Reclamation of Mined Lands In the Western Coal Region GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 872 DEPOSITORY SKIDMOHE COLLEGE LIBRARY REC'D JUN 61983 SARATOGA SPRINGS,. MX i1 ^ ^' ■'.rtdl\.:''?^'> '*ii'^ ii^r^'l?^^ % I I > < ypTA^. :^'\'SW i ir ^^r t/f /Iraw Spoil :. , - ^, ■^'**' "■ -^t^^^- . ^^nm,! Replanted M |i I II 11) Spreading From the collection of the n __ ^ m 0 Prelinger ti a V JUibrary San Francisco, California 2008 Reclamation of Mined Lands In the Western Coal Region Loose coal waste at the old abandoned Weber mine in Utah. In more than 30 years, except on the north slopes, few plants have been able to establish themselves on these coal wastes because of high surface temperatures. The background shows typical mixed pinyon-juniper woodland and sagebrush lands with patches of grassland. The spoils have been left undisturbed; they lack grading, topsoiling, and seeding characteristics of later surface- mining operations. October 1978. Reclamation at the Energy No. 2 mine in Colorado, showing transplanted aspen clumps, rock piles, and contour fur- rows on 2-year-old grassed slopes. This design aids in establishing a natural diversity of species and speeds up the reclamation process. November 1978. Reclamation of Mined Lands in the Western Coal Region By Perry F. Narten, Stephen F. Litner, John W. Allingham, Lee Foster, Daniel M. Larsen and Harry C. McWreath, III GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 872 1983 United States Department of the Interior JAMES G.^^TJ, Secretary Geological Survey Dallas L. Peck, Director Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Main entry under title: Reclamation of mined lands in the western coal region. (Geological Survey circular ; 872) Bibliography: p. 1. Coal mines and mining— Environmental aspects — West (U.S.) 2. Reclamation of land— West (U.S.) I. Narten, Perry F. II. Series. QE75.C5 no. 872 557.3s [333.73] 82-600118 rrD195,C581 Free on application to Distribution Branch, Text Products Section, U. S. Geological Survey, 604 South Pickett Street, Alexandria, VA 22304 PREFACE This report is intended to provide readers from Federal, State, and local governnnents and the general public with a description of the process of min- ing and reclamation in the coalfields of the Western United States and some of the associated environmental problems. Reclamation is complex and in- volves many technical disciplines. The technical language in this report has been simplified as much as possible, or defined. The report includes photo- graphs that illustrate various aspects of reclamation and some of the prob- lems encountered in the reclamation process and a table that presents an overview of reclamation at 22 coal mines. The report is based on 1978 observations by personnel of the Geological Survey, the Bureau of Land Management, and the Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement of the U.S. Department of the Interior and of the Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Our observations, in- dividual and collective, have been supplemented by a review of the available literature. List of Common and Scientific Plant Names Used alfalfa Medicago sativa alkali sacaton Sporobolus airoides antelope bitterbrusfi Purshia tridentata aspen Populus spp. big bluegrass Poa ampla big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata bitterbrusfi See antelope bitterbrush black greasewood Sarcobatus vermiculatus black sagebrusti Artemisia nova bluebunch wfieatgrass Agropyron spicatum blue grama Bouteloua gracilis bluegrass Poa spp. bluestem Sctiizachyrium spp. boxelder Acer negundo brome Bromus spp. broom snakeweed Gutierrezia sarothrae cereal rye Secale cereale cheatgrass Bromus tectorum Chinese elm Ulmus parviflora chokecherry Prunus virginiana Cottonwood Populus spp. crested wheatgrass Agropyron cristatum fescue Festuca spp. fir Abies spp. fourwing saltbush Atriplex canescens fringed sagebrush Artemisia frigida galleta Hilaria jamesii Gambel oak Quercus gambelii giant dropseed Sporobolus giganteus grama Bouteloua spp. greasewood Sarcobatus vermiculatus Great Basin wildrye Elymus cinereus green needlegrass stipa viridula Indian ricegrass Oryzopsis hymenoides mtermedlate wheatgrass Agropyron intermedium Japanese brome Bromus japonicus junegrass Koeleria cristata jumper Juniperus spp. little bluestem Andropogon scoparius millet Panicum miliaceum Mormon tea Ephedra viridis mountain brome Bromus marginatus mountain mahogany Cerocarpus spp. needleandthread stipa comata oak Quercus spp. orchardgrass Dactylis glomerata pme (pinyon) pin^s ejy„/,s ponderosa pine p/nus ponderosa prairie sandreed Calamovilfa longilolia prickly pear Opuntia spp. pubescent wheatgrass Agropyron trictiophorum rabbitbrush Chrysothamnus spp. ricegrass Spartina spp. rose pJQgg gpp Russian-olive Elaeagnus angustilolia Russian-thistle Salsola kali sagebrush Artemisia spp. sainfoin Onobrychis spp. saltbush Atriplex spp. sallgrass Distichlis stricta VI List of Common and Scientific Piant Names Used— Continued Sandberg bluegrass sand dropseed sandhill muhly scrub oak sedge servlceberry shadscale saltbush or shadscale ■ silver sagebrush skunkbush slender wheatgrass smooth brome snakeweed snowberry spruce streambank wheatgrass Sudan grass summer-cypress sweetclover tall wheatgrass thickspike wheatgrass threadleaf sedge western wheatgrass white clover willow winter wheat yellow sweetclover Poa secunda Sporobolus cryptandrus Muhlenbergia pungens Quercus spp. Carex spp. Amelanchier spp. Atriplex confertifolia Artemisia cana Rlius trilobata Agropyron trachycaulum Bromus inermis Gutierrezia spp. Symphoricarpus oreophilus Picea spp. Agropyron ri pari urn Sorghum sudanense Kochia lasiocarpa Melilotus spp. Agropyron elongatum Agropyron dasystachyum Carex filifolia Agropyron smithii Trifolium repens Salix spp. Triticum spp. Melilotus officinalis English-Metric Conversion MULTIPLY TO OBTAIN ENGLISH UNITS BY METRIC UNITS inches (in.) 2.54 centimeters (cm) feet (ft) 3.048 X 10' centimeters (cm) 3.048 X 10-1 meters (m) miles (mi) 1.609 kilometers (km) acres 4.047 X 10-' hectares (ha) 4.047 X 10-3 square kilometers (km^ cubic yards (yd^) 7.646 X 10-1 cubic meters (m^) pounds (lb) 4.536 X 10-1 kilograms (kg) pounds per acre (lb/acre) 1.12 kilograms per hectare (kg/ha) degrees Fahrenheit (°F) 5/9(°F-32) degrees Celsius (°C) CONTENTS Page Abstract 1 Introduction 1 Acknowledgements 1 Definition 3 Reclamation objectives 3 The reclamation process 3 Mining history 4 Reclamation history 4 Regional characteristics that affect reclamation 20 Landform and climate 20 Geology and soils 21 Vegetation 21 Site-specific characteristics that affect reclamation 22 Introduction 22 Climate 23 Soil moisture 24 Droughts 25 Landform 26 Overburden 28 Toxic substances 29 Soils 32 Topsoiling 33 Biological factors 34 Vegetation 36 Operational differences 43 Estimates of reclamation effectiveness 45 The test of time 47 Summary 50 References 51 ILLUSTRATIONS Frontispiece. Photographs contrasting old abandoned Weber coal mine in Utah with re- cent reclamation methods used at the Energy 2 mine in Colorado 1. Map showing locations of 22 western coal mines assessed in the study 2 2. Aerial photograph showing surface mine of the Arrowhead Coal Company near Haynes, North Dakota, and subsidence over the old abandoned under- ground mine 5 3. Photograph showing truck leaving a boxcut at the West Decker coal mine in Montana 6 4. Aerial photograph of the West Decker mine in Montana 7 5. Aerial photograph showing the Navajo surface coal mine in New Mexico 20 Page 6. Photograph showing waste coal dumped below the entry of the abandoned Reminger coal mine in Utah 21 7. Aerial photograph showing rows ot abandoned spoil piles at the Rosebud mine in Montana 22 8. Photograph showing natural revegetation on the 19-year-old mine-waste dumps at the Elkol-Sorensen mine in Wyoming 23 9. Photograph showing orphaned spoils naturally revegetated during the past 35 years at the Indian Head mine in North Dakota 24 10. Photograph of revegetated orphaned spoils at the North Beulah mine in North Dakota 25 11. Photograph showing second season of revegetation by seeding at McKinley mine in New Mexico 26 12. Photograph showing natural revegetation on spoil piles near the Seneca mines in Colorado 27 13. Aerial photograph showing hummocky surface created by rounding off tops of spoils at an older part of the Seneca mine in Colorado 28 14. Photograph showing graded and seeded spoil blending into the natural wooded terrain at the Absaloka mine in Montana 29 15. Map showing mean annual precipitation for the western coal region States 30 16. Map showing mean annual pan evaporation for the western coal region States 31 17. Photograph showing grooved, mulched, and seeded slope at Seminoe 2 mine in Wyoming 32 18. Photograph showing experimental water detention terraces at the San Juan mine in New Mexico 33 19. Aerial photograph showing mining and reclamation sequence at the Energy 1 mine in Colorado 34 20. Closeup photograph showing a contour furrow at the Energy 1 mine in Colorado 35 21. Photograph showing a rough, ditched, and grooved reclaimed area at the McKinley mine in New Mexico 36 22. Photograph showing a graded highwall at the Big Sky mine in Montana 37 23. Photograph showing eroded steep slope and natural revegetation of an old spoil pile along a haulroad at the Seminoe mines in Wyoming 38 24. Photograph showing contrasting vegetation at the Indian Head mine in North Dakota 39 25. Map of soil series and associations in the Spring Creek permit area of Mon- tana 40 26. Photograph showing topsoll being spread on regraded spoil at Seminoe 2 mine in Wyoming 41 27. Photograph showing sprinkler irrigation on topsoiled, graded spoils at the San Juan mine in New Mexico 42 28. Photograph showing a soil column used for