= i Sel OY NEA AAARAM Tea (ARN A\ ee AneheeAAannan, NA BEAN \ ~~ AN ANN A-. nee AAW at CC aallaaatee - — . As, Xe re TR RR C rN ) _ Ce \ . ~ 4 Sa OF DA Eye ~~ Ss ARR A=- BARNAR RAR NWN Sah AM Cet \2 SN Anas Aah oft aaneoe® = lA eo \ es oe aon = \ ~ a ae a Ny ‘ “> \N z + ‘@ Wtf aARAA' IATA TAIN Bx sou Pe / GEN ERAL ‘SCIEN CE, BY ¢ ROBERT D. THOMSON, M. D., PHYSICIAN TO THE FORE STREET DISPENSARY, CRIPPLEGATE, AND LECTURER ON CHEMISTRY IN THE BLENHEIM STREET MEDICAL SCHOOL. WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF THOMAS THOMSON, M_D., F.R.S.L.&E., F.L.S., F.GS., &e. REGIUS PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW. Vote “LUT. LONDON: TAYLOR AND WALTON, UPPER GOWER STREET, Booksellers and Publishers to the University of London ; and SOLD BY MACLACHLAN AND STEWART, EDINBURGH 5 JOHN REID AND CO., AND RUTHER- GLEN AND CO., GLASGOW; W. CURRY, JUN., AND CO., AND. ROBERTSON AND CO,, DUBLIN 5; KING AND CO., CORK ; GRAPEL, LIVERPOOL , WEBB AND SIMMS, MANCHESTER 5 AND BARLOW, BIRMINGHAM, 1836. aig Se dl et SUS sph Printed by W. Jonnston, 15, Mark-lane. IN DEX. : PAGE Acetic acid in dyeing . - 214 Acoustics, improvementsin . 110 Aenothera Macrocarpa illuminated by phosphoric light . A - 74 Air, composition of . = wueaet oo Alcohol and its compounds . Beis Alcohol, dilatation of by heat . 459 Aldehy de. : . ais oer acid. - 40 Aldehyde, resin of s a etl bs Alum in dyeing S ey oe American Journal of ene - 149 America, travels in . - 456 Ammonialdehyde c : 409 Ammonia in dyeing . ° ty: Ammonia, action of . - 218 Ampere’s ‘theory of heat and light 229 Amphodelite . ° ae hoe Analyser of Coffey’s Still . 32 Animals, mode of preserving minute 319 Annual Agricultural and Horti- cultural . - J Bee al Antiseptic liquid. ~ so ehoe Anthophyllite . : 3 - 336 Antimonial copper glance . ee eaity Apartments, new mode of heating 315 Arago, life of Dr. T. Young, by 321, 941 Arbuthnot, Dr. states a falsehood . I7 Archemides’ substitute for loga- rithms . A iieeOD Arnot Dr. on heating rooms - 315 Arts, improvementin . 72 Atomic weights of bodies, obser- vations on ° s - 251, 170 Attraction, capillary . : 460 Aurora Borealis, observations rife 587 Azote, specific gravity of . - 187 Back, Captain, expedition of . 310 Barium, hydrargyro-cyanuret + 359 Barometer, influence of the moonon 339 Barytes, calcareo sulphate of . 236 Basalt containing coal . . = iyri Bee, anecdote of : Tpit 235) Bell, Sir Charles, on the nerves ; of motion and sensation - 224 Benzimide : - s A 78 Benzoine . 2 ‘ : +» 1De Benzoyle. : Ser Nis ib. Birds fossil . E Birt’s tables of the winds ‘ F 73 Blood, causes of its motion in the capillaries . : Blood, white . ° ~ - 496 PAGE Bonaparte, his opinion of science 246 Borates, new class of . . . 298 Bosoprine, principle in cow- dung 375 Bosopric acid in cow-dung . ange? Botanical system of Reichenbach 385 Boyle’s theory of the rainbow moe Braithwaite’s, Mr. defence against Capt. Ross. - amt Bran for cleansing prints. - 372 Bromelia pinguis flowers in the open air at Ealington ; - 74 Byssus floccosa, lait produced from : : F : on 207 Calcium, hydrargyro-cyanuret of 361 Calculus, differential and integral 230 Calico, bleaching the . . 379 application of mordants to ib. dyeing . : : - 381 Canadas, state of the . e - 319 Carbon, atomic weight of . - 189 Carbonic acid, solidification of . 192 Carbydrogen, composition of «299 Carices common to North America and Great Britain . - 154 Carson, Dr. J. Jun., case a dis- ease by 2 . ee! Caspian sea, water ekg. . « 103 Caustic powder of Vienna ovo Chalk in dyeing - 279 Champollion’s claim to the dis- covery of the hieroglyphics . 331 Charcoal, optical properties of . 223 Chinese work on arithmetic re) Chlorobenzine and chlorobenzide 157 Ciripides, metamorphosis of . - 226 Clark, Dr., on the manufacture of iron é ‘ . 455 Coal on the Fite 3 risa l Coal contained in basalt . + . rial Colour, influence of, on non-lumi- nous heat. . F = mela Comet of Halley. ‘ ndl6 Condenser of Coffey’s still 3 32 Cooper, Mr. P., on refracted and diffracted light P . 347 on white light 94, 58 Copper, sulphate of, in dyeing . 187 Cornwall, steam engine of oi pendad Cow-dung, bath for dyeing . - oS Crichton, ‘Mr. J., on a powerful natural magnet P . - 274 Crystalline lens, action of. » 249 Cutaneous disease, anomalous . 141 482 INDEX. PAGE PAGE Davidson’s, Mr., expedition to Grasshopper, eae specimens Timbuctoo = . : - 312 0 ite Dead sea, water of . 103 | Gray, Mr. x E., on distinguishing Deweylite . . 337 some testaceous mollusea - 228 Diamonds of the Uralian mountains 318 | Guaiac African . : - 310 Diatase, action of . 301 | Guitar, mode of tuning without the Distilling apparatus by “Coffey . 30 assistance of the ear. 113 Donium, a new metal 4 . 426 | Gypsum, action of, on vegetables . 467 Douglas, Mr. David, account of 72 Dutch liquor, composition of . 300 | Halley, Dr., an impudent editor 19 Dyeing-madder . . 44] Heat, radiating, reflexion of, . 129 Dyeing, the art of . 209, 274, 370 | Heat and light, theory of,. 222 -testof . ° - - 383 specific, of bodies, . - 255 —of salts, . - ~290 Earth, temperature of . . 70 | Henwood, Mr. W. J. observations Ebrenberg on preserving minute on steam engines . = «- a0 animals. . . 319 | Hieroglyphics, “Egyptian, . 326 Electrical conductibility, mpi of Holmite, a new mineral, 2 ot aoe determining . . 119 | Hy drargyro- -cyanurets, on some . 395 —— currents, chemical action 120 Hydrogen, specific hale | and Electricity, employment of, in dis- atomic weight of . coho solving calculi . 2 124: — developed by the friction Ice formed at the bottom of water 165 of metals : ib. | Indigo, used in epilepsy . 153 _, atmospherical . 123 | Indica of Ctesias, note on, - 389 — , currents in conducting 124 | Iron sulphate, of, in dyeing 981 , paralysis of the tongue - | ITsinglass, action of, in clearing malt treated by : 127 liquor explained - 105 —, researehisa tt pis . 147 | Interferences, theory of, 323 —, improvements in . . 456 | Isomorphism, on a difficultyin . 453 Elton sea, water of 103 Emmonite, a new mineral 415 | Jackson, G. H., on some hydrar- Entomostraca, new species of =. 306 gyro-cyanurets . = : = SIO Eriometer of Young : 325 | Jalap roots, adulteration of, . . 390 Ether, new . : fe 301 | Jardine, Sir W., notice of the parr, by, - 969 Faraday, Dr, researches on elec- J alate day ot when it should tricity by . 147 happen - . : 88 ————— on silicified fossils . 155 | J upiter, observations of; ~. - 464 Farquharson, Rey. Mr., on ice formed at the bottom of running Kane, Dr. R. J., on the action of water. . 145 ammonia and muriatic acid . 218 Flamsteed, Rev. J ohn, “life of Sigel! ——-- catalogue edited by Light, action of,upon rotating disks 41 Halley, burned by himself 29 white, composition of —. 58, 94 — character of 388 | ——effectof,onmagneticneedles 117 _-— by Hodgson - 392 absorption of, Z 118 Fossils, silicified, on > 155 undulatory theory of, 323 Franklin, Dr. Benjamin, senile a ——refracted and diffracted on . 347 powerful natural magnet to Pro- Lime, in dyeing - : se ae fessor Anderson. 3 273 chloride of, - 287 Link, Professor, on zoophytes and Galathea, new species of, . ae S0n plants : 200 Gordius aquaticus in insects. 76 | Lithotrity, comparative success of, 145 Gastric juice, composition of Ama a Lithotomy, comparative success of, 144 Gentian, extract of, . s 464 | Logwood ‘and alum mordant, co- Geographical discovery, progress lours with, . = be fou of, z 310 -and copper . 374 Globe, temperature of,. 226 | Logarithms discovered by Napier. 164 Gold, method of colouring orna- ments of, ~ F : 302 | Madder and Madder dyeing, 44, 135 INDEX. PAGE Madder, red. . : : : AT : , characters of 3 . 48 , orange - : : 51 , properties of . 3 HS ; yellow - s : 54 ,analysisof .. - - 55 Madras, breakwater at 3 | 459 Magnetizine, new method of 127 Magnetism, by common electricity 128 Magnesite : 341 Magnesium, hydrargyro- cyanuret of 362 Masnetic characters of metals 316 Magnet, powerful natural . a hrs272 Manganese, sulphate of, for obtain- ing bistre . . 283 black oxide! sinha oft 421 Meteorological Jour., 160, 240, 529, 400 Meteorological observations, sum- mary of. 2 . 234 Metals, magnetic ‘characters oneransiet Milk, diseased 4 . 444 Mineralogy, system ae by Dr. T. Thomson . 64 Minerals, arrangement of, by Dr. T. Thomson . ~AGD , new yby Dr. T. Thomson 68 Mineral epllections: on arrange- ments of 5 232 Mollusca Heston difficulty of distinguishing some 3 31998 Muriatic acid in dyeing - 212 , action of : 2 2s Nacrite : 2 dae Naphthaline and its compounds 292 chloride of, 293 Naphathalese, chloro- . . - 293 Napier, Baron, memoir of, . 81,161 Naturalists’ Club of Berwickshire, proceedings of ° - 305 Newton, Sir Isaac, strange conduct of, 5 A , 8 experiments | on light 58 on fits of trans- mission - $ R323 Nerves of motion sari sensation . 227 Nitric acid in dyeing A ae 219 Nitro-sulphuric acid . - 304 Nobili, Signior, death of, . . 74 Observatory of Greenwich, visitors appointed to 5 ; . 15 Optics, improvement in Oxygen, specific gravity of ae Oxalic acid, in dyeing . s - 126 Parr, notice of the 3 . 269 Pharmaceutical Preparations , . 153, 473 Photometer of Maistre y < 115 Phosphorus and hydrogen com- pounds of ° ° : | 226 483 PAGF Pittsburg, coal at 4 5 . 151 Planet, a new one suspected 460 Plants containing Silica. 157 Plants Metamorphosis of - 158 Plants confounded with aan, on : . 200 Plumbago, canautactaa of 5 ib. Poiseuille Dr. ., causes of blood motion . 341 Poisson’s theory ae the temperature of the globe. y 220 Potash, in dyeing . 2 erm 2 test for . s 975 Prussiate of i 284 Chromate . 287 Potash and Soda, mode of sepa- rating 5 PotassiumHydrar eyro- Cyanurets of 356 Priestley Dr., his grave . 458 Pyrurie acid 5 % . 303 Quinin, Hydroferrocyanate of . 154 Quassin . : : : - 463 Rain, hypothesis respecting - 460 Rectifier of Coffey’s still . : 32 Red from cochineal . is fernambuc = 3 ib. madder 2 Z . 453 Reichenbach’s Bot. system asso Respiration, theory of 5 - 265 Rhubarb . . : 463 Richardson, Mr. T., on Donium, a new substance . 4 ee Ritchie, Rev. We on the Calculus 3 Roberts Mr. S., on isinglass, in clearing ox liquor - 105 Ross Sir J.’s attack on Mr. Braith- waite . . : 5 73 Rosetta, tablet of : = . 329 Royal Society , advancement of the 247 transactions of 145, 224 Sand, diluvial . sh Schmidt T. A.F., work on Botany 385 Science, progress of . 154 Shells, bivalved i in Berwickshire . 305 Smith Dr. “s expedition into Africa 311 Soapsuds, in dyeing . “ 377 Soda Carbonate, test of 3 . 276 Acetate of, in dyeing 283 Sodium Hydrargyro-cyanuret of . 358 Sound effect of on barometer . 113 Spirits, process of making. eS Spiritabstracted from w ash bysteam 36 Spring of Nutshill, analysisof . 418 Springs evolving azote. : 75 Stills 2 » 26 Stroboscope an optical instruments 114 Stromeyer, Dr., death of ‘ auieo Strontium Hydrargyro-cyanuret of 360 484 INDEX. PAGE Sugar, action of acids on * . 156 Sulphur, atomic weight of 188 Sulphuric acid used in dyeing - 241 Symbols, chemical remarks on . 312 Tabasheer, chemical analysis of | 132 Talcite . “ oie Tape Worm, analysis of < . 469 Tartaric acid, indyeing . 215 Temperature, at different depths 291 -— » high, 3 mode of mea- suring 292 Thomson, Dr. T., on black oxide of manganese. 412 ————— analysis of emmonite 445 —— Nutshill spring 418 —— on the separation of potash and soda. 56 —— k-th of taba- sheer . . 132 the atomic weights of bodies, 179, 251 wae on minerals, + '332 , R.D., on a vegeto- gasece hydrate F 207 Thompson, Mr. J. V., on metamor- phosis of Cirripides 5 . 226 Tide observations made at Liverpool 147 Timbuctoo, Mr. Davidson’s expe- dition to . - : s . 312 PAGE Tin, salt of 3 5 - 284 Tomlinson, Mr. C., on n the action of light upon rotating disks : 41 Tomlinson, on visible vibration, 194, 364 Trevethick, Capt., introduces en- gines ; & re . 390 Triphylline ere ’ F - +466 Vansomer the artist . : arene Vapour, temperature of . « -gehat Vegeto-calcareous emi analy- sis of . id ipmygov. Vibration, nodes of ‘ ‘ eaito ———., on visible . - 194, 364 Voltaic battery 5 : - A462 Water used in dyeing j - 209 Washcharger . i 3 - 25 Weissite . ) - 439 Westwood’s answer to Mr. J. V. Thompson : 5 : - 227 Winds, tables of the. 5 2 73 Wren, Sir Christopher . 3 ah 5 Xanthic acid . : ‘ snBgs Yellow colour from Persian berries 454 Young, Dr. T., life of 241, 321, 401 Zoophytes, observations on . - 200 END OF Vo. III. ADDITIONAL ERRATA IN Vot. II. Page 264, line 17, before common, insert not 266, last line, for powder, read power 270, line 11, for chlorate, read chlorite 342, ,, 31, ib. ib. ,, 33, for mixed, read unmixed 431, ,, 23, for hypo-sulphuret, read poly-sulphuret 433, ,, 18, for hypo-sulphate, read hypo-chlorite ib. ,, 20, for chlorate, read chlorite 464, ,, 30, for 920, read 9°20 465, ,, 1, for 116°75, read 126°8 ib. ,, 2, for 965, read 905 ib, ,, 4, for 1247, read 12°47 478, ,, 21, for fluxivoal, read fluxional ERRATA IN Vor. III. Page 91, line 2 from bottom, cancel not 994, awh, ” 8, ” 500, ,, 9, for woolton read motion a for bromide read iodide TABLE OF CONTENTS No. XIiI.—January, 1836. PAGE I. Life of the Rev. John Flamsteed, First STOP Decne)”: Written by himself, concluded II. An Account of the process of making Spirits. in Great a Britain and Ireland, continued. W “ith a Copper-plate . 25 III. Alcohol and its Compounds . . 37 IV. On the Action of Flashes of Light upon Rapidly Rotating Disks. By Charles Tomlinson, 1 Se 4] V. On Madder, and Madder Dyeing, continued . 44 VI. On the method of determining the proportions of Potash and Soda when the two alkalies are mixed together. By Thomas Thomson, M.D., F. R.S., &c. 56 VII. On the number and character of the Colours that enter into the Composition of White saci PY: Paul nee er Esq. With a Plate 58 VIII. Analyses of Books ; 64 1. Outlines of Mineralogy, Geology, and Mineral Analysis. By Thomas Thomson, M.D., F.R.S., &c., 2 vols. 1836 ib. 2. The Agricultural and Berar anneal for 1836 . 71 2. Supplement to Captain Sir John Ross’s Narrative of a Second Voyage in ihe Mk &e. By John Braith- waite 73 4. Tabule pve iter or Tables ap fies Mion: serene ing a new method of registering the direction of the wind, &c. By W.R. Birt ib. IX. Boientife Intelligence . 74 1. Proceedings of the Ashmolean Society ‘of Oxford ib. 2. Gastric owns 78 3. Benzoyle, Benzimide, ail ee nee ib. 4. Deaths of Signior Nobili and Dr. Stromeyer . : 79 Meteorological Journal. By the Rev. John Wallace 80 No. XIV.—February. I. Memoir of John Napier, Baron of Merchiston. By M. Biot 81 II. On the number and character of the Colours that enter into the Composition of White Light. By Paul URanoRets Esq., concluded . . 94 III. Water of the Elton, Dead and Caspian Seas. 4, = LOS IV. The action of Isinglass in clearing Malt Liquors ex- plained. By Mr. Samuel Roberts . - ; Od V. Notice of some Recent Improvements in Science . . 110 1. Acoustics . Srl pear baa IA ib. 2. Optics . . 114 3. Electricity and Magnetism . 129 4: eg 2 135 VI. Chemical Analysis of Tabasheer. ‘By Thomas Thomson, M. D., FF. ReS., &e. . d . 132 VII. On Madder, and Madder Dyeing, concluded . 135 VIII. Case of Anomalous Cutaneous Disease. By J. Conmeas Jun., M. D. P . 141 IX. Comparative Success of Lithotrity and Lithotomy . . 14 X. Analyses of Books : ‘ - 145 iv CONTENTS. PAGE 1. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, for 1835. PartII. . . . 145 2. The American Journal of Science | Arts, for Taly, August and September, 1835. . 149 3. The Doctrine of Proportion, or sticivical Adinedsire- ment, by similar Triangles, &c. erica 1836 . ° . 153 XI. Scientific Intelligence - - . + - A ae ib. 1. Pharmaceutical Prepanations .°"s.* j.'s, poe ib. 2 Progress of Science. . : aa 3. Carices common to North America dad! Great Britain . ib. 4, Royal Institution, 22nd J: cruatsl Dr. epi on sili- cified Fossils . . : ; 155 5. Action of Acids upon Sugar ci Ckiphtt ote riyeebeet bee ON 6. Chlorobenzine and Ghilovsheaside BpRery > er aro She 157 7, Silicain Plants . . as a et 8. Antimonial Copper Glance, a New Mineral. . . . 158 9. Metamorphosis of Plants... . . . . . . . « ab. New Books : rail =e Horary Observations tae the Barometer: ec! : Oates is) Meteorological Journal. By the Rev. John Wallace . 160 No. XV.—WMarch. I. Memoir of John Napier, Baron of Merchiston. By J. B. Biot, concluded . . Macey | II. Observations on the Atomic Weights of Bodies. By Tho- mas Thomson, M.D., F.R.S., &ce. . £179 III. Experiments and Observations on Visible Vibration. "By Charles Tomlinson, Esq. 194 IV. Observations on Zoophytes, and Plants confounded ‘with them. By H. F. Link, Professor of Botany at Berlin 200 IV. On a Vegeto-Calcareous Hydrate, produced from Byssus Floccosa. By Robert D. Thomson, M. D. oh p es eee V. The Artof Dyeing . ~ 7's 209 VI. Action of Ammonia and Muriatic Acid. By Robert Je ane VED). ieee: ale VII. Notice of some Recent Improvements it in Science “~ ager GaP ang PAGES. ns ex a naeny cane ate eshte. Mee VIII. Analyses of Books . - hi ost OO 1. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society ‘of Lon- don, for 1835, Part II. . . ib. 2. Principles of the Differential and Integral Calculus, fa- miliarly illustrated, &c. By the Rev. William Ritchie, LL. D., F.R.S., &c. . bt Baar 21) IX. Scientific ‘Intelligence tesa Rr see oak. ogee 1. On the Arraz ngement of Mineral Gillections ct ie sg 2. Anecdote of a _e : UO RAPA Pods) oth we mmmererel 3. Cualcareo Sulphate of Barytes ee Se eee 4, Influence of the Moon on the Barometer. > US ae ee Summary of Observations on the Barometer, Hygrometer, &c. 237 Meteorological Journal for January. rae the Rev. J. Wal- laa yee” 238 No. XVI. teil I. Memoir of Dr. Thomas Young. By M. Arago . E 24% CONTENTS. v PAGE Il. Observations on the Atomic Weights of Bodies. By Thomas Thomson, M.D. F.R.S., &. . . . 251 III. Notice of the Parr. By Sir William Jardine, Bart. . 269 IV. On a very powerful Natural Magnet. By Mr. J. Crichton, Glasgow, in a Letter tothe Editor . . . 272 V. The Art of Dyeing continued E Py 7as 74 VI. Notice of some Recent Improvements i in Science’.'". 289 Heat and bight .! "21 West eHAee .2o%, See. ab. Chemistry . . FO db Bit SF Beene PR + 209 VII. Analyses of Books : oo 305 Proceedings of the Berwickshire N aturalists’ Club Pe Se VIII. Scientific : Intelligence, tT ale ea ae PA: S09 1. Adulteration of Jalap Roots . . . . . . +. + ib. 2. African Guaiac . . Jesudwere kta, BLO 3. Progress of Geographical Discovery i Sh ab. 4. On Chemical Symbols, in a Letter to the Editor . 312 5. New mode of heating Apartments . . . . . - 315 6. Magnetic Characters of the Metals ... . . - - 316 vp Halley’ sComet . . Pe ah a 8 8. Diamonds of the Uralian Mountains Mice, Bis 9. Statistics of the Canadas. . pon Ie aes | SEO 10. Mode of preserving Minute Animals. Pht abs Meteorological Journal. By the Rev. J. Wallace. . 320 No. XVII.—May. I. Memoir of Dr. Thomas Young. By M. Arago, continued 321 II. Notices of some Minerals. By Thomas an M.D., EUR SS S&ere 332 III. On the Causes of the Motion of he Blood i in "the Capil- lary Vessels. By Dr. Poiseuille ib. IV. On the Connexion between refracted ad avervactha Light. By Paul Cooper, Esq. 347 V. On some Hydrargyro-Cyanurets. By Mr. George Henry Jackson . . . 355 VI. Experiments and Observations on visifle Vibration, conti= nued from p. 200. By Charles paren Pa With two wood-cuts . . 364 VIL. The Art of Dyeing, continued Shwe Tay) LB 370 VIII. Analyses of Books. . 385 1. Der Angehende Rataiitker &e. Von T. A. F. Schmidt ib. 2. Die Mineralquellen von Wildungen von F. Dreves und Wiggers. LER is BOD Sita. OT 3B IX. Scientific Intelligence, Bees ‘ a By 1. Proceedings of the Ashmolean Society of Oxford) ©. ib. 2. Observations on the Steam-engines of Cornwall. By W. J. Henwood, F. G.S., London and Paris, &e. . 390 3. Character of Flamsteed. By Mr. Hodgson . . . 392 4. Discovery of a new Cave, containing Bones. « - 393 5. Remarkable Case of Convulsions . . . + - + + ib. 6. Botanical Society of Edinburgh . . . . + «+ 394 7. On the Instinct of the Water-hen. By P. J. Selby, Esq. oeyaee§h wt BOB 8. Corrections of the Paper ¢ on Spirits, &c. "By Observer 396 9. Cases of Poisoning . . . }\. tea pole $97 vi CONTENTS. PAGE 10. New Minerals . . 3889 Horary Observations of the Baeometer f (oe ge QNst March 399 Meteorological Journal, By the Rev. John Wallace . . 400 No. XVIII.—June. I. Memoir of Dr. Thomas Young. By M. Arago, concluded 401 II. Method of determining the value of the Black Oxide of Manganese for manufacturing purposes. By Thomas Thomson, M.D.,F.R.S., &c.. . . - 412 III. Description and Analysis of Emmonite, a ‘New Species of Carbonated Strontian from America. he Thomas Thomson, M.D., F.R.S., &c. . . 415 IV. Analysis of the Water of ‘Nutshill Spring. By. Thomas Thomson, M.D., F.R.S., &c. . . 418 V. On the Connexion Taueeoa Refracted oe Diffracted Light. By Paul Cooper, Esq., concluded . . . . 419 VI. On Donium, a New Soliteare discovered in Wavidaniite By Mr. Thomas Richardson. . . 426 VII. On a Difficulty in Isomorphism, and in the received Con- stitution of Oxygen Salts; in a Letter to Professor Mitscherlich of Berlin. From Thomas Clark, M. D., Professor of Chemistry, in Marischal College, Aberdeen 433 VIII. The Art of Dyeing, continued . 444 1X. Notice of some Recent Improvements in Science . . . 486 X. Analyses of Books . . 5 aS 463 1. On the Application of the Hot Blast i in the manufacture of Cast Iron. By ThomasClark, M.D., &c. . . 463 2. Travels in the United States of erica: Canada, '&e. Prd aanchiy ANE ots oh ns yes BY adhe pusrsice ) ata XI. Scientific Intelligence, &c. . EF. aiacpuns Ns Sagal ts 5 aE 1. Plumbago and Black Lead Pencils & dclideeh anh sia San Aa 2. Breakwater at Madras. . 469 3. Meteors seen periodically on the 12th and 13th Nov. 470 4. The existence of a New Planet suspected . . . ib. 5. Hypothesis respecting the greater Quantity of Rain which falls at the Surface of the Earth, than at consi- derable Elevations . . Ayiae sive cial ce, Oe 6. Constant Voltaic Battery . Foe ai sine tite, chu fe oil has 7. Pharmacy, &c. . £Y i; scot sth ee 8. Observations of the Planet J upiter . wackimrch aah eae 9. Solar Eclipse on the 15th May . . . . . . . + 4975 10. Footmarks of unknown viet and Birds discovered in New Hed Sandstone ..- = 50% sdes suit! lig Tease, D), Wem dilienal sh RI | oy cath £ nike Yer enec ihn ote ae eae 12. Anagyris Fetida . . ST ee en Ore a he ye 13. Action of Gypsum on Vegetables hoa th. t.. We oa 14, Analysis of Morbid, Biles. yo ehce Fe) a.e- jay: > ye 15. Phloridzin . . ERS mem cS: 16. Examination of the Dung Beetle et pus Pere ak Sef. 17. Examination of the TapeWorm .... . . % Ib. 18. Concretion fromthe Nose. .. 2.04 se eee + be 19, Diseascd Woman sik 2... on Vices 0) de 20. Analysis of White Blood . . : ib. Meteorological Journal. By the Rey. John Wallace. . 480 RECORDS OF GENERAL SCIENCE. Articue I. Life of the Rev. John Flamsteed, First Astronomer-Royal. Written by himself.* (Concluded from vol. ii. p. 341.) Bur Mr. Newton was not displeased with their flattery ; nor ever (that I could hear of) endeavoured to correct them. We conversed civilly as oft as we met accidentally: and he failed not (as if he were a great master of my methods) always to ask ‘‘ how the catalogue went on?” To which I always gave sincere answers; telling him how far I had proceeded, and that I wanted more hands, both to carry on the observations and calculations that were necessary. But * It appears unnecessary to apologize to the reader for occupying so many of our pages with one of the most interesting documents which has appeared during the present century. The biography of Flamsteed being the property of the country, it is only the duty of a journalist to call the attention of the public to it, for the purpose of removing calumnies which have unjustly casta loom over the character of an illustrious philosopher. To Mr. Baily the memory of Flamsteed owes an incalculable debt of gratitude,—not only for the labour which, as editor, he has bestowed upon the work to which we are indebted for our extracts, but for the minuteness of his investigations with regard to Flamsteed’s character. This is particularly exemplified in his exposure of a most extraordinary error committed by Sir David Brewster, in his Life of Sir Isaac Newton, which calls for immediate correction at the hand of the biographer himself; at page 242 of his Life of Newton, a very coarse, ill-natured letter is given, with the signature of Flamsteed ; while the original, which we believe to be in the University of Oxford, and to have been seen by Sir David, has the name of Sir Isaac Newton attached to it! By what authority was this alteration made?—Enpir. VOL. III. B 2 Life of the Rev. John Flamsteed, this I could not get him to take notice of. In the mean- time, some friend of mine (that was frequently in company with me, and saw how the work went on, with such assist- ance as I hired and paid myself, and was informed: what the charge would be of printing the observations of thirty years, and engraving the maps of the constellations I had prepared), acquainted Prince George of Denmark with my performances. Mr. Newton lived near the Court : I always at a distance. He was the president of the Royal Society, and had a great courtier as his friend, and one who was frequently at his office, required at court, and attending on the Prince. So that he could not but hear of the Prince’s inclination to make me easier in my work; nor could Mr. Newton fail to be informed of it. So, on the 10th of April, 1704, he came down to Greenwich, visited me on my request, stayed and dined with me. At his first coming he desired to see what I had ready for the press. I showed him the books of observations, together with so much of the cata- logue as was then finished (which was about half), and a fair copy of it, with the maps of the constellations drawn, both by my amanuensis and Vansomer. Which having looked over carefully, he desired me to let him have the recommending of them to the Prince. I was surprised at this proposition. I had formerly tried his temper, and always found him insidious, ambitious, and excessively covetous of praise and impatient of contradiction. I had taken notice of some faults in the fourth book of his Prin- cipia, which, instead of thanking me for, he resented ill. Yet was (so) presumptuous that he sometimes dared to ask ** Why I did not hold my tongue?” I considered that if I granted what he desired, I should put myself wholly into his power, or be at his mercy, who might spoil all that came into his hands, or put me to unnecessary trouble and vexa- tion about my own labours; and all the while pretend that he did it to amend faults where none were, but were un- avoidable, or easy to be corrected, and, therefore, excusable. I had further irritated him by not concealing some truths that are since published in print, and notoriously known: and, therefore, civilly refused what he desired. But still he told me he would recommend them to the Prince, and First Astronomer- Royal. E parted with me in the evening, with a short expression of very good advice. ‘ Do all the good in your power,” which it would have been very happy for him if he had followed himself, and has been the rule of my life from my infancy. But I heard no more of his recommendations. On the contrary, his flatterers, and such small mathematicians about London as hoped to get themselves esteemed very skilful, even by crying up his book, began to ask ‘‘ Why I did not print?” As if I were obliged to publish my works just when they pleased, though they understood no more of my works than they did of his books, which they so much eried up. To obviate this clamour, I examined all my books of observations, and took an account of what number of folio pages they might fill when printed, and found it much greater than I expected, Whereupon I drew my Estimate into a short paper, wherein I both showed what the number of pages were, and also in what order the press was to work them off. And chiefly urged that the maps of the constel- lations would be first of all set upon: that being carried on apart, they might be finished by the time the observations were printed off. Vansomer, an excellent designer, who had drawn about a dozen figures for me, was then alive, and ready to go on with the rest. My amanuensis had not left me, and might have been hired again to continue in my service: Mr. Hodgson’s help might also have been purchased. Some of my acquaintance had fallen into a suspicion that my labours answered not what might reasonably be expected from me. That I might cure them of these misapprehensions, which had been impressed upon them by the false and malicious suggestions of some few arrogant and self-designing people. I gave a copy or two of his Estimate to an acquaintance of mine, desiring him to shew it to those of my friends who had been possessed with these unjust suspicions. At one of the meetings of the Royal Society some of them were pre- sent: he got my paper handed to one of them, who sat at a distance, (for their meetings were thronged with company, however thin they are at present), who, opening the paper and finding the contents, delivered it to the Secretary, who read it at the board. This conyinced the members present that I had been unjustly aspersed; and it was moved that B2 4 Life of the Rev. John Flamsteed, the printing of the whole should be recommended to Prince George by the Society. Accordingly a committee was appointed, who, with Mr. Newton, waited on the Prince. But who they were when they waited on him, and how they made their recommenda- tion, I was never informed: nor did they vouchsafe to con- sult me about it, or take me along with them. All that I can tell of it is that the estimate was wrote in November, 1704; the Prince chosen into the Society November 30th : a letter from the Prince’s secretary, Mr. George Clarke, directing Mr. Roberts, Sir C. Wren, Dr. Gregory, and Dr. Arbuthnot, with Mr. Newton, to inspect my papers, dated December 11th 1704, which they did, and sometime after gave in their report of the charge of preparing and printing the observations and catalogue, mentioned in the estimate about £863, viz. 283 reams of paper for 400 copies, at 20s. per ream, £283; composition and press-work for 300 sheets, at 20s. per ream, £300; charges of an amanuensis for copying ditto, £100 ; to compute the planets’ places for two calculators, £180. But the last particular of the charge (£180 for two calculators) was not mentioned zn it, but added in a note under it; for what reason those know best who drew it up. Northe charge of designing and engraving about 50 plates of the constellations : though this was likely to be the heaviest part of the charge, and the observations could not be understood without them. I had further pro- posed them to be the first taken care of and begun. I had them all drawn ; and twelve of them anew designed by a skilful workman, by me. These were the most sumptuous parts of the work; and, had it not been for them, I had no or little need to crave the Prince’s help to print. Why they were neglected, Sir Isaac Newton best knows. Betwixt March 22, 1704-5, and April 21, 1705, Mr. Newton was knighted by the Queen, at Cambridge, (April 21st 1705.) Whereby I was piainly convinced that Sir Isaac Newton was no friend to (my) work; and every step he took after- wards, proved plainly that, whatever he pretended, his design was either to gain the honour of all my pains to himself, to make me come under him, (as Dr. Arbuthnot sometime after expressed), or to spoil and sink it: which it was my chief concern and business, if possible, to prevent. I, there- First Astronomer- Royal. 5 fore, printed my estimate and gave it to my friends, that they might see what my works were, and how I thought it best to proceed in printing them. To screen himself from the just imputation and blame that would probably follow such disingenuous and. ungrate- ful practices, he made use of these gentlemen, to whom he had got the inspection of my book of observations ordered by the Prince, and called them the Prince’s referees. Of these, Sir C. Wren was then about 70 years of age; and though he was a skilful person, yet being full of other business, he was sure to have him, who lived in the neigh- bourhood to consent to all his orders, but knew little of the business. Mr. Aston had been fellow of the same [Trinity] College in Cambridge, at the same time with him, knew nothing of the business, lived in the Court, had been my friend and guest at the Observatory, was too much a courtier to withstand any one that hada noble patron in the ministry, and therefore, was taken into the number of referees, sometimes for special purposes. Dr. Gregory, though he published a piece of astronomy, knew but very little of that part of it that was cultivated here. Nor was Dr. Arbuthnot skilled in it; but being one of the Prince’s physicians, he was taken in to serve Sir Isaac Newton’s purposes. He saw what was designed, and testified to me by some expressions, that he approved not such proceed- ings; promised once to assist me ina particular affair; and though he met with obstructions, performed it handsomely. With these persons, Sir Isaac Newton began to act his part and carry on his designs. I deal honestly and openly with him, as will appear by the copies of some letters I wrote to him upon several occasions; having no other design but to have my work handsomely printed, and as soon as possible; for the Prince was very infirm. But I soon per- ceived, that he designed only to hinder the work by delays, or spoil, or sink it, or force me to comply with his humour, and flatter him, and cry him up as Dr. Gregory and Dr. Halley did. I was forced, therefore, to act with more caution than I had done hitherto, that I might give him no cause of pretensions to stop the progress of the work, to forward which, I used my best diligence and honest endea- vours. I hired one, and employed him to copy specimens 6 Life of the Rev. John Flamsteed, of the several parts of the work, but could not get them printed off, till March 22nd, 1704. In the mean time, Sir Isaac Newton appointed a meeting of his referees, March 5 following, Mr. Churchill was not there; but Sir Isaac, with Dr. Arbuthnot, Dr. Gregory, and Mr. Aston, dined at Churchill’s; and a fortnight after, Mr. Aston told me of it (for I dined not with them), and that all things were then agreed but paper. Now, I understood that Mr. Churchill was to be the undertaker ; he had been recommended for that purpose, by one that I took to be my friend, without my knowledge, for I did not conceive that we had any need of one, and so did some of the gentlemen of the society. But, Sir Isaac Newton was resolved to make friends at my cost. For, as he ordered the matter, the undertaker was here to reap the sole advantage of all my labours and great expenses: and he was so confident of it, that when I inti- ~ mated it to him, he answered boldly, ‘‘ The Prince would reward me for them,” however, there was no receding; for then Sir Isaac Newton’s criers up, would have clamoured, ‘“< that I hindered the printing of my own works myself.” To avoid that imputation I was silent, though I complained oft to some friends in private, but never did any thing whereby it might appear I allowed him. At this meeting, on the 5th of March, the specimens of the undertaker’s printing were produced, but found to be ill done. I got others done very well, and paid the printers myself. June the |1th following, Dr. Gregory and myself, with Mr. Churchill, dined at Sir Isaac Newton’s, when they agreed to give Mr. Churchill £1. 14s. per sheet. They signed the agreement, but I would not, although they urged me much, I desired to be excused ; for it was plain to me, that he designed not the good of the impression or my advantage, but to make him a friend of a great name, by obliging a person I never had any acquaintance with, and enriching him at my cost. This point being over, I was in hopes that the press should have been set to work imme- diately; for I had about 50 sheets of observations made with the sextant ready copied, and the rest of that sort would easily be finished before these could be printed off. But I found myself deceived; we were as far off from printing, as if no such bargain had been made. First Astronomer- Royal. 7 At midsummer following, I paid my amanuensis and calculators a quarter's pay myself; and, Sir Isaac Newton, to encourage me to do it, talked often of drawing the Prince’s money. But, when I waited on him, July 4th following, and told him that I must go into Surrey to reap my harvest, (as usually I did every year about this time), he put me off again, before I could say any thing to him of it, by telling me that Dr. Arbuthnot’s daughter was so very ill, that the Dr. could do nothing till her recovery; and, that it was not fit we should begin to print till we had re- ceived his Royal Highnesses money; and that it would be soon enough at my return. I had put 12 sheets, ready for the press into his hands a week before. He thought to work me to his ends, by putting me to extraordinary charges in maintaining and paying an amanuensis and cal- culators myself, at my own charges. But I resolved to bear the expense patiently and defeat his designs. After this, I caused my amanuensis and calculators to go on with their work, and carried on the observations for completing the catalogue and others, according as I had opportunity. But, Sir Isaac became daily more perverse, and sought by several vexatious pretences to discourage me and weary me if possible. I paid my calculators and amanuensis three quarters, without any present prospect of being any way re- imbursed. But yet I had hopes, if once the press began to work, they would not find any new tricks or pretences to _delay re-paying me. But herein too, I found myself mis- taken: those that have begun to do ill things, never blush to do worse and worse to screen themselves. Sir Isaac Newton had still more to do, and was ready at coining new excuses and pretexts to cover his disingenuous and malicious practices. I had none but very honest and honourable designs in my mind; I met his cunning forecasts with sin- cere and honest answers, and thereby frustrated not a few of his malicious designs. Finding that I persisted un- wearied in my purposes, he demanded to have my First Night Notes put into his hands, that he might compare them with my copy. These were wrote in quarto volumes, and from them were commonly transcribed correctly into large folios, next morning, from which the copies were taken. I knew that he would be mistaken, and that they would 8 Life of the Rev. John Flamsteed, not serve his design; they were put into his hands, February 23rd, 1705-6. Mr. Hodgson acquainted me that Sir Isaac had showed him three or four pages of errata, that were committed in transcribing as he supposed: and a table made by Dr. Gregory for turning the revolves of the screw into degrees, minutes, and seconds, wherein he wisely had supposed the screw every where equal and equable. I smiled at this, and promised to send them my own tables for that purpose, and showed them their mis- takes and that there were no material errors committed. This was some small mortification to them, but they had learned not to be ashamed. Though I had refused to handle any of the Prince’s money but what was to pay my proper disbursements, and Sir Isaac Newton had granted, that then it was not neces- sary [should sign any agreement with the referees, yet now he became very positive for articles. He had said to some of his confidants, “‘ that he would hamper me with articles.” It had come to my ears, and, therefore, on his urging me, I drew up some for the undertaker to sign, as that he should print only 400 copies; that he should have no in- terest in the original, &c. But these were not to his pur- pose. I would not court him. To bring about his low designs, he makes articles himself, in which some things of mine were inserted, and in them he covenants the under- taker should print five sheets per week ; and for re-printing of faulty sheets; and that I should have £125 paid me, when ten sheets were printed off. These were read to me once, and I was required to sign them immediately, else the work was at a stand: no time would be allowed to consider of them, or amend any thing I thought amiss in them. Iwas then near £140 out of pocket: all my copy was ready for the press or soon would be. If I refused, the work would be broken off immediately, and the fault would be thrown upon me. For, Sir Isaac Newton lived in the neighbourhood of the Court. I at six miles distance. He had his close friend, the Lord Halifax, to support him there, with the Prince’s physician. I had nothing but my sincerity and God’s blessing to depend upon. Trusting on these alone, I signed them; not doubting, but now the press would begin. The articles are dated, November the 15th, in the 4th year of Queen Ann, or 17065. First Astronomer-Royal. 9 But herein, I soon found myself deceived. This would not satisfy. I would not yet cry up Sir Isaacas others did. To bring me to that baseness, now he has got my book of Night Notes, he wants a copy of so much of the Catalogue as I had gone through with, to be trusted into his hands. He therefore demanded it; I answered, that it was not then perfected ; that I believed it would contain a good number more than I had yet observed and rectified ; that the stars already in it were about 1500, but, probably, I should make them 2500; that these were the result of all my labours, in which, having spent above £2000 of my own money, above my allowances, it would neither be prudent nor safe to trust a copy of them out of my own keeping. He answered, that I might then put them into his hands sealed. up: whereby I understood, they were to be so kept by him, till I had finished the whole and was ready to print it. I con- sidered also, that this half of my Catalogue would be of no advantage to him, and consented. I, therefore, delivered the copy of so much of the Catalogue as was finished into Mr. Hodgson’s hands, with orders to seal it up in Sir Christopher Wren’s presence, and deliver it to Sir Isaae Newton, when ten sheets were printed, and £125 (which would then be payable by the articles) should be paid me. This was March 8th, 1706, but this direction I waived afterwards, and it was put into his hands the week after, without receiving a farthing for the board or pay of my amanuensis or calculators. For honest Sir Isaac Newton, (to use his own words) would have ‘‘ all things in his own power” to spoil or sink them; that he might force me to second his designs and applaud him, which no honest man would or could, and God be thanked, I lay under no neces- sity of doing. This business being over, a week after meeting me in London, he told me he would now draw £800 of the Prince’s money, but said nothing of paying me what I had disbursed. However, we must now put the work into the press, for, after such unreasonable concessions on my part, the pre- tences for further delay were all taken away, and he had no excuses for further delays. April, 4th, being in London, I was told that all the errors which he, by mistake, thought he had found in my copy, 10 Life of the Rev. John Flamsteed, were quelled; and that the first sheets would go to the press this week. April 19th. I waited upon him again: he told me gravely that the Prince having subscribed a great sum to the Emperor's loan, the money could not be received, but that he had taken up money for Mr. Churchill. This was to provoke me, but he failed of his design. Whatever I had hitherto expended I was content to adventure a little more. Mr. Churchill was put upon me, had never been at any expense; must have monies put into Ais hands beforehand, to buy paper and pay the printer, whereby he was sure to have him at his command. And, though it was covenanted that he should print but 400 copies, might take as many as he pleased; for I never heard nor found that he had given any bond or security for fair dealing, however, it was highly reasonable he should. But this was notall. The printer being to be paid by the undertaker, and not by me, was likely to be careless of his work, which I urged, but to no purpose. It was May 16th ere the first sheet was printed off, and June 3d, ere we got a second; and the third on the 7th of June. ‘So here was a whole month since the first was wrought off; and not two sheets (in the room of twenty that, by the articles ought to have been printed) in a month’s time. I complained boldly of the dilatoriness, but in vain. All the answer I got was from Sir Isaac’s own mouth, ‘‘ that we must proceed slowly at first and make sure dispatch afterwards.” This was one of the fruits of our having an undertaker, and leaving the printer to be paid by him, who neglected the Historia Celestis if they had but a sorry pamphlet to print. We had got two alphabets (that is about forty-six sheets) out of the press by Christmas, 1706; and the whole, (5 E) or ninty-seven, before December 21, 1707; that is ninty- seven sheets in about eighty-nine weeks. In which time, had they printed five sheets per week, according to their articles, all the observations made with the mural arch from 1689 to 1706 might have been easily printed, as well as those made with the sextant. In the meantime, Sir Isaac Newton sometimes stopt the press without assigning a reason for it, or any occasion First Astronomer- Royal. 11 given by me; but upon my complaint at the first, and afterwards, without any solicitation of mine at all, let it go on again. I happened once to visit the press when he was there, and took the opportunity to show him how ill the compositor had placed the types of the figures, and how much awry to the lines to which they belonged (sheet Kk k, p- 224). He put his head a little nearer to the paper, but not near enough to see the fault, (for he is very near sighted) and said, making a slighting motion with his hand, ‘‘ Me- thinks they are well enough.” This encouraged the printer in his carelessness; the sheet was printed off, and the fault not mended; and caused me to be more watchful over the printer. For now it was plain to me that the referee, as he called himself, was not displeased with the faults he com- mitted ; and the undertaker never concerned himself about them. He was sure of certain gains by his paper and press work, and some more probably than we were aware of. The printing of the sextant observations being finished, I expected the press should have gone on after Christmas, with the volume of observations made with the mural arch, which were double the number of the other. But Sir Isaac Newton had put a full stop to the press, though he knew very well that the copy was ready, fairly transcribed, on 175 sheets. What excuse he made for it I know not; for none of his confidants would acquaint me. In the meantime I had complained to one of the referees, who was often at Court, and waited frequently on the Prince of my ill usage; that care was taken of the undertaker and printer, but that none was taken to re-imburse me in the entertainment and pay of three calculators, and in tran- scribing the copy for the press, which came to more than £173, though I accounted nothing for my own and my servants’ attendance on the press. He was ashamed of it; promised it should be redressed; and, I am apt to think, procured a meeting to be appointed on the 20th March following, which was notified to me, and I was then desired to bring with me what I had more by me ready for the press. The press had now stood three months, by Sir Isaac New- ton’s only procurement. For to keep all things wholly in his own power he had brought in an undertaker who was useless to the business, and served only to spoil the work, 12 Life of the Rev. John Flamsteed, or worse; and a printer whom I believe he paid. I am sure he never consulted me about the payment of either, though there was sufficient cause; all the articles relat- ing to them having been broken; but by this manage- ment he had them wholly at his devotion. On the day appointed (March 20, 1707-8) I took up with me to London all the observations here made between September 1689 and December 1705, fairly copied in 175 sheets of large papers. Six sheets were of the planets’ places, calculated from the observations made with the sextant, which ought to have been printed next after the said observations, as also a fair copy of the places of the stars in the ecliptical, and as many of the southern ‘constellations as I had then rectified. The referees viewed them, and Sir Isaac, after some time, withdrew, and calling Dr. Arbuthnot out to him, produced the following, which the other referees, as I remember, signed. He would not deliver it to me, but gratiously permitted me to take a copy of it. (Here follows the agreement, dated March 20, 1707-8). There were present at this meeting, at the Castle Tavern in Pater Noster row, Mr. Roberts, Sir Isaac Newton, Sir Christopher Wren, Dr. Arbuthnot, Dr. Gregory, Mr. Churchill, Mr Jamer Hodgson, and with myself, my ama- nuensis Isaac Wolferman. . The conditions on which I was to deliver this second volume were very hard and unjust: for the observations contained (there) were most of them made with the new mural arch, which I had built at my own cost, and lay me in above £120 out of my own pocket. My own instruments were all my own, too; and my assistants were paid and maintained at my own charge. I had laid out, moreover, above £173 in carrying on the works ; of which I had given a bill both to Sir Isaac Newton and several of the referees. I considered that If I should not consent to this order, Sir Isaac Newton would say that I had hindered the printing of my own works myself; which would serve to justify a report, spread by his partisans very industriously, that I was averse to the publication of them. Whereas I had always endeavoured to carry them on as industriously as I could; and he had done all he could to hinder me, in order to make me comply with them, and cry him up at the same , First Astronomer- Royal. 13 rate they did. Further, I saw that if I did not lay hold of this opportunity I could not hope to be re-imbursed any of the £173 I had spent in preparing the copy for the press, and performed my part of the agreement in the time agreed. But the £125 was not paid me till about two months after, and then I was still above £48 out of purse, for which I had nothing but three copies, one that I gave Mr. Sharp, and another in which I have corrected the faults of the press with my own hand, and a third not complete. I was now in hopes that the press would begin again to work with the second volume; but when, after three or four months delay, I found that for all my instances there was not the least step made towards it. I complained of this behaviour of Sir Isaac Newton, both paying me short of what I had disbursed, and of his keeping the 175 sheets of copy for the second volume in his hands. This I believe was (as intended) carried to him. Whereupon, to throw all the fault upon me, eight months after he had stopt the press, he sent me the following order :— « At a meeting of the gentlemen to whom his Royal Highness, the Prince, hath referred the care of printing Mr. Flamsteed’s astronomical papers, it was agreed that the press should go on without further delay: and that, if Mr. Flam- steed do not take care that the press be well corrected, and go on with dispatch, another corrector be employed. Whitehall, July 13, 1708.” To prevent the designed effect of this malicious order, or agreement, I wrote a letter to Sir Christopher Wren, (who, I believe, hated such practices), and sent it him in a few days after. I declined writing to Sir Isaac Newton, because he might suppress it; and I doubted not Sir Christopher would impart it both to him and the other referees. T took a copy of it to myself, to show my acquaintance, friends, and some gentlemen that had an opinion of Sir Isaac New- ton before, and could not think he could be guilty of such collusion as this order, and my letter proved upon him. The letter was delivered, and imparted to Sir Isaac Newton as I desired it should be: yet I never received any answer to it. But the press was stopt, and no more talk of it this year; in the latter end of which the Prince of Denmark died, on October 28, 1708; in whom the Observatory lost one that would haye been a great and noble patron, had he 14 Life of the Rev. John Flamsteed, not been prevented by one of his physicians, who was influ- enced and governed by Sir Isaac Newton. Being now not disturbed with him any more at present, I set myself to carry on such observations as I wanted, and made good advances in it; adding many stars to some constellations that I had gone through before. But when I least expected it I was afresh disturbed by another piece of Sir Isaac Newton’s ingenuity. After the Prince’s death the old ministry was changed; a new one introduced: his patron was well with the chief of them; the Queen’s phy- sician was in his interest and the new Secretary of State’s. It was not enough that Sir Isaac Newton had got my obser- vations (made with the mural arc) into his hands by sur- prize, together with above half the catalogue, whatever my expenses had been, or pains in making it, so long as I would not leave myself and pains wholly at his disposal; and, therefore, he procures, by the means of the physician, minister, and Secretary St. John, an order constituting the President (Sir Isaac Newton) of the Royal Society, the Vice-President, and whom else they should think fit of the Society visitors of the Observatory. "Tis dated December 12th, 1710, and was sent me by the office-messenger, on the 14th, with the Queen’s letter intimating it. The next morning after I received this, I waited on Mr. Secretary St. John, and told him that I was injured, and should be hindered by this new constitution of Visttors ; that I wanted no new instruments; and that if I did, the Visitors were not skilful enough to contrive them; that for my repairs of the Observatory, the Office of Ordnance had hitherto taken care of them, and would now as soon as the weather should be fit; that the instruments and clocks in the house were all my own, and that I had hitherto re- paired them all at my own charge; that I had expended above £2000 more than my appointments, in instruments and assistants; and that it would be very unjust to go about to deprive me both of the honour and benefit of my own labour and expenses, and confer them on those, who had done nothing but obstruct and hinder me in all they could, and wanted to boast of their merit in preserving my la- bours, because they had nothing of their own worth the public view. Mr. Secretary St. John seemed not to regard First Astronomer- Royal. 15 what I said, but answered me haughtily, ‘‘ The Queen would be obeyed.” The Lord Rochester, the Queen’s uncle, living near the Secretary’s office, I also waited upon him, and shewed him what tricks and disingenuous usage were put upon me by Sir Isaac Newton; and though I found no immediate advantage by it, yet I am apt to be- lieve, it was of use to me afterwards. Sir Isaac Newton valued himself very much upon the suggestion, that it ‘‘ would contribute very much to the improvement of astronomy and navigation, if there were constant visitors appointed of the Observatory, &c.;” and, one of the principal of the council of the Royal Society could not forbear to speak of it to me in public company. Whereas the contrary is evident, from what had happened to the noble Tycho, who had no Visitors of his Observatory appointed over him, during the reign of his patron, king Frederick II. When some persons were appointed in the following reign of king Christian, they were such, as were very unfit for that purpose, much less skilful than himself, and made use of purposely to asperse him, only to make him uneasy and withdraw, that the courtiers might get his appointment, (which were 2000 dollars a year allowed him from the Treasury, a fee in Norway, worth 1000 dollars a year more, and the prebend of Roschild, of 1000 more) into the King’s hand again, which they did; and soon by him were conferred on the Templars. My appointments, though very, small in comparison of his, were also designed by Sir Isaac Newton for other persons that would be dependant on him ; and this expedient of Visitors was to perform strange things. But the good Providence of God so ordered it, that I received but little damage by it: and he got little but shame and disgrace for his ingratitude in disturbing me in my business, which he was bound by his oath to assist me in, as President of the Royal Society, and as chief (as he had made himself) of the Prince’s referees, or indeed, the all of them. But, now that he got another pretence of authority, to make me sensible of it, a report was spread, that a letter was coming to me from the Royal Society. This was in the beginning of December, 1710, and was occasioned, I believe, by their knowing of Mr. St. John’s letter that was 16 Life of the Rev. John Flamsteed, brought to my hands on the 14th. I heard nothing of any letter from them: if they then designed any, I believe, on better thoughts it was laid by. But in March following, I was surprised when I was privately told, that my Catalogue (which I was then working upon to complete it as far as I then could) was in the press: but more with a letter of Dr. Arbuthnot, dated the 14th March, 1710-11, wherein he very confidently required of me the copy of the star’s places of six constellations, viz. Draco, Ursa Major, Ursa Minor, Cepheus, Cassiopea, Hercules, that had not been delivered into Sir Isaac Newton’s hands, when he got the rest into his possession by tricks and pretences. This, I believe, was one of the boldest things that ever was at- tempted. None that had less dexterity, and boldness, and art, than the Doctor, would have had the confidence to have mentioned such a demand. I had made my instruments, and maintained my assistants at my own charge without complaint of it; solong as I could be quiet and undisturbed by the small people that cried him up. I had put a copy of that part of my Catalogue which was in order into his hands, to be preserved in case of my mortality, and to pre- vent it from being lost by accidents, and to let him see that I could go on with it as soon as I had determined the right ascensions and distances from the pole, of other stars in other constellations. I gave him also copies of them, never designing or intending that he or any but myself should publish them. Nor, indeed, could any one else, for more observations were still wanting to complete it, and I was adding to it, adding or correcting something in it every day. Some letters passed betwixt me and the Dr. Arbuth- not, wherein he still urged me to give them the copy of the constellations, only wanting, as he thought, to complete my Catalogue: which I alwaysanswered civilly, with such just excuses as are above suggested; desiring still that I might see him, either at the Observatory or in London, where at last he met me, on March 29th, and when I inquired of him, whether the Catalogue was printed or no, he assured me ‘ not a sheet of it was printed.” I answered him not, for I was sure it was; because he then offered (in the hear- ing of Mr. Hodgson, and another gentleman I had taken with me to be a witness of our conversation and discourse), First Astronomer-Royal. 17 to pay me £10 for every press fault I should find in it; and, within four days after, a friend sent me the constella- tions of Aries and Taurus, fairly printed; and, in a day or two after, that of Virgo. So that I was now convinced that the press was at work, and that the Doctor had told me what he knew was not true. Ilearnt, at the same time, (what had been intimated to me before) that Mr. Halley took care of the press, and pretended that he had found many faults in my catalogue; showed some sheets of it publicly in Child’s Coffee-house, at St. Paul’s, and boasted what pains he had been at in correcting them. I had told Dr. Arbuthnot, in one of my letters, (April 18th, 1711), that one of Dr. Halley’s best friends, and the wisest of them, had said of him, ‘‘ that the only way to have my business spoiled effectually was to trust it to his management.” Now, the truth of this expression was proved: for I found not only the names of the stars in my catalogue altered, but the numbers also in many places changed, and others put in their room that were sometimes fifteen minutes false; and, therefore, it was very effectually spoiled. And, by boasting of these corrections, as he called them, he would insinuate to the world that they were more obliged to him for his pains in correcting than they were to me for above thirty years spent in composing it; the cost of making instruments and hiring assistants at my own charge. For, by altering the names (to make them agree with his own faulty hemisphere) he had made himself in some sort (but a very bad one) a proprietor in that cata- logue he printed without my name to it, or ever consulting me about it; which I would never consent to, as they well know by my letter to Sir Christopher Wren, which had been imparted to Sir Isaac Newton; and Halley was not ignorant of it. On June 23, 1711, he delivered to my niece, Mrs. Hodg- son, a fair copy of all the sheets of the catalogue, but without any preface to it. When I examined it I found more faults in it, and greater than I imagined the impudent editor either could or durst have committed. He had taken no care to put those into their proper order which I had left digested to his hands; because I had not yet got occasion to com- plete the constellations to which they belonged, particularly VOL. II. c 18 Life of the Rev. John Flamsteed, the stars of Hevelius’s new constellations with Hercules, Cassiopeia, and the two Bears. In some places he had altered the stars’ right ascension and distance from the pole, and made them false which were true before; and in the constellation Draco there were not above six or eight stars that he had not corrupted. Besides, I had added above thirty stars to the constellation ; as many to Hercules; and so many on others, that the total number of them, in my own catalogue, would be near 400 more than there were in those papers I had intrusted Sir Isaac Newton with, to pre- serve in case of accidents, and which he had betrayed into Halley’s hands, when he had been told of his qualifications before. Therefore, finding no other remedy, I resolved to re- printit atmy own charge. I procured a couple of expert cal- culators, (Mr. Ab. Ryley and Mr. Crosthwait), corrected his faults and blunders, got the places of the stars lately observed calculated by both of them forgreater certainty, made a new copy, in which the ancient names were restored, Hevelius’s ‘constellations inserted amongst the rest in their proper places, and in the order I first designed. But paper was ‘exceeding scarce and dear, because of the war with France not yet over; which delayed the printing my intended ‘edition corrected and enlarged. In the meantime, Sir Isaac Newton summons me to meet him at the house of the Royal Society, in Crane Court, October 26, 1711; where I found him with Dr. Sloane, Dr. Mead, and one more that I knew not, but I believe was his or their clerk at the time. He called these three, with himself, a committee, and told ‘me they had sent for me to:\know what repairs I wanted, or instruments? I told them that the Office of Ordnance took care of my repairs; that it was now too late in the year to set about them, but that.as soon as the spring came I should have that done which was necessary; and as for my instruments, they were all my own, either given to’me by Sir Jonas Mocre, or made by myself at my own charge, and always repaired at my own expense: And further, that I would not suffer any one to concern themselves:about repairing of my own instruments, in which, and necessary assistance, I had spent £2000. The impetuous gentleman hereupon said, ‘‘ As good have no observatory as no. instruments.” And soon conceiving that I apprehended his first Astronomer-Royal. 19 design, and obviated it by my answers, broke out into a passion, and used me as I was never used before in my life. I gave no answers, but only desired him to be calmer, and moderate his passion; thanked him for the many honourable names he gave me, and told him God had blessed my endea- vours hitherto: that his wisdom was beyond the wisdom of men, and that I committed myself to him. Dr. Mead seconded him, unprovoked, in his ill language; but Dr. Sloane held his face. I thanked him for his civility ; per- mitted him to help me down stairs; and, at the door, met Halley, who had not been far off all the time ; and, I believe, heard Sir Isaac Newton shew his best g****+ It would be too long to give an account of it all: there is alonger in my old book of letters, A, page 104-105, where those who come after me will find it. I pray God forgive him. I do. I do not remember that I ever saw the observations of mine (printed at the same press with my corrupted catalogue) till three years after; when there were 300 copies of the printed edition of the Observations given me (as they were designed) by King George. The whole was intended for me, by the Prince George of Denmark, but I was forced to be content with this part of them, and took them with thanks. I found them as much corrupted as the Catalogue, but if God spares me life I hope to present the world with a perfect edition of them, the editor having transcribed only the Observations of the Planets, and made a sorry and fallacious excuse for his omitting the Observations of all the fixed stars that were not employed for finding of the planets’ places. On the 18th of June, 1712, the impudent editor, with wife, son, and daughters, attending him, and a neighbouring clergyman in his company, came hither. I said little to him. He offered to burn his Catalogue (so he called his corrupted and spoiled copy of mine, of which I had now a correct and enlarged edition in the press, and the second sheet printing off) if I would print mine. I am apt to think he knew it was so, and was endeavouring to prevent it. But to render his design ineffectual I said little to him of it; so he went away not much wiser than he came. Saturday, August Ist, 1712. Sir Isaae Newton came + The remainder of the word is illegible, 2¢ 20 Life of the Rev. John Flamsteed, himself, accompanied with Dr. Thorp, Mr. Machin, Mr. Rowley, and Mr. Hodgson, who had given me notice of their coming before-hand. I had provided Mr. E. Clark, and Mr. Ryley to attend our conversation, and accompany them to view (the) house and my instruments, being a little lame myself with the gout. They had a view of what they pleased, except my library. I gave them a glass of wine. Sir Isaac promised to return me a Greek Ptolemy he had borrowed of me, and 4 vols. in quarto, of the First Night Notes, which he had kept in his hands now about six years, to no other purpose but to show his authority and good nature; and returned (them) not till more than four years after, when I had commenced a suit against him for them. This business being over, and Sir Isaac Newton finding that his visitation had not the effect he promised to himself, he took care to let me know by the Secretary's letter as soon as the year 1711 was expired, that the Royal Society expected the copy of the Observations of that year. I re- turned an answer to him that they should have them in the time prescribed by the order; and, accordingly, caused my amanuensis, Jos. Crosthwait, to transcribe and leave them at their house in Crane Court, some days before Midsummer 1712. I expected that they should have sent me a receipt for them, but civil and just Sir Isaac Newton esteemed it too great a favour for me. I did the same for the year following, on a second letter from the Secretary of the Royal Society. And in the year 1713-14, I found them both printed, abridged, and so spoiled by the editor of my Catalogue, that I would no longer own them for mine. The most material observations were omitted, and the rest so managed that it seemed to me he had designed to spoil them, out of spite. He had inserted some that were im- perfect; and given the right ascensions and distances of the planets from the pole deduced from the observations ; but not their longitudes and latitudes. This was too much drudgery for his acuteness, who was used to procure what he published as his own at easier rates. After the same manner he got my observations of the year 1713 into his hands; abridged, spoiled, and printed them in his Transactions for the year 1715, No. 344. But the Queen deceasing before they could Jay any claim to the First Astronomer- Royal y 21 next year’s, and their authority ceasing, I declined answer- ing their further demand ; for their authority ceased. Yet their confidence did not: and the editor, (Dr. Halley), who now was one of their secretaries, sent me a bold letter to demand them, asif he had never done me any injury ; which I laid by me, and kept that year’s from being spoiled. How unfaithful he was in his copy I hope the skilful may see ere long: for my amanuensis, J. Crosthwait, is now copying the volume of observations that Sir Isaac Newton got by surprize into his hands, and has nearly finished it. And I hope I may live, through the blessing of God, to see it published, with the observations of twelve following years : but if His good providence shall not continue my life so long, I trust my executors will do it according to the direc- tion of my will. The last sheet of my corrected and enlarged Catalogue was printed off, December 5th, 1712; after which I designed to have had the press to proceed with the observations from which it was derived, made with the mural arch. But whatever instances I made to Sir Isaac Newton to have the copy I had trusted into his hands, to be printed, I could not prevail with him to return it. So I set myself to con- tinue my observations, at such times as were fit, further; and to calculate the planets’ places from such observations as I had made with it; and to correct the places of the planets’ motions. In which, I bless God for it, though I had not the success I expected, yet I had such as gave me light, and will be of use to those who come after me; and may serve to perfect our knowledge of the Heavens, wherein the height of wisdom is shewn of our Creator; if after me there shall be any found that will prosecute these studies with the same sedulity, patience, and sincere love of truth that I have now for above these five-and-fifty years. August Ist, 1714. King George succeeded to the crown of Great Britain. Soon after a noble peer died, who, during his life, had supported Sir Isaac Newton (the Earl of Hali- fax). The officers at Court were changed. The new Lord Chamberlain knew me well: and one that was frequently employed by him wrote to me, that through his means I might get the printed copy of my observations that had been designed for me by the Prince George of Denmark, into my 22 Life.of the Rev. John Flamsteed, hands with little trouble: the Lord Chamberlain having, by his office, the care of his library. I thanked God for so good an opportunity. My friend, with the Duke of Bolton, did his best: but, after all, we find the Lords of the Trea- sury had the power of disposing of them. Mr. Walpole was first commissioner. Mr. Methven, unasked, became my friend: Mr. Newport, (now Lord Torrington) I (had) been acquainted with long since. I caused a memorial and petition, wherein my case was truly represented to them, to be drawn up and delivered. Whereupon 300 copies were ordered to be delivered to me by the undertaker, Mr. Churchill, who, by his articles, was bound to print but 400. I brought them down to Greenwich ; and finding both Halley’s corrupted edition of my Catalogue and abridg- ment of my Observations, no less spoiled by him, I sepa- rated them from my Observations ; and some few days after I made a Sacrifice of them to Heavenly Truth; as I should do of all the rest of my editor’s pains of the like nature, if the Author of Truth should hereafter put them into my power; that none of them but what he has given away, and sent into foreign countries, may remain to show the ingrati- tude of two of my countrymen who had been obliged by me more, on particular occasions, than any other mathematical acquaintance ; and had used me worse than even the noble Tycho was used in Denmark. And I should have felt the effects of their malice and envy more, had not the good providence of Almighty God prevented them. Whilst I was soliciting this affair in the Exchequer, Sir Isaac Newton was passing his accounts there concerning the disbursement of the Prince’s monies. He would never own to me what the Prince allowed for the charge of print- ing, lest he should quit any part of that power he pretended (and he would gladly have me to have thought him) to have had. I have heard that the Prince designed £1200 for the printing. Dr. Keel told me £2500; which I am apt to believe is true; the other £1300 being not less than the engraving of the maps of the constellations and other figures will cost. But here I learnt that Sir Isaac Newton’s ac- counts specified £150 given to Dr. Halley for the pains he had been at for correcting (ashe calls it) and publishing my Catalogue. And to one of his servants for assisting him in First Astronomer- Royal. 23 ealeulating the places of the stars, £30. So that Isaac Newton had wasted £180 in spoiling of it. Besides, he told me that he had given £20 more to the poor Frenchman that drew and engraved the flattering figures for the frontis- pieces or capitals; upon his complaint that the first agree- ment was. too harda bargain. So that there was £200 of the Prince’s money thrown away, only toshow his liberality unnecessarily, which evidently proves his ignorance of the business, For the Catalogue was very correct before his editor corrected it: andthe designer or engraver of the frontispiece, or capitals, knew, no doubt, how to make a bargain for his pains. The editor and his calculator were both indigent: (and he) found this way of relieving them, without any expense to himself; and making them open their mouths wide im erying him (up for) his liberality as they had done before for his skill in what he is (no master) of. Whilst my amanuensis, J. Crosthwait, was at more pains in (correcting) their faults and calculating the places of 400 stars (more) than were in my first copy, without any allowance (more) than the yearly wages I gave him. Having thus got my own printed observations and Cata- logue into my own hands, I caused the observations of Mr. Gascoigne and Mr. Crabtree, made in Yorkshire and Lan- eashire, in the years 1638-1642, together with my own made at Derby, between the years 1669 and 1675, which I had mentioned in my estimate (as these were to compose a part of my first: volume of observations), to be printed in Latin: together with a small table for turning the parts measured by the micrometer (either in the longer or the lesser tube) into minutes and seconds of a degree. [also sent to Sir Isaac Newton, to return me the 175 sheets trusted into his hands, March 20th, 1708-9, to be printed. But, finding he delayed to restore, or even flatly denied to do it, I set my amanuensis to copy them, in order to have them printed; that they might be published together with the Catalogue in their proper order, which I had first proposed in my said estimate, and which I endeavoured always to preserve; whilst Sir Isaac Newton as pertina- ciously contended to obstruct and break, that he might thereby force me to some mean submission, to procure his consent. Though the work was nothing of it his, he had 24 Life of the Rev, John Flamsteed, concerned himself with the Prince George of Denmark without my consent, in the edition; and was so bold, as by his creatures to intimate to me what he wanted; but the cunning failed him; the sheets will be copied in a short time ; and I hope, if God spares me health one year more, I may see them all printed and fit to be published. Having thus given the history of my observations of the fixed stars, and shewn both what the true obliquity of the ecliptic, or the inclination of the earth’s axis is, as the assertors of their motion would rather call it, and how it came to pass, that I have met with so many obstructions and hindrances in the preparing the Catalogue of them for the press and publishing of it; having also shewn how I determined the inequality of the earth’s motion, and the true places of some of the principal (stars in the Catalogue) and from them all the rest inserted in it, I shall next give an account of such variations as may be caused in their right ascensions and distances from the visible pole, by the Parallax of the Earth’s orbit. From my first year’s observations of the pole-star’s meri- dional distance from the vertex, I supposed that the parallax was sensible. Some observations I had taken with the sextant, of the intermutual distances of bright fixed stars had caused me to suspect it before, for I found that I had them at some times of the year, some little bigger than others. But the sextant being an unfixed instrument, that required two persons to make use of it, and the air being ‘ changeable, and different at different times of the year, and consequently, the distances being more or less contracted by refractions, according to the greater or less density of the air, or greater or less inclination of the planes passing through the two observed stars, to the vertical circles fall- ing upon them, it was very difficult to make any good con- clusion from them. Continuing, therefore, my observations of the pole-star yearly, I found always a small, but sensible difference, betwixt those I took in September, and the fol- lowing months of each year, which argued a sensible parallax in the star. [An account was given of these observations, in a letter from Flamsteed to Professor Caswell, published December 22nd, 1698. By the observed distances of the pole star First Astronomer-Royal. 25 from the pole, it was found, that the greatest exceeds the least by 40” or 45", and, therefore, the greatest parallax of the orb at this star is more; and, probably, 50” or very near a whole minute. When Flamsteed obtained the 300 copies of his printed work, edited or mangled by Halley : he destroyed only the Catalogue and the spurious part of the work, which pro- fessed to be his observations made with the mural are. That portion containing his observations with the sextant were separated from the rest, and now forms with the ob- servations of Crabtree, &c., the first volume of the Historia Celestis. So that of all the three volumes of the Historia, only 97 sheets of the first volume were printed at the public expense, all the rest having been edited at the risk and private cost of Flamsteed himself. He died, however, be- fore the second volume was completed. This occurrence is related in a letter from Mr. Crosthwait to Mr. Sharp, dated ‘‘ Observatory, January 2nd, 1719-20, He was taken ill on Sunday last, about a quarter-past 12 at night, and continued to vomit up every thing he took, till Thursday night, when about 38 minutes past 9, it pleased God to take him. I shall always lament the loss the public will have of so valuable a man.” Thus lived, and thus died this ‘‘ great and good man,” as he is designated by his intimate friend Crosthwait. May the jealousy with which he was perse- cuted during his life, receive its just meed of reprobation from posterity, and may the calumnies which have hitherto thrown a gloom over his great talents and worth, be for ever sunk in oblivion, and general respect and admiration substituted in their room. ] Articte II. An account of the process of making Spirits, in Great Britain and Ireland. (Continued from vol. ii. p. 465.) 