or in the wood of such as exhibit symptoms of decay. They also occasion- ally eat fruit. The order is very extensive, comprehending the woodpecker, the cuckoo, the parrot, macaws, love birds, cockatoos, toucans, lories, &c. 796. Why is the name " zygodactyli " also given by ornithologists to the scansores, or climbers ? Because of a peculiarity in the feet ; two of their toes being directed forwards, and two backwards. 258 THE REASON WHY: " Rap, rap, rap, rap, I hear thy knocking bill, Then thy strange outcry, when the woods are still." — MONTGOMERY. The word zygodactyli is compounded of zygoo, "to jom," and daktylos, a finger. 797. Why are .the supposed ravages of woodpeckers beneficial rather than otherwise? .Because they bore only those trees which insects have previously attacked, and thus diminish very considerably the numbers of such as are injurious to our forests. 798. Why are the extremities of the feathers in the tail of the woodpecker hard and elastic like whalebone, and with the shaft particularly prominent? Because this quality in the bird's tail affords a prop, or fulcrum, as it rests against a tree ; and no other contrivance could enable the bird to maintain its position when throwing back its head to give due force to the bill in hammering at the bark of the tree. 799. Why is tJie bill of the parrot so thick and powerful ? This member, so unlike that of other frugivorous birds, is admirably calculated for the principal offices it has to perform, viz., breaking the shells and stones of the hardest fruits and seeds, and as a strong organ of prehension and support when climbing or moving from one position to another. 800. In their native woods, the movements of the parrot tribe are marked by an ease and gracefulness we never see exhibited in a state of confinement. They climb about the branches in every direction, and suspend themselves from them in every possible attitude, in all which movements they are greatly assisted by their hooked bills, which are used, like the foot, as an organ of prehension and support.* * naturalists' Library. NATURAL HISTOKT. 259 In painted plumes superbly drest A native of the gorgeous East, Poll gains at length the British shore, Part of the captain's precious store." — COWPER. 801. Why is a parrot able to move its bill with unusual force, and to peck out and divide its food with extreme nicety ? Because loth mandibles of the parrot's beak are moveable (most birds being able to move only one), and are endowed with a large amount of muscular power. 802. The fleshy tongues of parrots are as peculiar as their bills, and are very usefui to the birds in turning a nut, or other food, into a convenient position for the power of the bill to bear upon it. The fleshy tongue is found in all parrots, excepting the Australian group, called the loniqets, which birds feed on the honey of flowers, and have tongues formed with bristles like a brush, with which they sweep together the honey. 803. Why has each species of the parrot tribe its own peculiar residence, and a very limited distribution around it? This is partly accounted for by the shortness of the wings, and the want of power of flight, which prevent their migration ; but it is partly due also to the adaptation of each species to a peculiarity of conditions, which would not be met with elsewhere. 804. Why among the parrot tribes are there marked differences in the forms of their feet ? Because, as there are various kinds of trees and plants upon which they live, so a different form and development of the climbing organs is necessary to adapt the bird to its habitation. 805. Those who have examined the tropical forests, mention that there appears to be a species of parrot adapted for each of the more conspicuous kind of trees which are to be met with in those forests. Thus, if the tree is a palm, or anything else •which has a single stem, and can afford nourishment for a bird only at or near the top of that stem, then the species of parrot set over it to consume the surplus of its fruit is an air bird, capable of flying over the forest in search of such trees ; and, when this is the case, the body of the bird is lighter in proportion to its lineal dimensions, and us tail is generally very much produced, which assists it m ascending and descending. On the other hand, the short-flighted parrots, which inhabit trees which are very n>uch branched, and bear fruit in the axillae of the leaves of the smaller twigs, have tKe bodies stouter in proportion to the dimensions, the tail 260 THE REASOIv ^ I1Y " Words learn'd by rot<^ a parrot may rehearse, But talking1 is not always to converse; Not more distinct from harmony divine, The constant creaking of a country sign." — COWPEK. shorter, and tL? feathers more firm and scaly. Parrots of this last description inhabit regions which are more perennially fertile than those inhabited by the former, whose more produced flying feathers and lighter bodies, and, generally spnaking, also their more vigorous make, fit them better for ranging into a new locality when food fails them in the old one ; and also for making daily excursions of considerable length over the fields in the vicinity of those trees wherein they roost during the night.* 806. Wliy are the macaws so named ? The name is derived from macro and cercus, the latter having reference to the large naked space on the cheek and around the eye. 807. Why are parrots, in their natural distribution, limited to tropical climates ? Because they are almost exclusively vegetable feeders, the kernels of fruits, and the buds and flowers of trees, being the chief sources on which they depend for their nourishment. They are therefore unfitted for a locality where the woods are for several months of the year fruitless, flowerless, and leafless. 808. Why do parrots suffer less from confinement than birds in general? Because birds of flight, when brought within the narrow limits of a cage, lose their necessary exercise. But parrots, being climbing birds, are able to a great extent to keep up the movements of the natural condition. 809. Why do parrots gnaw and chip pieces of wood? The propensity which the whole of the parrot tribe have for biting wood, and throwing the bits away, suggests that they perform a very useful function in the scheme of nature. In their distribution they are limited to tropical climates, Partington's " Cyclopaedia. * NATURAL HISTORY. 261 " O who would e'er have thought that time could have decay'd Those trees whose bodies seemed by their so massy weight To press the solid earth, and with their wondrous height To climb into the clouds." — DKAYTON. and in those climates to localities where the vegetation is so 'uxuriant that the forests are impenetrable by man. It is the office of the parrot tribes to keep in check this excessive vegetation, and to prune the trees which they inhabit. A parrot in the woods has harder labour to perform than almost any other bird which lives upon vegetable matter. And it is remarkable that they gnaw and chip wood, not for the purposes of appetite ; but because this occupation affords them a great degree of pleasure. Through this biting propensity, they contribute to the removal of decayed trees, by enlarging the holes in their trunks, and exposing the woody fibre to the action of the ram and atmosphere. 810. What important advantage does the parrot derive from the moveability of its upper inaudible ? The upper mandible being moveable, and not, as in other birds, united to the cranium, prevents pressure or concussion being communicated to the brain, while the bird performs the arduous gnawing task assigned to it. 811. Why are paraquettes so called? The term may be considered as a diminutive of parrot, and is used to distinguish the smaller birds of the parrot tribes. 812. Why are paraquettes abundant in America. In the great western valley of the United States, there grows a wild plant, of the composite order, known as the cockh-burr. The seeds of these plants are the favourite food of paraquettes. But for the check afforded by these birds to the diffusion of this plant, it would probably spread itself over every piece of ground which man has cleared of timber, or reclaimed from being a, swamp. 813. Why does the parrot construct no nest? The soft dust accumulated at the bottom of the trunks of £C2 THE REASON WHT : The time shall come when chanticleer shall wish His words unsaid, and hate his boasted bliss: The crested bird shall by experience know, Jove made him not his master-piece below." — DRYDBW. decayed trees suffices for all the purposes of a nest, and precludes the necessity of any artificial contrivance. 814. The instinctive liking for such a bed does not desert it in a state of captivity. Buffon mentions a pair of parrots in France, that for several years successively produced and brought up their young. The place they selected for this purpose was a cask partially filled with sawdust. 815. Why are cockatoos so called? Because of the peculiarly dis- tinct manner in which they speak the word cockatoo^ though generally they are less capable of articulating sounds than the true parrot. Cockatoos are dis- tinguished from true parrots, and all others, by a crest, or tuft of feathers on the head, which they can raise or depress at pleasure. 816. Why is the toucan tribe so named? From the cry tu-cdno which it utters when upou 'aba watch, or when apprehensive of danger. 817. WJiy does the toucan toss back its head wJiiit This habit is rendered necessary by the length of Ut bill, and the stiffness of the tongue, which prevent their eating as other birds : they therefore, when the morsel has received its first mastication, throw it into the gullet with a smart jurk. 818. The toucan has a practice of returning his food, some time aftnr ho has transmitted it to his crop ; and, after masticating it for a second time in the 'rill, again swallowing it ; the whole operation bearing a strong resemblance to »he process in ruminating animals. NATURAL HISTORI. 263 " The merry cuckowe, messenger of spring, His trumpet shrill has thrice already sounded ; That warnes all louvers waite upon their king, Who now is coming forth with girland crowned." — SPENSER. 819. IVTiy has the toucan such an immense bill? In order to enable it to procure its food, consisting of small birds and their eggs, found in deep nests, and various hard vegetable substances. 820. The bill of the toucan, although large— in some instances being nearly a» long as the body itself— is light and cellular. It 'serves as a hatchet, and at the same time has all the delicate action of a very neat pair of pliers. The toucan is not a swift or powerful flyer ; but its motions, as it hops from branch to branch, are not ungraceful. The bill is, in fact, no incumbrance to the bird, however ill its appearance may suit with our ideas of proportion. 821. Why is it ordained that the cuckoo should deposit its eggs in the nests of other birds ? Because the cuckoo is the largest of insectivorous birds, and requires a great quantity of food, which, like the swallow, it must make constant search for. If cuckoos sat upon their eggs, they would be unable to obtain this large supply; and if they left their eggs to search for food, the eggs would become chilled while they were on the wing. 822. Why does the cuckoo drop her eggs into the nests of birds smaller than herself? Because if she were to drop her eggs into the nest of a bird which produced a large egg, and consequently a large nestling, the young cuckoo would probably find an insurmountable difficulty in sjlely possessing the nest, as its exertions would be unequal to the labour of turning out the young birds. 823. Why does the female cuckoo deposit her eggs in the nests oj the sparrow, the wagtail, &c., which are disproportionately small ; and pass by the nests of the blaclcbird, thrush, &c., which appear to be better adapted for the purpose ? Because the various insects and flies upon which the sparrow, \wtgtcril, &c., feed, form the best kind of jood, upon which the 264 THE REASON WHY : Since the cuckoo builds not for himself, Remain in't as thou may'st." — SHAKSPERE. young cuckoos can be reared. Whilst the aliment upon which the blackbird and the thrush usually subsist is not proper, and in some respects would be injurious. 824. When the cuckoo is hatched previously to the offspring of its fos- ter-parent, it throws the unhatched eggs out of the nest by means of its broad and depressed beak. It visits its lay companions with the same treatment ; and, admitting no rival, monopolises all the room and all the food to itself; and such is the voracity of this bird, that the most untiring zeal and labour of the foster-parent are scarcely able to satisfy the cravings of the intruder. 825. Why does the cuckoo deposit her eggs in the nests of other birds with her foot ? Because if the cuckoo sat upon the adopted nest while laying the egg, the weight of its body would derange the nest, and cause it to be forsaken ; thus defeating one of the ends of Providence. 826. Why do injuries so frequently occur to the eggs of those birds in whose nests cuckoos lay ? These accidents are chiefly owing to the setting bird attempting to accommodate herself to eggs of different sizes. If comparatively large and small eggs are placed in the same nest, some of the smaller ones are generally thrown out, or rendered addle, by the hen bird endeavouring to arrange them so that she may distribute nearly an equal degree of warmth and pressure to all : but the larger ones, which chiefly sustain her weight, and jonsequently are less liable to be moved, usually remain uninjured. NATURAL HISTORY. " Harsh your lore-notes thrill, To me no pleasure Nature now can yield; Alike the barren rock and woody hill, The dark-brown blasted heath and fruitful field." — CKATTES.TOK. When the eggs of birds are exchanged for others of a uniform magnitude, or provided the difference is not so great as to occasion them to be forsaken, no disturbance ensues, whatever their colour may be, the change either not being perceived, or totally disregarded. 827. Wliy do birds of the cuckoo kind perch upon, the backs of oxen while grazing? Many of them eat the insects which infest cattle ; and the latter are so well aware of the fact, as well as grateful for it, that they frequently lie down, in order that the bird may devour its prey undisturbed. 828. Why is the, bird known as the wry-neck so called? Because it has a habit of moving its head in various directions, not unlike a snake ; this is especially the case when discovered in its nest, upon which occasions it writhes its head quickly from shoulder to shoulder, with strange and apparently painful contortions. 829. Why are love-birds so named f From the singular degree of attachment to each other which they manifest ; sitting closely side by side caressing each other, arranging each other's plumage, and exhibiting various marks Oi mutual regard. 830. Why is the oven bird so designated f From the singular oven-like form of its nest. 831. it is a native of South America, but is occasionally found in Southern Europe. The nest, whence it takes its name, is placed in the most exposed situations, as the top of a post, a bare rock, or a cactus. It is composed of mud and bits of straw, and has strong, thick walls : in shape it precisely resembles an even, or a depressed bee -hive. The opening is large and arched, and directly in front. Within the nest there is a partition which reaches aearly to the roof : thus forming a passage, or anti-chamber, to the true nest. 12 266 THE REASON WHY : Whilst wheeling round in airy wanton nights, The glossy pigeons chase their sportive loves."— Do DSLEY ORDER IV.-GYRATORES. 832. Why is the order gyratores thus designated? From the word gyratio, a " turning" or " wheeling round." It refers to the ordinary mode of flight displayed by the birds included in the order. 833. Why has the pigeon tribe a puffed-out appearance about the breast ? This arises from the presence of its unusually large crop ; an organ which is capable of some of the uses of the paps in mammalia. 834. By what remarkable process are the young pigeons and other birds of the dove-hind fed by their parents ? The parents of the dove kind support their young with the curd-like contents of their crops, as the mammalia do with milk in the early stages of the existence of their offspring. 