State certification in reclamation topsoiling at the Black Mesa mine in Arizona 43 29. Photograph showing topsoll borrow strips at the Dave Johnston mine in Wyoming 44 30. Photograph showing densely revegetated slope of fourwing saltbush at the Navajo mine in New Mexico 45 31. Photograph showing cattle graizing on young seedlings on a graded highwall at the Rosebud mine in Montana 46 32. Photograph showing isolated 2- to 3-year-old saltbush plant on overgr£ized reclaimed ground at the Black Mesa mine in Arizona 47 33. Photograph showing disturbed surface-mined land in various stages of revege- tation at the Dave Johnston mine in Wyoming 48 34. Closeup photograph of a small native ponderosa pine transplanted in the spring of 1978 at the Absaloka mine in Montana 49 35. Aerial photograph showing mining and reclamation sequence at the Rosebud mine in Montana 50 36. Photograph showing reclaimed area of wheatgrasses, pines, and junipers at the Big Sky mine in Montana 51 37. Photograph showing rocks and a dead tree that provide perches for hawks and owls on reclaimed area at the Rosebud mine in Montana 52 Page 38. Photograph showing transplanted native aspens at the Energy 1 mine In Colorado 53 39. Photograph showing lush grasses on reclaimed land at the South Beulah mine in North Dakota 54 40. Photograph showing reclaimed land covered by grasses In their third growing season at the West Decker mine In Montana 55 41. Photograph showing grass-seeded reclaimed land blending into undisturbed land at the Vanguard mine In Wyoming 56 TABLES Table 1 . Comparison of key parameters for 22 western coal mines ■ Reclamation of Mined Lands in the Western Coal Region By Perry F. Narten', Stephen F. Lintner', John W. Allingham\ Lee Foster^ Daniel M. Larsen^ and Harry C. McWreath NT Abstract In 1978, a group of scientists from several Federal agen- cies examined reclamation work at 22 coal mines in seven western States. The results of these examinations were not used to derive quantitative predictions of the outcome of reclamation work but rather to determine the general re- quirements for revegetation success. Locally, reclamation efforts are affected by climate, especially precipitation; the landform of the restored surface; the nature of the over- burden material; the nature of the surface soil; and the na- tural ecological system. The goals of reclamation efforts are now broader than ever. Regulations call not only for re- ducing the steepness of the final surface and establishing a cover of mostly perennial native vegetation, but for re- storing the land for specific land uses, achieving diversity both in types of plants and in number of species, and rein- troduction of biological and ecological processes. If spe- cific sites are monitored over a long enough period of time, quantitative predictions of success for individual mines may be possible, and such predictions can be included in environmental impact statements to help in the decision- making process. The results of this study indicate that current reclamation objectives can be met when the recla- mation effort is designed on the basis of site-specific needs and when existing technology is used. INTRODUCTION In October and November of 1978, scientists from the U.S. Geological Survey, the Bureau of Land Management, the Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement, and the U.S. Forest Service visited 22 western coal mines at 17 locations in North Dakota, Montana, Wyo- ming, Colorado, Utah, Arizona, and New/ Mexico (fig. 1) to assess reclamation practices, to find out what had been accomplished and what was being done in planned reclamation, and to deter- mine, if possible, what happens when minimal or 'Geological Survey. U.S. Department of the Interior. 'Forest Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture, no attempts have been made at reclamation. These visits were made mostly to determine the outcome of revegetation work in respect to as- sessing environmental impacts of proposed coal mine development and forecasting reclamation success. Some observations were also made on techniques such as planting-site preparation and other factors that influence success. The condition of land when it is abandoned after mining has been a major public concern and the focus of studies, laws, and regulations on reclamation. Regulatory agencies and the mining industry have made varied attempts at prescribing and implementing reclamation. This paper describes what is being done and delimits some predictions about the probable long-term effectiveness of present-day reclamation efforts in the western coal region. To reach environmentally sound decisions on coal mine development, practical answers are needed to the following questions: Can self- sustaining diverse plant communities com- posed primarily of native species be reestab- lished? What will be the eventual vegetative production potentials of reclaimed land? ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The Federal team that conducted this study was assisted and guided by reclamation consult- ant Ed Nobel, who had participated in a 1976-77 detailed examination of plant and soil relation- ships on many of the same mines (Packer and others, 1981; Nobel, 1978a and b). Shirley Lind- say of the U.S. Office of Surface Mining and John Lovell of the U.S. Bureau of Land Manage- ment (now with the Office of Surface Mining), both with extensive experience in western coal 0 bO 100 200 300 400 MILES 0 100 ?00 300 "too MO 600 KIIOMEIERS Figure 1.— Locations of 22 western coal mines assessed in the study. mining reclamation problems, participated in the mine examinations in Utah, Colorado, New Mex- ico, and Arizona and contributed to this report in consultive and review capacities. The technical advice and logistical assistance of local Federal officials is gratefully acknowledged. These of- ficials include Arnie Matilla, John Paul Storrs, Bill Newby, Vernon Ruill, Douglas Hileman, Archie Carver, Jim Edward, Bill Clarke, and Moon Horn of the U.S. Geological Survey, and James Webb, Richard Enriquez, Bryant Christen- son, Jim Forest, Bob Black, and Ruby Hartman of the U.S. Forest Service. Officials of the mining companies were partic- ularly helpful in providing on-site guidance and discussion on their reclamation practices. They include Nick Bettas, Kemmerer Coal Company; Jerry Ellis, Rosebud Coal Company; Glen Doss, Gordon Peters, and Duane Richards, Pacific Power and Light; John Bradley, Amax Coal Com- pany; Dave Jennings and Dwight Layton, Decker Coal Company; Reg Hoff, Walter BeGay, Jan Macfarlan, and Roy Karo, Peabody Coal Com- pany; Ralph Moore and Bill Sullivan, Westmore- land Resources; Joe Mitzel, Jim Brown, and Terry Dudley, North American Coal Company; Jack Etherton, Al Czarnosky, Jr., Bill Noud, and Kent Crofts, Energy Fuels Corporation; Rodney Gabehart, Western Coal Company; and Sterling Grogan, Utah International and Midway Coal Mining Company. DEFINITION Planned reclamation, as defined in this report, is the process of returning mined lands to their premining productive capability or to a greater productive capability. It involves reshaping the disturbed lands into stable landforms and estab- lishing a self-sustaining vegetative cover. The majority of western Federal coal lands are classified as rangelands, which are used and managed as both wildlife habitats and as stock grazing areas. If a decision is made to return such lands to the same use after mining, it is im- plicit that the final result, the "reclaimed lands," will have (1) soil and plants established at about the same point in the plant succession, and (2) a plant diversity that is both self-sustaining under natural extremes of weather and climate and that provides a habitat for a variety of wildlife. These goals commonly demand the use of a large component of native plants. The signifi- cant criterion of reclamation effectiveness, how- ever, would be the restored capability and stabil- ity of the mined area as rangeland rather than the restoration of the premining ecosystem. RECLAMATION OBJECTIVES The objectives of reclamation have been changed over the years— between regions, be- tween mines, and even within single mines— as the need for these changes became apparent to lawmakers. Contemporary goals in the western coal region have evolved to include (1) reducing the steepness of the land slopes on excavated materials, or "spoils," that overlay the mined coalbeds and of the end-of-mining cliff-like highwalls, and (2) establishing a cover of peren- nial native vegetation that can provide food and cover for livestock and wildlife and reduce the erosion potential. Initial implementation of these objectives has sometimes resulted in large areas that are nearly covered by a single nonnative legume or grass species or at most a few species. In recent years, because of greater awareness and concern for wildlife habitat and the possible long-term instability of monoculture- like plantings and nonnative plants, postmining efforts have been directed toward establishment of much more diverse plant communities and greater use of native plants, including woody browse shrubs and trees. The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (Public Law 95-87) has unified and broadened the objectives of reclamation of surface-mined lands on a na- tionwide basis. THE RECLAMATION PROCESS In the western surface coal mine region, recla- mation is a continuing process, tied into the mining process, commencing with the initial re- moval and stockpiling of the topsoils. As mining progresses, the material above the coal, the overburden, is sequentially removed and deposited as "spoil piles" in previously mined- out sections (see frontispiece). Any overburden materials usable for plant growth media may be salvaged and stockpiled at this