6. Wash Charger.—The wash having been fermented as above described, is conveyed to the wash-charger, which is simply a measuring vessel; its cover and communications with the still and with the wash-backs are under the 26 On the Process of making Spirits in Revenue officers’ control ; being kept locked at all times, except when wash is being conveyed thereto from the backs; but so soon as it has been filled, the officer locks the communications between it and the backs, and opens: the communication between it and the wash-still, to allow _ the wash to be run into it; so that no more wash ean be run into the charger till the officer has again opened the first. mentioned communication ; and. thus the process goes on, charge after charge. ) The S¢iils.—Common stills are so well known that a description of them here would be superfluous; any boiler having a head and worm, or refrigator, attached to it, will answer the purpose, its object being simply to separate: the spirits, or alcohol, from the wash in which it is con- tained ; this is obtained by applying heat to the wash, until its temperature is sufficiently raised to convert the spirits into vapour ; this vapour escapes through the head of the. still, into a spiral tube, technically called the worm, which being contained in a tub or tank of cold water, condenses the vapour into a weak impure spirit, called low wine. These are run from the worm, and into the low wine receivers, in which they are taken account of by the Revenue officer. They are immediately afterwards pumped. up into another vessel called the low wines ‘and feints- charger, and from. thence run into the low wines still, which is furnished with a head and worm like the wash-still. In. this still the low wines are re-distilled, and produce a quantity of pure spirit, which issues from its worm end, and is conveyed into the spirit-receiver as a finished article, fit for consumption. Buta large portion of this second distillation is still too coarse, and too much conta- minated with essential oils, for commercial purposes, until it has undergone further rectification. These coarse spirits, whether the produce of two or more distillations, are called faints ; they are carefully separated from the purer portion, and conveyed into a vessel, called the ‘ faints receiver,” from which they are again removed into the still, and re- distilled repeatedly, until the produce becomes pure, which finishes the process. Up to the termination of the last century, the common still aud worm, such as we have just described them, were uni- Great Britain and freland. Bz versally used in the distilleries, not merely in these islands, but also on the continent of Europe, and in the West Indies; and the process consisted of repeated distillations, in order to bring the alcohol to a sufficient degree of purity. It is true that philosophical men, long before that period, saw that the apparatus admitted of improvement, and that the process, as ordinarily carried on, wasted much time and fuel. There are suggestions, in the older chemical books, of plans for obtaining alcohol of a high strength by asingle distillation ; but it was not until the year 1801 that the idea was carried into effect in the large way, by Edward Adam, a distiller at Montpellier, in the south of France, who, in that year, invented a distilling apparatus which was imme- diately adopted in a great number of the French distilleries. This invention was followed, shortly afterwards, by another, brought forward by Isaac Berard, also a distiller in the south of France. Berard’s apparatus was devised for the same purpose as that of Adam, namely, the production of strong spirits by a single distillation ; and, being less com- plicated, and less expensive in its construction, it was by many preferred, although it did not, by any means, econo- mise fuel to the same extent as the apparatus of Adam. The introduction of these two improvements, in a manu- facture of so much commercial importance to France, im- mediately drew the attention of many ingenious individuals; and, during the first twenty-five years of the present cen- tury, from 1800 to 1825, an immense number of inventions were brought forward for improved distilling apparatus. Dr. Solimani, Curaudau, Cardonel, Chaptal, Clement, and other eminent men, lent themselves to the task, and an apparatus was at length perfected, and very generally adopted, which combined the advantages of both Adam’s and Berard’s in- ventions, and performed the process of extracting the purest alcohol, in a single distillation, with great economy of fuel. At the same time that these modifications of Adam’s and , Berard’s principles were carrying into effect, a distiller at Bourdeau, named Baglioni, conceived the idea of making an apparatus which should work continuously, that is to say, should be constantly receiving a stream of wine, or wash, at one end, which would constantly flow off, boiling hot, and exhausted of its alcohol, at the other; the alcohol, at 28 On the Process of making Spirits in the same time, flowing continuously into a proper receiver. M. Baglioni’s first efforts were not quite successful; his machine did not effectually exhaust the wine, and a portion of alcohol was, consequently, lost, by those who adopted his apparatus. The idea, however, was followed up by M. Cellier Blu- menthal, who contrived a more perfect machine, and finally, an apparatus was constructed by Dr. Charles Derosne, which completely solved the problem, and which has, perhaps, carried the distilling apparatus to the ne plus ultra of per- fection, so far as relates to the distillation of clear transpa- rent liquors, such as wines usually are.* It would take up too much space to give any detailed description of these inventions here, and would, besides, be foreign to the intention of this paper, which is to describe the practice of Great Britain and Ireland. But the reader who feels curiosity on the subject will be amply gratified by consulting Le Normand’s Treatise on Distillation, published at Paris in 1824: That of Fried. Hermbstaedt, at Berlin, in 1823: Dubrunfaut’s work, published at Paris, 1824; and Peclet’s Treatise on Heat, Paris, 1828.+ . Several causes prevented the introduction of these im- provements into the distilleries of Great Britain and Ireland. 1. The Excise regulations chalked out a particular course in which the distiller should carry on his processes’, to which the new machines could not be adapted; and the heads of the department felt a natural dislike to innovations. 2. The spirits being made from corn, large quantities of hot water were required for mashing this corn, and the vapours from the common still, during their condensation, heated water for that purpose; the heat, therefore, was not lost, as in the French wine distilleries, where all the hot water runs to waste, there being no use for it. The saving of fuel, therefore, arising from the use of the improved ap- * The fact is disputed as to the original proposer of continuous distillation, Some assert it was M. Blumenthal, not Baglioni: others trace the suggestion farther back than the apparatus’ of either; but it is an undoubted fact that Dr. Derosne was the first that brought the idea into complete practical effect. + We are not aware of any work, in English, on this subject, to which our readers could be profitably referred. We believe a part of Dubrunfaut’s treatise has been translated by a Mr. Sheridan, but we have not seen the publication. Great Britain and Ireland. 29 paratus, was by no means so important in acorn as ina wine distillery. 3. Corn wash is not so well adapted to the new process as wine; it always contains a great quantity of vegetable matter, mechanically suspended in it while in motion, but which, when the wash is in a quiescent state, rapidly falls in a thick sediment on the condensing surfaces of the appa- ratus, and destroys their power. Dr. Derosne’s apparatus, the most perfect of all those heretofore invented in France, is not at all fit for the distillation of thick corn wash. A modification of it is used in several of the corn distilleries of Holland and Belgium, but its advantages are not com- parable to those it affords in the distillation of wine. It is probable that these causes would have prevented the introduction of the new system of distillation to these islands up to this day, were it not for a great change which took place in the Excise law in 1823. Previously to that date, the processes of brewing and distilling were carried on simultaneously ; but, for the more effectual collection of the duty, a law was then passed, requiring that the distiller should suspend altogether the mashing of corn, or making of new wort, so soon as he began to distil the wash then in his possession ; and forbidding him to resume the making or brewing any more wort or wash, until all he had on hand when he commenced distilling had been worked up. His manufacturing processes were thus divided into two distinet periods, as to time, technically called, by the Excise officer, the Brewing period, and the Distilling period. In conse- quence of this division, the water heated by the vapours of his wash and low wine stills, became useless to him; and it was not until then that the distillers of these countries shewed any disposition to adopt the improvements of their continental neighbours. The first apparatus submitted to them was introduced by a M. St. Marc, who took out a patent for it about 1827. It is, however, the invention of M. Alegre, a gentleman whose talents are highly spoken of in some of the works on distillation to which we have referred our readers. It isa very ingenious machine, and well adapted to the distillation of clear wine, but, like all the others invented in France, is ill fitted for the distillation of corn wash. Some of St. Mare’s 30 On the Process of making Spirits in stills have been put up by rectifiers, and, we believe, have given satisfaction; but we are not aware that there is one in Great Britain for the distillation of wash; and, we have heard that a few which were erected in Ireland for that purpose have been laid aside. A very full description of this apparatus will be found in the “‘ London Encyclopedia” voce Distillation. Shortly after the date of St. Mare’s patent, Mr. Robert Stein took out two patents for distilling apparatus, the second being for improvements on the first: one of the principles of this apparatus is to keep the wash constantly in motion, in the form of a shower, or spray, by means of force pumps, by which it is injected into various chambers, wherein it comes into contact with vapour in a very sub- divided state, and is thereby stripped of its alcohol. This requires the use of a great number of force pumps, which give to the apparatus a very complicated appearance, and require considerable mechanical power. There is great in- genuity and mechanical skill displayed in the construction of this apparatus, but it has not received much patronage ; there is one of them in use at the patentee’s own distillery, at Kirkliston, and another at Cameron Bridge, both in Scotland. The third, and last, distilling apparatus we shall have occasion to mention, is that of Mr. Aineas Coffey, of Dublin, for which he took out a patent in 1832. We have seen two of those machines in Scotland, one at the Inverkeithing distillery, and the other at Bonnington, near Leith; and, in our judgment, this invention bids fair to supersede all other modes of distilling corn wash. We have obtained a drawing of the Inverkeithing apparatus, which will enable us to convey to our readers a tolerably clear idea of its. con- struction, and, indeed, a tolerably clear idea of the general principles on which all the modern improvements in dis- tillmg apparatus are founded, for they are all embodied and carried into effect in Mr. Coffey’s apparatus. To render our description the more easily understood, we shall premise the following facts, to be kept in the reader's recollection : 1. Water boils at about 212°, and alcohol, the purest hitherto obtained, at about 171° or 172° of Fahrenheit. 2. Mixtures of alcohol and water boil at temperatures WW i NN MME U i=] [Cc — N =a gui COFFEY'S DISTOLLING APPARATIOS. Great Britain and Ireland. 31 intermediate between 212° and 172°; the boiling point being higher or lower, as the proportion of water in the mixture is greater or smaller. 3. When the steam of water is thrown into, or blown through a liquid composed of water and alcohol, this steam will be condensed until it has given out heat enough to raise the mixture to its own boiling point, after which a portion of alcohol is volatilized and thrown off in vapour, by the further application of steam to the mixture. 4. When a mixture of steam and alcoholic vapour is blown through a liquid composed of water and alcohol, similar effects are produced; for, after the liquid mixture has ‘arrived at its boiling point, the vapour blown through it lets go some of its watery part, or steam, and an equivalent quantity of alcohol is volatilized, and the mixed vapour, after passing through the liquid, carries off a larger pro- portion of alcohol than it brought with it. 5. When a mixture of steam and alcoholic vapour passes into a condenser, or worm, the vapours first condensed will contain more than a mean proportion of steam, or watery vapour; and, if the size of the condenser, or worm, be not sufficient, or the temperature of the bath in which it is. immersed ‘be too high to condense all the vapour, that portion of it which escapes uncondensed will contain more alcohol than the portion condensed. Requesting our readers to keep these premises in mind, we shall now proceed to the description of Mr. Coffey’s apparatus, in which, as we have already said, they are all. brought into action. The body of the apparatus consists of an oblong vessel, BB’, and two columns erected thereon, C,D,E,F, and G,H,1, K,. The first of these columns is called the analyzer, the second the rectifier. The whole is made of wood, lined with copper, and the wood being five or six inches thick, little or no heat is lost by radiation. The oblong vessel has a copper plate or diaphragm c d’ across the middle of it, which divides it into two chambers BB’. This diaphragm is perforated by a great number of small holes, for the passage of the vapour upwards during 32 On the Process of making Spirits in the process, and it is also furnished with several valves which open upwards as shewn at e, e, e, e, whenever the vapour is in such quantity as not to find a free passage through the perforations. A pipe V, V, descends from this diaphragm nearly to the bottom of the lower chamber B, intoa pan forming a steam trap, and there is a valve on the top of this pipe which can be opened or shut at pleasure, by means of a rod ¢, passing through a stuffing box on the top of the vessel. Glass tubes at x, x, shew at all times the level of the liquor in the chambers BB’. The column C, D, E, F, which is called the analyzer, consists of twelve chambers f f ff f formed by the interposi- tion of eleven copper diaphragms gh gh, &c., similar to the large diaphragm c, d, that is to say, these eleven dia- phragms are perforated with very numerous holes, and furnished with valves opening upwards. To each of them is also attached a dropping pipe p pp, &c., by which the liquor is allowed to flow from plate to plate; the upper end of each of those pipes projects an inch or two above the plate in which it is inserted, so as to retain at all times dur- ing the distillation, a stratum of wash of that depth on each diaphragm ; the lower end of each pipe dips a little way into a shallow pan lying on the diaphragm underneath, forming thus a steam trap by which the escape of vapour through the pipe is prevented. The pipes are inserted at alternate ends of the diaphragm as shewn in the figure. The column G, H, I, K is divided, in a similar manner to that just described, into chambers by interposed copper plates or diaphragms. There are 15 chambers in this column, the lowermost ten kk k &c., constitute the rectifier, and its diaphragms are perforated and furnished with valves and dropping pipes, precisely similar to those of the analyzer. The uppermost five of these frames form the finished spirit condenser, and are separated from the other ten by a copper sheet, or diaphragm, without small perforations, but having a large opening at W for the passage of the spirituous vapour, and a dropping pipe at S. There is a neck about the opening W, rising an inch or so above the surface of the diaphragm, which prevents the return of any finished spirit by that opening. Great Britain and Ireland. 33 Under the dropping pipe S, is a pan much deeper than those of the other dropping pipes, and from this pan a branch pipe y passes out of the apparatus, and carries the condensed, but still very hot spirits, to a worm, or other refrigerator, wherein they are cooled. The chambers 'k'k' 2?’ of this finished spirit condenser, are formed of plain unperforated diaphragms of copper, with alternate openings at the ends, large enough both for the passage of the vapour upwards, and of the condensed spirit downwards; the use of these diaphragms being merely to cause the vapour to pass along the pipes m m in a zig zag direction, and to be thus more perfectly exposed to their condensing surface. In every chamber, both of the finished spirit condenser and of the rectifier, there isa set of zig zag pipes, placed as shewn in the plan, figure 2, each set of these pipes is connected with the others by the bends Z//1, and they thus form one continued pipe m m, leading from the wash-pump Q to the bottom of the rectifier, whence it finally passes out at N, and rising up, enters the top chamber of the ana- lyzer, where it discharges itself at 7’. M is the wash charger, L a smaller wash vessel con- nected with it and with the wash pump, this vessel is called the wash reservoir, and is not strictly speaking, a necessary part of the apparatus ; its use is to retain a sufficient reserve of wash, to prevent the apparatus being idle during the delay, which the Excise regulations render unavoidable, between the emptying of the wash charger, and the re- filling it from a new back. The pump Q is worked continuously during the distilla- tion, so as to supply the apparatus with a regular stream of wash. It is so constructed, as to be capable of furnish- ing somewhat more than is necessary, and there is a pipe x with a cock on it, by which part of what is pumped up ‘may be allowed to run back, and the supply sent into the apparatus regulated. A is a steam boiler having nothing peculiar in its con- struction, the steam from it is conveyed into the bottom of the spent wash receiver by the pipe 6, which, after entering the receiver, branches into a number of smaller pipes per- forated with holes, by which the steam is dispersed through VOL. III. D 34 On the Process of making Spirits in every part of the wash in which they are immersed. These perforated pipes are not shewn in the drawing. Mode of action—When commencing an operation, the wash-pump is first set in motion to charge all the zig zag pipes m m m, until the wash passes over into the analyzers atx’. The pump is then stopped, and the steam let into the bottom of the apparatus by the pipe 6 6. The steam passes up through the chambers B B’, and by the pipe z into the analyzers, from whence it descends through i to the bottom of the rectifier at N. It then rises through the chambers kk, enveloping the zig zag pipes, and rapidly heating the wash contained in them. When the attendant perceives, by feeling the bends Z/ J, that the wash has been heated in several layers of these pipes, perhaps, eight or ten layers, (but the number is not of much moment,) he again sets the pump to work, and the wash now boiling hot, or nearly so, (and always in rapid motion) flows from the pipe m at n', and passes down from chamber to chamber through the dropping pipes, in the direction shewn by the arrows in a few of the upper cham- bers. It may be here observed, that no portion of the wash passes through the small holes perforated in the diaphragms which separate the chambers. These holes are regulated both in number and size, so as to be not more than sufhi- cient to afford passage to the vapour upwards under some pressure. The holes, therefore, afford no outlet for the liquor, which can only find its way down in the zig zag course indicated by the arrows. It is, therefore, obvious, that the wash as it passes down is spread into strata, as many times as there are diaphragms, and is thus exposed to the most searching action of the steam constantly blowing up through it. As it descends from chamber to chamber, its alcohol is abstracted by the steam passing through it, agree- ably to the 3rd and 4th preliminary principles we have laid down, and by the time the wash has reached the large chamber B, it is in the ordinary course of the operation, completely deprived of its alcohol. The wash as it descends from the analyzer accumulates in the upper large chamber B’, until that chamber becomes nearly filled, which, when the attendant perceives:to be the case, by the inspection of the glass tube, he opens the valve Great Britain and Ireland. 35 of the pipe V, and discharges the contents of B’ into B; then shutting the valve, the wash from the analyzer again accumulates in B’, and, when it is asecond time nearly full, the contents of the lower chamber B are discharged from the apparatus altogether, through the cock N, and the charge in B' let down into B, by opening the valve as be- fore, and thus the process goes on so long as there is any wash to supply the pump. When all the wash is gone, a quantity of water is let into the reservoir L, and pumped through the pipes mm, to finish the process and obtain the last portions of alcohol. This winding up of the operation by sending water through the pipes, takes place on the distillation of every back of wash, in consequence of an Excise regulation, which requires the distiller to keep the produce of each back separate from that of any other. Were it not for this regulation the distillation would go on uninterruptedly, so long as there was any wash in stock; the addition of water for winding up would be necessary but once during the distilling period, and the manufacturer would save much time and fuel at present wasted by these interruptions. It has been already said, that in the ordinary course of the operation, the wash is stripped of all its aleohol by the time it has reached the bottom of the analyzer, but, asa precautionary measure, the chambers B’ B have been su- peradded, in each of which the spent wash is exposed for about half an hour to the action of the steam blowing through it. There is a small apparatus (not shewn in the engraving) by which a portion of the steam in the chamber B’ is con- densed, cooled, and made to flow constantly through a sample jar, in which is an hydrometer, or, what is better, two glass bubbles, one of the specific gravity 1000, the other 998. The attendant knows all is right when these bubbles, or even the lightest of them, floats in the sample. And thus, the chamber B may be emptied without any risk of loss. The course of the wash being understood, that of the steam will require very little description. The steam, as it rises, is first blown through the charges of spent wash in the chambers B’ B, thence it passes up through the layers of wash on the eleven diaphragms of D2 36 On the Process of making Spirits in the analyzer. In its passage it abstracts from these layers of wash their alcohol, depositing in its place an equivalent quantity of water. After traversing the whole of the ana- lyzer, the vapour, now containing much alcohol, passes by the pipe 77, into the bottom of the rectifier, and, as it ascends, it envelopes the pipes mm, heating the wash, and, at the same time, parting with its more watery portion, which is condensed, and falls, in a boiling state, on the several diaphragms of the rectifier. By the time the vapour reaches the passage W, in the bottom of the finished spirit- condenser, it is nearly pure alcohol, and, as it is condensed by the wash in the pipes, and falls on the diaphragm, it is conveyed away by the pipe y to a refrigerator. At the top of the spirit condenser is a large pipe, R, which serves as a vent for the incondensible gas which is disengaged in the pro- cess, and this pipe also communicates with the refrigerator, so that, should vapour at any time be sufficient to pass out of the apparatus, no loss is sustained beyond the waste of fuel caused by condensing that vapour by the water of the refrigerator instead of the wash of the condenser. The liquor condensed on the several diaphragms of the rectifier, after being blown through by the vapour passing up from plate to plate, descends to the bottom in the same manner as the wash descends from chamber to chamber in the analyzer; but this condensed liquor still contains a portion of alcohol, and it is conveyed by the pipe S to the pump Q, by which it is pumped up with the wash to be again distilled. A thermometer at m' shews the attendant the temperature of the wash as it issues from the pipe m m, into the ana- lyzer, which is the only guide he requires for managing the operation ; for, when the temperature is what it should be, nothing can go wrong in the work. Whenever the ther- mometer indicates too high a temperature more wash should be let into the apparatus, and vice versa ; the quantity being regulated by the cock on the pipe n. It would seem, how- ever, that very little nicety is requisite on this point. The attendant finds by experience that the fluctuation of a few degrees above or below the proper heat is of little conse- quence; and, we observed, that he very seldom found it necessary to alter the supply of wash. Great Britain and Ireland. 37 The water for supplying the boiler passes through a long coil of pipe immersed in the boiling hot spent wash, by which means it is raised toa high temperature before it reaches the boiler. It will be seen that the vapour passing through this apparatus is all condensed by the wash, not water; and, therefore, no heat is wasted, as in the common process. The consequence of this is, that about three- fourths of the fuel used with the common stills is saved, a matter of very important consideration, in a national point of view. According to the common process, it requires 12 lbs. of coals to distil a gallon of proof spirits,* of which, as we have said, 9 lbs. are saved by the new system; and, assuming the whole quantity of spirits distilled in the empire to be 36,000,000 gallons, which (colonies included) we believe is not over the mark, the saving of fuel arising from the new methods of distilling, which, no doubt, will be soon uni- versally adopted, will amount to 140,000 tons of coal per annum. Our Continental readers have no idea of the enormous size of some of the distilleries of the United Kingdom. The apparatus of Mr. Coffey, at Inverkeithing, of which we have given a description, distils 2000 gallons of wash per hour; and one which he has subsequently erected at Leith, for the same proprietors, upwards of 3000 gallons per hour. There are several of equal magnitude; and we have seen a state- ment, which we have reason to rely on, which shews that those now erected, or being erected, are of capacity to distil half a million of gallons of wash per day. This wash yielding, on an average, from 11 to 12 per cent. of proof spirits. Articze III. Alcohol and its Compounds.+ 1. AtpEnypDE, (from alcohol dehydrogenatus,) may be pre- pared by passing vapour of ether through a long glass tube ° When the coals are of the best quality, the furnaces scientifically constructed, and when strong wash is used, a gallon of spirits can be distilled with much less than 12 Ibs. of coals; but we have good reason to believe the average consumption 78 not less than that. + Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. lix. 289. ' 38 Aleohol and its Compounds. filled with pieces of glass heated to redness. The product, according to Liebig, is aldehyde, an inflammable gas, and water, with a slight deposit of charcoal. By passing this product into a vessel, half filled with ether, the alde- hyde is retained in solution. If ammonia, passed through a tube filled with fused potash and quicklime, is allowed to saturate the ether, the sides of the vessel are speedily covered with brilliant crystals, which are compounds of aldehyde and ammonia. Aldehyde may be also procured by distilling four parts of spirit of wine, six parts peroxide of manganese, six of sulphuric acid, and four of water. The receiver must be kept very cool, as aldehyde is extremely volatile. The process should be stopped whenever the pro- duct becomes acid, which happens when six parts have come over. This product mixed with its weight of chloride of calcium, is distilled to three parts. The three parts are again rectified with their own weight of the chloride, when the resulting product is free from water and alcohol. It should then be mixed with twice its volume of ether, and saturated with a stream of ammoniacal gas, taking care to cool the receiver and to place between the vessel supplying the ammonia, and the ether vessel, a safety jar, so as to avoid the danger from the rapid absorption: Crystals speedily appear, which, when purified by ether, consist of ammo- nia and aldehyde, and are termed by Liebig, ammonial- dehyde. The same compound may be obtained by passing chlorine through dilute alcohol, distilling and rectifying over chloride of calcium, and saturating with ammonia. A considerable quantity of aldehyde is also formed by the action of spongy platinum upon the vapour of alcohol, as ascertained by Dobereiner. Aldehyde is easily prepared, from its ammoniacal combination, by dissolving two parts of the compound in its weight of water, and heating it, mixed with three parts of sulphuric acid and four of water, in a retort over a water-bath. The product is hydrous aldehyde, which is rectified over chloride of calcium. It is necessary to cool the vessels when these two substances are brought in contact; because, much heat is disengaged, and the aldehyde boils, when re-distilled, at a temperature of 86°. It is a colourless liquid, limpid like water ; very volatile; sp. gr. "790; boiling point, 71°4 at 28°82; smell ethereal Alcohol and its Compounds. 39 and peculiar. When its vapour is respired the power of breathing the air for some seconds is lost. It mixes in all proportions with water. It inflames readily. When mixed with spongy platinum, acetic acid is formed. It dissolves sulphur, phosphorus, and iodine, but without altering them. chlorine and Bromine are converted into muriatic and Htydro-bromic acids. With nitric acid, acetic acid is formed ; with potash a reddish-brown resin is formed, which Liebig designates by the awkward name of Aldehydharz. When aldehyde is heated with water and oxide of silver, the latter is reduced, and covers the inside of the tube with a metallic coat. Aldehyde consists of Carbon . . . 55°024 Oxygen. . . 35°993 Hydrogen . . 8983 The density of its vapour is, by experiment, 1°532, which corresponds with 2 vols. vapour of carbon . . °8333 = 1°5 2 ay hydrogen . ‘1388 = °25 3 E oxygen . . ‘9005 = 1: 1-5276 215 Liebig gives its formula C+ H® O. Ammonialdehyde crystallizes in acute rhombohedrons. The crystals are colourless, possess a hardness equal to sugar, and a smell like that of ammonia and turpentine; they are volatile; inflammable; melt between 158° and 176°. They have an alkaline re-action; they dissolve readily in water, with greater difficulty in alcohol, and with difhiculty in ether. With the acids and alkalies they act like aldehyde and consist of Carbon . . . 89°700 Oxygen. . . 25°969 Azote seid i) See2reeF Hydrogen . . 11°342 100-000 This is equivalent to 1 atom aldehyde, C? H* O = 2°75 l atom ammonia N H3 = 2°125 1 atom ammonialdehyde . 4°875 Inflammable Gas.—The gas which comes over with alde- 40 Alcohol and its Compounds. hyde burns with a clear flame. It consists of carbon, 82°3 ; hydrogen, 17:6. When heated with perchloride of antimony (readily formed by passing chlorine through fused butter of antimony) olefiant gas was condensed in the form of the well-known oily chloride, and the remaining gas possessed all the pro- perties of carburetted hydrogen. The products of the distillation of alcohol, sulphuric acid and peroxide of manganese, are carbonic acid, formic acid, acetic acid, aldehyde, and traces of ether. With spongy platinum alcohol is converted into acetal, aldehyde, acetic acid, and acetic ether. Resin of Aldehyde is formed by the action of potash upon aldehyde. When the latter is introduced into a liquid containing aldehyde, a brown colour is produced, and speedily brown flocks fall, when a weak acid or water is added. They consist of carbon, 73°340; oxygen, 18-900; hydrogen, 7°759. Aldehydic Acid.—When oxide of silver is heated with a solution of aldehyde a soluble salt is formed, which is not an acetate, and is permanent when evaporated. ‘This salt, when mixed with barytes water, is decomposed, giving off oxide of silver, and, when heated with the salt of barytes formed, produces pure acetate of barytes, and no other products: the oxide of silver being completely reduced. A similar result is obtained by the action of ammonialde- hyde upon oxide of silver. From Liebig’s experiments it appears that the formula of aldehydic acid is, C+ H3 O2, and, therefore, a true acetous acid; the composition of acetic acid being C+ H? O%. He considers the lampic acid of Daniell to be identical with aldehydic acid. The combinations may be explained in two ways, according to Liebig : Ist, Aldehyde may be considered as alcohol deprived of an atom of hydrogen, and alcohol as a hydrate of ether; or, 2nd, Aldehyde may be a deutoxide of binolefiant gas. The formule will, therefore, be, Ist, Unknown compound of carbon and hydrogen . . . . . C4 H3 Aided oe CH Bs Oa BO Aldehydic acid. . . . . . C+ H? 02 + HO Hydrous acetic acid . . . . C+H3 O03 + HO Alcohol and its Compounds. 41 2nd, C+ H* + O oxide of binolefiant gas. C+ H4 + O2 aldehyde. C+ H* + O8 aldehydic acid. C+ H4 + O* hydrous acetic acid. Artic.e IV. On the Action of Flashes of Light upon rapidly Rotating Disks. By Caries Tomuinson, Esq. Proressor Wueatstoneg, I believe, first announced the beautiful fact ‘‘ that a rapidly moving wheel, or a revolving disk on which any object is painted, seems perfectly sta- tionary when illuminated by the explosion of the electric jar.” This experiment is adduced by Mr. Wheatstone, to shew that the duration of electric light embraces a point of time so extremely minute that the revolving wheel, or disk, has not time to pass through any perceptible space, and that, therefore, it appears, during the illumination, stationary ; I find, however, that the effect is not confined to electricity, but may be produced by any very sudden flash of light. Of the disks that I employed I need only mention two: The first, six inches in diameter, was divided into sixteen parts, painted, alternately, red and black; on the second disk, of the same size, were painted in large characters the words, AT REST, on white ground. Both disks were connected with a small multiplying arrangement. The effects can be produced with phosphuretted hydrogen, exhibited in bubbles from phosphuret of lime, in water, When the bubbles come up slowly without interrupting each other, both disks appear stationary during rotation ; but when the bubbles come up too quickly, the black and red spaces exhibit a dancing sort of motion, and sometimes two black spaces seem joined into one, to the exclusion of the intervening red, and vice versa; so also with the second disk, the words cross each other in various directions when the flashes of light interfere with each other ; and, in both cases, confusion is, of course, excited when an impres- sion is made on the retina before succeeding impressions have departed. Similar confused effects are produced with 42 Mr. Tomlinson on the Action of a stream of electricity instead of the discharge; as also by the rapid succession of sparks from a magnet, but in any case when the flash of light is distinct and sudden, the effect is complete. Soap bubbles, blown with hydrogen or the mixed gases, and fired by means of a filament of cotton passed through a small tube, and wetted with alcohol; gunpowder, done up in the form of a boy’s cracker; fulminate of mereury struck on an anvil, may all be successfully employed. These experiments were performed in a darkened room, not of necessity, but the results are best observed in this manner. In Mr. Wheatstone’s experiment, the presence of light, either natural or artificial, does not interfere with its success. The experiment may be made to succeed by the flame of alamp or candle. In order to effect this I employed a disk of pasteboard, twelve or thirteen inches in diameter, with a narrow slit cut out, extending from the centre nearly to the circumference, and connected with a multiplying arrangement. The light of the lamp was condensed by a lens, and thrown upon the back of the slitted disk, and the black and red disk placed in the front of the former, so as to receive a flash of light from the lamp every time the slitted disk performed one revolution. On causing both disks to revolve, the black and red spaces were dis- tinctly brought out, assuming, however, a curved form. But, eakanict the most convenient method of producing this phenomenon, is to stand behind the slitted disk, while in front of it, at the distance of two or three feet, the radi- ated disk is made to rotate. On rotating the slitted disk the effect is very complete. The radii are, however, curved either upwards or downwards, according as the eye of the observer is above or below the axis of the disk, except the radii which, for the time being, are vertical to the axis above and below, and these are not curved. This effect takes place when the disks are revolving in the same direc- tion. The order will be inverted, if the disks move in opposite directions; a change also will take place in the direction of the curvature of the radii, according to the angle at which the eye is placed. This experiment is somewhat analogous to one by Dr. Flashes of Light upon rapidly rotating Disks. 43 Roget, ‘‘ when a carriage wheel, rolling along the ground, is viewed through the intervals of a series of vertical bars, such as those of a palisade, or of a Venetian window blind. Under these circumstances, the spokes of the wheel, instead of appearing straight, as they would naturally do if no bars intervened, seem to have a considerable degree of curva- ture.”—(Phil. Trans. 1825.) It was found that ‘‘ the velocity of the wheel must not be so great as to prevent the eye from following the spokes as they revolve.” So that Dr. Roget’s experiment relates simply to the curvature of the spokes of a wheel seen through a narrow aperture; and he accounts for this fact by assuming the deception to arise from separate parts only of each spoke being seen at the same moment ; the remain- ing parts being concealed from view by the bars. He also found that ‘‘ when the disk of the wheel, instead of being marked by a number of radiant lines, has only one radius marked upon it, it presents the appearance, when rolled behind the bars, of a number of radii, each having the curvature corresponding to its situation, their number being determined by that of the bars which intervene between the wheel and the eye. So that it is evident that the several portions of one and the same line, seen through the inter- vals of the bars, form on the retina, the images of so many different radii.” My experiment differs from that of Dr. Roget, inas- much, that the red and black disk may be made to revolve with very great rapidity, by which the black is lost to the eye, and the red alone reflected, slightly diluted with black. The effect of viewing this disk during rotation through the rotating slitted disk, is to decompose the former, and pre- sent the black and red spaces as distinctly as when at rest, except that the spaces are curved, and, under certain cir- cumstances, increased in number. If a white disk be employed, with a single black space passing from the centre to the circumference, and occupying about 20° of the latter, the effect will not be as in the case of the disk of the wheel with only one spoke giving the ap- pearance of acomplete wheel, asin Dr. Roget’s experiment, but the black space will be brought out in a curved form, and sometimes divided into two. 44 On Madder, and If a disk, composed of two semi-circles, one white and the other black, be viewed, while in motion, from behind the revolving slitted disk, the diameter of the disk will vibrate on both sides, the centre being fixed; the white gaining upon the black and the black, upon the white, and so on, alternately. The cause, then, of the appearances detailed in the first part of this paper, is the same as in Mr. Wheatstone’s experiment, the light comes and goes before the disk has time to move through any sensible space; but, in the experiments where the light of a lamp flashes upon the painted disk through the slitted disk, or where the eye is placed behind the slitted disk, the duration of the light is greater than the electric light, or than that from phosphu- retted hydrogen, &c.,and the disk does pass throughasensible space. Now, as the circumference of the disk moves quicker than the centre, that is, the velocity decreases from the circumference to the centre, a black space, for example, seen at one point of the circumference, will have moved through several degrees as the slit passes the eye; while, at or near the centre, the space gone through is barely appreciable. This, together with the persistance of impres- sions on the retina, added to that which is said above, will, I think, account for the revival of the radii, as also for their curvature; and the rapid succession of black and red spaces will account for the apparent increase in their number. If the distance between the two disks be considerable, fourteen or fifteen feet, for instance, the curvature of the radii will be corrected, and their number will not be aug- mented; because, a full view of the disk is thus obtained, and the relative velocities of the centre and circumference compensated by an impression of the whole of the disk being formed upon the retina. Salisbury, 18th November, 1835. ARTICLE V. On Madder, and Madder Dyeing. (Continued, from vol. ii. page 457.) Characters of Madder-Purple.—When cautiously heated in a glass tube, madder-purple melts into a dark-brown viscid Madder Dyeing. 45 liquid, from which a vapour proceeds, which does not collect in the form of needles, but as a brown-red, viscid, mass on the sides of the glass. By the addition of more heat it may be driven along the tube, but is then covered with carbonaceous matter; so that the sublimed madder-purple cannot be again sublimed without decomposition. It colours alum, and iron mordanted cotton, as well as madder-purple ; and its solution in caustic potash presents a cherry-red colour. In completely pure water, madder-purple forms, with the addition of heat, a dark, pink-coloured solution. In cold water it is little soluble. A hot solution, when cooled, de- posits no flocks. Acids change the pink solution to a yel- low colour. In well-water, or water containing lime, the madder- purple dissolves at first; but a portion combines with the whole lime, and precipitates in the form of a dark-red gum. The colours to be produced by madder-purple must be com- municated by means of water, perfectly free from lime, else the loss of colouring matter will be very great. Spirit, alcohol, and ether, dissolve madder-purple very readily, and form orange-yellow solutions. After the evaporation of the liquid, the madder-purple remains, in the form of a bright, orange-yellow, crystalline powder. When water is added to a hot, concentrated solution of madder-purple, in spirit, a quantity of silky crystals is sepa- rated, which swim in the solution. Dilute acids, at the boiling temperature, dissolve madder- purple, forming a yellow solution; on cooling, it separates in the form of orange-yellow flocks. Ammonia forms, with madder-purple, a beautiful bright- red solution, which, when printed upon unmordanted cotton, and, after drying, being washed in hot water, leavesaclear pink colour. When printed upon cotton with alum mor- dant, and washed in boiling water, a clear red is obtained. Solution of potash dissolves madder-purple, forming a fine cherry red-coloured solution, and gives, upon unmor- danted cotton, after clearing with hot water, a pink colour. On mordanted cotton a saturated dark-red colour is ob- tained in the same circumstances. The solution of madder-purple, in spirit, imparts to un- mordanted cotton a pink colour, which is reddened by 46 On Madder, and alkalies. Cotton impregnated with the alum mordant pro- duces, ata boiling temperature, a different colour according to the quantity of purple added: One part purple to 16 cloth affords a dark reddish-brown sf 3 st a saturated purple-red sy 7/80 nu a. saturated bright-red. Clay, ihe added to the liquid, modifies these valde and makes them brighter, and more of a scarlet shade, in con- sequence of the loss of colouring matter by the formation of ared gummy matter. When 240 parts clay are employed with 1 purple and 40 cloth, the shade is only half as dark as when no clay is used. The presence of chalk is decidedly injurious. When one part of madder-purple is boiled with one part chalk, ina great quantity of water, no precipitate is formed, but a bright-red solution is produced. Presently a red gummy matter is deposited on the sides of the vessel. If the quan- tity of chalk is gradually increased, a point is attained where all the madder purple separates from the chalk, and is con- verted into red gum. The liquid has now lost its power of dyeing. The presence of chalk, in dyeing with madder, is . also prejudicial as with madder-purple. This effect is mo- dified in the case of madder-red, where the chalk combines by preference. With cotton which is oiled and mordanted for the recep- tion of the Turkey-red dye, the madder-purple does not produce a true Turkey-red. It possesses too much blue ; and, in order to acquire the first, it must be subjected to the usual clearing operations. Without this it is very light. With tin, lead, and iron mordants, the madder-purple produces colours which pass from red, through brown-red and brown, into blue. The colour with tin mordant is pink; with lead mordant, scarlet ; with copper mordant, red-brown ; and lastly, with iron mordant, viole¢. All these colours receive their full impress by the employment of a sufficiently strong mordant. By soap, carbonate of soda, and clay, neither the dark nor the bright red of the madder-purple is changed. Still, soap produces an injurious effect when an excess is employed. If the dark dye is boiled for a quarter of an hour with 1 part of soap, 3 cloth, and 240 water, the dye Madder Dyeing. 47 loses some of its lustre, and becomes brighter, while the soapy water is coloured red. The same effect is produced on the bright dye. Carbonate of soda, in the proportion of 1 part soda to 8 cloth and 240 water, acts advantageously when boiled for a quarter of an hour. With the dark colour the solution becomes slightly red, but on the bright colour no effect is produced. The shades are not perceptibly changed. Clay has no injurious effect upon either colour. If we take 1 part cloth, 3 clay, and 240 water, and boil for a quarter of an hour, the clay removes no colour, and the solution, atthe utmost, is only slightly tinged red. The shades are not perceptibly altered. From these results, it is obvi- ous that the combination of madder-purple with alumina forms the common madder-purple, or Turkey-red ; and that it also enters, as the principal constituent, into common madder-red. Soap, soda, and clay, rather tend to render the colour clearer. Light, also, after the action of a July sun for 60 hours, makes it brighter. Madder-red.—The discrimination of madder-red, and its separation from madder-purple, depend upon its insolubility in a strong alum solution. When madder has been washed according tothe process recommended forseparating madder- purple, if it be then boiled with alum solution, a brown-red precipitate separates, containing much madder-red. From the precipitate it may be separated by boiling the latter fre- quently with strong muriatic acid, washing it well, and treating it with boiling spirit of wine. This gives a dark- brownish red coloured tincture, which, after the evaporation of the acid, and cooling, deposits an orange-yellow precipi- tate. When washed with cold spirit it consists of madder- red, which is mixed with much madder-purple. The latter is separated by boiling it with a solution of alum, which is to be repeated as long as the liquid is coloured red. When both colouring matters have a resinous consistence, the action of the alum must be diminished, previously dissolving them in a little spirit, and then adding the alum solution. When the point is attained at which the alum solution re- mains colourless, and no more madder-purple is left, the yellow precipitate is to be edulcorated, dried, and dissolved in ether. The ethereal solution being evaporated, the ' 48 On Madder, and madder-red is obtained in the form of a brownish-yellow crystalline powder. Characters of Madder-Red.—These, as far as the dyer is concerned, are as follow: When carefully heated in a glass tube, madder-red melts into a dark orange-coloured liquid, and, leaving some charcoal, is driven off in the form of a yellow vapour, which condenses into bright orange- coloured needles. By additional heat, the sublimate may be driven along the tube without leaving any carbonaceous residue, so that the first sublimed portion is not decom- posed but is capable of a second sublimation. It colours alum and iron mordanted cotton, as well as madder-red itself. The red has more of a fire colour (mehr feuer) than that of the unsublimed portion. Sublimed madder dissolves in potash ley with a blue colour. In pure water the madder-red dissolves by heating, and forms a dark-yellow solution. It is difficultly soluble in eold water. A hot solution, on cooling, allows the madder- red to precipitate partly in the form of orange-yellow flocks. Acids change the dark-yellow solution inté a bright-yellow. In well-water, and water containing lime, madder-red dissolves with a purple-red colour, a blueish gum being formed. Portions of alum-mordanted cotton, therefore, exhibit no medium-red colour, but a dark, red-brown pur- ple colour; chalk acts in the same way, which affords a sufficient distinction from madder-purple. Spirits, aleohol, and ether dissolve madder-red, forming a reddish-yellow solution. After the evaporation of the solution a brownish-yellow crystalline powder remains. When water is added to a hot concentrated solution of madder-red in alcohol, a quantity of silky crystals separate, which swim in the liquid. Dilute acids dissolve madder-red, forming a yellow solu- tion. On cooling orange-yellow flocks separate. Ammonia forms, with madder-red, a beautiful purple-red solution, which, when printed on unmordanted cotton, and washed, after drying in hot water, leaves a dark-red colour without lustre. When printed (on cotton which has imbibed the alum mordant) and then washed in boiling water, a dull red is obtained. Potash ley dissolyes madder-red, producing a beautiful Madder Dyeing. 49 violeé-blue solution, which, by an excess of madder-red, passes into purple. For printing it gives no better results than the solution in ammonia. To unmordanted cotton the solution in spirits imparts a yellow rust colour. By printing with caustic alkalies, especially barytes, clear lilac colours are obtained, which have no permanence. To the aluminous mordanted cotton, madder-red imparts a dark-red colour, without brightness (feuer) and beauty. For 28 parts of cloth 1 part madder-red is sufficient for saturation. If more is used the colour is not darker, and the excess remains in the vat. The addition of clay is of decided benefit. It makes the colour considerably darker, and redder. The best proportion is to take 4th of the weight of the cloth, or, 132 parts clay, 1 madder-red, and 22 cloth. The addition of chalk to madder-purple is very injurious, but to madder-red is advantageous. If 1 part madder-red, and 1 part chalk, are boiled with a sufficient quantity of water, the solution previously yellow becomes dark purple-red; and 22 parts of alumed cotton acquire a colour which is brighter than that of the cotton saturated with madder-purple. More chalk, as, for example, about as much again, affords also a good piles In general, however, a greater quantity is injurious, as the colour becomes brighter than with | part chalk, and the gum which is formed is redder. This remarkable action of chalk upon madder-red explains the advantage which is gained by adding chalk in dyeing with certain kinds of madder.* In these it is evident that madder-red is the principal constituent. A remarkable distinction is thus also made between madder-purple and madder-red, viz. That the addition of chalk to the first is prejudicial. It is, therefore, necessary to determine the proportion of madder-red in the species of madder employed. Still more remarkable is the action of chalk upon madder- red in dyeing cotton which is oiled and mordanted for the Turkey-red dye. Without the addition of chalk the last acquires a dull, dirty, brown-red colour. With chalk a fine Turkey-red colour is procured, without clearing. When * See Schlumberger and Robiquet’s Explanation of the Effect of Calcareous Matter on Madder, Records of General Science, i. 207.—Epir. VOL. It. E 50 On Madder, and compared with the best Turkey-red it differs, in so far as that it does not present the pink or blueish mixture which madder-purple forms with the mordanted oiled cotton (ge- beizten oelkattun). When both shades, the scarlet-red and the purple-red, are found mixed in Turkey-red, there is then a double compound formed with the madder-purple, madder-red, and mordanted oiled cotton. The different shades may be mixed at pleasure; for, if we wish to give more scarlet, a little more madder-red should be added; if a greater tinge of purple is required, an addition of madder- purple will answer the purpose. It has been already remarked, under madder-purple, that 160 parts of oiled cotton will be dyed of a clearer, darker, and more complete colour, by | part of madder- purple, than the half, or 80, of common alum-mordanted cotton. With madder-red the proportion is still more im- portant. If weuse double the quantity of dye, viz. 44 oiled cotton, 1 madder-red, 1 chalk, we obtain a colour which is not so intense as a colour produced by 44 alum-mor- danted cotton, with a double portion of madder-red, where a considerable quantity of red gum is formed in the vat. With tin, lead, and copper mordants, madder-red affords ugly colours, viz. reddish-yellow, brownish-red, and brownish-violet. With iron mordant, however, by using a strong solution, and then washing the cloth, a beautiful lilac-violet colour is formed, which becomes very dark by the addition of chalk. It is the madder-red which forms the violet and Lilac colours obtained by means of Avignon madder and strong iron mordant. The violet of madder-purple is also fine, but it requires the employment of blue clay (blaue thon) which distinguishes it from madder-red violet. Hence, therefore, alumina is the proper mordant for madder-purple, while the last gives a beautiful red without addition. So is it the oxide of iron for madder-red in relation to lilac-violet, which distinguishes both in combination. Soap, carbonate of soda, and clay, act differently upon madder-red, according as it has been dyed with or without chalk. Cloth dyed without chalk is acted on by soap, in the proportion of 1 soap to3 cloth, becomes pale, and loses much of its lustre; while cloth dyed with chalk, even after ESE Madder Dyeing. 51 long boiling, loses scarcely any thing, although the soapy water is tinged reddish. Carbonate of soda, in the propor- tion of 1 to 8 cloth, acts upon both kinds of red advantage- ously. The red without chalk it makes slightly redder ; but it withdraws much colour, as the tinging of the liquid shews. The red with chalk becomes more vivid, the alkali scarcely extracting any colour. When 3 parts clay are boiled for a, quarter of an hour with | part of cloth in 240 water, no action takes place on either of the reds. The action of the sun in July, during an exposure of 60 hours, produces even less effect upon madder-red dyed with chalk than upon madder-purple red. Madder-red, when used as a dye, is characterized by its combination with alumina, in the absence of any additional substance, being a dull, useless colour; but when, on the other hand, clay or chalk is added, a fine saturated red is produced. Madder-orange.—The distinction of madder-orange, and its separation from madder-purple and madder-red, depend upon its little solubility in spirits. To separate the nadder- orange in a state of purity, a cold infusion (aufguss) of Alizari, at 59° F. should be prepared. The latter should be carefully eduleorated, washed well with pure water, then digested with eight times as much water, and macerated for 16 hours. The brown-coloured infusion should now be strained through muslin, and its place supplied by fresh water. This should remain for 16 hours in contact. with the alizari; it should then be strained and mixed with the first infusion. After four or six hours repose the liquid should be poured off from the sediment, and the madder- orange separated by filtering through fine paper. The liquid exhibits, on being stirred, a quantity of small crystals of madder-orange, which remain on the filter. These should be well washed with cold water, afterwards boiled with spirit, and the solution filtered while hot. From this solu- tion madder-orange precipitates on cooling, which is to be washed with spirit until it dissolves in sulphuric acid with a fine yellow colour (without mixture of red), When this. dye possesses still a reddish-colour, it is a proof that the orange is mixed with madder-purple, or madder-red. A still surer proof of the purity of the madder-orange is derived from the circumstance of its imparting a nankin colour, E 2 52 On Madder, and without a trace of red, to cotton impregnated with the tin mordant. Properties of Madder-Orange.—When heated in a glass tube, madder-orange exhibits the same characters as madder- purple, but, with this difference, that the vapours disen- gaged are yellow, and condense into a yellow-brown mass. If this is heated again, the same character is exhibited as with madder-purple; some charcoal is left. So that, also, in this case, the matter sublimed once, cannot be again sublimed without decomposition; in other respects it dyes cotton impregnated in the alum and copper mordants, as madder-orange itself. It forms also a yellow solution with sulphuric acid. Thus, three colouring matters in madder may be sublimed without undergoing any essential change, like indigo, when it is subjected to an equal temperature. By sublimation, alone, therefore, it is impossible to separate the three colouring matters. Alizarine must, therefore, be a mixture consisting of more than one substance. With pure water, madder orange, by the addition of heat, forms a yellow-coloured solution. On cooling, some depo- sition takes place. In cold water the colouring matter is little soluble. In well-water, or water containing lime, madder-orange, by the addition of heat, forms a reddish solution ; and its dyeing power will, in consequence, be diminished, or altogether destroyed, as the quantity of water is increased. Ether dissolves madder-orange readily. By evaporation it remains in the form of a bright-yellow crystalline powder. Cold spirit dissolves it sparingly; boiling spirit forms a bright-yellow solution, from which, on cooling, the greater part of the madder-orange separates. If water is added to a hot solution in spirit, small crystals separate, as with madder-red and madder-purple, under similar circumstances. Dilute acids form, with madder-orange, a yellowish- coloured solution; on cooling, the greater part separates. Liquid ammonia forms a red-brown solution, from which, on evaporating the ammonia, orange-yellow flocks separate. When printed on the alum-mordanted cotton a dull orange- colour remains, after washing in hot water. Potash ley forms, with madder-orange, a dark red-coloured Madder Dyeing. 53 solution, which changes by the access of light into orange. When printed upon cotton impregnated with alum-mordant the result is not superior to that with the ammoniacal solution ; 30 parts of mordanted cloth require for saturation only 1 part of madder-orange. It requires, therefore, the greatest quantity for saturation of all the madder dyes; madder-purple requiring only 16 and madder-red 22 of cloth for saturation. Madder-orange affords a clear combina- tion with cotton when it is quite pure. Hence, the addition of clay and chalk is injurious. When a certain quantity of clay is added with the cloth, the colour is brighter, but when the quantity is increased the colour becomes reddish orange. The remarkable action of the clay now points out the reason of its efficacy in dyeing with madder. With madder- red, clay strongly reddens its yellowish-red combination with alumina. Here the clay is the cause of the alteration, and while added in proper proportion, it prevents the direct brightening of madder-orange. The reason is that the clay has more affinity for the madder-orange than the alu- minous mordanted cotton: If we examine the clay em- ployed, we find that it has usually a bright orange-colour, and becomes, by digestion in caustic potash, as red as the madder-orange itself. In like manner, the dye solution employed is reddened by potash. The colouring matter is, therefore, disguised (zuriickgehalten) by both. But, since madder-orange gives a shade of yellow to the red colour of the madder-purple and madder-red, it is evident that the presence of clay makes the colour more red. The addition of chalk produces the same effect as with madder purple: If 1 orange, 30 cloth, and | chalk, are used, the colour will not be half so dark as without chalk. Much gum is thereby separated. The colour thus produced is more rapidly deteriorated by light than one which is formed without chalk. With copper mordant, an orange colour is formed. Cot- ton impregnated with the lead mordant, acquires a reddish rust colour, and iron mordanted cotton is coloured strongly nut-brown. With the tin mordant upon cotton a bright yellow-nankin is obtained. We can readily distinguish in the last dye, whether the madder-orange is free from madder- 54 On Madder, and purple or madder-red, as the tin mordant forms with these, reddish compounds. When boiled with soap, madder- orange is deteriorated. It loses its lustre, and becomes dull and reddish. Carbonate of soda (1 to 8 cloth) produces a similar, though less intense colour. In both cases, the solutions are coloured yellow. By boiling with clay, the orange loses some of its yellow lustre and becomes lighter. Light injures this colour. Exposure to a July sun for 60 hours, causes it to lose the half of its colour. A specimen dyed with chalk is deteriorated still more rapidly. From the preceding observations, it appears, that the best mor- dants for madder-orange as a dye, are alumina and oxide of copper. Madder-yellow.—The distinction of this dye chiefly de- pends upon its great solubility in water, and its want of disposition to combine with cotton dipped in a solution of alum. The Dutch madder, is especially, rich in madder- yellow. It may be separated by digesting 1 part of Dutch-madder with 16 water, boiling the solution after 12 hours, and mixing it with an equal volume of lime water. In 12 hours adark red precipitate is formed, which besides madder-yellow, contains the other constituents of madder, especially, madder-orange and madder-purple. To separate these, an excess of acetic acid is added to the precipitate, which dissolves the lime and madder-yellow, and leaves a red mass which is separated by filtration. The madder-yellow mixed with the acetate of lime is still ren- dered impure by the presence of some madder-purple. This is separated by boiling the solution with cotton im- pregnated with alum mordant, as long as it is coloured red or orange. A point is at last attained, where the cotton ~ acquires a bright rust colour, and the yellow liquid on eva- poration, leaves not a brown-red, but a bright yellow residue; the colouring matters are then completely separated. The yellow residue is now dissolved in spirit, and the madder- yellow precipitated from its solution, by means of an alco- holic solution of acetate of lead. A scarlet-red precipitate falls, which is to be edulcorated with spirit, then dissolved in water, and precipitated by sulphuretted hydrogen, by which means the madder-yellow is separated from the oxide of lead. Since, cotton impregnated with alum mordant acquires only a dull nankin colour, by the addition of Madder Dyeing. 55 madder-yellow, and is a very inferior kind of dye, its other properties may be omitted. The other constituents of madder require no attention here, because they are totally useless as dyes. But as they (especially Rubiacie acid) may interest chemists and botanists, an account of them will be reserved for Poggendorff’s Annalen. Criticism on Analyses of Madder.—No analyst has hitherto obtained any of the preceding colours in a pure state. All the substances described under the names of Extractive, Woody madder-red, Erythrodanum, Alizarine, red colour- ing matter of madder, pink colouring matter of madder, and Xanthine, were indefinite mixtures of madder-purple, madder-red, madder-orange, and madder-yellow. The extractive madder-red of Bucholz, is an extract formed by means of water and spirit ; it contains, therefore, such constituents of madder as are soluble in both. The madder-red of Kuhlmann, formed by precipitating an aqueous infusion of madder by means of sulphuric acid, contains both of the red colouring matters in madder, and besides madder-yellow which is also thrown down by sul- phuric acid. In Robiquet’s Alizarine obtained by sublimation from the carbonaceous matter of madder, madder-purple is finer than any of the preceding, but it is mixed with madder- red, as appears by the re-action with potash ley which is not pure cherry-red but purple red, from the mixture of blue which potash forms with madder-red. The two colouring matters which Gaultier de Claubry and Persoz have separated from madder, are mixtures, principally, of madder-red and madder-purple. One of them, termed the red principle, is separated by carbonate of soda in a hot solution, and precipitated by an acid. It isa reddish-brown matter with a splendent fracture. This is obviously a mixture of madder-brown and madder-yellow. But all the three pigments may be contained in this brown matter as carbonate of soda dissolves them very readily, and also takes up the madder root. The fact of its insolu- bility in alum shews the presence of madder-red. The second colouring matter, they term ¢he pink-red principle. 1t corresponds in many respects with madder- purple. Its action with solution of alum and sulphuric acid is the same, butits other characters, a compact mass with 56 Dr. Thomas Thomson on a fracture like a drop of gum, which by pulverization be- comes pink-red, shew that it is not madder-purple, which is an orange-yellow crystalline powder, dissolving in potash and forming a cherry-red solution; therefore, the violet colour described by Claubry and Persoz, indicates the in- termixture of madder-red. Under the name Xanthine or madder-yellow, Kuhlmann has described a constituent of madder, which from its properties must be a mixture of madder-orange and madder-yellow. It dissolves readily in water, and forms with mordanted cotton a Pomeranian yellow. This easy solubility indicates madder-yellow, and the Pomeranian colour the madder-orange, and was re- marked in separating the latter from madder-yellow, when brought in contact with cotton impregnated with alum. Madder-yellow so prepared, dyes no longer orange. The pure madder-purple was described by Runge in 1823. ( To be continued. ) Arricte VI. On the method of determining the proportions of Potash and Soda, when the two alkalies are mixed together. By Tuomas Tuomson, M.D., F.R.S. L. and E., &c., Regius Professor of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow. Ir is no uncommon thing to meet with minerals which con- tain both potash and sodaas constituents. This is the case, for example, with glassy felspar, couzeranite, kc. The method of separating the two alkalies from each other, in such cases, is that first pointed out by Dr. Wollaston. All the other constituents of the mineral being separated, the potash and soda are united to muriatic acid, or converted into chlorides of potassium and sodium. These chlorides being dissolved in water, are mixed with a solution of chlo- ride of platinum. The mixture is evaporated to dryness in a gentle heat, and then digested in a sufficient quantity of weak alcohol. The chloride of sodium, and any excess of chloride of platinum that may have been added are dis- solved, while the potassium-chloride of platinum remains undissolved. Separate it by the filter, wash it and dry it; the potash contained in the mineral amounts to ;;ths, or 0°23 Potash and Soda. 57 of the weight of this double salt. The weight of the potash being known, and likewise the weight of the two chlorides of potassium and sodium, it is easy to deduce that of the soda. . I consider the following method easier than this, espe- cially when the quantity of potash and soda to be separated is considerable, and I have found that young analysts learn very soon to employ it with accuracy. 1. Convert the mixture of potash and soda into sulphates, render these sulphates anhydrous by ignition ina platinum crucible, and determine their weight. Let it amount to 29 grains. 2. Dissolve the two sulphates in water, and throw down the sulphuric acid by chloride of barium. Wash the sul- phate of barytes obtained, dry it and weigh it after ignition. Let the weight be 43°5 grains, indicating 15 grains of sul- phuric acid. ; 3. Separate any excess of barytes that may have been added to the liquid by the cautious addition of dilute sul- phuric acid. Filter, evaporate to dryness and ignite. The salt thus obtained will consist of the mixture of potash and soda converted into chloride of potassium and sodium. Weigh this salt. Let the weight be 24-5 grains. Now, the atom of potash is 6, and that of soda 4: and it is obvious from paragraphs | and 2 that the mixture of potash and soda weighs 14. Let the atoms of potash in the mixture be z, and those of soda y, it is plain that we have 62+4y= l4andzez= 14-4y 6 By comparing paragraphs 3 and 4, it is obvious, that the weight of chlorine in the 24°5 grains of the mixed chloride obtained is 13-5 grains. For it must be equivalent to the 15 grains of sulphuric acid. In this mixed chloride the potash is converted into potassium, and consequently its atom weighs only 5, while the atom of sodium weighs 3. We have, therefore 5a + By + 135 = 245 and ¢ =v 5 If we equate these two values of « we have M4 — dy = 1 — 3y 6 5 58 Mr. Cooper on the Colours that enter into the By solving this equation, we obtain y=2. From which we deduce z= 1. Thus, it appears, that in the supposed mixture there were 6 grains of potash and 8 grains of soda. The numbers in the preceding example were made as simple as possible, that the nature of the process might be understood at a glance. But it may be worth while, for the sake of those analysts who are not familiar with alge- braic computations, to give a general formula, and then explain it by simple arithmetic. Let the atoms of potash be x a a ee y Let the weight of sulphates b a 43 of sulphuric acid 6 is 55 chlorides c s B chlorine d y=5a+ 6d—5b—6e 2 z=a—b—4dy 6 Add together five times the weight of the sulphates and six times the weight of the chlorine. From this sum, subtract five times the weight of the sulphuric acid and six times the weight of the chlorides. Divide the remainder by two; the quotient represents the number of atoms of potash in the mixture. This number multiplied by six gives the grains of potash present. If we subtract the weight of the potash from the weight of the mixture of potash and soda, determined by para- graphs 1 and 2, the remainder will be the weight of the soda present in the mixture, ArticLe VII. On the Number and Character of the Colours that enter into the Composition of White Light. By Pau. Coopsr, Esq. (Continued from vol. ii. p. 365.) Sir Isaac Newton proved, upon mathematical principles, that when a prism is fixed in the position in which the coloured image of the sun becomes stationary, and the re- Kgs ae NT 00 tne SEND AW after three 7YALL0Ms NN T after siz roflertons < DThamsens Raced Gf Ceroral Serene Vol Composition of White Light. 59 fracted light is suffered to fall perpendicularly on a screen, the figure of the image, if all the rays were equally refracted, ought to be round. Finding, then, by experiment, that this was not the case, and that the length of the image greatly exceeded its breadth, he concluded, that the rays of light are unequally refracted at the same angle of incidence. He says, that, ‘‘ By the mathematical proposition above mentioned, it is certain that the rays which are equally re- frangible do fall upon a circle answering to the sun’s appa- rent disque. Now, let A G, (Fig. 1.) represent the circle which all the most refrangible rays, propagated from the whole disque of the sun, would illuminate and paint upon the opposite wall if they were alone; E L the circle which all the least refrangible rays would in like manner illuminate if they were alone; B H,C J, D K, the circles which so many intermediate sorts would paint upon the wall, if they were singly propagated from the sun in successive order, the rest being intercepted ; and conceive that there are other circles without number, which innumerable other intermediate sorts of rays would successively paint upon the wall, if the sun should successively emit every sort apart. And seeing that the sun emits all these sorts at once, they must alto- gether illuminate and paint innumerable equal circles ; of all which, being according to their degrees of refrangibility placed in order in continual series, that oblong spectrum is composed which was described in the first experiment.” (Newton’s Optic’s, p. 31.) See Smith’s Optics, Article 174. Again he says, “ The solar image P T formed by the separated rays in the fifth experiment, did in the progress from its end P, on which the most refrangible rays fell, into which its end T on which the least refrangible rays fell, appear tinged with this series of colours; violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red, together with all their in- termediate degrees in a continual succession perpetually varying : So that there appeared as many degrees of colours as there were sorts of rays differing in refrangibility.”— (Newton's Optics, p. 106.) See Smith’s Opties, Art. 178. It is evident from these quotations, that Newton not only considered the different colours differently refrangible, which he very satisfactorily proved ; but, also, that each of the colours, into which he divided the spectrum, had innume- rable different degrees of refrangibility, and shades of colour ; 60 Mr. Cooper on the Colours that enter into the so that one colour, according to this hypothesis, ought to run imperceptibly into another. These views have, I believe, been adopted, both by the advocates of the material and the undulatory theories of light; and I am not aware that any question has arisen as to their correctness. But notwithstanding the high autho- rity upon which these opinions rest, and the general con- sent with which they have been received, there does not appear to me to be any sufficient foundation for them; with the exception of the continuous form of the spectrum, which may be otherwise accounted for, they derive no sup- port from the phenomena they are intended to explain ; and some of Newton’s experiments are so directly opposed to them, that I shall quote two of these experiments as the foundation of opinions precisely the reverse. He says, ‘“‘ Homogeneal light is refracted regularly with- out any dilation, splitting or shattering of the rays, and the confused vision of objects seen through refracting bodies by hetrogeneal light, arises from the different refrangibility of several sorts of rays. This will appear by the experi- ments which follow. Inthe middle of a black paper I made a round hole abouta fifth or a sixth of an inch in diameter. Upon this paper I caused the spectrum of homogeneal light described in the former article, so to fall that some part of the light might pass through the hole in the paper. This transmitted part of the light I refracted with a prism placed behind the paper, letting this refracted light fall perpen- dicularly upon a white paper two or three feet distant from the prism, I found that the spectrum formed on the paper by this light was not oblong, as when it is made by refracting the sun’s compound light, but was, (so far as I could judge by my eye) perfectly circular, the length being nowhere greater than the breadth; which shews that this light is refracted regularly without any dilation of the rays; and is an ocular demonstration of the mathematical proposi- tion before mentioned.”—(Newton’s Optics, p. 62.) See Smith’s Optics, Art. 176. The following experiment, mentioned by Newton, is still more decisive : ‘‘ A circular piece of white paper A, (fig. 2) about one inch in diameter, was placed before a black wall, and using Composition of White Light. 61 the two prisms mentioned in a former experiment, the paper A was illuminated at the same time with the red light from the one, and a deep violet light from the other. By this mixture the paper assumed a rich purple colour. The circle A was then viewed through a prism at some distance, and the appearance exhibited was two circles, R & V, the circle R, nearer to the paper being red, and the more remote one, V, violet. The prism in this case refracted the red and violet light, mingled in the circle A, through different angles; the red being least refrangible was removed to R, and the more refrangible violet light carried so far as V.