835. This is performed by the faculty which the parent birds possess of throwing up the contents of their crops, which assume the appearance of a granulated white curd. It would appear that the young pigeon is fed for a little time with this curd-like substance only, for about the third day some of the common food is found mingled with it. As the pigeon grows older, the proportion of common food is increased ; so that, by the time it is seven, eight, or nine days old, the secretion of tne curd ceases hi the old bird, and of course no more will be found in the crop of the young. It is a curious fact, that the parent pigeon has, at first, a power to throw up this curd without any mixture of common food, although, afterwards, both are thrown up according to the proportion required for the young ones. No young birds are in so forlorn a state as young pigeons, if the parents are killed before the young can provide for themselves. Birds of other species, stimulated by the cries of the helpless young which have been deprived of parental aid, can and do assist the little starvelings ; but none except an old pigeon, with its crop in a proper state, can save the life of a nestling dove. 836. Why is the plumage of the rock pigeon very close and compact? They are thus furnished to enable them to encounter the sever* NATURAL HISTORY. 267 " One silent eve I wandcr'd late, And heard the voice of love ; The turtle thus address'd her mate, And soothed the listening dove." — COWPER. storms which they often experience, at those places -where they frequent. 837. It does not appear that there is, generally speaking, much food for them in tbe close vicinity of the rocks— their natural habitations. But, in order to keep up the powerful and long-continued muscular action which they must exert, they require a high degree of action in the vital system, and consequently a copious and frequt nt supply of food. In order to obtain this, they must range about in all weathers, and consequently they require to be warmly as well as ejinpactly clothed. 838. Why is the plumage of the pigeon tribe of a sombre hue ? Thsir food consists chiefly of grain,pulse, acorns, beech-nuts, and other seeds, and occasionally the tender shoots of particular plants. These they gather on the ground, and hence the colour of their plumage is so ordered as not to be readily distinguishable from the vegetation among which they feed. 839. The structure of the pigeon tribe manifestly displays the unerring: provision of Nature. Their bills are slender, though still of average strength, for they have no nuts or fruits to break. Their tails are generally square, and their wings strong and pointed, thus fitting them for long and arduous flights. 840. Why does the rock pigeon prefer, among artijicial pigeon-houses, one that has been whitewashed ? There may be two reasons for this : first, the whitened pigeon- house is a more conspicuous object than the other ; and secondly, a considerable quantity of carbonate of lime may be required for the eggs of the female, which, though only two in each batch, are often numerous in the course of the year. This the bird obtains by pecking at the lime. 841. Why is the rock pigeon, which never feeds upon fish, seen to walk and pick upon the sea-beach ? Probably for the purpose of taking into its crop bits of shell e*d small slone.it, as means towards the digestion of its food. 268 THE REASON WHY : • I have heard her with sweetness unfold How that pity was due to a dove ; That it ever attended the bold, And she called it the sister of love."— SHENSTONE. 842. Why docs the ringdove feed greedily, and get very fat, in the autumn months ? In order to be better prepared for enduring the severer and less abundant months of winter. 843. In autumn the ring pigeons begin to associate in flocks. At first they feed upon the fruits of forest trees, and particularly the beech-mast, which at that time is strewed upon the ground. The grains and seeds left, and small fallen fruits, are their first subsistence ; but, as they are ravenous feeders, they, if in great numbers, speedily exhaust these. After this, they migrate farther south, and attack the more succulent green leaves which remain in the fields — such as those of field-greens, turnips, and mangold-wurtzel. 844. Why does the dove tribe seek the vicinity of man, so as to prefer an artificial pigeon-house to its native haunts in rocks, &c. The feet of the dove, or common pigeon, are walking feet, with very little of the perching character. The external and internal front toes are of equal length, the hind toe is short, and the claws are not hooked, as in the decided perchers, but so placed as that the foot may be wholly planted upon the ground. Hence a regularly formed ground may have a charm for the pigeon, which its wild rocks cannot supply. 845. IVhy are the notes of the wood-pigeon commonly associated with gentleness and love? Because the cooings of these birds accord so inti- mately with our conception of all that is gentle and innocent, that one cannot listen to them without being impressed with feelings which no other sounds in nature, save that of the human voice itself, could inspire. NATURAL HISTORY. 1 O, ten times faster than Venus' pigeons fly To seal love's bonds new made, than they are wont To keep obliged faith forfeited." — SHAKSI-ERE. 846. A man, who was once 3 pirate, declared that several times while at certain flells dug in the burning shel'/ sands of a well-known bay, the soft and melancholy cry of the wood-pigeons aw &e in his breast feelings which had long slumbered, melted his heart to repentance, and caused him to linger at the spot in a state of mind which he <>nly •« no compares the wretchedness of guilt with the happiness of former innocence can truly feel. He said he never left the place without increased fears of futurity ; and so deeply was he moved at length by the notes of this bird, that through their influence he was induced to escape from his vessel, abandon his lawless companions, and return to a family deploring his absence. After paying a parting visit to these wells, and listening once more to the voice of the bird, he poured out his soul in supplications for mercy, and once more became an honest man. 847. Why is the song of the ringed pigeon heard at intervals only of the spring and autumn ? Because, except when engaged in constructing its nest, or the process of incubation and the rearing of its young, this bird utters no note : these cares over, it retires to the woods, and is silent until the breeding-time again commences. 848. Why do pigeons return to the place from which they set out, after having accomplished a long journey ? Because these birds are conspicuous for their strong attachment to locality or home. And in training them to carry missives, &c. the bird is tried at easy dis- tances, which are gradually extended until twenty or thirty miles are accom- plished successfully, and when this distance has been attained, the pigeon will travel to, and return from, any spot, however remote. 849. The following anecdotes will be found to illustrate the wonderful faculty of the carrier pigeon : — In the year 1819, an experiment was tried between London uiu Antwerp. Thirty-two pigeons with the word " Antwerp " marked oh their 270 THE REASON WHY. " Say, mid that grove, in love-lorn state, While yon poor ring-dore mourns her mate, Is all that meets the shepherd's ear, Inspired by anguish and despair I" — MASON. wings, and which had been reared in that city, were let loose in London at seAen o'clock in the morning, after having their wings counter-marked " London," The /same day, towards noon, one arrived at home ; a quarter of an hour afterwards, another arrived. The following day twelve others returned, making fourteen in all; of the fate of the rest no tidings were gleaned. In July, 1829, anothei experiment was made, in consequence of some wagers laid at Maestricht between some merchants there, that pigeons taken to London would, when let loose, return in six hours. Forty-two pigeons were accordingly brought to London, and after be'Jig properly marked, were thrown up at twenty-six minutes past eight in the mrrning. If anyone of the number had arrived at Maestricht within six hours, the principal wager, which was for 10,000 guilders, would have been gained ; but in consequence, as it was supposed, of a heavy rain, the first did not arrive till six hours and a quarter from the time when it left London, having, nevertheless, travelled at the rate of forty-five miles an hour, assuming that the journey was performed in a straight line. The second arrived in seven hours, the third in seven hours and ten minutes, the fourth in seven hours and a half, and in four days more than twenty had returned. The missing birds are supposed to have met with accidents, which might be reasonably supposed to occur in such a long journey, such as being shot, or to have taken up their abode with wild flocks on their way. 850. Why does the form of the ring-dove become considerably changed in the evening ? Because, when they have fed upon turnip-tops and other vege- tables during the day, the crop becomes so distended with food, a? to give to the fore part of the body a very full appearance. Tne contents of the stomach having been digested during the night the body regains its ordinary proportions. 851. Why is the flesh of the wild pigeon less delicate and palatable than that of the tamed variety. Because the violent and frequently repeated exercise to which they are subjected hardens the muscles of birds in a state of nature. 852. If the birds are brought up from their earliest stage, and kept upon rich pastures where they have occasion to use the wing but little, the tenderness and slso the flavour of their flesh are greatly improved. NATURAL HISTORY. 271 " The careful hen Calls all her chirping family around, Fed and defended by the fearless cock, Whose breast with ardour flames, as on he walks, Graceful, and crows defiance." — THOMSON. ORDER V.— RASORES. 853. Why is the order rasores so called? From radoj to scrape or scratch, the birds of this order compre- hending the gallinaceous tribe being distinguished by their habit of scraping the earlh, to obtain food. 854. They are omnivorous; living equally upon seeds, grains, and insects. It is to this order that most of our domestic birds, the feathered tenants of the farm- yard, belong; and also most of those unreclaimed by man, celebrated for the excellency of their flesh, as the grouse, partridge, quail, and pheasant. 855. Why do gallinaceous and other birds pick up small stones, bits of shells, &c., and gravel, which are afterwards found embedded in their gizzards? The gizzard is a fleshy stomach, the substance of which con- sists of a strong muscle ; the dark part of the gizzard being the muscle, and the shining part of it the tendon to which the muscular fibres are attached Birds pick up small fragments of stone, which pass with the grain to the gizzard, and there become the meads of grinding the food upon which the birds subsist. 856. There are two muscles, with a central tendon ; it is what anatomists call a digastric, or double-bellied stomach. The cavity within this muscle is lined with a dense, rough, insensible coat, and there are always to be found contained in it small stones, generally of quartz, if it be within the reach of the bird. The grains are mixed with these portions of stone ; and if we place our ear close to the bird, we may hear the grinding motions going on as distinctly as the noise of the horse's jaws in a manger. In fact, this digastric muscle, or gi/zard, is equivalent to the muscles of the jaws, and the pebbles are a fair equivalent to the teeth, with this advantage, that when they are ground down, the instinct of the bird provides more.* 857. In what respects do the gallinaceous birds resemble ruminating animals ? By a peculiar arrangement, the food taken up by the bill of • Notes to raJey's " Nat. Theology," by Sir Charles Bell. 272 THE REASON WHY : 44 The cock, thai is the trumpet to the morn, Doth with his lofty and shrill sounding throat Awake the god of day." — &BAKSPKHX. the£» birds undergoes a triturating process in the gizzard, befort passing into the stomach ; thus it submits to a double digestion, somewhat analogous to the triple digestive action of the ruminants. 858. The gallinidse have, generally speaking, three stomachs, and their intestines are more lengthened than those of most birds, and furnished with two caecai appendages, about six inches in length. These three stomachs are : the craw, or pouch, into which the food is taken, as into little more than a simple store, where it is sent gradually to the other parts of the digestive apparatus. In this viscus the food undergoes very little change, though it may be partially softened. The craw >pens laterally from the gullet. The second stomach is a dilatation of the gullet itself, and is furnished with glands which secrete a peculiar fluid •, and it is here, also, that the drink of the bird mingles with its food. The third stomach is the gizzard, the texture of which is very strong and muscular, and the inner coat so hard and compact as to have the appearance of firm cartilage. The gizzard can exert a very powerful action, so much so as to grind down glass and metals hi" a very short tune, without appearing to sustain injury. 859. IVhy do the gallinaceous birds lay and hatch their eggs m nests upon the ground ? Because, being indifferent flyers, their young after incubation are thus enabled to reach their proper habited without the risk of injury. 860. Why are the legs of gallinaceous birds developed at a very early stage of their existence? Because they are ground birds ; feed upon their feet ; and pass the greater portion of their lives in walking and scraping. 861. The newly-hatched birds require these organs developed very early, being less provided with a formal nest than the yo*uig of any of the preceding orders. 862. Why has the cock a streaming and elegant tail? In all probability this appendage, which is useless to him in flying, while it adds to the dignity and importance of his bearing in the eyes of his mates, assists and balances his bodyy which it largely developed on the breast. NATURAL HISTORY. 273 " While the cock with lively din, Scatters the rear of darkness thin, And to the stack or the barn door, Stoutly struts his dames before." — MILTON. 863. Why domesticated ? has the common fowl become thoroughly Because, being omnivorous it delights in that great variety of food which proximity to man affords ; while its hardy nature enables it to support great variations of season and temperature. This rule is not without limitation : the barn-door fowl does not thrive or breed in very cold climates. Every attempt to introduce it to buch countries as Siberia has hitherto failed. 864. Why have common poultry limited powers of flight ? Because they have little use for wings : only requiring those organs to assist their legs when alarmed, or in reaching the perches upon which th-^y pass the hours of repose. 865. The chief use of the wings of the gallinidse, besides enabling those which perch during the mght to reach their perches, appears to be safety agninst quadrupedal foes. Their fluttering gets them, perhaps, sooner above the reach of these than if they had a more steady and forward style of flight. From birds of prey they may be said, one and all, to be incapable of escaping on the wing : their safety from these consists in crouching among the clods or lurking among the herbage. Their wings are short, broad, and concave ; and also looser in the plumage of their under sides than the wings of almost all other birds. All these qualities enable them to take a firm hold on the air, which assists them in working upwards ; though it renders flight more laborious. 866. IVTiy do fowls prefer to roost in elevated places ? Because they have an instinctive dread of vermin which inaj 274 THE REASON WHY : " See from the brake the whirring pheasant spring*, And mounts triumphant on exulting wings." — POPI molest them on the ground during the hours of darkness. Hence poultry, if left to themselves and not housed, will perch the winter through on yew trees and fir trees ; and turkeys and guinea fowls, heavy as they are, get up into apple trees around their owner's house for security, let the weather be ever so boisterous. 367. Partridges roost on the ground, not having the faculty of perching; but the same fear prevails with them ; for, through apprehension of polecats and stoats, they never trust themselves to coverts, but nestle together in the midst of largo fields, far removed from hedges and coppices. As to ducks and geese, their awkward web-feet preclude them from settling on trees; they, therefore, in the hours of darkness and danger, betake themselves to their own element, the water, where, amidst large lakes and pools, like ships riding at anchor, they float the whole night long in peace and security. 868. Why does the plumage of the pheasant taper off to a point ? The haunts of these birds are among shrubs, bushes, and tall herbage, through which they have to make their way with as little rustling as possible : this their pointed tails enable them to do most perfectly. 869. Why do pheasants prefer larch trees to pwch upon ? Because the branches of this tree grow at nearly right angles from the stem ; which renders the sitting position of the birds peculiarly easy. 870. Why have the eggs of guinea fowls so hard a shell ? Because these birds deposit their eggs on the ground, and were the shells not harder than those of ordi- nary eggs, they would be broken by many accidental causes. The eggs, though laid on the ground, are usually concealed. NATURAL HISTOUY. 