time. The spoil piles are then graded, and topsoil or other suit- able growth media are applied. The resulting surface is prepared for planting and is planted during the appropriate season. It may be treated in various ways before or after planting to im- prove germination and plant growth potentials, to reduce erosion, and to improve its water retention characteristics. In many mining oper- ations, after the initial opening of the mine, the plant growth media can usually be placed di- rectly on the graded surfaces without intermedi- ate stockpiling. Although the overall approaches to mining and reclamation are similar, local procedures will vary with differences in the attitude of the coalbeds (flat to steeply dipping); the number of individual beds to be mined; the thickness, strength, and mechanical and chemical proper- ties of the materials above and between the coal- beds; and the types of equipment used. The costs of coal recovery and of handling over- burden material directly influence the methods used. The technical aspects related to earth- material handling have reached an advanced state, and computer-assisted planning and deci- sionmaking models are now available (Scott, 1978; Gibson and others, 1979). The revegetation process, though dependent on climate, the availability of suitable thick- nesses of growing media, and of sources of plant materials, has been extensively researched for western coal surface-mined lands in recent years by the Surface Environment and f\^ining Program^ and other Federal and State govern- ment agencies and universities. In general, the same horticultural principles that are used for successful farming, home gardening, or land- scaping, were found to apply in the revegetation process. MINING HISTORY Early western coal mines, which date back to the late 1800's, were usually small underground mines that served local markets and railroads. Subsidence has occurred over some of these underground mines creating surfaces that are hazardous and virtually unreclaimable (fig. 2). *The Surtace EnvironmenI and Mining Program (SEAM) was established by the U.S. Forest Service In 1973 and given a 5-year mission to develop and apply the most current reclamation and planning technology to western coal mining operations The subsidence is more common over mines with less overburden. In North Dakota, for ex- ample, overburdens of 100 feet or less have col- lapsed over several underground mines; those of 200 feet or more have not (Trimble, 1979, p. 16). Early surface mining was restricted to a few large mines generally adjacent to railroads or powerplants. One of the oldest surface opera- tions is the Rosebud mine at Colstrip, Montana, where mining began in 1924. Some of the sur- face mines in North Dakota are of similar age. The Indian Head mine, for example, began oper- ating in 1929. With the increased demand for electric power and low-sulfur coals and with the improvement of surface-mining machinery and transportation equipment (fig. 3), western coal mining began a period of major new development in the late 1960's and early 1970's. This boom has con- tinued at a rapid pace, and some new surface mines are excavating the land surface at a high rate (fig. 4). For example, the Navajo mine in northwestern New Mexico disturbed about 4,500 acres (more than 7 mi') in 14 years (fig. 5). Envi- ronmental concerns about the reclamation of mined land have intensified as the rate of mining and the number of western surface mines has increased. RECLAMATION HISTORY Planned reclamation was not required and therefore not practiced in early western mining. Most mines were small and underground, and thus only a few surface acres were disturbed. In some areas, postmining debris such as surface buildings and load-out platforms have been removed by scavengers or land management agencies. Only lump coal was marketable in early min- ing days, and the fine materials were sifted or washed out and left at the mine site. At many of these old abandoned underground mines, broken timbers and the coal fines and dust that blacken hillsides near the mine entrances are the major remaining physical indications of past mining. These blackened surfaces absorb enough heat to destroy any germinating seed- lings and are largely devoid of vegetation (fig. 6). In the early surface mines the overburden was left as it was excavated, generally in a series of small ridges having steep slopes (figs. 7 and 8), Figure 2.— Aerial photograph of the surface mine of the Arrowhead Coal Company in North Dakota, showing subsidence over the old abandoned underground mine workings in the background (Trimble, 1979). The highwall of the surface mine is 15 to 20 feet (foreground). Subsidence over underground room-and-pillar mines creates hazardous surfaces and destroys agricultural land; it does, however, create a local wildlife habitat. Such areas are difficult or impossible to reclaim. to which fines from the coal were added. These ridges, commonly called orphaned spoils, pro- vide examples of the natural revegetation proc- ess under the most adverse local conditions of moisture depletion, temperature stress, and soil instability. In North Dakota where adequate moisture is available, some orphan spoils have, over a period of 40 years, become naturally revegetated with a variety of plant forms, mainly perennials. These plants have formed islands of vegetation in the mined lands and provide refuges for wildlife, especially deer (figs. 9 and 10). In some places, sportsmen and conservation groups have planted woody vegetation on spoil piles specifi- cally to create wildlife refuges, and the vegeta- tion is doing well (fig. 10). Canadian experience in converting old spoil piles to wildlife refuges has been similar (Schumacher and others, 1977, p. 19). Most steep slopes in western coal mined areas, however, are generally bare of vegetation. Elsewhere vegetation is restricted to the most favorable germination sites, namely those where the soil surface is flat enough or where benches allow enough moisture to accumulate to support seed germination. Except in the more humid areas, plant cover is sparse even though some native plants are beginning to colonize (fig. 11). In some locations, moisture-collecting places between the spoil piles and at the bases of old highwalls and ponds are colonized by willows and cottonwoods which may locally dominate an otherwise barren landscape (fig. 7). Some mining companies attempted to stabi- lize raw spoil piles by aerial seeding with either grasses or legumes, or both. Some State regula- tions required the leveling of the ridges (figs. -12 and 13). These newly leveled surfaces were then partly seeded from the air and, in places, were Figure 3.— A 100-ton truck leaves a box cut at the West Decker mine in Montana. Light-colored sandy overburden, about 90 feet thick, is stripped on two benches (avi/ay from the viewer) leaving spoil piles (left). Overburden will be stripped from the flat plain (center) as far as the distant buttes (background). The 52-foot coalbed is exposed in the box cut. September 1975. planted with mostly nonnative trees and shrubs on an experimental basis in cooperation with State and Federal agencies (Berg, 1975, p. 82-83). Although evidence of deliberate seed- ing attempts can be inferred from the existence of nonnative grasses, the history is incomplete. Recent reclamation efforts have been guided by both existing and proposed Federal and State regulations (Imhoff and others, 1976). In the 1970's, government agencies, working in part with the universities, developed much of what is presently known about western reclamation technology. The state of the art is now believed sufficiently established that a major Federal pro- gram of the U.S. Forest Service, the Surface En- vironment and Mining Program (SEAM), changed its emphasis from research and development to assuring that reclamation technology is avail- able to users (Scholz, 1978). Much of the result of the SEAM program and other similar government and university research work (Burbank, 1978; Brown, 1977) has been applied at one or more mines through experimental techniques and plantings done in cooperation with the mining companies. The mining companies are doing some testing and experimenting on their own (Deveraux, 1978) as new techniques are devel- oped or as they are mandated by government regulation. In 1977, the Surface Mining Control and Recla- mation Act (SMCRA) was passed by Congress. This law called for the creation of a new Federal regulatory agency. The U.S. Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (GSM), whose principle duties include (1) administering the programs for controlling surface coal mining operations; (2) reviewing and approving or dis- approving State programs for controlling mining operations and reclaiming mined lands; (3) in- specting for regulatory compliance; (4) issuing cease-and-desist orders; (5) ordering the super- vision or revocation of any permit that does not Figure 4.