— (See Popular Account of Newton’s Opties, published by the Society for the diffusion of Useful Knowledge, Section 29.) I am aware that Newton calls the light with which these experiments were made homogeneal; but, as it was sepa- rated from white light by the prism, in the usual manner, it could not have been so, more than the other part of the same colour from which it was taken, and with which it must have corresponded; if, then, one of the prismatic colours be homogeneal, the rest must be the same. If, in each colour, the different degrees of refrangibility were innumerable, no means could be adopted which would render any breadth of refracted light, however small, homo- geneous; but in the experiment last quoted, in which it does not appear that any particular precaution was taken with this view, the illuminated paper was an inch in dia- meter, and yet the action of the prism produced no elonga- tion, which must have been the case if the light employed had possessed different degrees of refrangibility. Several other experiments of Newton’s might be quoted in opposition to this part of his own theory; indeed, he so frequently neglects his particular views on this part of the subject, that if they were not so expressly stated at the com- mencement, it might be doubtful which side of the question he meant to support. Iam persuaded that many persons, who having derived their knowledge of optics from our popular treatises, which allude to this important distinction in a very cursory manner, are not aware of its existence ; so unnecessary is it to the explanation of the experiments usually given in these works, that its introduction would clog it with difficulties instead of removing them. 62 Mr. Cooper on the Colours that enter into the If we look to the spectrum itself, in the different stages of its developement, every appearance indicates one degree of refrangibility for each colour, and an uniformity in it throughout. Where, and in which of these stages, do we find that blending of colours which must necessarily arise from the superposition of innumerable circles of colours gradually differing from each other. So far from there being the slightest indication of this, every appearance is opposed to it; the two extreme colours, violet and red, preserve the same colour from their first appearance to their full deve- lopement; the blue and yellow are equally unchangeable throughout their different stages to their final disappear- ance; and the first line of green light, exhibited by the separation of the violet and red images, is of the same colour as when the image is fully developed. Now, all these appearances, would be very different if the spectrum were formed of innumerable circles differmg gradually in refrangibility and colour; the extension of the spectrum would withdraw these circles in succession, from the extreme colours; but beyond these, on both sides, the combinations would be of the most complicated character, and the developement of any distinct colours, except at the very extremities of the spectrum, would be impossible. If we direct our attention to the coloured fringes, which formed one of the subjects of my last paper, we shall find the most uniform appearance in the different colours; and as we have it in our power to produce a great breadth of these colours, by looking at distant objects through a prism, we cannot easily be mistaken in their appearance. It may be said, admitting there are only three colours, these colours, though uniform in other respects, may have different degrees of refrangibility. It must be confessed, that this hypothesis would be much more consistent with the appearance of the colours in the spectrum, and it would equally well account for its termination by two rectilinear and parallel sides; but the experiments of Newton, before quoted, are totally inconsistent with it. Newton has demonstrated mathematically, as well as experimentally, that circular bodies, whether luminous oF illuminated, preserve their round appearance when viewed through a prism, provided the light be homogenious; and Composition of White Light. 63 it is equally demonstrable, that with heterogeneous light, gradually and imperceptibly differing in refrangibility, the images of such bodies, formed in the same manner, must necessarily be elongated: the blending together of innu- merable circles, constantly separating, but which no dis- tance, within the limits of our experiments can separate, must produce images of this description. If, then, we can produce by means of the prism, circular images of circular objects, as in the experiments of Newton, whether in one or more colours, we may conclude, that the light by which these images are formed, taking each image separately, is homogeneous. The observations which I have here introduced, and va- rious other considerations, long since convinced me that, there are onlyas many degrees of refrangibility as there are colours; and these I have endeavoured to show, are limited to three; but in making experiments upon the absorbtion of the light of the sun, refracted by a prism, by means of coloured glasses, I discovered images of the lumi- nous body, which could not be thus accounted for; and, from their general appearance, it occurred to me, that these images were formed by rays of light which had under- gone various reflexions within the prism. In pursuing these and other experiments, particularly those mentioned at the close of my last paper, I discovered that the absorbtion of light by a coloured medium, when the quantities were varied in different experiments, was not in proportion to the quantity incident upon its surface, but that it bore a higher ratio in weak, than in strong light :* at least, what is sufficient for my present purpose, weak light is rendered invisible by an absorbing medium, which, under circumstances in other respects similar, transmits stronger light in quantities sufficient to form distinct images. Upon making this discovery, which in itself, perhaps, may be of little consequence, it struck me that the images before mentioned, if formed of reflected light, would be wholly absorbed by coloured media, while so much of the direct light might be transmitted, as would give correct images of the luminous body in the primitive colours. A great variety of experiments fully confirmed these views; and I have now no great difficulty, with a good * Tbis must be considered merely a hypothesis. 64 Analyses of Books. prism, in obtaining at the same time, circular images of the sun in red, green, and violet light, in positions agree- ing with the known difference in the refrangibility of these colours, perfectly free from any intermediate images. My method of making these experiments is, by suffering the direct light of the sun to fall on a prism, and then interpose such coloured glasses between the prism and the eye, upon which the spectrum is received, as are found best calculated to absorb the weak reflected images, and leave the primary images of sufficient strength to be dis- tinetly visible. The glasses which succeed best are a com- bination of blue,* violet, and yellow, or rather pale orange ; but as the intensity of the light of the sun is different at different times, the reflected images vary in strength, and different thicknesses of the coloured glasses are required to absorb them ; no combination of glasses can therefore be specified, which will at all times insure success. The greatest difficulty in making the experiment arises from the want of absorbing media, which will act distinctly upon the different colours; I have, however, made the expe- ment at least fifty times, and never attempted it, after the first discovery, when the sun was visible for a sufficient time, without succeeding. The red image is the most readily formed; next to this, the green; but the violet, although the orange glass gives such a complete command of this light, is sometimes attended with greater difficulty, and, to render the colour distinct, generally requires to be reduced to a faint image. The three circular images are separated considerably from each other, but not equally, the violet being much further removed from the green, than the green from the red: in the various experiments I have made, I have never observed the slightest difference in the arrangement I have now described. ( To be continued.) Articte VIII. ANALYSES OF Books. Outlines of Mineralogy, Geology, and Mineral Analysis. By Tuomas Tuomson, M.D., F.R.S., &c. 2 vols. London, 1836. THERE is not any more important result which has emanated from the discovery of the atomic theory than the demonstration that the * More properly, from the light they transmit, violet, and crimson, properly g y Analyses of Books. 65 mineral kingdom consists, not of a multitude of heterogeneous bodies, heaped together without any method, but that each mineral species which is met with on our globe, is formed of elements definitely com- bined; and that a cabinet of minerals ought to constitute part of every chemical museum, as essentially, as soluble and other salts which were formerly considered as distinct from the mineral king- dom. © This was easily proved, in reference to more simple minerals, whose elements were found to exist, combined in atomic proportions, both in artificial and natural salts. Thus, the atomic weights of sulphuric acid and lime being determined when entering into the composition of what were at first ascertained to be atomic compounds, it was but reasonable, on the occurrence of these bodies in a native state, to assign to their ultimate particles the same atomic weights. Accordingly, sulphate of lime has been found abundantly in a native state, in two states,—first, as Cal S1+2 Aq, and second, as Cal Sl. In both of these instances the atomic weights of the sulphuric acid and lime were preeisely the same as in the more familiar salts, sul- phate of soda, muriate of lime, &c. Having ascertained that this held good in regard to one or more minerals, chemists were induced to extend their researches over the field of nature. They gradually discovered that some bodies possess actions which they would have long looked for in vain, if they had neglected this delightful and varied field of investigation. They found that a mineral termed Table Spar, afforded, by the analysis of eight different specimens from different localities, always, the same quantities of silica and alumina,—about 51 parts of the former, and 45 of the latter. Another mineral, Picrosmine, gave by analysis, 56 parts silica and 36 magnesia. What, then, were the legitimate deductions to be drawn from these analyses? Was it not correct to say that the silica acted the part of acid to the lime and manganese, as did the sulphuric acid in the instances previously alluded to? Hence the formule for table spar and picrosmine, it has been inferred, are Cal S? and MgS2. ‘The discovery that silica acted as an acid, in simple combinations, was sufficient to entitle chemists to conclude that this important body continued to preserve its power of action in more intricate compounds, where several bases presented themselves, upon which it might exercise its agency. If, in the case of the table spar, an atom of iron had been present, we should have had Cal. S + FS; the formula would have been extended ; the composition would have been somewhat more intricate ; and, if we had a third atom of silica, as in tersilicate of lime, we might have had a third base united with the third atom of acid. And all this with as much propriety as there is in representing the composition of the more familiar salt, alum, by K Sl. + 3 Al Sl. + 25 Aq. To those who have occupied themselves with the important study of the mineral kingdom, we know that these observations are quite superfluous ; but they may properly be urged in answer to such as term the analysis of stones (as they sneeringly designate the labours of the analyst) an abuse of the atomic theory ; and they are pecu- liarly applicable in turning our attention to the new work on mine- VOL Ill. F 66 , Analyses of Books. ralogy and geology, whose title stands at the head of this article. The first volume consists of a description of 509 different species of minerals ; the greater proportion of which have been subject to an- alysis, either by the author himself, or under his superintendence ; and those, alone, can judge of the activity and enthusiasm with which, during the last ten years, these labours have been engaged in, who have been employed as fellow-workmen in the delightful, though arduous task. Before a properly arranged system can be formed, the elements of that system must be examined. Not only have the elements been scrutinized in the present instance, but they have been reduced into order, and of such a nature, as, we conceive, infinitely surpasses any which has been previously proposed. By the systems hitherto propagated the most dissimilar bodies have been associated. The classification of minerals, as of salts, should be simple, not complicated. The arrangement in the British Museum belongs to the latter class, and must be pronounced bad. The acids there distinguish the classes, and hence, the greatest confusion is produced ; for the salts of each base constitute as many classes as the base forms combinations with acids. Thus lead is found in combina- tion with at least seventeen different acids. These different minerals will, therefore, according to this arrangement, be deposited in seven- teen different places. The base, however, of a salt, gives character, generally, to all the bodies into which that base enters as an element ; the acid does not afford any such general character. If we class together the different sulphates, for example, we have bodies associ- ated of all hues and dyes ; but if we place the salts of copper in juxta- position, the merest tyro would instantly discover the propriety of such an arrangement. This is the plan which has been adopted in the present work. We shall give a short view of the arrangement, in a tabular form, with the symbols: CLASS I.—Acrp Basses. | IX. Antimony. St Cohus Symbols. Protoxide of antimony. st I. Carbon. C | Deutoxide of * st Carbonic acid. C /X. Chromium. Ch i II. Boron, B iz | Oxide of chromium ch Boracic acid. B | Chromic acid. Ch III. Silicon. XI. Molybdenum. M1 Buc, | Molybdic acid Ml IV. Phosphorus. Ph snc eat | XII. Tungsten. Tn Tungstic acid. Th XIII. Columbium. Cl Columbic acid. Cl : ages Sclenic.acids.. .Sel XIV. Titanium. Tt Phosphoric acid. Ph V. Sulphur. Sl Sulphuric acid. Sl VI. Selenium. Sel VII. Tellurium. T1 | Titanic acid. Tt VIII. Arsenic. As XV. Vanadium. Vn ~ Arsenic acid. As Vanadic acid. Vn Arsenious acid. As Analyses of Books. 67 CLASS II.—ALKALine BasEs. Genus. Symbols. I. Ammonia. Am II. Potash. K III. Soda. N IV. Lithia. L V. Barytes. Br VI. Strontian. Str VII. Lime. Cal VIII. Magnesia. IX. Alumina. Al 1. Pure, or combined with bases, 7 species. Mg . Double hydrous silicates, or zeolites, 39 species. . Triple aluminous salts, 15 species. 8. Quadruple salts. X. Glucina. G. XI. Yttria. Y XII. Cerium. Cr Protoxide of cerium. cr Peroxide of _,, cr XIII. Zirconia. Zr 1 XIV. Thorina. Th KV. fron. F Protoxide of iron. f Peroxide of ,, 1. Uncombined, or united to a simple substance. . a, Oxygen salts. b, Double oxygen salts. ce, Triple oxygen salts. 3. Sulphur salts. 2. Simple salts, 24 species. 3. Double anhydrous salts, 39 species. 4. Do. do. soluble in water, 3 species. 5. Do. do __ insoluble, 4 species. 6 ct i) XVI. Manganese. Mn Protoxide of do. mn Sesquioxide of do. mn Binoxide of do. mn 1. Combined with simple bodies 2. Oxygen salts. XVII. Nickel. Nk Oxide of nickel. nk XVIII. Cobalt. Ch Oxide of cobalt. cb XIX. Zine. Z 5 Oxide of zinc. zn XX. Lead. Pl : Protoxide of lead. pl Peroxide of lead. XXI. Tin. Sta Oxide of tin. sta XXII. Bismuth. Bs © Oxide of bismuth. bs XXIII. Copper. Cp ’ Red oxide of copper. Black oxide of copper. XXIV. Mercury. H XXV. Silver. Ag XXVI. Uranium. Ur Protoxide of uranium. ur Peroxide of ef or XXVII. Palladium. Pal cp rs CLASS III.—Nevurrat Basts 1. Gold. Au 2. Platinum. Plt 3. Iridium. I Of the 509 Species (by far the most complete Mineral List hitherto presented to the world) described under these heads, there are above 50 Species entirely new, which have been first analysed in the labo- ratory at Glasgow. These are: F2 atid 809-6 CBE 89-G 9&°G 8L:G GGG G8-G F9-% 99:1 GGG 6F-G OLE G8-G CGE SIL-€ 0S8-G O18-S 1c6-€ IVL-P 898-E O6L-F O€&1-9 * suistad popis-1no0y : * snormqiy : : yoeduio7y P 3° : ay . . . "aI suistid popts-1n0,J . , * soTeog : * govdm0g : * epnueinH . ‘ — - $081 : : * saTeog r * qooyrodury : . goedui0y : * — surersy * suistid poprs-1no 7 > wsrd onbyqg * — suorpayeoapog, = * snorq@y : : * soqvlq : poyeurmery sustid papis-x1g ; * peyeroy P2IBl[OT * qepnuei G6G:% prmeskd pepis-1n0,7 us ‘dg - *- by %&+9IV + 8 IN + cS 1807 fi: 29 26 = Dyes +e hr i we ; by + «9 (SW + 10+ N) + *SIVG Tee : ‘ sim +sst+siv t+ sre ae 5 Sty or Ps ae sara Se ae Roe cc fck . Whee Bc ae SIV Phe oe bvet hsive t SIV és * . . . . e by + SIVG& ; by fr + 8G + 8 + 0) + 8IVL ee S. 4 + byOet 18 ty ‘ ; . - twumt+ wzetivie ‘ose * S * = beedier nrg: ctore a suit+sivil+s3we+sset+ soz (8witui)tosG t+w8 + cso be yrare ~e Ssive+sra9 % . . . . . “O18 + OOD 25 OB Se ot SS Penede we tor ‘Soe St one Se 2 Roe © Se 7 staet+ Sug L 9446+ IS Ja “So S. ES SiS aa lero ap IS 44 §% + IS 120 2. 5 OFS Tg Oe ie ; by + S81 E ‘ : ' Seis le ; ’ : * wine Bpog Fz , : : * quoysodigy Ez : yours ssourSuvul UMOIg ZZ * BUIUINTe Jo azeorpIs19\eN~) [z : : ¢ * S#TUOSpIAB”’ 0G , ‘ b SSP TRIE ota: ayISAOny, QT Ppt snorpAFy ZT : : _ SIHed) OT BurUInye Jo ayeyding GL Sak Se ee Per ee “SUSaOoW EL emydiapesjog ZT A TN eT Senpuex OT sayAreq Jo oyeuoqred oarvoTeIg ¢G : ; * — aqTUOASRTTOMA, ‘ ueryUOTs Jo oeydns oarvopeg » ueTjUOIs Jo ayvydtns oy41eq 9g * sajAzeq Jo oyeuoq.ivo oyeyding : : ayopvo oyAIeg F * say4req jo oyeydyns-oarvopeg ¢ : Auowljue jo yoruasry z + ayzenb yoryed[ry €99-9 ° sustid Pepls-xIg . : : : . . $uA qd 6 + 10 Id . c : * peal jo ayeipeuvA [GS FEO-G Uorpayoquioyzasnyqg | ° : : : : : by + us y+ gumg gsouRSuvUl JO dzvdITIS snoulsniieg OG 98¢- ‘op enbrqo afqnog 5 : . . : . “oz + 19 uu ug} * - gsouvSuvul Jo ayeorpis-Inbsag GF FG8-g suustad onbryqo yy Sry : $ ‘ : : : . . . g uu : , * QSOULSULUL JO B4BIITIG QP 840-F wsrd aepnsuejzooy7 : 2 : : : * sy uur z+ by uu Ge” : z : * SRPMIN LV CI¢-E * : / ‘ : 3 ; : - bye + umg t uw ¢ | osaueSuvur jo oprxourqmnbsag snorpsyy OF TG-€ : * saqerq : : : “8 iui) Te +S IV - 3 g (um ey 5) 6 : : : ‘ * ansog CF FR8-E “Op paprs-anoyg |” , : ‘ Ss|° - — uorT Jo agvoryIs snorpAquy FP OLE-p wsyd orquioys 3y5ry SRS IPS Pag & pa PE ee ek Se Sao ep noe eo GF Sis =~ qatieotbnye a 2 Ss "Ss FES BSE 8 De Re es eo aes ab ee eee 298-S °° awmnuery | bY iG + oS SIN + *SFTL +,9 OE + SIV % SS Pl oS 2 eee 688G “ * saz j ay fe+sutsswmet+sset+tstve|: -° ° ° ° 2ntMdd OF S0LT * * gordmog | * ; : " sS3+ sSTOE + sSIVE ; ; ; ; * ayTOOS 6 1t6-G ; * snomqrg : j ; ’ by +*sivt+srotss| ° . . . * aUBMITy ge GOG-G * . ‘pie = 2 ples Sobyee + ee i+ swt -s8me : oe * — ayrMormmia., 4G 108 * —* aefnuery - + agGtne+ss@mt+roe+sive|* °° ° * smote of St aay: SuOT p = - + by ig+es@w + ro) + *tgI1ve : : ; R pe) LR So 00-G swstd repnSuejoay7 . . . . - byortess+-sivel ° . : : * aqyepouy FE F0:% . . youdutog ‘ . . . . by OL ae SJ ‘1 “SIV 9 A . . . . UN Ee 99T-% stustad repnSurqooy ; ; bye +29 (G+ N) +39 Gn + wel” ; ; : - onperng ze O15 ES Ref Aq) > ro 34 bye + es te Abas ys os ss aaonyeT Te LIG% ; * yordm0g ‘ . oe e+s(nitt+roht+usivel ° . : , a}UOWSuLARFT OE ISiP es PEA peey | * aidty, '- byig thew + sro} ° oo" 2° > ot SHROUD 6s 960% * * snoxqny aay bye *6-Ort +. Bot). * Pe Ss oe SSS > Oe es SARA > 3 T'S. ting F «> 5. a8 S Byori anit Rei ee eee apa Lz T¢0-g swistid repnSuvjzo0y ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘by+gs03+sivel ° : : : : aUxnNeZ OZ aa ‘dg 70 Analyses of Books. Such is a general view of the contents of the first volume. It commences with an introduction explanatory of the nomenclature of the external characters of minerals, and exhibiting a view of the system of crystallography adopted by Mohs, for the purpose of en- abling the English reader to consult Haidinger’s admirable transla- tion of Mohs’ works. The volume concludes with three’ tables, in the first of which are given the specific gravity, hardness, and form of the crystals of minerals, in the order of the chemical arrangement. The second affords a list of minerals arranged according to the spe- cific gravity, beginning with Scheererite the lightest ; and the third supplies a list of minerals in the order of their hardness. Mineralo- gists will at once appreciate the utility of these tables. The first 345 pages of the second volume are devoted to an outline of geology, and a valuable and complete table of the fossils, plants, and animals found in the mineral kingdom. The first chapter, on the Temperature of the Earth, is full of most important matter. In order to determine the state of the question in reference to the existence of a central fire, the author has collected all‘the observations that have hitherto been published on the tem- peratures, from the surface of the earth to the greatest depth that has been attained by man. From these it appears that, taking the mean of nineteen observations, there is an increase of 1° F. for every 50 feet of descent. This is the evidence which many bring forward for the existence of a central fire. The author, however, shews, that . according to the observations of Mr. Moyle, made during a series of years in Cornwall, the high temperature of these mines continues only while they are working. When they are abandoned they are soon filled with water, which remains stagnant, and the temperature gradually sinks, till it approaches that of the mean temperature of the place. 2. That the temperature of the earth is regulated en- tirely by the sun, for, the higher the sun is elevated above the horizon and the longer it continues above the horizon, the higher is the temperature. If the temperature increased 1° for every 50 feet, a descent of 12 miles, or a point by so much nearer the centre of the earth than the position of the equator, should afford a tem- perature, allowing for radiation, of 1200°. Now, this ought to be the temperature of the poles, because they are 12 miles nearer the earth’s centre than the equator. Their temperature is, however, — 13°, and hence, this seems a fatal argument to the notion of a central fire. But, although the idea of a central fire is not supported by the facts with which we are acquainted, it is not unlikely that an internal fire exists, which gives origin to those vast volcanic regions and earthquakes which are continually altering the aspect of the earth’s surface. If we were to consider this fire as approaching nearer the surface in some places than in others, we might have, perhaps, an explanation of the relative causes of volcanoes and earthquakes. The remainder of the geological portion is divided according to the formations, beginning at the surface. Many original observations are detailed, especially in reference to the geology of Scotland, where the occurrence of most remarkable alterations in the relative levels ef the sea and land is minutely detailed. The Glasgow coal beds Analyses of Books. 71 are accurately described. The annual consumption of coal in the Glasgow markets, it is stated, amounts to 870,000 tons. But one of the most curious facts detailed, is the discovery, by the author, of a bed of coal in basalt, near Dalry, in Ayrshire. This bed is 4 feet thick, and is situated some hundred feet below the summit of Beadlanhill, which is elevated 903 feet above the sea. Its specific gravity is 1:317. Colour brown; it is very hard. Burns with a lively flame, and leaves 25-77 per cent. of earthy matter. It contains vegetable impressions differing from any that have hitherto been described, as derived from the coal formation. ‘They appear to be fucoides.. The only other locality, where it is believed, coal has been found in basalt, is at Fairhead, in Ireland, but no fossils have been observed in it. The latter part of the second volume, consisting of above 200 pages is devoted to rules for the analysis of mineral substances, including stony.minerals, metallic alloys, and mineral salts. This portion of the work is worth the attention of geologists as well as mineralogists, as it must be obvious to every one, who casts his eye ove? the vague speculations of too many of our present geologists, that without the application of chemistry, mineralogy, and natural history, geology is but a name. Il.—The Agricultural and Horticultural Annual for 1836, §e. Simpkin and Marshall, London: Baxter and Son, Lewis, 8vo. THE object in projecting this publication was “ to record the expe- rience of the most practical men in their researches and experiments, and to collect what was valuable and new.” Accordingly we find, that this object has been completely fulfilled. An excellent selection of articles has been made from various sources, which affords a most gratifying view of the recent labours, of our farmers, gardeners, and botanists. We find besides, several useful original communications. A plan for securing corn ricks from mice, detailed by Mr. Jenner can- not fail to be acceptable to agriculturists. The rick should be built nearly perpendicularly and cut round about 2 feet high from the ground, slanting from the top to the bottom about 18 inches. The part that is cut is plastered over with mortar made of clay, and the whole white-washed. This plan is practised in Norfolk, and proves completely successful. In an excellent paper taken from the Gardener's Magazine, we learn, that from 1801 to 1810, 94 trees and shrubs were introduced into this country ; from 1811 to 1820, 374 were introduced ; and from 1821 to 1830, 318. If we compare former centuries with the present, the activity displayed during the short period which has elapsed of the latter, appears quite astonishing. The number of trees and shrubs introduced in the 16th century was only 89, 17th 131, 18th 445, and in the first 3 decades of the 19th 699! The total number of foreign trees and shrubs introduced into this country may be about 1400 up to the present time. John Fraser a native of Invernesshire, and John Lyon a son of Mr. Lyon of Gillogie in Forfarshire, were two very active collectors. But there is none who has contributed more to the decoration of our 72 Analyses of Books. gardens, and the prospective beauty of our forests than worthy David Douglas. The number of herbaceous plants which he introduced amounts to 100, and of trees and shrubs to 50. He was born at Scone, near Perth, and served his apprenticeship as a gardener in the gardens of the Earl of Mansfield. In 1817 he removed to Sir Robert Preston’s garden, at Valleyfield, and shortly afterwards went to the Glasgow Botanic Garden. Here he attracted the attention of Dr. Hooker, whom he assisted in obtaining materials for the Flora Sco- tica. In 1823, on the recommendation of Dr. Hooker, he was dis- patched by the Horticultural Society to the United States, where he greatly increased the Society’s fruit trees. He returned the same year. In 1824, an opportunity offering through the Hudson’s Bay Company of exploring the country adjoining the Columbia and Cali- fornia, he sailed in July. He touched at Rio de Janeiro, and dis- covered the G'esneria Douglassii. On Christmas day he reached Juan Fernandez, which he describes as “an enchanting spot, very fertile, and delightfully wooded.” He arrived at Fort Vancouver, on the Columbia, 7th April, 1825. Here he made a great collection of seeds for the Society, along with dried specimens which now form part of the herbarium at Chiswick. The Pinus Lambertiana, a _native of this part of the world, was one of his finest discoveries. One specimen measured 215 feet in length, and 57 feet 9 inches in cir- cumference at three feet from the ground. The cones were 16 inches long and 1] in circumference. The kernel of the seed is sweet and is eaten by the Indians. The rosin which exudes from the trees when they are partly burned, loses its usual flavour and becomes sweet, and is used by the natives as sugar. The Abies Douglassiiis nearly the same size. In 1827, Mr. Douglas passed from Fort Van- couver across the Rocky Mountains to Hudson's Bay, where he met Captain Franklin’s party returning from their second expedition. He returned with them to England, where he was elected free of expense a Fellow of the Linnean, Geological and Zoological Socie- ties, to each of which he contributed papets which display much acuteness. Extracts from his letters were printed in Brewster's Journal, and a new class of plants, named in honour of him by Dr. Lindley, was described in Brande’s Journal. After remaining in London for two years, he again sailed for Columbia in 1829, where he remained for some time adding to his former discoveries. His re- turn to England was expected by the very ship which conveyed the intelligence of his horrible death, an event which was occasioned by his falling into a pit made by the natives of the Sandwich Islands for catching wild bulls, one of the latter being in it at the time. The Annual concludes with a Calendar and Almanack. Our readers will recollect that we drew their attention formerly (vol. i. 159) to the important improvement introduced into the arts by Mr. George Baxter, viz., that of printing with colours from wood ; and that we then augured favourably of his success, and of the pro- spect which we anticipated of his improving upon the process. We are happy to state, that his success has been most flattering. The frontispiece to the present volume, which is printed from a plate, and therefore, exhibits another improvement for which he has taken out a patent, delineates a South Down sheep true to the life. It requires Analyses of Books. 73 only to be seen to be appreciated, and proves the advantageous nature of this new discovery, (as it may be justly denominated), to the pur- poses of the naturalist. Ill.—Supplement to Captain Sir John Ross's Narrative of a second Voyage in the Victory, in search of a North-West Pas- sage, containing the suppressed facts, §c. By Joun Brairu- WAITE. Tue author of this pamphlet is the engineer who constructed the machinery of the steam-vessel, which Captain Ross employed in his expedition to the Polar Seas. The object of the publication is to defend the author’s character, as a mechanic, against the accusations of Sir John Ross. According to the statements of the latter, the machinery failed in the object for which it was intended ; it is termed execrable, and the engineer is charged with gross negligence. Mr. Braithwaite denies that these epithets are applicable, and affirms, 1. That Capt. Ross deceived him as to the real object of the machinery, having positively ordered the engines to be placed under the water line, to be out of the reach of shot. He stated, that he wished to try the experiment of condensing the steam in tubes, and to use the same water over and over again; for which purpose a condensing apparatus was made (never before tried). 2. The patent steam boiler of the author, and his co-patentee Captain Ericsson, was ordered to be supplied, which though it promised well, had never been used for any practical purpose. 3. Captain Ross refused to acquaint the engineers with the nature of the paddles he was going to use, and thus concealed from them a material circumstance to be taken into account in proportioning the size of the cylinders, for which the only instruction given was, that the engines should make from 35 to 40 strokes per minute. 4. Without being consulted whether the introduction of cog wheels was advisable or not, the engineers received orders to make such wheels for communicating the power of the engines to the paddle-wheels. They were not con- sulted upon the proper weight of the paddle-wheels, &c. The con- sequence was, that Captain Ross immersed the paddle-wheels nearly to their axes; the speed of the vessel was, therefore, impeded in a great degree. That these causes are sufficient to account for the failure in ques- tion, must at once be obvious to every person. In what way Captain Ross explains away the errors, of which Mr. Braithwaite accuses him, we are ignorant, as the extravagant price of his work, has made it a sealed bock, not only to us, but to all those who are most in- terested in such subjects. 1V.—Tabule Anemologice, or Tables of the Winds, exhibiting a new method of registering the direction of the Wind, Sc. By W.R. Birr. London, &e. Tue plan of registering the wind developed in this publication, de- pends on certain periods, during which, the wind is observed to blow 74 Scientific Intelligence. from particular quarters. To these periods the author applies the term anemonal, or periods belonging to the wind. They form the divisions of a map, upon which the curves of the wind are exhibited. The proportion of rain is also well shown by an ingenious method. The author purposes publishing on the Ist of January, an anemonal table, exhibiting the aerial currents, at Carlisle, Liverpool and London, and we believe also, at Abbey St. Bathans, (from the observations of our valuable correspondent Mr. Wallace), during January and February, 1835, and a continuation of the present table on the Ist of February. We must refer our readers to the work itself, which is very moderate in price (4d.) because it would be impossible to give an intelligible description without a plate, and because it appears to promise very valuable assistance to meteorologists. ArticLEe IX. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1.— Proceedings of the Ashmolean Society, of Oxford. June 26, 1835.—The following query was proposed by a member : In what way can we satisfactorily explain the mode in which spi- ders carry their threads from one object to another at considerable distances through the air ? Dr. Daubeny exhibited a specimen of the bromelia pinguis, a native of the West Indies, which flowered this autumn in the open air in the garden of Mr. Shirley of Eatington Park, near Shipston-upon- Stour. This plant has rarely blossomed in Europe even under glass, although a drawing of it in flower is given in the Hortus Elthamensis ; and the individual plant alluded to had been tried first in the pinery, and afterwards in the greenhouse, but had never put forth flowers, till it was taken out of doors, when it flowered, though the petals, never properly expanded. f A communication was also read by him respecting an electrical phe- nomenon stated to have occurred in the garden of the Duke of Buck- ingham at Stowe. The following was the statement drawn up by his Grace’s direc- tion, of the circumstance alluded to. ‘‘ On the evening of Friday the 4th of September, 1835, during a storm of thunder and lightning, accompanied by heavy rain, the flower called enothera macrocarpa, a bed of which is in the garden immediately opposite the windows of the manuscript library at Stowe, were observed to be brilliantly illuminated by phosphoric light. ‘¢ During the intervals of the flashes of lightning, the night was exceedingly dark, and nothing else could be distinguished in the gloom except the bright light upon the leaves of these flowers. “Stowe, September, 23rd, 1835.” A paper was read by Prof. Rigaud on Halley’s Astronomie Come- tice Synopsis. Halley had begun his calculations of cometary orbits in 1695, and appears to have completed them in 1702; but it was not till 1705 Scientific Intelligence. 75 that he published his Astronomize Cometice Synopsis in the Philo- sophical Transactions for 1705. In this he gives the parabolic elements of 24 comets observed between 1337 and 1698, with the table which he formed for calculating their motions. This he re- printed separately at Oxford in the following summer ; and an Eng- lish translation was published the same year, which probably was his own, as he adopted it in the second volume of the Miscellanea Cu- riosa. The Synopsis was intended for the introduction to a larger work, and he printed it to secure his calculations from being lost, in case of any accident befalling him. The first edition contains a notice of some similarity (on which however he did not much de- pend) between the comets of 1661 and 1532, whose possible return in 129 years has not been verified. In 1715 the work was re-printed at the end of an English translation of Gregory’s Astronomy. In this he first speaks of calculating the elliptical orbits, and brings for- ward the possible identity of the comets of 1105 and 1680. In 1719, with his volume of Astronomical Tables, he printed a new edition of the Synopsis, in which he entirely omits the mention of the comets of 1661, but gives elliptical elements for those of 1680 and 1682, and a comparison of the places calculated from them, with the observations which he could find on record. He had likewise discovered some earlier observations of the last, which agreed well with its revolving in an orbit of about 753 years ; and having pointed out the circum- stances which retarded its return, he confidently concluded that it might be expected again in the latter end of 1758 or 1759. Mr. Kynston exhibited, and presented to the Society, a preserved specimen of a grasshopper, to which were attached a number of spe- cies of worm, very long, slender, and convoluted, which had fixed themselves upon it, and destroyed it. It was found in Switzerland. The President shewed a portion of wasp’s nest made in a hollow in a sugar-loaf, into which the wasps had eaten, and composed of the blue and white paper in which the loaf was wrapped. The nest was discovered in the month of August, and appeared to have been begun not long before. No instance being as yet known of wasps going out from a nest already formed to construct another in the same year, it is most probable that the present nest was begun by a female wasp, which had survived the last winter, and not by any of the other wasps which were engaged in eating the sugar. Dr. Daubeny stated, that during the last autumn he had made the discovery of fresh springs which evolve nitrogen gas. The first of these was the tepid spring of Mallow in the county of Cork, a water which contains but very little solid matter. The gas evolved consisted of Nitrogen 93-5. Oxygen 6-5. It appears to issue from carboniferous limestone, the beds of which in its immediate neighbourhood are vertically disposed, intimating that they have been affected by some violent action since they were originally deposited. The other spring, disengaging nitrogen, which he observed, was near Clonmell. It was a very clear but perfectly cold water, called St. Patrick’s well, held in much veneration in the neighbourhood, 76 Scientific Intelligence. and resorted to by pilgrims in great numbers. Bubbles of gas rise up through it, which Dr. Daubeny found to consist of Nitrogen 94. Oxygen 6. The spring gushes out of the same limestone stratum, asjthat of Mallow. E November 20th. A notice was communicated from Mr. Kirtland respecting the worm exhibited at the last meeting by Mr. Kynaston, which had apparently destroyed a grasshopper. It is found to be the gordius aquaticus, or hair worm, so called from various contortions and knots into which it twists itself. In a communication made to Loudon’s Magazine, vol. ii. p. 211, it is said to be often met with on the surface of garden or other ground in wet weather, as it is in water or clay, its common habitation. The gordius aquaticus is not unfrequently found to inhabit the intestines of insects. De Geer (marshall of the court of the queen of Sweden, and member of the Academy of Stockholm, and who published a work intitled ‘‘ Memoires pour servir 4 l’Histoire des Insectes” in 7 vol. 4to. 1752—1779) mentions these worms being found in grasshoppers. Dr. Matthey likewise mentions one of these worms being found in the body of a grasshopper, which was no less than 25 feet in length. Mr. Paxton mentioned a similar case in the instance of an earwig. Mr. Johnson of Queen’s, read a short account of some mathe- matical researches he had lately pursued on optical images. He was led to this remarkable result, that, according to the mathematical theory, the image of a straight line placed vertically in water, and also horizontally, are each the loci of equations of high dimensions and great complexity, and should be curves of high orders, but to the eye they are straight lines ; a very accurate construction of the curves, however, shewed that certain portions of them (which properly repre- sent the image) will approach so near to straight lines as to be such tothe eye. Drawings of these curves were exhibited. Mr. Powell gave a communication on the dispersion of light, in continuation of former papers, in which he illustrated the subject by diagrams of the several spectra formed by prisms of water, oil of turpentine, flint glass, oil of cassia, oil of aniseed, and sulphuret of carbon, shewing their comparative refractive and dispersive powers. Dr. Buckland read a further statement relative to the luminous appearance on the flowers of the cenothera, mentioned at the last meeting. It was distinctly stated that the luminous appearance con- tinued uninteruptedly for a considerable length of time: it did not appear to resemble any electric effect: and the opinion which seemed most probable was, that the plant, like many known instances, has a power of absorbing light, and giving it out under peculiar circum- stances. Dr. Daubeny exhibited some specimens of sand and clay found in the bottom of the caverns, in limestone, at Michell’s town, near Cork. The sand covered the bottom of the cave to an unknown depth, and was itself covered with a crust of stalagmite. The sand must have been washed in through a very narrow entrance; and there is no Scientific Intelligence. 77 existing stream capable of so introducing it. No bones or other re- mains were found in it. Dr. Buckland also explained the occurrence of such sand, &c. by diluvial action, and proceeded to remark a curious circumstance con-~ nected with these caverns. There has never been an instance in which any deposits have taken place at the bottoms of caves, except such as are composed of recent remains, and the mud, sand, &c. of the surface; debris and fossil remains of older formations never occur in them. The only instance known of any older remains in caverns, is that of the caves at Palermo, belonging to the later tertiary period, and containing shells, &c. of that formation perforated by pholades, though now raised 300 feet above the sea. Dr. Buckland also observed that the origin of caves in limestone had during many years occupied his attention, and has always been considered by him one of the most difficult problemsin geology. To a certain degree they have in many cases been the effects of mechani- eal violence producing lateral movements, and tearing asunder portions of solid rocks, during the elevation, or subsidence, of the strata in which they occur. In cases of this kind, the fractures are usually rectilinear, and partake of the nature of a slip or fault, never filled up- But the lateral enlargements and tubular communications that proceed in various directions from the main apertures, and the vaulted and dome-shaped expansions that occur at irregular intervals along the minor winding passages, cannot be referred to mechanical vio- lence ; and an adequate cause of their origin may possibly be found in the influence of acid vapours, (probably carbonic acid,) rising through fractures adjacent to these corroded portions of the limestone. Caverns in solid limestone could not have been produced, like cells and cavities of various size in beds of porous lava, by air included in the viscid substance of the strata, before or during the progress of con-. solidation, because they are most abundant in limestones of the most compact character, and in which no other trace of cellular structure isto be found. Moreover, the interior of caverns usually presents an irregular carious surface, similar to that which is produced on a mass of limestone submitted to the action of an acid. If these supposed acids were mixed with water, the lime thus dis- solved would have been removed in a state of solution, and the sides of the caves would be found studded with the less soluble contents of the strata, such as siliceous concretions, and fragments of organic re- mains, standing in relief, as we often see them around the interior of these carious vaultings. “The organic remains in these strata, particularly the corals, are often disposed in such a manner as to shew that considerable time, elapsed during the deposition of the successive beds of limestone in which they are enveloped; no accumulations of gas in connected cavernous expansions passing from one stratum into another could have taken place in beds of limestone thus deposited at successive intervals. ' Dr. Daubeny expressed a doubt as to whether all caverns could be accounted for by aqueous corrosion alone, and conceived that the large vaulted chambers into which many of them suddenly expand, 78 Scientific Intelligence. may have been originally produced by an evolution of gaseous matter, whilst the rock itself was in a softened condition. Il.— Gastrie Juice. Tue experiments of Dr. Prout, and of Tiedemann and Gmelin in reference to the gastric juice, are confirmed by those of Braconnot, and prove that there is no peculiar substance to which this appellation should be applied, but that the remarkable peculiarity of the stomach is the property which it possesses of secreting a great quantity of muriatic acid. The gastric juice examined by Braconnot was ob- tained from a dog. He found it to contain 1. Free muriatic acid in great abundance. 2. Muriate of am- monia. 3. Chloride of sodium in very great quantity. 4. Chloride of calcium. 5. A trace of chloride of potassium. 6. Chloride of Iron. 7. Chloride of magnesium. 8. Colourless oil with an acid taste. 9. Animal matter soluble in water and alcohol, in very con- siderable quantity. 10. Animal matter soluble in weak acids. 11. Animal matter soluble in water, and insoluble in alcohol (salivary matter of Gmelin). 12. Mucus. 13. Phosphate of lime. He found no trace of lactic acid.—( Annales de Chimie, lix. 348.) III.—Benzoyle, Benzimide, and Benzoine. In distilling the essence of bitter almonds with well water, Laugier obtained a resinous substance which Laurent found to consist of 1. An oil containing the essence of bitter almonds; 2, benzoine ; and 3, a crystalline body which he terms benzimide. Boiling alcohol dis- solves the oil and benzoine, and on cooling benzimide falls. After filtration, by evaporation, the bezoine crystallizes and the oil remains in solution. The benzimide and residue are dissolved in boiling alco- hol, and on cooling minute needles of benzimide separate. Benzimide is white and destitute of smell, insoluble, very little soluble in boiling alcohol and ether. When heated, it burns with a red flame, leaving a brown residue. Nitric and muriatic acids dis- solve it readily. Sulphuric acid dissolves it and acquires an indigo colour. When treated with pieces of potash and some drops of alcohol, benzoate of potash is formed. It consists of carbon 74:86; hydrogen 4°94; oxygen 13-20; azote 7. This composition Laurent considers equivalent to biben- zoate of ammonia, with a deficiency of 4 atoms of water, or we may call it Ci4 H53 ON:. The benzamide of Wohler and Liebig cor- responds with the neutral benzoate of ammonia. Benzoine was previously obtained from the essence of bitter al- monds from which it may easily be extracted by means of potash. It consists of carbon 78°652; hydrogen 5°772 ; oxygen 15:577. This corresponds with C14 H® O, and is isomeric with hydret of ben- zoyle. Benzoyle was formed by passing chlorine over fused benzoine. The product was dissolved in alcohol, and crystallized. Benzoine is Scientific Intelligence. 79 yellowish, insipid, insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol and ether. Crystals six-sided prisms, terminated by summits with three penta- gonal faces. ‘They burn with a red flame. Hot sulphuric acid dis- solves them, and water precipitates them from the solution. Potash when dissolved in water does not alter them, but when an alcoholic solution is employed, a fine colour of turnsol is produced. If this solution is evaporated, a salt is obtained which forms with sulphuric acid a beautiful pink solution. Benzoyle consists of carbon 80-43 ; hydrogen 4-91 ; oxygen15. This Laurent considers is represented by C14 H5 O. Hence, we see that the chlorine has removed an atom of hydrogen.—( Ann. de Chim. lix. 397). ‘ IV.—Deaths of Signior Nobili and Dr. Stromeyer. WE regret to announce the death of M. le Chevalier Leopold No- bili fde Reggio, which happened at Florence on the 5th of August last, from an affection of the chest. Nobili, in the earlier part of his life, served in the army. At what age he began to turn his attention to philosophy does not appear, but after being occupied with some theoretical speculations upon magnetism and light, he directed his energies in 1825 to experimental researches; he invented the gal- vanometer with two needles, and subsequently added to this first in- vention that of the comparative galvanometer. 2. The discovery — which introduced Nobili to the scientific world was that relative to the colours developed upon metallic plates, which serve as poles in different solutions for electro-chemical decompositions. 3. He in- vented the thermo-multiplier ; for although Melloni assisted him, yet the idea originated with Nobili. 4. He published some papers re- lating to electro-physiological phenomena. 5. He made researches on the production of electricity by heat, and on chemical action, and on the relations which subsist between the two modes in which electri- city is developed. 6. He directed his attention to the study of magne- tism, and more particularly to the production of electric currents by the influence of magnets. His papers were published in the Biblio- genie Universelle, vols. 29, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 40, 44, 45, 47, 56, Dr. Frederick Stromeyer, Counsellor and Professor of Chemistry and Pharmacy in the University of Gottingen, and Inspector general of the Apothecaries for the kingdom of Hanover, died on the 18th of August last. He was originally a botanist, and only turned his at- tention to chemistry when he obtained the chemical chair at Gottin- gen. He then went to Paris and studied chemistry in Vauquelin’s laboratory. In 1817, he discovered the metal cadmium, and in 1821 he published an admirable volume of mineral analyses under the title of Untersuchungen iiber die mischung der Mineralkérper und an- derer damit verwandten Substanzen, containing 30 analyses. 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ArtIcueE I. Memoir of John Napier, Baron of Merchiston. By J. B. Bior.* Monraiene, in his Chapter of Proper Names, has asked, To whom belongs the honour of so many victories—to Guesquin, Glesquin, or Geaquin, since the name of this distinguished person has assumed all these different forms? If intellectual conquests and military glory can admit of any analogy, and we leave this to be decided, we might ask the same question in reference to the subject of our Memoir, whose simple mathematical invention has, as it were, lengthened a hundred fold, the scientific lives of Kepler, Halley, Bradley, Mayer, Lacaille, Piazzi, Delambre; has extended that of Laplace, and even that of Newton; and continues, indefinitely, a similar prodigy to those whose zeal, if not genius, is applied, after these great men, to the mathematical study of natural phenomena. For we are still ignorant whether the discovery of Logarithms was due to Neper, Napeir, or N apier.+ Even at the time when it was published in 1614, the author was so little known beyond the limits of his own country, that Kepler, who received and employed this invention with * Journal des Savants, March, 1835. (This constitutes a critique, by Biot, on the Life of Lord Napier, from the pen of Mark Napier, Esq. We publish it for the sake of “ audi alteram partem ”—Ep1r.) + In a letter to his father his signature is Neper ; at his dedication of the Expla- nation of the Apocalypse to King James VI. itis Napeir ; at his will it is Naipper, It is commonly spelled Napier, VOL. III. G 82 Memoir of John Napier, enthusiasm, as a wonderful assistance in the composition of his Rudolphine Tables, was unacquainted with it till 1617; and even then, possessed but an imperfect knowledge of it, having only seen Napier’s book at Prague, without being able to study it; so that, unfortunately for him, he did not appreciate it, as may be learned from a remarkable passage in a letter written by Kepler to his friend Schikkart, dated llth March, 1618. The passage is, ‘‘ Extitit Scotus Baro, cujus nomen mihi excidit qui preclari quid prestitit, necessitate omni multiplicationum et divisionum in meras additiones et substractiones commutata; nec sinibus utitur. Attamen opus est ipsi tangentium canone; et varietas, cre- britas difficultasque additionum, substractionumque alicubi laborem multiplicandi et dividendi superat” (Epist. ad Kep- lerum Lipsiae 1718, in fol. p. 672). The last part of this passage shews us that Kepler, at first sight, had formed an erroneous opinion of Napier’s method. The objection, attamen opus est ipsi tangentium canone, requires some expla- nation. In the original publication of his discovery, in 1614, of which I have examined a copy, from the library of Walknaer, Napier does not give a special table for logarithms of natural numbers, but only for sines, co-sines, and tangentsof ares. Thus, when it is necessary to find the logarithm of a given number, he supposes that it may be considered as a natural sine if it is included between 0 & 1, and as a natural tangent if it exceeds these limits. In the first case, the logarithm sought is found immediately among those of the sines which the table of Neper gives; in the second case, it is necessary to find first in a table of natural tangents the are which corresponds to the given number, and with this are the table of Neper gives the logarithm. Having soon after, however, met accidentally with a short and clear exposition of this discovery, ‘‘ I learned” said he, ‘‘ its nature, and scarcely had I tried an example of the process, when I found, to my great delight, that it far sur- passed all the attempts at abbreviation which I had attempted for a long time past.” He set one of his pupils to the work immediately, and made him calculate logarithmic tables after the method of Napier; employed them with success in completing the calculation of his Rudolphine Tables, which had hitherto cost him immense labour; and even Baron of Merchiston. 83 changing the whole plan of these tables, he boldly gave them a new form, which fitted them for the application of the logarithms. Upon what accidents does not the progress of human intelligence depend! The Rudolphine Tables appeared in 1627, six years, only, before the death of Kepler. Who knows if without the use of the logarithms he could have finished them? They must become the fundamental basis of all our ulterior knowledge in reference to the system of the world; for being established for each planet on the conditions of elliptical movement; and for the relations of the orbits between them, on the proportion of the square of the times of revolution to the cubes of the semi-great axes, their constant agreement with the heavens presents a constant epitome, as well as proof, of the great astrono- mical laws, justly termed the laws of Kepler, from which Newton has mechanically deduced that of the central force, proportional to the masses, and reciprocal to the square of the distance. But, if the general conditions of the planetary motions had not been known and proved, Newton would not have been able to ascend to the law of the force; so that, without the invention of logarithms, which in some measure enabled Kepler to live long enough to finish his task, univer- sal gravitation might have, perhaps, still remained undis- covered. This fortunate revolution in the tables and cal- culations of Kepler has been described and celebrated by Kepler himself, in a letterto Napier, dated 28th July, 1619, which he placed before his Ephemerides for 1620. This important document for literary history has become so rare, that neither Montuclanor Delambre knew of its existence. Fortunately, the Bodleian Library of Oxford possesses a copy, of which, Napier’s biographer, (Mark Napier, Esq.) has presented an exact copy to the public. It is from this letter that the preceding details are taken. Napier never received this letter which would have filled him with joy. He died two years before, on the 4th April, 1617; but Kepler was ignorant of the fact. So difficult and slow was scientific communication in these times of war and storms, caused by the influence of political interests and change in religion! If continental Europe was in this condition, the state of Scotland was still worse. The inhabitants of its Highlands, G 2 84 Memoir of John Napier, divided into half-barbarous tribes, lived in a succession of wars, and perpetual robbery, in consequence of the inter- minable quarrels of their savage chiefs. The royal autho- rity, incapable of producing peace in these hereditary con- flicts, was only, in the eyes of the ambitious vassals, an instrument of dominion and of fortune. We may add to these, the reformed religion, which was now extending itself, embraced by some from sincere conviction, but by a great number from interest and fanaticism, while contrary senti- ments and interests conspired with equal force to obstruct its introduction. At such a period, and in such a country, it is not remarkable that, after two centuries, no trace of the early history of a child should remain, notwithstanding the high distinction which he attained in manhood. Thus, notwithstanding the most active research, the Scotch biographer has only been able to discover some vague unimportant indications of the education of young Napier, and, in order to fill up this void, he throws in a number of tedious digressions, relating, for example, the more or less doubtful biography of six or seven Napiers of Merchiston, who preceded the author of the logarithms in direct line; their fortunes, the alliances, political transactions, whether commercial, military, or civil, in which they took part; and, as is customary in Scotland, we find mention made of parents of persons who then enjoyed great distinction; among others, of the famous Bothwell, who married Mary Stuart by such violent means; the author gives the history of Mary, Both- well, and Darnley, while Louis XI., Charles le Temeraire, figure in these digressions; and even certain persons are more strangely associated with such materials as the page Quentin Durward and the Abbe de la Deraison. Then, as young Napier appears to have passed some years at the University of Saint Andrews, we have a history of the Uni- versity, or rather, of the principal persons of the time who were educated there. From all this, we can only learn that the inventor of the logarithms was descended from a rich, old distinguished family, which had taken an inevitable but reserved and prudent share in the political affairs of the time. Born at the castle of Merchiston in 1550, Napier entered the University of Saint Andrews in 1563, which he left some years afterwards for the purpose of travelling on Baron of Merchiston. 85 the Continent, probably to complete his education, as was customary among Scotch persons of distinguished rank. Having returned to Merchiston in 1571, he married in the following year; and, confining himself to his retreat, he divided his time between two chief occupations, the dis- charge of domestic affairs, with which his father had entrusted him, and mathematical and theological studies, for each of which he appears to have had an equal liking. But, in spite of his life of repose, he was too often forced to leave his asylum, either in order to escape the attacks of the military, or to take upon him the sole defence which his position and his religious opinions dictated, in the reli- gious transactions of the time. There we can trace his actions, by the aid of numerous documents which his bio- grapher has collected; and the study of the mental ideas which he carried upon the theatre of earthly affairs will not be superfluous in order to complete the philosophical view in which we ought to regard him. It was at this time that the crisis of reform agitated Scotland most violently. James VI:, afterwards James I. of England, occupied the throne; a prince habitually weak, and sometimes possessing the power of exhibiting a certain firmness, not destitute of information, or rather, erudition, and rendering himself almost always ridiculous by his want of tact, in the selfish exhibition of his religious duties; tormented by the continual revolts of his stubborn vassals, by the daily increasing audacious exactions of the reformed party, whose puritanism distrusted him in consequence of his leaning to the Catholics ; rendered uneasy, also, by the ambitious Elizabeth, who laid for him constantly a thousand snares, impatient as she was of beholding in him her direct and unavoidable successor, and one who was sprung from blood which her jealousy as a woman, and her politics as a queen, had shed. In this state of peril and misery the poor King of Scot- land remained for a long time, hoping always for some favourable change. Among these struggles of puritan- ism and royalty the Baron of Merchiston appeared upon the scene. He took part in those Presbyterian Synods which harrassed the King with indefatigable audacity with their fanatical exactions from the Catholics, whom, in their 8&6 Memoir of John Napier, opinion, they did not sufficiently persecute. Napier belonged to the Synod of Fife, the most violent of the whole of them. He formed one of the deputies whom the Synod, and then - the General Assembly at Edinburgh chose, to carry to the King a solemn deliberation, by which it was declared that ‘his faithful subjects irrevocably determined to risk even their lives in order to be delivered from the idolatry and the society of the Bloody Papists: that Lords Huntly, Angus, &e., (here follows a list of the proscribed persons, among whom is the father-in-law of Napier), by their idolatry, heresy, blasphemy, apostasy, and enmity to Jesus Christ and his church in this kingdom of Scotland, have cut them- selves off from Christian Society, and thus, deserve to be effectually excommunicated, separated from the Church of Christ, and delivered into the hands of Satan, whose slaves they are; until they learn, if it please God, not to blaspheme Christ and his gospel,” &c. Such were the holy pretensions of the pious Presbyterians. It is to be observed that excom- munication comprehended theconfiscation of the property of the wicked persons; property which devolved upon the King to distribute among ‘‘ God’s Saints,” as these worthy people termed themselves. The poor King, in vain, made use of the strongest and wisest efforts to prevent these shameful proclamations from being carried into effect ; he was obliged to admit the deputies from the General Assembly into his presence. It is curious to observe, even in our day, the traditional effect of the old puritanical spirit upon the mind of the Scotch biographer. He is delighted with the promi- nent position given to Napier in these fanatical transactions: ‘* Our philosopher,” says he, (p. 162), ‘*‘ must have been particularly remarkable in this Assembly, (that of Edin- burgh), which confirmed the excommunication of his father- in-law.” (It was the father of his second wife, for he lost his first in 1579). Then pursuing without hesitation the consequences of this act, ‘‘ If the family,” adds he, ‘‘ of Napier was present at divine service, on the day when this was made public, his own children must have tended to exclude their grandfather from the benefits of the church, and of all the blessings attached to human society.” Subsequently, he notices the powerful effect which must have been produced on James, Baron of Merchiston. 87 by the appearance of the ‘‘ majestic Napier, with his calm aspect, his pensive eye, and his great beard, which the King never before had an opportunity of seeing.” Was not this an essential merit to give to the inventor of logarithms, and, especially, when connected with his discovery? But, then, I may be asked, why do you cite these details, and make these remarks? I make them, because in the obvious intention of the biographer they have an object, and one, which in my opinion, is contrary to the spirit of science and of sound philosophy. This object is to exhibit the in- ventor of the logarithms as a light of the Protestant Pres- byterian Church, as the greatest theologian of his time, and as principally a theologian, and this in order to support religious belief by scientific discovery, to attempt under this pretext to impose on us credulous exactions which good sense repulses, and which, thank God, do not exist in our time. Undoubtedly, Napier was a theologian, a learned theo- logian, and without doubt, his religious belief was com- pletely sincere. This is due to his moral character. The importance of the arithmetical invention, which we owe to him is very great, as we have already had occasion to remark. But, does it follow from this, that arithmetic ought to make us receive his theology, and that it is neces- sary with the Scotch biographer, to consider the commen- tary upon the Apocalypse by Napier as admirable? for before him, Newton had made a similar commentary, in which, he undertook to prove that the Pope is antichrist, and Christian Rome the prostitute of Babylon. Besides it was not new at this period, since it was equally the favourite theme of the fiery Presbyterian preacher, Knox, who called the charming Mary Stuart a Jezebel; and King James VI. himself had exercised his theological knowledge in proving this point. It was at this time a current idea. But the peculiar part which Napier took in this controversy, was his having introduced a form of argument quite mathema- tical; an order of discussion logically arranged; setting down first a table of postulates, from which he proceeded to interpret the divine figures; postulates which he took care to establish, as well as possible, upon a number of learned authorities. I shall not be so rash as to contest 88 Memoir of John Napier, such premises, nor even examine too punctiliously, if the number, already very considerable, of the elements admitted as bases, increased, in the course of discussion, by a sufficient number of other hypothesis, has not very much weakened, speaking in a worldly point of view, the mathematical pro- bability of the final deductions. I admit, then, if necessary, all this ; confessing myself unable to dispute it; and I shall thus be forcibly conducted to the necessary logical conclu- sion that the Pope is certainly Antichrist; that he is also Gog, as the emperor of the Turks is Magog, and his soldiers the locusts of the Apocalypse. Besides that, there have been twenty-two popes, horrible necromancers, who were obliged to become perpetual slaves of the devil, in order to become popes; as this is equally established in the book of Napier, prop. xxv. The beast with two horns is antichrist alone and his kingdom, p. xxvii. The pope alone is the antichrist, particularly predicted by the prophets, p. xxxii. Gog is the pope, and Magog, the Turks and Mahometans ; twenty-two popes, necromancers and slaves of the devil, p- xxxvi. The locusts are the Turks. But, among his conclusions, there is one which ought to be equally indubitable, and which, by its logical connexion with the others, evidently communicates to them its char- acter of necessity. It is that, according to the 14th propo- sition of Napier, ‘‘ the Day of Judgment ought to happen between the years of our Lord Jesus Christ, 1688 & 1700; ” from which, according to the 10th proposition, ‘‘ the end of the world terminates in 1786, and rather before than after it.” This is a consequence of which I cannot, it is true, contest the truth, as it follows logically from the premises, but, I confess, that it appears to me difficult to receive it ; and it is, perhaps, because it produces the same effect upon other simple minds, that the Commentary of Napier upon the Apocalypse is not read so frequently, at present, as might be desired, as his biographer complains. Newton, also, it is known, has commented on the Apocalypse, but he has not undertaken so extensive a field as his Scotch predecessor. ‘‘ The folly of preceding interpreters,” says he, (folly is a strong word) ‘‘ has been in wishing to predict times and things by their prophecies, as if God had designed to make them prophets.” Thus, Newton confines himself Baron of Merchiston. 89 to explaining the past ; and the greater number of persons who have read his work appear to have concluded that even this was not easy. In giving an account of this Commentary of Newton, in the Universal Biography, I expressed some doubt upon the conclusion to which Newton has come, that ‘‘ the 1lth horn of Daniel refers to the Church of Rome.” Dr. Brew- ster, in a work of the same kind, (I understand, it to be a work of the same kind as mine), published at London, in 1832, has reprimanded me for my facility of doubting, and has affirmed that this interpretation of the 11th horn, as well as others of the same kind, which Newton has given, may be developed, even to a full demonstration. I am, therefore, obliged to ask, humbly, of Dr. Brewster to be pleased to excuse, on this head, the impossibility which must exist in France, of receiving such Anti-Catholic con- clusions. The Scotch biographer of Napier produces, with regret, the expression of repugnance which I have made, inasmuch as, according to him, the Commentary of Napier contains more than nine quarto pages of condensed proofs of this same proposition. Nevertheless, he wishes not to be offended at my blindness. ‘‘ When M. Biot,” says he, ‘* states that he cannot believe the 11th horn of Daniel to be the Church of Rome, we are not surprized, in the pre- sent times; but it was otherwise in the time of Napier; and to this, we may add, that when Protestants such as Calvin and Scaliger, confess openly that they consider all the Revelation of Saint John as an inexplicable mystery, even the author being problematical, it is a great honour to Scotland, that, in the heart of a country so rude, such a commentary should be produced, worthy of the first eru- dition of the age, and capable, as we shall shew, of instruct- ing even our more enlightened age.” If we are allowed to appreciate this conclusion of the biographer, by human intelligence alone, I confess that I cannot see how it follows, from the authorities which he has cited, which rather appear to establish the contrary. But, perhaps, the cha- racter of inspiration in the text extends also to the panegy- rist, in which case, I have no reply to make. The Commentary on the Apocalypse was, on the part of Napier, an edifying work, and one produced after deep 90 Memoir of John Napier, study, which was undertaken for the purpose of converting the Papists, as he states, himself, in the preface. But the circumstances under which he chose to publish it, add to his first project the character of a less charitable intention, for that took place precisely two days after the demands of the Presbyterians had forced from King James the definite confirmation of the Act of Excommunication, in which the father-in-law of Napier found himself included; and, in the dedication of this commentary, to James, we can see with what fanatical violence he talks of it: ‘‘ Provided Sire, that it may be the constant study of your Majesty, (as called by God) to reform the whole misrule of his kingdom ; com- mencing first (after the example of the royal prophet David) by reforming his house and his heart, and purging them from all communications with Papists, Atheists, and neutral persons, of which this book of Revelations reveals that there are a great number, and that they will multiply in these last days.—Thus I supplicate your Majesty, that in weighing and considering well the treasonable plots of this time, attempted both against the truth of God, and against the authority of your Majesty, and against the public welfare of his kingdom,” &e. ‘* Commencing first with his own person, and from that advancing to the reformation of his family, and then to that of his heart,” &e. Napier, in his preface, explains himself the motives of this public oration. ‘* It was not my intention,” says he, ‘‘ to publish this work suddenly, and still less to write it in our vulgar tongue; until latterly, seeing the insolence of the Papists elevating itself about the year 1588, and advancing and increasing in this island, and moved with compassion and piety towards those who gave more credit to the Jesuits and Priests of the seminaries than to the Scriptures of God, and rather to trust to the Popeand the King of Spain, (it was at the time of the Armada), than to the King of Kings, to prevent the evil which might follow, I gave up the Latin which I had commenced, in order to produce, in common language, the present book, scarcely yet complete, to instruct the simple of this island, to overcome and frustrate the proud and foolish attempts of the wicked: resolving, with the assistance of God, to publish the Latin edition in a short time, for the advantage of the whole church.” . Baron of Merchiston. 9] The Scotch writers who have brought these fine things (belles choses) to light at the present day, appear moved towards us with the same compassion which Napier bore to the Papists of his time. It isto be regretted that they have not at their disposal such advantageous temporary circum- stances for favouring their doctrines. It was then the good times of sorcerers, sorceries, and burnings. Napier, accord- ing to the confession of his biographer, was supposed to hold conversations with Old Nick; and he even wished it to be thought that this opinion was not without foundation. But he was held in such high estimation that much dis- quietude was not felt in this respect. He appears to have been, in reality, occupied with mechanics and physics; for, when the English were afraid of a new attack from the Papists in 1596, Napier sent to the Scotch ambassador at London, a list ofinventions, after the manner of Archimedes.* These secrets are, burning mirrors, pieces of artillery on a new construction, and a new method of navigating under water; but all this is only announced, not described. Unfortunately, he did not always make such a disinte- rested use of his sciénce, as the following contract shews, which he formed with one of the most wicked men of the time, called Robert Logan, of Restalrig,—a contract written entirely with his own hand, and of which, the biographer has taken care to present a fac simile. This Logan, of Restalrig, had thrown himself, with ferocious audacity, into the desperate party of Francis Stuart, Count Bothwell, in 1594 ; and, under this title of open war, went about robbing and way-laying the roads in the neighbourhood of Edin- burgh. The legality of these proceedings not being, un- fortunately, recognised, he had been called to judgment and outlawed for his non-appearance. But this gave him little uneasiness; having, upon the wildest shores of the German ocean, an inaccessible retreat in Fast-Castle, since celebrated, under the name of Wolfscrag, by Sir Walter Scott, in the Bride of Lammermoor. There Restalrig, not knowing what to do, recalled to mind an old tradition re- specting some treasures buried under his castle ; and know- * This list is contained in a letter to Anthony Bacon, entitled, ‘‘ Secret inven- tions, profitable and necessary in these days for the defence of this island, and notwithstanding Strangers, enemies to God’s truth and religion,” Dated June 2nd, 1596.—Ebir. 92 Memoir of John Napier, ing Napier to bea learned man, and something of a necro- mancer, he proposed to him to engage in the discovery, which the latter undertook, as may be seen, in good faith and honour, under the titles and clauses in the following contract, which we translate from the Scotch text: ‘** At Edinburgh, the — day of July, the year of our Lord, 1594, it is appointed and agreed between the under- signed persons, that is to say, Robert Logan, of Restalrig, on the one side, and John Napier, holding the manor of Merchiston, on the other side, in the form, manner, and deeds, as follow, viz. Forasmuch as there exist divers ancient traditions, reasons, and appearances, that there is in the dwelling of the said Robert, at the place called Fast-Castle, a sum of silver money and treasure, secretly deposited and concealed, the whole of which has not been discovered by any one: the undernamed John will make all possible and exact diligence to seek for it and find it out, and endeavour to extract the sum in question: and, by the Grace of God, either he shall find the said sum, or he shall assure himself that the like deposit has not been con- cealed there: the whole, as far as his labour, diligence, and his science, can assist him: For which the said Robert shall give, and, according to the tenor of the present writing, gives and grants to the said John, the exact third of what- ever silver, or treasure, the said John’shall find, or which shall be found by his means and industry, in the said place of Fast-Castle, or its neighbourhood: And this to be divided, by just weight and balance, between them, without any fraud, opposition, and contention whatever, in such a manner that the said Robert shall have fully two parts, and the said John justly the third part of the whole, upon their faith, word, and conscience: And for the sure return and safety of the said John, from the above mentioned place of Fast-Castle to Edinburgh, without being robbed of his third part, as well as without receiving any damage in his person, or in the effects which belong to him, the said Robert shall convey in safety the said John, and accompany him whole and safe, in the manner above men- tioned, to Edinburgh: To which place, if the said John shall return without difficulty, it will behove him, in presence of the said Robert, to efface and destroy the pre- sent contract, as a full discharge of the two parties having Baron of Merchiston. 