275 O'er the wild waste the stupid ostrich strays In devious search to pick her scanty meal, Whose fierce digestion gnaws the temper'd steel." — 871. Why do fowls and other birds hustle themselves in the dust? Because by this action they rid themselves of the vermin with which they are liable to be troubled. 872. On the same principle, swine wallow in the mire, and the rhinoceros and the elephant roll their bodies in the mud to defend them from the breeze-fly. ORDER VI.— CURSORES. 873. Why is the order cursores so termed? Because the birds comprehended therein are distinguished by possessing great powers of locomotion a-foot. 874. The word cursores is derived from the Latin verb curro, "I run." These birds are strictly and exclusively terres- trial: have powerful and even massive legs, moved by volumi- nous muscles ; and wings which are scarcely more than rudi- mentary, barely enabling the bird to rise above the surface of the earth. The ostrich, dodo, and cassowary are the chief examples of this order. 875. Why is the ostrich the swiftest, of animals ? Because of the very wide and scanty distribution of its foodt and the consequent large area over which it must travel in order to obtain it. 87G. Why does the extraordinary power ? ostrich possess digestive organs of Because the scanty supply of food which the deserts afford, renders it necessary that the bird should be able to 276 THE REASON WHY: "At both these times they -were motherless and helplesse, concernynge theyre owne strengthes; but were yet cared for of God."— BIBLK NOTES, 1551. extract the whole nourishment which that supply is capable of rendering. 877. Why does the hen ostricl continue to lay eggsj while engaged in incubation ? Because she thus provides for her young brood a means of subsistence which they would otharwise need. The eggs laid during incubation are destined to nourish the brood ? 8*R. Although as large as pullets when first hatched, the young ostriches are then unable to digest the hard and acrid food on which the old ones subsist. The eggs laid for this purpose are not deposited in the nest, but placed outside it, which alone would be a proof of the use they are intended to serve. 879. Why does the hen ostrich sometimes abandon her nest for a long period ? Because the absence of moisture in the desert diminishes the quantity of food which the bird can meet with : and this compels her to take long journeys in order to preserve her life. 880. Under such circumstances, she also actually requires more food ; for the amount necessary to the healthy state of an animal increases with the increase, of its labour. That this is the only reason why the ostrich should for a while abandon her eggs, is made clear by the fact that where food is more plentiful — i.e., in districts better watered — she takes a narrower range, and is less frequently absent from the nest. Und^r the tropics, where vegetation abounds, she seldom, if ever, quits it till the eggs are hatched. 881. Why has the hen ostrich been cited as a type of the neglectful mother ? Because of an apparent inclination to abandon her eggs to chance^ by leaving them uncovered during some hours of the day. 882. This carelessness is, however, only apparent. During the heat of the African day the vertical rays of the sun are sufficient to keep the eggs at a proper temperature, and the mother takes that opportunity to procure food foi herself. During such an ex;ursion she still hovers abou/! her nest, and if surprised! mokes a short circuit, and returns to the object of ner care. NATURAL HISTORY. 277 I'll make thee eat iron like an ostrich, and swallow my sword like a ?reat pjn> ere tQOU and j part."— S The expressions in the Book of Job, derogatory to tha character of the ostrich, ure to be understood as spoken by an individual, not as coming from the lips of inspired wisdom. God has looked upon the creation of his hands and pronounced it "very good." Job (in chap, xxxix.) s-poke according to his limited knowledge of the habits of birds, and might pardonably err.* In the dry desert, where the hen ostrich deposits her eggs, scarcely any dew is formed during the night ; and she can without injury to them afford to be absent from the nest during the whole twenty-four hours, if such an absence should be necessary. For the radiation of heat from the sand during the night would be quite sufficient to keep up a stimulus to vitality in the eggs until the direct sun of another day came upom them. 883. Why does the foot of the ostrich resemble that of a camel ? Because it inhabits the same regions, and is subject to the same set of circumstances ; with this difference, that as its pace is more swift, the foot of the ostrich is therefore proportionally hard and callous. 884. The resemblance between the ostrich and camel has always been a subject of remark. Ey the ancient authors it was called the camel-bird. Aristotle asserts it to be partly bird and partly quadruped ; and Pliny does the same. Its powers of digestion assimilate it to the ruminating animals; it does, in fact, occupy the place among birds which the camel, "the ship of the desert," does among mammalia. 885. Why has the ostrich small and light wings ? It is a rule in nature that whenever one species of action is required in a very high degree the organization of an animal is concentrated upon that. Flight would have been of comparatively little, use to a -vegetable feeding bird, where its height, standing on fciot, is quite sufficient to reach the top of the tallest shrub on its pastures. 886. Wings sufficient to bear up so weighty a bird as the ostrich hi swift motion through the air would have demanded a waste of muscular exertion, for the supply of which sufficient food could not have been found in the region inhabited by it. * See "The Biblica. Reason Why" foi many interesting explanations of Scripture texts. 278 THE REASON WHY: " A giantess she seems ; but, look behind, And then she dwindles to the pigmy kind, Duck-legged, short waisted." — DKYUEN. ORDER VII.— GRALLATORES. 887. \Vhy is the order grallatores so termed? From the circumstance that the birds comprehended in it are waders, distinguished by the length of their legs, and generally of their bilk. The word is formed from grallce, " stilts ;" grallatores, therefore, means literally "stilt walkers" 888. These birds feed upon worms and the smaller species of fish found on the banks, and hold an intermediate place between land and aquatic birds ; and though not provided with any apparatus to enable them to swim, the provision thus made, as in the case of the long-legged plover seen in the engraving, enables them to wade in the water in search of their prey, and to seize it without any difficulty. 889. Why have long-legged wading birds generally short tails f Because tails of any considerable length would be inconvenien to such birds : coming in contact with water, theyt would be liable to become wet, heavy, and cumbersome. For, although the plumage of water-birds is provided with an oil which repels water, it operates chiefly upon the closer plumage, to prevent the water from penetrating to the flesh of the body. 890. Another reason why wading birds have short tails is to be found in the fact that many of them are of hiding habits, and fond of concealing themselves in tall vegetation. Birds which have these habits are always small-tailed, or thai member is so disposed, as in the pheasant, that it trails the earth, and in no way interferes with their concealment. 891. Wliy have wading birds wide-spreading feet ? Because, in searching after their food, they have frequently tc NATURAL HISTORY. 279 " There's not a better steerrr in the realm, I hope, my lord, you'll call him to the helm." — SWIFT. ttand by the slippery edges of the water, and to steady themselves on sloping* banks of wet grass, neither of which could they effect securely were their feet formed with a narrower base. 892. Why do short-tailed birds generally throw their leas behind them when flying ? Because, being destitute of the steerage power usually afforded by the tail, they find a substitute in their long legs, which they throw back to occupy its place : thus they get rid of the inconvenience of long legs while flying, and are compensated for the absence of the tail. 893. Wliy have jish-eating birds in general no crop ? Because all they swallow, however large it may be, enters at once into the stomach, and undergoes immediate digestion. 894. Why has the snipe a long tapering bill ? Because it derives its food by penetrating its bill into the moist earth. This is exactly the instrument which the animal wanted. It did not require strength in its bill, which was inconsistent with the slender form of the animal's neck, as well as unnecessary for the kind of aliment upon which it subsists ; but it wanted length to reach its object. 895. Why are the eyes of snipes placed more backward in the head, than in most other birds? Because these organs are not much wanted in the immediate capture of their prey, and are thus placed so as to best guard against enemies. And besides, the eyes being thus situated, enables the bill to bore its whole length in the mud, when searching for worms. •280 THE REASON WHY : " But if I knew when yc-u come next a burclinp, I'll have a stronger noose to hold the icoodcock." BEAUMONT AND FLKTCHER. 896. Why are birds of the snipe family without the hind toe of other birds ? Because in wading in the mud, where the feet must necessarily sink deeply, a long hind toe would be an incuinbrance, and tend to throw the bird on to its head in the water. 897. Why do snipes and woodcocks gradually disappear from cultivated districts ? Becalise the three essentials to the tribe are solitude, shelter, and humidity — consequently, population, clearance, and drainage drive them into more sequestered places. 898. The grand resort of woodcocks in summer is understood to be marshy woods to the north of the Baltic ; and the farther north, so long as the place is wooded, the better, as the insect food for the birds is not only more plentiful, but the sludge of the marshes is more exclusively the nest of larvae. 899. Why does the flamingo, when feeding, hold its head and beak upside-down in the water '/ The feet of the bird while feeding are moved in a trampling manner, in order to stir the sand or mud beneath the water ; the food thus disturbed, whether insects, fish, or stones, are conti- nually falling into their former position. The flamingo, by placing its head in that peculiar way, catches in its mouth, tests upon its tongue, and appropriates to its use whatever is suitable for food. 900. The structure of the flamingo's tongue is admirably adapted to its purpose. The spines with which the upper surface is armed are arranged in an irregular and alternate series, and act with the notches on the edge of the upper mandible, on which they press when the bird feeds with the head reversed. In this reversed position, the weight and size of the tongue supply a very efficient instrument for entrapping the food. The bird muddles and clutters the bill, and dabbles about ; and the tongue receives, and holds as a strainer, whatever the water offers foi food.* * Maunder's "Treasury." NATURAL HISTORY. 281 " What is this mighty breath, ye sages, say That, in a powerful language, felt, not heard, Instructs the fowls of heaven ?"— THOMSON. 901. Why does the flamingo make its nest upon mound-like elevations ? Because the great length of the legs of the flamingo preclude the possibility of its conducting incubation in the ordinary manner. Inhabiting inarshy places, the nests are thus raised above the wet soil, to a dry and warm situation, in which the process of hatch- ing can more effectually he accomplished. 902. These elevated nests are constructed by the bird out of loose earth or mud, formed into the shape of a hillock, with a hollow cavity at the top ; the eggs are two or three in number, white, and as large as those of a goose, but of a longer figure. The female sits upon her nest during incubation, the attitude being that of a person sitting upon a high stool — the legs resting on marshy giound, and sometimes even in the water. Sometimes, if the female finds a low projecting rock, she makes her nest on the edge thereof, and raises no hillock. 903. Why has the avocet a bill shaped like a scoop ? Avocets are fen birds ; but, in feeding, they frequent only those parts of the fens which are alternately flooded and left dry by tidal waters. Their bills are not adapted for talcing any kind of food upon land ; neither are they fitted for fishing in the waters. Their food is contained in mud, ooze, or light gravel ; and consists of worms, larvae, and small molluscous and crustaceous animals, wliich are there found in great plenty. The greater number of these are embedded to a certain depth, and are not seen by birds that feed by sight. THE REASON WHT : " The machine, which we are inspecting, demonstrates by its construction, contrivance, and design. Contrivance must have had a contriver, design a designer ; whether the machine imme- diately proceeded from another machine or not." — PALKY. 1. In searching for its food among various accumulated matters, the avocet moves along with slow but rather lengthy steps, and scoops ooze or mud in curves, right and left, as it proceeds. In performing this opera- tion, it does not use the bill only, but the whole body. It alights in the middle with its head in the stream, and the one foot a little in advance of the other. It then stretches and depresses the neck, and gives it a twist, so that the extremity of the bill, •« hich is on a level with the ooze, is turned to the other side. The foot farthest in advance is the pivot on which it is to turn, in making the stroke which sweeps one curve. Then it slowly advances the rearmost foot, which elevates the binder part of the body, depresses the fore part, and throws the support on the advanced foot, while, supported by that, and moved by the lever power of the other as it is brought forward, the axis the body is caused to cross the stream obliquely in an opposite direction : by this motion the bill makes another scoop. The head and bill are then elevated for the purpose of conveying to the gullet the food which the bill has thus collected. 905. WHiy has the spoon-bill long, flattened mandibles ? Because these birds inhabit the borders of rivers and sea-coasts, where they feed upon small fish, shrimps, frogs, quails, and aquatic insects; and the form of the bill is admirably adapted for seizing such descriptions of prey. Their beaks consist of long, flat, and broad mandi- bles, widening and flattening at the end, so as to torin a roundish spatula. *>ssm NATURAL HISTORY. 283 The stork assembly meets ; for many a day, Consulting deep, and various, ere they take Their arduous voyage through the liquid sky." — THOMSON. 906. Paley makes these general and interesting remarks upon the forms of the bills of birds : — In birds, the mouth assumes a new character ; new both in sub- stance and in form, but in both wonderfully adapted to the wants and uses of a distinct mode of existence. "We have no longer the fleshy lips, the teeth of enamelled bone ; but we have, in the place of these two parts, and to perform the office of both, a hard substance, of the same nature with that which composes the nails, claws, and hoofs of quadrupeds, cut into proper shapes, and mechanically suited to the actions which are wanted. The sharp and tempered point of the sparrow's bill picks almost every kind of eeed from its concealment in the plant; and not only so, but hulls the grain, breaks and shatters the coats of the seed, in order to get at the kernel. In the same way it breaks the shells of snails, to get at the animal food within. The hooked beak of the hawk tribe separates the flesh from the bones of the animals which it feeds upon, almost with the cleanliness and precision of a dissecting knife. The butcher-bird transfixes its prey upon the spike of a thorn, whilst it picks the bones. In some birds of this class we have the cross bill — i.e., both the upper and lower bill hooked, and their tips crossing ; and these bills are used for splitting the cones of firs, and other seed-vessels, harder than the ordinary grains and seeds which are dissected by the beak of the sparrow. _ The spoon bill enables the goose to graze, to collect its food from the bottom of pools, or to seek it amidst the soft substances with which it is mixed. The long tapering bill of the snipe and woodcock penetrates deeply into the bed of the moist earth. But the species of bill which belong to the birds that live by suction deserves to be described in relation to that office. They are what naturalists call serrated, or dentated bills ; the inside of them towards the edge being thickly set with parallel or concentric rows of short, strong, sharp-pointed prickles. These form a filter. The duck, by means of them, strains the mud ; examining with great accuracy the puddle, the brake— every mixture which is likely to contain her food. 907. Why is the stork an enemy to the cat species? Because probably their habits and tastes are too similar for them to reside peaceably together. The stark is fond of small birds ; so is the cat, who. loves young storks. The parent stork is partial to kittens, as an article of food, and finds them an easy and wholesome prey. Hence the comity of the two species. 