— Aerial photograph of the West Decker coal mine in Montana, adjacent to the Tongue River Reservoir. Systematic mining operations proceed radially outward. Regraded grass-covered reclaimed areas near the center are interrupted by radially oriented haulroads in deep cuts. Spoil is continuously regraded and seeded after the overburden has been stripped from the 52-foot coalbed. Irrigation is not needed, and grasses are quickly established. Extensive reclamation experiments have been made here under the SEAM Program of the U.S. Forest Service. Some replanted areas have multiple test plots. The East Decker Mine is across the reservoir at right center. July 1978. comply with SMCRA or its regulations; (6) ad- ministering the program for the purchase and reclamation of abandoned and unreclaimed mined areas; and (7) assisting and monitoring programs for the research and development of improved surface mining and reclamation tech- niques designed to reduce adverse environ- mental and social effects. An essential feature of the SMCRA was the call for cooperative development of legislation and technical organizations at the State level to support enforcement of Federal Government regulations. The Office of Surface Mining's regulations covering surface coal mining and reclamation operations were published on March 13, 1979 (U.S. Office of Surface Mining, 1979). Although practices at individual mines may differ, reclamation now follows this basic scheme: the rough spoil is graded to approx- imate the original landform conforming to ad- jacent unmined terrain (fig. 14); the salvaged topsoil is respread; the surface is prepared as a seed bed, and measures are taken to supply whatever is necessary or required for good seed- ling development; the surface is planted; and post-planting amendments are made as needed. At the time of the 1978 examinations of re- claimed areas, most of the revegetated mined lands examined were the result of reclamation initiated a few years earlier (see table 1). Some revegetation less than 5 years old was done in accordance with the general goals of recent legislation. The specific mandates of SMCRA for diversity of native communities, productivity, and cover, however, had not yet been met. Any predictions about meeting current goals of reclamation are severely hampered by time Table 1. — Comparisons of key parameters of 22 Western Coal Mines' IThc data are compiled from Evans. Uhlemann. and Ebg. 1978; Nobel, l»78a: Nobel. 1978b; Held Mining Reclamation Beginning date Beginning date Topography Mine and location Acres mined Acres reclaimed Land Use Climatic Factors Elevation, in feet I. INDIAN HEAD MINE 1929 Unknown. Premining: Growing season Hilly with 4- to 6-per- Beulah, Mercer County, Pasture, hay. (avg frost-free days): 120. cent slopes. Orphaned central North Dakota 1,082 acres 608 acres through grains. spoils left from older through 1978. Temperature (°F): mining. Recent spoils uses 7/:' maps: 1978. Intended: No mean annual: 41 reshaped to original Medicine Butte NE Change. range: ^10 to 1 10. forms. Surfaces Medicine Butte mostly stabilized even Zap Livestock and Precipitation (inches): on orphaned spoils. Beulah hunting ex- mean annual: 17 lat47°15'N.; cluded dur- range: 1 1 to 22; 1 ,950-2,000 long I01°52'W. ing reclama- 70 percent from April sees. 29-33, T. 144 N., tion. through August. R.89 W. 2. ABSALOKA MINE 1974 1974 Premining: Growing season Rolling hills and buttes Hardin, Big Horn Coun- Wildlife and (avg frost-free days): 125 with 2- to 8-percent ty, southeastern 516 acres 253 acres graded; livestock mid-May to mid- slopes. Some minor Montana through 1978. 127 acres seeded. range. September. rilling and gullying. uses I'A' maps: Intended: No Temperature (°F): 3,500 Wolf School change. mean annual: 46 lat45°48'N.; range: -Al to 100. long 107°05'W. Livestock and sees. 23-26, T. 37 N., hunting Precipitation (inches): R.l E. excluded during reclamation. mean annual: 12 range: 2 to 15; mostly from May to June. 3. ROSEBUD MINE 1924-58 l%9-74 Premining: Growing season Sandstone ridges and Colstrip, Rosebud Coun 1,800 acres 1,100 acres Wildlife and (avg frost-free days): 127 mesas, with 2-percent ty, southeastern mined by graded and livestock mid-May to mid- slopes separated by Montana Northern seeded by range; some September. broad valleys having Pacific RR. Northern hayfields. low relief and numer- uses 7/,' maps: Pacific RR; Temperature (°F): ous drainages and Colstrip W. 1968-79 350 acres re- Intended: No mean annual: 47 ephemeral streams; Colstrip SW. 3,000 total claimed by change. range: ^10 to 110. sandstone escarp- Colstrip SE. acres dis- Western ments adjacent to Colstrip E. turbed by Energy Co.; Livestock ex- Precipitation (inches): mined lands. Older lat 45°52'N.; Western 350 acres cluded dur- mean annual: 15 unreclaimed spoils long 106''37'W. Energy Co. abandoned. ing reclama- range: 14 to 16; have 35-percent T.I N., R.41-42E. tion. 60 percent from March slopes and some 1975-78 through June. minor rilling and 1 ,250 acres gullying. Some wind graded and erosion. seeded. 3,260-3,340 1979 400 acres graded in preparation for seeding. 'Set Glcawn (1979) for published reclamalion data on specific r observations by the authors; topographic maps; and written correspondence with the r Growing Media Premining: No data. Postmining: In older recla- mation, fine-textured spoils with high sodium content usually tnixed in handling; some highly sodic spoils still exposed; topsoil not used. Recent reclamation, including reworking of older areas, has involved up to 21 in. of topsoil. Premining: Mostly grasses (wheatgrass-needlegrass). Postmining: Successful seeding of native grasses and grain crops achieved on shallow, nontoxic spoils or on topsoiled surfaces. Little success in rehabilitating raw spoils having high sodium con- tent. Western and crested wheatgrasses, green needlegrass, slender wheatgrass, yellow sweetclover, and Sudan grass cover. Planted and self-sown trees and shrubs on old spoil piles. Species Diversity Premining: Mostly mixed grasses. Postmining: Mostly grasses. Experimental plantings of exotic trees smd shrubs on rougher ground. Cottonwood, willow, and common reed volunteers in wetter Premining: Clay loam to cobbly loam soils, 10 to 40 in. deep, moderate permeability; pH 7.2-8.0. Postmining: Smoothed sur- face, generally 6 to 12 in. topsoil, but as much as 36 in. on highly sodic spoils; fertilized. Premining: Ponderosa pine forests on ridges and buttes, shrub-grassland on slopes, and wheat- grass-needlegrass in bottom lands. Postmining: Vegetation cover variable (4 to 22 per- cent). Slender wheatgrass and associated wheatgrasses dominant. Lesser amounts of yellow sweetclover and winter wheat. Preliminary results from ponderosa pine revegetation show 80-percent survival of transplanted containerized trees and 33-percent survival of transplanted bare-rooted trees. Premining: About 20 species. Postmining: Mostly grasses; diversity in- creased by trans- planting local pon- derosa pines and associated vegeta- tion. Eight species of shrubs and two species of deciduous trees planted. Premining: No data. Postmining: 320-900 lbs/acre for ponderosa pine area; 3,000 lbs/acre for shrub grass area. Premining: Sandy loam over parent sandstone and shale; pH 7.0-8.2; toxic materials absent in sur- face zones. Postmining: Selective salvage and redistribution of top- soil and subsoil; stockpil- ing avoided. Straw mulch incorporated. Premining: Mixed prairie (wheatgrasses, needlegrass, grama, sedge, silver sagebrush, big sagebrush, fringed sagebrush, broom snakeweed) with scat- tered woodland of ponderosa pine and juniper; intrusions of riparian plants (cottonwood, box- elder, chokecherry, snowberry). Postmining: 40-percent cover and litter accumulation in basins; cover of needleandthread; bluebunch wheatgrass; threadleaf sedge; tall, crested, west- em, slender, and thickspike wheatgrasses; blue grama; prairie sandreed, cheatgrass; bluegrass; and bluestem. Upland areas covered by tall and crested wheatgrasses, Indian ricegrass, and others; cover 25 percent. Research plots moni- tored by Montana State University. Early recla- mation by broadcast, drill, and aerial seeding with crested wheatgrass, thickspike wheatgrass, western wheatgrass, smooth brome, orchard- grass, alfalfa, sainfoin, fourwing saltbush, and similar plants. Premining: Over 200 species on rangeland sites. Postmining: 1972 seed mix contained 16 species. After 1973, refined seed mix of 14 major perennial species was used. Premining: 250-800 lbs/acre; 500-1,600 lbs/acre potential for wetter areas. Postmining: 3,000 lbs/acre for introduced stands. Table \.— Comparisons of key parameters of 22 Western Coat Mines'— Continued Mining Reclamation Beginning date Beginning date Topography Mine and location Acres mined Acres reclaimed Land Use Climatic Faaors tilcvation, in feet 4. BIG SKY MINE I%9 1970 Premining: Growing season Rolling hills, sandstone Colstrip, Rosebud Coun- Wildlife and (avg frost-free days): 127 mesas with 6- to ty, southeastern 674 acres 521 acres graded. livestock mid-May to mid- 8-percent slopes; Montana through 346 acres seeded range. September. highwalls reduced to 1978. through 1978. 20 percent. Local uses 7/:' maps: Intended: No Temperature (°F): gullying repaired with Colstrip SE. change. mean annual: 47 straw mulch; wind lai 45°49'N.; range: -40 to 110. erosion on temporari- long 106°36'W. Livestock and ly bare flat areas. sees. 21,22,27, T.l N., hunting ex- Precipitation (inches): R.41 E. cluded dur- ing reclama- tion; live- stock grazing scheduled to begin on 335 acres in 1980. mean annual: 15 range: 14 to 16; 60 percent from March through June. 3,220-3,300 WEST DECKER MINE Decker, Big Horn Coun- ty, southeastern Montana USGS7// maps: Decker lat 45°03'N.; long 106°5rW. sees. 8,9,16,17, T.9 S., R.40E. 1972 636 acres through 1978. 216 acres through 1978. Premining: WUdUfe and livestock range; some wheat. Intended: No change. Livestock and hunting ex- cluded dur- ing reclama- tion. Growing season (avg frost-free days): 107 June to mid-September. Temperature (°F): mean annual: 46 range: -43 to 108. Precipitation (inches): mean annual: 14 range: No data; 50 percent from April through June. Rolling hills with 2- to 10-percent slopes and divides and broad drainage bottoms. Outcrops of red clinker and shale. Some minor rilling. 