93 honestly accomplished and fulfilled their engagement the one to the other: and it is decided that any other discharge than the destruction of the present contract shall not be of any value, force or effect: And, in case the said John shall not find any treasure, after all his efforts and diligence, he shall rely for the disbursement of his work and difficulties, upon the the discretion of the said Robert. In witness of the present, and in testimony of all honesty, faith and fide- lity, to be observed in all its conditions, relative to each of the two parties, they have both subscribed the present with their own hands, at Edinburgh, day and year as aforesaid. (Signed) ‘* Ropert Loean, of Restalrig. “* Jonn Napier, of Merchiston.” How could the great theologian of Scotland, the Wonder- ful Napier, as his biographer terms him, conscientiously contract such an engagement, and an engagement almost of necromancy, with a declared robber and assassin; he who evidenced so much horror, and such a scrupulous indigna- tion against the temporal excesses of Papists, and against those twenty-eight Popes who were decided necromancers ? The biographer does not dissemble the difficulty of this question, and attributes the act to the barbarous rudeness of the times, and to the simplicity of mind of our philo- sopher. In our opinion, a more true and more grave ex- planation might be found in the doctrine admitted then in Scotland, among the Casuists of the Puritan Confederacy, and renewed at the present day by another sect, which ap- pears to be making great progress in England; it is, that all means are good for Saints; in other words, that Saints do not sin. The Scotch biographer passes, in detail, over the moral consequences of the act, and only takes occasion to admire the ‘‘ unconquerable courage of the man who feared not to engage alone with a robber in his cave.” After which, he adds, ‘‘ To pronounce this transaction as mercenary, would be to apply a false appreciation of modern notions to manners obscurely appreciable by antiquity.” Papists, then, are not the only persons who have accomo- dating opinions. Here terminates what we have to say of Napier, as a politician, moralist, and theologian. We have explained above, the considerations which have induced us to study his character under this point of view, according to the 94 Mr. Cooper on the Colours that enter into the numerous data furnished by the author of the new biography. It remains now for us to consider him as a mathematician, and thank God our task will be henceforth much more easy; for, the method of re-calling him to memory in this point of view, the only one which, in our opinion, merits the attention of posterity, will be to make extracts from his own works, completed by several new and curious docu- ments which his new biographer has added. In this respect we may say, with justice, that this biography has been highly useful. (To be continued.) Articue II. On the Number and Character of the Colours that enter into the Composition of White Light. By Pavut Coopsr, Esq. (Concluded from p. 64.) Ir is awell known fact that, with common light, refraction is always attended by partial reflexion; and it is equally well known that the internal reflexion from glass, is stronger than the external; even under ordinary circumstances this reflexion is considerable, and with such intense light as the direct light of the sun, at a large angle of incidence, such as it is in the present experiment, it must be sufficient to produce very decided effects. The question, then, is, Do these reflexions, traced upon optical principles, correspond with the intermediate images discovered in the spectrum ? This is the question which I shall now endeavour to answer: Let A BC (Fig. 3)* represent the section of an equilateral prism, perpendicular to the axis, and EFGH a ray of homogeneous light, incident upon the centre of the surface AC, at such an angle that FG may be parallel to A B, and, consequently, B G H equal to A FE; in this case it isevident that the first internal reflexion will be from G to D, the second from D to F, and the third from F to G, where it will fall at the same angle of incidence as the direct ray FG, and, of course, be equally refracted upon emergence in the direction GH. The fourth reflexion will take the same direction as the first ; and, proceeding in the same order, the sixth will coincide with the third, forming upon emergence at G, with the direct ray, and rays from * See page 59, Composition of White Light. 95 any subsequent reflexions, multiples of three, a single image, by superposition, at all distances from the prism. But, if we suffer a ray of white light, EF (Fig. 4) to fall in the same direction upon the point F, only one of the three colours of which it is composed can pass through the prism parallel to AB; the others will be dispersed, sup- posing g to be the green ray, the violet to 1 7, and the red to r. The angle of dispersion at the internal surface B C is only half what it would be upon emergence, after a second re- fraction, and too small to be correctly represented ; we may, however, trace the different reflexions upon an assumed seale, as in the figure, so as to give an idea of their relative positions, and we shall thus find that the violet ray will emerge, after three reflexions, below the green ray, at an angle with a line parallel to it, equal to the angle of disper- sion, but diverging from it in an opposite direction; and that, after six reflexions, it will emerge parallel to the direct violet ray, but above it. Now, as there must be some breadth of light to form images of the different colours, and, as the space between | v and 4 v, though differently represented in the figure, is, in fact, very small; if the light emerged at the same angle it would form only one elongated image; but, by its emission at different angles, the divergence of the direct and the re- flected images is continued after their emergence, and at a sufficient distance, they must be completely separated. The chief, if not the only difficulty that presents itself in this arrangement, is, that the reflected violet ray, 4 v, being nearly parallel with the red ray, 7, ought, it might be sup- posed, to blend with it in preference to the green ray, g, but this is a difficulty in appearance only; for, supposing the rays 4 v and r to be parallel, and, consequently, to have the same angle of incidence upon the surface B C, the difference of refrangibility in violet and red light, would cause a rapid divergence of these rays after a second refraction ; and they must, therefore, form distinct images, at a short distance, after their emergence: this being the case, and it being equally impossible that the ray 4» can blend with the ray lv, it must either form a junction with the intermediate green ray, g, or emerge separated from both; the latter 96 Mr. Cooper on the Colours that enter into the would no doubt be the case with a single ray of each, but with a breadth of light, such as would be required to make the experiment, the divergence would, in all probability, be too small to effect the complete separation, except at a con- siderable distance, the greater refrangibility of the violet light being compensated by the greater refracting angle of the green. Hence, the blue formed by the junction of the two rays, cannot be separated by methods which succeed when the rays intersect each other at a greater angle. If we now refer to the violet ray after six reflexions, v, we may observe that it is parallel to the ray 1 »; and, there- fore, as the space between v and 1 v, if the figure were correetly drawn, would be less than the breadth of light necessary to make the experiment, the two images must be partly superposed, and, being formed of parallel rays, must continue so at all distances: the same will hold good of images formed after twelve reflexions, or any other multiple of six; and the whole will emerge at the same angle, one above the other, and form one lengthened image only. Hence the extension of the spectrum in strong light, a circumstance not accounted for in the Newtonian theory; and hence, probably, the chemical rays, when the reflexions are too weak to be visible. By tracing the reflexions of the red ray we shall find every circumstance attending it giving support to the same views. ' The white light EF, (Fig. 5) is dispersed by the refrac- tion of the surface A C, into violet v, green g, and red 1 7; the green ray being, as in the former figure, parallel to the base of the prism AB: the red ray, after three reflexions, emerges at 47, at agreater angle of refraction than the direct ray 1 r, and, supposing the angle of dispersion formed by the violet and the red rays with the green ray equal, parallel to the violet ray ; consequently, and for the reasons assigned with regard to violet light, the ray, after three reflexions, will form an image in the spectrum above the red and below the violet images; it must, therefore, either be a distinct image, or be blended with the green; and, if with the green, with the lower part of it; for, although, to render the subject more simple, we have assumed the dis- persion of the violet and red rays, from the mean ray, equal, Composition of White Light. 97 it is well known that the dispersion of the red light in glass is less than the violet, and, therefore, the red ray after three reflexions will be less elevated than is here represented. The red ray after six reflexions, will emerge below the direct ray, and parallel to it; so as to form with it, and any other reflexions, multiples of six, an elongated image in the spectrum ; but as the angle of dispersion in red is less than in violet light, the reflected rays approach nearer to the direct ray, and the elongation of the red light is less con- siderable; the images being in a greater degree superposed. We thus account for the formation of blue and yellow light, by the intersection of rays nearly parallel, though of different refrangibility ; we give a probable reason for the presence of chemical rays at one end of the spectrum, and heating rays at the other; both being produced by reflected images, invisible from their low intensity, when, if our preliminary observations be correct, the light is more readily absorbed ; we also account for the increased elongation of the spectrum in strong light; and for various appearances in it, when subjected to the action of absorbing media. Such a concurrence of circumstances can scarcely be attributed to mere chance; and, connected with the con- siderations previously advanced, although it may not be sufficient to prove the truth of our hypothesis, at least gives it a claim to farther inquiry. It must be observed, however, that although, upon further investigation, this hypothesis may fail to account for those appearances in the spectrum, which may be supposed to support the idea of innumerable degrees of refrangibility, it will not by any means invalidate the proofs that are advanced in this paper of the erroneous character of this doctrine, which are per- fectly independent of it; the only difference this failure would make, would be, that we should have to direct our inquires to other probable causes; and several readily offer themselves to our consideratjon. When the spectrum is formed by suffering the unob- structed light of the sun to fall on a prism, and its coloured images fall perpendicularly on a screen, there will be observed a disposition in the red part of the spectrum, par- ticularly in the lower part of it, to assume a circular form ; and upon looking at the spectrum through coloured glasses, VOL, III. H 98 Mr. Cooper on the Colours that enter into the not only the red, but, also, the green and the violet images, may be seen of this form, quite separated from each other, and without the appearance of any intermediate light. I have not yet seen the three images together by this method, but the green and red, and the violet and red, may be made to appear at the same time, without difficulty. In making these experiments, it will be observed that the red image assumes its circular form in consequence of the absorbtion of another red image immediately above it; this red image, which is removed with great facility by means of blue glass, is, probably, formed by the red light after three reflexions. Now, all these circular images of the sun, in both methods of making the experiments, must be formed of homogeneous light. What then becomes of the innumerable other circles formed by the intermediate rays? Surely it will not be said that these are absorbed, leaving only one of each colour. I will not attempt to answer such an objection, because I do not think it will be made; and, as I see no other that can be made, the conclusion, that there are only three colours, and three degrees of refrangibility, appears to me to be obvious. Upon the same principle, and by the same means, that circular bodies, when seen through a prism, produce as many round images as there are homogeneous rays, correct images of the different forms of other bodies may be pro- duced; and the number of these images depends, in like manner, on the number of homogeneous rays which they emit, or by which they are illuminated. If we look through a prism, held vertically, at the flame of a candle, it produces a spectrum, which increases in length by increasing the distance of the prism; and if, when at a sufficient distance, we interpose coloured glasses, we may obtain images of the flame ef the candle, which in every respect, except in colour, correspond with the original, and with each other, in red, green, and violet light. Ido not recollect producing the three images together, but they may be produced either separately, or in pairs, with the greatest facility, and with perfect correctness; the wick of the candle, and every circumstance attending it, being as distinct as in white light, when viewed by the eye without the prism. Composition of White Light. 99 There is an argument in favour of a limited number of degrees of refrangibility, if arguments were necessary where facts are so abundant, which deserves consideration. The rays of light of different colours, I have already observed, are independent of each other; and this independence is so complete, that in every part of the retina there is a distinct channel of communication for each colour, which, when the ray it is designed for is absent, remains unemployed.* * This view of the subject will satisfactorily account for the production of a black accidental image, by the alternate action of complementary colours, viewed in the manner proposed by M. Plateau, [6.*] whose method of producing this effect I was unacquainted with at the time it was written; if we view crimson and green, or any other complementary colours alternately, the effect, to be con- sistent with these observations, ought to be the same as when we look upon both colours together, as they are reflected from a white object. I cannot see, in this experiment, any thing opposed to the theory of accidental colours most generally admitted, as it is, I think correctly, stated by M. Plateau at the commencement of the paper [1.] I admit that if what follows [2.] be really a fact, ‘‘ that accidental colours may be seen in perfect darkness,” this theory is unsatisfactory ; but I am not acquainted with any clearly established case of the kind. I confess, however, that from the defective state of my eyes, I have been unable to make some experiments which would enable me to speak more decidedly on this point. White light, so weak as to be imperceptible in this state, is frequently rendered visible, and, in some cases even brilliant, by withdrawing either one, or two, of its constituent colours. This may be proved by several experiments that are familiar to us. 7 The production of colours, on the pressure of the eye-ball, and in several cases of the disease of the organ, as well as those cases where its appearance is altogether the work of the imagination, ought, in my opinion, to be excluded from this class of phenomena ; we otherwise confound appearances which have a totally different origin. These colours are generally uncertain ; whereas, those which are, I think improperly, termed accidental colours, are always complementary to the primary colours, with reference to the light with which they are seen; and, of course, when this light is white, the accidental are truly complementary colours ; generally, however, of less intensity than the primary colours ; because the sensibility of the eye to the latter, though lessened by its previous action, is seldom, in these expe- riments, entirely removed, and the accidental colour is, consequently, diluted with white light. . In cases where the accidental colour is seen with light of a much lower inten- sity, as, for instance, when the eyes are closed after being impressed with the primary colour, the eye appears to be totally insensible to the latter, in its reduced state, and the accidental colour is thus rendered very brilliant. Black accidental images may be accounted for on the same principle: [4] the eye is rendered less sensible to all the colours by the contemplation of white light, and insensible to light of a much lower intensity ; when any part of it, therefore, is impressed with strong white light, and the eye is then exposed to weaker light, that part of it, thus impressed, is insensible to it, and forms a corresponding black * Records, vol. ii. p. 281. H 2 100 Mr. Cooper on the Colours that enter into the A little consideration will convince us, of the necessity of such an arrangement; for, if the atoms of light of differen t eolours mixed indiscriminately with each other, which would be a necessary consequence of their being trans- mitted by a path common to the whole, it would be im- possible, after the numerous intersections which perpetually occur, that light should re-appear, when proper means are taken for its separation, precisely in the state it was at first produced. Hence it is, that when the sensibility of the eye has been impaired by the action of light of any particular colour, its complementary colour, when presented to it, produces a vivid sensation; and when both colours are presented together, in the form of white light, the effect of the latter, communicated through channels hitherto unem- ployed, gives such a decided preponderance to the sensation image ; if the light to which the eye is exposed be of equal intensity, the image is gray, or black diluted with white. The lessened sensibility of the eye, when impressed to light of equal intensity, and its total insensibility to light of a lower intensity, is an important distinction, in strict analogy with our other senses, and verified in a great number of instances ; it is upon the latter principle, that weak light, such as shadows, the reflexion from the first surface of transparent media in Mr. Tomlinson’s experiments, &c., so readily assumes the complementary tint of the colour to which the eye has been previously exposed. Accidental colours of impressions destroy direct corresponding impressions, [5] by converting the white light, which generally accompanies the distinguishing colour, into the complementary colour of the object ; by which means, the whole is reduced to weak white light, or assumes an appearance between black and white. In some cases, an instance of which, is: mentioned in page 178, the acci- dental colour, thus produced, is more than sufficient to neutralise the direct light, and the object then assumes the complementary tint. (See introductory remarks on the Effect of Contrast, p.177. See, also, the conclusion of the inferences drawn from the subject to which this note has reference, which presents the same principle in a different form.) The same principle, I apprehend, applies to the explanations of Sir David Brewster’s experiment, with the red wax, described in page 183. The lessened sensibility of the eye to the colour of the wax, by its previous action, is rendered total by the stronger light of the candle ; and the rays of the other colours, which, in this case, as well as almost every other, accompany it in the state of white light, are thus rendered visible under the appearance of a weak phosphorescent colour. The simple theory which I have advocated, accounts so readily for a large class of phenomena, extended by including the effects of contrast ; and it bears such a striking analogy in its application, to the known operations of our other senses, that I cannot surrender it without much stronger proofs of its inadequacy, than any which I am yet acquainted with. I am glad the subject is about to undergo a thorough investigation, by a philo- sopher, whose recent discoveries connected with it, lead us to anticipate much valuable information. Composition of White Light. 101 produced by its own colour, that the white light appears wholly converted to it: it is, in fact, no longer white light, but the complementary colour, diluted with white light in proportion to the state of sensibility in which the previously employed parts of the eye meet the primary colour; white light in this, and in every other instance, is formed not in proportion to the quantity of light of the different colours present, but in proportion to the sensations pro- duced by them. Now, if a distinct means of communication be necessary for each colour, in every point of the retina upon which a ray of white light falls, which, from various considerations, appears to me to be very evident, how is it possible such an arrangement could be made if the colours, instead of being limited to three, were innumerable ? But, what renders the doctrine still more suspicious, is, that it is unnecessary; for, according to this hypothesis, all these simple colours may be imitated by a composition of neighbouring colours; so that, it would appear, nature has provided two causes, or distinct methods, to produce one and the same effect; a prodigality of which, I believe, we have no other instance. In conclusion, I beg, Sir, to apologize for having occupied so many of your. valuable pages; the title I have chosen for my paper has given me such an ample scope, that, though I fear I have already been tiresome, I might have greatly extended the subject without passing its boundaries. The character of light, in its most extended sense, would include almost every branch of Science; great and admirable as are the properties by which it is made the medium of our com- munication with distant objects, I have no hesitation in say- ing, that its application to other purposes, is of even higher importance ; the whole system of nature seems to be depen- dant upon it; and its material qualities, which modern philosophers, from having confined their attention to a very limited part of the subject, have dismissed as useless, will be found essential in every part of her economy. The theory upon which these views are founded, claims my confidence, by connecting, upon the most simple princi- ples, the whole phenomena of nature ; whether displayed by her ordinary means, or elicited by the aid of experiment. It is not, therefore, upon light grounds, that I have ven- 102 Mr. Cooper on the Colours that enter into the tured to give an opinion with regard to the material cha- racter of light, so decidedly opposed to the present prevailing theory. I am too well aware of the ease with which a plausible hypothesis may be formed to meet a limited class of facts, to place any reliance upon those numerous specula- tions which obtrude themselves upon the theorist, in the course of his investigations, and which, from their equal pretensions, frequently form one of his greatest difficulties ; but, when a theory presents itself which enables me to trace the different operations of nature with the same ease that I follow the train of a well connected piece of machinery ; when, assuming the principles of this theory, I am led to discoveries, which so correctly correspond with the results of these operations, as to convince me they are its necessary consequences; when, again, after a lapse of many years, during which numerous discoveries have been published, I find the whole of these discoveries either previously attached to it, or readily included in it without the slightest altera- tion, I can no longer doubt its claim to my confidence, or hesitate in giving an opinion under its sanction. The chief support of the undulatory theory, arises from an erroneous conclusion, that the interference of light must necessarily be a destructive interference. I freely admit, that if the annihilation of light were satisfactorily established, the material theory must instantly fall to the ground; but something more than the gratuitous assumption of the fact is required to prove it. Iam prepared to show, that in eases of interference, the light never arrives at the points where it is supposed to be destroyed ; and that the cause of this is connected with a property of light of the most exten- sive utility. I must, observe, however, that a great part of those cases of the production of colours, which have been attributed to interference, may be accounted for upon the principle of refraction; and, with your permission, I propose giving some instances of this, connected with other subjects, ina future communication. In the mean time, I hope the subject of these papers will not be considered unworthy the attention of some of your correspondents: There is scarcely a modern treatise on optics that does not give Newton’s Scale of Colours as the foundation of the science ; and, perhaps, in some other part En Composition of White Light. 103 of the work, states that other philosophers, among which, the author is in some instances included, have adopted opinions opposed to it; this contradiction, which» must necessarily extend to the branches connected with this im- portant part of the subject, not only indicates a state of un- certainty in science, which it is desirable to remove; but it also presents to the inexperienced reader a source of diffi- culty, which must considerably impede his progress; on both these accounts, and for many other reasons which have been stated in the progress of this inquiry, the question claims our consideration. Pavuu Cooper. Bawlish, 25th November, 1835. To the Editor of the Records of General Science. Arricze IIT. Water of the Elton, Dead, and Caspian Seas.* Tux Elton Sea lies to the east of the Volga, 274 versts (1814 miles), south from Saratov. Its greatest diameter, from east to west, is 17 (114 miles), and its smallest dia- meter 13 versts, (83 miles). The specifie gravity of the water, at 538°, is 1-27288, according to Rose. Its contents are according to Rose and Erdmann :— ROSE. ERDMANN. Chloride of sodium, . . . 383 . . . 71°35 Chloride of potassium, . . Pulley abe Chloride of magnesium, . . 1975 . . . 165°39 Sulphate of magnesia, . . S532. .- - 18°58 Sulphate oflime, . . - - + aie ‘36 Sulphate ofsoda, . . . - 5 Moen eee Carbonate of magnesia, . - siete ds 38 Water and organic matter, . 7087 . . - 740-10 100070 : . .« 1000-00 When the temperature of the sea falls, Epsom salt pre- cipitates. Here it is evident that the specific gravity and composition must change with the temperature. The shore of the Elton sea exhibits, in summer, crystals of gypsum and common salt; and, in winter, besides. these, Epsom salt, which, in summer, is again dissolved, so that pure * Poggendorff’s Annalen, xxxv. 169. 104 Water of the Elton, Dead, common salt may be obtained here. In the cool sum- mer nights, according to Pallas, Epsom salt is deposited, and is again dissolved during the day. The greater the quantity of chloride of magnesium and Epsom salt, so much the less is there of common salt; which, from the elevation of the temperature, dissolves in no greater quan- tity in the same. Hence, the reason for the small quantity of common salt which Rose obtained. When an analysis of such a saturated water is given, it is absolutely necessary to give the specific gravity and the temperature. The reasons given are sufficient to account for the difference in the two analyses. Erdmann found the constituents of the Bogden sea, sul phateor dimes Oy see ob. "74 Sulphate of magnesia, . . . . 10°30 Sulphate ofsoda, . . . . . 215°76 Mauriate‘ot lime 0.2.6 or oe SSS Muriate of magnesia, . . . . 48°63 Waterco. al corotate ater hohe db ee 1000-00 The water of the Elton sea resembles that of the Dead sea, but the latter has a less specific gravity, and a smaller - quantity of solid constituents. The quantity of salt dimi- nishes when theJordan is overflowed. Gay Lussac allowed the water to cool to 19°-4 F. without separating any salt. While Klaproth states, that at the bottom of the flask which con- tained the specimen which he examined, crystals of com- mon salt were deposited which soon disappeared. The specific gravity of the Dead Sea varies, and the reason is obvious. Macquer, Lavoisier, and Sage found it 1-240; Marcet and Tennant 1:211; Klaproth 1-245; Gay Lussac at 62°-6, 1-2283; Hermbstadt at 60°, 1:240. The propor- tion of ingredients also varies. Gay Lussac found them 26-24 per cent.—consisting of chlorides of sodium, cal- cium, magnesium, and potassium, and traces of gypsum, differing from that of the Elton Sea by the absence of Epsom salt, and the presence of chloride of calcium. According to Marcet, the specific gravity of the water of the Sea of Urmia is 116507, and its constituents 22°3 per cent, consisting of common salt, Epsom salt, and sulphate of soda. The saline contents of Urmia and the Dead Sea and Caspian Seas. 105 are, therefore, inferior to those of the Elton Sea. Rose has appropriated all the sulphuric acid to the magnesia, because he has found that when common salt and Epsom salt are dissolved in a sufficient quantity of water and eva- porated in a summer heat, the two salts separate; and when much common salt is dissolved along with a small quantity of Epsom salt, a part of the common salt separates first, and then the Epsom salt, while common salt remains in solu- tion ; as by the heat of summer, Epsom salt is less soluble than common salt. When the temperature is raised above 122° F., or sunk to zero, in both cases, glauber salt and chloride of magnesium are formed. Rose found the specific gravity of water brought from the Caspian sea 75 versts from the islands formed by the Volga, at 543°, 1:0013; and its contents, Mhiloride of soda, woh li. skh. °754 Sulphate.of sodas nIilsone sop! yuiel syoald 036 Salphateefilimiess ial sy yey eo sttiang at’ “406 Bicarbonate of, lime, .»).)). a(si);h6 4 ohn ube me ‘018 Bicarbonate of magnesia,. . . *440 Water with asmall quantity of eee master , 998°346 1000-000 ArticLe IV. The Action of Isinglass in clearing Malt Liquor explained. By Mr. Samvuex Rozerts. In explaining the action of Isinglass in clearing malt liquor, two subjects present themselves for particular consideration. The first is the nature and properties of Isinglass. The second is the change which takes place in malt liquor during the process of fermentation. The best Isinglass is obtained from the sounds of the fish of the genus Accipenser, especially from the Sturgeon, found in the Danube, and the rivers of Muscovy. It is also obtained from the sounds of the Beluga, and Huso Germanorum.* Isinglass is almost entirely gelatine, 98 parts in every 100 of good isinglass being soluble in boiling water. * Very pure Isinglass is also procured from the American fish, Gadus merluccius. The long stripes of Isinglass met with in commerce, are from the Gadus morrhua, See Records, vol, i. 239.—Enpiv. 106 Mr. Roberts on the Action of Isinglass The properties of gelatine must therefore be considered, it being analogous to pure Isinglass. Gelatine is distinguished from all animal principles, by its ready solubility in boiling water, and also in most of the diluted acids, which form excellent solvents for it. Gelatine is perfectly insoluble in alcohol, and almost equal- ly so in cold water. + It is precipitated from its solutions by infusions of tannin. An infusion or tincture of galls, will precipitate it from its solution in 5000 times its weight of water. These are briefly the properties of gelatine, or pure Isin- glass, which should be borne in mind in operating on it. A great variety of Isinglass is offered for sale, at a range of prices from three, to sixteen shillings per pound; and the relative value of each kind may be known by the follow- ing tests : In the first place, Isinglass should remain unchanged by being steeped in spirit of wine or alcohol, from 50° to 60° over proof, in which gelatine (the chemical principle of Isinglass) is insoluble. The alcohol, or spirit of wine, in which the isinglass has been steeped, should then be tried with a few drops of tincture of galls; if the liquor remain clear and unchanged, it is much in favour of the character of the Isinglass. If, on the other hand, the tincture of galls causes a precipitate from the alcoholic liquor, the Isinglass is not pure, as it contains something more than pure gelatine. Different samples of Isinglass which have remained un- changed in alcohol or spirit of wine, should also be tried by the two following methods, before an opinion can be given as to their relative value. Try given weights of each sample (one-eighth of an ounce for instance) in three ounces of water by measure) in separate vessels; bring them gradually to a boil, occasionally stirring each sample. While hot, strain the different solutions through muslin, into separate vessels. In proportion to the quantity of undissolved matter left upon each strainer, may the solubility of the different sam- ples be ascertained ; that which leaves the least residuum will form, when cold, the strongest jelly, upon which the clearing property of Isinglass depends. The remaining trial to which the different samples are to be submitted, is the last and most decisive one. Equal weights of each sample. in Clearing Malt Liquor. 107 (the one-fourth of an ounce, for instance), are to be cut into very small pieces, and each one-fourth of an ounce put into half-a-pint, (imperial measure) of hard or sour beer, and the several vessels containing the different samples put into an apartment, at from 65° to 75° F., and allowed to remain there for three days, stirring each sample very well, once or twice a-day. At the expiration of that time, there will be an evident difference in the strength of each jelly, provided different qualities of Isinglass had been submitted to the experiment, and when the thickest jelly has a small quantity of the tincture of galls applied to it, and stirred through it, it will separate the gelatine from the sample of Isinglass in the form of a thick jelly. The other samples which afforded a less solid jelly, will give, with tincture of galls when stirred through it, asmaller quantity of gelatine in the form of thick jelly. From the strength of the jelly given, by any sample of Isinglass steeped in the above proportion of sour beer, (such as brewers use in making clearings), and submitted to a temperature not exceeding 75° F., may be ascertained the relative value of that sample, as upon the strength of the jelly, and, consequently, the quantity of gelatine contained in any Isinglass, depends its value in clearing malt liquor. The best short-staple Isinglass is always soluble in boiling water to about ;1, residue. In the preparation of brewers’ clearings, Isinglass, of a good quality, is steeped in acid beer, in an apartment of about 50° F. temperature. After some time, the Isinglass is converted into a jelly by the acidity of the hard beer, it being one of the qualities of gelatine to be soluble in dilute acids. An advantage arises to the brewer, in always making his clearings from sour beer of an uniform strength of acidity, by which means he is protected from any disappointment resulting from the strength of the clearings he uses, pro- vided he was previously aware of the good quality of the Isinglass, he submitted to. the action of the sour beer. A simple method may be taken to try the acidity of malt liquor, of which a brewer intends to make clearings. Make a standard liquor of one part (by weight) of the bi-carbonate of potash, dissolved in sixteen parts (by measure) of water. 108 Mr. Roberts on the Action of Isinglass Suppose, for example, that sixteen fluid ounces of the acid porter to be tried, is put into a vessel that will contain about double that quantity. Carefully measure a given portion of the standard liquor, say four fluid ounces. Add small quantities of this standard liquor to the’acid porter (stirring the mixture upon every addition), until the effervescence ceases, or until the mixture is so neutralized by the standard liquor, as not to change the colour of litmus paper when it is dipped in. The mix- ture may further be tried by turmeric paper, which should be changed to a higher colour by the mixture, thereby showing that the alkali of the standard liquor is slightly in excess.—By the quantity of standard liquor required to produce this result, may be known the greater or less degree of acidity of the porter to be used for making clearings. Sixteen fluid ounces of acid porter, such as is used by one of the largest breweries in Ireland for making clearings, standing 1° Twaddle’s hydrometer, 61° F. temperature, re- quired four fluid ounces of standard liquor to neutralize it, which is equal to 1 part bi-carbonate of potash to 64 parts of acid porter. This appears a good average strength of acidity for por- ter, when required for making clearings. If acid porter required less standard liquor to neutralize it than the above quantity, it would indicate a weakness of acidity, which would render such porter an imperfect solvent for Isinglass. _ Acid porter, such as the above trial was made with, acts upon Isinglass, at 61° F., but its action is much facilitated by an increase of temperature of 80° or 90° F. During the fermentation of malt liquor, the saccharine matter of the malt is gradually converted into alcohol, by the agency of yeast and atmospheric air; ultimately the liquor passes from the vinous into the acetous fermentation. This latter state is prevented by the exclusion of atmo- spheric air; hence, the necessity of bunging securely malt liquor, when the vinous fermentation is complete, other- wise the liquor will become sour. It is when unfined porter is put into casks, and the vinous fermentation has, either in part or entirely, ceased, that brewers apply the clearings to the best advantage. The manner in which Isinglass acts upon unfined liquor in clear- in Clearing Malt Liquor. 109 ing or fining it, is by two properties of gelatine (the chemi- eal principle of Isinglass). First, its solubility in weak or dilute acids; and, secondly, by being perfectly insoluble in alcohol, and sparingly soluble in cold water. When clearings, or isinglass, in combination with sour or acid beer, is applied to malt liquor in a state of vinous fermentation, the alcohol of the liquor disengages the gela- tine of the Isinglass from its solution in the acid porter, and, being thus liberated, it carries with it the impurities of the liquor which were suspended in it. The following experiments will better illustrate the theory : Mix a small quantity of brewers’ clearings with cold water. Inashort time the greatest part of the Isinglass will be separated. Filter the mixture through paper, and if a few drops of tincture of galls be added to the filtered liquor, a small portion of gelatine will be precipitated. This shows that the acid of the clearings held a small quantity of the gelatine in solution. This is further proved by adding to the filtered solution as above, a few drops of liquor of ammonia, instead of tincture of galls. The liquor of ammonia should be cautiously added in sufficient quan- tity, to neutralize the acid contained in the clearings, when the gelatine, which was previously held in solution by the acid, is liberated. By this experiment is shown, the solubility of Isinglass in acid porter, and nearly its total insolubility in cold water. Again, dilute a small quantity of clearings with cold water, until its acidity is so far overcome, as not to redden litmus paper, when applied to it. The Isinglass of the clearings will be completely separated from the mixture ; for, if a few drops of the tincture of galls be added to the filtered solution, it will remain unchanged. Add warm water, at about 180° F., to another small por- tion of clearings, until the liquor is so much diluted as not to affect litmus paper when dipped in it, as in the previous experiment. Filter the liquor through paper, when cold. Gelatine will be detected in this solution by adding a few drops of tincture of galls. This shows the solubility of Isinglass in hot water. 110 Notice of some Recent The next experiments will more clearly show the influ- ence of alcohol in separating gelatine from its solution in weak acid, by which its action in clearing porter in a state of vinous fermentation, is explained. To sixty parts of cold water, add one part of alcohol, and into this mixture put a small quantity of clearings. In a short time the Isinglass will be separated from the mixture, and the liquor will be clear and bright. If, however, the liquor be filtered, and a few drops of tincture of galls be added to the filtered solution, a small portion of gelatine will be disengaged. This is caused by the free acid of the sour porter, of which the clearings are made, holding this small portion of gela- tine in solution, as it may likewise be separated by adding a few drops of liquor of ammonia, instead of tincture of galls. Reverse the experiment by using hot water at 180° F., instead of cold, adding the same quantity of alcohol and clearings, as in the former experiment. After the mixture has been allowed to settle for a few hours, it will be found that there is but a partial separation of the Isinglass, and the liquor will not be so clear as in the former trial, the reason of which is, that the hot water dis- solves, and retains in solution a portion of the Isinglass of the clearings, the remaining part being separated by the alcohol, in which it is insoluble. The effect would be ex- actly similar upon malt liquor, if clearings were applied to it which had been made with an excess of acid beer. The alcohol of the unfined porter would disengage but a small portion of Isinglass from the clearings, the remainder being held in solution by the excess of acid in the porter, the disengaged gelatine carrying with it particles of vegetable matter, which, when suspended in the liquor, rendered it but semi-transparent. S. R. ARTICLE V. Notice of some Recent Improvements in Science. I, ACOUSTICS. Nodes of vibration.—By comparing the theory of musical strings and rods with that of musical pipes, Weber has ee <5. Improvements in Science. 111 endeavoured to bring the latter to the same state of ad- vancement as the first. In regard to the theory of strings and rods, he has brought forward several new facts. In musical rods, hitherto, the situation of the nodes of vibra- tion, was only known by means of empirical rules laid down by Chladni. These gave a very uncertain result, so that Chladni recommended in acoustic experiments, the tight application of a soft roller of cork or caoutchouc to each rod, in order to produce a pure note. Weber shows,* that Euler has given an equation which exhibits in all cases the situation of the node of vibration, and which, is to be employed for fastening the rods, so that they give pure and powerful notes. By this equation, the situation of the node of vibration is shewn to be for The fundamental tone (grundton) 0:2240 from each end. The first falsetto tone . . . 0°13205 from each end and in the middle. 0:09435 0°35535 When a cord, as commonly happens, is stretched between two fixed points and struck, it takes between these two points a curved position, and consequently, a greater length with necessarily a greater tension. The influence of this greater tension must become greater in proportion to the extent which the cords have for vibrating in; and, hence, it follows, that the tone of the cord when it is strong, must be higher than when it is weak. This difference is parti- cularly remarkable, when the tension of the cord is not great. In most stringed instruments, however, it is not observable to the ear. Should, says Weber, more instru- ments be constructed in future, after the manner of the mercantile harmonichord, where each tone swells and de- creases by itself; so it will lead to dissonance, when no compensation is allowed for greater tension combined with greater vibration. This compensation, is, therefore, pro- duced by bending the cord over two bridges, in such a manner, that it may pass over the one and under the other. The angle of these bridges is not sharp but round, and should the cord be struck, so that the vibration happens in one of the bridges’ vertical planes, so by great vibrations, The second falsetto tone from each end. * Jahresbericht, 1834, Poggendorff’s Ann, xxviii, 1. 112 Notice of some Recent a portion of the cord will unfold itself upon the bridges, the vibrating cord will thus be lengthened and the tension diminished. By this means, the duration of the vibration will be increased which had been lessened by the greater tension; it becomes no difficult calculation, to find the proportion at which both influences compensate themselves, and at which this practical correction is available. The experiments of Weber and Hallstrom upon com- pound tones did not agree, but by new researches, the for- mer has ascertained, that one and the same cord (without re- ference to the falsetto tone) gives not merely one fundamen- tal tone (grundton) but two, and, perhaps more, but which cannot be discriminated. When these tones are produced at the same time, a sound which is marked as false affects the ear. Wherefore this, which was not before taken into ac- count by the theory, has its foundation in the circumstance, that, in the theory, the cords are considered as very flexible fibrous bodies, as bodies which do not occur in nature, while yet they may be so fine and so long, especially when they are made of metal, as to be considered elastic rods. Weber made some trials with fine and large brass, and iron wire, and found the deviations to increase with the thickness of the cord and hardness of the metal. Since, by calculat- ing these results, we find a certain agreement with natural phenomena, Weber thinks, that a more rigid theoretical cal- culation would explain the variations in the tones obtained by Baron Blein, and also in the organ pipes described in Hallstrom’s experiments. 2. Strehlke* has published a mathematical paper upon the situation of the nodes of vibration in straight elastic rods, which vibrate transversely when both ends are free. The object in view, is the same as that obtained by Bernoulli and Ricatti. The calculations are accompanied by experi- ments which’shew their agreement with theory. 3. M. Cagniard Letour+ has found, Ist, that the tone pro- duced by the longitudinal vibration of a metallic rod be- comes neither higher nor deeper, by tempering the rods with hammers. 2nd, A steel-wire tempered by sudden cooling, gives, in longitudinal vibrations, a deeper tone * Poggendorff’s Annalen, xxvii. 515 ; xxix. 512, + Journal de Chim. Med. ix, 309. Improvements in Science. 113 than when not tempered. 3rd, A tuning fork hammered hard gives a longer tone than one heated. 4th, The rapidity of sound appears to be equal in ice and water, at 32°. The experiments of the same author upon the vibration of liquids have been already noticed.* 4. Pellisor has endeavoured to form a theory of acoustical instruments.+ He considers that the sound consists of the vibration of the molecules, or smallest portions of the sounding body, and not, as Chladni and Weber consider, in the total vibration. He brings forward the following ex- periment to support his position. If we sound one of the strings of an instrument by pulling it in the middle with the fingers, it soon ceases to sound, notwithstanding, it makes vibrations a line broad; but on the other hand, the tone of the string, when sounded bya tangent force, is very strong, while the vibrations have scarce an appreciable width. 5. Method of tuning a Guitar without the assistance of the ear.{ This method, proposed by M. Bary, professor of Physics, at the Royal College of Charlemagne, in Paris, depends on the circumstance, that the communication of vibratory sounds is most effective through elastic media, when the bodies in the vicinity of the original vibrated body are capable of vibrating in unison with them. When, therefore, two strings fastened near each other possess, for their concord, the necessary tension and length, and one of them is made to sound, the vibrations are, with much force, transferred to the other, and this transference can be made, as Saveur has shown, perceptible to the eye, by placing a saddle of paper upon the string, at first, ina state of rest. When this string hears the other, the saddle will be shaken, and fall off. When both strings are in harmony, the paper will be very little, or not at all shaken, 6. Effect of Sound on the Barometer.—Sir H. Englefield, while at Brussels, in 1773, made some experiments on this subject. The barometer was fixed in the opening of a window, in the north-east tower of the church of St. Gudule, about 7 feet from the summit of the bell. Mr. Pigott found the height of the barometer 29°478 inches. It did not vary * Records of General Science, vol. i. 98. + Jahrbuck der Chemie und Physik, vii. and viii. ¢t Poggendorff’s Annalen, xxxy, 524. VOL, II. J 114 Notice of some Recent until the clapper was loosened, when the mercury rose and continued to undergo a kind of starting, every time that the clapper struck the bell. Mr. Pigott observed the height of the mercury, during the sounding, 29°469. Sir H. Engle- field found its maximum height 29°480, minimum 29°474 ; maximum 29°482, minimum 29.472. Hence, the effect of sound upon the barometer extends to the 25,5 and zo405 of an inch.* It is remarkable, that Pigott generally made the height ;,;5 less than Englefield. The latter attributes such discordances to the difference in the eyesight. Il. OPTICS. 1. Stroboscope.—Stampfer has invented some interesting stroboscopical tables, or glasses, founded upon a similar principle with the traumatoscopical figures. The first idea of this instrument originated with Plateau. He termed it phenakisticope.+ By turning a wheel, figures are seen to walk, jump, pump water, &c. The table, or plate, is cir- cular, and moves round on its centre. The actions consist of 8 or 10 postures. If it is wished to represent a man bowing, the first position is, a man standing straight; in the second, he has a slight inclination; in the third, still more; and so on to the sixth position, where he has the greatest flexure; the four following represent the figure recovering its straight posture, so that the fifth and seventh, the fourth and eighth, the third and ninth, the second and tenth figures have the same posture. Between each of the figures on the periphery of the plate, there is a slit 3 inch long, and + inch wide, in a direction parallel with the radii of the plate, and extending to an equal distance from the centre. If the i image is placed before a mirror, and the plate is made to swing round on its centre, while we look through the apertures held before the eye, we shall observe in the mirror, the figures bowing continually, and with a rapidity proportionate to the rate at which the plate turns round. The illusion depends on the circumstance, that the plate between each aperture is covered, while the figure goes farther. That the deception may be complete, it is * Young’s Lectures, ii. 269, + Correspond. Math. et Phys. de l’Observatorie de Bruxelles, June, 1833. Jahresbericht, 1834, 22. Improvements in Science. 115 necessary, that every part of the figures which is not bow- ing shall be at an absolutely equal distance from the centre of the plate, and from the opening in the periphery, and also, that the figures possess equal thickness and colour. 2. Photometer of Maistre.* —This instrument consists of two equal prisms laid upon each other, so as to form an even plate. One prism is formed of dark blue glass, and where the acute angle lies upon the base of the white prism, the diameter of the blue glass is small, and then constantly increases to the point where the edge of the white prism lies upon the base of the blue. By a compari- son of unequal parts of the prism, where the light ter- minates, a comparison is obtained between the different intensities of light. Quetelet has formed a photometer upon a similar principle. 3.Influence of Colour on the radiation of non-luminous heat. —In 1833, Dr. Stark published an experimental inquiry on the alleged influence of colour on the radiation of non- luminous heat.}+ Mr. Powell, of Oxford, soon after objected to these experiments,{ considering them inapplicable. Professors Bache and Courtenay, of the University of Pennsylvania,§ have, since the publication of Dr. Stark’s paper, taken up the investigation, and confirm the objec- tions, in some measure, of Mr. Powell, especially, in re- ference to the experiments upon the absorption of radiant heat, as. tested by the inverse of Count Rumford’s method for comparing the conducting powers of substances used for clothing ; also, as tested by the effect of the heat from the flame of an argand gas burner, thrown by a mirror upon the bulb of an air thermometer which was variously coated. Of the same class, also, were the experiments on radiation as tested by the method used by Count Rumford already mentioned; the enveloping materials of the inner thermometer being wools of different colours, and coloured wheat paste, An unexceptionable mode in the view of Mr. Bache, which was adopted by Dr. Stark, was that of filling a glass globe with hot water; and covering it with different pigments. Mr. Powell disapproved of this method, unless the radiating covering of the globe were equalized in re- * Jahresbericht, vi. 34. + Philos. Transact., 1833. t Edinburgh Journal. § Journal of the Franklin Institute, November, 4835, ie 116 Notice of some Recent spect to thickness, conducting power, density, &c., and referred to the experiments of Sir John Leslie, in which, equal quantities of different radiating substances were dis- solved, and spread upon a surface for comparison. Mr. Bache answers, ‘‘ that equal thicknesses of substances, possessing different radiating powers, should be compared together, seems to me, disproved by the law established by Sir John Leslie’s own experiments, viz., that radiation takes place, not only from the surface, but in a thickness, which is-appreciated in good radiators. Thus, when dif- ferent coatings of jelly were applied in succession upon one of the sides of the cube, in Professor Leslie’s experiments, the radiation increased with the thickness up to a certain point. The effect of the conducting power appears, by the same experiment, to be so small, that an increase of the thickness in the bad conductor was actually more than compensated for, by the increased radiating power. The influence of density on conducting power is well known ; but the effect of either, as controlling the radiating power of a substance, or as modifying it, is, | apprehend, yet to be appreciated.” Mr. Bache employed, in his experiments, tin cylinders 2 inches high, and 14 in diameter, closed at the bottom with a slightly conical tube fitted to the top, to receive a perforated cork, through which the stem of a thermo- meter was admitted. The colouring matter, whose in- fluence on the radiation was to be determined, was applied to the cylinder, which was filled with hot water, and the time of cooling noted. The results which he obtained are decidedly unfavourable to the specifie effect of colour in determining the radiating powers of bodies. In one set of experiments exhibited in a table, blue is above black in the beginning of the table, and occurs again at the 18th place. Although the first seven numbers were blue or black, the 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th were white, black, blue and white respectively. White is in the greater number of cases in the middle part of the table, ranging close to black. Hence, it is concluded, that the alleged advan- tages of dark clothing, during cold weather, has been too hastily inferred ; and that, if a person is not exposed to the sun, the particular colour of the clothing is not of real con- Improvements in Science. 117 sequence. Neither does roughness appear to be a determin- ing quality, for, though generally, the smooth surfaces are lower on the list, this is not universal. The rough sul- phate of barytes is lower on the list than the smooth car- bonate of lead. Plumbago occupies a low place, and Indian ink a comparatively high one. The best radiators do not appear to belong to any particular class of bodies; litmus paper and Prussian blue are next each other, while sul- phuret of lead, and bi-sulphuret of tin are separated by an interval of 15 bodies. We have no doubt, that this subject will attract more attention in this country, as it is fraught with considerable practical utility. 4. Effect of Light in magnetizing Needles.— Mr. Draper* has repeated the experiment of Mrs. Somerville, which consisted in rendering a needle magnetic by placing it under a piece of glass, or blue ribbon, having half its length protected by paper. He did not succeed. He made a very delicate ex- periment, by admitting ‘‘a divergent beam of light through a hole in the shutter of a dark room; the cone of luminous matter, at its apex, was about ;,th of an inch in diameter, and a hair, or other filament held in it, exhibited the phe- nomena of diffraction; the colours being received into the eye by a lens. Across this beam a silver wire was adjusted, and each of its extremities connected with cups of mercury, which communicated with the poles ofa voltaic battery. It was expected that, if there was any action between a mag- netic filament and light, some derangement would be seen in the diffracted fringes, when the current passed; but none such was observable.” He found also, that solar light concentrated upon a delicate needle, produced no effect, either in the air or in vacuum. ‘‘ A needle made of watch spring, about 4 inches long, which in an exhausted receiver, suspended by a filament of silk, exhibited no polarity, had one half of it exposed to the violet ray, cast by an equi- angular prism of flint glass. This ray was separated from the others, by passing it through a slit in a metallic screen, and half the needle shielded by a piece of paper. After two hours exposure, it was suspended again in the exhausted receiver, but still showed no token of polarity ; it was then exposed to the other rays successively, with the same result.” * Journal of the Franklin Institute, February, 1835, 118 Notice of some Recent Mr. Boyle found, that a piece of amber would become electrified by exposure to a sunbeam. Mr. Draper pro- duced the same effect on ruby from Ceylon, rolled sap- phire, a tourmaline, a Brazilian emerald, a topaz, and likewise glass. He attributes this to the agency of the light, and not to the heat; because, when exposed to the action of heat from another source, in the same degree, no such consequence followed. 5. Absorption of light.—The remarkable phenomena dis- covered by Sir David Brewster, of absorption in light, which has passed through certain coloured gases have been examined by Wrede.* According to him, one part of the light is retarded relatively to the other part, in a quantity proportionate to the nature of the body; and which, con- sequently, must be different in different bodies. If this hypothesis is admitted, then the phenomena discovered by Brewster follow, as a necessary consequence. Without presuming to explath in what way this retardation takes place, Wrede has calculated its effects on three different suppositions; 1. on the supposition of a simple retardation; 2. on the supposition of an infinity of partial reflexions, between the particles of matter analogous to those which take place between the two plain surfaces of a translucid body; and, 3. on the same supposition extended to a great number of particles, that is to say, supposing the influence of bodies upon light, will be the same as that of a great number of plain and equi-distant surfaces. M.Wrede has constructed the formule representing the resultant inten- sity, by taking for the abscissa of the constructed curve, the logarithms of the proportions between the retardation and the lengths of the undulation, and for the ordinates the corresponding intensities. The resulting curve re- sembles somewhat a spiral wire. The difference between the logarithms of the two num- bers, being independent of the absolute values of these numbers, the distance between two points of the axis of the abscissa, which correspond to the limits of the spec- trum, ought to be the same, whatever the extent of the retardation is; it is clear, that this distance ought to be equal to the logarithm of the proportion between the * Bibliotheque Universelle, June, 1835. Improvements in Science. 119 length of the undulation of the extreme red and extreme violet. _ The phenomena of absorption which take place in bro- mine gas and in potash-oxalate of chromium, observed by Brewster, are explained in the same manner; and, the differences which exist between these phenomena, only proceed from differences between the absolute values of the retardations. In order to explain the phenomena noticed in nitrous.acid and euchlorine, it is necessary to admit more than two retardations. This difference is not remarkable, because the gases are compounds. The spectra derived from certain coloured flames, are explained in the same manner as the phenomena of absorption. But, besides the supposition of retardations, it is necessary to admit, that certain flames give only certain kinds of light. Some of the phenomena of this kind of spectra proceed only from such a cause; such is the case, for example, in the orange tint observed in the spectrum, proceeding from the flame of a candle. Wrede has proved, that this tint, proceeds from the circumstance, that the exterior part of the flame, where true combustion takes place, affords an absolutely homogeneous light, and, consequently, undergoes no dis- persion. III. ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. 1. Method of determining the electrical conductibility of small masses.—The usual method of determining this pro- perty in bodies, consists in interposing between an electrical source and a metallic wire attached to a sensible electro- scope, the body whose conductibility is to be ascertained. For this purpose, an electrical machine, a voltaic or a dry pile is employed. Several ingenious apparatus have also been substituted. Lassaigne recommends a modifica- tion which he has found to answer. To one of the wires of Schweigger’s multiplier, he attaches a small platinum spoon, containing dilute nitric acid; above this spoon, is fixed upon a support, a small glass tube, 2°3 inches long, and ‘19 inch in diameter. A wire of red copper curved at one of its extremities, traverses it for two-thirds of its length. To this distance the wire is flattened into a spatula, or ter- minated by a disk. To this part of the wire the body to 120 Notice of some Recent be tried is attached. It is then touched on the other side with the end of the other wire of the multiplier, and then the curved portion of the copper wire is plunged into the nitric acid. Ifthe body placed between the two wires isa conductor of electricity, the magnetic needle instantly deviates. He has also found, that a thermo-electric cy- linder is very convenient; it is formed, by soldering, end to end, two small cylinders, the one of Bismuth, and the other of Antimony. When placed in a glass tube and slightly heated at the point of union, it was placed in contact on one side, with one of the wires of a multiplier, and on the other, with the substance to be tried, and touched at its opposite extremity, with the other wire of the multiplier. The results were similar to those obtained by the first method; Arsenic and Tellurium were found to be conductors.* 2. Chemical action of electrical currents.—The experiments of M. Botto, lead to the conclusion, that the direction of a magneto-electric current, has an influence like that of a hydro-electric current upon the facility which it may have in passing through the same system of conductors. Mr. Faraday has proved, that the different substances which form a circle, experience in similar circumstances, an equal magneto-electric induction, and, consequently, a tendency to produce the same current. Botto has confirmed this fact. He disposed a magneto-electric helix, having two distinct and equal ends, in such a manner, that when it was traversed in a contrary direction by two currents deve- loped by influence, these two currents neutralized them- selves. If in the circle, which these currents are obliged to traverse, we place a vessel filled with acidulated water, and communicating with the conductors on one side by a wire, on the other side by a plate of the same metal, the currents are neutralized. But, if one of them is made stronger than the other, by a change in the number of the spirals in the magneto-electric helix, the effect upon the galvanometer which results from this difference of inten- sity, is much more decided, when the most powerful cur- rent passes into the liquid from the wire to the place, than in the contrary direction. Hence, it would appear, that we are to attribute the double phenomenon which the same * Journ. de Chim. Medic. i. 650. Improvements in Science. 12] heterogeneous circle presents, under the relations of elec- tric conductibility, to the difference of chemical re-action which accompanies the passage of the currents.* 3. Employment of electricity in dissolving calculi.—M.Bonnet, Surgeon of the Hotel Dieu, at Lyons, proposes to dissolve stones in the bladder, by injecting a solution of nitrate of potash into the bladder, ‘and then introducing electrical conductors on each side of the calculus; the electrical in- fluence being exerted, will evolve nitric acid on one side, and potash on the other. So that whatever be the compo- sition of the calculus, ifsoluble in an acid or alkali, it must be acted on. When the calculus consists of plates, as in urate of ammonia and in triple phosphates, or if it is porous as in ammoniaco-magnesian phosphates, he found, that it was softened, and that its layers readily separated. A great objection to this ingenious method is its extreme tardiness. Oxalate of lime acted on by a pile of 100 pairs of 23 inch square plates was not attacked in the course ofa night; the others were partially destroyed:+ 4. Electricity developed by the friction of metals.—Becquerel discovered, that by rubbing one metal against another, placed at the two extremities of a galvanometer, an electric current is produced, in which, one ofthe metals exposed to friction is positive, and the other negative. He also shewed, that in causing some metallic dust to slide over the surface of a metal, of the same, or of a different nature, opposite electric tensions were produced in the metal, and in the dust. M. De la Rive has prosecuted the subject, and has found, that the slightest friction with the finger, or with any sub- stance, is sufficient to determine on a metallic surface a tension often remarkable. The simplest mode of perform- ing the experiment, is to bring in contact with the plate of the condenser, pieces of metal of different kinds, held by means of isolating handles, and then to rub gently the sur- face of these metals with the finger, which ought to be very dry. Employing as agents for friction, the finger, ivory, horn, cork, and other species of wood, he found, that the following metals acquired by friction negative electricity : * Bibliotheqne Universelle, february, 1835. + Ibid. April, 1835, 391, 122 Notice of some Recent Rhodium, Platinum, Palladium, Gold, Tellurium, Cobalt, and Nickel. Silver, Copper, Brass, and Tin, are also almost al- ways negative, but sometimes positive. Antimony has once or twice given positive signs. The nature of the electricity developed in Jron and Zinc was variable, although in iron, the tendency was to a negative state. Lead and Bismuth were constantly positive, the latter highly so. The circumstances under which the two electricities are developed, in respect to the uncertain metals as they may be termed, are as follow :—in very dry air, and with the fingers or wood well dried,, these metals are always nega- tive, as the surface may be well polished or more or less oxidated. When the surface rubbed is very great, and when the rubbing body is drawn along all its extent, the metal becomes positive. It becomes more readily positive, when rubbed with cork than with wood, in the same cir- cumstances. The electric effect is increased by an elevation of temperature. Iron, Zinc, and Tin, exposed for some moments to a high temperature, and rubbed immediately after upon a very smooth face, gave most frequently positive electricity, while, if in the same circumstances, the friction is performed over an angle the indications are negative. De la Rive considers, that all the metals when polished and rubbed take negative electricity, but that the more oxidizable metals, in consequence of their possessing a thin imperceptible layer of oxide on their surfaces, develope under these circumstances, positive electricity. This source of electricity should be carefully attended to in experimenting with the metals. De La Rive states his conviction, that an electrical effect has often been ascribed to contact, which was in reality to be attributed to friction. Thus, he considers it probable, that the electrical signs obtained in the experiment, when two insulated disks of copper and zine are alternately brought in contact and separated, are owing to the friction of one metal upon the other. He has produced, by friction in the method de- scribed, an electrical current, but has not obtained any in- dications of tension, because the two substances rubbed are such good conductors, that the two electricities re-unite im- mediately after their separation.* * Mem. de la Soc. de Phys. et d’Histoire Nat de Geneve, vi. 17 om Improvements in Science. 123 5. Atmospherical Electricity.—M. Matteuci has lately made some interesting experiments upon this subject. They were conducted, in what is termed in Italy, an English wood (that is, one of small extent) consisting of Robinia pseu- dacacia, Platinus Occidentalis, Gleditzia triacanthos, Mela, &§c. The electroscope with which the experiments were made consisted of astem of wood, at the extremity of which, was placed a common lamp; a copper wire conducted the electricity from the flame to an electroscope. On rainy or windy days, a very thin portion of phosphorus was sub- stituted for the lamp, and was kept in a tube of glass terminating in a point. He found, that whenever the electricity of the atmosphere is positive, (which is always the case in calm weather), it is impossible to have any traces of electricity in the interior of a wood. The most curious mode of observing it, is to move, carrying the electroscope in the hand, either out of the wood, or above the leaves. The flame is scarcely removed 10 paces from the trees, when traces of electricity begin to appear. These increase with the distance. In returning, the first tree is scarcely reached, when the electroscope ceases immediately to indicate the presence of electricity. These general results can only be explained by one of two hypotheses; either, that the electri- city of the air is discharged by the leaves and the vapour of water, and escapes by this means into the earth, or, that there is developed by the effect of vegetable life,—by the respiration of plants, enough of negative to neutralize the positive electricity of the surrounding air. The second hypothesis appears most plausible, because it is difficult to admit the second, when we attend to the conducting power of the flame, and of the column of hot air which is much superior to that of the leaves. The results of a great number of observations showed, that in the night, signs of electricity are often absent, both in the air, and in the interior of a wood. At the approach of day, before the sun appears above the horizon, decided indications of negative electricity appear among the trees, while none are detected in the open air. We can readily understand this observation, if we admit that oxygen is disengaged from the leayes before the rays of the sun strike them directly. In this case, negative electricity appears. 124 Notice of some Recent If the sky is calm, the signs of negative electricity dis- appear in the interior of the wood, at the same time that positive electricity is developed in the air. On three days, when the sky was cloudy, and almost stormy, negative electricity was detected in the external air, and in the wood. Hence, it may be inferred, that negative electricity is disengaged by vegetation during the day, which is con- stantly neutralized by positive electricity. Matteuci has promised to continue his observations, and expresses a strong desire that similar investigations should be under- taken by meteorologists in other parts of the world, especially in reference to rain.* 6. Nobili’s paper, on the distribution and effects of electrical currents in conducting masses,+ derives much interest from the circumstance, that it constitutes the last literary work of this active philosopher, who died in August last, aged 51, having been born in 1784. In this paper, he sets out with investigating the distribution of currents, in metallic conductors, in liquid conductors, and at the points where the currents pass from one conductor to another. He describes two modes of studying electric currents; Ist, By the galvanometer. This process consists in procuring a small tube equally large and deep in all its extent, and from one to two feet in length. It is placed horizontally, and closed at each of its extremities by means of two metallic plates of similiar dimensions to that of its orifices. The plates are intended to introduce the electric current into the canal, after the latter has been filled with mercury. After the current has been introduced, the points of the galvanometric explorer}, are brought to the surface of the mercury. The galvanometer indicates a certain deviation, 12° for example. If the points are made to penetrate into the interior of the mass, the deviation remains stationary. Such is the method applicable to the first class of uniform conductors. For conductors of the second class, we must substitute acidulated, or saline water, for the mercury. * Bibliotheque Universelle, May, 1835, 38. + Ib, July and August, 1835, 263, 416. $ This consists of two similar platinum points fixed in a piece of wood or cork, in order that they may be kept ata proper distance from each other, and each communicating with one of the extremities of a sensible galyanometer. Improvements in Science. 125 Currents passed through this liquid affect the galvanometer equally at all depths. In investigating the passage of cur- rents from the first class of conductors to the second, that is, from metals to liquids, it»sis necessary to make use of, 2nd, The electro-chemical method. Here the tube is di- vided into two equal compartments, by means of a platinum plate, placed transversely so as to prevent any direct commu- nication between the liquids placed on each side of the plate. Both compartments are filled with a solution of acetate of lead, and the current is passed through them. The metallic diaphragm is observed to be coloured on one of its faces with the electro-positive elements of the solution; while the other surface receives the lead which covers it with a thin layer of fine powder. The decomposition takes place equally over the whole metallic surface, which demon- strates the uniformity of energy in the current, in every part of the conductor. The same appearance takes place on the negative surface. Ist. The results obtained for uniform conductors are, that currents possess the same electro-dynamic force equally in all parts of the mass which they traverse, and the same chemical power at each of the particular points, where the current passes from the metal into the liquid, or from the liquid into the metal. 2nd. In using conductors which were not uniform in all their extent, it was found, that in order to double the che- mical effect, it is not sufficient to employ a current possess- ing a double electro-dynamic force; it is necessary to use a stronger proportion. 3rd. In support of the results obtained by De la Rive, Nobili found, that currents undergo great difficulty in pass- ing from a liquid into a metallic conductor, and vice versa. This difficulty is so considerable, that a considerable portion of the currents prefer circulating round the diaphragm rather than penetrating it. 4th. When we introduce two platinum plates into a liquid, as in common decomposition, we can distinguish in the de- posit, upon its surface, three degrees of thickness, strong on the edges of the plate, moderate on the central parts of the anterior face, and weak on the central parts of the posterior face. We have seen, that where the metallic 126 Notice of some Recent plate presents a surface equal to that of the liquid, the current proceeds from all parts of the surface with an equal force ; but in the present instance, this does not happen, and the electricity directs itself to the point where it can most readily discharge itself. The facility in discharging depends on the conductibility of the bodies which receive the dis- charges and electric currents; and in general, bodies con- duct well in proportion as they are short and thick. In the first case mentioned, where the conducting liquid possesses uniform dimensions, we find that the current passes from every part of the plate with an equal intensity, because every part has a corresponding liquid stream, con- ducting equally in relation to mass and length. When the canal is narrower in the middle, this contraction carries off from the lateral streams of fluid a part of their mass, and renders their conducting power inferior. The contrary takes place, when the canal is expanded in the middle; a new mass is added to the lateral streams of the liquid, and increases their conductibility. In the case of the two plates mentioned at the beginning of the paragraph, the streams of the surrounding liquid mass unite with those which establish the direct communication between the edges of the two plates, and thus present a great number of ad- ditional conductors for the electricity which arrives at these edges,—conductors which are entirely absent in the central parts. 5th. If two piles, of equal tension, are charged with diffe- rent strengths of liquid, the one to produce a current of 40°, and the other of 5°, the strongest current will divide into two streams, one of which, will circulate by itself, and the other will unite with the feeblest current, and circulate with it. When the poles of two piles, of equal tension, are placed parallel, but in an opposite direction, there appear to be three currents circulating, one for each pile, and a third common to both. When the poles are placed parallel, and in the same direction, the two piles are discharged in- dependently ; and hence, it appears that two piles cannot make part of the same circuit, unless the currents are obliged to cross each other in the conducting liquid. Nobili terminates his paper with some theoretical views in reference to the efficacy of doubling the surface of the Improvements in Science. 127 copper in Wollaston’s pile, and on the influence of surfaces, and irregularities in the pile. 7. Paralysis of the Tongue treated by Galvanism.—Jules Roula, a patient of M. Palafrat, was seized with apoplexy, and for thirteen years subsequently, that portion of the nerves of the 9th pair which serve for articulation, was paralysed. Palafrat began by ‘treating him by acupunc- ture in the nape of the neck, in the direction of the base of the brain. The needle was made to communicate with the negative pole of a strong voltaic pile; a plate of platinum, enveloped with a rag soaked in saline water, was placed on the tongue, and communicated with the positive pole of the pile. The currents were interrupted and regulated by a watch. An insupportable metallic taste was first pro- duced ; violent contractions of the tongue and stomach fol- lowed; ultimately, vomiting was almost produced; and, then he exclaimed, throwing from him the apparatus, ‘‘ Je parle, merci, Monsieur le medecin; Je parle, merci.” He then repeated several sentences, but could not pronouuce j nor7. The same treatment repeated five times, rendered the patient capable of articulating these letters. The treat- ment was begun on the 27th of November last ; and on the 22nd of December, when the patient was presented to the academy, he could repeat several sentences very intelli- gibly, but had always a tendency to become confused. 