908. Why are birds oj the stork tribe generally voracious eaters ? Because they are subject to great vicissitude* of season ; at THE REASON WHY . " Who bade the stork, Columbus-like, explore Heavens not his own, and worlds unknown before T Who calls the council, states the certain day, Who forms the phalanx, and who points the way." — POPE. times rejoicing in plenty — at others suffering from scarcity. Their hearty feeding during favourable seasons enables them to bear a period of abstinence without material injury. 909. WJiy has the stork been from the most ancient periods an object of favour and veneration ? Because its usefulness is great ; especially in hot countries, where it acts as a vigilant scavenger, removing the causes of disease and death, and eating the most annoying species of reptiles. 910. Its beneficial labours in Egypt doubtless led to the deification of the ibis, a bird of similar character and form. In Holland, and the northern parts of Germany, the stork is still protected as a precursor of "good luck." 911. Why has the jacana toes of extraor- dinary length ? Because it inhabits the borders of waters which are frequently over-grown with the broad leaves of aquatic plants. Its spreading toes, coupled with the lightness of its body, enable the bird to walk upon the leaves, whilst it gathers the in- sects, worms, and small fishes that surround them. ;= — r_ :. nr: 912. Why has the jacana, sharp hard spurs on the corner each wing f Because snakes of various sizes, all rapacious, and to be dreaded. NATURAL HISTORY. 285 The sitting bird looks up with jetty eye, And waves her head in terror to and fro, Speckled and vein'd with various shades of brown." — CLARE. abound in the haunts of the bird. The spurs on the wings are effective weapons against these reptiles, the horny appendages of the beak assisting also in their destruction. 913. Why are herons furnished with wings which appear to be too cumbersome for their slight bodies ? Because those vast hollow wings are necessary in carrying burdens, such as large fishes and the like, with which they would be dragged to the earth were it not for the resisting force thus provided. 914. Why is so little known of the habits of the bittern ? Because it is a bird that loves seclusion, and fixes its haunts in wild and desolate places. No temptation will bring it upon cultivated or improved lands as a permanent resident ; and when the scarcity of winter forces it from the upland, it comes down reluctantly and stealthily, and seeks those streams and banks which are the rudest and least frequented. 915. Even when not upon the nest, the bittern squats among the rushes, or other tall stems, during the greater part of the day. The mode of squatting is rather peculiar, and may he understood from the accompanying figure. The neck, when the head is in this posture, is raised, and the point of the bill directed upwards, the body and legs being at the same time in such a position that a violent thrust may be given by the bill, if necessary ; and, as the neck is powerful, and, at the same time, readily moveable in such a manner as to secure the whole body from attack, there are few birds of prey that would venture to descend upon the bittern in this posi- tion, even if they should see it. 286 THE REASON WHY. Shall I, like Curtius, desperate in my zeal, O'er head and ears plunge for the common weal Or rob Homo's ancient t/cese of all their glories, And cackling ssave the monarchy of tories!" — POPE. ORDER VIII.— NATATORES. 916. Why is the eighth order of birds called natatores ? From nato, to swim, this being an equivalent term for swimmers, or water-fowl. 917. The head of this order is the goose, and by Linneus it was termed arseres, or the goose family. These birds display decidedly aquatic habits, swim with facility, and are able to pass the greater part of their lives upon the water. 918. Why are the natatores sometimes called by the name of "palmipedes" ? From palma, the flat front of the hand, and pes, a foot — implying that the birds are palm, or web-footed, the toes of the feet being con- nected by a web or mem- brane. 919. Why has the goose bun considered a stupid bird? It has occasionally a stupid look ; its walk, or rather waddle give it also an absurd and im- becile appearance ; but the ready way in which its apprehensions are excited seems to have been the first cause for this imputed character. NATURAL HISTORT. 287 So have I seen, within a pen, Young ducklings fostered by a hen ; But, when let out, they run and muddle, As instinct leads them, in a puddle." — SWIFT. 920. The number of geese sent from the northern and eastern counties t« London for sale annually is immense. They are now conveyed by rail, but former'y used to be driven by gooseherds (gozzards). These were furnished with long sticks, having a piece of red rag fastened at one end as a lash, and a hook at the other. Of this reJ rag the geese always had an unaccountable dread. The goose grazes, and, like the ox, is alarmed at a red colour, probably from the same cause, (see 540). 921. Why was the goose an object of respect to tJie ancient Roman people? On account of a circumstance by which a flock of geese saved the capital of Eome from surprise and capture. The goose, although regarded as an emblem of stupidity, is a very watchful bird, and when anything strange appears, sets up a loud and unmistakeable gabbling. 922. The Gauls, under Brennus (year of Rome, 364), were in possession of the greater part of the city. The garrison, however, still held the capitol, and that with such obstinacy that the Gaulish general had no hope but to starve it out. One day, Brennus was informed of a secret path by means of which he would be able to enter, and surprise the capitol. Accordingly, a chosen body of his men we> e ordered by night upon this dangerous service, which they, with great labour and difficulty, almost effected ; when suddenly the garrison was awakened to vigilance by the voices of some sacred geese kept in the Temple of Juno. They instantly flew to arms, and the capitol was saved. 923. Why are aquatic birds enable an arch, bringing forward the 320 THE REASON WHY : " Snakes breathe then- amorous si^hs in hisses. This dialect no creature misses." — SHERBURNS. hinder part, some point of which is then attached to the ground, liberating at the same time the fore part. The posterior point of attachment then becoming a fixed point, the animal throws forward its length by the action of its extensor muscles, after which it again attaches a point in the foremost part of its body to the ground, and repeats the same process. 1020. Why do serpents Id themselves fall from trees without sustaining injury ? Because their peculiar form, and the elasticity of their parts, prevent concussion from such falls. On reaching the ground, the shock they sustain, instead of proving hurtful, impels them forward, and serves as a stimulus to their subsequent movements. 1021. How does the snake throw its whole body from the ground in a kind of leap ? This is performed by placing the body upon the ground in form of a twisted spiral, the folds of the anterior part forming the centre of the figure ; then suddenly extending itself in the manner of a spring, it throws itself to a distance. 1022. This movement may sometimes be seen in very hot -weather by the banks of the stream, where snakes often lie basking with their bodies coiled in the manner just described, the neck and head being directed from the centre to the circumference above the folds. This position seems to be preferred to any other by the snake while reposing ; and it is one from which the animal is enabled to perform the most rapid movement upon a sudden surprise ; for, in a wood, from this position they will leap by an instantaneous effort into the brushwood, and thus elu le our most energetic efforts to secure them, or even to get sight of them ; but by the side of a stream this movement may be better seen, for on a sudden approach they will leap from the bank into the midst of the stream, swim to the opposite side, ascend the bank, and secrete themselves. 1023. Why is the rattlesnake provided with a rattle at tht extremity of its tail ? The use of this curious apparatus is unknown, though so obvious a contrivance cannot be without its specific uses. NATURAL HISTORY. 321 Where at each step the stranger fears to wake The rattling terrors of the vengeful snake." — GOLDSMITH. It has been alleged that it is a signal of warning to keep away animals that might hear it, from the deadly venom of the snake. But it is altogether opposed to the economy of nature to endow an animal with means to scare away the prey upon which it must subsist. It is not unlikely that, as the snake does not climb trees, nor move about with the graceful evolutions of other tribes, but glides along the ground in low and secret places, the rattle is used as a call to members of its own species. 1024. Why have serpents the power of fascination ? Being deficient in organs of locomotion, the power of fascination has probably been bestowed upon them as a compensatory endow- ment. Otherwise, what chance would there be of a snake bringing down a bird, or pursuing successfully a swift rabbit ? 1025. Why are the Indian snake-catchers enabled to charm snakes ? It seems to be well-established by observation that certain kinds of serpents are exceedingly impressible by musical sounds. A similar fact has been noted with respect to seals, rats, mice, and other animals. But serpents appear to be impressible in a higher degree, and the Indians, who study their habits, learn the exact notes by which the serpents are most affected, and acquire the power of what has been termed "charming them." ORDER IV.— AMPHIBIA. * 1026. Why is the fourth order of reptiles called amphibia t From two Greek words, meaning both and life. Amphibials are animals formed to live on land, and to be also capable of living for a long time under water. Their hearts have but one ventricle , their blood is red and cold ; and they have such a command of the lungs, as for a considerable time to suspend respiration. These peculiarities, which characterise the amphibia in particular, also generally to all the order of reptiles. 14* 322 THE REASON WHY : " Onely these marishes and myrie bogs, In which the fearefull ewftes do build their bowres, Yield me an hostry 'mongst the croaking froys."— SPENSHR. 1027. Why when the frog is breathing does it keep its mouth firmly shut, and also continually raising and lowering the skin between the bones of the under jaw ? Because, owing to its peculiar structure, it cannot breathe with the mouth open ; and if it were forcibly kept open, the animal Would die of suffo- cation. 1028. The explanation of this ap- parent anomaly is as follows : — The frog receives the air which is to be conveyed to the lungs through the nostrils, but there is no vacuum or cavity formed by the expansion of the thorax, so that the mere pressure of the atmosphere following the expansion, does not, in this instance, innate the lungs. An effort is required after the air is taken ii,to the body, and that is performed chiefly by the tongue. The depression of the skin ol the lower jaw lasts much longer than the elevation, because there is a double operation to be performed— the expulsion of the air already in the lungs, and the re-admission of fresh air into the body. When that skin first descends, there is a contractile action of the abdomen, by which the air in the lungs is driven out ; and when that is all expired, the abdomen returns to its natural state ; but being without bones it cannot form a vacuum, and thus the lungs could not be inflated but by some other action capable of overcoming the resistance of their cells. 1029. How are the showers of frogs, which are often reported as taking place, accounted for ? The explanation of this apparent phenomenon is as follows : It is generally about the month of August, and often after a season of drought, that these hordes of frogs make their appearance ; the animals have been hatched, and quitted their tadpole state, and native pond. Finding the fields hot and parched, they seek the coolest and dampest places, and conceal themselves undei NATURAL HISTORY. 323 " I had rather be a toad, and live upon the vapour of a dungeon, than keep a comer in the thing I love for others, uses." — SHAKSPKKE. clods and stones, where, on account of their dusky colour, they escape notice. When the rain descends, they come forth in hundreds from their hiding places, and hence are supposed to have fallen to earth in a shower. 1030. How is the bull-frog enabled to make the bellowing noise from which it takes its name? This sound is produced by certain portions of the larynx of the animal being convex externally and concave internally, so that when the entrance to the larynx is closed, they form a dome over the windpipe, which, from its vibratory properties, has been compared to a kettle-drum. 1130. How is the croaking of the frog produced? This peculiar sound, which is supposed to be expressive of pleasure, is produced by means of the air which it forces into the globular vocal sacs, which are situated near the corners of the mouth, and causes to vibrate in them. The female being without these organs, produces only a slight noise. 1032. Why are frogs frequently found dead in dusty roads ? Because their skin co-operates with their feeble lungs in the aeration of the blood. This internal respiration can only take place when the skin is bedewed with moisture. For this purpose the frog is endowed with certain glands that secrete a fluid to moisten the skin. In dusty roads this fluid becomes cloggpd with dust, and the respiration of the skin being stopped, the animal dies. 1033. Why are toads useful in greenhouses and other horti- cultural buildings? Because they destroy ants; anl devour earwigs, caterpillarsy small beetlfs, slugs, and all insects which chance to fall in their way. 324 THE REASON WHY : Thou cold-blooded slave, Hast thou not spoke like thunder on my side? Beene sworne my soldier, * * And dost thou now fall over to my foes ? "— SHAKSPERK. 1034. Why are toads enabled to live embedded in rock or stone ? Because their skins are capable of effecting the necessary change* in the system when the function of the lungs is altogether ar- rested ; and, requiring an inconceivably small portion of air, they are enabled to live by the supply which penetrates the pores of the material in which they are embedded. MISCELLANEOUS. 1035. Wliy have most reptiles a kind of moveable lid at the aperture of their nasal organs ? Reptiles are thus provided, so that when they are under water, (he organ of smell may be exercised or protected as circumstances may require. The proper vehicle of the impression of smell in reptiles is air ; and this they draw through their nasal cavities durirg inspiration, effecting the operation by depressing their lingual bone, and thus enlarging the cavity of the mouth. 1036. Why can reptiles abstain for an extraordinary length of time from food and drink ? Because the languid circulation of their blood, their rare secre- tions, low temperature, and scaly and impermeable envelope, render their losses by evaporation from the skin very incon- siderable ; so that the frequent supplies which are wanted in other animals, to compensate for the incessant waste, are not required for reptiles. 1037. Why are reptiles termed cold-blooded? Because they do not produce enough heat to have a temperature eensibly higher than that of the surrounding air. The whole of their body is heate4 Qr cooled at the same time ai NATURAL HISTORY. 325 " Forthwith the sounds and seas, each creek and bay, "With Me innumerable swarme, and shoales Of fish, that with their ftnnes and shining scales Glide under the greene wave." — MII.TOX the surrounding medium ; and the changes of temperature "which they thus experience have great influence upon all their functions. A warmth of from 105° to 120° is soon fatal to most of these animals ; and cold tends to depress all their natural operations. In winter, most of them could no longer digest the food introduced into their stomach, and do not take nourishment. Their respiration also diminishes in a most remarkable manner. Thus, during the cold season, the action of the air on the skin is sufficient for the maintenance of the life of the frog ; and the lungs of one of these animals may be removed without producing asphyxia ; whilst in summer they have need not only of the pulmonary respiration, but also of their cutaneous ; and death soon occurs when the air does not act on the skin, or is excluded from the lungs. CLASS IV.