3,500-3,600 6. BELLE AYR 1973 1973 Premining: Growing season SOUTH MINE Livestock (avg frost-free days): 114. Gillette, Cambell 1,122 acres 424 acres of com- range. County, nor- through pleted Temperature (°F): theastern Wyoming 1978. reclamation Intended: No mean annual: 45 through 1978. change. range: -32 to 100. USGS7// maps: Saddle Horse Butte Livestock and Precipitation (inches): lat 44°06'N.; hunting ex- mean annual: 15 long 105°22W. cluded dur- range: No data; sees. 27,28,33,34, ing reclama- 50 percent from April T.48N., R.71 W. tion. through June. Rolling hills with 4- to 8-percent slopes; nar- row valleys. Spoils reshaped to neariy original conriguration with minor rilling of mined surfaces; heavy sheetwash during seasonal storms. 4,460-4.520 Sec Olcaaon (19791 tor published reclamation data on specific i 10 Growing Media Premining: Silty to sandy soil, shallow to moder- ately deep over sandstone and shale; pH 7.1-8.3; blue-gray partings in coal appear to be to.\ic to plants. Postmining: High sodium content in pre- 1973 mix- ed spoils; after 1973, spoils topsoiled, and partings buried minimum of 8 ft. Premining: Mostly prairie grasslands merging with ponderosa pine; scattered mixed shrub and grass on upland slopes and mesas. Silver sagebrush, needleandthread, wheatgrasses, and blue grama dominant. Postmining: Thickspike, western, and crested wheatgrasses; smooth brome; alfalfa; and sweetclover dominant; some native and exotic woody plants. Cover ranges from 5 to 40 percent . Russian-thistle dominant in some areas. Some lit- ter development on 1974 and 1975 spoils. Some large transplanted junipers and pines have sur- vived; ponderosa pine beginning to seed-in on adjacent reclaimed slopes. Species Diversity Premining: Over 21 species. Postmining: Mostly limited to a few grasses and non- native legumes. A few native trees be- ing transplanted. Seedings no longer contain nonnative species. Productivity Premining: 420 to %8 lbs/acre; 900 to 1,400 lbs/acre poten- tial. Postmining: Prior to 1973, 248 lbs/acre. Topsoiled spoils greater than 2,200 lbs/acre (for northeast exposure). First mowing of western wheatgrass, smooth brome, and yellow sweetclover yield- ed 3,000 lbs/acre. Premining: Sandy loam to clay, moderately deep to deep over parent shale and sandstone; average soil depth about 20 in.; high sodium content in clay material; pH 6.6-8.9. Postmining: Some areas top- soiled with sandy loam to depth of 18 to 20 in.; fer- tilized, mulched. High sodium content of some spoils deters plant growth in nontopsoiled areas. Premining: Mainly mid-shortgrass prairie; prairie sandreed, little bluestem, blue grama, needleand- thread, Sandberg bluegrass, and junegrass; cover 20 to 30 percent. Riparian vegetation includes western wheatgrass, Japanese brome, green needlegrass, big sagebrush, and silver sagebrush. Some riparian areas contain black greasewood, blue grama, bluegrass, bluestem; cover averages 50 percent. Postmining: Slender, western, and thickspike wheatgrasses, and smooth brome. Ground cover ranges from uniform (37 percent) to variable and is as much as 95 percent in grassland-sagebrush zone. In areas of fourwing saltbush and sagebrush, cover of volunteer seedlings averages 65 percent. Premining: About 18 species; mostly grasses and forbs, both annual and perennial. Postmining: 1 1 species in seed mLx; 3 species hand planted; 13 volunteer species. Premining: 1,1(X) lbs/acre aver- age, up to 2,000 lbs/acre in good years; highly variable with aspect (exposure). Postmining: 1,834 lbs/acre aver- age yield after 2 years. Ranges from 500 to 5,230 lbs/acre. Premining: Deep to moder- ately deep sandy clay loams to shallow loams; locally rocky; pH 5.3-7.9. Postmining: Ripped and covered with 2 ft of sandy loam topsoil; fertil- ized, mulched. No toxic soil problems. High sodium content in some spoils. Premining: Grassland-sagebrush; big sagebrush, western wheatgrass, junegrass, and Sandberg bluegrass dominant. Some riparian vegetation. Postmining: Alfalfa dominant on older (1974) topsoil stockpiles which have been seeded with tall wheatgrass, smooth brome, alfalfa, yellow sweet- clover, and crested wheatgrass; summer-cypress is also abundant. Cover ranges from 0 to 40 per- cent, averaging 15 percent. On more recently re- claimed areas, summer-cypress dominates, providing up to 75 percent cover. Several tree species planted experimentally and to provide cover, usually associated with reclaimed stream channels or artificial rock piles. Winter wheat us- ed as nurse crop. In 1973, small spoil area had fourwing saltbush, wheatgrasses, and green needlegrass. Premining: About 12 species. Postmining: Variable, but limited; test plots under study. Several seed mixes used. A representative seed mix contains 20 species. Premining: 185-625 lbs/acre (overgrazed); 1,000-2,000 lbs/acre potential. Postmining: 170-566 lbs/acre on 1-year-old seeded areas; 820 lbs/acre yield for a small test area seeded in 1973 without topsoil. 11 Table I .—Comparisons of key parameters of 22 Western Coal Mines'— Continued Mining Reclamation Beginning date Beginning date Topography Mine and loauion Acres mined Acres reclaimed Land Use Climatic Faaors Elevation, in feel 7. DAVE JOHNSTON Underground: 1965 Premining: Growing season Rolling hills with 4- to MINE late 1800's WildUfe and (avg frost-free days): 125. 6-percent slopes. Glenrock, Converse 1,187 acres livestock Spoils regraded to County, east-central Surface: 1958. through range. Temperature (°F): nearly original con- Wyoming March 1979. mean annual: 45 figuration. Local 2,206 acres Intended: No range: -35 to 100. gullying of leveled uses 15' maps: through change. spoils and cuts. Wind Fifty-Five Ranch March 1979. Precipitation (inches): erosion of sandy lat43''05'N.; Livestock and mean annual: 13 ridgetops and soil- long 105°5O'W. hunting ex- range: 12 to 14; stripped surfaces. sees. 2,3,10,15,21,28,34, cluded dur- 60 percent from April T.36 N., R.75 W. ing reclama- tion. through October. 5,800-6.200 8. ROSEBUD, MEDICINE Rosebud: 1920 Unknown. Premining: Growing season Cuestas, mesas, rolling BOW, SEMINOE 1 Seminoe Wildlife and (avg frost-free days): 86 hills with 6- to 8-per- and 2 MINES No. 1: 1970. Rosebud: 661 livestock June 7 to August 30. cent slopes separated Hanna, Carbon County, Seminoe acres. range. by valleys. Spoils south-central No. 2: 1973. Medicine Bow: Temperature (°F): graded to long. Wyoming 304 acres. Intended: No mean annual: 42 straight slopes (both Rosebud: 3,743 Seminoe No. 1: change. range: -36 to 98. vertically and along uses 7/,' maps: acres 600 acres the slope) approxi- Tenmile Spring through Seminoe No. 2: Precipitation (inches): mating the dip of the Elmo 1978. 369 acres. mean annual: 10 original strata. Old Como Medicine Bow: range: No data. pits of Rosebud mine Dana 1,319 acres contain water; maxi- Hanna through mum slopes 25 per- lat41°55'N.; 1978. cent. Gullying and long 106°33'W. Seminoe No. 1: severe rilling on some T. 22-23 N., 1 .500 acres steep spoils. R.81-82 W. through 1970-76. Seminoe No. 2: 826 acres through 1978. 6,800-7,200 9. ELKOL-SORENSEN Underground: 1973 Premining: Growing season Cuestas with 25- to MINE 1909-50. WildUfe and (avg frost-free days): 60 40-percent slopes Kemmcrer, Lincoln Numerous test livestock mid-June to mid- separated by broad County, southcasterr Surface: 1950. areas l%5-69. range. August . valleys. Regional dip Wyoming is westward. Spoils 440 acres mined 752 acres shaped. Intended: No Temperature (°F): graded to long, undu- uses 7/,' maps: through 304 acres change. mean annual: 40 lating configuration Elkol 1978. completed. range: -32 to 98. approximating origi- uses 15' maps: Livestock ex- nal dip. Water in Kemmerer cluded dur- Precipitation (inches): final boxcuts to depth lat4r45'N.; ing reclama- mean annual: 9 of 50 ft. Steep slopes longll0°37'W. tion. range: No data. are rilled and gullied. sec. 3, T.20N., 50 percent from April R.116 W. through August. All 7.0a)-7,300 sec. 32, seeded areas irrigated T.21 N., R.116 W. for 2 years with two applications per year by sprinkler system. 'Soe Gleason (1979) for published reclamaiion data on specific r 12 Growing Media Premining: Deep to moder- ately deep sandy to clayey loams over mostly sand- stone and interbedded thin shale; permeability moderate to rapid; sodium locally high in some soils; pH 3.6-7.0. Postmining: Graded spoil covered by 6 to 18 in. mixed topsoil; pitted, mulched, and fertilized. Premining: Grassland-sagebrush; big sagebrush, rab- bitbrush, blue grama, junegrass, and needleand- thread dominant. Cover varies from 0 to 40 percent. Postmining: Revegetated areas vary considerably with age and location; ground cover varies from 0 to 35 percent. Dominant species include western, streambank, thickspike, and crested wheat- grasses. Millet used as a cover crop. Initially, seeding was done without topsoil or mulch; created wheatgrass, alfalfa, and cereal rye were used. Wide variety of grasses now used with top- soil and mulch. Premining: Over 15 species. Postmining: 7 species in seed mix. Produaivity Premining: Probably low. Postmining: 1972 seeding in untopsoiled areas yielded 73 lbs/acre. Topsoiled areas yielded 1,300 lbs/acre. Premining: Mostly brown Premining: Big sagebrush, black sagebrush, rabbit- Premining: Over 22 sandy loam over lime- stone and sandstone; also, friable grayish- brown loam over shales with free lime usually present. pH 7.0-9.0; brush, and saltbush with Indian ricegrass, species. needleandthread, and junegrass. Local saline soils, characterized by poor drainage and heavy Postmining: 45 species; clay soils, are distinguished by the presence of ricegrasses on steep greasewood, saltbush, and saltgrass. Cover of 24 spoils. to 76 percent. Postmining: Spoils com- Postmining: Drill seeding of wheatgrasses and yellow posed of shale, sand- sweetclover. Bluebunch wheatgrass, green needlegrass, Indian ricegrass, streambank wheatgrass, western wheatgrass, thickspike wheatgrass, slender wheatgrass, fourwing saltbush, and shadscale saltbush. Cover uniform but varies with age of seeding