8. New method of magnetizing —M. Aime recommends the following method, which consists in tempering and magnetizing a bar of iron at the same time, To effect this, a bar of soft iron curved in the form of a horse-shoe, is surrounded with a brass wire, covered with silk; the two extremities of this wire are made to communicate with the poles of the voltaic pile; a bar of steel equal in length to the distance between the two extremities of the horse-shoe is then ignited, and seized between a pair of pincers; the two poles of the horse-shoe are then applied to the bar, and plunged into a bucket of water; in the course of a minute or two after immersion, the bar is detached from the horse-shoe, and a similar operation performed with similar bars extracted from the fire. In order to prevent the brass wire from softening, care must be taken in dipping the apparatus in water to envelope the two extremities of the 128 Notice of some Recent helix in a rag covered with mastic. The ends of the con- ducting wire were soldered to the zine and copper poles of the battery; a single wire was employed. Aimé, however, considers that it may be preferable to unite several into a bundle, or even to take a ribbon of copper covered with silk or varnish. The bar ought not to be detached too quickly from the horse-shoe; it is necessary to wait until the in- terior of the steel has acquired a slight elevation of temper- ature, in order that the molecules may have time to arrange themselves, conveniently, for magnetizing and tempering. The duration of the immersion varies with the size of the bar, and the temperature which it_ possesses when taken from the fire.* 9. Magnetism by common electricity.;+—M. Llambias has addressed a manuscript upon this subject to the French academy. The results of his experiments were, 1. In every metallic conductor traversed by the discharge of a Leyden phial, two magneto-electric currents are simultane- ously discharged, which pass in opposite directions, one of which may be said to proceed from the vitreous to the resinous pole, and the other from the resinous to the vitre- ous pole. 2. The currents can be partly separated from each other. This separation may be effected in dividing a discharge between two or several different branches of the same circle, when in some particular branch there is an in- terruption which gives origin to the spark. 3. This separa- tion of currents is more or less practicable, and is com- prised within certain limits, which can be nearly deter- mined by experiments for each discharge, and for each of the other elements which produce the phenomenon. 4. The separation of these currents may take place in any portion of the circle submitted to the discharge, at the same time that the other parts of the same circle are traversed by currents completely re-united. 5. In every circle, or every portion of the circle, which the two currents traverse in union, it is, in general, the eurrent which passes from the vitreous to the resinous pole, or the primitive current which has the chief effect in communicating the magnetic influence. 6. Each of the currents magnetizes so much the more strongly in proportion, as it is separated or disengaged from the * Journal de Chimie. Medic. i. 370. + Ibid, i, 36. Improvements in Science. 129 other; and, in general, we may say, that the magnetic power, produced by a discharge of the Leyden jar, is only the effect determined by the simultaneous union of two magnetizing, more or less unequal and opposed, forces. 7. The common simple spark of the machine produces analogous phenomena. IV. HEAT. Reflexion of radiating heat.—The researches of Leslie and Rumford have shewn, that rays of heat are reflected by bodies, according as the surfaces are more or less polished. But a natural question now presents itself, viz. What, in each case, is the proportion between the quantity of re- flected and incident heat? The results obtained by Melloni on the immediate transmission of radiating heat, through many solid and liquid substances, afford a resolution of this question.* When calorific rays fall perpendicularly on the anterior surface of a diathermanous plate, possessing parallel faces, they undergo a certain reflexion, penetrate into the anterior, are partly absorbed, arrive at the second surface, are there again reflected, and pass out again into the air, pursuing their first direction. But in certain cases, there is no continual absorption, and where, consequently, the difference between the quantity of incident heat and the quantity transmitted is exactly equal to the value of the reflexions produced upon the two surfaces of the plate. Rock salt affords an excellent example of this. Plates of this substance, in a pure state, and well polished, transmit 0-923 of the incident heat, whatever be their thickness, and the nature of the rays of heat, or the modifications which these rays may have undergone, in their passage through other plates. Let us suppose two plates of rock salt, the one ‘0154 inch in thickness, the other'154. Then, from what has been said, it is obvious, that the transmission of the first plate will be equal to that of the second; and, if we suppose the first of these plates divided into 10 layers, each ‘0154 inch in thickness, the absorbing power of the nine posterior layers (each ‘0154 inch) will have no appreciable effect. Hence, if the rays undergo any absorption, it must take place in their passage through the first layer. Let us * Institut, No. 130, VOL. IIl, K 130 Notice of some Recent suppose that this takes place. Then the molecules, which form the first layer of ‘0154 thickness, will form a hind of sieve, retaining all that is not completely transmissible by the rock salt; and the quantity of heat lost in the transit by one or other plate, that is to say, 1—0°923, or :077 will be the sum of the rays absorbed or retained, and of the rays reflected, to the two surfaces. When, therefore, radiating heat is received upon one of the plates, the thinnest for example, and when they are transmitted by the other, the supposed absorption, or epuration, will take place in the first, and no more will arrive at. the second than the rays completely transmissible by the substance of which it is composed, with the exception of the quantity lost in the two reflexions ; so that the loss experienced by these rays, in passing through the second plate, must necessarily be less than ‘077. But experiment shows that on this passage, there is exactly 0-923 of heat transmitted, and ‘077 of heat lost. Hence, no absorption has in reality taken place in the first transmission, and the quantity ‘077 expresses only the loss produced by the reflexion of the radiating heat to the first and second surfaces of each plate. We can readily determine the special value of either of two reflexions. If we term R the reflexion for unity of incident heat, then i—Rwill be the quantity which will penetrate into the - interior of the plate, and R (1—R) the reflexion which the latter will undergo on the posterior surface ; for, as the salt possesses no absorbing power, the whole quantity 1—R arrives at the second surface, and is reflected in the pro- portion of R: 1. Now, the sum of the two reflexions, added to the quantity transmitted, 0-923, ought to produce the quantity of incident heat, which we suppose equal to unity. We have then the equation, — R+RCU—R) + 0:923=1. from which we deduce, R=1+ /0:923 = 1 + 0-9607. The first sign of the radicle, as it leads to an absurd result, should be rejected. The reflexion at the anterior surface of the plate will then be 1—0:9607=0-0393; and such will also be the proportion of the second reflexion, relatively to the quantity of heat, which arrives at the ae Improvements én Science. 131 posterior surface of the rock salt; but if we wish to have the absolute value of this last reflexion, we shall obtain it by substituting -0393 in place of R in the expression R (1 — R), or more simply, by taking the difference be- tween the numbers -077 and -0393, which gives, in both eases, ‘0377. Experiment afforded similar results with glass, rock erystal, alum, fluor spar, topaz, sulphate of barytes, &c. Melloni concludes, that we may say, as a general expression, that radiant heat experiences a reflexion of about +4,;ths of the incident quantity, when it falls per- pendicularly upon the surface of diathermanous substances. With regard to the heat reflected by athermanous bodies, it is necessary, first, to observe the effect of the transmission of heat through rock salt, when the radiation, derived from a constant source, is perpendicular to its faces. The plate is then inclined to the incident rays. No sensible diminution in the quantity of heat transmitted is exhibited as long as the inclination does not exceed 30° or 35°. The reflexion of the perpendicular rays is then sensibly equal to that which the rays forming an angle of 55° to 60°, with the reflector, undergo. If now, we throw upon the well polished surface of a very large plate of glass, or rock ery- stal, a compact quantity of radiant heat, atan incident angle of 55° or 60°, and receive the portion reflected in the in- terior of the tube, which surrounds the pile of the thermo- multiplier; having noted the force indicated by the gal- vanometer, and repeated the same experiment upon the polished surface of an athermanous body, we shall have a second force different from the first. The reflexion of the athermanous body will obviously be equal to the number 0393 multiplied by the proportion of the two forces ob- served. The following exhibits a comparison between rock cry- stal and yellow copper. Reflexion of rock crystal, . . . . 315 Reflexion of yellow copper, . . . 35°63 Proportion of the two reflexions, . . 11°30 Product of the two numbers, : 044 0393 and 11°3 eb K 2 132 Dr. Thomas Thomson's ARTICLE VI. Chemical Analysis of Tabasheer. By Tuomas Tuomson, M.D., F. R.S., L. & E., &e., Regius Professor of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow. Havine lately received, from Calcutta, a very fine specimen of tabasheer, I was naturally induced to make a few experi- ments on its chemical constitution. It is sufficiently known that tabasheer is a concretion met with occasionally m the joints of the bamboo; that it has been long employed in medicine, in Hindostan and the East ; that it is very much esteemed ; and, that it sells at a considerable price. The first good description of it was drawn up by Dr. Russel, and published in the ‘* Philosophical Transactions,” for 1790, p. 273. he specimen, laid before the Royal Society, by Dr. Russel, was put into the hands of Mr. Smithson for chemical examination. Avery minute, accurate, and complete set of experiments, by this acute and accomplished philosopher, was published in the ‘* PAi- losophical Transactions,” for 1791, p. 368, from which it appeared, that the tabasheer was composed of silica nearly in a state of purity. In the year 1806, a specimen of tabasheer, from Peru, was put into the hands of Fourcroy and Vauquelin, by Humboldt and Bonpland. These chemists subjected it to analysis, extracted from it 70 per cent. of silica, together with a little lime, and concluded (though it is not easy to see the evidence), that the tabasheer, which they examined, was a compound of 70 parts of silica, and 30 parts of potash. But under the potash were included the vegetable matter which they showed it to contain, and also, the water, the amount of which, they seem not to have thought of deter- mining. In 1819, a curious paper on the optical properties of ta- basheer, was published in the ‘‘ Philosophical Transactions,” by Dr. Brewster. An abstract of this paper, together with several particulars, relative to the history and formation of the tabasheer, was inserted in the eighth volume of Dr. Brewster's ‘‘ Journal of Science ;” and in the same volume, we have a chemical examination of the tabasheer, by Dr. Turner. This analysis agrees very nearly with that of Mr. Chemical Analysis of Tabasheer. 133 Smithson, and renders the accuracy of the statement of the great quantity of potash, announced by Fourcroy and Vau- quelin, rather doubtful. 1. The tabasheer which I examined, was a very beautiful looking substance, in small irregular fragments of a blueish white colour and pearly lustre, not unlike chalcedony in appearance, but much softer. For it was incapable of scratching calcareous spar, and only slightly scratched sul- phate of lime. When put into water, it gives out a great deal of air with a kind of crackling noise, and imbibes a great deal of water. I found its specific gravity, (taken without allowing time for the internal air to escape), 1°9238. But, when by means of heat all the air bubbles had been driven off, the specific gravity was as high as 2°0824. 2. When ignited, it lost 4°87 per cent. of its weight. This loss consisted chiefly of water; but not entirely, for the tabasheer exhaled a peculiar odour, and, shewed evidently, the existence of a small quantity of vegetable matter in it. 3. Ten grains of tabasheer reduced to a fine powder were digested in distilled water for 24 hours. The water when concentrated was tasteless; but slightly reddened vege- table blues. Being evaporated to dryness, grayish scales remained, weighing 0-6 gr. These scales being digested in muriatic acid, a little iron was dissolved, but the scales consisted almost entirely of silica. Thus, it appears, that the silica in the tabasheer is still soluble in water. I am disposed to consider, the reddening of vegetable blues in this case, as produced by the dissolved silica; at least, I did not succeed in finding any trace of any other acid sub- stance. When the muriatic acid dissolved upon the scales was evaporated to dryness, a brown matter remained, which besides iron, contained also a trace of vegetable matter ; but too small to admit of examination. It contained also a little lime and a little silica. 4. Ten grains of tabasheer reduced to a fine powder, were mixed with 24 grains of finely pounded fluor spar, and the whole was made into a thin magma by means of sulphuric acid. This mixture was exposed for some hours to the heat of the sand bath in a platinum crucible. After the exhalations of fluosilicie acid had ceased, the crucible was 134 Dr. Thomas Thomson's exposed to a heat gradually increased to redness, and kept in that temperature till all the excess of sulphuric acid had been driven off. The white matter in the crucible (chiefly of lime) was now lixiviated with water, till every thing soluble was taken up. The water thus employed, was mixed with some carbonate of ammonia, and filtered to separate the lime which it had dissolved in the state of sulphate. The water, thus nearly freed from lime, was reduced toa small quantity, by evaporation, and, while still hot, was mixed with a few drops of solution of oxalate of ammonia, to throw down a little lime which had either escaped the action of the carbonate of ammonia, or had been afterwards supplied by the filter. The mixture was allowed to stand till it became clear, the liquid was then drawn off with a sucker, evaporated to dryness, and the saline residue ex- posed toared heat. A salt remained, which weighed 0-2 grains, and which proved, on examination, to be sulphate of potash, equivalent to 0:11 grain potash. 5. Ten grains of tabasheer in the state of a fine powder were intimately mixed with 20 grains of anhydrous car- bonate of soda, and the mixture exposed in a platinum crucible to ared heat, raised at last sufficiently high to bring the whole into a state fusion. The colour of the fused mass was yellowish brown. It was dissolved in muriatic acid the solution evaporated to dryness, and the residue, after being digested a sufficient time in muriatic acid, was thrown on the filter. The silica edulcorated, dried and ignited weighed 9 grains. 6. The muriatic acid, in which the silica had been digested being concentrated, was mixed with caustic ammonia. Yel- low flocks fell, which were separated by decantation : these flocks, when ignited, became dark brown, and weighed 0:1 grain; they dissolved readily in muriatic acid. The solu- tion was super-saturated with caustic potash, and digested on the sand bath for 24 hours. By this means 0:01 grain of alumina was dissolved. The rest consisted of peroxide of iron. Thus, the yellow flocks thrown down by caustic ammonia consisted of Peroxide of iron, . 0:09 Alumina, . . . . O- Ol 0-1 The liquid from which this precipitate had fallen was not Chemical Analysis of Tabasheer. 135 rendered muddy by carbonate of ammonia. It was, there= fore, evaporated to dryness. A greyish matter remained weighing 0:08 grain. This matter being digested In mu- riatic acid, there remained undissolved 0-05 grain of silica. The 0-03 grain dissolved, consisted ofa mixture of alumina and lime. Thus, the constituents obtained were, Moisture, . . .:. 0°487 or 4°87 Siliéa;lp.. suieritu oo, eet O7050 . 93 90°50 Potashye «. «..nohe so Oekd Qa5; 1:10 Peroxide of iron, . . 0:090 ,, 0:90 Alnmina, . . . . 0:040 ,, 0:40 SS 9-777 97-77 The loss, amounting to 2°23 per cent., was probably the consequence of my employing different portions of the tabasheer in different steps of the analysis. For they were not all exactly the same in appearance. Hence, possibly the proportion of the constituents might vary somewhat in each. But my supply of tabasheer was not sufficiently great to admit of a new analysis upon a large scale. I did not weigh the lime; but do not think it could exceed 0°1 per cent. It is needless to observe, that the preceding analysis accords sufficiently with the experiments of Mr. Smithson and Dr. Turner, and, therefore, serves to confirm them. The tabasheer examined by Smithson, Turner, and myself was from India; that subjected to examination by Fourcroy and Vauquelin was from South America. It re- mains to be seen whether the constitution of the American tabasheer be essentially distinct from the Indian, as would appear from the 30 per cent. of alkali, &e. found in it by Fourcroy and Vauquelin. Articte VII. On Madder, and Madder Dyeing. ( Concluded from page 56. J OF THE MODE OF DYEING COMMON MADDER-RED CLEARER AND PURER. 1. Washing the madder.— Numerous experiments have proved that the colour is not improved by washing the 136 On Madder, and madder ; but, that on the other hand, a great loss of colour- ing matter is experienced. The uniformity of the results of these experiments proves the error of the observation, that ‘* by washing madder, clearer colours are produced.” Even alizari, which of all the species of madder, gives up to water the greatest quantity of foreign matter, does not afford a clearer red after washing. It may be remarked, that madder, in the large way, should be washed with per- fectly pure water, as water containing chalk renders a quantity of colouring matter effete. 2. Addition of chalk in dyeing.—The above-mentioned action of chalk upon the red of madder-red, demonstrates the advantage of this addition, which, by the new experi- ments of Schlumberger,* has received additional confirma- tion, that species of madder, which, by themselves give an easily deteriorating red, as Alsace madder, are thereby rendered durable. 3. Addition of clay in dyeing.—This is fully treated of in Runge’s ‘‘ Farbenchemie.” ON THE SEPARATION OF THE CONSTITUENTS OF MADDER ON A LARGE SCALE. The object of employing, in dyeing, the constituents of madder, instead of madder itself, is threefold, viz. to form a more beautiful, more certain, and a cheaper dye. A more beautiful and more certain effect is undoubtedly produced, when the three colouring matters’ are employed separately in their purest state, according to the method detailed; additions may be made to the colouring matters, as chalk and clay, to madder-red, and the choice of the mordants regulated, as the properties of the colouring matter render it necessary; as, for example, alum mordant with madder- purple forms purple-red ; iron mordant forms lilac violet ; and copper mordant with madder-orange produces orange. Runge has endeavoured to hit upon a method of separating these three colouring matters, so as to render them avail- able to the manufacturer; but he has not succeeded in being able to render the price of the product proportionate to the price of the madder. The separation of the madder-purple from madder-red, especially, is accompanied with great diffi- * Records of General Science, i. 208. Madder Dyeing. Taz culty; and even, when the solution of alum in sulphuric acid is again used, there is still the expense of the indis- pensable treatment with spirit of wine. The method of Robiquet of separating the colouring matter of madder, by sublimation, from the sulphuric acid ~ and madder charcoal, would be the most preferable, as, by carbonizing the madder, the sulphuric acid employed may be again used in manufacturing salmiac, and in the forma- tion of vitriol, and is thus restored. But, by this method, the dyes are not separated ; for, by heating the madder- charcoal, both madder-purple and madder-red are sublimed together. Their separation must be effected by means of alum solution; and thus, a new difficulty arises. And, it is not to be overlooked, that the sublimation is attended with loss, as well as the subsequent treatment with alum and spirit of wine. But, although this desirable object has not been attained, it cannot be doubted, that now, when the properties of the three dyes have been ascertained, a convenient method of separating them will soon be found out. TESTING MADDER. The goodness of any species of madder has hitherto been improperly attempted to be determined, by separating the colouring matter of madder when in solution; but the proper mode i is, by its power of dyeing. This is shewn by the author in a table, where there are four sorts of madder differing in price from each other. They should all be em- ployed in dyeing with completely pure water in the same manner. To show that this method gives a proper valua- tion of the goodness of a variety of madder, and that a quantitative estimate can be formed by means of the mor- danted cotton, the varieties of madder are represented in four different degrees in relation to dyeing, from which it appears, that the darkness of the dye is in direct propor- tion to the quantity of colouring materials. Munjeet is the most powerful dyeing species of madder, next to it is the Spiers madder, then the Dutch, and lastly, the Avignon madder. 1. Preparation of the mordanted cotton.—In order to form a scale of colours, it is necessary to proportion the madder 138 On Madder, and and mordanted cotton to each other, and also, that the cloth used for the whole scale should be equally impreg- nated with the mordant, and dried, cleared, and again dried in the same manner. Therefore, the whole cloth must be impregnated with one and the same mordant, at the same time, dried by the same heat, equally washed, again dried by the same heat, and then divided. If this is omitted, irregular results are obtained, which proceed from the cir- cumstance, that the cloth, by the absorption of the mordant, acquires weight, but unequally, according to the time it is allowed to hang in the air after dyeing. The different de- grees of moisture of the cloth will give rise to considerable irregularity. The cloth must, therefore, be employed at one and the same temperature. Before placing it in the vat, it should be washed in a quantity of water, and then with distilled water. Pure, or distilled water must be em- ployed in the dyeing. 2. Quality of the Madder.—When madder, especially that from Holland, comes in contact with the air, it absorbs moisture, and becomes darker. Avignon madder and mun- jeet take up much less. All examinations of madder are useless, therefore, unless it is exposed to a temperature of 212°, and kept in glass vessels. Summary.—The preceding details are briefly as follow :— 1. Madder contains three colouring matters. 2. These three’ colouring matters possess different pro- perties, and, therefore, their separate use will be found of the greatest advantage. 3. Madder-purple does not admit of the addition of chalk, and gives, with the addition of clay, brighter dyes. 4. Madder-red does not admit very well of the addition of chalk and clay, but gives, with the assistance of these, clear and pure dyes. 5. Madder-orange is incompatible with both chalk and clay. 6. The oil mordanted cotton (oelbeizkattun) gives with the half, and even less colouring matter, as complete a colour, and even more complete than the common alumin- ous mordanted cotton (thonbeizkattun), with the whole portion of colouring matter. 7. The aluminous mordanted cotton affords a very secure Madder Dyeing. 139 means of determining the dyeing power, and relative value of the species of madder occurring in commerce. Observations on Munjeet.—This species of madder is very rich in colouring matter, and the colour which it forms, with common aluminous mordanted cotton, approaches pure red. Hence, it is highly deserving of attention from the dyer and printer. In commerce it occurs in two different species, 1. In bundles; and, 2.In powder. The munjeet in bundles con- sists of the thick and thin stalks of the plants, intermixed occasionally with small roots. The thin stalks are mostly covered with epidermis, and contain in proportion little colouring matter. The thick stalks, on the other hand, are bare, and two or three times richer in colouring matter than alizari, or Avignon madder. If 27 parts of aluminous mordanted cotton be dyed with 12 parts of the munjeet stalks, and a similar portion of cotton, with the same quan- tity of Avignon madder, the colour of the munjeet-red is twice as dark as that of the Avignon madder. The stalks of the munjeet are very dry, light, and porous; the fracture exhibits a number of small tubes which are empty. If then, 100 parts of munjeet stalks, cut into large pieces, are digested in cold water, and the colouring matter taken up by boiling with aluminous mordanted cotton, there remain after the evaporation of the fluid 73 per cent. of dry residue. Alizari treated in the same manner gives a residue destitute of dyeing properties, of 473 per cent. In the powdered munjeet, the rich thick stalks are mixed with the poor thin stalks. A specimen of munjeet-red which was placed, during an equal time with one of Avignon madder-red, in asolution of 1 part chloride of lime in 3 of water, lost at least one half more of its colour. The same happened to two specimens which were formed with a double quantity of munjeet and Avignon madder ( Picard rouge palue) upon oiled aluminous mordanted cotton. According to Schwarz (Dingler’s ‘‘ Polytechn. Journal,” 1832, Sept. 385), the colour of munjeet-red upon oiled cotton after clearing is so fleeting, that in the light it is bleached in one day. This result agrees with the action by chloride of lime, which has much similarity with that 140 On Madder, and of light. Notwithstanding this action, the munjeet-red must be valued on account of its pure red colour, as its rela- tion to soap, soda, and alum, shows. And, although it will not answer for producing Turkey-red, it may be employed with advantage for the formation of a clear red upon a white ground. It has the advantage over all kinds of madder, that it has no tendency to encroach upon the white ground ; and this is still less the case, when clay is added in dyeing. The red, thus formed, is so clear, that the use of all purifying methods is saved. Munjeet gives, with iron mordant, shades which are very similar to those pro- duced by madder-red. Munjeet, therefore, if the price is not too high, may be employed to form the common mad- der-red colour. It is important to inform the dyer, that in consequence of the dry nature of munjeet, it does not easily take up water, especially when it is cold. It must, therefore, be digested with some hot water, or boiled, or macerated with cold water, before it is employed in dyeing. Opinion of Herrn Dannenberger.—Two trials indicated that the root dyed well by itself, and that the stalks possessed very little colouring matter. One part of cloth impreg- nated with mordant was dyed with two parts munjeet, and gave ared colour. The addition of clay produced a pink, but dull shade, which is very sensible to common salt, soap, and the light of the sun. Two parts clay and one part munjeet give a better result than 3 clay to 1 of munjeet; an addition of chalk, or alkaline carbonate, prevents the mun- jeet from giving any of its colouring matter. The addition of + part sumach to | part munjeet produces the most saturated, solid, though brownish colour, while 1 part munjeet to 1 cloth dyes much better than as much mun- jeet alone; and 2 parts munjeet and 3 part sumach to 1 part stuff give the most saturated colour. If the latter colour be compared with that produced with Dutch madder (value, 193 Prussian dollars per centner), with the addi- tion of sumach, it will be perceived that 2 parts munjeet give out almost as much colouring matter as | part Dutch madder. Its value may, therefore, be calculated at 92 dollars per centner. The price of the finest Silesian autumn red (herbstrothe), in Feb., 1834, was 13 dollars. The cause Madder Dyeiug. 14] of the difference between these results, and those of Dr. Runge appears to be, that in the former, river water was employed, and by the latter distilled water was used. When distilled water was substituted, the result was much ‘more favourable, but not such as to warrant us to say, that the munjeet was much richer in colouring matter, than Avignon, or Dutch madder. The addition of malt afforded a still more favourable result. Opinion of Herrn Bohm.—1. With equal portions of colouring matter, although munjeet gives a fine red, yet that dyed with the madder is much more intense. 2. The munjeet also is dyed rather more into the ground than the madder. And also, 3. Remains distinct after passing through a clay and chlorine bath. Opinion of Herrn Nobiling.—The result of his trial was not in favour of this dye. The shades produced were be- tween those of madder and lac dye. ArticLe VIII. Case of Anomalous Cutaneous Disease. By J. Carson, Jun. M.D. Tue following is a case of anomalous skin disease which occurred in my practice, and to which I have drawn the attention of the Medical Society of this town. Christian, a Dutch sailor of a lymphatic constitution, and rather emaciated in his appearance, applied at the North Dispensary, in the expectation of being admitted as an in-door patient. He was rather brought there by his poverty than by any particular urgency of his symptoms; he spoke very little English, which prevented me from col- lecting any accurate particulars of his history previous to the present disease. He states that about 12 months ago he was seized with pains of the joints and limbs of both upper and lower extremities, which were accompanied by eruptions of what he termed Roth Flecke, of which he shewed some on his chest. The pains had continued until he had lost, in a great measure, the power of his hands, which he uses as if labouring under partial paralysis of the 142 Dr. J, Carson on a Case of flexors of the fingers. The spots spread circularly in every direction, at first preserving a perfectly round form, but as they increased becoming more irregular. The small spots now present the appearance of a pale red scale, hardly dif- fering except in increased degree of thickness from the na- tural epidermis. The colour of the scale, of course, depends on the cutis belowit. This appearance surrounds the larger spots for about a line in breadth, and the extension of the disease depends on the eccentric progress of such a line of squammification, if 1 may soexpress it. The parts which have been affected present a remarkable contrast, in ap- pearance, to those which are healthy, something like that between the healthy skin and that covering an old cicatrix. The hairs do not seem to grow on it with the same degree of strength, or in the same number ; it has none of the oily appearance depending on the various secretions of the skin, and I have never been able to discover any perspira- tion on it when the neighbouring parts were so affected. All those parts which have been affected, and which in different places cover a considerable portion of the skin, are so completely insensible, that pinching or burning with heated iron was not perceived by him. This fact, I have repeatedly established in the presence of several medical gentlemen to their entire satisfaction.* The region of insensibility is distinctly limited by the small line of scales. From some discrepancies in his story, I was in- duced to believe at first, some disposition on his part, to deceive. I several times applied the hot iron to the spots on the back, when his attention was occupied by another in conversation, and when he had not the Jeast reason to expect that such was my intention, without his evidencing, by the the slightest gesture, his consciousness of sensation. Iam inclined to think, that the discrepancies above alluded to, arose from his not comprehending my question. His general health is evidently bad, though I was not able to * T have, by including the cellular substances, and some of the muscles of the back in the fingers, and pinching them hard, attempted to ascertain how deep the insensibility existed. He never complained of any pain, yet, I think, seemed to be conscious we were handling the parts. In an operation, unless some nerves be cut, the patient is, in general, scarcely conscious of pain in the section of these parts, Anomalous Cutaneous Disease. 143 ascertain, that the functions of any organ were performed with any remarkable degree of irregularity. He com- plained of no pain in the head, and the region of the spine was not more than ordinarily sensible. He has had the venereal disease severely, some time ago. His hair is of a rusty red colour and frizzled, so as exactly to resemble that ofa negro. He said, when I asked him if it had always been so, that his mother was a worker in wool, and this had arisen therefrom. The nails are ill formed and small, but not so much, as to attract particular attention. He has for the last eight years, laboured under a degree of hemeralopia. In the day, the expression of the eye is vivid, and, is, indeed, the best feature in his face which has a coarse, unhealthy scrofulous appearance. A friend of mine, Dr. Wolfe, a German Physician of this town, says, he is confident of having seen a similar case at St. Louis, under the treatment of Alibert. I have some confused recollec- tion of the same kind. From his being removed into an hospital from under my care, I can give little information as to the treatment, but, I believe, it was limited to the use of the warm bath, internal use of arsenic and generous diet. I have learned, that the case is in London, and has been noticed by some of the periodicals. ArticLe IX. Comparitive success of Lithotrity and Lithotomy.* Accorp1ne to Velpeau, it appears that in 1827 Civiale had operated by lithotrity upon 87 patients. Of these 38 died, 3 retained the calculi, 42 were cured, and 19 of them met with severe accidents. In 1830, a new list of 24 calculous cases exhibited 13 cures and 11 deaths; and a subsequent list of 53 cases, had 30 cures, 15 deaths; in 8 the stone was retained. Ina 4th statistical table published by Ledain, of 30 cases, 18 were cured, 8 died, and 4 retained the calculi. Of 14 cases treated by Bancal, 2 were cured, all the rest died or retained their calculi. Omitting Bancal’s cases, this gives us a total of 194 cases—103 cures and 72 deaths, or the deaths to the cures are as | to 1:43. * Pibliotheque Universelle, April, 1835. 144 Success of Lithotrity and Lithotomy. Lisfranc answers this statement of Velpeau from Civiale’s paper in the Dictionaire de Medicine, from which it appears, that during 8 years from 1824, Civiale has treatod 429 patients, comprehending 14 children, 190 adults, and 225 aged persons, or 419 males and 10 females. Of these, 244 were operated on by lithotrity, 236 were cured, 5 died, and 3 continued to suffer. Of the remaining 185, 88 were cut, of whom 48 died, 32 were cured, and 8 were not benefited. These operations were performed, 13 by the lateral section, 9 by the bi-lateral method, and 39 by the hypo-gastric pro- ceeding. In27of the latter cases, the issue was not known. The statement of Velpeau with regard to Bancal’s cases is not correct: 4 recovered instead of 2. Hence, the mor- tality of Civiale’s cases was trifling, or 1 in 27. Lithotomy. According to Velpeau, there were, at the Hopital de la Charité from 1719 to 1728, 1200 operations of lithotomy, of which 945 were cured, and 255 died. At Luneville, of 1629 cases, Saucerotte had 1482 cures. Du- puytren lost by this operation 61 out of 356. At Norwich, of 506 operations, there were 70 deaths ; Leeds, 197 opera- tions, 28 deaths. Cheselden had 213 operations and 14 deaths; Frere Come 100 cases, 19 deaths; Souberbielle 133 cases, 17 deaths; Dupuytren, by the lateral method, 70 cases, 6 deaths. Cross, in his Jacksonian prize essay, describes 704 operations, and only 93 deaths among these. Renzi, at Naples, had 389 cases, 60 deaths. Pajola lost 5 in 50; Panza 5 in 70; Ouvrard 3 in 60; Virice 3 in 83; Martineau, in England, 2 in 84; Dudley, in America, 1 in 72; Smith,in America, | in 18; Chelius, in Germany, | in 22; Petrunti, at Naples, 1 in 25, in private practice; and Santoro 1 in 56. To these statements Lisfrane answers, that from 1720 to 1727, there were only 208 operations, at the Hopital de la Charité,and 71 deaths, that is, lin 3. Moraud gives another table from the Hotel Dieu of 604 operations, in which there were 184 deaths = 1 in 31. Another table, at La Charité, from 1731 to 1735, gives 72 operations, and 32 deaths. The success of Saucerotte is accounted for by the number of females operated on, viz. 65, on whom the operation is much less dangerous, and of these 65 only two died. Then there will remain 1564 males cured, and 145 deaths, or 1 in Analyses of Books. 145 Ll. Of these 1564, 1119 were below 13 years of age, and only 66 cases between 41 and 78 years. The English cases are also accounted for on the same principles. Lisfrane gives little credit to the statements of Cheselden, Petrunti, Pajola, &c., for, according to the most recent returns from the Neapolitan hospitals, the loss was 1 in 7. He infers, therefore, that Velpeau has under-rated the success of litho- trity, and over-rated that of lithotomy. He observes, that lithotrity is indicated, |. Where the calculus is small, and the urinary organs healthy. 2. Calculus a little larger, with a healthy bladder. 3. Two small calculi, healthy bladder. 4. Three small calculi, bladder healthy. 5. Cal- eulus the size of a nut, but soft, urimary organs healthy. And lithotomy is indicated, 1. When the calculus is large and hard. 2. Calculus flat (mural). 3. Calculus large, with vesical catarrh. 4. Two large calculi. 5. One cal- eulus filling the bladder. ARTICLE X. ANALYSES OF Books. T.—Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London for 1835, Part II. PHYSICS. On the Ice formed under peculiar circumstances at the bottom of running water. By the Rev. James Farquuarson, of Alford, F. R.S. Tue phenomenon of the formation of ice at the bottom of running water, some years ago, attracted the attention of Knight and M‘Kee- ver. M. Arago, in the Annuaire, for 1833, collated the opinions of these writers in reference to the subject, and brought forward a number of additional circumstances from observations made in Ger- many, in order to elucidate its nature. He formed no decided con-~ clusion, but referred to three circumstances, which were partly ex- planatory of the formation of ice in running water. Ist. The inver- sion by the motion of the current of the hydrostatic order, by which the water of the surface cooled by the colder air, and which, at all points of the temperature of water under 39° F., would, in still water, continue to float on the surface, is mixed with the warmer water below, and thus, the whole body of water to the bottom is cooled alike, by the mechanical action of the stream. 2d. The ap- titude to the formation of crystals of ice on the stones, and asperities of the bottom, in the water wholly cooled to 32°, similar to the VOL. III. L 146 Analyses of Books. readiness with which crystals form on pointed and rough bodies in a saturated saline solution. 3rd. The existence of a less impediment to the formation of crystals, in the slower motion of the water at the bottom, than in the more rapid one near, or at the surface. Mr. Farquharson, however, considers that these propositions, neither separate, nor combined, are adequate to account for the phenomenon, and conceives that the question should be simply resolved into, “« Why is ice formed sometimes on the surface of running water, and sometimes at the bottom?” The ice found in this condition is termed, by the Germans, Grundeis, and in Aberdeenshire, Ground- gru; gru being the term applied to snow saturated with, or swim- ming in water. The author has seen it formed only when the tem- perature of the whole mass of water was reduced to, or nearly, to 32°, and when the temperature of the air was several degrees below that point, and observed that it was preceded by a continuance, for some time, of a clear, or very nearly clear, state of the sky. He brings forward a number of observations made by himself, which are decid- edly opposed to the explanations of Arago. At sunrise, on the river Leochal and Don, when the temperature of the water was 32°, and of the air 23°, much ground-gru was observed at the bottom of the water; at 10 a. m., acloud obscured the sky, and at 2 Pp. m. the air was at 40°; much g7'w rose to the surface, and floated down the stream. Before sunset, the thermometer was 31°. On two sub- sequent days, the temperature was lower, with a clear sky. The bottom of the river was now much impeded by the grw; and, what is worthy of notice, the clear spaces of the bottom, at the piers, abut- ments, &c. of the bridge, on the Don, still continued clear, but were much encroached upen, on the sides next the streams, by the gru. Next day a thaw occurred, when the thermometer rose to 47° ; the rivers were cleared of ice and grownd-gru, which floated away. On the 2d day, the temperature was 29°, snow fell, and was entangled in many parts of the rapids ; but there was no appearance of the symmetrical cauliflower shaped ground-gru. On the same evening, and two following days, the temperature fell to 23° and 21°; the sky was clouded; the rivers frozen over in many places, but no ground-gru could be observed. The snow, however, which had been entangled in the rapids disappeared to a great extent, obviously floating away in the stream. He states also, that plants in the bed of the stream were covered with g7ru, while none was observed in the bed itself. The shaded parts of the stream were also free from gru, while it was abundant in the free portions. The answer to his original question, the author considers is, that ice is formed sometimes on the surface of running water, and sometimes at the bottom, be- cause frost sometimes takes place with a clouded sky, which is in- compatible with radiation of heat from the bottom of the stream, and sometimes with a clear sky, when that radiation takes place through the water, in the same way as through air. The bottom is thus cooled below the freezing point of water, before the water itself ; ice is formed on it, and its detachment, by transmitted heat from below, prevented, as long as the radiation continues, ; But, there is still a point of importance to settle. Why does de- Philosophical Transactions. 147 position not occur in still, rather than in running water, since radia- tion would be more plainly manifested in the former, than in the latter? The author answers, that “in still water, the hydrostatic order which M. Arago has so well illustrated, as belonging to water, when reduced to a temperature under 39°, has free play to establish itself, and is not inverted by the mechanical action of a stream. When the temperature of a body is under 39°, then the coldest por- tions of it are the lightest, and naturally rise and float on the sur- face. When, in a still pond, the water nearest the bottom has been cooled below the general temperature, by contact with the solid materials cooled by radiation, it is displaced by the heavier, warmer water above. Hence, ice forms first on the surface, by the meeting there of both the cold of radiation, and that acquired by contact with the incumbent cold atmosphere.” ‘‘In the rapids, the hydrostatic order is overturned, and the colder, which is also the lighter water, not only mixed with the warmer below, but at the whirls of the greatest rapids, brought suddenly, without much mixing, into direct contact with the bottom cooled still lower than itself by radiation. If the water is at the temperature of 32° F., it can give out no heat to the colder bottom without part of it being converted into ice, the spiculae and crystals of which find a solid body for their attachment, at the very point where the heat is given out.” Discussion of Tide Observations made at Liverpool. By Joun Wituram Lusszock, Esq. TuIs paper consists of a number of tables, drawn up from observa- tions made at the London and St. Katharine’s Docks. Those at the former, are made by a person who notes the time when the water has begun to fall, that is, has made its mark. The observations at the latter, are made by noting upon a slate, (ruled for the purpose) the height of the water, every minute before high water is expected, all which, is afterwards copied into a book ruled in the same manner, and the time of high water with the height, is easily inferred. The height is ascertained, by means of a rod or tide-guage, connected with a float, which is placed in a chamber, into which the water enters through a culvert, so that the ripple or agitation of the water in the river is avoided, as much as possible; a clock carefully regu- lated, stands close at hand. Experimental Researches in Electricity, 10th Series. By Micuaet Farapay, D.C.L., &c. Tue object of this paper is to describe an improved plan of the voltaic battery, and to develope some practical results, in reference to its construction and use. In a simple voltaic circuit, the chemical forces, which during their activity give power to the instrument, are gene- rally divided into two portions ; the one of these is exerted locally, while the other is transferred round the circle ; the latter, constitutes the electric current of the instrument, while the former, is completely lost or wasted. The ratio of these powers varies ; thus, in a battery 148 Analyses of Books. not closed, the entire action is local—in one of the ordinary con- struction, much is in circulation—and, in the perfect one, al/ the chemical power circulates and becomes electricity. By estimating the quantity of zinc dissolved, and the quantity of decomposition effected in the volta-electrometer, these proportions can be appre- ciated. If a voltaic battery were formed of zinc and platinum, the latter metal, surrounding the former, as in the double copper arrange- ment, and the whole being excited by dilute sulphuric acid, then no insulating divisions of glass, porcelain, or air, would be required be- tween the contiguous platinum plates, and provided these did not touch metallically the same acid, which being between the zine and platinum, would excite the battery into powerful action, would be- tween the two surfaces of platinum, produce no discharge of the electricity, nor cause any diminution of the power of the trough. This is a necessary consequence of the resistance to the passage of the current, which occurs at the place of decomposition, for that resistance is fully able to stop the current, and, therefore, act as insulation to the electricity of the contiguous plates, as the current which tends to pass between them, never has a higher intensity than that due to the action of a single pair. If the metal surrounding the zinc be copper, and if the acid be nitro-sulphuric acid, then a slight discharge between the two contiguous coppers does take place, provided there be no other channel open, by which the forces may circulate, but when such a channel is permitted, the return discharge is much diminished. Upon these principles, the author was led to construct a trough, in which, the coppers passing round both surfaces of the zincs, were only separated from each other by paper. He soon found, that this was exactly Hare’s trough. It is very convenient, for when composed of 40) pairs of 3 inch plates, it can be unpacked in five minutes, and re-packed in half an hour. Its effect on plati- num wire, in the shock, &c., was equal to 40 pairs of 4 inch plates with double coppers, in porcelain troughs. With 20 pairs of 4 inch plates arranged in Hare’s trough, and 20 pairs of 4 inch plates in porcelain troughs, there was a consumption by the former, of 3-7 atoms zinc, and 5:5 for the latter. Hence, no doubt can exist, of the great superiority of Hare’s method of arrangement. This plan will, therefore, soon supersede the old method, as 100 pairs of plates need not occupy a trough of more than 3 feet in length ; and, by making it turn upon a pivot, the acid may be poured off when required. The author recommends troughs of porcelain, because it is difficult to make a wooden one constantly water tight. Under distinct heads, the author describes some important practi- cal points. . Nature and strength of the acid.—Of all the acids singly, nitric acid answers best. It improves the action of sulphuric acid. The proportions employed by Dr. Faraday for ordinary purposes were 200 water, 4} sulphuric acid, and 4 nitric acid. The quantity which each zinc plate lost in these circumstances was 2-16 atoms; with double the quantity of acids. and the same proportion of water, the loss was 2°26 atoms. No copper is dissolved during the regular action of the trough, but much ammonia is disengaged when nitric acid is present. American Journal of Science, §c. 149 Character of the zine plates.—If pure zinc could be obtained it would be highly advantageous, as the foreign metals, such as copper, lead, iron, cadmium, &c., which are left on the surface of the acid, to whose action it is exposed, diminish the effect of the action. The purest zinc of commerce is the rolled Liege or Mosselman’s zinc. After being used, the plates of a battery should be cleaned from the metallic powder on their surfaces. No old charge containing copper should be used to excite a battery. New plates are much more powerful than such as have been used. ‘he first time, 20 pairs of 4 inch plates in porcelain troughs were used, they lost per plate, only 3°7 atoms ; but after that the loss was 5°25 to 5:9 atoms. Vicinity of the copper and zinc.—When the copper and zinc are near to each other, the power is not only greater at the instant, but also, the sum of transferable power, in relation to the whole sum of chemical action at the plates, is much increased ; because, whatever tends to retard the circulation of the transferable force, (viz. electri- city), diminishes the proportion of such force, and increases the pro- portion of that which is local. Now, the liquid in the cells produces this retarding power, and, therefore, acts injuriously, in greater or less proportion, according to the quantity of it between the zine and copper plates, 7. e. according to the distances between their surfaces. The superiority of dowble coppers, also, depends, in part, upon diminishing the resistance offered by the electrolyte between the metals. The great effect, on first immersion, is owing to the un- changed condition of the acid, the effect of which diminishes as it becomes neutralized. Number and size of plates—The author found that the consump- tion of zinc, arranged:as 20 plates, was more advantageous than if arranged either as 10 or 40; and also, that increase of numbers did not improve the effective production of transferable chemical power, from the whole quantity of chemical force active at the sur- faces of excitation. If, in a particular case, the most effectual number of plates is known, then the addition of more zinc would be most advantageously made in increasing the size of the plates, and not their numbers. At the same time a large increase in the size of the plates would raise, in a small degree, the most favourable number. Large and small plates should not be used together. Simultaneous decompositions.—When the number of plates much surpasses the most favourable proportion, two or more decompositions may be effected, and simultaneously, with advantage. Thus 40 pairs of plates produced 22-8 cubic inches of gas in one volta electrometer ; when re-charged, they produced 21 inches in each of 2 electrometers. When 20 pairs of 4inch plates were used, the results were different ; with one electrometer 52 cubic inches of gas were procured, with 2 only 14-6 cubic inches. These results depend upon the same circum- stances of retardation as have been already mentioned. ( To be continued. ) Il.—The American Journal of Science and Arts, for July, August, and September, 1835. Ix March last, Dr. Silliman, the editor of this journal, since its com- mencement, 17 years ago, made an open appeal to his countrymen in 150 Analyses of Books. favour of his work; he told them candidly, that unless it was re- invigorated by additional support, it could not be permanent ; and that, should it be left to die of penury in the midst of abundance, he would exonerate himself from blame, and lay both the injury and the dishonour at the door of his country. He pointed out a simple plan to his subscribers, by which each individually could assist his cause, and the honour of his country, which was at stake. His suggestion was, that each subscriber should kindly endeavour to obtain one more. This was enough. Our Transatlantic friends did exert their energies immediately, as is their constant practice in the cause of improvement. They said, ‘‘ A Scientific Journal shall not be allowed to die, because we are sensible, that such an organ is a necessary auxiliary to science, and because we are able to support it.” In July, the permanence of the work was almost secure. What has been the consequence of this activity? The subsequent Number, whose title we have placed at the head of this article, supplies us with an ex- cellent geological description of the coal deposits of the Ohio, illus- trated with 36 plates of fossils, anda map. A treatise of the same nature would, in this country, have been locked up in the expensive volumes of one of our societies, for the perusal of a very limited number of persons. It may be true, that America has contributed but little to the ad- vancement of science; but it is a most striking fact, that science is there much better supported, and is more promising than in this country. But we leave this subject, and proceed to the consideration of the coal bason of the Ohio. The district, described by Dr. Hildreth, extends over a space of 4 or 5 degrees in latitude, by as many in longitude, and includes the north-west portions of Pennsylvania and Virginia, with the north-east of Ohio, and a small tract in the north- east of Kentucky ; being traversed by the Ohio, from Pittsburg to Burlington and Portsmouth. The appearance of the countr¥ is that of an undulating plain ; long sloping ridges running parallel into the river, and increasing in height in proportion to their distance from it. The surface rocks are sand-stone commonly, but no primitive rocks have been observed, even, although the depth of 1000 feet has been attained. The strata are, in general, little disturbed, and appear to have been formed slowly. The principal river from the west is the Muskingum, whose limpid water is charged with carbonate of lime. The aspect of the country, through which it passes, is hilly and broken, but on the head branches, the surface is more level. The plains are covered with fragments of gneiss, mica-slate, granite, and green-stone, mixed with alcyona, madreporites, corrallines, and shells, the tenants of an ocean, which at one time covered this country. The trees, which adorn the immense forests, are now rapidly disap- pearing before the hand of cultivation, and consist of Liriodendron tulipifera, or yellow poplar, Magnolia Acuminata, or cucumber tree, Cornus florida, Cereis Ohioensis, or Judas tree, the American date tree, hickory, sugar trees, spicewood, beech, yellow pine, Kal- mia latifolia, §c. The north-west portions of the valley of the Muskingum belong to supercretaceous formations, the south and east to the carboniferous American Journal of Science, §c. 151 series, and the extreme southern border to the new red-sand-stone group. At the mouth of the river, an interesting grotto of plants has been discovered. The sand-stone rock, in which it occurs, is 50 feet thick, and rests on slaty marl. Many of the plants appear to be aquatic vegetables ; but the most abundant are of the genus Neuroptera (of which excellent wood-cuts are appended). Thin beds of coal appear near this at the surface. Ascending the Muskingum extensive deposits of salt occur, at the depth of 620 feet ; 50 gallons of water containing 50 pounds of fine salt. On all the eastern branches of this stream, coal is abundant, but becomes more scarce as we approach Lake Erie. On the borders of ‘the coal region, iron ore is abundant, and is extensively worked. Marine fossils occur both above and below the coal, and through all the coal region many proofs exist of the action, both of fresh and salt water. Sections of the hills, in the neighbourhood of the river, present alternations of clay, sand-stone, coal, and limestone, containing encrinites, gry- phee, Se. Cannel coal is met with at Cambridge, in Guernsey county ; this constitutes the only known locality for it in America. The valley of the Hockshocking river is similar to that of the Muskin- gum river. . On the east side of the Ohio, one of its most powerful tributaries is the Inonongahela, whose valley occupies a space of about 180 miles in length, and lies between the Alleghany mountains, and the Ohio. The waters of this river pursue a course directly the reverse of those of the Ohio. The formations through the whole extent of this val- ley are recent secondary, consisting generally of sand-stone. The prevailing colour is light gray. The dark brown or red variety, known as the old red sand-stone, is seldom seen except in some of the mountain ranges, and is strictly a transition rock. The sand-stone often alternates with coal, shale, limestone, and marl. Fifteen miles from Wheeling, the main surface coal deposit dips under the bed of the river, and is not again seen in any considerable quantity until it appears at Carr’s Run, 150 miles below. The same deposit extends into Ohio, and is found in great abundance about St. Cluirsville. Hence, it is at least 200 miles long, and 100 broad ; and affords one of the most extensive coal fields known in any part of the world. At Morgantown, there are no less than 3 beds of coal above the sur- face of the river. The Ist bed is at the elevation of 300 feet, and is 6 feet thick, of moderately good quality ; the 2d at 150 feet above the river, 7 feet thick, of excellent quality ; the 3d at 30 feet height, 3 feet thick ; No. 4. a few feet below the surfcce, 7 feet thick, and excellent ; No. 5. at 147 feet, said to be 30 feet thick, but of in- ferior quality. At Pittsburg, also, tive exposed beds occur. The banks of the Kiskiminitas afford sections of thick beds of coal, shale containing fishes, and limestone. The coal beds vary from 1 to 12 feet in thickness, but rarely exceed 6. The space occupied, by the coal in this vicinity, does not fall short of 21,000 square miles. In consequence of its occurring in abundance above the sur- face, it is mined to a very great extent, at the rate of 1 and 2 cents per bushel ; and is thus brought within the means of a//, and 152 Analyses of Books. literally to every man’s door. Its cheapness has given rise to a variety of manufactories. Pittsburg and its environs contain 90 steam engines, which employ, with other sources of consumption, annually 255,500 tons of coal. This, at 4 cents per bushel, the price in Pittsburg, is equal to 306,512 dollars (about £68,000). The coal consumed in the western countries in the manufacture of salt is very great. There are above 90 establishments which produce 1,000,000 bushels of salt, and consume 5,000,000 bushels of coal. What a splendid prospect of future prosperity do these statements hold out! ; At Wheeling the coal exposed to view is 7 feet thick. The scenery of the Kenawha valley is varied and beautiful. The surface is covered with the Chionanthus, or Fringe tree, Magnolia tripe- tala, acuminata and mycrophylla, Rhododendron maximum, Kalmia latifolia, §c. The rocks are shale, coal, and sand-stone. The former, affords an abundant supply of fossil plants, including, Equisetum columnare? Calamites Steinhaueri, C ramosus, C arenaceus? Sphenopteris crenulata, Neuropteris acutifolia, Sphenopteris obtusiloba? §c. Salt water is found abundantly in this valley. It is found at considerable depths, associated with red marl in alternations with sand-stone, slate clay, limestone and coal. Gypsum has not been found to accompany the rock strata near the surface of the earth, in the valley of the Ohio, although indications of it are found at great depths, and extensive beds of it are deposited on the borders of the valley, in the secondary and transition rocks at the surface, and, hence, may be deposited beneath the series of sand-stones and coal throughout the whole valley. It occurs in abundance along the south shore of Lake Erie, to the in- terior of New York State. No shafts have been hitherto sunk to determine whether the salt exists in strata or not, but there can be little doubt of the fact, from the abundant supply which is met with. The Indians, it would appear, from the earliest times, were in the habit of sinking in the gravel near the, river, ‘‘ Gums,” or hollow logs for extracting salt. In 1795, Joseph Ruffner located on the Kenawha; but, it was not till 1807, that his sons, David and Joseph, selected a gum or hollow sycamore, 18 feet long, and 3 feet diameter ; which they sunk, with great labour, to the depth of 14 feet in the sand, a little above Buffaloe Lick, down to the smooth sand-stone forming the bed of the river. This rock was bored by means of an auger or chisel passed through atube. At 17 feet, they struck a vein of salt water, the first indication of which, was a bubbling or hissing of gas in the hole. It was sunk to 26 feet. A furnace was then erected of about 40 kettles, which began to work, in February, 1808, and made about 25 bushels of salt per day, value 2 dollars per bushel, at that time. The wells are now made deeper, coal is em- ployed, and in 1834, a million and a half of bushels were raised. The Kenawha presents a lively and interesting scene of activity and industry, with its steam boats, and its banks lined with furnaces and railroads. In Europe the salt is said to occur above the coal only, but we have doubts of the accuracy of this statement. The facts detailed -_™ Scientific Intelligence. 153 by Dr. Hildreth demonstrate, that it may be found also below coal ; and, that what our geologists would term new red sand-stone is in reality associated with jcoal. When the sand-stone assumes a red colour, it would appear to prove that the agency of heat has been exerted in its neighbourhood, for, when we ignite various varieties of white sand-stone, they assume a red aspect. The saline fountains in Ohio are characterized by their evolving quantities of carburetted hydrogen, which brings up with it large quantities of petroleum. We must now conclude this notice, but cannot do so without ex- pressing the high degree of satisfaction we have received from the perusal of the geological memoir of Dr. Hildreth. If his knowledge of fossils had been equal to his powers of observation, the paper would have been still more valuable. We can learn from his ob- servations, however, that he does not confine his researches to the mere external description of masses of stones; but that he brings in to his assistance, the collateral sciences, without whose aid, geological details, as they are given too often in our own country, are mere lumber. The illustrating lithographs and wood cuts appended to the memoir are excellent specimens of the American arts. Il.—The Doctrine of proportion, or Geometrical Admeasure- ment by similar triangles, practically applied to expanding or diminishing Drawings. London, 1836. Ackermann and Co. Tue object of this publication is to fix the principles of drawing upon mathematical, and, therefore, upon fixed and invariable prin- ciples. It is just such a work as we have long wished to see; and we have no doubt, that it will be properly appreciated, by those for whom it is intended, viz., all who wish to draw correctly and scientifically. Arricte XI. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I.—Pharmaceutical Preparations. 1. Indigo in Epilepsy.—Dr. Ideler, of Berlin, has treated 26 cases of epilepsy with indigo; of these, 6 were cured without a re- lapse, 3 had relapses after some months, 1] were much relieved, and upon 6 no effect was produced. His formulais, R Pulv. Indig. oz. 3, Pulv. Aromat. dr. 3, Syrup. Simp. q. s. ut ft. electuar. To be taken at first in two days, and then ina single one. The dose of indigo may be increased to 6 or 8 drachms per day. The first effects are nausea and vomiting. It also induces constipation ; the urine is brown.—Ltust’s Magazine. 2. Antiseptic Liquid.—M. Lereboullet, Conservator of the Mu- seum of Natural History at Strasbourg states, that for two years the anatomical preparations in this establishment have been preserved by a liquid consisting of chloride of calcium 4 parts, potash-sulphate 154 Scientific Intelligence. of alumina 2 parts, nitrate of potash 1 part, water 16 parts. M. Vinet, keeper of the museum, has also used it for tanning skins which are to be piled up. It is particularly useful in preserving the brain. —(Journ. de Chim. Medic. i.) 3. Caustic powder of Vienna.—This consists of caustic potash with lime 5 parts, pulverized quick-lime 6 parts. When it is to be em- ployed, it is mixed with a little aleohol so as to form a liquid paste, which is spread between two pieces of cerecloth, one of which has an aperture in it of the size and form which we wish to give to the es- char. The action is rapid but not painful, and always terminates in less than half an hour.—(Idid.) 4. Hydro-ferro-cyanate of Quinin.—Ferrari forms this prepara- tion by employing equal parts of pure quinin and Prussian blue in fine powder. The quinin is dissolved in alcohol, hydro-cyanate of iron is then added, and the whole is boiled for some minutes. The boiling liquid is then filtered. It has a greenish yellow tinge, is soluble in water, and presents all the characters of hydro-ferro-cyanate of quinin. In this process, the Prussian blue employed has lost the fourth of its weight, so that if 4 parts of quinin are employed, the new product weighs five.—(Idid. i. 360.) 5. White lead Plaster.—Ferrari recommends that this plaster should be made by boiling together 6 Ibs. of olive oil and 3 lbs. of lead. During the boiling, acetic acid is to be added. This will be decomposed and form carbonic acid, which will combine with the oxide of lead. Instead of acetic acid, sugar of lead, with a smaller proportion of lead may be employed.—(Grazetta eclettica di Far- mac. iii. 166.) II.—Progress of Science. Tue year 1833 furnished important descriptions of the 3 peninsulas of Southern Europe, Mexico, South America, and Hindostan. Eng- land afforded 45 publications of this kind, France 46, Germany 31, Italy 19, Russia 15, and the United States 16. During the same year, there appeared in the Physical and Natural Sciences, 144 treatises, and 276 memoirs in the whole; and in Geology and Pa- leontology 61 treatises and 414 memoirs; or, in the whole, 205 treatises and 690 memoirs ; or, 895 publications. In comparing the number of works of 1833 with those of 1830, 1831 and 1832, the ratio is expressed by the following figures: 300, 450, 500 and 900. —(Silliman’s American Journal, xxviii. 294.) Ill.— Carices common to North America and Great Britain. Proressor Dewey received a collection of 190 Carices which had been collected in the voyages and tours in Arctic America, from Dr. Hooker through Dr. Torrey. Those common to America and this country are: C Dioica, Rocky mountains; Davalliana ib; Ca- pitata ib; Incurva ib; Curtaib; Saatilis Bear Lake; Acuta Columbia river ; Cespitosa rocky mountains; Atrata ib; Vahlii Scientific Intelligence. 155 ib; Céderi Canada; Pallescens Carlton-house; Capillaris Rocky mountains ; Limosa Hudson’s Bay ; Pseudo-cyperus Cumberland- house ; Liliformis Cumberland-house ; Ampullacea Bear Lake.— (Silliman’s American Journal, xxviii. 270.) IV.— Royal Institution.—22nd January. On Silicified Fossils.—Dr. Faraday began his observations on the conversion of ancient woods into siliceous matter, by detailing the characters of silica, its insolubility in acids when ina dry pulverulent state, and its ready solubility in water when fused with an alkali, alluding, in passing, to the method which we possess by means of fluor spar of obtaining it in an elastic, gaseous form. Whether it can be sublimed by the direct agency of heat seems doubtful. Dr. McCulloch relates an experiment in which he exposed silica to a strong heat in a crucible, and apparently sublimed a portion. It is possible, however, that in this instance there might have been some fallacy. Dr. Faraday exhibited specimens of flint, from the chalk, agates which may be considered a kind of siliceous nodules occurring in trap rocks, and a beautiful example of cap rock crystal to illustrate the deposition of the siliceous matter in layers. He shewed also a fine amethyst containing colourless layers on its surface, which were thicker on some places than on others, and gave it as his conclusion drawn from an inspection of all the different forms of silica, that it had been deposited by one law, because we find agates, chalcedony, rock crystal, and other forms, united in the same mass. The for- mation of chalcedony, he considers, cannot be accounted for by the mere drying of gelatinous silica, the contraction which would follow being too great to correspond with the forms in which we find chal- cedony. Silicified woods are found lying on the surface of siliceous and cal- careous formations, as in Africa and Antigua. In some specimens we find that the soft parts of the wood yield first, and are replaced by silica, while in others, we observe the hard parts giving way and the soft parts remaining. In others again, both hard and soft por- tions have disappeared, and have been entirely replaced by silica. Spe- cimens from Antigua exhibit trees silicified in all stages of decay. In one specimen which the lecturer shewed, the exterior circles were silicified, and exhibited the vessels of the plant in perfect preserva- tion, while the centre had been hollow and was filled up with agate. There is no evidence to prove that silicification has taken place in mo- dern times. The effect produced by the Geyzers is merely incrusta- tion, for the substances upon which the silica from these springs is deposited remain entire ; silicification, however, consists in the dis- placement of organic matter by silica. Several instances have been related of the effect of rivers in silicifying or petrifying with silica, as of the waters of the Aar, Danube, and Loch Neagh; but the loca- lities to which this power was assigned, when examined by competent authorities exhibited no such property. Specimens of what have been considered by some as silicitied sugar canes were shewn by Dr. 156 Scientific L ntelligence. Faraday, but the vessels in these specimens, as he was informed, were quite different from those of the recent sugar cane. The examples which appear to be of the most recent formation, are some specimens from Loch Neagh, where fibrous portions of carbon- aceous matter occur dispersed in different parts of silicified masses, and the silicified Gorogonites, or seeds of the Chara hispida, de- scribed by Mr. Lyell, from the lakes in Forfarshire. In referring to the explanation of these curious phenomena, Dr. Faraday considered that the present state of our knowledge did not enable us to afford a solution of the diffculty, and that to form a theory would merely tend to embarass the subject, for such was the universal character of theories. It is impossible to admit that intense heat could have produced these changes, because Dr. McCulloch as- serts that conferve exist in many specimens of rock crystal, which would have been destroyed if the matter in which they lie enclosed had been exposed to a high temperature. The views of Dr. Turner, the lecturer considered, afforded an excellent explanation of the source of the silica. He exposed portions of crown and window glass to the action of steam in a high pressure boiler, the temperature being 300° F. In the course of 4 months, they were found to be more or less decomposed ; the white earthy portions were found to be entirely free from alkaline matter, but the actual loss was not due to the extraction of the alkaline matter only, for the silica of the glass had also been dissolved, as was proved by the apertures of the wire gauze in which the glass was incased, being filled up at the most depending parts by a siliceous incrustation, where also a stalactitic deposit of silica about an inch and a quarter long had formed. Dr. Turner adduced these facts to illustrate the action of water at high pressure on felspar, and other rocks containing alkaline matters. Dr. Faraday considered these experiments as highly important in regard to affording a source for the silica, but conceived that we were still ignorant of the mode in which the silica is deposited in such a variety of forms. He stated that he had brought the subject before the meeting to stimulate to investigation respecting this interesting and beautiful phenomenon. Note.—It may be observed, that excellent imitations of chalcedony can be produced, by allowing silica, in the gelatinous state, to dry on a filter in the open air. The following queries may not, perhaps, be out of place: Is the opinion expressed by Dr. Faraday on the in- fluence of theories altogether just? Have they not acted beneficially on the developement of electricity, optics, and chemistry? Does the explanation suggested by Dr. Turner apply to the solution of silica in any other situations than under great pressure, and conse- quently at a great depth, and at a temperature above the boiling point of water? Ifit does not, why should silicified wood occur only at the surface, and chiefly on siliceous and calcareous forma- tions >—Enprr. V.—Action of Acids upon Sugar. Mauagurtt finds Ist. that both organic and inorganic acids act in the same way upon sugar, when influenced by heat ; and that it is trans- \ Scientific Intelligence. az. formed first into sugar of grapes, then into ulmie acid, and (if atmo- spheric air is present) into formic acid. 2nd. When cane sugar is changed into sugar of grapes, the action of the acids takes place even at common temperatures. 3rd. That the smallest quantity of acid acts in the same manner but more slowly. An acid less dilute will act more quickly than an acid more dilute. 4th. Dilute acids under the action of atmospheric air cannot transform sugar into formic acid. oth. The action of alkalies upon sugar is identical with that of acids. His experiments confirm the accuracy of the composition assigned to ulmic acid by Boullay, viz. C? HO. Ulmic acid may be readily formed by boiling together 10 parts sugar, 30 water, and 1 concentrated. sulphuric acid. In three quarters of an hour a scum forms on the surface which may be skimmed off; in a few minutes it is formed anew. This scum is ulmic acid with a little ulmin, which may be separated by ammonia. Water should be added occasionally in order to re-place what evaporates.—(Ann. de Chim. lix. 407.) VI.—Chloro-benzine and Chloro-benzide. Chloro-benzine is formed, by exposing benzine and chlorine in a close vessel to the action of the sun. A white vapour forms and is gradually deposited in crystals. It is insoluble in water, little soluble in alcohol, but more soluble in ether. Fuses at 2694°. It consists of carbon 25:14 ; hydrogen 2:06; chlorine 72-80. This is equiva- lent to C3 H12 Cl 13. Chloro-benzide may be readily formed by subjecting chloro-benzine to distillation, mixed with an excess of hydrate of barytes or lime. Water, and a chloride is formed, and chloro-benzide passes over. Chloro-benzide is an oily colourless liquid. Specific gravity 1-457. Insoluble in water, very soluble in alcohol, ether and benzine. Not altered by acids and alkalies. Boiling point 410°. It consists of carbon 39°91; hydrogen 1:62; chlorine 58-47. The density of its vapour was found to be 6°37. ‘This corresponds with 6 vol. earbon vapor = 2°4996, 1} hydrogen = -991, 13 chlorine =3-:75= 6:24.—( Poggendorff’s Ann. xxxv. 370.) VIIL.—Silica in Plants. Srruve has obtained the following results from an examination of the ashes of several plants. Silica Alumina Lime Manganese Equisetum hyemale 97-52 “ay 0-69 ef limosum 94-85 0-99 1:57 1:69 ms arvense 95:48 2-556 1-64 Spongia lacustris 94-66 bay 2-99 Calamus Rotang 99-20 rr 0-54 (Erdmann und Schiweigger Seidel’s Journal, v. 462.) 158 Scientific Intelligence. VIII.—Antimonial Copper Glance, a new Mineral. Tus mineral was found by Zinken in drusy quartz cavities, at Wolfs- berg. It occurs in the form of four-sided prisms, of which the la- teral edges are so much truncated as to give the crystal a tabular ap- pearance. Colour, lead gray to iron black. Hardness, between cal- careous spar and fluor spar, or 3°5. Specific gravity, 4°748. Lustre, metallic, splendent. Fracture, in the long axis of the transverse fracture, foliated faces of cleavage glassy ; in all other directions the fracture is more or less uneven. Before the blow-pipe it decrepitates, and easily fuses in the external flame. Oncharcoal it gives out the odour of white antimony. Fused with soda it gives a reddish metallic grain, which, by continued heat, gives out an odour. Henry Rose found it to contain from 3°57 to 5-79 per cent. of silica mechanically mixed. Its constitutents are : Sulphur 26-34. Antimony 46°81. Iron 1:39. Copper 24:46. Lead 0-56=99-56. The iron is probably combined with copper and sul- phur so as to form copper pyrites, and the lead is probably combined as sulphuret of lead with sulphuret of antimony, forming Federerz. 1:39 partsiron require 1°65 sulphur, and 1-62 copper to form pyrites, while to form Federerz we have 0°56 lead + 0-08 sulphur, with 0-4 sulphuret of antimony. There remain, therefore, 47:46 antimony, 22-84 copper; the first requiring 17-36 sulphur, the latter 5-81 parts. The formula, therefore, is SbS + Cu S.