— PISCES. ORDER I.— LEPTOCARDIA.* 1038. Why is the first order of fishes called leptocardia ? From two Greek words signifying small and heart, with reference to the rudimentary formation of the heart, which, indeed, is said to be absent, and to consist entirely of the contractile power of the arteries. 1039. This order includes only a single small fish, which rarely attains a length of two inches, and which presents so many remarkable characters that its position in classification has been much disputed. This is the Amphioxus lanceolatus, a little, slender, transparent creature, found on sandy coasts in various parts of the woz-ld. Its body is of the lamprey form, with a narrow membranous border. The vertebral column is represented by a gelatinous cord, wlvch supports the axis of the nervous system; the latter terminates anteriorly by a rounded extremity, without any signs of a brain. The head bears a pair of eyes, which are connected with the end of the nervous axis by short filaments, and there is an apparent • The classification here pursued combines the systems of Cuvier and Agassiz, a& blended by M tiller. 326 THE REASON WHY : " Lie there, Lycaon : let the fish surround Thy bloated corpse, and suck thy gory wound."— POPE. rudiment of an olfactory organ. The mouth is at the front of the head, -where it forms an oval opening without jaws, but surrounded by a number of cartilaginous points ; the oval cavity leads into a large branchial sac. By the action of cilia, with which these cavities are lined, currents are produced in water, the water passing off through numerous slits in its walls into the general cavity of the bc'dy, whence it escapes by an opening in the ventral surface.* ORDER II.— CYCLOSTOMATA. 1040. Why is the second order of fifties called cyclostomata f From two Greek words meaning a circle and a mouth, in reference to the circular mouth which distinguishes the members of the order. 1041. They are of an elongated, cylindric, and worm-like form ; the skin is tough and destitute of scales ; the pectoral and ventral fins are wanting ; the skeleton is cartilaginous ; breathing orifices, little sacs that open exteriorly by separate vents ; heart muscular, composed of two chambers. 1042. Why has the lamprey a circular, cartilaginous mouth ? Because it lives by suction, some species living upon insects and worms : others upon the juices of the larger fishes. One species, the hag, con- trives to enter the mouths of fishes, and extracts their S'ibstnnce by sucking. Fish tha have been hooked on Hm s and allowed to remain in the water for some time afterwards, have been attacked by these creatures, and when drawn up have been found to consist of Httle more than empty skin. 1043. Formerly the lamprey was a fish of considerable importance. It was taken in great quantities in the Thames, and sold to the Dutch as bait for turbot, c<'d, and other fisheries. Four hundred thousand have been sold in one season foi • Orr's "P'rcle of the Sciences." NATURAL HISTORY. 327 Let riches never breede a lofty minde, Let nature's giltes make no man oner blinde, For these are all but bladiers full of winde." — TURBERVILLK. this purpose, at the rate of forty shillings a thousand. From fire pounds 1 o eight pounds a thousand has been given ; but a comparative scarcity of late years, and consequent increase in price, have obliged the line fishermen to adopt other substances for bait.* ORDER III.— TELEOSTIA. 1044. IVhy is the third order of fishes named teleostia '* From two Greek words signifying perfect, and bones, in reference to the perfect bony skeletons which they possess. 1045. In fishes of this order the skill! is always of a very complicated structure, composed of numerous bones ; the gills are supported upon free bony arches, and the water passes away from them by a single aperture, protected by bony gill covers. The mouth is always formed by a pair of jaws, and usually armed with teeth. The ORDER is again divided into six Sub-orders: 1. Physoto- mata ; 2. Anacanthina ; 3. Pharyngognatha ; 4. Acanthoptera ; 5. Lopobranchia ; 6. Plectognatha Sub-order I. — Physotomata. 1046. Wliy is the sub-order physotomata so named ? From the Greek phuaso, to blow, or inflate, in allusion to the possession of an air-bladder, connected with the pharynx by a duct, which only occurs in these fishes, of all the teleostia. 1047. The fishes belonging to this group are usually furnished with a complete series of fins, which are always composed entirely of soft rays, with the exception * Yarrell's " History of British Fishes.' 328 THE REASON WHY .* " Genius, piercing as the electric flame, When waked in one, in others wakes the same." — SCOTT. of the first ray in the dorsal, anal, and pectoral fins, which are sometimes spir.ous. The ventral fins are sometimes wanting ; when present, they are always abdominal in position. The skin is sometimes naked, at other times more or less covered with oony plates; in most cases, however, it is thickly clad with scales. The air bladder is connected with the pharynx by a sort of duct. The sub-order includes most of the important fishes that are sought for as food by man, and one species which possesses electrical powers. 1048. fHiy lias the gymnotus the power of communicating electric shocks ? For the purpose of defending itself from enemies, and also to benumb its prey, which is generally swifter in motion than the eel, until the latter can overtake it. 1049. That these are the reasons why this animal is endowed with this wonderful power there can be no doubt, since the uses made of the electric force by the eel have been well ascertained. The electric eel is not only one of the most extraordinary of fishes, but it is one of the most wonderful productions of living nature. And yet it is no more wonderful than the serpent which fascinates it prey; than the bird which baits with insects the branches of shrubs, in order to attract small birds thither ; than the fish which emits jets of water to knock down flies ; or the spider which constructs a beautiful snare, and waits silently and motionless the entrapment of its victim. These various means to the same end, with which different animals are endowed, illustrate the boundless resources of the Creative Wisdom. The apparatus in which the electric power is lodged is a very singular one, consisting of four organs, which are placed longitudinally in the tail of the fish. The organic part of this singular apparatus consists of a countless assemblage of cells, which have some analogy to the divisions of a galvanic battery. The nature of the shock transmitted appears to be galvanic or electrical. Nearly the same substances are conductors and non-conductors of the shock, as are conductors and non-conductors of common electricity. The eel may with perfect impunity be touched with a glass rod, or the hand wrapped in a dry silk handker- chief ; but metals, water, and almost all moist bodies conduct it readily. If the animal is touched with one hand only, that is, if it is touched only in one place, no shock is felt ; but if it is touched in two places considerably apart from each other, the shock is very violent Tlie manner in which the force is applied is as follows :— The gymnotus approaches as nearly as possible its intended prey; the latter endeavour to escape, when the gymnotus discharges its battery, which h as been found to be powerfully effective al a distance of fifteen fee'. The creature tnus benumbed is incapable of any further effort, and the eel swims leisurely towards and devours it. The degree of force which can be thus exerted is considerable. Horses entering NATURAL HISTORY. 329 Barefoot may no neighbour wade In thy cool streams, wife nor maid, When the spawns on stones do lye, To wash their hemp, and spoil the fry." BEAVMONT AND FLETCHER. oonds where electric eels abound are frequently knocked down by its violence ; and the Indians of South America, where the gymnotus abounds, are frequently Irowned while bathing, being stunned by the shock from these animals. It is remarkable that in tropical lands there are found the choicest fruits, the most beautiful flowers, the grandest plumage, the richest perfumes ; and there, too, the rattle-snake has the deadliest poison, and the gymnotus its strange electrical power.* 1050. Why is the hewing so called? From the German har, an army, with reference to the numbers in which they move from place to place. 1051. Why do herrings migrate ? The migrations of the herring are analogous to those of certain hirds. Impelled by unfailing instinct, the herring leaves the depths of our surrounding seas to deposit its spawn in the shallower waters of the coast, there to be vivified by the genial influence of the sun ; and after accomplishing its purpose, it retires to the remoter deeps. 1052. The herring is es?entially a northern fish ; seldom has it been found so fai south as the Bay of Biscs/, in Europe, or the coast of Carolina, in America. Lik» plants that, flourishing in certain climates only, become fewer and more stunted the nearer they approach the limits of their zone, herrings decrease in numbei and size as they approach their assigned southern boundary — those caught on tht southern shores of England being considerably smaller that those which frequent the coast of Norway. Thus it is that about the month of July, the grand array of herrings is found to the northward of the Shetlands, in distinct columns five and six miles long, three and four miles broad. Pressing for the shallows, they drive the sea before them in a continuous ripple. Sometimes they sink down fathoms deep for a few minutes, then again rising to the surface, sparkle in the son like a prairie strewn with diamonds. Nor even during the calm summer night is the sceno less brilliant, from the intense scintillations of phosphoric light exhibited by the count- less myriads of moving fish. The quantity of life in these shoals would be completely beyond belief if we did not recollect that 36,000 eggs have been counted in the spawn of one herring. 1053. Wliy do herrings swim in shoals ? Because, like migratory birds and quadrupeds, large numbers of * Pennant. 330 THE REASON WHY : " The scaly herd, a numerous throng, Beneath her silver billows glide along, Whose still increasing shoals supply The poor man's wants, the great one's luxury." — SOMERVILLE. them are acted upon by the same necessity at the same time ; they therefore move together by a common impulse, to fulfil an uniform end. Herrings, and all fishes that are known to swim in shoals, are solitary except when the necessity for spawning approaches, and then the prevailing need brings them together in enormous numbers. 1054. No adequate conception can be formed of the myriads of herrings and pilchards that move together in what are called shoals, which often extend many miles in length and breadth. In some of the lochs, or arms of the sea, on the west coast of Scotland, herrings have often been cast ashore by storms in such numbers that they have been used as manure for land. Upon one occasion, the bellman of Crail, at the eastern extremity of the peninsula of Fife, was sent round with the bell to announce that any one who chose to go to the shore would get a cart-load of live herrings for a shilling. This passed without much notice ; but, by-and-bye, the bellman again went round, pro- claiming that any one who chose might go and obtain a cart-load of live herrings for nothing. This announcement, of course, excited some speculation ; but it was speedily followed by a third one— that any one who would be kind enough to go to the shore of Crail would get a shilling for taking aioay a cart-load of herrings. The explanation was, that a storm which was then prevailing continued to drive large shoals of herrings upon the shore ; so that, when left by the ebb-tide, they lay in countless thousands for at least a mile and a half or two miles along the coast. The reason for the latter announcement was a fear on the part of the authorities of Ci'ail, that such a quantity of animal matter remaining to putrify on the beach would taint the atmosphere, and cause disease. 1055. W\\y are jew herrings and pilchards caught in the cold months ? Because they then resort to deep waters, beyond the reach of nets. They keep to the bottom of the sea, where they feed upon small crustaceous animals and a minute species of shrimp not larger than a flea. This being their natural food and mode of feeding, it is impossible to take them with a hook, though a rare instance of a pilchard being hooked with a worm is upon record. Pilchards are, however, frequently found in the stomachs of large voracious fishes, caught during the colder months. NATURAL HISTORY. 331 " Before that, a plump vintner Kneeling1, and offering incense to his deitie, "Which shall be only this, red sprats and pilcbers." BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER. 105G. What is the difference between tlw pilchard and tht herring ? The pilchard is a different species, thicker and smaller than the herring ; the scales large, while those of the herring are small. The posterior edge of the dorsal fin is nearly over the centre of gravity, so that when a pilchard is held by this fin, the head rises, and the tail droops down, which is the reverse of what happens with the herring. The pilchard is a more southerly and more local fish than the herring, being found chiefly on the Cornish coasts ; and it is rare that one is found beyond Dover, or even in the narrow part of the Channel. 1057. What are sprats? Sprats are a distinct species offish, though of the herring family, of which those usually sold are full grown. 1058. Why do sprats usually appear soon after herrings have spawned ? Because sprats approach the shore for the like purpose of spawning, their season being a little later than the herrings. Tbe resemblance of the sprat to the herring, and their becoming abundant soon after the herring season, has led to the erroneous supposition that sprats are young herrings. 1059. What are whitebait? They are a distinct species* and not, as generally supposed, the fry of a larger kind. 1060. About the end of March, or early in April, whitebait begin to make their appearance in the Thames, and are then small, apparently but just changed from the albuminous state of very young fry. In September, specimens of whitebait, tae young fish of the year, may be taken as long as four or five inches but *hey * Clapea alba. Yarrel. 332 THE REASON WHY: " The lusty salmon, then, from Neptune's wat'ry realm, When as his season serves, stemming my tideful stream."— DRAYTOJ are even then mixed with others of very small size, as though the roe had continued to be deposited throughout the summer. In their habits they appear to oe similar to the young of the herring, always keeping in shoals, and swimming occasionally near the surface of the water, where they often fall a prey to aquatic birds. Whitebait live upon minute Crustacea. 1061. What are anchovies? Anchovies are a genus of soft-famed fishes,* belonging to the family of herrings, but separated from that genus by certain structural differences of habit and haunt. 1062. The habits of all the herring family are similar : they are migratory, and swim in shoals ; and, with the exception of the shad, and those species which frequent the great freshwater lakes and do not migrate to the sea, they all remain in salt water. The anchovies inhabit waters nearer to the equator than the herrings, and may be said to take up the occupation of the sea where the herrings leave it off. 1063. Wliy do salmon arrive in some rivers earlier than in others ? It has been suggested that this depends upon the varying warmth of the waters ; those highland rivers which arise from large locks being all early, owing to the warmer temperature and great mass of their sources ; while those rivers which are swollen by melting snows in the spring months are later in their fish-producing season. 1064. Why do female salmon in the spawning season ascend the rivers before the males? Because the former are impelled by a necessity which probably operates in a higher degree with them than with the latter : the males, therefore, follow the females, and pair, and attend them during their spawning, and afterwards become, as it were, their escort to the sea. 1065. The sexes of fishes, if we except the sharks and rays, offer no very decided external characters. In the males, the respiratory organs occupy more space than * Engraulis encrasicolus. NATURAL HISTORY. i)3 " The salmon, (which at spring forsakes Thetis' salt waves,) to look on him, Upon the water's top doth swim."