from 79 to 89 per- cent. Some sagebrush, saltbush, and greasewood volunteers. stone, and clay; most areas topsoiled. Straw and sprayed fibrous mulch. Premining: 600 to 1,400 lbs/acre on big sage-grassland; 250-600 lbs/acre on low sage-saltbush type. Seminoe No. 2 — 740 to 1,000 lbs/acre. Postmining: Rosebud— 78 to 412 lbs/acre (1-year growth). Medicine Bow — No data. Seminoe No. 1—538 to 888 lbs/acre; Russian-thistle severely invaded seeded areas causing competition for available moisture during first 2 years, then thinned out. Seminoe No. 2—579 to 1,728 lbs/acre (1-year growth). Premining: Thin, rocky, clay Premining: Sagebrush, shadscale, rabbitbrush, Premining: Over 15 loam over parent shale greasewood, antelope bitterbrush, western species, and sandstone; pH wheatgrass, junegrass, slender wheatgrass, Indian 6.5-7,4; no toxic ricegrass; some areas contain aspen, chokecherry, Postmining: Limited materials. serviceberry, rose, and Great Basin wildrye. diversity. Postmining: Surface material of shale, clay, and weath- ered shale; 6 to 8 in. of topsoil used locally. Older spoils weathered and rounded. Tops fur- rowed. Postmining: Natural revegetation occurring on spoils from 1955, with encroachment of Great Basin wildrye, aspen, and rose. Some sagebrush and bitterbrush. Revegetated areas dominated by wheatgrasses and fourwing saltbush. Cover highly varied; up to 37 percent. Some spruce and fir seedhngs tested in current reclamation. Older test plots of woody plants on steep slopes show fair to good survival of Russian-olive, skunkbush, and Chinese elm. 13 Table \ .—Comparisons of key parameten of 22 Western Coal Mines'— Continued Mining Reclamalion tJeginning dale Beginning date Topography Mine and location Acres mined Acres reclaimed IjuidUse Climatic Factors Elevation, in feet 10. ENERGY 1.2, and 3 Energy No. 1: Energy No. 1: Premining: Growing season Hills and sandstone MINES 1%2. l%5-68— WildUfe and (avg frost -free days): 65 cuestas. Spoils gently Oak Creek. Routt Energy No. 2: spoil tops lev- livestock mid-June to September. dipping and undulat- County, north- 1972. eled and range, wheat ing. Old spoil tops western Colorado Energy No. 3: aerially fanning, and Temperature (°¥): leveled and separated 1975. seeded; 292 dry pasture. mean annual: 42 by V-shaped valleys, uses 7'// maps: acres. range: 26 to 58 . 13 to 20 ft deep. Rattlesnake Butte Area disturbed: 1976- Curtent: Spoils reclaimed after !al40°20N.; 1.917 acres grading, top- Cropland, Precipitation (inches): 1974 reshaped to near long 107°05'W. (mining); soiling, and hay mean annual: 16 original configuration. T.4-5 N.. R.86-87 W. 338 acres seeding. meadows. range: No data. Energy No. 2 final (facilities). Energy No. 2: livestock 50 percent as snow . boxcut backfilled and 1974— range, and leveled to undulating. grading, top- wildlife hummocky, dipping soiling and feeding surface appro.ximating seeding. areas. original topography. Energy No. 3: 1975— Intended: No 6,900-7,600 grading, top- change. soiling, and seeding. 11. SENECA land Unknown. Seneca No. 1: Premining: Growing season Hilly, with 17- to 20- per- 2 MINES Underground: 1%9 WUdlife and (avg frost-free days): 81 cent slopes. Seneca Hayden. Routt County. Grassy and Early spoils livestock mid-June to early No. 1— steep, exten- northwestern Wolf reshaped to range. September . sive spoil areas having Colorado Creek origina] con- different slopes and mines. tours; lower Intended: No Temperature (°F): aspect; ridgetops flat- USGS7K' maps: spoil slopes change. mean annual: 41 tened to 15 ft. Seneca Mount Harris Surface: have flattened range: -42 to 100. No. 2— large, exten- Milner Seneca No. ridges. sive areas graded to lat40°27'N.; 1—1 19 acres Precipitation (inches): near original con- long 107°07'W. through Aerial reseeding mean annual: 16 figuration. Local T.5-6N., R.87 W. 1964-69. from 1972 to range: No data. slumping of spoil sta- Seneca No. 1977 due to 50 percent as snow; bilized by horizontal 2—600 acres sheep 1 in. /month during the trenches and berms; through overgrazing. growing season. wind ablation on high l%8-76. 450 acres reshaped 1969 through 1977. ridges. Some steep slopes gullied. 6,640-7,600 12. WEBER AND Beginning dates No reclamation; Premining: Growing season Mountain valleys, aban- CHAPPEL MINES unknown. abandoned in Wildlife and (avg frost-free days): 70 doned coal dumps. Coalville, Summit Underground: early 1960's. livestock (estimate) . Slope: Weber, 20 per- County, north-central Weber Some leveling range. cent; Chappell. 50 Utah (closed in for oil well Temperature (°F): percent. Coal fines 1950's). drilling. Current: No mean annual: 44 erosion. uses I'A ' maps: Chappell change. (estimate) Turner Hollow (closed in range: No data. Weber. 5,900; lat 40°56'N.; 1960's). Chappell, 6,200 long lir22'W. Surface: Precipitation (inches): sees. 2 and Weber: 20 mean annual: 14 3, T.2N.. R.5E. acres. (estimate) range: No data. 'See Oleaaon (1979) for published reclamalion daia on specinc mines. 14 Growing Media Premining: Silty clay, silty clay loams, clay loams, loams, and fine sandy loams over sandstone and shale parent mater- ial; pH 5.9-8.3. Postmining: All leveled spoils covered with top- soil or subsoil; no top- soiling done on shales or sandstones; older spoils topsoiled at mines with considerable amount of subsoil. Contour furrows and berms constructed to control erosion. Vegetation Premining: Energy No. 1 — sagebrush, mountain mahogany-scrub oak, and aspen. Primary plants are oak, serviceberry, chokecherry, snowberry, smooth brome, mountain brome, and forbs. Energy No. 2 — sagebrush ground layer dominated by western wheatgrass and weedy an- nuals. Local stands of dense aspen and cultivated wheat fields. Postmining: Ground cover on sites 3 years old ex- ceeds 35 percent; on sites 5 years old, exceeds 50 percent. Clumps of aspen, serviceberry, and oak set out on smoothed spoil before topsoiling. Rockpiles added for habitat. Energy No. 1 — wheat and rye nurse crop was highly suc- cessful. Energy No. 2 — surviving species are in- termediate wheatgrass, smooth brome, and alfalfa. Annual grasses and forbs now crowded out by planted perennial species. Premining: Over 20 species. Postmining: Range of 7 to 34 species in 1979. 1977 and 1978 plant- ing mix of 24 spe- cies; 1979 planting mix of 27 species. Wide variety of grasses, forbs, and shrubs. Produaivity Premining: Energy No. 1 — 507 lbs/acre for aspen type to 2,500 lbs/acre for tall sage-grass type (ex- cluding aspen and shrubs over 4.5 ft). Energy No. 2 — 917 lbs/acre. Energy No. 3 — 347 lbs/acre. Postmining: Energy No. 1—280 to 2,467 lbs/acre for nontopsoiled, seeded spoils; 1,260-1,900 lbs/acre for topsoiled, seeded spoils. Energy No. 2—3,000 lbs/acre after 4 years. Energy No. 3 — 826 lbs/acre in 1978; 1,700 lbs/acre in 1979. Premining: Deep loams, clay loams, silt loams, and minor clay pans over sandstone and shale; pH 6.6-7.9. Postmining: Seneca No. 1 — spoil tops flattened but not topsoiled. Seneca No. 2 — spoils of clay, shale, sandstone; some locations not topsoiled. Straw mulch. Premining: Mixture of grassland-shrub; big Premining: About 18 sagebrush, big bluegrass, needleandthread, snow- species, berry, Gambel oak, serviceberry. Cover 40 to 70 percent. Postmining: Seneca No. 1 — revegetated with air- seeded alfalfa; smooth brome; crested, interme- diate, and pubescent wheatgrasses. Orchardgrass, cheatgrass, and brome dominant. Survival of transplanted, mostly introduced deciduous shrubs and trees good. Vegetation sparse on some slopes, rocky areas, and coal fines. Sagebrush volunteers common in some areas. Seneca No. 2 — no areas successfully revegetated by native species through 1976, but some alfalfa cover. Revegetated areas dominated by yeUow sweetclover, smooth brome, crested wheatgrass, and intermediate wheatgrass. Cover ranges from 27 to 34 percent. Postmining: About 13 species of grasses and legumes, most not native. Premining: Seneca No. 2 — 1,200-2,500 lbs/acre. Postmining: Seneca No. 2—1,000-4,500 lbs/acre (seeded); mainly alfalfa, and crested and intermediate wheatgrasses. Premining: Sandy loam and Premining: Pinyon-juniper, big sagebrush, clay loam. grasses, alone and intemiLxed. and Premining: Probably diverse. Postmining: Mbied coal fines Postmining: On lower, north-facing slopes, some Postmining: Mostly and shale. colonization by sagebrush and ricegrass; other- limited to plants wise bare. On leveled oldest (approximately 50 tolerant of high soil years) workings, heavy sagebrush growth. temperature. 15 Table 1. — Comparisons of key parameters of 22 Western Coal Mines' — Continued Mining Beginning dale Mine and location Reclamation Beginning date Aacs teclaimed LandUs< Qimatic Factors Topography Elevation, in fee 13. HELCOAND Underground: REMINGER MINES Closed since Huntington, Emery I950's. County, central Utah Few acres each, on hillsides, uses 15' maps: Hiawatha lat 39°24'N.; long ur08'W. T.16S., R.7E. Trash removal, 1975-77; some grass seeding. Premining: Wildlife habitat. Intended: No change. Growing season (avg frost-free days): 132 (estimate). Temperature (°F): mean annual: 46 (estimate) range: No data. Precipitation (inches): mean annual: 14 (estimate) range: No data. Steep, rocky cliffs and narrow canyons with slopes of 50 to 60 percent. Gullying and rock slides. 7,450 14. NAVAJO MINE Fruitland, San Juan County, north- western New Mexico USGS 7/.' maps: Fruitland lat 36°42'N.; long I08°26'W. T.28-29N., R. 15-16 W. I%3 Unknown. Premining: Growing season Wildlife and (avg frost-free days): 139. 5,312 acres 3,548 acres livestock through reshaped; range. Temperature (°F): 1978. 