—(Poggendorff’s Ann, xxxv. 357.) IX.— Metamorphosis of Plants. A CorrEsponpENT, Amicus Physiologicus, writing from the Isle of Wight, (11th December), objects to the observations of Pro- fessor Rennie who considers the ideas of Linneus, Gothe, De Can- dolle, Lindley, &c., in reference to the metamorphosis of plants, “* wildly absurd, as must at a glance appear to every reader endowed with common sense.” Our Correspondent relates an experiment which he (?) conceives to afford an argument in favour of the theory in question. Some rose leaves having been boiled with a portion of alcohol and water, so as to abstract their colouring matter, his attention was at- tracted to a leaf which had adhered to the side of the vessel in which the experiment was made, and “in that flower leaf was distinctly traced a leaf of the tree which seemed to form the basis of the leaf of the rose.” He concludes “ that we may safely infer that flowers are transformed leaves.” NEW BOOKS. Laboratorium, das, eine Sammlung Von Abbildungen und Besch- reibungen der neuesten und besten Apparate, 4 tafeln. Breslau. Carus, Dr. C. G. und Dr. A. W. Otto Erlauterungstafeln zur Vergleichenden Anatomie. Barth, Leipzig. HOR ONS O {Ek BAROMETER, THERMOMETER, &c. ide at the Manse of the Parish of Abbey St. Bathan’s, Berwickshire, Lat. 55052’ N. Long. 2? 23’ W. at e height of about 450 feet above the sea, for the commencement of each hour per clock, beginning at 6 clock in the morning of Monday the 21st December, and ending at 6 o’clock in the evening of Tuesday e 22d, thus extending over 36 hours, according to the suggestion of Sir John Herschel.) By the Rey. HN WALLACE. o'19}aMOWIaT Ty, 35 |16] 30°021 0(S,A1[Sa'y )'asAPY *yoqueryey J 0dF WB qajawoINg “PULA ay) jo uoljoadI. 2} 29°843|W.N.W. 5] 29°831|W.N.W. 29°855 29°861)W.N.W. 29°865| N. W. 29°871| N. W. 29-872|N Wby W 29°866| N. W. 29°866] N. W. 29.869| N. W. 29-869} N. W. 29°890} N. W. 29°890| N. W. 29-900| N Why W 29-903|N Wby W 29:914|W., by N. 29-925|W. by N. 29 925|W. by N. 29°935| . W. 29°941) W. | 29°950|W.N.W. 6| 29°950 29°951 29'946|SW byW 29-959|SW by W 29:969|S W by W 29.987/SW byW 29°996|SW by W 29-997/S W by W 30.000/SW by W 29-997 29997 29-997 30°006 Ww. 30.011|N WbyW 30-017|W.N.W. W, } Calm sky overcast; a sprinkling of snow on the ground, recently fallen. } Gentle breeze; clouds breaking in the S. K. qr.alittle above the horizon: W. qr. lowering. So calm below that the direction of the wind cannot be noted ; but the clouds in motion from N.E. The 8. E. clear, the rest of the sky veiled with cirro-str. passing into nimbus. A slight shower. Very gentle breeze; clouds still moving from N. E. Nimbus overspreading the sky with frequent showers. g Very gentle breeze ; sky nearly veiled by an upper stratum of cirro- strat.; large black masses of cloud resembling cirrostratus passing ra from north-eastward. § Gentle breeze ; the general character of the clouds the same as dur- ing last hour. The clouds tending to break up, particularly in 0 the zenith, § Gentle breeze; sky completely overcast, but the general aspect of tthe clouds continues the same. Gentle breeze ; the sky overspread with nimbus, drizzling rain ; the ; clouds continue to move from north-eastward. § Breeze somewhat increased ; drizzling rain. Nimbus dissipating in zenith. Gentle breeze; tending to clear in S. W. and zenith. Nimbus ; passing into cirrostratus. ; § Gentle breeze ; an extensive bed of cirro-strat. formed in S.W. qr.; the rest of the heavens overspread with nimbus ; slight drizzling d rain. The clouds by their motion still indicating a current from NE. ) Until P.M. (inclusively) the general aspect of the heavens and cha- t__racter of the clouds remained the same as described for the pre- The same as four o’clock. [ceding hour. The same. The same. Gentle breeze ; with slight tendency to clear overhead. Calm ; sky again overcast, slight drizzle. § Very gentle breeze, rain during a great part of the past hour; now t __ fair, with some tendency to clear overhead. § Gentle breeze, sky overcast drizzling rain ; a lightness on the E. qr. t__ of the horizon under a dense black cloud. § Gentle breeze ; clearing from the zenith towards the western qr. of the horizon. The opposite quarter of the heavens still obscured Q . with heavy clonds. § Calm, sky clear from the zenith westward to the horizon, but still t hazy towards the N. E. § So calm that direction of wind cannot be noted ; sky clear, except ( ahaziness in S. E. So calm that the direction of the wind cannot be noted ; a bed of cirrostratus forming on the horizon from northern towards eastern quarter, detached patches rising towards the zenith. Very gentle breeze, sky cloudless except on the S.E. qr. of horizon, The same as last hour. Breeze slightly increased ; otherwise the same as last two hours, § Breeze still slightly increasing ; hoar frost on the ground, otherwise tthe same. The mass of dense thick cloud in S, E. dissipating. Gentle breeze and cloudless sky. The same as preceding hour. § Too calm for noting the wind with certainty, but it appears to be t shifting south-eastward ; cloudless sky. The same as preceding hour. A bed of cirrostrat. forming in N.W. horizon. Otherwise the same. Still very calm; clouds a cirrocumulative appearance forming on § the N.horizon. Sky otherwise clear. ( Gentle wind ; the cirrocumulative clouds continue to form on the N. horizon, and are rising towards the zenith. ¢ The same as last hour. § Calm; the sky obscured by the cirro. clouds which, commencing ¢ from the N, horizon have gradually spread over the heavens, Otherwise [the same, “ures 03 Louepus; yITA Soy pur ysvosao "PY" “WEP "WV WOH “TN J \289°62 [689-66 |669-62 er 2-65) 0 3 “JSOAf OSUOJUT “9A “MOOK SPALAO} SULILOTO “SUTUIOM ULI PST] ‘Purs epueED |] Aq Ay Nil GST-O SEL-65 |189-66 |F9F-6S |\PT9-64 || 9 9 - ‘jueyeaord yuo ‘ouy “pura ete | A"N* MA 5) B6S-6G |P99-66 |60¢-63 |69F-6||9 | et | PE] OF “wa]P “BAe “Sursiedsrp spnoyo *"q ‘S@AOYS YALA ysvo.19A0 "PY “PULA SuoAg || Np Aq * MA $9B-G 1960-66 |9T0:66 |9F0-6||ET| ot |g |9 *SIOMOYS JEST "JA ‘Utes 07 Auepue} TTA 4svot9A0 * PW ‘PUI ysIg}] = AN *g ChE-6 |90F-6G |SPF-62 |9FF-63 || 2 j ‘UIRL OUT[ZZLIP Jl] Y}LM 4ySVd19AO WV “pura sig, MAG AACN O8F-63 |OFS-63 |F69-62 |S02-64|| 9 ¢ “AAS on]q OU v YyLA\ sserpnoyo ApIveu "Wg “ozey BST IW'V “MPD! 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ArrTiIcye I. Memoir of John Napier, Baron of Merchiston. By J. B. Bror.* ( Concluded from p. 94.) Hiruerro, we have only seen Napier as a Scotch Baron of the 16th century. Confined to the heart of a barbarous country, in a strong castle, he lived in a solitary manner with his family, without any other change in his thoughts, than that which the administration of his affairs, or his un- avoidable participation in religious and political quarrels demanded. A decided and ardent Presbyterian, he com- mented on Scripture after the manner of his times, and under the influence of the same prejudices which inflamed the other fanatics of his sect, he explained, with a confi- dence not less determined than blind, the allusions of Holy Scripture as referring to the circumstances in which the reformed church was then placed. Yet to this period we owe his invention— for it should not be termed discovery ; an invention almost mechanical and material, which , changed all the methods of mathematical calculation, till then, employed in science, gave them a wonderful simplicity and precision, and saved so much labour to laborious men, as well as those of genius, such as Copernicus and Kepler, that it is but proper to show to inquiring minds how Napier produced such an admirable invention. The Scotch biographer felt the want of such a view ; but * Abridged from the Journal de Savants, May, 1835. VOL. III. M 162 Memoir of John Napier, he could derive little assistance from the writings of ma- thematicians, and even from those who have written par- ticularly on the history of the mathematics ; for, by a fatality almost inevitably attached to inventors whose discoveries are subsequently improved by the succeeding progress which they excite, the original work of Napier entitled, ‘‘ Mirifict Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio,” published in 1614, is. never read, although he explains in it the mode of generation which he attributed to the new quantities called by him artificial numbers, or logarithms, to which he joins their numerical properties, exhibiting their use in simplifying arithmetical calculations, when it is necessary to multiply numbers by each other, or to divide the one by the other, as well as their employment in the determinations of trigo- nometry and astronomy, and, lastly, the numerical tables containing the logarithms of trigonometrical lines called sines, co-sines, tangents, and secants, calculated from minute to minute for every degree on the quarter of the circle, which, without the employment of the invention would cost enormous labour. All this is given without any explanation, without any insight into the ideas which had led him to conceive the admirable utility of these tables, nor upon the means which he employed in calculating them. His work entitled, ‘‘ Mirifici LogarithmorumCanonis Constructio” is also no longer read. It was published after his death, by his son, in 1619. Init he explains and demonstrates all the processes, all the mechanism in the construction of his logarithmic tables, which he did not wish to develope at first. Wedo not require at the present day a knowledge of his original ideas, nor of his method. The immense developement given to algebraic calculation, by the use of letters as symbols, of which, the introduction is due to Vieta, has furnished us with rapidly, indefinitely, converging series, by means of which, we attain the same logarithms in a direct way, almost without labour, with a neatness of sym- bols which permits us always to see the present effect of general operations which we express by formule, and enables us to appreciate the degree of the approximation of our results. Although the precision to which they may be pushed is without limit, still it must be asserted to the honour of Napier, that the same advantage is connected Baron of Merchiston. 163 with his method; and, if this assertion should appear too much strained to modern analysts, I hope to be able shortly to afford such proofs as will overcome their objections. But, in order to have a just notion of the work of Napier, it is necessary to study it from these books, especially in the second, where he explains his method ; and not to trust to the abstracts which have been given by authors. Of all these abstracts, the best, that is to say, the most faithful and elaborate is, in my opinion, that published by Hutton in his introduction to the mathematical tables of Sherwinn, and which is re-printed with this introduction in the first volume of the ‘‘ Scriptores Logarithmici.” The path followed by Napier is there strictly followed, such as it is charac- terized in his principle, and appreciated in his results, com- paratively with our actual methods. Now, this is what we wish to know of a first inventor. Montucla, the historian of the Mathematics, we should almost be tempted to believe, had never inspected the posthumous work of Napier, for he attributes to him methods of bi-section which were not his, and which were employed afterwards by Briggs. We might expect to find a more just estimate in the history of Astronomy by Delambre, who was neither deficient in a knowlege of the actual logarithmic methods, nor in the loye of truth. But, by a defect in philosophy, which is but too remarkable in his work, he employs not only the sim- plicity of our modern formule to exhibit the ideas of Napier —what should be their true use, but translates imperfectly these ideas into modern formule, and thus gives them as a basis, an empirical approximation which they do not possess, and which is pesitively opposed to the spirit of Napier’s method. Thus disfigured, he examines the latter, demands an explanation for want of exactness which Napier has not committed, and for faults which he attributes to him from his own errors. The n¢w Scotch biographer endeavours to rescue the honour, of Napier from the criticisms of this author, and opposes, successfully, the small number of writers, especially English, who, from a sincere scientific opinion, or from national prejudice have, according to him, endeavoured to depreciate Scotland, by attributing the first idea of the discovery of logarithms to an obscure mathema- tician of the continent, called Justus Byrge, of whom Kepler mM 2 164 Memoir of John Napier, speaks in his introduction to the Rudolphine tables, as having thought of something of the same kind, without publishing it.* But what is the use of discussing preten- sions which have not been produced, and which no one at present can see or appreciate? At the time when Napier invented the logarithms, all mathematicians, all astronomers, and they were then very numerous, felt the want of some method which would sim- plify the prodigious calculations which were necessary for the resolution of the celestial triangles, the only application of mathematics which was then known. Different scientific details attest the trials made in this respect by Byrge, as well undoubtedly as by many others, among whom Kepler himself may be mentioned; and, in short, when we think of what must be the numerical calculation of the tables of natural sines and tangents, for a radius expressed by a mil- lion, or even by ten millions of parts as they were then con- structed; when we consider that all this required constant divisions and multiplications which were required to be accurately made, without omitting a single cypher from the largest numbers, we can easily understand that the desires of mathematicians would be directed to the object of freeing themselves from such drudgery, and, that neces- sity would suggest numerous methods for attaining this desirable end. To these titles his right of inventor, but of inventor only, is incontestible. But this right becomes, if possible, more clear still, when we study the principle of his tables, when we expose their basis, when we understand the originality, and appreciate the justice with which he applies it, and the precision of the results which he deduces. If I can restore what commentators have consigned to ob- livion, I may say what Cicero says of Archimedes: ‘* Humi- lem homunculum e radio et pulvere excitabo.” But I shall then have given subject of satisfaction to philosophers who love the glory of their predecessors as their heritage, and are happy when justice is rendered to their works. It was the great genius of Syracuse, in his treatise ‘‘ De * The words are “ Qui tamen apices logistici Justo Byrgio multis annis ante editionem neperianam viam praiverunt ad ipsos logarithmos. Etsi homo cunctator et secretorum suorum custos feetum in partu destituit, non ad usus publicos educayit.—( Tab. Rud. iii. p. 11 in fol.) Baron of Merchiston. 165 Arena,” who first exhibited the properties of progressive numbers upon which the theory of logarithms is founded. Archimedes had proposed, not the idle question of how many grains of sand could be contained in a sphere equal in diameter to the sphere of the stars, such as they were then supposed ; but to show that a number so great, and even infinitely greater might be specified and written with the characters alone of numeration used in his time among the Greeks. We know that these characters were letters of the alphabet, which were employed consecutively in their natural order, either simple or accented, to express the different unions of units, tens, hundreds, until they arrived at ten thousand units, which were called a myriad, and which was designed by the capital letter M surmounted by the alphabetic letter which expressed the number of myriads to be noted. In addition to this, Archimedes con- ceived an indefinite series of numbers commencing with simple unity, and sucessively decupled the one by the other in such a way that they were written in the order of our notation, as 1; 10; 100; 10000; 100000; &e. But, as in writing them thus we are soon greatly embarassed by the great number of cyphers which follow unity, we abridge their expression by the assistance of an ingenious method contrived by Descartes, and which consists in writing only their common factor 10 affected by a numerical indicator more or less considerable, which marks—which exposes how many times the common radical 10 is found multiplied by itself. Then, in writing thus, the successive terms of our progression, and marking below each term the rank which it occupies after the first, we obtain the following lines, 1; 101; 102; 1035104; 105; 10°; 107; 108; &e. indefinitely. Peet BS iWet varie w & usli oS It becomes evident at first sight that the number of the in- ferior line, which expresses the rank of each term, is equal to the exponent, which indicates the number of times the common radical 10 isa factor in this term. This was not distinct to the eye in the notation by letters employed by Archimedes, and even, it was not possible for him to ex- press, as we do, the character of indefinite extension, which he wished to give to such a succession, 166 Memoir of John Napier, Then, what did he do? He considered first, the nine first terms from 1 to 10% separately. Now, he can write them, and even name them, since the last term 108 or ten times ten thousand only was equal to a myriad of myriads; separating, then, the first 8 terms, he called them numbers of the first order ; then, with the ninth term 108 he forms a new unit, which he terms of the second order; and he arranges these new units, like the preceding, in numbers progressively decupled the one by the other, until he arrives at the 8th term, which is 1015; so that the follow- ing 101° is found to be a myriad of myriads of numbers of the second order. Working with this term 101° as with 108 he forms a new unit, which he terms of the third order ; and, continuing to form successive numbers of units, each of which commences at the myriad of myriads of the preced- ing numbers, it is evident that we may proceed in the series as far as we please, and even express all these terms orally, for it is sufficient to consider them all placed consecutively, and to separate them by orders or octades, as in the follow- ing lines, Ist Order, 1; 101; 102% 5 103; 1045/105; 106; 107. 2d Order, 108; 109; 101°; 1011; 1012; 1013; 1014; 1015. 3d Order, } 1026 £1647 5102335 TORO 10292 108 2 L023): eee 4th Order, 1024,5'1025; 1026; 1027; 102%; 1029; 1059; 1032; 1032, &e. Thus, any term, however far distant from the first, may be completely defined and named, by stating the order or octade to which it belongs, with its place in the octade ; and besides, this method of characterizing it will be in- finitely more simple, than if we wished to write it im an explicit manner; for example, in proceeding from the dimensions of a small grain of sand, and raising it from multiple to multiple by means of his series, until we conceive it to fill a sphere of an equal diameter to that of the stars, Archimedes proves that the total number of these grains, will be less than a thousand myriads of 8th numbers ; now, according to this table, it is easy to see that the simple units of this 8th order have for their expression the Baron of Merchiston. 167 number 10 multiplied 56 times in succession by itself; and as a thousand myriads of units make a thousand times ten thousand, or 10 seven times factor, we see that the number announced by Archimedes is equal to 10 multiplied by itself 63 times, which, even with our Arabic notation, would be tedious to write, since it is unity followed by 63 cyphers. But the matter becomes very simple, more simple even for us than for Archimedes, if we employ the notation of the ex- ponents of Descartes, which expresses only the number of times the multiplication of 10 by itself ought to be per- formed, for then the immense number of Archimedes would be expressed in this small abridged formula, 10°%. In all this, the simplicity results from the fact, that in place of considering the same numbers with the multiplicity of characters which express them, they are only named by their rank in the indefinite progression. In following out this idea, Archimedes proves that it serves equally for ob- taining the products of the terms of the progression among them in the simplest manner. For, suppose that we wish to multiply the fourth term, which is 1000 or 10%, by the fifth, which is 10,000 or 104, the product will be 10,000,000 or 107; but, in place of writing all the characters which compose them, it is sufficient to add together the figures 3 and 4, which express or expose the rank of the terms which have been multiplied. For the sum 7 marks the number of times that 10 is the factor in the product sought, and it is sufficient to write the product 107. The multiplication is thus re-placed by addition, which isa much more simple operation. Inversely, if you have the product 10,000,000 or 10‘, which is one of the terms of the series, and you wish to divide it by 1000 or 10, which is another term, you have only to take the difference of the exponents, which is 7 less 3, or 4, and 10,000 or 104 will be the quotient sought, the same as would be obtained by the longer process of division. All the other terms of the series present the same facilities for abbreviation, when they are multiplied or divided by themselves, which results from the circumstance, that they successively derive the one from the other in sequence, a similar proportion, forming thus what is called geometrical progression or by quotients, while the simpler numbers, 168 Memoir of John Napier, which express only the rank of each term, increase only by one unit, and always by one unit in passing from one term to the following term, which constitutes another kind of progression called progression by equi-difference, or arith- metical. Archimedes recognized and proved all that we have explained respecting the relations of two similar pro- gressions, when these terms were thus placed in corre- spondence. And, in order to show that these properties took place for any terms of the two series, he thought of representing generally these terms by letters employed only as signs of quantities without any peculiar numerical value, giving thus the first example of reasoning applied to figured symbols, representing abstractions in which algebra consists, that powerful instrument of the mind for discovering the general relations of great sums. From this to loparithine there is only a step, faa even logarithms are only indices employed after the manner of Archimedes to express the rank of each number in an in- definite geometrical series which comprises them all; so that their multiplication and division with each other may be re-placed by addition, or the mutual subtraction of indices which correspond with them. But how can we comprehend all the numbers in the same geometrical series, proceeding continually by equal proportions? It is in this that the fundamental idea of Napier consists. To make this propor- tion common, if near equality, it is necessary only that the progression should proceed by very slow steps, so that any number given, if it does not fall upon one of the terms of the progression, is found at least comprised between two terms differing so little from each other, that the error may be neglected ; or better still, it is only necessary to repre- sent, as Napier did, geometrical progression and the cor- responding arithmetical progression, as produced by the continued motion of two moving bodies proceeding from a state of rest, and advancing, the one with a geometrical acceleration, the other with an equi-different and uniform motion. The simultaneous positions of the two moving bodies at any time will give in geometrical progression the number, in arithmetical progression the index or the loga- rithm which corresponds to it. But this idea, simple though it is, presents, in the execu- Baron of Merchiston. 169 tion, a very great and material difficulty. To form the successive terms of the geometrical proportion, it is neces- sary to multiply them successively by their common pro- portions, as many times as there are units in the index of their rank. Hence, we fall into the calculations of multi- plication, which we wished to avoid. Napier relieves us from the difficulty by a very simple method; he forms his geometrical progression by descending from the greater to the smaller number, instead of rising from the small to the great as Archimedes did, and he employs for the con- stant proportion of the successive terms that of 10 to 9, or of 100 to 99, or of 1000 to 999, or generally, by an entire power of 10 to this same power diminished bya unit. Then each term may be deduced from the preceding by simple subtraction, for if the first term is, for example, 10000000, and the second 9999999, the latter will be obtained by subtracting unity from the former, which is the millionth part. The third will be deduced from the second in taking from the latter the ten millionth of its value, or 0°9999999, according to our actual decimal notation, and in continuing this proceeding we obtain as many terms as we wish by simple subtraction, which will follow in the same geometri- cal proportion as we shall have chosen. The correspondence of the terms and indices which mark their rank will form the following table, in which the succession is indicated to the hundredth term after the first, carrying the value of each term to the seventh decimal place. Index of the rank of the terms of the geome- Numerical value of the successive trical progression departing from the first. terms of the geometrical progression. 100000000:-0000000 1-0000000 Uc ere td ZAR AYE OK GOBBG88 HN00000 0:999999 ke a gt gtliag het. sali ts ie SIRS AH 0-9999998 DB atisgy ar a Maem ite Ves” aueoodoe # QOO0008 0:9999997 9999996:-0000006 and so on to the 100th term which will be 100 * Oe we we ak ss DOUOOO OCR IEn 170 Memoir of John Napier, This is precisely the first table formed by Napier, which has been copied for the purpose of giving an accurate idea of his method. We may apply to the terms which comprise it all the properties demonstrated by Archimedes in reference to geometrical progression, and obtain the same simpli- fications by multiplying and dividing them by each other. But, however slow the progression here employed may be, it is still only the expression of an intermittent movement, while the definition of the logarithm requires us to deter- mine the indices of the rank which shall correspond to the same terms produced by a motion completely continued. Napier did not obtain the absolute expression for this cor- rection, as we now can do by our differential methods, which enables us to pass, without error, from intermission to continuity. But, in comparing the essential conditions of continued motion with those of intermittent motion, he established measurable limits between which the logarithm of a given number is always comprised; so that if these two limits exceed the order of the decimals which are to be preserved, we may legitimately take any one, or, what is still better, their mean, as a sufficiently near approximation to the logarithm. Applying this to his table, he shews that the logarithm of the first term 9999999 is necessarily com- prised between 1,0000000 and 1,0000001, so that it becomes equal to 1,00000005 ; now, the exact value of the logarithm calculated by our actual methods is 1,00000 00500 00003 333, so that the valuation of Napier only errs by one-third of unity above the 14th decimal of this logarithm. It is then the first term of the arithmetical progression corresponding to the geometrical progression which he has adopted; then by multiplying by the successive numbers 1, 2, 3, &c. which mark the rank consecutively of the terms of this geometri- cal progression, we obtain the indices, that is to say, the logarithms of all these terms. It is in this way that he operates, and with some abbreviations carries on his table of correspondence from 10000000 to 5000000, where its pro- gressive decrease indicates the proportion of 2 to 1. Then, if we point out any number comprised between these limits, he shews how we may obtain its logarithm with the requi- site approximation, by comparing it with the two terms of Baron of Merchiston. 17] the geometrical progression between which it is included. If the proposed number exceeds the limits of the table, he shews how we may obtain the logarithm by causing it to re-enter. i The general problem, therefore, of determining all num- bers, exactly or approximately, in the same geometrical progression is thus completely resolved ; and then, by mul- tiplying and dividing these numbers the one by the other, whatever they may be, we obtain the same facilities as Archimedes had found for the particular geometrical pro- gression of which he has made use in his work on the num- ber of the sand. Such is the invention of Napier. He has rendered continuous and general for all numbers the ad- vantages which Archimedes had only obtained for inter- mittent and particular numbers. If we ask why Archimedes did not attain this second step, which now to us appears so near the first, we may find, in our opinion, a plausible reason in the nature of the symbolic letters employed in his time to distinguish the numbers. For the signification of these characters being absolute, numbers differing very little from each other were often expressed by characters which had no apparent relation to each other, or, if their expressions possessed common elements, the proportion of the size of the latter to similar ones was not indicated by the same numerical expression; in place of these two kinds of indication existing and striking, so to speak, our views in our actual mode of writing the number; above all, when generalizing the idea which gives a value of position to the cyphers, we advance in an inverse sense to the sub- divisions of units, by the employment of decimal cyphers. Hence, this is one of the examples of the influence of signs upon the extension of ideas with which the history of ma- thematics abounds. We may remark on this subject, that Napier first em- ployed, in Europe, this generalization so simple in the mode of writing decimal sub-divisions, which was indispen- sible to produce successive subtractions. If we wish to con- vince ourselves that this idea was not so easy to discover, as we might think at present, when it has become familiar to us by use, we have only to inspect the complicated and almost impracticable means by which Steven, an able and 172 Memoir of John Napier, ingenious geometrician, attempted, a short time before, to write decimals. In fact, Pitiseus substituted actual notation in 1612, in the second edition of his trigonometry ; and the ‘‘Canon Mirificus,” where Napier employs this notation, did not appear till 1614; so that Pitiscus deserves the credit of priority in publication. But, that Napier, who employs it constantly in his tables, has contrived it independently of Pitiscus, appears incontestible, when we consider the number of years which the calculation of those tables must have required ; and, thus is proved their prior use probably long before Pitiscus, who did not employ them in his former edition, in 1599. The system of logarithms adopted by Napier was the the most simple, and most convenient which could then be conceived, for forming the successive terms of the geo- metrical progression. The tables which he had constructed presented immense advantages in regard to simplicity, as has been already explained for multiplication and division. Kepler adopted them, and published a copy in his Rudol- phine tables, of which, as has been stated, he changed the plan in order to adapt them to the use of the logarithms. But, when the invention is considered, we can readily see that the logarithmic system of Napier was not that which was best fitted for our decimal mode of numeration. Briggs, Professor at Oxford, a contemporary of Napier, proposed another which offered this advantage, and which is that used at present; he appears to have received the notion from Napier himself, whom he visited several times in Scotland. At the end of the posthumous work of Napier there is an appendix, in which the method employed by Briggs is pointed out. However it may be, Briggs con- structed, with ability, on this new system, excellent tables, the most accurate, and the most extensive which had then been published. It isa work characterized by great patience of calculation, and even claims ingenuity from its numerical approximation. But some consider themselves authorized to attribute, on this account, to Briggs a share in the inven- tion. This is, however, to confound merits totally dissimilar, viz. genius and labour. But the lively passion for discovery is not a vulgar faculty, and it is too often re-placed by one less honourable, viz. the secret desire of second rate minds to pull down that which is elevated. Baron of Merchiston. 173 Besides the merit of the invention, the tables of Napier are a prodigy of patient labour. When we think of the time and labour required to calculate these tables, we are led to be anxious lest any chance should have prevented him from realizing his idea, and that it should have died with him. It has been said, and Delambre has repeated the statement, that the last cyphers of his numbers were incorrect. This is true, but a more useful fact would have been, to know if the error arose from the method, or from some fault in the calculation. I have done this, and have ascertained that it was in reality produced by a fault of the latter kind, a very small error in the last term of the second progression which he forms for preparing the calculation of his table. Now, all the following steps are deduced from this which produces the small error remarked. I have corrected the error, and with his method, but abridging the operations by our more rapid processes of developement, have calculated the logarithm of 5000000, which is the last of the table of Napier, upon which, consequently, all the errors accumulate; I have found its value 6931471808942, while, by the modern series, it ought to be 6931471805599. Thus, the difference begins at the tenth figure. I have calculated, likewise, the hyperbolic logarithm from 10 according to the corrected numbers of Napier; I have found for its value 2,30258 50940 346, while, by our actual tables, it is 2,30258 50929 940; the real difference then takes place at the ninth decimal. If Napier had possessed at his disposal a village teacher to calculate, by subtraction, a geometrical progression more slow still than that, of which he lias made use, the tables of Briggs with 14 decimals would not have been superior to his. After this immense invention of logarithms, we can scarcely mention some other works, which proceeded from him. The former was sufficient for his life and for his glory. He discovered some ingenious theorems for con- tracting, in certain cases, the resolution of spherical tri- angles, and these have been called from his name the ana- logies of Napier. But their utility was greater in his time than at present. The advancement of analytical processes has superseded, in a great measure, the use of particular reductions ; and we now understand, that these general 174 Memoir of John Napier, methods are also the simplest. He also planned for abridg- ing common calculations a small piece of mechanism com- posed of rulers divided by squares, in which the products of the first natural numbers were written; this was called NVapier’s rods or bones. Its application to common calcula- tion is even very limited. Lastly, the author of the new biography has given some extracts of numerical or alge- braical researches found among his papers; but they pre- sent, in our opinion, only two points worthy of remark. The first is, that Napier had formed perfectly clear notions of the calculation of decimal fractions, and of the appre- ciation of irrational quantities by numerical valuations, more and more approaching the true value, without always being able to express them exactly in finite numbers. The second peculiarity is, that in studying the elevation of numbers to their different powers, we see that he had re- cognized the triangular form under which the co-efficients of the entire binomial powers are arranged, when they are placed consecutively one below the other in their consecu- tive powers, a remark, which, it was considered, belonged to Pascal, who used it, like Napier, for the elevation of powers, and the extraction of roots. But Pascal did not publish it till 1665; so that in reference to the invention, at least, Napier preceded him. The Scotch biographer concludes from this, that if Napier had lived longer, he probably would have discovered before Newton the Binomial theorem, or even the differential calculus, and he pushes this idea of superiority so far that he makes the remark, that Newton having never been married could devote all his life to intellectual labour, while the Scotch philosopher, as he calls him, had two wives and 12 children. We think it sufficient for Napier to have discovered the logarithms. But we shall finish this abstract by a curious enough approximation. We have often occasion to observe in literary history, that the same inventions, the same discoveries, with slight shades of dif- ference, present themselves at the same time to several dis- tinguished minds, without any communication between - them. It proceeds from the circumstance, that these new ideas are, so to speak, prepared and produced by the dis- cussion of preceding ideas, from which they are derived. Baron of Merchiston. 175 The simultaneous application to the same subject alone ought to produce, for the strongest reasons, inventions at the same time, or rather, of perceptions of the consequences which present themselves mechanically as it were. Such is the arithmetical triangle which refers to the powers of numbers; and this is so true, that from a remark which has been communicated to me by my son, and of which I append the proofs in a note which he has sent me, the arithmetical triangle, with its use for the elevation to entire powers, and for the extraction of their roots, is cited as a very ancient invention in a work printed in China, in 1593, when the Jesuits could only reach Canton with difficulty, and were not acquainted with the arithmetical triangle, as it was only discovered in Europe 60 years after. We see from the same work, that the Chinese had been conducted, at a very early period, to the principle of properties of figures, to the summation of the series of natural numbers, of their squares, and to different other properties which have been discovered more slowly in Europe, probably by a train of the same ideas. The author of the note remarks, “that the formation of the binomial for entire powers existed with the Arabs in 1430, who appear to have learned. it from the Hindoos;” and he adds, “‘ that the same notions contained in the Chinese work bear marks of this origin, from the fact, that among the different orders of numerical units, which are all decimals, those of very high orders are designated by the term of ‘ sands of the river Ganges.’” These details of literary history have appeared sufficiently curious of themselves, and besides, as connected with the work of Napier and Pascal, in the invention of the arith- metical triangle, to deserve a place here. Bror. Note.—The Royal Library contains, in the Chinese col- lection, two copies of a work entitled, ‘ Sowang-Fa-Tong- Tsong, or the principles of the art of calculation; which, according to the preface, was printed in 1593, under the emperor Wan-ly, of the dynasty of Ming, who reigned in China afer the expulsion of the Mongols. This work, divided into several parts, contains a Chinese treatise on arithmetic, a book upon geometrical figures, and upon the principal figures of surveying, upon the extraction 176 Memoir of John Napier, of powers, and the extraction of roots; and lastly, several books upon different questions applicable to commercial transactions. These questions extend from the rule of three to the summation of very complicated numerical series, such as the series of squares, of natural numbers, and that of triangular numbers. At the third page of the book upon the extraction of roots, (6 sect.) we find a table entitled, ‘ Table which gives the method of finding the union’ (lien angles), a term used in the work, to indicate the co-eflicients of the developement of any power of a binomial. This table is disposed exactly like the arithmetical triangle of Pascal, and presents the successive series of powers of 1 + ] from the power | up to 6. 1 ae ; Fy Origin of successive numbers. N / x 1 e--- Root extracted. / \2 f o / 4 fe 2! Mu) 2 ag Equal figure or figure for one mul- fe 9 NS 7 nt tiplication. / / / 4 : jah — Solid figure or figure fortwo mul- OE OR ASE | ax tiplications. PA ~ / \ 7 Ne / Sy Vay Sa opr Figure for three multiplications. — a ug /\10/ Soy. “i ay \ i \ 4 \f \ A apne aes 4/_---,~-- Yo--- == - \f Figure for four multiplications. if \6, ‘ N15 / ‘29! Nay 67% u \Y So Nd | EE ae nae ee ‘1 Figure for five multiplications. The exterior line to the left, says the text, contains the numbers tsi, (the numbers which are to be added). The exterior line to the right contains the numbers yu, (coins). It is the expression employed in the work to express the last term of a binomial raised to a power. The numbers which are placed in the middle of the others form the wnion (angles or co-efficients). With this union, we have the true process for extracting the roots of powers. Disposition of the table.—In proceeding from the top, we observe 2 which forms the sign of the equal figure (phing- fang). We observe then 3 and 3, which are the signs of the right or solid figure (li-fang). Then we have 4, 6, 4, which are the signs of the figure for three multiplications Baron of Merchiston. 177 (san-ching-fang.*) In continuing to the end, we may deduce the figures of 30 multiplications, and even more. Such is the excellence of this method. Here we stop at the figure of 5 multiplications. By imitating it, we may obtain all the degrees of co-efficients sought. A note placed at the side of the triangle indicates, that this table was already given in a more ancient work (the collection of Ou-Chi), but without an explanation of the method of forming it. The notation of the powers is made, as we see, by a. regular method, which points out how many times the root is multiplied by itself. The power 1 is called the root. 4 2 », the equal figure, the figure for one multiplication, that is to say, as the text expresses it, the figure where we multiply the root by itself. 5 3 », the right or solid figure, that is, the figure for two multiplications, or where we multiply the root twice by itself. + 4 ~ the figure for three multiplications, or where we multiply the root three times by itself. a I pe the figure for four multiplications. Thus, the power of the order m will be the figure for m — | multiplications. The author explains, that the two first powers alone are represented by figures, and that the others are only the result of numerical operations. In employing the co-efficients given by the table, several square and cube roots are extracted in the same work. There is even an example of the extraction of a root of the 4th power, which is effected by employing the co-efficients 4, 6,4, given by the table. In relation to this last case, the author adds, that it is more simple to extract first the * Such is the orthography of the Chinese second and third numerals, (li, san) in the French version. The common pronunciation, even by the best educated Chinese I have met with is, yee (two,) samm (three). Perhaps, in the first, the liquid ll might convey the sound of y,.—Eprr. VOL. III, N 178 Memoir of John Napier, Baron of Merchiston. square root of the number given, and then the square root of the number found. From what precedes, we see that the formation of co- efficients of the different powers of a binomial expressed in whole numbers, was known to the Chinese, at least, in 1593. At this period, the first Jesuits, as missionaries, arrived in China; but the arithmetical triangle of Pascal was not published in Europe till 1665. And, besides, if we examine the nature of the questions treated of in the work cited, and the methods there given for resolving them; if we consider the squares and magic circles which it contains, we cannot believe that any European had assisted in digest- ing it. The theorem of the formation of the co-efficients of a binomial existed with the Arabs in 1430, and, perhaps, was unknown in China, till after the conquest of the Mongols, who called some Arabian philosophers to their court. We find, even in the last section of the Chinese work, the mode of multiplication, by triangular network, adopted for a long time by the Arabs; and again, in the classification of dif- ferent numerical units, the units of a very high order are distinguished by the name of ‘ sands of the river Ganges,’ which indicates some prior relations of the Chinese with the Hindoos, who had also, as we know, notions of alge- braical science and geometry. From the same Chinese work, we see that the Chinese, at this period, knew the theory of similar triangles, the exact measure of the pyramid and cone, as well as that of the mass of the cone and pyramid, and the proportion * of the circumference to the diameter, as they generally used in these calculations the proportion of 3 to 1. Besides the summation of series which we have noticed, they under- stood the resolution of equations of the second degree with one unknown number; they even resolved by groping, numerical equations of the third degree with one unknown number, of which, it is true, they only extracted one root. But, neither in this work, nor in those of the Arabs and Hindoos, do we find notation by letters employed symboli- cally to express numerical quantities as we do at present. This invention, which constitutes truly the strength of algebra, is altogether European, and due to Vieta. Epovarp Bror. On the Atomic Weights of Bodies. 179 Articte II. Observations on the Atomic Weights of Bodies. By Tuomas Tuomson, M.D., F.R.S. L. & E., Regius Professor of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow. When we attempt to establish the atomie weights of bodies with precision, it is obvious, that the first step must be an accurate knowledge of the specific gravity of oxygen gas, because an error init will affect the whole of our subsequent determinations, and prevent us from perceiving the beauti- ful simplicity which nature has followed in establishing these atomic quantities. Atmospheric air, it is well known, consists, in a great measure, of oxygen and azotic gases; which, as was first shewn by Mr. Cavendish, exist always in the atmosphere in the very same proportions. But there are constantly present in it carbonic acid gas, and the vapour of water; the amount of both of which, especially of the latter, varies considerably. Unless, therefore, we take the precaution to free common air from all admixture of carbonic acid and vapour before we attempt to analyze it, we cannot expect to obtain results which agree ac- curately with each other. I suspect that few experimenters, who turned their attention to the constitution of atmos- pherical air, have been at any trouble, either to dry it, or to free it from carbonic acid gas, before subjecting it to analysis. The first person who shewed that atmospherical air does not vary in its constitution (abstracting the carbonic acid and vapour which are constantly varying), was Mr. Cavendish, (Phil. Trans., 1783, p. 106.) During the last half of the year 1781, he tried the air of near 60 different days, to find whether the proportion of oxygen was sensibly greater at one time than another; but found no difference that he could be sure of; though the wind and weather, on those days, were very various: some of them being very clear and fair, others very wet, and others very foggy. He tried the air at different times of the same day, without finding any alterations in the proportions of its constituents. He also made several trials with a view to determine whether there nN 2 180 Dy. Thomas Thomson's Observations was any difference between the air of London and the country, by filling bottles with air on the same day, and nearly at the same hour, at Marlborough-street, and at Kensington; but the difference between them was never more than might proceed from the error of the experiment. And, by taking a mean of all, there did not appear to be any difference between them. These important experiments and conclusions of Mr. Cavendish were forgotten or disregarded by chemists, till nearly the beginning of the present century, when Ber- thollet announced, that he had examined the atmospherical air in Egypt, and had always found it composed of about 79 volumes of azotic, and 21 volumes of oxygen gas. Sir Humphrey Davy made the same observations somewhat later, of the atmosphere in the neighbourhood of Bristol, and from the coast of Guinea; and in the year 1801, I ascertained, that the composition of the air, at Edinburgh, was precisely similar in its constitution. In consequence of the knowledge of these and some other facts of the same kind, chemists unanimously adopted the conclusion of Cavendish, that the composition of common air is constant. Hence, the inference, that it is a chemical compound of oxygen and azote is unavoidable. In 1803, an elaborate set of experiments was published by Humboldt and Gay Lussae (Ann. de Chimie., liii. 251), on the method of analyzing mixtures of oxygen and inflam- mable gases, by means of Volta’s eudiometer, and, among other conclusions, they affirmed, that common air (abstract- ing its impurities) is composed of 79 volumes of azotic and 21 volumes of oxygen gases; the very same proportions which had been already adopted by Berthollet and Davy. In the year 1808, Gay Lussac read a paper to the Society of Arcueil; which was published in the second volume of the Memoirs of that Society, proving, that gases always combine either in equal volumes, or one volume of the one with two volumes, or with three volumes, or with four volumes of the other, and never in any other ratios. This important conclusion was called in question by Mr. Dalton ; but has been acquiesced in by all other chemists, and has for many years been adopted as a fundamental principle in chemistry. on the Atomic Weights of Bodies. 181 If air be a combination of oxygen and azote, and, if this principle of Gay Lussac be true, it is clear that it cannot be composed of 79 volumes azote and 21 oxygen, because 79 is not a simple multiple of 21. And, if air be nota chemical compound, it is difficult to conceive how its com- position should never vary under any circumstances what- ever. Air, in this respect, is precisely similar to water, which is always a compound of one volume of oxygen and two volumes of hydrogen. But water is admitted on all hands to be a chemical compound. A very slight alteration in the estimate of the constituents of air would bring it under Gay Lussac’s law. Were we to consider it as a compound of 80 volumes of azotic and 20 of oxygen gas, it would consist of four volumes of azotic and one volume of oxygen gases, or of two atoms of azote and one atom of oxygen. It is difficult to avoid suspecting that a coincidence so very near does not hold exactly. In the year 1803, when the experiments of Humboldt and Gay Lussac were made, chemical experimenting had not reached that degree of precision which it has now attained. And, whoever is acquainted with Volta’s eudiometer, by means of which their results were obtained, and will take the trouble to read Mr. Cavendish’s observations on eudio- meters in the paper already referred to, will at once admit that a greater error than ;4th might easily be committed, even by very careful experimenters. Aware of these sources of uncertainty, I madea new set of experiments on the composition of air, in the year 1824, with every precaution that I could think of to ensure accuracy. The air was collected in the middle of a green field, at some distance from all houses, and from marshes or ditches. And before examination it was carefully washed in caustic potash ley. The hydrogen which was used was prepared from a mixture of purified zine and pure sulphuric acid diluted with distilled water.. The retort in which the gas was extricated was quite filled with this dilute acid, and a portion of the hydrogen gas was allowed to escape before I began to collect it for use. The eudiometrical experi- ments were made while the hydrogen gas was coming over, and it was taken for every experiment directly from the beak of the retort, and, consequently, without standing any time 182 Dr. Thomas Thomson's Observations in contact with water. The air was kept in a bottle furnished with a ground stopper, and it stood inverted over water; the stopper being taken out only when a portion of the air was wanted for use. The air was measured ina glass tube shut at one end, and capable of containing rather more than a cubic inch. This tube I had divided into hundredths of a cubic inch, by means of mercury, which I added by ;3;th of a cubic inch at a time, and marked the height of the mercury after every addition, by a fine three-cornered file.* I always took, for every experiment, one cubic inch or 100 volumes of air. The tube was quite clean, and after being filled, it was allowed to remain in a perpendicular position for three minutes, to give the water time to run down the sides. The air was then transferred to a Volta’s eudiometer. The hydrogen gas was measured in the tube precisely in the same manner, and then transferred to the eudiometer and mixed with the air. The mixture was agitated by moving the eudiometer gently backwards and forwards for some minutes, in order to ensure the equal mixture of the two gases. The result of the experiments was as follows. When 100 volumes of air were mixed with 40 volumes of hydrogen gas, and an electric spark passed through the the mixture, a detonation took place, and the diminution of bulk, determined by transferring the residue after com- bustion into the tube in which it had been originally mea- sured, amounted to 57 measures. Now, the third part of this diminution amounts to the volume of oxygen gas which has disappeared,— water being a compound of one volume of oxygen and two volumes of hydrogen gases. But the third part of 57 is 19, which denotes the bulk of oxygen gas separated from 100 air. This makes the proportion of oxygen gas in air much less than Davy, Humboldt and Gay Lussac found it to be. When the amount of hydrogen gas was made as high * The method of proceeding was this: A narrow slip of gummed paper was pasted longitudinally on the tube. After every addition of mercury a tangent line to the upper surface of the mercury was drawn with a pencil across this paper. And these lines were afterwards cut through, and a mark made on the tube by a file. on the Atomic Weights of Bodies. 183 as 42 volumes, while that of the air continued 100, the result of the combustion was somewhat different. The diminution of bulk, in three successive experiments made exactly in the same way, was always 60 volumes. Now, the third part of 60 or 20 is the amount of the oxygen in 100 volumes of air, according to these trials. The azotic gas, of course, must be 80 volumes. Thus, the result of these experiments coincides with the opinion, that air is a chemical compound of four volumes azotic and one volume oxygen gas, or that it is a compound of two atoms azote and one atom oxygen.* To verify these results, I placed a cubic inch or 100 measures of air in a glass vessel inverted over mercury, and then let up into the vessel a stick of phosphorus, of such a length as to reach to the top of the little vessel con- taining the air. The phosphorus and air were left together for two days, and till all action was at an end. The air was then transferred to the water trough, well washed to get rid of the phosphoric acid formed, and the residue measured in the usual manner. This analysis of air by phosphorus was repeated ten times. The following table shews the result. No. of experiments. Volumes of air. Volumes of residue, ] LOG sg" nhyatg es aD 4 2 LOO miscisoidive ele 246 3 LOO iy gehen (80;504 4 BOD er Ts) pair a 7 O3BS2. 5) LOD of anti cn B85) 6 OD ks io aired on hetiale 7 100 64056) senazinin ductal 8 LOO sh tabersipe net OEREO 9 LOO nes beet F GHB43 10 LOO” SS. chek or S028 Mean 100... . 79°9335 The reader will observe, that in every one of these ten trials, the residue or the azotic gas in 100 volumes of air * If the hydrogen gas be more than 42 the diminution of bulk, after the explo- sion, increases very slowly ; but 100 air and 48 or 50 hydrogen gave very nearly a diminution of 63, though never quite so much. This was the diminution found by Humboldt and Gay Lussac. 184 Dr. Thomas Thomson's Observations exceeded 79 volumes, the least residue being 791. In six of them, the residue was less than 80 volumes, while in four it exceeded 80 volumes. The mean of the whole, which must be very near the truth, gives 100 volumes of air com- posed of Oxygen gas . . . 20-0665 Azotic gas. . . . 79-9335 100-0000 This only differs by ;15 part from 20 volumes of oxygen gas and 80 volumes of azotic gas. While the analysis of air, by means of hydrogen gas, when the hydrogen amounts to 42 volumes, and the air to 100 gives the composition exactly 20 volumes oxygen gas. 80 volumes azotic gas. These experiments, I conceive, leave no doubt whatever, that the real constitution of air, freed from all traces of car- bonic acid, is 20 volumes oxygen and 80 volumes azotic gas. But if this be the constitution of air, and if its specific gravity be unity, it is easy to deduce the specific gravity of oxygen gas and azotic gas. Let the atom of oxygen = 1, and that of azotic = 1-75. Since air is a compound of 1 atom oxygen and 2 atoms azote, it consists in weight of Oxygen |: or 22:299 = a Azote . 3:5 or 77:777 =b 100 Let x = specific gravity of oxygen gas, and y = specific gravity of azotic gas. ate Hee Henee «= 5 — 4 y: BIA yas bi Hence x == 24 4 5 . 5-—4y= 7? and y= i= 0:9722 z=5—4y=5 — 3-888 = 1-111]. Thus, it appears that the specific gravity of pure dry oxy- gen gas is 1-1111, and that of azotic gas 09729. Let us see how near the different experimenters who at- on the Atomic Weights of Bodies. 185 tempted to determine the specific gravity of oxygen gas, have come to this result. The first experimental determination of the specific gra- vity of oxygen gas, which has any pretension to accuracy, is that of Kirwan, related in his ‘‘ Essay on Phlogiston,” p.25. He procured the oxygen gas from the red oxide of mercury, and dried it by leaving it for 24 hours in contact with con- centrated sulphuric acid. He obtained 1-103 for the specific gravity. He informs us that the goodness of this oxygen gas was such, that, when one measure of it was mixed with two measures of common air over water, the gaseous residue unabsorbed amounted to {ths of a measure. If this trial was made (as it is probable it was) in a glass tube, whose diameter was under an inch, it will indicate that the oxygen, whose specific gravity was taken, contained the tenth part of its volume of azotic gas. Or, admitting that half the residue was nitrous gas, the oxygen would still contain 5 per cent. of azotic gas. Now, the specific gravity of such a mixture would be 1:1041, which is almost exactly that obtained by Mr. Kirwan. About the year 1806, Biot and Arago determined appa- rently with great care the specific gravity of five different gases, and they state that of oxygen gas to be 110359, which coincides with the determination of Kirwan. But we have complete evidence that the determination of these dis- tinguished philosophers cannot be perfectly accurate. For they give the specific gravity of azotic gas 0°96913. Now, if air consists of 21 volumes of oxygen and 79 volumes of azotic gas, according to the common determination, the specific gravity of common air deduced from that of the two gases, as determined by these gentlemen, would be not 1 as it ought to be, but 0:9973766 ; shewing clearly, that the specific gravity, either of the oxygen or azotic gas, or both of them, is somewhat below the truth. If air be a com- pound of 20 volumes of oxygen and 80 volumes of azotic gases, (as I have shewn from experiment), the specific gravity of air deduced from that of the oxygen and the azotic gas, as determined by these gentlemen, would be 0:9960220. It is clear, therefore, that the specific gravities, as deter- mined by Biot and Arago, cannot be perfectly exact. 186 Dr. Thomas Thomson's Observations The next experimenter is M. T. de Saussure, who, in his ‘* Observations on the Combustion of different hinds of Char- coal, and on Hydrogen Gas,” published in the year 1809. (Annales de Chimie, |xxi, 254,) gives a determination of the specific gravity of oxygen gas loaded with humidity at 54°3. According to his statement a cubic decilitre of oxygen gas, at the temperature of 54°3, and when the barometer stands at 29-834 inches, weighs 1:3552 French grains. It follows from this, that at the temperature of 60°, and under the same barometrical pressure 100 cubic inches of oxygen gas weigh 35:2018 grains troy. Now, if 100 cubic inches of air at 60°, and under the mean pressure of the atmosphere, weigh 31:0117 grains, as results from the experiments of Dr. Prout, the specific gravity of oxygen gas, as determined by De Saussure, is 1:13521. Notwithstanding the great care which De Saussure bestowed on this experiment, there can be no doubt, that his determination is too high. For, if air be composed of 21 volumes of oxygen and 79 volumes of azotic gas, and the specific gravity of common air 1, then the specific gravity of azotic gas deduced from Saus- sure’s number for oxygen would be 0°96405, which is cer- tainly below the truth. If air be a compound of 20 vo- lumes oxygen and 80 azotic gas, the specific gravity of azotic gas would be only 0°96369 which is still lower. In the year 1820, I devoted almost the whole of the sum- mer to the determination of the. specific gravity of gases. I got an apparatus constructed for the purpose, and was at uncommon pains, both in preparing the gases, and in ob- taining them in a state of as great purity as possible. The oxygen gas was prepared from chlorate of potash, and con- tained no sensible admixture of azotie gas. My mode of proceeding was to weigh a flask filled with dry air; to ex- haust the flask, and weigh it in that state. This gave the weight of air removed from the flask by the air pump. The flask was then filled with the oxygen, taking care to allow it to remain in contact with the oxygen in the gas holder, till it had acquired the temperature of the room. The flask was then weighed. The increase of weight gave the weight of a volume of oxygen gas equal to that of the air with- drawn from the flask by the air pump. I had only to divide the weight of the oxygen by that of the air, the quotient gave on the Atomic Weights of Bodies. 187 the specific gravity of the oxygen gas. Three trials made in this way all agreed with each other, and gave the specific gravity of oxygen gas 1:1117.—(See Annals of Philosophy, xvi. 163.) During the course of the same year 1820, an elaborate* set of experiments on the specific gravity of oxygen, azote, hydrogen, and carbonic acid gas, was made by Berzelius and Dulong, with all that attention to minute accuracy which distinguishes these eminent chemists. (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., xv. 386.) The specific gravities of oxy- gen and azotic gases which they obtained are as follow: Oxygen gas 1:1026 Azotic gas 0:976. The specific gravity of oxygen gas as determined by these chemists coincides almost ietlgs with the previous | deter- minations of Kirwan and of Biot and Arago. But, notwithstanding the great care bestowed upon these experiments, it is demonstrable that they are not perfectly correct. For the specific gravity of air deduced from them (supposing air a compound of 21 oxygen and 79 azotic gas) would not be 1 as it ought to be, but 1002586. And, if air be composed of 20 oxygen and 80 azote, its specific gravity deduced from the above numbers would be 1-00132. Such are the most accurate experiments to determine the specific gravity of oxygen gas which have yet been made. None of them is perfectly correct. But as the errors in all probability lie on different sides, we may conclude, that by taking the mean of the whole, we shall obtain a number exceedingly near the truth. The following little table exhibits these results. Specific gravity of oxygen gas poh Ps to Kirwan, . . 1°103 Berzelius and Dulong’ - 1:1026 Biot and Arago, . . . 1103 De Saussure, .° 2. 2) 1°1352 MTITORUSON » ei tet Mee ta bea Boke ME 5°5555 Mean, = 1°1111 Thus, we obtain for the mean of the whole, the very num- 188 Dr. Thomas Thomson's Observations ber deduced from the hypothesis, that air is a compound of 20 volumes oxygen and 80 volumes azotic gas; a hypo- thesis, the truth of which I think I have proved by experi- ment. I consider it then established upon the clearest ‘evidence, that the specific gravity of oxygen gas is 14, and that air is a chemical compound of two atoms azote and one atom oxygen. From the specific gravity of oxygen gas thus found, that of azotic gas is deducible with absolute certainty, and must be, as I have already shewn, 0°9722. Having thus established the specific gravity of oxygen and azotic gases, let us apply this information to the de- termination of the atomic weights of some other substances. 1. The atomic weight of sulphur, according to Berze- lius, is 201165. Dr. Turner, in his Elements of Chemistry, has adopted this number as he has several others of the atomic numbers given by Berzelius. And he has published in the ‘‘ Philosophical Transactions” a set of experiments to shew that either my number for sulphur or potassium is wrong. And, when we inspect his book, we perceive by the numbers which he has adopted, that he considers both my numbers as erroneous. It has been established by experiments, which I have often verified, that when sulphur is burnt in dry oxygen gas, the bulk of the gas is not altered, but it is converted into sulphurous acid gas. Let us, therefore, determine the specific gravity of sulphurous acid gas. It will enable us to establish the atomic weight of sulphur with much greater accuracy than by any other mode of experimenting. The specific gravity of this gas was determined by Kirwan to be 2:265 (On Phlogiston, p. 29.) Davy afterwards took its specific gravity, and found it 21930. Now, the mean of these two determinations is 2°229. So that, according to these old determinations, the oxygen gas, when converted into sulphurous acid, is only a very little more than doubled. In the summer of 1820, I made a very careful set of experi- ments on the specific gravity of this gas. It was prepared by boiling sulphurous acid on mercury, and contained no appreciable quantity of foreign matter, being totally ab- sorbed by the peroxide of lead. I took the specific gravity three times in succession, and obtained the following results. pr £ a a on the Atomic Weights of Bodies. 189 Ist trial, 2°2221 2d trial, 2-222] 3d trial, 2°2223 6:6665 Mean = 2°22216 Now, this number may be considered as exactly double the specific gravity of oxygen gas. For itis only =z35th part less, a difference far within the limits of the unavoidable errors in such delicate experiments, in which the amount of gas weighed scarcely exceeded 50 grains. The atomic weight of sulphur deduced from this specific gravity is 1:9999, or not s;4,;th part less than2. It certainly is not more than 2 as Berzelius concludes from experiments made, I admit, with great care; but certainly not suscep- tible of the same accuracy as we can attain in taking the specific gravity of a gas. Thus, I conceive I have proved to the satisfaction of the most squeamish chemist, that the atomic weight of sulphur is 2. Andthat Berzelius’s number, and, of course, Dr. Turner’s is erroneous, exceeding the truth by rather more than a half per cent. It is admitted on all hands, that the oxygen in sulphuric acid is to that in sulphurous acid as 3to 2; that sulphurous acid is a compound of | atom sulphur and 2 atoms oxygen, and sulphuric acid of 1 atom sulphur and 3 oxygen. Hence, the weight of an atom of sulphurous acid is 4, and of sul- phurie acid 5. Berzelius’s numbers, and, of course, those of Dr. Turner, who has adopted them, are Sulphurous acid, 4:01165 Sulphuric acid, 5:01165 The long string of decimals after the whole numbers 4 and 5 results from asmall error in the atomic weight of sulphur which I have just pointed out. 2. Berzelius has pitched upon 0°76438 as the atomic weight of carbon; while Dr. Turner considers 0°765 as the true atomic weight relying on the recent analyses of vege- table substances. Now, let us see what light will be thrown on the subject by a knowledge of the specific gravity of carbonic acid gas, which is a compound of oxy- ven and carbon. 190 Dr. Thomas Thomson's Observations We may omit the results obtained by Cavendish and Lavoisier; because, though their experiments were made with great care, their methods were not susceptible of suf- ficient precision. Biot and Arago determined the specific gravity of this gas, in 1807, to be 1°5196. Berzelius and Dulong, in 1820, make its specific gravity 1°5245. Three trials of mine, made during the summer 1820, (which agreed with each other to the fourth decimal place), gave the following results. Ist Trial, . . . 1°5266 9d Trial, . . . 1:5268 Sd. Trials, 027 4) "6268 Mean, «2+ 10%. 2: 52678 My precautions in preparing the gas were such, that I have every reason to believe that it was very nearly pure. Now, when charcoal is burned in oxygen gas, the bulk of the gas is not altered; it is merely converted into carbonic acid. If we subtract the specific gravity of oxygen gas from that of carbonic acid gas, the remainder must be the weight of carbon united to a volume of oxygen gas. Specific gravity of carbonic acid 1-5267 Specific gravity of oxygen gas. I-1111 *4156 Hence, it appears that carbonic acid is a compound of Oxygen . . Il-llllor2 Carbon . . 0°4156 or 0°748. It is evident that the atomic weight of carbon, from my specific gravity of carbonic acid is *748. If we were to take the specific gravity as determined by Berzelius and Dulong the atomic weight of carbon would be only 0:744. The reason why Berzelius makes it so high as 0-764 is, that he estimates the specific gravity of oxygen gas too low. Why I make the atom of carbon 0-75 instead of 0-748 will appear immediately. 3. The specific gravity of hydrogen gas was first deter- mined with accuracy by me in 1820. For, when Biot and Arago made their experiments in 1807, the effect of mois- ture in altering the specific gravity of the very light gases on the Atomic Weights of Bodies. 191 was not sufficiently understood, and, of course, was not guarded against. My results with pure dry hydrogen gas were as follow : Ist Trial . . . 0°06954 Qnd Trial . . . 0°06933 3rd Trial . . - 0°06933 Mean §!).-.crn 00804" Berzelius and Dulong made experiments on this subject during the same year, and they state the specific gravity of pure dry hydrogen gas, at 0:0687. But, from other con- siderations, they pitched upon 0:0688 as the true specific gravity. Now, it is admitted on all hands, that water is a com- pound of one volume of oxygen gas, and two volumes of hydrogen gas. If we take my specific gravity, this gives us for the constituents of water by weight, Oxygen, bib ) FEM or | Hydrogen, . 0:0694+2 or 0:1249. This number is within less than 755th part of 0:125. Berzelius and Dulong’s specific gravity of hydrogen gas, gives us the composition of water, Oxygen. . . 1° Hydrogen . . 0:1238 But, Berzelius from other considerations, (thus tacitly giving up the accuracy of his specific gravities,) has adopted 0124796 (or the half of that number, which comes to the same thing) as the weight of an atom of hydrogen, while Dr. Turner adopts my number, or 0°125, as representing the true atomic weight of that body. Let us now see what conclusions can be formed from the experiments made, to determine the constituents of water by direct combination. By far the most accurate experi- ments on this subject, are those of Berzelius and Dulong. They passed a current of hydrogen gas through a glass tube filled with black oxide of copper, and heated by a spirit lamp. The hydrogen gas was dried before reaching the oxide of copper, by passing it through a tube filled with fragments of fused chloride of calcium, and the water formed was collected in another glass tube, also filled with * Annals of Philosophy, xvi, 168. 192 Dr. Thomas Thomson’s Observations fragments of chloride of calcium. The loss of weight sus- tained by the glass tube containing the oxide of copper, gave the quantity of oxygen employed, while the increase of weight in the chloride of calcium tube, gave the quantity of water formed. The result of the experiments was, that water is a compound of Oxygen . . 889orl Hydrogen . 111 or 0°12486 A number which does not differ by one-thousandth part from that deduced from the specific gravity of hydrogen gas, as determined by my experiments. The number 0-125 being generally adopted in this country, as the true atomic weight of hydrogen, I consider it as needless to enter into the subject more at large, otherwise it would be easy to shew, that the number adopted by Berzelius, differs from mine, by a quantity certainly within the limits of the un- avoidable errors to which such experiments are liable. 4. Let us now see what the atomic weight of azote must be, determined from the specific gravity of oxygen and azotic gases. I have shown, that the true specific gravity of oxygen gas is 1-111], and of azotic gas 0:9722. Now; 11111 : 0°9722:: 16:14. So that the weight of equal volumes of the two gases are to each other as 16 to 14. There are two gaseous compounds of oxygen and azotic gas; namely, nitrous gas, or deutoxide of azote, as it is now commonly called, which is a compound of | volume of oxy- gen and | volume of azotic gas; and nitrous oxide or pro- touide of azote, which is a compound of 2 volumes of azote and one volume of oxygen gas. Nitrous gas is composed by weight of : Oxygen 1-111] or 16 orl Azote 0°9722 or I4 or 0:875 Nitrous oxide of Oxygen 1-111] or 16 or 1 Azote 0:9722 x 2 or 28 or 175 Thus, there are two numbers, which may either represent the atom of azote, according as we consider nitrous gas or nitrous oxide as composed of a single atom of oxygen united toa single atom of azote. Mr. Dalton adopted the first of these numbers, in his original treatise on the atomic theory, / in his Philosophy of chemistry, and his view of the subject on the Atomic Weights of Bodies. 193 has been embraced by Berzelius, who makes the atom of azote to weigh 0°88518, a number which exceeds the true weight by almost one per cent. Dr. Wollaston on the other hand considered nitrous oxide as a compound of one atom oxygen and one atom azote. I embraced the same view and my number has been adopted by Dr. Turner. We make the atom of azote 1°75. The arguments in defence of these two systems are so equally balanced, that it is im- possible to say which are right or which wrong. But, per- haps, before I finish this paper, I may be able to suggest seme considerations which will throw the balance on one side and make the other kick the beam. From the evidence adduced in the preceding part of this paper, I consider myself entitled to conclude, that the atomic weights of oxygen, sulphur, carbon, hydrogen and azote are as follow: Oxygen. 1 Sulphur 2 Carbon . 0°75 or ‘375 or 1:5 Hydrogen 0-125 or 0-0625 Azote . 1:75 or 0:875 The experimental result for hydrogen is 0:1249, which deviating less than ;,,;th part from 0-125, I assume that number for the true one. It is generally adopted in Great Britain, and also by many of the Continental chemists. And it has the important advantage, that it makes the atomic weights of the other simple substances, simple mul- tiples of that of hydrogen. The atom of sulphur deduced from experiment being 19999, I presume the most squeamish will not hesitate to admit that the true number is 2. The atom of carbon from experiment is 0-748. Now, as Berzelius’ number is 0°764, and as 0:75 = 0°125 x 6, we cannot hesitate to adopt 0-75, or its half, or double, as the true number. . The atom of azote deduced from the composition of air is 1:75 or 0°875. hs: We shall next consider how far these numbers are sup- ported by the specific gravity of the gaseous bodies into which these bodies enter as constituents. (To be continued.) VOL. III. ) 194 Mr. C. Tomlinson Articie III. Experiments and Observations on Visible Vibration. By Cuarzes Tomirnson, Esq. (Continued from vol. ii. p. 133.) 76. In three papers already published in the Records of General Science during the last year, I detailed, as far as my observations had then extended, several phenomena arising from the vibration of mercury and other fluids con- tained in glass vessels; and, in continuing the investiga- tion, I have again availed myself of the co-operation and assistance of my friend Mr. Dodd, whose correct musical ear and love of science have rendered the inquiry delight- ful to both of us. It will be recollected, that the surface of the mercury, when under the influence of vibration, was described as being rippled by undule, which assumed such an arrange- ment as to produce a highly pleasing figure or series of figures.(8) 77. Since the publication of the former papers, I have frequently recurred to this particular part of the subject, with the view of ascertaining whether the figures produced were, in all cases, similar to each other, or whether they were changed or modified by the size of the containing vessel, the bulk of mercury, or the extent of mercurial surface in relation to the bulk ; and, although we have not, as yet, succeeded in eliminating any general law on the subject, we have ascertained, that various figures can be procured from the mercurial surface which are modified, and, in some cases, totally changed, according as one or more of the conditions, just stated, are observed; and, above all, according to the number of vibrations per second to which the mercury is subjected. We have, therefore, thought the subject, even in its present incomplete state, of sufficient interest to allow us to convey an idea of the nature of these figures, as it is obvious, that in proportion as we become acquainted, by the disturbance at the surface of the mercury, with the impulses which the fluid receives from the glass, so shall we obtain clearer ideas of the reciprocal action of the fluid and the glass when vibrating, and of the nodal divisions of the latter. on Visible Vibration. 