— SHERBURNK. in the females ; and the abdomen is larger in the females than in the males : the males may be distinguished by their somewhat sharper and more pointed head, the greater length of gill cover, and the body, from the dorsal fin downwards, being not so deep compared with the whole length of the fish. The organs of reproduction consist of two elongated oval lobes of roe, one on each side of the body, placed between the ribs and the intestinal canal ; the lobes in the female called hard roe, contain a very large number of roundish ova, or eggs, enclosed in a membranous bag. In the male, the lobes of roe are smaller than in the females, and have the appearance of two elongated musses of fat, which are called soft roe. In the spawning season, these soft rows become fluid, and are voided during the time of spawning, the ova of the female being impregnated thereby. 1066. Why do salmon, when either ascending or descending rivers, halt in the brackish water where fresh and salt water mingle ? By so doing, they accustom themselves gradually to the change of element which they have to undergo. And here they obtain a release from numerous parasitic animals, those of the salt water being destroyed by contact with fresh, and vice versa* 1067. Why is the jlesh of the salmon red ? It has been assumed by Dr. Knox, that this redness is owing to the peculiar food upon which the salmon subsists when at sea — consisting of the eggs of various kinds of small marine animals. Salmon are known to eat, also, sand-eels, small fishes, and various diminutive marine animals. Mr. Morrison stated before the Highland Society, that he had taken salmon within flood mark, some of which had two, and others three, full-sized herrings in their stomachs. 1068. }V~hat circumstances give rise to the various varieties of trout ? It is probable that there are not only varieties, but that there is more than one species of river trout. But when we consider geologically the various strata traversed by rivers in their course, the effect these variations of soil must produce upon the water 334 THE REASON WHY": " Lure From his dark haunt, beneath the tan tried roots Of pendant trees, the monarch of the brook." — THOMSON. and the influence which the constant operation of the water is likely to have upon the fish that inhabit it ; when we reflect also on the great variety of food afforded by different rivers, we shall be able to assign very probable reasons for the variations both in size and colour which are found to occur. 1069. Lord Howe remarks, that " There are two considerable streams which take their rise at no great distance from each other, the Whiteadder and the Blackadder, the latter tributary to the former. The Whiteadder from head to foot flowing along a very rocky and gravelly bed, while the Blackadder (Blackwater) rises in the deep mosses near Wedderlea, and the Dorrington laws (high hills), and flows for about half its course through a rich and highly cultivated district. The trout of White- adder (Whitewater) are a beautiful silvery fish, but good for nothing ; those of the other dark, almost black, with bright orange fins, and their flesh excellent. Nothing can be more various than the appearance of the trout of these two rivers ; and surely nothing can be more easier at once to see the cause of this difference." 1070. Why do young pike frequently appear in ponds where there were none before ? Because the spawn of the pike is covered with a sticky viscous fluid ; this adheres to the plumage of water-birds, and is by them borne into new waters, causing the unexpected and somewhat unaccountable appearance of pike in new waters. 1071. Why do smaller fish at certain seasons appear to be familiar with the pike, while at others they avoid his presence ? Because the pike, which is remarkable for its voracity, never- theless undergoes periods of abstinence. During the summer months their digestive functions are somewhat torpid, and in warm sunny weather they lie basking in a sleepy state for hours together. The smaller fish appear to be aware when this abstinent state of their foe is on him ; they are then less alarmed at his presence, and may be seen swimming round him with indifference.* • Bluine's "Rural Sports." NATURAL HISTORY. 335 " The goodly -well grown trout I with my angle strike, And -with my bearded wire I take the rav'nous pike."— DRAYTON. 1072. Wliy does the piJce undergo this state of torpidity ? It is remarkable that this peculiarity in the animal economy of the pike differs materially from the habits of other fishes, which, after the emaciation from the effects of spawning, require an increase of food to repair the exhaustion. But with the pike, the return of appetite appears to be suspended : a wise provision ; for, were this fish as voracious as usual, few of the small fry which are then abundant would escape, and the stock of fish would be materially reduced. 1073. Why are "pike" called also "jack"? These are verbal distinctions referring to the size and age of the same fish. When the fish does not exceed four or five pound weight, it is called in England "a jack" ; and when above that weight it is a "pike" 1074. Why is the pike exceedingly voracious at certain seasons ? Because it is a fish of rapid growth, nnd consequently vigorous digestion. The young fry grow rapidly, attaining two pounds weight in the first year ; and they gain from two to three pounds weight every subsequent year. Besides, the enormous amount of exercise which the pike takes produces a great expenditure, and creates a corresponding demand for food. There is no more active fish: it sometimes darts through the water with the speed of an arrow. 1075. It has been offered in illustration of the great digestive powers of the pike, that after in part swallowing a fish little smaller than itself, those parts that have entered into the stomach are dissolved with amazing rapidity, while those in the mouth and throat which are yet entire make a constant progress downwards as the process of digestion makes way for them. The pike has always been remarkable for extraordinary voracity. Eight pike, of xoout h've pounds weight each, consumed nearly eight hundred gudgeons in thrn weeks; "and the appetite of one of these pikes," says Mr. Jesse, "was almost One morning I threw to him, one after another, five roaches, eadi 336 THE REASON WHY. " The lavish slave Six thousand pieces for a barbel gave ; A sestrice for each pound it weigh'd, as they Gave out, that hear great things, but greater say."— DTTKE. a.bout four inches in length ; he swallowed four of them, and kept the last in his mouth for about a quarter of an hour, when it also disappeared." Digestion in the pike goes on very rapidly, and they are therefore most expensive fish to maintain. In default of a sufficient quantity of fishes to satisfy them, moor-hens, ducks, and indeed any animals of small size, whether alive or dead, are constantly consumed ; their boldness and voracity are equally proverbial. Dr. Plot relates, that at Lord Gower's canal, at Trentham, a pike seized the head of a swan as she •was feeding under water, and gorged so much of it as killed them both ; the servants perceiving the swan with its head under water for a longer time than usual, took the boat, and found both swan and pike dead. Gesner relates that a pike in the Rhone seized on the lips of a mule that was brought to water, and that the beast drew the fish out before it could disengage itself. Walton was assured by his friend Mr. Segrave, who kept tame otters, that he had known a pike in extreme hunger fight with one of his otters for a carp which the otter had caught, and was then bringing out of the water; proving the old adage, that, "it is a hard thing to persuade the belly, because it has no ears." A woman in Poland had her foot seized by a pike as she was washing clothes in a pond ; and the same thing is said to have happened at Killingworth pond, near Coventry. The head keeper of Richmond Park was once washing his hand over the side of a boat in the great pond in that park, when a pike made a dart at it, and he had but just time to withdraw it. Mr. Jesse adds, that " a gentleman now residing at Wej'bridge, in Surrey, walking one day by the side of the River Wey, near that town, saw a large pike in a shallow creek. He immediately pulled off his coat, tucked up his shirt-sleeves, and went into the water to intercept the return of the fish to the river, and to endeavour to throw it out upon the bank by getting his hands under it. During this attempt, the pike, finding he could not make his escape, seized one of the arms of the gentleman, and lacerated it so much that the marks of the wound are still visible."* 1076. Wliy is the barbel so called? From the Latin barbalatus, meaning barbs, or beards, in reference to the appendages to its lower jaw. 1077. Why is the first ray of the dorsal fin of thf, barbel deeply serrated? The serrations arise from certain additions to the ray, which impart a greater degree of strength to it. This increased strength facilitates the movements of the fish in the rapid currents and mill streams which it frequents. • Yarrell's «« British Fishes." NATURAL HISTORY. 337 The dainty gudgeon, roche, the minnow, and the bleak, Since they but little are, I little need to speak."— DRAYTON. 1078. Why has the barbel four wattles, or barbs, on Us lower jaw? The barbel, as well as devouring small fish, bores in the loose soil for slugs and worms, and these wattles serve as feelers, in the pursuit of food. 1079. Why may small fish be seen attending the barbel while it bores in the soil f Because they eat the minute animalcules thrown up from the soil by the movements of the barbeL 1080. Why, when angling for roach, is it necessary to try the water at all depths f Because, being miscellaneous feeders, roach swim at various depths ; and, being gregarious, they move in shoals : so that at one level there may be plenty of fish, and at another none at all. 1081. Why is the bleak commonly called the waier swallow? Because it sometimes occupies one part of a river, then takes its departure to another ; the deeps, the shallows, and the surface, are alternately their resorfc ; and they further resemble swallows ia their nimbleness when in pursuit of prey, and particularly in the catching of flies. 1082. Why has the roach a very small mouth without teeth ? The roach limes principally upon insects and fresh-waiter mol- lusca, which it finds adhering to the weeds ; but which it would be unable to obtain were it not for this peculiar structure of the mouth, 1083. Why does the shanny habitually hide itself behind tiones, rocks, &c. Being destitute of a swimming-bladder, this fish is confined te 15 338 THE REASON WHY: Their scaly armour's Tyrian hue, Through richest purple to the view, Betray'd a golden gleam." — GRAY. the bottom, where it takes up its residence on a rock or stone, from which it rarely wanders far, and beneath which it seeks shelter from ravenous fishes and birds. 1084. When the tide is receding, many of these fishes hide beneath the stones, or in pools, but the larger individuals quit the water, and, by the use of the ventra* fins, creep into convenient holes, rarely more than one in each, and there, with the head downward, they wait for a few hours, until the return of the water restores them to liberty. If discovered or alarmed in these chambers, they return by a backward motion to the bottom of the cavity. 1085. How do gold and silver fish kept in globe* subsist upon what appears to us to be water only ? Because the water abounds in animalcules, which, although invisible to the human eye, are visible to the eyes of fish, and consumed by them as food. 1086. The necessity for frequently changing the water in which gold and silver fish are confined is thus made obvious enough ; for if this precaution is neglected, the fish being deprived of their- food must eventually die. 1087. Why do gold fishes kept in vases so frequently come to \tie surface of the water? When the water becomes vitiated, the fishes come to the surface to swallow air; after the air has been changed, they may be observed to reject it again by a kind of eviction, and seek the surface once more for a fresh supply ; so that in this way they are enabled to alleviate the evil consequences which result from the unhealthy state of their surrounding medium. Sub-order II. — Anacanthina. 1088. Why are the fishes of the sub-order anacanthina so called f Because they are without the sharp spines which support the fins *f other fishes ; these organs in the anacanthina being arranged NATURAL HISTORY. 339 " And o'er the ocean's crystal mirror, Taught the unnumber'd scaly throng To trace their liquid path along." — MOORE. upon soft rays. The word is derived from a, "without," and acantha, a " spine," or " thorn." 1089. These fishes also present a difference in the structure of the air-bladder, •which, instead of communicating with the throat by a duct, as is the case in the physostomata, is here more completely closed, and there is no connection between the anterior part of the bladder and the throat. 1090. Why have the sand-eel and the sand-launce a projecting lower jaw ? Because it is the habit of these fishes to bury themselves in the sand, and by the sharpness and muscular power of the jaw, and the slenderness of their bodies, they are able to bury themselves in wet sand five or six inches deep with great rapidity. 1091. Why is the cod found in great abundance upon the coast of Newfoundland ? Because in that region there exist vast submarine mountains upon which crustaceous and molluscous animals are abundant. These constitute the natural food of tJte cod. 1092. Why does the skin of a sole act as a clearer for coffee ? Because it contains a large proportion of albumen, which, being driven from the skin by the action of hot water, afterwards coagulates, and fixes and precipitates the floating grains of coffee. 1093. Why are soles and other flat fish destitute of air bladders f Because, being bottom fish, and seldom elevating their range in the water, they do not require an apparatus, the purpose of which is to vary the specific gravity of the moving body. 1094. Why do dead fishes usually float ? It appears to be a creative design that when these inhabitants of 3-10 TUB REASON Vv'HY : " Hore's a very fat carp, shall we dress you a brace ? Would you chuse any soles, or ft mullet, or plaice ? "—CAMBRIDGE. the deep die in any other manner than as prey to larger species, they shall rise to the surface, and be presented as food to sea birds, the scavengers of the sea. The bodies of fishes are always so near to the specific gravity of water, that the slightest development of gases in their tissues, which would arise from the first stage of decomposition, brings them to the surface. 1095. Why are bottom, or flat fishes, more commonly found floating than others ? Because, being occupants of the bottom of the sea, their bodies half sunk in the earth, and, concealed by the unity of their colour with that of the bed upon which they lie, they are less liable to be preyed upon than other fishes. The peculiar shape of their bodies is also a great protection to them, since they cannot be swallowed whole, as is the case with many fishes. Larger numbers of flat fish, therefore, may be supposed to die from natural causes than is common with other species. Hen-ce they are more frequently found floating dead than other kinds of fish. 1096. VTny do soles swim upon their sides? Because their eyes are placed upon one side only, by which, being bottom fish, they are able to lie upon the ground, and look upward for their prey. For a relative reason, too, their upper sides are dark, and of the colour of the bed which they inhabitt while their undersides are white. NATURAL HISTORY. 341 " Of fishes— every size and shape, Which nature frames of light escape, Devouring man to shun." — SMART. Sub-order III. — Pharyngonatha. 1097. Wit y is the third sub-order designated pharyngonatha ¥ The name is derived from pharynx, the pharynx, the muscular fang at the back part of the mouth ; and gnathos, thu jaw, indicating that the pharyngeal bones are united. 1098. This sub-order includes aa assemblage of fishes of diverse forms, in which there are both soft and spinous rayed ; the pharynxed bones of this sub-order are completely united, so as to form a single bone, which is usually armed with teeth. The air-bladder is always completely closed.* 1099. Why is the garfish usually called the mackerel guide ? Because it commonly approaches the shore to spawn, a little prior to mackerel doing so. Hence the popular idea that the garfish guides mackerel to the shore. 1 100. Why is the parrot fish so called ? Because of the peculiar hooked formation of its mouth, and the brilliancy of its colours. 