2.173 acres mean annual: 52 seeded Intended: No range: -34 to 104. through 1978. change. Precipitation (inches): Livestock and mean annual: 6 hunting ex- range: 2 to 18; cluded dur- 50 percent from July ing reclama- through October. tion. Sprinkler irrigation for 2 years, up to 10 in. 1st year; 2 'A inches 2d year. Flat mesas, very low relief. Extensive, low, undulating, graded spoils; some aban- doned, entrenched access roads to operating pits and ash disposal areas. Minor rilling due to irriga- tion operations. 5,220-5,400 15. SAN JUAN MINE 1973 1973-78 Premining: Growing season Generally flat with 2- to Waterflow, San Juan WUdlife and (avg frost-free days): 139, 4-percent slopes. County, north- 345 acres 77 acres seeded livestock Spoils flat to un- western New Mexico mined, 782 (mostly range. Temperature (°F): dulating, graded to total acres experimental). mean annual: 52 near original contour. USGS7!4' maps: disturbed Intended: No range: 0 to 100. Waterflow through change. 5,200-5,400 lat 36°47'N.; 1978. Precipitation (inches): long 108°28'W. mean annual: 7.1 T.30N., R. 15-16 W. range: 4 to 18; 50 percent from July through October. Sprinkler irrigation used for 2 years. See OlcaMn (1779) (or published rcctamalion dala 16 Growing Media Vegetatic Species Diversity Premining: Stony, sandy Premining: Spruce, fir, aspen mixed with pinyon- Premining: Very rich loam grading to clay. juniper and associated shrubs (mainly sagebrush) flora where two and grasses (mainly cheatgrass and ricegrass). ecotypes meet. Postmining: Coal fines mixed with rock wastes Postmining: Sparsely naturally revegetated; some Postmining: On coal and premining soils. ricegrass and mahonia repens on coal fines. fines, very limited. Premining: Thin clay to silty clay, loam, and sand; sodium absorption ratio 40; pH 6.1-8.2. Range site types include bad- lands, sandy, sandy saline, shaly saline, chop- py sands, saline lowlands, calcareous, and thin breaks. Postmining: Spoil is sand, broken sandstone, and shale in three broad types: mostly sand, most- ly clay, or a mixture of both. Premining: Alkali sacaton, galleta, sand dropseed, Premining: Reported to sandhill muhly, broom snakeweed. Mormon-tea, be 60 to 70 species greasewood, shadscale, and fourwing saltbush. of annuals and perennials, both Postmining: Under irrigation, perennial vegetation palatable and provides 10 to 15 percent cover. Ground layer of nonpalatable. some grasses and annual plants. Scattered Indian ricegrass, wheatgrasses, sand dropseed, galleta, Postmining: 15 to 20 and giant dropseed. Density and composition species observed, vary with spoil type. Fourwing saltbush appears to be thinning out with the discontinuation of ir- rigation. Premining: 29-101 lbs/acre (overgrazed); 250-500 lbs/acre potential. Postmining: In 1975, 41-614 lbs/acre for irrigated areas. Premining: Silty clay loam to Premining: Predominantly open grassland; galleta. sandy loam; substrate is sandstone and siltstone; sodium absorption ratio as high as 27; pH 7.8-8.2. Postmining: Spoils are shale and (or) sandstone. Problems of high sodium and high clay content are partly solved by 12-in. topsoiling in two separate applications (4 in. and 8 in). alkali sacaton, Indian ricegrass, sand dropseed, fourwing saltbush, and shadscale saltbush. Postmining: Ground cover generally 5 percent; Russian-thistle and sand dropseed dominant. Fourwing saltbush has become established pro- viding 10 to 15 percent cover. Nonirrigated areas have not revegetated. 1978-79 seedings suc- cessful. Premining: Over 10 species. Postmining: 1973-77, four species in seed mix; 1978, 10 species in seed mix. Premining: 139-195 lbs/acre for grasses and shrubs. Postmining: No data. 17 Table \ .—Comparisons of key parameters of 22 Western Coal Mines'— Continued Mining Reclamation Beginning dale Beginning dale Topography Mine and localion Acres mined Acres reclaimed Land Use Climatic Factors Elevation, in feel 16. BLACK MESA AND 1970 for both. Unknown. Premining: Growing season Hilly, dissected mesas KAYENTA MINES Wildlife and (avg frost-free days): 145 . with 2- to 15-percent Kaycnia, Navajo Reser- Black Mesa: Black Mesa: livestock slopes. Rolling, vation, Arizona 1,485 acres 818 acres range. Temperature (°F): graded spoils blended to 1978. reshaped, 200 mean annual: 53 to unmined areas. uses 7/:' maps: Kayenta: 1,434 acres fenced Intended: No range: -18 to 105 . Water impoundments Long House Valley acres to and seeded. change. and moisture basins. Great Spring 1978. Kayenta: 494 Precipitation (inches): lat 36°32'N.; acres Fenced; mean annual: 9.5 6,500-6,600 long 110°24'W. reshaped, no livestock ex- range: 6.8 to 11.5; lat 36°29'N.; revegetation. cluded from 40 percent from July long 110°23'W. planted areas through October. T.35-36N., R.18E. during reclamation. Evaporation rate is very high; most moisture evaporates before pene- trating soil. 17. MCKINLEY MINE 1962 1973 Premining: Growing season Benches, mesas, rocky McKinley County, north Wildlife and (avg frost-free days): 120 . breaks with 2- to western New Mexico 1,344 acres 1,185 acres livestock 8-percent slopes. through reshaped range. Temperature (°F): Spoils graded to near uses 7/,' maps: 1978. through 1978. mean annual: 48 natural contours to Zith Tusayan Butte Intended: No range: -35 to 95. blend with adjacent NE Prior to 1975, change. landforms; natural Tse Bonita School crested Precipitation (inches): drainage patterns Hunters Point wheatgrass Livestock and mean annual: 10.4 reconstructed. Minor Samson Lake used on hunting ex- range: 9 to 12.5; erosion controlled by lat 35°37'N.; reshaped cluded dur- 40 percent from July contour furrowing. long 109°00'W. spoil. ing reclama- through September. T. 16-17 N., R.20-21 W. tion, but trespassing a problem. 7,000-8,000 'Sec Gleason (1979) for published reclamation data on speafic t 18 Growing Media Premining: Infertile fine san- dy soils and sandstone rock outcrops; sodium absorption ratio is 1 on unmined topsoil and 10 on reshaped spoils; pH 6.9-8.0; no toxic condi- tions. Postmining: Loamy clays and sandy clay loams containing stone: Premining: Pinyon-juniper woodland; big sage- brush, snakeweed, fourwing saltbush, rabbit- brush, galleta, Indian ricegrass, blue grama, broom snakeweed, sand dropseed, fescue, and prickly pear. Postmining: Only revegetated area (1978) limited to Russian-thistle with scattered grasses, sweet- clover, alfalfa, Indian ricegrass, blue grama, and fourwing saltbush due to overgrazing by sheep. Areas now fenced. Species Diversity Premining: Probably more than 20 species. Postmining: About six species. Produaivily Premining: 12^32 lbs/acre for native vegetation (excluding pinyon-juniper). Heavily overgrazed, potential not estimated. Postmining: Revegetation lim- ited; area subject to severe overgrazing. Premining: Clay to sill loams; sodium absorp- tion ratio as high as 19; pH 6-7 on unmined areas, 5.3-8.1 on mined areas. Postmining: Mix of rubble, soil, and rocks; blown-on straw mulch. Topsoiling began in 1978. Premining: Primarily pinyon-juniper, big sagebrush, blue grama, galleta, western wheatgrass, Indian ricegrass, and needleandthread. Postmining: Fourwing saltbush, sagebrush, and western and crested wheatgrasses. Some saltbush are volunteer seedlings. Premining: 163 species. Premining: No data. Postmining: Natural succession on raw spoils; 72 species (34 maximum on one plot), mostly in- troduced annuals or native herbaceous plants and a few saltbush; Russian- thistle dominant. In- itially one species planted (crested wheatgrass). As of 1978, new seed mix- tures being tried. Postmining: Highly variable with location and aspect — north slopes produce much more than south slopes. 19 Figure 5.— Aerial photograph of the Navajo surface mine in New Mexico, showing mining operations proceeding 10 miles toward the south. A single 16-foot bed in the north and four thin coalbeds in the south are being mined. The associated Four Corners powerplant and its cooling basin are in the center. This mine is in an area of less than 10 inches of rainfall per year, and irrigation is being used to reestablish vegetative cover on the graded spoils. Haul roads that are perpendicular to the working cut were not completely covered because of continued mining. November 1978. and scale. What seems acceptable in laboratory studies or on experimental plots at mines may not be successful for a large area over long periods of time, and results can vary widely with changes in local reclamation techniques and with climatic factors. These problems were generally recognized in one of the most com- prehensive field examinations to date on the revegetation potentials of western coal mines (Packer and others, 1981). The authors of that study examined 28 of the major western coal mines in 1976 and 1977; until 1976, revegetation had been attempted at only 36 western coal mines. Although expressing qualified optimism for success, they indicated that a reassessment in 5 or 10 years would be needed. Their study included maps of the Western States that show locations of surface minable coal, soil associa- tion types, potential natural vegetation types, the average annual precipitation, and length of growing season. REGIONAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT AFFECT RECLAMATION LANDFORM AND CLIMATE The western coalfields, although extending over almost 18° of latitude, have some common geographic features. They occur on high plains, dissected plateaus, and mountainous foothills at elevations above 2,000 feet, and many occur at elevations of 5,000 to more than 6,000 feet. The climate is continental and semiarid. The mean annual precipitation (fig. 15) in most areas is be- tween 7 and 15 inches, reaching about 19 inches in the higher elevations in Colorado. Evaporation rates may be three times greater than the precip- itation rate. The amount of precipitation varies widely from year to year, and droughts are com- mon. Except in the higher elevations in Colorado and Utah, most of the precipitation occurs in the 20 Figure 6.