195 78. A large number of figures has been produced by em- ploying one glass as a standard, a soda-water glass, for in- stance, yielding a certain note, which is reduced, at musical intervals, by adding successive quantities of perfectly clean and pure mercury, and the figure is produced by passing the moist finger round the edge of the glass. The figure is then carefully examined and copied ; each figure answering to a certain note or half-note. 79. Results having been thus obtained, the question naturally suggested itself, whether a certain sound is neces- sarily accompanied by a certain figure? It seemed obvious, that when two unisonant glasses were employed together, with the same quantity of mercury in each, that the same figure would be obtained from each. Thus, where two glasses were employed, the fundamental note of each being D sharp, and four fluid ounces of mercury are required by each to lower their respective fundamental notes to C sharp, the resulting figures, both in theory and in practice, are the same. So, also, with a glass, whose fundamental note is C sharp, if mercury be added below the axis(53), the same figure is produced as from the two former glasses ; but we approach nearer the main question when two disso- nant glasses are employed requiring dissimilar bulks of of mercury to accord them. ‘Thus, one set of figures was produced from the surface of mercury contained in a glass, the fundamental note of which, when empty, was D sharp. In order to verify the first set of figures, another glass was taken similar in size and shape to the former, but whose fundamental note was C, differing from the former by three semi-tones. Both glasses were soda-water glasses forming part of my set of musical glasses(47), and they were chosen on account of their affording an extensive mercurial surface, and offering facilities for easy vibration by almost atouch. The bulks of mercury, of course, differed greatly in order to accord the two glasses; and yet, in many cases, the same figures were obtained from the second glass as had previously been obtained from the first. Thus, D, C sharp, C, B, B flat, G, F sharp and F, middle octave of flute, gave, nearly, and in some cases, exactly, the same figures for each note as in the first set, and, in all cases the dis- 0..2 a J96 Mr. C. Tomlinson tinguishing characters and peculiarities of the figures were preserved. One remarkable coincidence was observed in the case of B flat, which in the first set yielded three varieties of figure, and which in the second yielded one figure com- posed of the peculiarities of all the three varieties in the first set. In some cases where four fans [fig. 3] enter into the composition of the figure, the fans seemed to revolve, while the barley-corn shaped figures and reflected edge were stationary, thus, giving figures composed of fixed out- lines and moving super-positions. 80. It will be understood, that, at present, we by no means pretend to support the proposition, that every constant musical sound is the generator of a constant figure. Our results, at present, can be taken scarcely even as approxi- mations to the elucidation of the question. The present paper will shew something of our progress, as also the doubt and difficulty in which this part of the inquiry is at present involved. We hope, however, at some future period, to reduce these figures to a system as perfect, and certainly more beautiful in its results, as that which regulates the figures of Chladni. 81. It has been before stated (20), that the reflected edge of the glass may be seen in the mercury during vibration, thrown into a series of nodes and ventral segments. Such a case is represented in which seems to present the fundamental figure of all that have been obtained, the reflected edge entering more or less into the composition of the figures. on Visible Vibration. 197 82. When a soda-water glass was partially filled with mercury until it produced, by friction with the moist finger round the edge, the note E flat; on looking down upon the surface the figure 2 presented itself. y Fig. 2. 83. The surface is broken up into concentric bands of undule, while there is at the same time a star of four points revolving in the direction, and with the velocity of the finger. The production of this: star seems dependent on the number of nodes in the glass, and, when once pro-. duced, is projected in a circular course, by the vibratory changes, in the form of the glass. 84. The manner in which the undule seem to embrace each separate radius of the star, conveys an idea of the inter- ference of four series or systems of undulations, proceeding severally from the centres of the four ventral segments towards the centre of the mercurial surface, and then acquir- ing a circular motion, subsequent to their propulsion from the glass, towards the centre. 85. It is difficult to form a correct judgment by engraved figures; but it will assist the conception to state, that the divisions between the light and dark portions of each radius are occasioned by a change in the direction of the undule, so that the phase or inclined side of each little hillock of mercury, presented towards the light, being different to those presented by the adjoining hillocks, the reflexion reaches the eye under different circumstances, and presents the appearance of a brilliant twinkling reflexion on the one hand, and of comparative darkness on the other. In 198 Mr. C. Tomlinson one portion of each radius, the compensating interference of the two contiguous systems of undulations is so exactly balanced, that the surface remains smooth and unrufiled, and greatly adds to the symmetrical effect of the whole. 86. It is a necessary consequence of the last observation, that if the eye deviate from the perpendicular view of the mercurial surface, the form of the figure will vary accord- ing to the angle of deviation, and, thus present such diver- sity of form, that, were it not for the absence of colour, we might almost draw an analogy between the mercurial figures and those of the ever-varying kaleidoscope. 87. The convexity of the mercurial surface has consider- able influence upon the figure, and as a small surface of mercury is comparatively more convex than a larger sur- face, a smaller or a larger glass presents an interesting change in the figure. 88. Thus, in a goblet smaller than the one previously used (82), sufficient mercury was poured in to produce the note G, whena figure resembling the figure 3 was presented. In this case as in the former the outlines of the figures are formed by a change in the direction of the undule, and receives many pleasing modifications by varying the angle of observation. 89. It appears, as indeed it is reasonable to suppose, that the alteration produced in the figure, by varying the size of the vessel, is also produced, in nearly the same degree, by employing various depths of mercury in an inverted conical or dome-shaped vessel, the proportion between the chord meray So on Visible Vibration. 199 and the radius of convexity of the surface varying with the quantity of the fluid. 90. By proceeding in this way many varieties of figures are produced, of which, perhaps, one or two more will suffice for our present purpose. The same remarks which were made respecting the forma- tion of the former figures will apply to these likewise. 91. To produce symmetrical figures, an essential point is to keep the mercurial surface clean and free from impurities, as the slightest particle of dirt will, in some measure, check the continuous formation of the undulatory curves. 92, But even this defect is the source of many new curves interlacing among, what we may term, the primary curves, and producing modifications in the figures, which, though not symmetrical, are still pleasing. Thus, when a small shot, or a particle of dirt is on the surface of the mercury, it becomes, when vibration has commenced, a focus of a system of concentric ellipses, the other focus of which is the centre of the mercury. These elliptic curves spread out from the prolate axis to a considerable distance, and produce very complicated curves by interference with the revolving star and the undule. 93. There will be as many of these systems of ellipses as there are impurities (if of an appreciable size), and, as the size of these ellipses depends on the distance of the particle from the centre of the mercury, they cannot join in a har- monious whole; but still, as the prolate axis of these 200 Professor Link's Observations on Zoophytes, ellipses are in direct radial lines from the centre of the mercury, they together produce a star-like effect, which is by no means devoid of beauty. A figure may serve to assist the reader. Here the revolving star is omitted for the sake of per- spicuity. 94, When a needle is placed on the surface of the mer- cury (39), or a piece of iron wire (41), or any other sub- stance (43), the motion of these substances is in a contrary direction to the finger, and contrary to the apparent motion of the star(39). This part of the inquiry will form the subject of a separate paper; but it may now be stated, that when a needle or wire is employed, a series of concentric ellipses is formed, of which, the needle or wire is the pro- late axis, and other substances, depending upon their nature, form either foci or axes of ellipses. A further inquiry into the nodal divisions of a glass goblet will also form the subject of a future paper. Salisbury, January, 1836. ArTicLe IV. Observations on Zoophytes and Plants confounded with them. By H. F. Linx, Professor of Botany, at Berlin.* Mucnu difference of opinion has existed with regard to the animal nature of Polypi. Some have regarded the common * Ann, des Sciences Naturelles, ii, 321, 2d Ser. — and Plants confounded with them. 201 stalk which supports the species of this class as the result of an inorganic calcareous secretion, analogous to the shells of molluscous animals. Cavoliniand Schweigger, again, re- gard it as an organized vascular axis having become rapidly encrusted with calcareous matter. The observations of Link upon Plumularia falcata and Sertularia Cupressina have caused him to adopt the latter opinion. For, with a strong magnifying power he saw coloured vessels distributed in the trunk and branches of these Polypi. He considers that these stalks increase by concentric layers, and that the cal- careous matter is deposited in true cells. This calcareous deposit was considered as characteristic of Zoophytes, and was probably the reason why many Alge were ranked in this class. We know, however, that species of Chara are supplied with a calcareous coating, and no one would dream of separating them from the vegetable kingdom. With the corals the only difference is, that this deposition takes place so rapidly and abundantly, that we rarely see these animals in their gelatinous state. M. Schibler has lately observed a calcareous deposit, in regular grains, upon an Alga, which he has therefore termed Hydrurus Crystallo- phorus. But this deposit is not of a crystalline nature, as it possesses neither the lustre nor transparency of true cry- stals. Schweigger has accurately discriminated the Alge which were confounded with Zoophytes, having recognized upon several of them crystalline grains, which from size, form, &c., may be considered as little seeds (seminules ), and determine the position of these beings in the vegetable kingdom. Link chooses, for the subject of his memoir, the anomalous Alge, as the other plants have not been examined with a sufficiently large magnifying power. 1. The first family is the Halimedee. When these bodies are separated from their calcareous envelope, they present a lamellar or membranous structure. The calcareous coat is tender like chalk. It not only covers the external surface of the animal, but sometimes also the internal surface. The genus has been named, by Lamarck, Filabellaria, who has placed it, with the gelatinous Polypi, among the Spongia, to which it cannot belong. This genus is composed of two others. Ist, Udotea of Lamouroux, comprehending Flabel- laria pavonia (liam.), which is, according to Link, the Zo- 202 Professor Link's Observations on Zoophytes, naria pavonia, of which he described the fruit ( Hore Bero- linenses 7). Its position is near the Corallinee. 2d, Hali- medea is articulated with compressed joints, interiorly cal- careous, containing a fibrous marrow which unites the joints. The H. Opuntia ( Corallina opuntia, Linn. Flabellaria opuntia, Lam.) has been carefully examined by Schweigger. He observed the fibres to be succulent filaments, which in- crease and ramify irregularly. The structure of the cellular tissue is decided. He, therefore, concludes, that the C. opuntia ought to be restored to the vegetable kingdom. Its parenchyma is formed of pentagonal or hexagonal cells as in plants, a structure which never occurs in animals. Link has also examined this species, and agrees with Schweigger. He finds, in addition, that the fibrous tissue, which forms the middle layer of the articulations, is com- posed of ramified leaflets as in an ulva. These leaflets form a membrane which receives the vesicular cells. These cells rarely angular are not in contact with each other. They do not constitute the membrane which contains them, as we see in the superior kinds of plants. Thus the structure of the H. Opuntia agrees with that of plants possessing a complicated organization. But it approaches that of the Alge, for the Halimedee may be considered as compound ulvz, and the Fuci may be viewed as compound Conferve. The calcareous deposit is formed in cells within the interior of the plant, upon the two sides of the most internal fibrous layer. Lamarck re-united the Dichotomaria with the Sertularie. Lamouroux divided them into two genera, viz. Galaxaura and ZLiagora. The first genus contains the true Dichoto- maria, D. fragilis. The plants of this genus are much ramified; the articulations are rounded when first com- pressed and traversed by irregular membranes when they are dry. Both internal and external surfaces are covered with calcareous matter, which does not exist at the first period of their existence. When viewed carefully, small holes may be observed irregularly spread, which, perhaps, permit the escape of the seed as in Fuci. When the calcareous deposit is removed by muriatic acid, by means of a magnifier, we see distinctly that the whole mass of the vegetable consists of interlaced and Plants confounded with them. 203 lamellz as in the Halimedee. Over these plates are large vesicular cells. Schweigger terms these cells Bhemenies because, probably, he did not employ a sufficiently strong magnifying power. When the calcareous matter is not completely removed, the cells are observed to be filled. The genus Liagora is distinguised from that described, by the absence of articulations. The trunk of the plants of this genus is ramified and covered with lime. The Liagora complanata (Agardh), or the Fucus lichenoides (Esp.) is the only species of this genus known to Link. Itis compressed, much ramified, with acute branches, green upon one side, and calcareous on the other. When the plant is digested for some days in muriatic acid, all the substance presents the appearance of being divided into two large cells. By the microscope, we observe, that these cells are united by amembrane. [If only a portion of the lime is removed, and the plant be examined, we find a membrane of which the side is covered with vesicles, and the rest of the lime is dispersed in small portions over the surface of this membrane. Agardh united the Fucus distentus with this kind of Liagora, although it certainly does not belong to it. The cells of the Fuci, which differ much from the vesicu- lar cells of which we have been speaking, resemble those of the superior orders of plants. The vesicular structure united in most of the Halimedee with the lamellar ramifications, constitutes, in general, the essential organization of those Alge which approach them in their external and internal structure. The Acetabulum Mediterraneum, or A Marinum (Schweig- ger), or rather, the Acetabularia of Lamouroux is a very singular body which resembles the Agaricus, or stalked Helotium. It consists of a round top, with a pedicle. It is covered with lime, which may be removed by an acid, when we wish to study its structure. The top is formed of tubes which are first straight in the centre, and increase towards the circumference. In each tube there is a canal which often appears as if displaced ; it is filled with a green and granular matter. A similar tube is observed in Conferva filled with the same substance as in the Spyrogyri. We might say, therefore, that this body is a Conferva, if we 204 Professor Link's Observations on Zoophytes, did not observe filaments arranged round the centre of the top, and supplied with distinct apertures. Schweigger speaks of these filaments, and combats the opinion of Cavolini, who considers them as the filaments of parasitical Confervae. They appear to be similar to those which proceed from the mass of grains of the fuci, especially, Fucus vesiculosus. Hence, we may unite Acetabularia with Halimedea, or, form a peculiar family in which the Poly- physa (Lam.) may be placed. The Alcyonium Bursa, Lam. Fucus Bursa, Turn. Spongo- dium Bursa, Schw. has been long considered an Alga. The same may be said of the Alcyonium vermiculare, Gmel. or Vermicularia retusa, Imperati, Fucus tomentosus, Turn. Spongodium dichotomum, Stackhouse. Stackhouse places this species in the genus Codium with the preceding, under the name Codium tomentosum, and Agardh has followed him. We have only to examine a fucus to be convinced, that it belongs to this family. All the Fuci consist of sim- ple tubes containing a canal filled with a granular coloured mass. These are irregular when the plant is dry, and even affect different shapes when in life. The fucz, therefore, may be regarded as consisting of a number of filaments analogous to the confervae. The Codium is distinguished from common fuci, such as F vesiculosus, 1st, By very short and wide canals or cells. 2d, Because these cells appear on the surface of the plant. But these differences are too insignificant to form a proper separation of Codium and Fucus. 2. The second family is that of the Corallineae. When we place the Corallina vulgaris in dilute muriatic acid we obtain the same form; but possessing a gelatinous consistence, with distinct articulations. When magnified, we observe transverse striz of a reddish colour, and a great number of granules, as well as tubes, which are either empty or full of granules. These granules separate by slight pressure. All this substance consists of short straight cells, placed in a gelatinous matter, and in contact. The same structure is observed in Corallina rubens, which only differs from C. officinalis in colour. In the C. rosarium the struc- ture is a little different. The calcareous matter is greenish. The granules are formed of striz, which are connected with and Plants confounded with them. 205 the joints. Schweigger states, that he found parallel fila- ments in the C rubens ; but this appears to have arisen from his not removing the calcareous matter completely. The little seeds or grains approach the Coralline zonaria ; but the external form is very different; the frond of the latter being without distinct articulations, and destitute of cal- eareous deposit. The parts which contain the seeds in Zonaria are placed in concentric zones, as in the corallines ; they are ranged in concentric lines. The body consists of more distinct cells than in Corallines. The Zonaria squamaria undoubtedly belongs to the genus Zonaria. Its consistence is greater and more like that of the Fuci. Schweigger has remarked, that at a certain age the Z squamaria is covered with calcareous matter, and is changed into Millepora coriacea, Linn. 3. The Zonari@é form the third family, and Zonaria is the only genus belonging to it. 4. The fourth family is that of the Spongodiae. Ten or twelve years have elapsed since Link observed the distinct sporules of the Spongia lacustris, (Spongilla lacustris Lam Ephydatea Lamx), and annually has collected them near the town of Spandau. They are about the size of millet seed, very visible to the naked eye. They are distinctly not parasitical, and are of a yellowish colour. When magnified, they ap- pear as seed immersed in a soft matter, which rests on a membrane consisting of fine tubes. The Spongia officinalis possesses a similar structure, as well as the S lacunulosa, virgultosa and dichotoma. Ehrenberg has observed sporules in several sponges from the Red Sea. Dr. Grant detected a motion in the water which pro- ceeded from the apertures placed at the surface, without any accompanying contraction. At the same time membranous matter was discharged, which he took to be the excrement of the animal. This appeared, however, only accidental, and Link is inclined to consider the motion of the water as similar to that in the Chara. In the Spongia panicea Dr. Grant observed eggs which possessed a peculiar motion, like those of the Gorgons. Link says that the Alcyonium paniceum is found on the coast of England, but not the S panicea, which is quite unknown to him. But even if 206 Professor Link's Observations on Zoophytes, motion were detected in the sponges, he considers that this would not be sufficient to establish their animal nature, for the same has been noticed in confervae. He thinks that the absence of polypi, the existence of distinct sporanges in the Spongilla, and the analogy between the latter and true sponges are sufficient to separate the sponges from the Zoophytes and to class them with the Algae. It is true that the structure of sponges is different from that of other algae, but the structure of the latter presents striking modifications. Grant has observed in sponges very fine points formed of pure silica, which correspond with the fine fibrous points which we observe in the spon- gilla, and which possess equal solidity and tenuity. In other respects these plants approach near the first animals. They are composed of a thick tissue, consisting of filaments and tubes asin sponges, which is less reticulated, and is not covered bya gelatinous membrane. The tubes are covered with spiral points which are the commencement of the branches. In some cases we remark elongated branches. They are perfectly transparent, tenacious, and dissolve with effervescence in dilute muriatic acid, leaving only a slight portion of membrane. They are, therefore, covered with carbonate of lime com- pletely transparent, which is rarely met with in the Zoo- phytes. But the animal nature of these beings is proved by the large cavities, which occupy not only the interior of the youngest branches in the Alcyonium arboreum, but which are prolonged through the crust to the surface, where they terminate in polypi. Hence, we see how slight is the distinction between plants and animals. The animal matter is so to speak opposed to vegetable substance. The first disappears in the sponges, and vege- table matter remains. Olivi and Bertolini consider the JVullipores as caleareous deposits. Schweigger takes them for Zoophytes, which are transformed immediately after their production into cal- careous matter. He cites, as a proof of this opinion, that after having placed them in muriatic acid, a gelatinous body still remained of the figure of the Vudlipores. and Plants confounded with them. 207 Link never could observe this. All these species, ac- cording to him, possess cavities which proceed far into the branches, and possess a structure very analogous to Osteo- colla or calcareous tuff, which covers junci and other plants in ponds. In his opinion, the Wullipores are nothing else than a similar caleareous deposit, which are formed round marine plants. Articite IV. On a Vegeto-Calcareous Hydrate, produced from Byssus Floccosa. By Rozerr D. Tuomson, M.D. Waite lately viewing the cellars of Henry Gill and Co., in Mark Lane, my attention was attracted by observing a number of gelatinous looking stalactites hanging from the roof. The intervals between their bases were occupied by large tufts of Byssus floccosa and Racodium cellare, which in some instances appeared to be intermixed with them, and to have assumed that black and soft state, so remarkable in these curious plants; a form in which they have been re- commended as styptics. The Byssus floccosa is a very com- mon inhabitant of cellars, and is characterized, when in the state of maturity, by its beautiful snow-white tufts, arranged in an orbicular form; the filaments or elements of the tuft being close, simple, and parallel. When this plant is situ- ated on a roof, timber, or cask, it assumes a pendent form, and, at first sight, has a close similarity to cotton. When pressed between sheets of blotting paper, the filaments are closely compressed and stick to the paper; the plant then assuming the appearance of one of the fleshy fungi after being subjected to pressure. The filaments cross each other, and from their glutinous nature are very liable to adhere to each other, and to any object with which they may hap- pen to come in contact. When examined by the microscope, they appear to be fistulose and jointed, or at least, the in- ternal vacancy is not cylindrical, but contracted and dilated at irregular and distant intervals. I have noticed the Racodium cellare as occurring inter- mixed with the Byssus because I observed several filaments which answered the description given by the best botanical 208 Dr. R. D. Thomson on authorities, and not because I believe it to be distinct from the Byssus ; for a very trivial examination was quite suffi- cient to convince me that both plants are mere varieties, or different states of the same species. The only distinction seems to be the darker colour of the filaments, and their more rigid consistence, indicating a more advanced state than the softness of the Byssus. Whether this distinction be accurate or not, however, it seems to have no influence upon their subsequent state, as the filaments of both plants gradually become more moist, collapse, and run together, giving rise to the gelatinous stalactites to which I have already referred. These possess a yellowish brown colour, and a taste like gum Arabic; their length is from two to three inches, and their diameter from + to 3 inch, tapering gradually from a broader base, which measures about 13 inch across. Some specimens were about 6 inches in length. The substance of which they consisted, exhibited neither an acid nor alkaline re-action, when test paper was exposed to its influence. A small portion, when heated in a tube over a spirit lamp, disengaged a great quantity of vapour, and a vegetable odour similar to that produced by the destructive distilla- tion of the woody matter of herbaceous plants. The vapour was condensed, and collected on a watch glass; it exhibited neither an acid nor alkaline re-action, possessed no taste, and left no residue, when evaporated to dryness. It was, therefore, pure water. A substance resembling dry mem- brane or glue when spread out thinly over a surface and dried, remained after the separation of all the water. When the heat was urged further, smoke began to rise, and con- tinued to augment until nothing remained but a white powder mixed with some carbonaceous matter; the former dissolved with effervescence completely in pure dilute nitric acid; the solution afforded a white precipitate with oxalate of ammonia, and a few flocks fell when caustic ammonia was poured into the solution, indicating the presence of carbonate and phosphate of lime. A large portion of the gelatinous mass was boiled for some hours in a flask with a considerable quantity of water; the solid matter was allowed to settle, and the supernatant liquid was withdrawn by a sucker. The liquid thus sepa- a Vegeto-Calcareous Hydrate. 209 rated, when evaporated to dryness, left a minute portion of yellowish membranous matter, exactly similar to the residue remaining after the evaporation of the water from the gelatinous mass itself. When the mass is digested in alcohol, the water is taken up, and the vegetable matter remains. Muriatic acid, with the assistance of heat, produces effer- vescence, and separates the mass into a few flocks, which float in the liquid. Caustic Potash dissolved a portion of the mass; but the greater part remained swimming in the ley in the form of aluminous like flocks, which were phosphate of lime. Fifty grains of the mass were carefully evaporated on the sand bath in a platinum crucible, till the whole of the water was expelled, and a yellowish membranous substance lined the internal surface of the crucible. The loss amounted to 48°77 grains, leaving for residue 1:23. The residuum was exposed toa red heat. The white powder which re- mained weighed ‘125 grain. It dissolved with effervescence in dilute muriatic acid, and was precipitated by caustic am- monia and oxalate of ammonia. The membranous matter, when digested in water, swelled up like gum, and possessed an appearance similar to the original pelatinens mass ; its taste was also the same. The composition of the gelatinous hydrate was therefore Water, . . ah Fig Ly ER we ee BS Vegetable inaitters : td ¢ 2:21 Carbonate of lime and Phosphate ‘of lime, °25 100-00 ARTICLE V. The Art of Dyeing.* Of the Water.—The water which the dyer employs must be as pure as possible. The purest and clearest colours are obtained in all cases by the employment of distilled water, * From the “ Farben Chemie. 1 Thiel ; Die Kunst zu farben gegrundet auf das Chemische Verhalten der Bawmwollenfaser zu der Salzen und Sauren.” Von Dr. F. F. Runge.—Berlin, 1834, VOL. 111. P 210 The Art of Dyeing. as it is free from foreign matter. Next to it comes rain and river water; but spring water does not answer for dyeing, because it contains a quantity of lime, which falls down with the colouring matter in the form of an insoluble precipitate, and thus occasions great loss of colouring matter. The same happens when well water is employed for boiling dye-woods and roots. When the reddish yellow- coloured Dutch madder is boiled with pure water, the re- sidue, after drying, acquires a light brown colour, and im- parts to a solution of alum a faint red colour when both are boiled together. When, on the other hand, spring water is substituted, the residue is dark reddish brown, and the so- lution of alum, by being boiled with it, becomes dark red. In the first case, the quantity of madder-red remaining in the residue is much less than in the second. The madder- red has been precipitated by the lime of the spring water, and has imparted to the residue the dark colour, and is dissolved by the alum solution. Pure water, therefore, dissolves more madder-red than water containing lime does. With Fernambuc and logwood the same results are obtained. To determine whether river water is fitted for dyeing, the above experiment may be had recourse to, or a specimen may be dyed, first with the water to be tested, and then with pure distilled water. The presence of lime may also be detected in such waters by chemical means. When soap is added to water con- taining lime, and the mixture heated, it becomes turbid. Carbonate of soda makes it milky, and throws down a white precipitate. Oxalate of potash acts in a similar manner.* Water which flows over marshy ground often contains in solution a quantity of decomposed vegetable matter, which especially acts upon oiled cotton and soils it. Sub water is likewise injurious to the white ground. Chrome colours especially chrome-yellow lose their lustre and become ugly. This proceeds principally from the sulphur contained in * Oxalate of ammonia answers better than this salt, because the precipitate-can be readily freed from alkali by heat; while, if oxalate of potash is employed, the precipitate requires to be thoraps ly washed, (and thisis difficult to effect), before ignition.—Eprt. Sulphuric Acid. 211 the water, which combines with the lead of the chrome- yellow, and makes it black. The water in dyeing plays a very peculiar part, as it must first dissolve the colouring matter before the latter can be taken up by the mordanted cotton ; so there exists an oppo- sition between the water which holds the colouring matter in solution, and between the cotton which will cause the water to abandon the colouring matter, and render it in- capable of dissolving it. Much water, therefore, increases the influence of this opposing property in the mordanted cotton; a small quantity of water, on the other hand, diminishes it. When we wish, therefore, that a solution shall exhaust as much colouring matter as possible, a small quantity of water must be employed. With different dyes, and different mordants the result varies. Thus, with 1 loth (-469 Troy ounce) logwood-blue and 10,000 loths (4690 oz.) of water, cotton impregnated with the acetate of alumina mordant completely exhausts the colour at once; while a solution of berry-yellow, containing the same quantity of water can be deprived of the whole of its yellow colour, only by repeated boiling with fresh cotton. Clay is a substance, which, in this respect, assists the water. Its striking action with madder colours shews this in a very distinct manner. Substances which form a thick slime with water as tra- gacanth and salap cannot be diluted anew with propriety with much water, as the mixture will not be equable. They must first merely be moistened with water, that they may swell up; then the necessary quantity of water should be gradually added. The same proceeding is necessary with isinglass. Alumina, which is used for reserves, must, in the same way, first be moistened with water, and then diluted, other- wise it loses its combining power. Sulphuric acid.—This acid is also termed Oil of Vitriol, although this name is applied with more propriety to the sulphuric acid which fumes or gives off a white smoke when exposed to the atmosphere. Such acid is to be pre- ferred for dissolving indigo. If a drop of sulphuric acid falls upon a piece of cotton, the spot becomes black, and a hole is formed; consequently, sulphuric acid corrodes cotton. Pp 2 212 The Art of Dyeing. If we mix 4 loths (1'876 oz.) water, with | loth (-469 oz.) sulphuric acid, (which must be done by pouring gradually the sulphuric acid into the water, not by pouring the water at once into the sulphuric acid, as with great quantities a heat is produced); and, after cooling, place a portion of cotton in the mixture ; the cotton has not lost its firmness in the course of an hour. But, if the saturated cotton is hung up in a warm place, as soon as it begins to dry, it becomes tender and at last falls to pieces like tinder. This also happens when the acid is even more dilute. Hence, it follows, that no dilute sulphuric acid should be allowed to come in contact with cotton, when the latter can become dry, or the water evaporate. Boiling with dilute sulphuric acid is also deleterious. On the other hand, we may allow, without any risk, cotton to lie for 12 or 24 hours at a temperature of 65°3 to 86°, in a mixture of 100 lbs. water, and 1 to 2 lbs. sul- phuric acid, as is done in clearing the cotton for printing ; when it is well washed with pure water. To acidify mordants, sulphuric acid is employed. It is in these cases, however, rendered less deteriorating by mix- ture, but can still be rendered injurious by exposure to a stronger drying temperature. Hence, it is obvious, that such cotton cannot be exposed to strong heat. If sulphuric acid be added toa thick and hot paste of starch, the latter becomes fluid like water; but.if the paste is previously allowed to cool, and then dilute sulphuric acid is added, no such effect takes place. Mordants which are thickened with starch should therefore be allowed to cool, lest they should be injured by sulphuric acid. By a contrary process the same will be destroyed. Sulphuric acid deprives cotton of the mordant partly by itself, partly in combination with tartar. It may thus, therefore, be employed to renovate injured pieces. It further destroys a quantity of coloured compounds, which is likewise necessary in order to re-dye pieces which are injured in dyeing. Both will be farther noticed in the chapter on the renova- tion of injured goods. Muriatic acid.—This acid which is employed in chemical manufactures has commonly a yellow colour and a penetrat- ing odour. A colourless is to be preferred to a coloured Muriatic Acid. 213 acid, although the latter in most cases can be employed. Muriatie acid commonly contains some sulphuric acid. This is injurious in many cases, especially in mixtures of mordants, in which salts of tin and muriatic acid occur at the same time; such is the case in the Zin Mordant, No. 1. We dissolve | lb. tin salt in 1 lb. water, and add 1 lb. muriatic acid. If any sulphuric acid be present, the liquid asumes a brown colour, and acquires an odour of sulphuretted hydrogen, which does not take place when the muriatic acid is free from sulphuric acid. In order to render this tin mordant fit for use, it should be placed in a close flask at rest; it will then become clear by the deposition of a brown sediment. The disagreeable odour is still retained, but the dye is not injured. Muriatic acid corrodes cotton. This takes place more rapidly according as the heat is stronger. It is necessary to employ with precaution the mordants which contain free muriatic acid; and, pieces which are printed with it, must not be allowed to hang for any length of time. But, when the mordants, displaced by muriatic acid, are by preference caustic, which iron, lead, and other colours require, and muriatic acid is the menstruum which dissolves these colours; it loses thereby much of its injurious pro- perty, because it rather acts upon these dyes than upon the cotton threads. Yet, a piece printed with such caustic mordants must not be allowed to hang up forany length of time ; but it is indispensably necessary to rinse it when the mordant has finished its action. Muriatic acid is volatile. This property renders some caution necessary. A mordant containing muriatic acid must be well thickened, and the piece printed with it must not hang in a moist atmosphere, otherwise the muriatic acid escapes by the edges, and the pattern is destroyed. Muriatic aeid dissolves (lost) easily in water, and thus may still prove injurious to the dyed stuff; namely, in washing the printed pieces with caustic mordant. The acid may be made harmless, either by washing the pieces completely in running water, in which case the acid is quickly carried away, or it may first be passed through chalk water, and afterwards washed in the usual way. The muriatic acid salts, as the muriate of alumina, cannot 214 The Art of Dyeing. be employed in printing, as they do not combine with the stuff like the acetates, but are washed away again by the process of rinsing. Nitric acid.—This acid which also occurs in commerce, under the name of aquafortis, is of little use for the cotton manufacture. It is employed very seldom, and usually in such cases (nitrate of lead excepted) another acid would answer equally well; for example, nitrate of zinc, nitrate of iron, and nitrate of copper. The two last answer as an addition in dark calico-print- ing, and their exhibition requires some caution. When nitric acid of the usual strength is poured upon iron filings, red fumes are disengaged, the liquid boils, and, when the vessel is not very high, the whole passes over. What remains is a thick brownish red mass, which is quite useless. In this way nitrate of iron can be prepared. The mode of proceeding should be reversed, viz. instead of pour- ing the acid upon the iron, by introducing gradually some iron into the acid, and this is not to be repeated until all the iron previously added be dissolved. In this way the heat may be increased, although, by placing the vessel in cold water, the process is more securely performed. Good nitrate of iron should be dark-brown, and quite clear. Nitrate of copper and nitrate of zine should be prepared with the same precaution. On a large scale it is more profitable, instead of copper and zine, to dissolve copper chips and flowers of zinc in the nitric acid. Of all the acids, nitric acid acts most injuriously on cot- ton; it should, therefore, be added in very small quantity to caustic mordants, and where it is possible its use should be dispensed with. Acetic acid.—Strong acetic acid acts under no circum- stances disadvantageously upon cotton fabric. Therefore, all metallic solutions, (mordants) when it can be done, are employed in the state of acetates. The acetate solutions are obtained partly by dissolving the metals directly in vinegar, as for example iron. This is allowed to get rusty in the air, and is then digested with vinegar. Since the efficient part of pyroligneous acid is also acetic acid, it may be employed for the same purpose instead of vinegar. This kind of solution, however, requires a long time. Tartaric Acid. 215 Acetic acid dissolves lead foil, and forms sugar of lead or acetate of lead. It is a very useful salt, as will subse- quently appear. For calico-printing, some dye-woods are boiled with strong vinegar, instead of water. The boiling should not be continued long in this case, as much acetic acid will be driven off. It is better to dissolve the inspissated extract of dye-wood in vinegar. The volatility of acetic acid just mentioned, exists in many of itscombinations. If we have solutions of acetate of alu- mina, acetate of iron and acetate of copper, in an open dish, and place it in a warm place; a strong smell of acetic acid ean be perceived during the evaporation of the salt, and at last a residue remains which is no longer soluble in water, as the portion of acetic acid required to dissolve it is re- moved. The same happens with these salts when they are placed on cotton instead of the dish. A part of the acetic acid flies off, and the salt with a little acetic acid remains upon the fibres. Such compounds of acetic acid are, therefore, to be pre- ferred for printing, which allow a portion of their acid to be driven off, as those already mentioned, as well as the acetate of tin. Acetates of manganese, zinc and chrome are not to be used, as they lose no acetic acid by evaporation. The action of alkalies and of lime will be destroyed by vinegar. Hence, vinegar removes from dyed pieces all spots produced by the former. The brown spots which are pro- duced by potash or lime upon Fernambuc-red, cochineal- red, quercitron-yellow and logwood-blue are completely re- moved by vinegar. The original colour generally returns when the fresh spot and the stuff is not yet washed. If it is so, the colouring matter will be washed out, and the early colour cannot again appear. Pyroligneous acid, which is impure acetic acid mixed with tar, may, when purified, be employed instead of acetic acid. It is used, however, in an impure, barely skimmed state, for the preparation of pyrolignate of iron; the formation of which is attended with difficulty in this respect, that it requires a long time. Tartaric acid.—This acid occurs in commerce in trans- parent crystals, and is so readily soluble in water, that 100 lbs. of a saturated solution contain 64 lbs. tartaric acid. 216 The Art of Dyeing. This easy solubility affords a ready method of separating it from tartar, with which it may be adulterated, and which is very little soluble in water. Ifasolution of | lb of tartaric acid in ‘2 lbs. water, thickened with gum, be printed on cot- ton, and allowed to hang for 14 to 21 days at a temperature of 15° R (65°3) to 21° (79°4), we shall find that the printed places have suffered no injury, but are as strong as the un- — printed portions. The printed specimen has, as at the be- ginning, asharp border. Tartaric acid does not corrode the cotton, and attracts no moisture from the air, which would moisten it and produce a border. A strong heat in drying is injurious. These properties render tartaric acid an excellent mor- dant, especially in the Turkey-red or purple manufacture. A solution of nitrate of lead may be mixed in the solution of tartaric acid, without decomposition following. Hence, this forms a mordant of chrome-yellow upon madder-purple. Tartaric acid decomposes chloride of lime by precipitating the lime and setting the chlorine free, which exhibits its bleaching action. ‘Tartaric acid is, therefore, printed on a madder ground and dipped in a solution of chloride of lime ; the printed parts become white, while the unprinted parts remain red. The tartaric acid combines readily with potash, and forms tartar, or takes up a portion of potash from the sulphate of potash, forming tartar and bi-sulphate of potash. This last salt is very corrosive, and destroys the cotton like sulphuric acid; this fact deserves attention, and points out to the dyer, the rule never to bring tartaric acid and sulphate of potash together. This may sometimes happen without his knowledge, as in mixing Berlin or Paris blue not suffi- ciently edulcorated with tartaric acid, or in mixing tartar with sulphuric acid. . In the last case, there is formed, not common sulphate of potash, which is not injurious, but bi- sulphate of potash. Oxalic and citric acids.—Oxalic acid occurs in commerce in white crystals, which, if they are pure when held over a spirit lamp in a silver spoon, are completely dissipated. If a drop of oxalic acid falls upon cotton impregnated with the iron mordant, a rust yellow colour is produced, and a white spot remains upon the place. If this spot is allowed Potash. 217 to dry, and the cotton washed in pure water, and dyed ina solution of madder or logwood, it will be found that the spot produced by the oxalic acid remains white, while the ground takes up the madder or logwood iron colour. The oxalic acid thus dissolves the iron mordant combined with the cotton thread, so that it may be washed away in water. This property renders oxalic acid a very useful substance as a discharger for a fine pattern with an iron ground, which, after dyeing, appears white. The oxalic acid salt, which is a combination of oxalic acid and potash, may also be employed;* yet on a very dull ground it acts with less certainty. Citric acid answers the same purpose. It is best to em- ploy both acids in conjunction. Potash.—Most of the acids act injuriously upon cotton fabric, especially on the application of heat, but potash on the other hand does not produce any injury, when not al- lowed to act in too great excess, or toolong. Thus apiece of cotton may be allowed to hang 3 weeks in a temperature of 68°, after being soaked in a solution of 1 lb of potash in 4 lbs. water, without any injury. Hence, potash may be boiled with the raw cotton to pre- pare it for bleaching, without any disadvantage. For this purpose, it requires to be made caustic by abstracting its carbonic acid by means of lime. The proportion of lime to the potash depends upon the strength of the ley, which will be prepared according to the proportion of the water added. To make a very strong solution of caustic potash, much lime should be employed; for a weak solution, less will be re- quired. A solution of potash which consists of 200 lbs. po- tash in 1400 water, requires from 56 to 60 Ibs. of quick lime to make it caustic, while with half this quantity of water, we must take double the lime to obtain the same result. For boiling the cotton, weak leys are employed. Hence, wood ashes may be used for their preparation, when they are cheap enough. For 1000 lbs. of good wood ashes, 50 to 60 lbs. of lime are required to render the potash contained in them caustic. To determine if a ley is completely caustic, lime water may be employed. If after the addition of the latter, the * Binoxalate of potash.—Eprr. 218 Dr. Robert J. Kane on the ley remains clear, we may conclude that it is caustic; but, if a milkiness and flocky precipitate should appear, it is not caustic. In order that we may not be deceived in this test, it is always necessary to drop the ley into the lime water, but not inversely the water into the ley. Some employ sul- phuric acid for the same purpose, and consider a ley com- pletely caustic, if, when dropped into dilute sulphuric acid, it does not effervesce. But when the effervescence proceeds from the carbonic acid, the latter being soluble in dilute sulphuric acid, this test is not quite certain. Very strong caustic leys are prepared by boiling down weaker leys in an iron boiler, (whereby the ley must always be kept at a boiling temperature, or it will immediately ab- sorb carbonic acid from the air), or from the ashes of the soap boiler. It is allowed to dissolve the alumina in the exhibition of the alkaline aluminous mordant, and for the production of manganese bistre. Caustic leys dissolve oil, forming a clear solution, and producing soap. If, on the other hand, the ley is not caustic, it combines equally with the oil, but the solution is milky and the oil readily sepa- rates again. This combination (oil mordant) is of great use in dyeing Turkey-red, as will subsequently appear. Potash cannot be printed upon cotton any better than caustic ley. In the first place, the thickening is effected with difficulty, although, to a certain extent, it sueceds well with strong gum. Secondly, potash has a great ten- dency to extract water from the air, and deliquesce. The printed pattern, therefore, has not a regular edge, but a border is formed. (To be continued.) ArticLte VI. Action of Ammonia and Muriatic Acid. By Rozsert J. Kanz, M.D. (Extract from a Letter to Dr. Thomson.) Tue theory of the Amides which has been found of such in- terest in organic chemistry, induced me to study the action of ammonia upon various metallic compounds, and has led Action of Ammonia and Muriatic Acid. 219 me (I have good reason to believe) to the result, that a great number of compounds, hitherto considered to contain ammonia itself, do in reality contain the body N H 2, to which I have proposed to give the name Amidogene, reserv- ing the word Amide to express its combinations. I have concluded the examination of the action of ammonia upon the Haloid compounds of mercury, and purpose following up the re-actions on the other metallic bodies according as I can make time. The memoir on the mercury compounds is now before the Royal Irish Academy; but I take this opportunity of putting the results into your hands. The popular idea of white precipitate is certainly wrong. In place of being Hg + Cl N H4,it cannot, be proved to contain any constant quantity of oxygen at all. I ana- lyzed it a great number of times, and the average of all the analyses, none of which diverge far, is 78°60 = Hg 6-77 = NH: 13°85 = Cl 0-58 = H 0:20 = Loss, the water evidently from partial desiccation. The formula I deduce is this, (2 Cl + Hg) +(2.N H2 + Hg) which perfectly explains all the properties of the body. The white powder is acted on definitely by water or by alkalies ‘in excess; the result is a yellow powder, having the composition (2 Cl + Hg) + 2 Hg + (2N H? + Hg) and sal-ammoniac is dissolved. The compound (2 Cl + Hg) + N H# is decomposed by water into white precipitate and sal-alembroth, as can be at once seen from their respective formule. It is generally said that ammonia liberates black oxide from calomel; that is not true. There is abstracted but half the chlorine, and there is produced a dark gray powder having the composition (Cl+ Hg) + (NH? + Hg). The direct combination (Cl + Hg) + N H3 gives this powder and sal-ammoniac by the action of water. The iodides and cyanides form only the combinations (21+ Hg) +2N H3 and (2Cy + Hg) + NH, which are decomposed by water, without their elements entering into any new state of combination. 220 Notice of some Recent My analyses of ammoniuret of mercury agree closely with that of Guibourt; but dried at a moderate heat, I have found it to contain much water, which he does not mention as a constituent. Its formula is (3 Hg + 2N H3 + 4H) or, (2Hg +2NH*2 + Hg) + 6H), if we suppose the ammonia to exist as amidogene, which is almost proved by the composition of the chlorides of mercury compounds. I expect to find still more remarkable examples among the compounds of those metals with small atomic weights. The large quantity of mercury in the bodies above described renders the differences in the proportions of the other in- gredients too small to be decisive crucial instances. Another subject on which I have got some interesting results is the action of Muriatic Acid on some oxygen salts. The sulphates are those I have most examined as yet. Dry muriatic acid gas is not absorbed by the sulphates of potash, soda, zinc, or magnesia; but sulphate of copper absorbs one atom, and the sulphates of zinc and mercury about half an atom each. The compoundS + Cu)+ Cl H is brown, absorbs water rapidly, and gives, by crystallization, chlo- ride of copper, all the sulphuric acid remaining in the liquor. The action of liquid muriatic acid is also interest- ing, it expels all the sulphuric acid from bluestone, form- ing chloride of copper. It takes half the base from the sulphates of potash and soda, and hence, in the latter ease the large quantity of suddenly liquified water, which gives to that re-action the power of acting as a freezing mixture. The results, of which the above are but a few, have led me to a means of examining how far solution is accom- panied by chemical decomposition, a subject on which I am just now engaged. Articte VII. Notice of some Recent Improvements in Science. HEAT AND LIGHT. 1. Temperature of the Globe.—M. Poisson, in his elaborate work entitled Mathematical Theory of Heat, has broached Improvements in Science. 221 . some new notions in respect to the source of the earth’s heat. He observes, that the spherical form of the earth, and its flattening at the poles, prove that it was originally in a fluid, or perhaps in a gaseous state. After this period, it can only have become solid, either wholly or in part, by a loss of heat, proceeding from the circumstance that its temperature exceeded that of the medium in which it was placed. He conceives, that it has not been demonstrated that the solidification commenced at the surface, and gradually extended to the centre, as those theorists assert who adopt the idea of a fluid centre. The contrary appears to Poisson more probable ; those portions nearest the surface having been cooled first, have descended into the interior, and been re-placed by matter from the interior, which has again de- scended in its turn, and thus the process was repeated until the whole mass was cooled down. But further, the central layers would become solid, in consequence of the immense superincumbent pressure at a temperature equal to, or even superior to that of the layers nearer the surface. Experi- ment has proved that water at common temperatures, when submitted to a pressure of 1000 atmospheres, undergoes a condensation of about +; of its original volume. Now, if we conceive a column of water equal in height to the earth’s radius, and reduce its weight to one half of what it possesses at the surface, in order to render it equal to the mean gra- vity of each radius of the earth, supposing the latter homo- geneous; the inferior layers of this liquid column will un- dergo a pressure of above three millions of atmospheres, or equal to above three millions of times that which reduced the water 49 of its volume. Without any knowledge of the laws of the compression of this liquid, we must still believe, that such an enormous pressure would reduce the inferior layers of the mass of water to the solid state, even when the temperature was very high. In order to explain the elevation of temperature which we observe, in proceeding from the surface towards the centre of the earth, he suggests the effect of the inequality of the temperature of the regions of space, which the earth succes- sively traverses, because he considers it very improbable, that the temperature of space is every where the same. The mean temperature of space, may be admitted to differ 223 Notice of some Recent little from zero, in place of being, as has been generally calculated below the temperature of the coldest regions of the globe. The variations in the temperature of space may, however, be very considerable, and they ought to pro- duce corresponding variations in that of the earth, which will extend to depths dependant on their extent and degree. _‘ If we suppose for example, a block of stone to be carried from the equator to our latitudes, its cooling will have com- menced at the surface and extended into the interior, and if it has not reached the whole mass because the period has been insufficient ; this body when it has arrived in our cli- mate will present the phenomenon of a temperature increas- ing from the surface. The earth is in the condition of this block of stone; it is a body which proceeds from a region whose temperature was superior to that of its present situa- tion; or, if we wish, itisa thermometer, moveable in space, which has not time, in consequence of its great dimensions and its degree of conductibility, to take in through its whole mass the temperature of the different regions which it tra- verses. At present, the temperature of the globe increases below its surface. The contrary has already, and will again take place. At other periods, besides at epochs separated by numerous ages, this temperature ought to be, and will be, by consequence, much higher or much lower than it is now, which prevents the earth from being always habitable ' by the human species, and has, perhaps, contributed to the successive revolutions of which its external layer has pre- served the traces.”* 2. Theory of heat and light —Ampere, in stating his views in reference to a theory of heat, sets out with defining par- ticles, molecules, and atoms which he considers to enter into the constitution of matter. A particle is an infinitely small portion of.a body, and of the same nature with it, so that a particle of a solid body is solid, that of a liquid body liquid, and that of a gas aeriform. The particles are composed of molecules kept at a distance: 1. By what remains at this distance, of the attractive and repulsive forces peculiar to the atoms; 2. By the repulsion which the vibratory motion of the interposed ether establishes between them: and 3. By the attraction directly proportional to the masses, and * Bibliotheque Universelle, June, 1835. Ann. de Chimie, lix. 71. Improvements in Science. 223 _inversely as the square of the distance. Molecules consist of a collection of atoms kept at a distance by attractive and repulsive forces peculiar to each atom. Atoms are material points from which these attractive and repulsive forces emanate. From this definition, it follows, he considers that a mole- cule is essentially solid, whether the body to which it belongs be solid, liquid, or gaseous; that the molecules are poly- hedrons, of which these atoms, or at least a certain number of these atoms occupy the summits, and it is these polyhe- drons that are termed primitive forms by erystallographers. The particles alone can be separated by mechanical means. The force which results from the vibrations of the atoms may separate the compound into simpler molecules. Che- mical action can alone separate the latter. Thus, in deton- nating a mixture of 1 volume of oxygen and 2 volumes of hydrogen, by which 2 vols. of vapour of water are formed, each molecule of oxygen is divided into two, and the atoms of each of these halves unite with the atoms of a molecule of hydrogen to form a molecule of water. Proceeding upon these premises, Ampere distinguishes the vibrations of molecules from those of atoms. In the first, the molecules vibrate together, approaching and retreating alternately the one from the other, and whether they vibrate in this manner or remain at rest, the atoms of each molecule vi- brate, and in fact, always do vibrate by approaching and retreating the one from the other alternately, without ceasing to belong to the same molecule. The latter, he terms atomic vibrations. To the vibration of the molecules, and to their propagation in the surrounding media he attri- butes all the phenomena of sound; to the vibrations of the atoms he ascribes all those of heat and light.* 3. Optical properties of Chareoal.—If a portion of well burned fir charcoal be placed upon a layer of heated coal on a wind furnace, and all openings be closed, so that no air can penetrate below the coal, the combustion will be carried on entirely by the decomposition of the carbonic acid. After the fire has subsided, Degen found that the portion of coal had wholly or in part dissolved into a mass of fibres, which did not adhere strongly to each other. * Ann. de Chim, et de Phys. lviii. 224 Analyses of Books. When examined under the microscope they were found to be round tubes; they are more or less translucent, and their colour by transmitted light is brownish yellow. These tubes have round apertures on their sides, whose margins are thicker than the rest of the sides; some of them when of a large size, however, have no edges of any considerable diameter. When heated to whiteness in platinum foil before the blowpipe, these tubes lost their translucency and became very brittle. The diameter of these tubes was from about ‘00049 inch to :0000908 inch. There is a remark- able appearance observed when the miscroscope is directed through one of the apertures upon a distant (entfernten) object. This object appears double. One of the figures stands upright about -0004 behind the opening; it is, at least so distinct, that we can see the window-post clearly. The second figure is inverted, and appears before the open- ing ; it is more indistinct than the first. These appearances belong to the phenomena of diffraction. The form which the charcoal assumed, by the powerful heat applied in the manner described, is similar to the filamentous matter ex- amined by Dr. H. Colquhoun, which was obtained during some trials made by Mr. Macintosh to convert iron into steel, by surrounding it with coal gas in an air tight iron chest.* Articte VIII. ANALYSES OF Books. I.—Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London for 1835, Part II. (Concluded from page 149.) ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. Continuation of the paper on the relations between the nerves of woolton and of sensation, and the brain; more particularly, on the structure of the medulla oblongata and the spinal marron. By Sir Cuartes Betz, F.R.S., &c. Tue investigations detailed in this paper refer to the structure of the spinal marrow, and its relations to the encephalon on the one hand, and to the origin of the nerves on the other. If, after having laid bare the medullary columns of the spinal marrow, we split up the * Poooendorff’s Ann. Xxxv. 468.—Thomson’s Inorganic Chemistry, i. 160, Philosophical Transactions. 225 columns, we shall find that their surfaces are covered with cineritious matter. If we now clear away the cineritious matter from the columns below, we shall first discover the two lateral tracts or columns regular as nerves. The columns, when divested of their cineritious matter, are found to be covered with a succession of coats, the superficial layers furnishing the coats of the higher nerves, and the lower layers going off into the roots of the nerves, as they suc- cessively arise. The sensitive or posterior roots of the spinal nerves disperse in the substance of the lateral columns, and are not derived from the cineritious matter as some assert. Between the lateral columns the cineritious matter lies deep, upon raising it the anterior or motor columns are seen, which resemble the lateral columns. Such are the general features of the spinal marrow. If, returning the parts to their places, we now raise the two posterior columns, we find them diverging at the back of the medulla oblongata, and form- ing the triangular space of the fourth ventricle. Each of these co- lumns is now seen to consist of two, the outermost the larger, and that towards the central line the smaller, and in shape pyramidal. Following them up, they are recognized to be the processus cerebelli ad medullam oblongatam. If now, we trace the cineritious matter on the lateral columns, we can follow it into the 4th ventricle, and, © indeed it constitutes one sheet of matter from the cauda equina to the roots of the auditory nerves, and forms a grand septum between the anterior and lateral parts of the spinal marrow, which belongs to the cerebrum, and the posterior columns which are related to the cerebellum. Union of the lateral columns in the medulla oblongata.—On removing the cineritious matter from the cerebral position of the spinal marrow, the two lateral positions are seen upwards or towards the brain, each of these columns has a double termination, first, in the root of the fifth nerve, and secondly, in the union of the columns, -that is, their decussation. These columns lie separate in the spinal marrow ; but at the medulla oblongata, they form one round column rather less than half an inch in length. As it ascends, they are dis- entangled, but do not separate, and they consitute processes of the cerebrum running down from the back of the crura cerebri. The septum which divides the right and left sensitive tracts, as seen in the 4th ventricle, and whose nature is still a desideratum, splits to permit the decussation of the columns. When a transverse section is made we observe the motor columns approaching the sen- sitive columns, but no union takes place. Observations on the theory of Respiration. By William Stevens, M. D., &c.—This paper commences with stating, that the cause of the dark colour of the venous blood has long been a subject of discussion, and even, at the present moment the question has not been satisfac- torily decided. We perfectly agree with this affirmation, and cannot discover in what respect Dr. Stevens has assisted in throwing more light upon the subject. We have elsewhere, (Jtecords, vol. i. 56.) stated the result of Vogel, who succeeded in extracting carbonic acid VOL. Il. Q 226 Analyses of Books. from blood, under the exhausted receiver of an air pump, and also, that of Brande, who obtained 2 cubic inches of acid from 1 ounce of both arterial and venous blood. Dr. Davy could detect no such evo- lution, and Gmelin and Tiedemann could not succeed unless after the addition of acetic acid. Now, what conclusion should be drawn from this variety of results? Two only appear to us admissible, either, that blood, in some cases, does contain carbonic acid, and in others does not ; or, that the experiments had been performed under different cireum- stances. According to Dr. Stevens, no carbonic acid is given out from venous blood by the mere removal of pressure ; but, when two vessels are employed (one filled with hydrogen, and containing some blood, and communicating with another by means of a bent tube dipping into barytes water), and then the whole placed in an exhausted receiver, so that the hydrogen and whatever gas may be evolved from the blood passes through the alkaline solution, he found that a pre- cipitate was always produced in the latter. We have no proof, it is to be regretted, from the mode in which the experiment is detailed, that the hydrogen contained no carbonic acid, or, that the precipitate was a carbonate. But there is nothing new in all this, for Vauquelin, long ago, stated, that blood, placed in hydrogen, evolved carbonic acid. We observe, that the author claims the discovery of the diffu- sive power of oxygen in reference to other gases, as exemplified in the case of hydrogen in the experiment described by him. But the fact is, that Mr. Dalton, long ago, broached the subject of the mechanical mixture of the gases generally, while Mr. Graham dis- covered the law of their diffusibility, viz., by the interchange of indefinitely small volumes of the gases, inversely proportional to the square root of their densities. Having proved that carbonic acid exists in venous blood, the author concludes, that the latter derives its dark colour from the presence of that acid. Now, what can be more fallacious than such a con- clusion, until it has been determined that arterial blood contains no carbonic acid? especially, when, according to Mr. Brande’s experi- ments, it appears that from both kinds of blood carbonic acid can be extracted. The author then proceeds to support the common theory of respiration by the absorption of oxygen, and the evolution of car- bonic acid by the venous blood in the lungs. Some of the hypotheses, which he brings forward are amusing enough. For example, he supposes that the globules, which are observed to leave the tissue surrounding the extreme arteries after the blood has left the latter, are minute particles of oxygen, and that the globules which return are minute particles of carbonic acid; but judiciously adds “ this cannot be easily proved.” Such speculations might have suited the pages of some ephemeral publications, but should not have been in- troduced into those of the Philosophical Transactions. Discovery of the Metamorphosis in the second type of the Cir- ripides, viz., the Lepades, completing the natural history of these singular animals, and confirming their affinity with the fyi, aronns By J. V. Thompson, F. L. S Philosophical Transactions. 227 On the double Metamorphosis in the Decapodous Crustacea, exemplified in Cancer Menas. By J. V. Thompson, F. L. S. On the supposed existence of Metamorphoses in the Crustacea. By J. O. Westwood, F. L.S., &c.—These papers are devoted, the two first to the illustration of a remarkable discovery made by the auihor, and the other to a refutation of the inferences deduced by Mr. Thompson from certain facts to which he has been eye witness. According to the latter, the crustacea undergo a metamorphosis, a change not consisting merely in the periodical shedding of the outer envelope, but by which certain organs are acquired. After keeping a full grown zoe for more than a month, it died in the act of chang- ing its skin, and of passing into a new form, but one by no means similar to that expected; for its disengaged members, which were changed in number as well as form, corresponded with those of de- capoda (crabs, &c.) viz. five pair, the anterior of these furnished with a large claw or pincer, and, from being natatory and cleft, became simple and adapted to crawling only. He found also, that the com- mon lobster undergoes metamorphoses, but lessin degree ; the change being from a cheliferous schizopode to a decapode, its first stage being a modified zoea with a frontal spine, a spatulate tail, and wanting sub-abdominal fins, ‘‘ in short, such an animal as would never be considered what it really is, were it not obtained by hatching the spawn of the lobster.” He hatched the ova of the common crab (cancer pagurus), which presented exactly the appearance of the Zoea Taurus with the addition of lateral spines to the corslet. Numerous genera are subject to similar metamorphoses, among which Mr. 'Thompson enumerates Pagurus, Porcellana, Galathea, Crangon, Palemon, Homarus, Astacus. Mr. Westwood, in endeavouring to refute the conclusions of the author, objects to the vagueness of his descriptions, and asserts, that in the plates which he has given (which he allows to be beautiful) of the metamorphoses of the zoes into crabs, there is no change in reality, —that the zoe has not lost a single character which it possessed. 2. That the appearance of the limbs (represented by Mr. Thompson as perfectly disengaged), is totally at variance with the principles of ecdysis. 3. Mr. Thompson states, that his large zoes differed from the smaller ones in the greater degree of developement of all their organs. This is precisely what mould happen if the large zoes were perfect animals, and precisely what would not occur if the zoes were incipient crabs. 4. The elongated tail, rostrated cephalothorax, but especially the structure of the mandibles, and two pairs of maxillw, peculiarities of the zoes, and so evidently partaking of the macrourous type, tend to negative the opinion, that they would ever become brachyurous. 5. The cray fish, according to Rathke, undergoes no metamorphoses. Hence, Mr. Westwood considers he is warranted to conclude, that the other decapods likewise undergo no change. Mr. Thompson has extended his researches also to the Cirripedes, and has come to the conclusion, 1. That the Cirripedes do not con- stitute a distinct class of animals, as they have been considered by all late naturalists, being connected with the Crustacea Decapoda. through the Balani, and with the Hntomostraca by means of the Q 2 228 Analyses of Books. Lepades. 2. That they have no relation whatever with the Testacea, as supposed by Linneus and the older systematists. 3. That the crustacea, now, therefore, furnish examples of a class in which we have animals free and fixed, with eyes and eyeless, and with the sexes separated in some and united in others, all of which are characters, to which, naturalists have attached the greatest impor- tance, as regards classification. 4. That the proof of metamorphoses being fully and satisfactorily established, tends still to maintain the affinity so long recognized between the crustacea and insecta. His description of the change in the Cancer menas is striking, and deserves to be noted, as it details another change which crabs undergo, and cancels another genus in natural history. He had formerly found, that the young of the common market crab (cancer pagurus) first presents itself asa zoe, and that a full grown zoe passed into some other more perfect form. He has since ascertained that this state must have been that of a megalope. He ascertained this fact by keeping a number of individuals of a megalope in regularly re- newed sea water. These began after a short time to change into a minute crab, until the whole of them, about two dozen in number, were so changed. The Cancer Menas, he finds in its first or zoe stage, is wholly natatory from structure, while in its second it occasionally walks by means of its thoracic members, now become simple ; but more commonly swims by the motion of its sub-abdominal fins, which are greatly developed for this purpose. In both stages it is, therefore, a macroura, but only in the latter, evidently, related to the decapoda. Mr. Thompson concludes his papers by noticing the indifference of our zoologists to these important discoveries, and the activity of our French neighbours in respect to the subject. The Institute deputed two naturalists to spend a summer at Isle Ré to make observations. The report of Milne Edwards, one of them, was unfavourable to the statements of Mr. Thompson. He pronounced that the crustacea were hatched with the form and structure of their adult parent. Is the matter to rest here? We can discover no reason why it should. Mr. Thompson, we believe, to be an accurate observer. We believe Mr Edwards to be the same ; but there cannot be a doubt, that the former has possessed infinitely better opportunities for scrutinizing the phenomena in question, than the latter, or, perhaps, than any other naturalist. The satisfactory mode of deciding the matter would be, that Mr. Thompson should exhibit facts similar to those he has described to the most competent persons for appreciating them, and we have no doubt that some of our naturalists, in the course of the ensuing summer, will visit the scene of Mr. Thompson’s labours (Cork) with this object in view. Remarks on the difficulty of distinguishing certain genera of Testaceous Mollusca by their shells alone, and the anomalies in regard to habitation observed in certain species. By John Edward Gray, F. R. S., &c.—In this paper the subject is considered under two views. 1. In reference to shells apparently similar, but be- Philosophical Transactions. 229 longing, on a comparison of their animals, to very different genera. 2. Of species belonging to the same natural genus inhabiting essen- tially different situations. I. The shells of the genera Lottia and Patella are so extremely alike, that Mr. Gray has not been able to find any character by which they can be distinguished with any degree of certainty, yet their animals are extremely dissimilar. The internal structure of the shells likewise agrees. Yet the animal of the Patella has the branchiz in the form of a series of small plates disposed in a circle round the inner edge of the mantle, while that of Lottia has a triangular pectinated gill seated in a proper cavity formed over the back of the neck within the mantle, agreeing in this respect with the inhabitants of the Trochi, Monodonte, and Turbines, from which it differs so remarkably in the simple conical form of its shell. Similar instances of difficulty in forming distinctions occur in Pupa and Vertigo, Vitrina and Nanina, Rissoa and Truncatella, Siphonaria and Ancylus, Littorina and Assiminia, among the univalves. The Mytilus polymorphus, a fresh water species, does not differ, as far as the shell is concerned, from any of the mytili ; but the animal is quite distinct. In the mytili the lobes of the mantle are free throughout nearly their whole circumference, while in the M. polymorphus they are united through nearly their whole extent, leaving only three small apertures, one for the passage of the foot and beard, and the other two for the reception and rejection of the water. It must, therefore, form a new genus, which has been termed Dreissena by Van Beneden. The Iridine and Anodonte possess similar shells, but quite different animals; so also Cytherea, Artenies, Cyclas, and Pisidium. In many of these univalves it is impossible to distinguish the genera without attending to the opercula, as in Paludine and some species of Littorina, Phasianella, and Neritine as distinguished from Ne- rite. The genera of Bullia and Terebra are distinguished by the lip in the former being large and expanded, and in the latter small and compressed, occasioned by the different shapes of the feet ; the former has also large and eyeless tentacles; the Terebre have small and short tentacles, bearing the eyes near the lips. A similar difference exists between Reostellaria and Aporrhais(Strombus pes pelicant). IL. The difficulties in this division the author considers under four heads. 1. Where species of the same genus are found in more than one kind of situation, as on land, in fresh and in salt water. 2. Where one or more species of a genus, most of whose species in- habit fresh water, are found in salt or brackish water. 3. Where, on the contrary, one or more species of a genus, whose species gener- ally inhabit the sea, are found in fresh water ; and, 4. Where the same species is found both in salt and fresh water. 1. Auricula scarabus and A minima occur in damp places on the surface of the earth; A Jude sandy places overflowed by the sea; A myosotis, A coniformis, A_nitens, Sc. (Conovulus), in the sea; A Dombeyi, A fluvialis ( Chilina ), in fresh water. 2. Lymnacee commonly occur in fresh water ; but L Balthica is 230 Analyses of Books. found in brackish water on the shores of Gothland and Scania, and ZL succinea in the sea near Trelleborg. The Neritine are fresh water shells, yet N Viridis is a marine species at Martinique; N crepidularis in salt water lakes ; NV meleagris amphibious ; N awri- cula at Bourbon ; N Pupa probably in the sea ; Melania amarula, M fasciolata, M lineata fresh water in India ; M Ovveni brackish water. 3. The Aplysia dolabrifera occurs in almost fresh water in marshes in Bourbon; Cerithiwm sulcatum brackish water ; Ceri- thium reticulatum fresh water of Florida Keys; Bulla Hydates brackish pools in Chili; B fluviatilis mud of the Delaware; Lit- torina fusca (Paludina Pfeif}) and L naticoides fresh water. 