1101. Why has the parrot fish rounded jav;s and scale- like teeth? Because they browse on newly-formed layers of stony cwnls, digesting the animal matter therein contained, and setting free the carbonate of lime in a chalky state. Their jaws and teeth possess immense strength. Sub-order IV.—Acanthoptera. 1 102. Why is ihe fourth sub-order called acanthoptera ? From acanthos, a thorn, and pterygion^ a fin, — meaning thcrn- finned. One of the most distinguishing features of these fishes is, * Orr's " Circle of the Sciences." 342 THE REASON WHY : " The -west part of the land was high browed, much like the head of a gurnard."— UACKLUYT. that the spinous rays of their fins constitute formidable defensive weapons. 1103. The number of fishes belonging to this sub-order is exceedingly great, and they present a considerable diversity of structure. 1104. Why do the spinous defensive weapons of fishes turn backwards ? Because their enemies at- tack them from behind ; the direction of the sharp spines is therefore most efficient for their protection. 1105. Why are the Indian gurnards called "flying fishes ? Because, when pursued by the dolphin, or other large creature of prey, they spring from the sea, in which action their large pectoral fins support them upon the air, in the manner of a para- chute. Their action, however, is not that of flying, but springing from the sea, 1106. Why are the chcetodons remarkable for brilliancy of colours ? These are tropical fishes, and, like other animals of the tropics, remarkable for their beauty, which may be attributed in this, as in other instances, to the in- tense action of the sun, although the nature of that action cannot be explained. The chaetodons have been described as occupying a similar place in the tropical seas to NATURAL HISTORY. 343 1 Thick in yon stream of light, a thousand ways, Upward, and downward, thwarting, and convolv'd, The quivering nations sport." — THOMSON. those which parrots occupy in tropical forests : they even excel the parrots in brilliancy while living. All the colours have a metallic lustre, and though some of them are of one very intense colour, as golden, yellow, ultra-marine, or rich bronze, when the fish is at rest ; yet, when it moves, they are irridescent, and sparkle with gem-like lustre. The chcetodon striatus is sometimes called the zebra, on account of its beautiful stripes. 1108. What, peculiarity does the structure and habits of globe fishes present ? These fishes possess the power of distending themselves into « globular form, by inflating with air a large sac contained in the abdomen. When thus distended, they float along the water with the back downwards, swimming on- wards by means of their pectoral fins. They are covered with ;i series of large spines ; which are raised up when the body is thus inflated, so as to form a veiy efficient means of defence. 1108. Wliy is the upper jaw of the sword-fish elongated into * blade-like weapon ? The sword-fish inhabits seas where the monsters of the deep, sharks, and thresliers abound Here these monsters battle 344 THE REASON WHY. ' Straight as above the surface of the flood They wanton rise, or, urg'd by hunger, leap, Then fix, with gentle twitch, the barbed hook." — THOMSON. with each other ; and the sword-fish, being among the smaller of the races, is armed with a weapon which makes him as formidable as the larger and more powerful kinds. 1109. The sword-fish living, at least in part, upon the bodies of fishes larg-er than itself, uses its formidable weapon to lacerate and divide their substance intc convenient morsels. The prolonged snout forms an excellent t-water when the fish makes its arro-,v- like darts through the water ; and the powerful tail is calculated to drive home the weapon with enormous force. 1110. Why is the "John Dory" so called? This name evidently arises from a corrupt pronunciation of a French term, designating the colour of the lighter parts of the fish, which is yellow, with metallic reflections, and, ^therefore, styled jaune doree, or golden yellow. 1111. Why are some fishes provided with an apparatus resembling a boy"s sucker? Because, by pressing this organ again&t any surface they are enabled to retain their hold without using teeth or fins ; and by this means retain their position in the water at the same time that they catch their food. 1112. The lump-fish fastens itself by an apparatus on the lower part of its bod]', •while the sucking-fish Mas a similar provision on his baek, by which it attaches itself to the shark, or to whatever is afloat, or the bottom of - ships. In the cuttle-fish there is to be seen a modification of the same kind of apparatus, which can be turned by the animal in any direc- tion, either to fix itself or to drag itself from place to place. There is another fish, called the " Harlequin angler." The appearance of this fish is grotesque and singular; th« pectoral fins resemble short arms, and are palmated at their tips. These fins ar« converted into feet, and the fish has be< n known to live ,hree days out of watc^ «nd walk about like a dog.* * Bell on the Hand. . NATURAL HISTORY. " Cold welle streams, nothing dcde, That fjwormmen full of smale fishes light, With finnes red, and scales silver bright." — CUAUCKR. Sub-order V. — Lophobranchia. 1113. Wliy is the fifth sub-order named lophobranchia f From lophon, a crest, and branchia, gills — meaning crest' 'jilled. 1114. In the lophobrancTiin the gills are arranged in little tufts, disposed in pairs along the branchial arches. The aperture f JT the exit of water is very small. The body is elongated in its form, and covered with bony plates. The fins are imper- fectly developed. The bones of the face are prolonged, forming a snout. This sub-order includes only a single family, composed of small fishes, of very singular appearance. 1115. IVJiy has the sea-horse a small pouch-like opening upon its abdomen ? In the course of the summer, this curious sac is filled with eggs ; and at a later period, when the fry are hatched, they continue for a time to seek shelter within this singular cavity. 1116. Mr. Yarrell describes this curious provision nearly as follows :—u The male differs from the female in the belly, from the vent to the tail fin, being much broader, and in having, for about two-thirds of its length, two soft flaps, which fold together and form a pouch. They breed in summer, the females depositing their roe in the pouches of the males. 1117. Why has the sea-horse* a pointed tail, destitute of the usual fin? It uses the long tapering tail to support itself ~by twisting it round the stems of sea-weed and other objects, moving about slowly amongst sea« weed, by a series of undulations, feeding upon minute Crustacea, worms, mol- lusca, &c. As the creature cannot pur- sue its prey, a caudal fin would be of no utility ; the tail is therefore converted into a kind of fulcrum, from which the animal srrikes its prey. * Hippocampus. 15* 346 THE REASON WHY : And over all with scales was arm'd, Like plated cote of steele, so couched neare That nought mote perce." — SPENSER. Sub-order VI. — Plectognatha. 1118. Why is the sixth sub-order termed plectognatha ? From plecto, to connect, and gnathos, a jaw — signifying that the bones of the upper jaw and palate are connected with those of the cranium. 1119. The head is large, the mouth small, and the gills so covered with skin and muscles that only a small aperture is left for the exit of water employed in respira- tion. The body is usually short and stout, and covered with a thich rough skin, or sometimes with bony plates. 1120. Why is the trunk-fish covered with a complete suit of bony plates ? These plates furnish to the trunk-fish a coat of armour analogous to that worn by the arma- dillo, and doubtless for similar purposes. The body is covered with plates, so as to form a perfect coat of armour, leaving only the tail, fins, mouth, and a small portion of the gill-opening, capable of motion, all of which move- able parts pass through openings of the armadillo-like coat of mail, the joints being protected and rendered flexible by a leathery substance. « ORDER IV.-GANOIDEA. 1121. Why is the fourth order of fishes named ganoidea? From ganos, splendour, and edios, appearance. Of the remark- able fishes belonging to this order, very few exist at present in our waters. But their fossil remains occur in abundance in almost all (he fossiliferous strata of the earth. They are divided into two mb-orders :— NATURAL HISTo RY . 347 From that clear space, where, in the cheerful ray Of the warm sun, the scaly people play." — CRABBE. Sub-order I. — Holostea. 1122. JFJiy is the first sub-order of tJie ganoidea called kolostea ? From oloSj the whole, and osteon, a bone, in reference to the feet of their being covered with a suit of scales or bone. Sub-order II. — Chondrostea. 1123. Why is the second sub-order of ganoidea catted Chondrostea ? From chondros, a cartilage, and osteon, a bone, signifying the gristly nature of the fish. ORDER V.— SELACHIA. 1124. Why is the fifth order of fishes catted selachia? From selachos, a Greek common noun, signifying a gristly, or cartilaginous fish. The skeleton in the selachia is entirely of a cartilaginous nature. The skull consists of a cartilaginous capsule, composed of a single piece without any indications of suture. The structure of the jaws varies considerably. They are divided into t ico sub-orders : — Sub-order I. — Holocephala. 1125. Why is the first sub-order of selacia called holocephalaf From olos, whole, and cephale, head, meaning that the head ic one entire piece or skull. 1 1 26. The holoccphala are all oviparous, and their eggs, like those of the sharks ar.d rays, are enclosed in a strong, horny capsule. Sub-order II. — Plagiostomata. 1127. Why is the second sub-order of selachia called plagiosto- mata f From plagios, transverse or oblique, and stoma, mouth, in reference to the oblique form of the mouth, which is always arched, and contains numerous rows of teeth. The mouth is also wide, and 348 THE REASON WHY " Increasing still the terrors of these storms, His jaws horrific arm'd with threefold fate, Here dwells the direful shark. Lured by the scent (X steaming crowds, of rank disease, and death." — THOMSONS placed on the lower surface of the body at some distance from the extremity of the snout. 1129. Why are sharks said to follow in the wake of ships on board which there may be sick people? Sharks instinctively follow ships, with the object of picking up refuse matters which are constantly being thrown overboard. The well-known voracity of the shark — the manner in which it seizes upon the body of man alive or dead — gives it an ominous aspect when following in the wake of a ship having a sick crew. And hence has arisen the popular error, that sharks follow ships, waiting for dead bodies to be thrown overboard. 1130. Why have the eggs of sharks and rays long filamentous processes attached to them ? For the purpose of attaching the eggs to tea-iveeds, so that they may not be damaged by being beaten on the shores, nor preyea upon by crustaceous animals. Each egg con- sists of a horny case, filled with a nutritious fluid. The empty cases are frequently found by the sea-side, and aje commonly called mermaids' purses. 1131. Why have the rays, and kindred fishes, long tails armed with spines f These organs, as well as being used for propulsion, are employed as weapons of defence, and from the muscular strength of the fish, are very formidable when seized or terrified : its habit is to twist its long and flexible tail rouml the object of attack, and, with the serrated spine, tear the surface, lacerating it in an effective manner. NATURAL HISTORY. 349 Had I like fish, with fins and gills, been made, Then might I in your element have play'd ; With ease have dived beneath your azure tide."— FA MISCELLANEOUS. 1132. How is the breathing of fishes conducted? The breathing of fishes takes place by gills. The water, which is impregnated by atmospheric air, is taken in by the mouth, and forced out again by the apertures on each side of the neck. It is thus made to pass between the gills, which form a set of comb-like vascular fringes, supported upon a system of bones termed the branchical arches, and during this passage the air is absorbed by the blood of the fish. These fringes are generally four in number on each side, and are attached by one extremity to an intermediate chain of bones situated opposite the middle of the neck, behind the hyoid bone, while by their opposite extremity they are joined by ligaments to the under surface of the skull. 1133. fl% is the flesh of fishes white? Because the oxidized blood is chiefly confined to a few internal organs, as the heart, liver, kidneys, lungs, and gills ; the flesh is consequently white and apparently bloodless. 1134. Why do fishes swallow their food hastily, and without mastication ? Because they are obliged unceasingly to open and close the jaws for the purpose of respiration, and cannot long retain food in the mouth when quite shut. 1135. Why are the teeth of fishes slightly curved inwards ? Because this form is best adapted for taking a firm hokl of prey, which is frequently alive, and which without such a pro- vision would, in its struggles, easily escape from the mouth of the captor. 1136. Wl,y does a fish gasp violently when taken out of the water ? Because it endeavours to separate the gill filaments, by which 3lK» THE REASON WHY : See how she gasps, and struggles hard for life." — LLOYD. it is supplied with breath, and which adhere together when deprived of their natural element. 1136. Why are certain species of fish constituted to live for a long period out of water '< Because they inhabit ponds and streams in warm countries, where, in many situations, there is an ample supply both of food and water for fish during the rainy season; but a complete deficiency of both when this is succeeded by a periodical drought. Such receptacles can only be tenanted by fish which are fur- nished with the peculiar apparatus for keeping the gill moist ; since, when one pond or stream is dried up, they can migrate in search of another. In the course of these journeys, they climb up steep banks, and even trees ; and, by a remarkable instinct, they seem always to travel to the nearest water. 1137. Why is that part of the fish's eyes known as the crystalline lens, much rounder than in the eyes of the terrestrial animals ? Because the rays of light, in passing from water into the eye, require to be refracted by a more convex surface than when it passes out of air into the eye. 1138. As an illustration of the instances adduced here, of the adaptation of the flsh'f eye to the medium in which it lives, we may observe that the power in the human eye, for example, of drawing the pencil of rays to a focus, and producing an accurate image upon the retina in the bottom of the eye, depends principally upon two circum- stances—the form of the cornea and the convexity of the iens. That the cornea may produce this effect, it is not only necessary that it should he convex, as in fig. 1 , but that the rays should enter it from a rarei medium. As this cannot be effected inthe water, the lens or crystalline humour, which is much denser than water, ii brought into operation. In the eye of an animal living in the atmosphere, the leus NATURAL HISTORY. " The sounds and seas, with all their finny drove, Now to the moon in wavering' morrice move." — MILTON. te removed backwards, and resembles the optician's double convex lens ; but in the fLh it is a sphere, and being brought in contact with the transparent cornea, it not only has the power to concentrate the rays of light coming through the water, but by its altered position it increases greatly the sphere of vision (fig. 2). It may be added that it is not exactly the cornea that is deficient in the fish, but tha aqueous humour behind it. An aqueous fluid being thus both behind and before the cornea, and that membrane being in a very slight degree thicker in the centre than in the margin, this part of the organ which is so efficient in the atmo- sphere is rendered useless in water. A man diving, for example, sees imperfectly, somewhat in the condition of an aged person who requires spectacles. 1139. Why does a, fish lie with his head against the stream? Because when a fish is situated with Ins head down the stream, he is compelled to travol more rapidly than the waters, or the latter will find its way into the gills, and, by becoming stationary, suffocate him. 1140. A trout may be seen lying for hours stationary, while the stream is running past him ; and it sometimes appears to remain so for whole days and nights. In salmon-fishing the fly is played upon the broken water in the midst of a torrent, and there the fish shows himself, rising from a part of the river where men could not preserve their footing, though assisted by poles, or locking their arms together. 