— Waste coal clumped below the entry of the abandoned Reminger coal mine in Utah. A single 8- to 10-foot coal- bed was mined and transported to bins through wooden chutes. The mine ceased production in the late 1940's. This scene is typical of the entrances of old abandoned underground coal mines. Sparse clumps of ricegrass grow on the base of the slack coal. The woody debris consists mainly of juniper trees that were killed by landslides. These steep slopes are not con- ducive to revegetation. The rockfall has partly covered the old access road in the foreground. October 1978. summer months, usually during short, high- intensity storms. Mean annual temperatures (degrees Fahrenheit) generally are in the 40's, ex- tending into the 50's in New Mexico and Arizona. The range in latitude and elevation is reflected in changes in evaporation rates (fig. 16) which gen- erally increase from north to south and, more specifically, in the length of the growing season, which can be as short as 60 days (in Colorado) and as long as 145 days (in Arizona). burden of the Fort Union Formation in North Dakota and Montana. Soils vary from clayey to sandy depending on the underlying rock type. They are usually shallow and contain thin "top- soil" layers and limited organic matter. Subsoils are typically finer textured than the surface soils and often have accumulations of calcium car- bonate or calcium sulfate (gypsum). Soils having high sodium content may be present in depres- sions and where soils have formed from shales. Moderate salinity in soils is common. GEOLOGY AND SOILS Most of the western coalbeds are thick and relatively flat, have a low sulfur and ash content, and are of similar geologic age— Cretaceous through early Tertiary. They are usually overlain by shales and sandstones, some of which have high salinity and (or) sodium content. Sodic swelling clays commonly characterize the over- VEGETATION The natural vegetation in the western coal region is typically western zonal, responding to precipitation, latitude, altitude, and aspect. Overall, plant species and density are closely related to soil characteristics and climate. The lands to be mined are grassland, shrubland, or 21 Figure 7.— Aerial photograph showing rows of abandoned spoil piles at the Rosebud mine in Montana. In 40 years, little natural vegetation has encroached on the steep slopes. Large cottonwoods are scattered in the low places; a final box cut is filled with water and stocked with fish, and it provides refuge for some migratory waterfowl. Highwalls now must be reduced under the new State and Federal laws. July 1978. mixtures of the two atid, in places, grade into open woodland. The trees are largely pinyon and juniper in the south and ponderosa pine in the north. Some coal lands in the central part of the region are covered by mixed aspen-oak brush and mixed high-altitude shrubs called "moun- tain brush." Spruce-fir forests cover the land over some of the underground coal mines of Utah and Colorado. The vegetation is, for the most part, native and wild and is interrupted only occasionally by pasture and cropland. North Dakota is the major exception; there, much of the land overlying areas of coal is in grain or hay crops. By far, the dominant use of land is for livestock range. The Federal lands are managed, under the multiple- use policy, for both rangeland and for wildlife habitat, and the planned postmining uses are basically the same as those that existed before mining whether the land is owned privately or by the Government. SITE-SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS THAT AFFECT RECLAMATION INTRODUCTION Reclamation is best planned and imple- mented on a case-by-case basis. No single plan- ning methodology is suitable for all mines. Although the widest differences are regional, ad- jacent mines within the same district or even parts of a single mine may present distinct recla- mation challenges, and individual adjustments to the differences in soil materials, elevation, slope, aspect, time and amount of precipitation, and growing season are commonly needed. Ignorance of site-specific characteristics of mined areas has often hampered revegetation, caused inaccurate statements, and necessitated excessive expenditures. 22 WW'W^^^^^^- j'-VdmrnsMm ^t ■ -l^-^^S?;'^^ 'W^ '^' ^^^- ^"' -^ ■ ^^ ■ ^ -^ •■ Figure 8.— Natural revegetation on the 19-year-old mine- waste dumps at the Elkol-Sorensen mine in Wyoming. The waste material, sloping about 40°, ranges from boulders to find sand. The foreground shrubs are mostly rabbitbrush. The denser trees and shrubs on the slope were planted by the University of Wyoming on an experimental basis. Of these, the Russian-olive is doing best. Although sparsely vegetated, these east-facing slopes were some of the best revegetated steep waste piles observed. October 1978. Examination of many western surface coal mines will disclose experimental test plots- some active but most seemingly abandoned or waiting to be reevaluated for long-term results. These experimental test plots include plantings and surface manipulations conducted or guided by various Federal agencies such as the U.S. Forest Service, Soil Conservation Service, and the Bureau of Land Management, and by State agencies and local universities. The Forest Serv- ice Intermountain Forest and Range Experi- mental Station, and later the Forest Service SEAM program, sponsored many experiments in the northern Great Plains area, including experi- ments at the Decker mine (Richardson and others, 1975), one of the oldest of its kind and one that continues to be monitored. Quantitative analyses of results of most of these experi- ments, however, were not available at the time of this study, in part because of changes in mining reclamation personnel. Some plantings on the test plots bear little resemblance to what is planted on adjacent lands because they were made for general research purposes rather than for the specific needs of a particular mine. In some mined areas, nonnative species are predominant. At some mines, experimentation on a large scale is being done by mining companies. These experiments are conducted to assess the useful- ness of specific reclamation techniques. Results of these experiments have been reported on at various symposia and in various publications that form the basis for recommen- dations made by the SEAM program and by Cook and others (1974). Through the research programs identified above, the significant parameters affecting rec- lamation success have been defined. As in- dicated earlier, revegetation procedures involve few deviations from what good horticultural and ecological sense would have predicted. Param- eters believed to be significant to revegetation success are briefly discussed below in terms of both their effects on the total reclamation proc- ess and on some operating procedures used to enhance their positive effects. Because reclama- tion deals with an interrelated system of plants, soils, topography, and climate, a procedure used to modify any one parameter is likely to affect all. The procedures are discussed under the parameter heading believed to be the most appropriate. CLIMATE Of all the parameters affecting reclamation, climate is the most important and the least con- trollable. The principal climatic factors affecting plant growth are precipitation, temperature, and wind. These three, separately or in combination, affect the germination, growth, and distribution of plant life. Although temperature extremes and the number of frost-free days, namely, the grow- ing season, affect the time and rate of growth 23 Figure 9— Old orphaned spoils naturally revegetated during the past 35 years at the Indian Head mine in North Dakota. The steeper, clay-rich slopes of this spoil (right background) are sparsely vegetated because of their high sodium content. This area has abundant wildlife, including deer. October 1978. and the yield (biomass) potentials, and although wind may bury seeds and plants, abrade them, or expose them to dessication, the amount of moisture available to plants is the governing fac- tor in successful revegetation. Because of the high evaporation rates in the w/estern coal areas, the availability of soil moisture is the critical element in seed germination, early growth of plants, establishment of transplants, and contin- ued growth. A detailed statistical examination of western coal reclamation potentials using multi- ple regression analysis confirmed that the amount of precipitation and the length of the growing season are highly significant factors (Packer and others, 1981). Although there is no realistic way to modify adverse effects of a microclimate except by add- ing moisture through irrigation, a variety of pro- cedures have been used to minimize unfavorable conditions at the microclimatic level. Ground temperatures that affect seed germination and growth can be modified by using mulches or temporary cover crops, by altering slope aspect, or by establishing other shading devices such as rows of trees and shrubs, rock piles, or snow fences. These procedures also reduce wind and water erosion and conserve soil moisture. More passive approaches can also be taken. For ex- ample, seed that first needs a cold period to ger- minate can be sown in the fall in accordance with normal seasonal temperature changes. SOIL MOISTURE Ensuring adequate soil moisture for plants has been approached in several ways, not only to enhance seed germination and early seedling survival, but also to provide deeper, continued sources of moisture as plants mature. Two studies (Wyatt and others, 1980; Schumacher and others, 1977, p. 16) have indicated that most roots are in the upper 5 to 6 feet of mine spoils. 24 Figure 10.— The North Beulah mine in North Dal