1141. Why do the jack and stickleback keep up a continual motion of the fins nearest their gills ? Because they frequent still shallows, and require the water to be perpetually brought to their gills. In this case, the water does not come of itself, and, therefore, the fish moves his pectoral fins con- tinually to create a perpetual change in the water, propelling that which has already passed through the gills, bringing fresh in its place, and thus keeping up a constant current. 1142. Neither to the jack nor the stickleback does the motion appear to cause any exertion ; it seems natural to them, and a distinct function apart from the motion of the fins for swimming purposes. It is, in fact, somewhat analogous to the perpetual motion of the heart, lungs, and internal viscera in the human body. 352 THE REASON WHY : " A man may fish with the -worm that ha';h eat of a kin^ and eat of the fish that hath fed of that worm."— SHAKSPKRE. 1143. Why do fishes which swim vertically inhabit near tht surface, while those which sivim horizontally keep to th& bottom ? The fish which swims on edge has the tail much more effectively formed as a swimming organ, and the fins much firmer, as well as more produced ; they are, therefore, rapid swim- mers, and rather discursive in their motion. From an opposite development, fishes swimming on the flat of their bodies can only progress , and do not, on that account, range far. 1144. Why will a fish which has broken away with a hook, frequently take another hook immediately afterwards ? Because the mouths of fishes are usually cartilaginous, and furnished (at least in the part where the hook strikes) with few nerves, or they are altogether absent. In such a case the fish experiences little inconvenience from the presence of a hook, and boldly strikes at a fresh bait. 1145. Sir Humphrey Davy says : — " I have caught pike with four or five hooks in their mouths, and tackle which they had broken away with only a few minutes before ; and the hooks seemed to have had no other effect than that of serving as a sauce piquantf, urging them to seize another morsel of the same kind."* 1146. Why do wounds in fish heal rapidly, and why do they appear to be generally exempt from disease ? Because the temperature of the medium in which they reside is uniform, and they are consequently not subject to those alterations of the atmosphere, which are a fruitful source rf morbidity te other portions of the animal creation. * "Salmonia." NATURAL HISTORY. 353 " Being moody, give him line and scope ; till that his passions, like a whale on ground, confound themselves with working." — SUAKSPKUE. 1147. Why may a fish be "drowned" when being "played" Inj an angler? Because fishes breathe by passing water, which always holds common air in solution, through their gills, by the use of a series of muscles connected with them. When a fish is hooked in the upper part of the mouth, it is scarcely possible for him to set the muscles in action which move the gills, while the rod is applied as a lever to the line, so that no aerated water can be respired. 1148. A fish, hooked in a part of the mouth where the force of the rod will render his efforts to respire unavailing, is much in the same state as that of a deer caught round the neck by the lasso of a South American peon, who gallops forwards dragging his victim after him, which is killed hy strangulation in a very short time. When fishes are hooked foul — thai is, on the outside of the body, as in the fins or tail — they will often fight for many hours, and in such cases Tery largo salmon are seldom caught, as they retain their powers of breathing unimpaired : and if they do not exhaust themselves by violent muscular efforts, they may bid defiance to the temper and the skill of the fisherman.* 1149. Why is the migration of fishes of great importance to mankind ? It is by these migrations that the blessings of fis>h diet are periodically bestowed upon the inhabitants of shores remote from each other. If such fishes were constant residents in any one locality, we might feed on them to satiety ; but, by a temporary privation, we learn to estimate the value of the treat, and to hope for the periodical return. 1150. Why do fishes generally spawn in shallow waters? Because a certain degree of solar heat and light is necessary for quickening the eggs into life ; and also because the young fry are thereby protected from large fish. 1151. Why does the sea sometimes » exhibit a luminous appearance ? Because of the great numbers of medusce, or jelly animalculse, which, being congregated in one part, under certain conditions emit a phosphorescent light. * " Salmouia." 354 THE REASON WHY! Order is Heaven's first law ; and, this confess'd, Seme are, and must be, greater than the rest." — POPE. 1152. Wliy does the sea, contain a certain proportion oj saline matter? These saline matters have the effect of raising the freezing point, and diminishing the tendency to give off vapours ; and, also, because it renders the water more buoyant, and thus makes it better fitted to support the animals which it contains. [The Author finds himself reluctantly compelled to omit tl<& various Orders comprising the Division MOLLUSCA. The Entomo- logical series alone would supply matter for a highly interesting volume ; and in tJie liope that he may be soon able to present such a work to his readers, the Author will close his present labours, with a few questions of leading application.] 1153. Why has every race of animals its appointed enemy , or enemies ? Because birth, life, and death, constitute the order of nature appointed by a Divine Being. This order established, it may be accepted that the Infinite Wisdom whose works exhibit such marvellous adaptation and perfection, has chosen the best -means to a necessary end. The death of an animal, as the prey of an appointed superior, is doubtless a more rapid and painless process than we, with a dread of death, conceive. 1154. Paley reasons upon this proposition in a conclusive manner : — " Perha-ps there is no species of terrestrial animals whatever, which would not overrun the earth if it were permitted to multiply in perfect safety ; or of a fish which would not fill the ocean : at least, if any single species were left to their natural increase without disturbance or restraint, the food of other species would be exhausted by their maintenance, " It is necessary, therefore, that the effects of such prolific faculties be curtailed. In conjunction with other checks and limits, all subservient to the same purpose, »re the thinnings which take place among animals by their action upon one another. In some instances, we ourselves experience, very directly, the use of thcso hos- tilities. One species of insects rids us of another species, or reduces their ranks ; a third species, perhaps, keeps the second within bounds ; and birds or lizards are a fence against the inordinate increase by which even these might infest us." To this may be added, that MAN alone appears to be without a natural enmny, gifted with a special instinct and an organization intended to effect bi« conque**. NATURAL HISTORY. 355 " Cease, then, nor order imperfection name : Our proper bliss depends on what we blame." — POPE. The web of the spider is a beautiful contrivance, evidently designed to ensnare flies. The scent by which the stoat pursues the rabbit ; the teeth with which the former perforates the neck of its victim, and the instinct which guides it to attack the neck, are three special means bestowed for a given end. The gaping mouths of swallows and night-jars are manifestly conceived for the purpose of capturimg insects in the most certain manner. Although man is born the most defenceless of all creatures, there is not a single animal gifted with an instinct to pursue himt and armed with weapons adapted to give effect to that instinct. The elephant, the lion, and the tiger, although endowed with strength by which they could imme- diately crush him, all retire from and avoid his presence, unless he trespasses upon their haunts, or they are driven to extremities of rage or hunger by restraints which he imposes upon them. Regarded as enemies to man, their armatures are too formidable : the tusks of the elephant, and the talons or teeth of the lion and tiger, might be dispensed with, and they would still be immensely his superiors in the balance of natural powers. Even the vermin that sometimes surround and annoy man, are the enemies of his negligence and vices, and not of himself. On the contrary, the whole of the animal creation, in some form or other, aie friends of man, and contributors to his need. 1155. TABLE OF THE FECUNDITY OF VARIOUS ANIMALS. Young at a bit th. 5 or 6 Bears . . Elephant . Hippopotamus 2 1 . Wren . Fish. Carp • . . . 10 to 16 Eggs at a spawning. .... 205 000 Leopard . 2 to 4 Codfish . 3,686,000 Rhinoceros. Birds. Eagle . . 1 Eggs at a sitting. 2 to 3 Flounders Herring . Mackerel Porch . Pike , . . 1,357,000 36,000 . 546,000 28,000 49,000 81,000 Falcon 2 to 4 Smelt 38,000 Fowl (domestic) . 6 to 20 Sole . 100 000 Hawk . Owl . 2 to 4 2 to 6 Tench . . 383,000 Partridge . Pheasant 14 to 20 . .. 10 to 20 4 to 6 Insects. Bee. Eggs in a season. 10,000 2 to 5 2,000 Stoik . 2 or 3 House-fly . 20,000,000 In five generations one aphis may produce 5,000,000,000, and there are 20 generations in a year. The numbers are beyond calculation. 1156. Why does the duration of life of different greatly vary ? The longevity of animal races appears to be in the inverse ratio of their fecundity. The wisdom of this arrangement i« 356 THE REASON WHY : NO MORE THE PATHS OF MISTY DOUBT I TROD I MY REASON SAW, MY SOUL CONFESSED, A GOD I ! apparent : if musquitoes and locusts prolific as they are, were appointed to live from a quarter to half a century, in spite of all existing natural checks, they would render every other form of existence impossible. If lions and tigers, living for, half a century, and possessed of enormous powers, were to multipy as rapidly as insects, they would overrun creation, unless, indeed, they destroyed each other. 1157. TABLE OF THE LIFE PERIODS OF VARIOUS ANIMALS. Ass, from ~ . . • . Years. 25 to 50 Antelope .... 16 to 18 Lion Bee (female) .... 4 Bear ... 20 50 Mantis , 1 to 4 Margay . . , Blackbird . 10 to 12 Blackcap • • . . 15 10 Nightingale Ocelot .... Bull ..... 30 50 to 60 Ox employed in agriculture Canary, if it does not couple Carp, from .... Cat 24 100 to 150 18 Peacock .... Pelican .... Pheasant and Partridge Chaffinch . . • . 20 to 24 Chamois .... Civet cat ..... 25 12 to 14 Pike, sometimes more than Porpoise . . . Cod 14 to 17 Rabbit, frora Cow, sometimes more than . 20 24 Cray-fish . . . . 20 Crocodile .... Crows Deer .... 100 100 20 Rhinoceros. . . Redbreast . Dolphin 30 Dog, from .... 23 to 28 Eel 10 Sheep .... Eagle 100 Skylark . . Ephemera (from egg to imago) Ephemera (as a perfect fly) 3 Sparrow-hawk . . .... .days 2 or 3 Ehemera (other kinds) hours. Elephant .... 2 or 3 150 to 200 Stag, under . . Fox . . . . 15 Swan . . Fowl, common ... 10 10 Thrush . . Goldfinch .... 10 to 16 fn Tiger and Leopard. Tiger cat . . Hare 7 to 8 Titlark . Heron 60 Toad ... 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Including Bound Games and Forfeits, Slate and Board Games ; also numerous Table .'vud Toy Games, together with a large collection of Evening Amuse- ments, Comprehending Comic Diversions, Parlor Magic, Tricks with Cards, Scien- tific Recreations and Puzzles. Profusely illustrated with 197 fine wood-cuts. Bound in boards, with cloth back, price 5O cts. Bound in cloth, gilt side 75 cts. PLAY-GROUND ; or, Out-Door Games for Boys. A Book of Healthy Recreations for Youth, containing over a hundred Amuse- ments, including Games of Activity and Speed, Games with Toys, Marbles, Topsf Hoops, Kites, Archery, Balls ; with Cricket, Croquet and Base-Ball. Splendidly il- lustrated with 124 line wood-cuts. Bound in boards, cloth back, price 5O cts. Bound in cloth, gilt side 75 cts. • The above four books are abriilioiice as cts. Send Cash Orders to DICK. & FITZGERALD, New York. Popular Books sent Free of Postage at the Prices annexed. TWELYE DECISIVE BATTLES OF THE WAR. A History of the Eastern and Western Campaigns, in relation to the actions that decided, their issue. By WILLIAM SWINTON, author of " The Campaigns of the Army of the Potomac." Illustrated by seven steel engravings of Generals Grant, Sherman, Sheridan, McClellan, Meade, Rosccrans and Thomas ; with nine beautiful maps of battle. 520 pages, octavo. Bound in extra cloth, beveled edge, price ................................................................. £3 50 Half calf, marbled edge ..................................... _ ............. $6 OO MODERN POCKET HOYLE. Containing all the Games of Skill and Chance as played in this country at the present time, being " an authority on all disputed points." By "TRUMPS." This valuable manual is all original, or thoroughly revised from the best and latest authorities, and includes the laws and complete directions for playing one hundred and. eleven different Games, comprising Card Games, Chess, Checkers, Dominoes, Backgammon, Dice. Billiards, and all tJo Field Games. ISmo., 388 pp. Paper cover, price ---- 50 els. Bound in boards, ciotii back .................................. ........... 75 cts. Bound ia cloth, gilt side and back .......................................... 31 >J 5 T?ROST'S ORIGINAL LETTER- WRITER. A com -*- plete collection of Original Letters and Notes, upon every imaginable subject of Every-Day Life, with plaiu.directions about everything connected with writing a Letter. Containing Letters of Introduction, Letters on Business, Letters answering Advertisements, Letters of Recommendation, Applications for Employment, Letters of Congratulation, of Condolence, of Friendship and Relationship, Love-Letters, Notes of Invitation, Notes accompanying Gifts, Letters of Favor, of Advice, and Letters of Excuse, together with an appropriate answer to each. The whole embrac- ing three hundred letters and notes. By S. A. FEOST, author of " The Parlor Stage," " Dialogues for Young Folks," etc. To which is added a comprehensive Table ot Synonyms alone worth double the price asked for tiie book. Bound in boards, cloth back, with illuminated sides, price ........................................ 5O cts. WORTH'S BOOK OF LOVE-LETTERS. With directions •*- * how to write them and when to use them, and 120 specimen Letters, suitable for Lovers of any age and condition, and under all circumstances, interspersed with the author's comments thereon. The whole forming a convenient Hand-book of valuable information and counsel for the use of those who need friendly guidance and advice in matters of Love, Courtship and Marriage. By INGOLDSBY NOKTH. Bound in cloth, price ................. ................................... 75 cts. Bound in boards .................................................. . ...... :50 cts TTOW GAMBLERS WIN; or, The Secrets of Advantage -"-*- Playing Exposed. Being a complete and scientific expose of tiie manner of playing all the 'various advantages in the Games of Potter, All-Fours, Euchre, Vingtun, Whist, Cribbagc, etc., as practiced by professional gamblers on the un- initiated, together with a brief analysis of legitimate play. By a Retired Profession- al. This little work is designed as a warning to the unwary, and a caution to self- confident card-players. 16mo. , paper cover, price ......................... 3O c ts . Bound in boards, with cloth back ........................................ 5O cts. FINGER POST TO PUBLIC BUSINESS. -*- Containing the mode of forming and conducting Societies, Clubs and other Organized Associations ; full Rules of Order for the government of their debates and business ; complete directions how to compose Resolutions, Reports and Petitions ; and the manner of managing Conventions, Public Meetings, Celebrations, Dinners, Bar becues and Picnics ; Models of Constitutions for Lyceums, Institutes and other Societies. With rules of Cricket, Baso Ball, Shinny, Quoits, Yachting and Rowing, and Instructions concerning Incorporations, Rules for Debating and the Composition and Delivery of Public Addresses, together with other valuable matter. By aa Ex-Member of the Philadelphia Bar. 12nio., cloth, price ---- $1 50 "FROST'S BOOK OF TABLEAUX. Containing one -*- hundred and sixty Tableaux Vivants, with directions for arranging the stage, costuming the characters, and forming appropriate groups. By S. ANNIE FROST. Author of " The Parlor Stage," " Amateur Theatricals," etc. To those who desire to get up an evening's entertainment, this book will prove an invaluable assistant. Paper covers, price ....................................................... 3O cts. Bound in boards, cloth back ............................................. 5O cts. Send Casli Orders to DICK & FITZGERALD, New York. cPhilip, R ,U P45 The reason why . MOV Q 1936 / .^^ ^^ 935130 8IOLOGY LIBRARY 8 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 7