4, Tellina solidula occurs in the brackish water of the Baltic ; Mya margaritifera in nearly fresh marshes in Bourbon; Mya arenaria high up in rivers ; the common oyster, it is said, can flourish in fresh as well as in salt water; a large group is preserved in the museum of the Bristol institution said to have been dredged up in a river on the coast of Africa, where the stream was so sweet as to have been used to water the ship. Mr. Say found the Neritina Melea- gris inhabiting St. John’s river, in E. Florida, from its mouth to Fort Picolata, a distance of 100 miles, where the water is potable ; M. Rang found Neritina auriculata in fresh and salt water ; the Ampullaria ovata inhabits Lake Mareotis and fresh water lakes in the oasis of Siwah. The common cockle ( Cadium edule) is observed in the ditch of brackish water at Tilbury Fort. From these facts Mr. Gray concludes that the general rules, which have commonly been regarded as decisive of the. localities inhabited by recent shells, and of the nature of the deposits in which the fossil species are found, cannot safely be employed for practical purposes without considerable reservation. I1.—Principles of the Differential and Integral Caleulus fami- larly illustrated, §c. By the Rey. Winx1am Riteure, LL.D., F.R.S., &c. 12mo. Taylor, London, 1836. TuosE who are about to enter upon the study of this branch of the mathematics are indebted to the author of the treatise before us, for a boon which only those who have had to labour through a “science of symbols and algebraic formule without any illustration or practical application,” can sufficiently appreciate. An attempt to adjust a science to the level of ordinary capacities might be made without success, unless the writer possessed a thorough knowledge of the subject, and the rare ability of penetrating into the causes which obstruct the reception of a new study in the human mind. Dr, Ritchie has shewn, not only in this work, but in many others, that he is endowed with both of these qualifications in a remarkable de- gree ; and it is always a pleasant subject for contemplation to observe a philosopher anxiously interested about the progress of his successors, and at the same time instructing his contemporaries. The present work cannot fail to encourage the student to study the important science of which it treats, instead of filling him with “ the doubts of Ritchie on the Calculus 231 imperfect faith,” which he must necessarily experience when he in- spects the enormous pages of formule which may frequently meet his eye, and which, in numerous instances, can be of no benefit either to the student, or to him who has advanced into the depths of science ; because the former cannot understand them, and the latter would always prefer to make his own calculations, than to follow merely the footsteps of another. It is no uncommon cause of the neglect of the study of the calculus that, it is always placed after the most intricate and difficult parts of algebra. The author, however, dissipates this error by shewing that, the differential and integral calculus may be readily comprehended after the pupil has acquired a knowledge of the elements of geometry and the principles of algebra, as far as the end of quadratic equations. He begins with an introduction explanatory of constant and variable quantities, infinity, &c. in such a distinct and familiar mode, that it is impossible to fail of understanding him as he proceeds. The object of the differential calculus, he observes, is to determine the ratio between the rate of variation of the independent variable, and that of the function into which it enters. This is illustrated, as is very properly done in every case, by a numerical illustration. Thus, “ if the side of a square increase uniformly at the rate of three feet per second, at what rate is the area increasing, when the side becomes 10 feet; 1:2” ::3:6a. Hence, the rate of increase is 6 x 10, or, at the rate of 60 square feet per second.” He then explains the notation of Newton and Leibnitz, adopting, very properly, that of the latter ; as, for example, d «x instead of a to denote the rate at which the variable quantity represented by a is increasing ; although we have no doubt that he yields the palm of accurate reasoning to the metaphysics of the former, and admits that of the latter to be much less philosophical. In reference to the integral calculus, he observes, that a pupil will generally be at a loss to understand what is meant by finding the integral of a given differential. In plain language, it only means that ‘‘ we have given a quantity which varies uniformly, and the ratio of its rate of variation with another quantity depending on it and given quantities, to find the value of that quantity.” The 3d, 4th, 5th, and 6th sections are devoted to rules for differentiating and intigrating simpler forms of functions and differentials ; of ex- pressions containing two independent variables ; of functions having general indices, and the reduction of differentials to known forms, integration by series and definite integrals. This concludes the first portion of the work. The second part is taken up with the application of the preceding rules and principles to useful purposes, under the heads of maxima and minima of quantities, curves of the second order, which is par- ticularly worthy of notice, from the concise and distinct mode in which their genesis and nature are treated of, normals and subnor- mals, length of arcs, areas of surfaces, and surfaces and capacities of solids. Part third treats of the developement of algebraic expressions into infinite series, differentiation of transcendental functions and integra- 232 Scientific Intelligence. tion by logarithms and arcs of circles. The sections on logarithms are very valuable, and will follow well after the perusal of the in- troduction to the subject by Biot which we have given at the com- mencement of the present number. We confidently recommend this admirable treatise to the attention of mathematical teachers, who cannot fail to obtain from it, assistance of the most valuable descrip- tion, in smoothing the way for the reception of the caleulus by young minds. ArticLte IX. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I1.—On the Arrangement of Mineral Collections. Tue notice, in your Number for January, of a new system of Mineralogy, &c. by Professor Thomson, will excite the attention of your readers: and I wish to profit by the occasion, to examine the relative advantages of the chemical and natural arrangement of mineral collections. My own experience, such as it is, has led to the preference of the latter mode ; and the object of this paper will be, to give, in very general terms, the reasons for that preference: reserving details for a more advanced stage of the discussion, into which I wish to draw either Professor Thomson, or one of his qualified pupils who may have more time to spare. In the case of private collections, there may be different motives for preferring the one or the other ; or, what is rather more common, something between the two. The miner would prefer the analytical order ; the lapidary the natural; the virtuoso would spare himself the labour of a strict arrangement, by adopting the intermediate or compound ; and the naturalist, perhaps, a divided system ; arranging chemically those species which depend, for their scientific or practical interest, on their elementary ingredients ; and according to their phy- sical properties, those which owe their interest’ chiefly or altogether to those properties. For mineralogy, though so intimately connected with chemistry, is certainly a main branch of natural history. But, whatever may be the inducement to the particular mode of arrangement of a private collection, of public ones it may be assumed, that their chief purpose is to facilitate the knowledge of mineralogy ; and on this ground it is that the chemical system seems to me objectionable. I. From the inaptitude of its grouping to produce impressions of general similitude and distinction ; descending through divisions and subdivisions, and thus facilitating the discrimination of individual species. II. From the uncertainty of analysis, in the present state of science, as a distinction between mineral species. III. From its fixing our attention upon analytical distinctions, and thus diverting it from those upon which we must depend, for distinguishing one mineral from another. It may be proper to exemplify the application of these objections. On the Arrangement of Mineral Collections. 233 I. Is it not the just complaint of almost every student, that he finds his greatest difficulty to be the attainment of the power of dis- tinguishing one mineral from another ; so as readily to ascertain the name or nature of any specimen which falls in his way? Until he has attained this power of distinction, to what purpose can he avail himself of the knowledge of names, classification and composition ? And is it not the experience of persons who have made greater ad- vances, that this practical difficulty once conquered, the acquisition of the science becomes rather a recreation than a labour? It is true that, in the chemical arrangement, having the minerals before us, we can compare their natural properties ; but it must often be done by detail, and learned, as it were, by rote. Whereas, by bringing to- gether into orders those which have certain degrees of general re- semblance ; and sub-dividing again, into genera, those having the closest affinities ; the points of discrimination for the species are con- trasted within small compass. The mind soon acquires the leading characters of the orders ; and those of the genera are pretty readily remembered, taking the most characteristic species as the type of the genus. Thus, the species become assorted, in the memory, into small groups ; where their distinctive characters are perceived, with a degree of facility, very different from the complicated selection and comparison of individuals from amongst the 500 species comprised in our systems; where those having the closest resemblances will sometimes be widely dispersed, and vice versa. Suppose the student to have a well characterized specimen, of which he wants to know the name. He finds it easier to ascertain with the aid of a collection, even chemically arranged, than by re- ference only to his books. But he will be likely to find specimens more or less resembling it, in different parts of such a collection, without any efficient guide to the specific distinctions by which he may readily decide between them. But in the natural arrangement he would ‘seldom be long without perceiving the order and genus to which his specimen appertained ; and thus the points of destinction are brought (as above observed ), into close contrast. If I am not in error, practical mineralozy would be acquired in Mr. Allan’s collection, in half the time it would need in the British Museum. It is not to be denied that the natural arrangements has its hitherto unsurmounted difficulties and imperfections, which may be adduced by the advocates for the chemical system; but I apprehend they will be found both fewer and less important in the former than in the latter. II. As to the second objection. The uncertainty of analysis, as a specific distinction, interferes in several ways. 1. The doubtful accuracy of the analyses themselves. 2. The result of Isomerism ; rendering substances analytically identical, different mineral species. 3. Isomorphism, whereby substances closely approximating, or even identical in mineralogical character, may be dispersed in a chemical system. 4. The difficulty of deciding, upon fixed principles, under which genus to place, and consequently, where to find certain com- plex minerals. Ist. In the first case, taking up a mineralogical book, and observing 234 Scientific Intelligence. the analyses of the same mineral, (as there recorded) by different chemists ; how much do they sometimes differ; and how differently will they be placed, according to our confidence in one or other of the authorities. How many minerals, too, are there, of which we have still reason to suspect the recorded analyses as erroneous; and, how frequently does the detection of such errors subject us to the annoyance of transferring a specimen, both in the collection and the catalogue. But, 2d, (supposing the analyses to be correct), will the same elements, united in one instance by igneous, in another by aqueous action, form the same mineral species? Im the case of aragonite and cale spar, (and others might be quoted, if we could de- pend upon the published analyses), isomerism is produced by the same action (aqueous) on both sides ; and we have yet all to learn of the causes and extent of this phenomenon in mineralogy ; of which, however, the incovenience in the chemical system will not be great. But it is otherwise with the 3d case, Isomorphism, the micas, the hornblendes, the garnets and several other species, mineralogically all but identical, must be chemically dispersed in different parts of the collection ; and some will apply to the 4th case ; their proper places, upon fixed principles, being difficult to decide. III. My third practical objection to chemical arrangement, that by diverting our attention from the physical distinctions, minerals are mistaken for one another, is of not less importance. How many instances may be referred to of the analyses of one mineral being recorded under the name of another, by chemists of the first eminence. And, in your Number for December, a foot note at page 445 makes it appear that a specimen examined by Berzelius, and given to him by Haiiy, was a different mineral from what both those philosophers understood it to be. Now, their mineral systems, although differing in arrangement, are both chemical, and, therefore, subject to this charge, of fixing the attention on other than the natural distinctions. And of a method which leaves the greatest masters liable to mistake their specimens, when deliberated, noticed for analyses, or examina- tion for the purpose of publishing their distinctive properties; how can the student expect such a method to facilitate his attainment of the power of recognizing and distinguishing them ? For such reasons, which may be amplified on a future occasion, the natural appears to me preferable to the chemical arrangement of a public mineral collection. But a chemical arrangement, on paper’, as an index, or catalogue raisonnée, symbolically elucidated, and suc- cinctly explained, I conceive to be an accompaniment of essential importance in a scientific point of view. Such a book was wanted in our language, and the first volume of Dr. Thomson’s work seems just to supply the deficiency. It may be applied to any collection by putting in, with the pen, the order and genus in the margin of each article, both in the synopsis and the text ; making, at the same time, responding references in the catalogue of the collection to the class and genus of the book. Thus, I think, the practical and scientific progress of the student would be at once promoted; and the knowledge of mineralogy facilitated in a degree much beyond what it has yet reached in this country. P: On the Arrangement of Mineral Collections. 235 P.S. Although not disposed to mix up the discussion of symbols with the present subject ; yet, having mentioned the importance of symbolic explanation, it becomes right for me to add, that those in- troduced in the work quoted possess neither the analytical explicit- ness of the chemical symbols of Berzelius, nor the perpetuality of his mineralogical ones ; which, recording the elements only as pro- portionals to the units of oxygen with which they are combined, are independent of theory, and express the same compound in all times and countries, under all possible differences of atomistic hypothesis. So long, however, as they are confined to the book, being explained by it, it is only one lesson the more for us to learn. But if they go beyond it; and particularly, if they are to be, as they have been, adopted in your Records, to which we look for our knowledge of the progress of foreign chemistry ; and where, consequently, one set may be found clashing with another; may not the innovation be alike injurious to the cause of science, and to the value of your labours ? Note.—I have only space to observe that the reasoning of my in- genious correspondent does not convince me of the advantage of making the chemical subservient to what is termed (I think im- properly) the natural system of arrangement ; because, Ist. The ex- ternal characters of minerals depend upon the nature and mode of combination of the elements of which they are composed ; and, there- fore, by looking to the former for a method of classification instead of to the latter, we commit the logical inaccuracy of taking as the basis of the system, an effect instead of a cause. 2d. Because I consider minerals to be nothing else than salts ; and none have ever attempted to arrange these according to their external properties, the only sure test of their nature being chemical analysis; and, 3d. Because a mere knowledge of the external characters of compounds is useless, and can only be considered as subservient to the grand object, of the pursuit of mineralogy, viz., a knowledge of the chemical properties of matter. The remark of Rose in the note alluded to (Records, vol. ii. p. 445.) obviously implies, that either Haiiy or Berzelius committed a mistake.—Eprr. I1.—Anecdote of a Bee. In a letter to the Editor, Mr. Tomlinson, of Salisbury, says, ‘‘I am fond of bees, and keep a few hives. I have several curiosities re- specting them. The results of hours of attentive watching, but I can only venture to describe one, and I do not know if it has ever been noticed before. On the 13th of May last, I was observing my bees, and one had just returned from his flight for provender, and was covered with pollen. He pitched about a foot from the entrance of the hive, and, in hastening on, caught his leg in a crack of the stool just wide enough to hold it securely, and his pulling only served to fix the limb tighter. He was evidently annoyed, and fora few minutes tried various means of extrication, and at length seemed to get impatient, especially as other labourers were fast pouring in with their loads. He then began leisurely and systematically to turn 236 Scientific Intelligence. himself round several times, and literally twisted off his leg at the third joint, leaving the limbin the wood. He then moved into the hive, as if nothing had happened. This is the only instance, I have seen, or have ever read, or heard of, of the spontaneous self muti- lation of an insect, but as I am no naturalist, the fact may be well known. At any rate, if you think it worth any thing, you can make what use of it you please, and I pledge myself as to its accuracy.” II.—Calcarco Sulphate of Barytes. Tus mineral was discovered among the debris of the abandoned lead mine of Nuissiere near Beaujeu, by the Marquis de Dree, and hence, has been called, Dreelite, (Ann. des Mines, viii. 237.) It consists of white, pearly, rhomboidal crystals without any modifications.. It possesses a triple cleavage parallel to the faces of a rhombohedron. Its primitive form appears to be an obtuse rhombohedron, the dihe- dral angle of which may be about 93” or 94°. It, therefore, resembles chabasite. Its specific gravity is between 3-2 and 3-4 and its hard- ness a little above that of carbonate of lime. Before the blow-pipe fuses into a white glass which is coloured blue by nitrate of potash. It occurs in small crystals disseminated over the surface of a quartz rock. Dufrenoy found its composition Sulphate of barytes, . . 61-731 Midas one st vat cd! Sewrnl oelp OBO Silicas*). sre Song yOe712 Sulphuricacid,. . . . 8-346 Alumina; $escitse er ere 2404 Waters dertanis. Pod x 2 B08 Loss and Carbonic acid, . 3°519 100-000 This is equivalent to 2 Br S1+Cal S1; and hence may be considered as a purer form of the amorphous Calcareo-sulphate of barytes de- scribed by Dr. T. Thomson in this Journal, vol. i. 370. I1V.— On the influence of the Moon on the Barometer. Tue Rev. Mr. Everest, of Bengal, has shewn, that on an average of 10 rainy seasons, in India, the daily amount of the rain-fall diminished as the declination of the moon increased, until it reached between 10° and 15°; but after that distance, the reverse took place, and the amount of rain-fall increased as the declination increased. The general average of 10 years for every 5° distance from the equator, gave ibe ser pane ae 2] v0 0 > 5° 321-271 -256 -259 -347 : from the Equator. He has also found that the greatest depressions of the barometer do not (as some have conjectured) coincide with the days of conjunc- tion and opposition of the moon, neither with the days of her perigee ; but that they coincide, or nearly so, with the days of her maximum monthly declination — Bengal Asiatic Soc. 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It may be proper to accompany the preceding Summary with a few remarks. 1. To determine the average or mean temperature of the atmos- phere, at any given place, is a leading problem in Meteorology. For the solution of this problem various methods have been proposed ; but among these none seems more simple and convenient than that pro- posed by the author of the article Meteorology,in the Edinburgh Enclopedia ; namely, to take the average of the temperatures at 10 o'clock, morning and evening, for the mean temperature of the day. The fact of the mean of the temperatures at these two hours, corre- sponding very nearly with the daily mean, has been ascertained and confirmed by accurate observation. To render the observations, made during the past year, at this place, subservient to the purpose of de- termining the mean temperature, I accordingly adopted this prin- ciple, recommended both by simplicity, and by the accuracy of the re- sults to which it leads, and noted regularly, the height of the ther- mometer at 10 A.M. and at 10 P.M. The third column in the pre- ceding tabular summary exhibits the mean for each month; and the average of these means gives 45°-2, for the mean temperature for the year. In order to have a check upon the result, I examined about the middle of each month, the temperature of a copious well shaded spring issuing from the northern side of a hill. ‘The thermometer employed for this purpose, I find to stand about three-fourths of a degree higher than the thermometer with which the temperature of the atmosphere is observed. In the monthly report no allowance was made for this difference ; but this has been done in the preceding summary ; and the average temperature of spring water for the year is found to be 45°-2; a result corresponding precisely with that ob- tained for the mean temperature of the atmosphere. 2. As the relative humidity of the atmosphere depends in no small degree on temperature, it may reasonably be concluded, that since the mean temperature, at 10 o’clock morning and evening, does not differ materially from the mean temperature for the whole day, the average of the hygrometer at these hours will be an approximation to the mean of the day. It is on this principle that I have registered the hygrometer at 10 A.M. and 10 P.M., and have recorded the results thus obtained as the means for the several months. Taking the average for the whole year, we obtain for the mean height of Leslie’s hygrometer, at this place, about 12°. 3. With regard to the barometer, I am not aware of any principle that should lead to the choice of any other hours of observation, than those adopted for the thermometer and hygrometer. I have, accord- ingly, noted the height of the barometer also, at 10 A.M. and 10 P.M., and considered the mean of these observations as the mean for the whole day. The mean thus obtained for the whole year is 29-309 inches. 4, It seems to be worth while to compare this last result with the mean height of the barometer on the sea shore, and to determine thence the height of the place of observations. Now, according to the most accurate observations, the average height of the barometer for our climate, at the level of the sea, appears to be 29-830 inches. Scientific Intelligence. 239 We obtain, therefore, Log. 29-830 = 1-47465 Log. 29:309 = 1-46700 (Note—.If we take the more common estimate, 29°82, for the mean barometric height, we then have Log. 29°82— -00765 1:4750 — Log. 29:309-=1:46700=-00750=75 fathoms or 10000 450 feet, the exact number given monthly by Mr. Wallace. = Eprir.) - 76-5 fathoms. Hence, it appears that the height of this place, above the sea, is somewhere about 76 fathoms, or 456 feet. This result agrees very well with what has been given in the monthly report as about the height of the Manse above the sea. As the temperature is supposed to be 32°, no correction, of course, is required on account of temperature. 5. The observations recorded at 9 o’clock A.M. and 3 o’clock P.M. were taken with a view of being compared with the corresponding results obtained at the apartments of the Royal Society, London, where 9 A.M. and 3 P.M. are the hours of observation. 6. The number of grains of moisture in a cubic inch of air has been deduced from the following formula given by the author of the article Hygrometry in the Edinburgh Encyclopedia. Let ¢ denote the temperature, B the height of the barometer, L the height of Leslie’s hygrometer, and g the number of grains in a cubic inch of air under these circumstances; also, let ia denote the elastic force of vapour at the temperature ¢t. Then, 10958 eet aa 10953 (J, Te aera oty 4474 +t 7. In order to obtain a numerical expression of the relative humi- dity of the atmosphere, let 1000 be assumed to denote absolute moisture, and 0 to denote absolute dryness. The numbers denoting the intermediate states of humidity are found by means of the above formula ; for we have only to determine how many thousandth parts the actual quantity of moisture in the atmosphere is of the whole moisture, which it is capable of holding in solution at the given tem- perature. Thus, to determine the relative humidity for the medium state of the atmosphere in the month of May: put in the above for- mula t = 46-3, B = 29°313, and L = 0, the value corresponding to complete saturation ; we obtain g = :00214 grs. But the actual moisture, at the mean height of the hygrometer for May, (namely 17°), is 00159 grs. ; and -00214 : -00159:: 1000 : 743. There- fore, we have, for the relative humidity of the atmosphere, corre- sponding to the mean height of the thermometer, barometer, and hygrometer in May, the numerical expression 743; which simply means, that the actual moisture, corresponding to the medium state of the atmosphere in May, is ;7;43,th parts of the whole moisture, which, under these circumstances, it can hold in solution. 8. I will only remark farther, that the mean point of deposition for the year is 6°-7 below the mean temperature ;—a result which also agrees with what was to be expected. 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ArtTIcLe I. Memoir of Dr. Thomas Young. By M. Araco.* Tuomas Youne was born at Milverton, in Somersetshire, on the 13th of June, 1773, of parents who belonged to the sect of Quakers. He passed the first years of his life at the house of his maternal grandfather, Mr. Robert Davies of Minehead, whom active commercial engagements had not prevented from cultivating the classics. Young could read fluently at the age of two years. His memory was quite extraordinary. During the intervals from his long engagements at a school kept by a mistress in the neigh- bouring village of Minehead, he had learned by heart, at four years, a great number of English authors, and even different Latin poems, which he could recite from begin- ning to end, although he did not understand this language. The name of Young, like many other celebrated names already collected by biographers, will contribute then to support the hopes or fears of many good fathers, who see in some well recited lessons, without fault or mistake, from the latter, the sure proof of eternal mediocrity; from the former, the infallible entrance upon a glorious career. We should have departed strangely from our object if these historic notices could strengthen such prejudices. There- fore, without a desire of weakening the lively and pure emotions which are annually excited by the distribution of prizes, we might remind some in order that they may not give way to dreams never to be realized, and others, * From the Revue des Deux Mondes, December, 1835, VOL. Ill, R 242 Memoir of Dr. Thomas Young. to prevent them from being discouraged, that Pic de la Mirandole, the phenix of the scholars of every age and country, was, at a mature age, an insignificant author; that Newton, the powerful intelligence of whom Voltaire has said, without giving way to any exaggeration, “ Confidens de Trés-Haut, substances éternelles, Qui parez de vos feux, qui couvrez de vos ailes Le tréne ot votre maitre est assis parmi vous, Parlez, du grand Newton n’étiez-vous point jaloux ?” that the great Newton, we say, made little progress in the classics during his terms at college; that study had at first no attractions for him; that the first time he perceived the necessity of labouring, was in order to get above a tur- bulent student, who, seated, on account of his rank, ona higher bench than himself, tormented him by kicking him ; that in his 22d year he competed for a Fellowship at Cam- bridge, and was beat by a certain Robert Uvedale, whose name, without this circumstance would be entirely forgot ; that Fontenelle applied with less accuracy than ingenuity these words of Lucan, ‘‘ Men have not been permitted to see the Nile feeble at its source.” At the age of six, Young was given to the care of a teacher, at Bristol, whose mediocrity proved fortunate for him. This is not paradoxical ; the pupil, unable to submit to the slow and circuitous path of the master, became his own in- structor; and thus, those brilliant qualities were developed which too much assistance would certainly have weakened. Young was eight years old when chance, whose influence in the events of the lives of all men, is more considerable than their vanity considers it prudent for them to admit, relieved him from his exclusively literary studies, and ~ pointed out his proper vocation. A land surveyor of great merit, near whom he dwelt, took a great liking to him. He carried him away some- times over the land during the holydays, and allowed him to enjoy, with his instruments geodesy and physics. The operations by which the young scholar saw how to deter- mine distances, and the elevation of inaccesible objects struck his imagination; but speedily some chapters of a mathematical dictionary dissipated every thing which ap- peared mysterious. After this time, in the Sunday pro- Memoir of Dr. Thomas Young. » 243 menades, the quadrant re-placed the paper kite. In the evening, by way of relaxation, the engineer apprentice cal- culated the heights measured in the morning. From the age of nine to his 14th year, Young lived at Compton, in Dorsetshire, with a Mr. Thomson, whose memory was always dear to him. During these five years all the boarders were exclusively occupied, as is the custom in English schools, with a minute study of the Greek and Latin writers. Young was always at the head of his class; and, yet at the same time he learned French, Italian, Hebrew, Persian and Arabic; the French and Italian he learned in order to satisfy the curiosity of a companion who had in his possession several works printed at Paris, of which he wished to know the contents; the Hebrew, to read the Bible in the original ; the Persian and Arabic with a view of deciding this question raised during a conversation at dinner, Are the differences between the Oriental languages as marked as between those of Europe? I feel the necessity of observing, that I write from authentic documents, before adding, that during the time he made such extraordinary progress in the languages, he acquired, in his walks around Compton, a lively passion for botany ; that, deprived of the means of magnifying, which naturalists make use of, when they wish to examine the most delicate parts of plants, he undertook himself to con- struct a microscope without any other guide than a descrip- tion of this instrument given by Benjamin Martin; that in order to arrive at this difficult result, it was necessary to acquire, previously, much dexterity in the art of turning ; that the algebraical formule of the optician presenting symbols of which he had no idea (symbols of fluxions), he was much perplexed for a while; but, that unwilling to re- nounce his desire of magnifying the pistils and stamens, he found it more simple to learn the differential calculus in order to understand the unfortunate formule, than to send to the neighbouring town to purchase a microscope. The brilliant activity of Young made him pass the bounds of human strength. At 14 years, his health was greatly changed. Different symptoms threatened disease of the lungs, but these threatening symptoms yielded to the prescriptions of the art, and to the great care his parents took of him, It is common with our transmarine neighbours, for a rich R 2 244 Memoir of Dr. Thomas Young. person, in trusting his son to a particular preceptor, to look for a companion in study among the young persons of the same age who have already distinguished themselves by their success. Young assumed this title in 1787, and became fellow - pupil of the grandson of Mr. David Barclay of Youngsbury, in Hertfordshire. On the day of his installa- tion, Mr. Barclay gave him some sentences to copy in order to ascertain if he wrote.a good hand. Young, perhaps, feeling humbled by this kind of proof, for the purpose of giving satisfaction, requested permission to retire into the adjoining room. His absence having been prolonged be- yond the time that the mere transcribing of the copy re- quired, Mr. Barclay began to joke about the young quaker’s want of dexterity, when at last he entered. The copy was remarkably beautiful; a writing master could not have performed it better. No remark could be made on the time of his absence, for the young quaker, as Mr. Barclay called him, was not content with transcribing the English sentences given him, he had translated them into nine’ different languages. The preceptor, or as he is called on the other side of the channel, the tutor, who directed the studies of the two scholars of Youngsbury, was a distinguished young man then engaged in perfecting himself in a knowledge of the ancient languages, and was afterwards author of the Calli- graphia Greca. He was not long, however, in perceiv- ing the great superiority of one of the two pupils, and ob- served with the most laudable modesty, that in their common studies, the true tutor was not always he who bore the title. At this period Young drew up from original sources, a detailed analysis of the numerous systems of philosophy which were professed in the different schools of Greece. His friends speak of this work in very high terms. I am not aware if the public are ever to have it presented to them. It had a decided effect upon the life of its author, for, in making an attentive and minute examination of the fantasies (bizarreries), (I use a polished word) with which the conceptions of the Greek philosophers abound, Young felt the attachment weaken which he had hitherto pre- served for the principles of the sect in which he was born. He did not, however, separate himself entirely from it until Memoir of Dr. Thomas Young. 245 some years afterwards, during his residence in Edinburgh. The little colony of students, at Youngsbury, left Hertford- shire for some months in winter, and went to live in London. During one of these excursions, Young met a professor worthy of him. He was initiated into chemistry by Dr. Higgins, of whom I am more disposed to make mention, since, notwithstanding his repeated and urgent claims, some have not recognized the part which legitimately belongs to him in the theory of definite proportions,* one of the finest acquisitions of modern chemistry. Dr. Brocklesby, the maternal uncle of Young and one of the principal physicians in London, justly proud of the great success of the young scholar, communicated some of his compositions to philosophers, to literary men, and to men of the world, whose approbation could most flatter his vanity. Young became thus, at a very early period, per- sonally acquainted with the celebrated Burke and Windham of the House of Commons, and with the Duke of Richmond. The latter, then Commander-in-chief, offered him the situation of Assistant-secretary. The other two statesmen, although they were anxious for him to follow a political career, recommended him to go, in the first place, to Cam- bridge to study a course of law. With so many powerful patrons Young could have calculated on the possession of one of those lucrative situations which persons in power are anxious to bestow upon such as will do the duties with steady application, and furnish them with the means daily of shining at court or council, without compromising their vanity by any indiscretion. Young fortunately was conscious of his powers; he felt within him the germ of those brilliant discoveries which have since rendered his name illustrious ; he preferred the laborious though independent career of a literary life to the golden chains which shone before his eyes. Let this be said to his honour! Let his example serve as a lesson to many young people who are authorita- tively turned aside from their noble vocation to be con- verted into bureaucrates. Like Young with their eyes directed to the future; let them not sacrifice to the futile and fleet- ing satisfaction of being surrounded with petitioners, wit- * Was this not Dr. Higgins of London, the claimant of the discoveries of Priestley, and father of Dr. Higgins of Dublin, the claimant of the Atomic theory? —Epir. 246 Memoir of Dr. Thomas Young. nesses of esteem and gratitude, which the public rarely fails to pay to intellectual labours of a high order. And, if it should happen, that in the illusions of inexperience, they should find too dull a sacrifice prescribed to them, we would request them to receive a lesson of ambition from the great captain, whose ambition knew no bounds, to meditate on these words which the first consul, the victor of Marengo, addressed to one of our most honourable colleagues (M. Lemercier), when the latter refused the very important situation at that time, of state counsellor. ‘ I understand, Sir, you are fond of learning, and you wish to devote your- self entirely to it. I have no opposition to offer to this resolution. Yes! Do you think that if I had not become commander-in-chief, and the instrument of the destiny of a great people, I should have passed through offices and halls to be dependent on a person in power, in quality of minister or ambassador? No, No! I should have entered on the study of the exact sciences. I should have traversed the path of Galileo and Newton; and since I have constantly succeeded in my great enterprizes, Ah, well! I should have been highly distinguished also by my scientific works; I should have left the remembrance of fine discoveries. No other glory would have invited my ambition.” Young made choice of the career of medicine, in which he hoped to find fortune and independence. His medical studies began at London under Baillie and Cruickshank. He continued them at Edinburgh, where then Drs. Black, Munro and Gregory were highly distinguished ; but it was only at Goettingen in the following year (1795) that he took his degree. Before submitting to this vain formality, yet so decidedly required, Young had scarcely exceeded his boyhood; he had already distinguished himself before the scientific world by an observation relating to gum Ladanum; by a controversy which he had carried on with Dr. Beddoes on Crawford’s Theory of heat; by a memoir concerning the habits of spiders, and the system of Fabricius, the whole enriched with erudite researches; and lastly, by a work which I shall notice at greater length on account of its great merit, of the unusual favour which it produced, and of the oblivion into which it has since fallen. Memoir of Dr. Thomas Young. 247 The Royal Society of London enjoys over all the three kingdoms a high and deserved character. The Philosophical Transactions which it has published for a century and a half, the glorious archives where British genius considers it an honour to deposit its titles to the gratitude of posterity. The desire of seeing their names inserted in lists of con- tributors to this truly national collection, after the names of Newton, Bradley, Priestley and Cavendish, has always been the most active, as it is the most legitimate subject of emulation among the students of the celebrated universities of Cambridge, Oxford, Edinburgh and Dublin. That is the boundary of the ambition of the man of science; he only aspires to it on account of some capital work, and the first essays of youth are communicated to the public in a mode better fitted to their importance, through the medium of those numerous Reviews which with our neighbours have contributed so much to the progress of human knowledge. Such, consequently, ought not to be the course of Young. At the age of twenty, he addressed a memoir to the Royal Society. The council, composed of all the contemporary men of note, honoured this paper with its vote, and it soon appeared in the Transactions. The subject of it was vision. The problem was nothing less than new. Plato and his disciples four centuries before our era had been occupied with it, but their conceptions could only be cited to justify the celebrated and humbling remark of Cicero: ‘‘ Nothing ean be imagined so absurd which will not be supported by some philosopher.” After an interval of twenty centuries, it is necessary to proceed from Greece to Italy, when we wish to find in reference to the admirable phenomenon of vision, opinions which deserve to be noticed by the historian. There with- out interdicting, like the philosopher of Egina, their stay, to all those who were not geometricians, prudent experi- menters, followed the only road by which man can be per- mitted to arrive without a false step at the conquest of things unknown; there Maurolycus and Porta proclaimed to their contemporaries, that the problem of discovering that which is, presents a sufficient number of difficulties without presuming to discover what ought to be; there these two celebrated countrymen of Archimedes began to develope the catalogue of the different media of which the eye is 248 Memoir of Dr. Thomas Young. composed, and shewed themselves satisfied, as Galileo and Newton subsequently were, not to raise themselves above the knowledge susceptible of being controlled by the senses, and which was stigmatized, under the porches of the Aca- demy, by the disdainful qualification of simple opinion. Such is always human weakness, that after having followed with wonderful success, the principal inflexions of light through the cornea and crystalline lens, Maurolycus and Porta, having nearly attained their object, stopped short, suddenly, as before an insurmountable difficulty which opposed their theory, viz., that objects ought to appear up- side down if the images in the eye are themselves reversed. The persevering mind of Kepler, on the contrary, pre- vented him from giving way. The attack is psycological. The objection is overturned by psycological clearness and mathematical precision. Under the powerful influence of this great man, the eye becomes distinctly the simple op- tical apparatus known under the name of obscure chamber, the retina is the picture, the crystalline lens compensates for the vitreous humour. This assimilation, so generally adopted after Kepler, gave rise to one difficulty only. The obscure chamber like a com- mon glass must be placed at a focus according to the distance of objects. When the objects approach, it is indispensible to evert the picture by the lens; a contrary movement is necessary when the objects are distant. To preserve to the images all desirable precision, without changing the posi- tion of the surface which receives them, is then impossible, at least, that the curvature of the lens may always vary. Among the different modes of obtaining distinct images nature has afforded a choice; for man can see with great precision, at very dissimilar distances. The question thus stated, has afforded a subject of great research and dis- cussion to philosophers. Great names figure in the debate. Kepler, Descaries,...... support the opinion, that the whole of the globe of the eye is susceptible of being elon- gated and flattened. Porterfield, Zinn, ...... would have the crystalline lens to be moveable for the purpose of placing itself at a greater or less distance from the retina. Jurin, Musschenbroeh,...... believe in a change in the curvature of the cornea. Memoir of Dr. Thomas Young. 249 Sauvages, Bourdelot,...... consider also, that a varia- tion in the curvature occurs, but only in the crystalline lens. Such is also the system of Young. Two memoirs pre- sented successively to the Royal Society contain its com- plete development. In the first, the question is only viewed in an anatomical light. Young demonstrated, by means of direct and very delicate observations, that the crystalline lens is possessed of a fibrous or muscular structure, admirably adapted to all kinds of changes in form. This discovery overturned the only solid objection which had hitherto been opposed to the hypotheses of Sauvages, Bourdelot, &c. Scarcely was it published when Hunter claimed it. The celebrated anatomist thus assisted the interest of the young beginner, since his work, unpublished, had been communicated to no one. However, this part of the discussion soon lost all its importance, for it was shewn that Leeuwenhoek, sup- plied with powerful microscopes, had already traced and designed the muscular fibres of the erytsalline lens of a fish in all their ramifications. To awaken the public at- tention, fatigued with so many debates, nothing less would have satisfied than the high renown of two new members of the Royal Society who entered the lists. One of these an expert anatomist, the other the most celebrated artist of which England could then boast, presented to the Royal Society a memoir, the fruit: of their combined efforts, and destined to establish the completely unalterable nature of the crystalline lens. The philosophical world, with the greatest hesitation, would have admitted, that Sir Everard Home and Ramsden together could have made inaccurate experiments; that they could have been deceived in the micrometical measurements. Young himself did not believe it; and im- mediately in a public manner renounced his theory. This eagerness to confess that he was overcome, so rare in a young man of twenty-five years, so rare especially in the ease of a first publication, was here an act of unexampled modesty. Young, in fact, had nothing to retract. In 1800, having withdrawn his disavowal, he developed anew the theory of the change in form of the crystalline lens in a memoir, to which no serious objection has been since made. Nothing can be more simple than his line of argument, nothing more ingenious than his experiments. 250 Memoir of Dr. Thomas Young. Young examines first the hypothesis of a variation in the curvature of the cornea, by microscopical observations, which would have rendered the smallest variations appre- ciable ; or we may say more distinctly, he places the eye in certain conditions where the changes in the curvature should be without any effect, he plunges it into water and proves, even then, that the faculty of seeing at different distances, remains in it complete. The second of the three possible suppositions, that of an alteration in the dimensions of the organ, is then destroyed by a number of objections and experiments which it would be difficult to overturn. The problem appeared definitely settled. For it is obvious, that if, of three possible solutions, two are removed, the third necessarily follows, that the radius of curvature of the cornea and the longitudinal diameter of the eye being unalterable, the form of the crystalline lens must vary. Young, however, did not stop here, he proved directly, by the subtile phenomena of the change in form of the images, that the lens really changes its curvature ; he invented, or at least, improved an instrument susceptible of being em- ployed, even by persons of little intelligence, and little ac- customed to delicate experiments; and provided with this new method of investigation, he renders it certain that all those who want the crystalline lens, as in consequence of the operation for cataract, do not enjoy the faculty ofseeing precisely at different distances. It is tr uly matter of astonishment, that this admirable theory of vision, this fine wove network, where reasoning and the most ingenious experiments afford mutual support, does not occupy the important place in science which it ought. But to explain this anomaly, we must necessarily recur to a sort of fatality. Young, had he been, as he often said with regret, a new Cassander, incessantly pro- claiming important truths, his ungrateful contemporaries would have refused to receive them. We should be speak- ing, it appears to me, less poetically, and with more truth, in remarking, that the discoveries of Young are unknown to the most of those who should be best able to appreciate them. Physiologists do not read his excellent memoir, for he takes for granted the acquisition of more mathematical knowledge than is usually cultivated by the faculty. On the Atomic Weights of Bodies. 251 Natural philosophers in their turn have also overlooked it, because in their lectures and works, the public of the pre- sent day only require such surperficial notions as can be readily grasped by a common mind without any exertion. In all this we see nothing exceptional ; like all those who penetrate into the depth of science, he has been unknown to the multitude. But the applause of some men of eminence should make ample compensation. In such matters we ought not to count votes, it is wiser to weigh them. (To be continued.) Articte II. Observations on the Atomic Weights of Bodies. By Tuomas Tuomson, M.D., F.R.S. L. & E., Regius Professor of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow. (Concluded from page 193.) Ir seems to be a general law, that the specific gravity of a gas is equal to its atomic weight multiplied by some sub- multiple or multiple of the specific gravity of oxygen gas. This will appear from the following tables. I. Gases whose specific gravity = their atomic weight x 0°2777 or ith the specific gravity of oxygen gas. Specific Gravity, Atomic | By experi- | By calcula- | weight. ment. tion. Ammonia, ... . | 2125 0:59023*| 0.59027 Deutoxide of azote, | 3°75 | 1-04096+) 1:04166 Muriatic acid, . . . | 4°625)1-2844t | 1-28472 Hydriodic acid, . . . | 15"825/4-4093§ |4:40972 Hydrobromic acid, . . | 10°125) —— |2°8125 Calomel, . . . . . /29°5 |835|) |8-1944 * This is the mean between the specific gravity found by Sir H. Davy and my- self,—See Annals of Philosophy, xvi. 175. + By my experiment.—Ibid. p. 172. ¢ By my experiment.—Ibid. p. 176. § Mean of the determination of Gay Lussac and my own.—Ihbid, p. 264. || Mitscherlich,—Poggendorff’s Annalen, xxv. 223. 252 Dr. Thomas Thomson's Observations In all these gases the calculated specific gravity comes within less than ;,4,5th part of the experimental, except in the case of calomel, which, being a vapour, and requiring a high temperature to keep it in the gaseous state, cannot be expected to be determined with minute accuracy. II. Gases whose specific gravity = their atomic weight x 0:5555 or 3 the specific gravity of oxygen gas. Specific Gravity, Atomic | By experi-| By calcula- weight. ment. tion. Hydrogen,. . . . . . ~ | 0-125] 0:0694%| 0-0694 Wate, oe a | Os, Vee Carbon vapour, . ... - 0:75 | —— | 0°4166* ROPING ic, isic’ oSieeaen 20 4:5 2-5+ ri. Brénmes. 2h is asen tp 554t | 55555 Todine,. . . . . - « - {15°75 | 8-7165 | 87166 Mercury, . . Saath ple Sd BS 7:03¢ 69444 Carburetted pete a ] 0°55544) 0°5555 Olefiamt eas, ot x. + > 1-75 | 0:9709}4| 0°9722 Carbonic acid, . . . . . | 2:75 | 1:5267%| 1°5277 Carbonic oxide, .°. ~. .° . 1-75 | 0:9698+ 0:9722 Chloro-carbonic acid, . . . 6:25 | 3:4604+| 3°4722 Protoxide of azote, . . . . | 2°75 | 1:5269}) 1:5277 Cyanogen,. . . . - - - | 3°25] 1-80394| 1-8055 Sulphurous acid, . . . . | 4 |2-22216*) 2-222 Sulphuric acid (dry), . . . | 5 3-00 | 2:7777 Selensousiderds oS *\\ Use foe alhhad 4:03{ | 38888 Iodide of mercury . . . . {28°25 /16-2t | 15°6944 Corrosive sublimate, . . . | 17 9-8t 9-4444 Sesquiodide of arsenic,. . . | 28:375/16-1t | 15-7638 Proto-chloride of Antimony, . [12°5 | 7:8f 6:9444 In all the cage compounds of carbon, hydrogen, oxy- gen and azote, and also in chlorine and bromine, and iodine vapour, the specific gravities determined by saeply eae! the atomic weight by 0°5555 almost coincide with the ex- * These specific gravities have been given in a preceding part of this paper. + These specific gravities were determined by me in 1820.—See Annals of Philosophy, xvi. 161 and 241. ¢ Dumas Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., xxxiil. 346. § Mitscherlich,—Poggendorff’s Annalen, xxix. 217. on the Atomic Weights of Bodies. 253 perimental result,rendering it exceeding probable, that the number which we have pitched upon for the atomic weight of these bodies is indeed very near the truth. In the specific gravities of the vapours determined by Mitscher- lich, the coincidence between the calculated and experi- mental results is not so close. Because, from the high temperature at which these specific gravities were taken, sometimes as much as 643°; it was impossible to attain the same accuracy, as when the specific gravity is taken at the common temperature of the atmosphere. Nor, is it quite clear, that the corrections for the temperature which Mits- cherlich applied are perfectly correct. ‘ III. Gases whose sp. gr. = atomic weight x 11111. Specific Gravity, Atomic | By ex- | By cal- weight, |periment.} culation. Prsyeen eb. ns 1 eevin eee! IV. Gases whose sp. gr. = atomic weight x 2:2292, or twice the specific gravity of oxygen gas. Specific Gravity, Atomic |By ex- By cal- weight. |periment.| culation. Phosphorus,. . . | 2 4-6* | 4-4444 Arsenious acid, . . | 6°25 |13-85*| 13-8888 V. Gases whose specific gravity = atomic weight x 2°5, or 24 times the specific gravity of oxygen gas. ‘Specific Gravity, By ex- | By eal- periment. culation. Arsenic, . . . | 4:25 |10°6+ | 10-625 VI. Gases who sp. gr. = atomic weight x 33333, or 3 times the specific gravity of oxygen gas. Atomic weight, Specific Gravity, Atomic | By ex- | By cal- weight. {periment.| culation. Salpiur,. . <4 6-9t |6-6666 * These specific gravities were determined by Mitscherlich,—See Poggendorff ’s Annalen, xxix. 218 and 222. t Mitscherlich,—Ibid, p. 219. t Ibid. p. 217. 254 Dr. Thomas Thomson's Observations A bare inspection of these tables shews how very close approximations to the truth my atomic numbers would be. This would be still further corroborated if we were to draw up tables exhibiting the constitution of the compound gases in volumes, and the degree of contraction which has taken place. But this paper has already run out to such a great length, and so much remains to be noticed, that I must delay these tables, at least, for the present. There is another point, however, of so much consequence that it would be unpardonable to pass it by; because it furnishes a method of determining which of two numbers ought to be chosen for the atomic weight of a body, when we have arguments in favour of two different numbers almost equally balanced. Thus, we do not know for cer- tain whether 0°125 or 0:0625 be the atom of hydrogen ; or whether 1°75 or 0°875 be the atomic weight of azote. The point to which I allude is an observation of Dulong and Petit, that if the atomic weight of a body be multiplied into its specific heat, the product is a constant quantity. This subject has been lately taken up by M. Avogadro, who has made further researches into the specific heats of bodies, in order to put the law more completely to the test of experi- ment. He has found the law to hold good in most of the cases which have come under his review. The reader will observe, that if the specific heat of bodies multiplied into the atomic weight be a constant quantity, it will follow, that every simple atom is surrounded with the same quantity of heat; or, in other words, that the specific heat of the atoms of all bodies is the same. This is so important a proposition that it deserves a rigid investi- gation. Our methods of determining the specific heat of bodies are not yet so accurate that the numbers obtained can be relied on as perfectly correct. But as they constitute at least approximations to the truth, they will enable us to perceive whether or not the law of Dulong and Petit holds in general. Let us draw up tables of the atomic weights and specific heats of all the simple substances so far as known; and let us multiply these two numbers into each other, that we may see how far the product will be a con- stant quantity. on the Atomic Weights of Bodies. 255 TABLE I.—Simple Substances. Atomic | Specific weight. heat. Carbon, . . . . | 0°75 |0-257* |0-19275 Silicon, . . . . | 1 |0-18752|0-1875 |=0-23 Aluminum, . . . | 1-25 |0:15002|0-1875 Dye wy! ain 1 0°2361 Pmlorine, » to... 4-5 |0:0827 |0-372 mronune, to .. 1 LO 0:0472 |0°437 Hydrogen, . . . | 0:125/3-2936 mates a MY 1°75 |0°2698 Baiphur,. ..,%)! 2 0°188+ |0°376 mrdenic... . Von" 4°75 |0°081* |0°385 Antimony, 0-047 |0:376 Tellurium, 0:0912+ | 0:364 iron, . ; Nickel,** Bees fork lege Ua Ee ena 2 | 8 4 3 0:385 {Mean 0°375 3 4 3 sda SP TS gS 7°25 |0°051+ |0°370 4 9 2 2 2. 3 Copper, . Bismuth, meercury. (25°) || 1 Sh et eee ae Platinum, ] Cobalt, Phosphorus, . . | 2 0°385* {0-770 avery. ~ os 1 18°75"1 00564", |0°770 Iodine, . . . . (15°75 089 * ** T have adopted 3°625 for the atom of nickel partly from the experiments of Tuppuli and Rothoff, and partly because Berzelius’s number is as high as 369675. But I have never been able, from my own experiments, to obtain so high an atomic number for nickel. I made a very careful analysis of sulphate of nickel very lately. The salt had been twice crystallized, and had all the characters of a pure and neutral salt. From 100 grains of it I got Oxide of nickel,........ 25°17....4°41 Sulphuric acid,......... 28°50,...5 Waters. és iigeb wctese tore 40°88 DMPOTIGYy sb isan wicpisieie oe 1°75 96°30 The water had it been all extracted would have amounted to a grain more. The loss is almost 3 per cent., and the 1°75 grain of impurity destroys the confidence I expected to have derived from this analysis. 256 Dr. Thomas Thomson's Observations TABLE II.—Binary Compounds. Atomic ; Specific heat. heat. Product. Silica, 2 0:179* |0°358 Alumina, 2:25 |0°1942¢ | 0°437 ~9-75 |0-2369 |0°651 3-5 |0-179* | 0-626 2-5 |0-276¢ |0-690 ie Protoxide of azote, ° Lime, . Magnesia, Protoxide of lead, . Oxide of zine, . Oxide of copper, Red oxide of mercury, Protoxide of tin, . Oxide of chromium, Sulphuret of lead, Sulphuret of mercury, Sulphuret of zinc, Sulphuret of iron, Sulphide of arsenic, 14. |0-05* 0-700 |, 0375 x 2 5125] 0°137(c) |0°702 | = 0°750 5 |O-137¢ | 0-685 13-5 |0:049* |0-665 8-25 |0:096* | 0-775 5 |0:196 | 0-980 15 | 0-053t |0°795 145 |0-052t | 0-764 6125] 0°153 | 0-701 5:5 \0-135* |0°742 6-75 |0.1111f |0°750_ Water suc}. 1-125) 1 1-125 te ik Corrosive sublimate {17 |0-069* |1°175 |) _"y-05 Common salt, 7-5 |0°221* |1:657 |-a, Chloride of potassium, Chloride of calcium, | 7 0:194* | 1-358 0-375 x 4 = 1-500 TABLE III.—Compounds of 23 atoms. 9:5 |0:184* |1-748 foams a4 Atomic | Specific weight. heat. Product. Peroxide ofiron, . | 5 0-1691t 0-846 |( Mean 0:847 Orpiment, AT Eis 7°75 |0°105* |0°814 |2 0°375 x 23 Arsenious acid, . 6:25 |0°141* |0°881 |€ = 0°9375 TABLE IV.—Ternary Compounds. Atomic | Specific weight. heat. Product. Carbonic oxide, 3°5 |0°2884 | 1:009 Olefiant gas 1:75 |0°4207 |0°736 Antimonious acid, {10 0-13£ | 1300 Deutoxide of mang.,| 5 0-191* | 1-050 ‘oO Peroxide of tin, 9:25 |0:111* | 1-027 |( Mean 1-071 Suboxide of pe 9 0°1073f | 0-966 10388 x3= Titanic acid, 5:25 |0°1724¢ |0°905 }C 1-125 Bi-sulphuret of iron,| 7°5 |0°135 = |1:212 Bi-sulph. of molybden 10 0°102{ | 1:021 Calomel, . 29°5 |0°041* |1:209 Bran. 52. Peer lilt aear —e—r on the Atomic Weights of Bodies. TABLE V.—Quarternary Compounds. i) Qn x Atomic | Specific weight. | heat. nace Sulphuric acid,. . | 6°125)0- 358 2°144 |0°375 x 62°25 Chrysolite, . . . | 65 |0°205t 1-332 [0-375 x4=1°5 TABLE VI.—Quintenary Compounds. Atomic | Specific weight. | heat. Hydrate of lime, . 4-625 |0:3* | 1-387 [0:375x4=1-5 Aleohol, . . . . |2°875 |0°62(d)| 1:787 (0-375 x 5=1-875 TABLE VII.—Sextenary Compounds. Atomic | Specific weight. heat. Sulphate of barytes, [14:5 |0-107£ | 1551 Sulphate of strontian, 11°5 |0-130£ | 1-495 Sulphate oflead, . (19 0-0848¢f | 1-604 Anhyd. sulph. ofiron,) 9°5 |0°145* | 1-377 Sulphate of potash, {11 0°169* | 1-859 jo3% 1-805 Product. Product. Sulphate of zine, . | 10°125/0-213* | 2:156 |, 0:375 x5= Sulphate of lime, . | 8:5 |0°190* |1°815 |( 1-865 Anhyd. sulph. copper,’ 10 OLS) URLs Anhyd.sulph. ofsoda,| 9 0:263* | 2°367 Hydrate of alumina, | 3°375|0-420* | 1-424 Arsenical pyrites, . |20°5 |0°1012{)| 2-075 Glance cobalt, . . |20 0-107{ | 2°140 Carbonate of barytes,| 15 0° L078 | 1-638 Carbonate of strontian) 12 0°1445¢ | 1-734 Carbonate of lead, {19°5 |0-0816{)| 1-591 joss 2°077 Carbonate of soda, 9-5 |0°306* | 2-907 |, 0°375 x6= Carbonate of potash, |11°5 |0°237* | 2-725 |€2°25 Carbonate of lime, 9 0°203 =| 1:827 Carbonateofmagnesia, 8 0:227¢ | 1°816 Magnetic iron ore, (14:5 |0°1641}| 2379 TABLE VIII.—Octenary Compounds. . Atomic | Specific weight. heat. Product. Nitrate of potash,. | 12°75 | 0:269* |3°43 Nitrate of soda, .|10°75 |0°24* (2.5 Mean 2°977 Bihydrate ofpotash, 8°25 |0°358* |2°953 ; 0°375 x 8=3: Ether, . . . . | 4:625|0-52(d) [2:4 05 Fahlkies, . . . (28 0°1284113°5 V OL. Ill. . 258 Dr. Thomas Thomson's Observations TABLE IX. Atomic Specific weight. heat: Product. , 10 atoms Zoisite, . |14 0:194t |2°716 |=0°375 x 12 ,, Gypsum, 10-5 |0°302¢ |3:171 =0°375 x 14 ,, Bitter spar,|11°5 |0°2137{|245 |=0°375 x 20 ,, Topaz, . |16°25 |0-200f {3:25 |=0°375 x 23. ,, Labradorite,| 24-25 |0°1926¢|/4°67 |=0°375 x 12 23 +,, Hornblende,| 29 0°1976f |5°73 |=0°375 x 15 47 ,, “Adularia, {36°75 |0°1861} |6°839 =0:375 x 18 47 ,, Albite, . |34°75 |0°1961{|6°814 |=0°375 x 18 oOonwst The specific heats marked by an asterisk (*) were determined by Avogadro,— See Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. ly. 80 and lvii. 113. and Records i. 108, and ii. 34. Those marked + were determined by Dulong and Petit——See Annals of Philosophy, xiii. 164. and xiv. 189. Those marked ¢ were determined by Neumann.—See Poggendorft’s Annalen, xxiii. 1. Those marked § were deter- mined by Dalton.—See New System of Chemical Philosophy, i. 62. Those marked || by Lavoisier and Laplace. Those marked (c) by Crawford.—See table at the end of his Treatise on Animal Heat. Those marked (d) by Dupretz.— See Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. xxiv. 328. The first table exhibits the atomic weights and the specific heats of 26 simple bodies, together with the products ob- tained by multiplying the atomic weight and specific heat of each body into each other. This table, by means of horizontal lines, is divided into 6 compartments. Of these we shall consider the third group first, which includes 16 dif- ferent bodies or almost two-thirds of the whole. The product of the atomic weight of these bodies into their respective specific heats gives numbers which do not absolutely coincide with each other; but which, if we leave out the number for azote, approach each other pretty nearly, and the mean of the whole gives the number 0°375 as the product of the atomic weight and specific heats multiplied into each other. In all of these bodies then we may conclude the same quantity of heat exactly is attached to each atom; and the reason why their specific heats appear different is that the atoms of the respective bodies differ from each other. But the specific heat of each atom of all these bodies is abso- lutely the same. on the Atomic Weights of Bodies. 259 Of these 17 simple bodies, there are 8, namely, Sulphur, . . 0:376 Antimony,. . 0:376 Muekels. ..i..,0°375 Meads “steal. | OST7 Copper, . . 0°376 fidid: eeins.cs | OO72 ms 60303. 0370 Platinum,. . 0°372 Mean, . . 0°3746 that agree so closely in the poadiaet of their specific heat multiplied by their atomic weight, that no doubt can be entertained that the atomic weights for these bodies given in the tables are the true ones. The atomic weights of Berzelius for these bodies differ but little from mine; yet, if we were to adopt his numbers, with the exception of nickel, his number for which I have approximated to in the table, the results would deviate farther than mine from 0°375, as may be seen by the following table in which his numbers are adopted. Atoms of aes Brodick Berzelius. heat LEC TEE Ese Sad eh 2:01165/ 0-188 |0°378 Antimony, .0))) 02 9's) .+ 8:06452) 0°047 | 0°379 PUCK OL iis te Le gt IOE 3°69675) 0: 1035) 0°383 Head, OS. hay 2 pe 944080029 | 0°375 Mean Gold; °°. 6... 2 1912-43013) 0°0298) 0-370 0377 Copper,. . - . - » | 3°95695)0°095 |0°376 : eee! Lee ah Vizg POM op 7°35294| 0°051 |0°375 Platinum, . . . . . |12:33499/0-031 |0°382 The deviation is undoubtedly but trifling, because Berze- lius’s atomic numbers for these bodies are almost identical with mine. But the reader will perceive, at a glance, how little is gained by the long string of decimals appended to each of his atomic numbers. There are three of these simple bodies, namely, “364 oe Bismuth, 4.4, 02360 Mosca Moe. 1) .0°9626 Mean,. . .-. 0°3623 260 Dr. Thomas Thomson’s Observations which sinks below the mean number 0°375 by 0012, or about =!-. If we take Berzelius’s atomic numbers, the result will be seen in the following table. Atoms of | Specific | p.oauct. Berzelius. heat. Telluriums, 2nic-8¢ Soe 8:0176 | 0°0912)0°731 Bismuthong. io cela 824 13:30877 10°04 |0°as2 Mercury, . . . . ~ | 1265823 |0-029 |0°367 The reader will perceive, at a glance, that the numbers chosen by Berzelius to represent the atomic weights of tellurium and bismuth cannot be the true numbers. His number for tellurium is almost exactly double mine. Four, there is every reason for believing, is the exact atomic weight of tellurium. Doubtless, there is a small error in the determination of the specific heat. Had the specific heat been 0-039! instead of 0-0912 the product into the atomic weight would have been 0°375. It is equally obvious that 13°3 cannot be the true atomic weight of bismuth. The product of this number by the specific heat of bismuth deviates too far from 0-375 to per- mit us to adopt it. The atomic weight of mercury, as fixed both jby Berzelius and myself, differ very little from each other. Ifthe specific heat be accurately determined both are too low; 13 in all probability is the correct number. Four of these simple bodies, namely, Arsenic, ... ~. «= ° 0‘385 Prony jus e.s:- fs O'S8D ZIBGS Neves). |», O383 Hydrogen,. . . 0°412 WGANS io. ed a a gia bolder have numbers obtained by multiplying the atomic weights into the specific heats higher than 0°375 by about 4d part. Let us compare them with Berzelius’s numbers. Atoms of | Specific Berzelius. heat. Product. Arsenich 4a ae 4-70042 |0°081 |0°381 Tronjitasl), eee. 3°39205 {0°11 |0°373 Zine, Sey Boat 4:°03226 | 0:0927| 0°374 Hydrogen,. - -.'-. . 0:062398! 3:2936) 0-205 on the Atomic Weights of Bodies. 261 The first three of these numbers approach nearer the mean quantity 0°375 than mine. But the difference is not sufficient to warrant the conclusion, that Berzelius’s num- bers are right and mine wrong. Because a very slight change in the number representing the specific heat would bring the products of the atomic weights of arsenic, iron and zinc as I have given them to the mean number 0°375. Were the specific heats as follow : Arsenic, . . 0:079 instead of 0-081 Lromaade 4 dajarlOs 38 0-11 Athy 93 o10i9'-9,d0° 0909 * 0:0927 the products of these numbers by the atomic weights would be 0-375. Now, these deviations do not much exceed | per cent., an error that may be easily committed in determin- ing the specific heat of bodies. In my original experiments to determine the atom of zinc I obtained 4-2. Now, the number 4: 125 which I have adopted here comes almost as near 4:2 as my former number 4°25. And I have preferred it, because, when multiplied by the specific heat of zinc, the product approaches nearer to 0°375 than when 4°25 is taken. As to hydrogen, the number obtained by multiplying its atomic weight by its specific heat deviates considerably from 0°375. For 0°412 = 0:375 + 37 or ;;th of the whole. The reason of this I take to be, that it is much more difficult to determine the specific heat of hydrogen gas with precision than that of any other substance. And there are strong reasons for believing that the number 3°2936 obtained by Delaroche and Berard does not constitute a very near ap- proximation to the truth. Had the specific heat of hydro- gen been only 3 instead of 3°2936 its product multiplied by 0-125 would have given the mean number 0-375. It is obvious, at a glance, that the atomic weight of hy- drogen adopted by Berzelius is too small. For, when multiplied by the specific heat, the product does net much exceed one half of 0°375. When we look at the product of the atom of azote multiplied by its specific heat, it is obvious, that it is about ith part too high. This Lascribe to the difficulty of determining the specific heat of this gas with accuracy. 262 Dr. Thomas Thomson's Observations Were the specific heat of azotic gas only 0:214 instead of 0°2698, we would obtain the mean number 0°375. Berzelius’s atomic weight of azote is 0°88518. This mul- tiplied by 0-2698, gives 0:2388, which is much farther below 0°375 than my number is above it. It is evident that Ber- zelius’s number is only one-half the true atom of azote. If Mr. Dalton will consider the atom of azote with reference to its specific heat, he will be satisfied that his ingenious arguments in favour of 0°875, for the atom of azote, are not so conclusive as he has hitherto thought them. Having sufficiently discussed the atomic weights in the third compartment of the table, let us now attend to the three substances in the first compartment, namely, carbon, silicon and aluminum. Of these three, the specific heat of carbon alone has been determined experimentally. I have inferred the specific heats of silicon and aluminum from those of silica and alumina determined by Neumann. They may be seen at the beginning of the second table. And the way in which I have deduced these specific heats will appear when I come to consider the second table. It will be seen, on inspecting the table, that if we admit 0°75 to be the atomic weight of carbon, the product of that number by its specific heat, instead of being 0°375 is only 0°19275, or about half that number. Shall we conclude from this, that an atom of carbon is united with only half the quantity of heat which is combined with the atoms of the bodies constituting the third compartment of the table? I think it more likely that we have occasioned the anomaly by making the atom of carbon only half its real weight. Let us suppose the atom of carbon to be 1-5 we have 1°5 x 0°257 = 0-385, a quantity which comes very near the mean number 0°375. If the atom of carbon be 1°5, then Atoms. Atoms. Carbonic oxide is composed of 1 carbon + 2 oxygen Oxalic acid . Britis +3 ,, Carbonic acid bois, +4 ~~ ,, Carburetted hydrogen of Bh oy + 4 hydrogen Olefiant gas . Tica 427°2. vail Alcohol of 1 atom bedpalout oe Te ev Syr uy, Ether of 1 i Sab Le + 5 5 on the Atomic Weights of Bodies. 263 And the atomic weights of these bodies would be Carbonic oxide, «. . . 3d Oxalicacid,. . . . +. 49 Carbonic acid, . . - . Od Carburetted hydrogen, . 2 Olefiant gas, pangs oe ert Monee a es eorD HH EP, 2208? te VOR NO 64G25 These numbers have nothing in them to startle us. The atom of carbonic acid being doubled the salts at present ealled bi-carbonates would, in fact, be carbonates, and those called carbonates would be di-carbonates. Analogy favours this new notion. The bi-carbonates are much nearer the neutral state than the carbonates; and, therefore, more likely to contain an atom of each constituent. While the carbonates possess all the characters which usually characterize the sub-salts. Berzelius’s atomic number for carbon being almost iden- tical with mine, it is needless to institute a comparison between them. For the same reason it will be necessary to double my atomic weight for silicon and aluminum ; making the former 2 and the latter 2-5. These numbers multiplied into the specific heats in the table would give us for a product the mean number 0°375. But, as the specific heats of these bodies are only hypothetical, it is needless to insist farther on the subject. The specific heat of oxygen in the second compartment of the table is given according to the experiments of Dela- roche and Berard, while those of chlorine and bromine are deduced from the experiments of Messrs. Haycraft, Delarive and Marcet, according to whom, the specific heats of gases and vapours are inversely as the square roots of their specific gravities. It is obvious, that none of these specific heats can be depended on; but, from the numbers in the third column, we see that my atomic numbers must be true ones. Berzelius has adopted for chlorine and bromine numbers which give the following results : Atoms of | Specific | p.oquct Berzelius. | heat. y apeenie! —$—$_— Ghloring, ew, ,iledewto daRMeae 0:0827| 0° 183 Buouitie, 4:89153 | 0:0472) 0:231 264 Dr. Thomas Thomson's Observations The first of these products is only half of 0°375. The second is little more than half that number, doubtless, be- cause our estimate of the specific heat is too high. The true atomic weights of these bodies are double the numbers of Berzelius or 4°5 for chlorine and 10 for bromine. Dr. Turner’s number for chlorine is double that of Berzelius’s. His atom of bromine is 9:8. Both of these are pretty near the truth, but not exactly so. We have now taken a view of all the substances in the first table except the four last ; namely, cobalt, phosphorus, silver and iodine. The specific heat of cobalt was determined by Dulong and Petit, and they give us no information either respect- ing the purity of the metal, the mode of operating, or the quantity of metal used in their experiments. The same observations apply to the specific heat of nickel, which was determined by the same gentlemen, and given by them merely in a table without any details whatever. Now, as the atomic weights of nickel and cobalt very nearly agree, while their specific heats, according to Dulong and Petit are as follow, Nickel, . . 0°1035 Cobalt, . . 0°1498 there is reason to suspect some inaccuracy in one or other of these determinations, or in both of them. Under these circumstances it is not surprizing that the number resulting from the multiplication of the atomic weight and specific heat of cobalt instead of 0:375, is 0°4875 about 4d greater than the truth. Berzelius’s atom of cobalt is 3°68991; which multiplied by 0°15 gives 0°553, which de- viates still farther from 0°375 than the quantity resulting from my atomic number does. To clear up the anomaly regarding cobalt, new experi- ments on its specific heat must be made. Were the specific heat 0:115 instead of 0°1498, cobalt would coincide with the other simple substances. Phosphorus and silver, when their atoms and specific heats are multiplied together give 0°770 or 0°375 x 2. To bring them to agree with the other simple substances we must reduce the atom of each to one-half; we then have on the Atomic Weights of Bodies. 265 Atoms. peta Product. Phosphorus, . . . |1 0°385 0385 Silver, ... «.. ~ |6°875 |0°056 {0:385 Berzelius’s atoms for these bodies reduced to one-half, give Specific Atoms. Beats Product. Phosphorus, . . . |0-98071/ 0-385 |0-377. Silver, . . . . . 16758 0-056 10-378 Both of these numbers approach nearer 0°375 than mine. I think it exceedingly probable that the true atomic weight of silver is 6°75. But unity is much more likely to be the atom of phophorus than 0:98071. A very slight alteration in the specific heat of phosphorus as determined by Avo- gadro would render the product by unity 0°375. We have only to suppose it 0°375. As for iodine, the number obtained by multiplying its atomic weight by its specific heat is 1:40175, which is four times greater than the mean quantity 0°375. Were we to adopt Berzelius’s atom of 7:8975 matters would not be much mended. We would obtain 0-703 which approaches 0°375 x 2. The atom of iodine is obviously heavy. I do not think it advisable to reduce it to one-fourth of its pre- sent number or to 3°9375. I think it more probable that iodine will ultimately be found a compound of four dis- tinct atoms, and that its true place is in a subsequent com- partment of our table. Let us now take a view of the second table. It contains 16 substances all of which, in the present state of our knowledge, are considered as binary compounds, or com- pounds of two simple substances united together. One of these constituents is always either oxygen or sulphur, while the other is a combustible. Besides these 16 there are 5 in a compartment by themselves at the end of the table consisting of water and four different chlorides. Let us examine the 16 binary compounds constituting the upper compartment of the table. It has been already observed, that to make silicon and aluminum accord with the general law, we must double 266 Dr. Thomas Thomson's Observations their atomic numbers, making that of silicon 2 and that of alumina 2°5. This would raise the atom of silica to 4 and that of alumina to 4°5. Substituing these for the atomic numbers in the table their product by the specific heat gives us 0°716 and 0°874. The numbers in the third column of the table do not quite agree with each other; but there is such an approxi- mation as to warrant the conclusion, that the deviations are owing to errors committed in determining the specific heats. The mean of the whole 16 gives 0:738 as the pro- duct of the atomic weight by the specific heat. Now, 0:375 x 2=:°750 which approaches pretty near the mean found. From this it appears that the specific heat of all these binary atoms is the same, and that it amounts to twice as much as the quantity combined with the simple atoms. It would seem from this that each of the atoms in the binary compound retains all the heat with which it was united previous to its entering into the state of a compound. The atomic numbers of Berzelius approach so near my own in all these binary compounds except three, that it is needless to compare them. The three exceptions may be seen in the following little table. Atoms of | Specific Berzelius. heat. Product. Oxide of chromium, . |10°03631 |0-196 | 1-967 Sulphuret of mereury, . |27°3281 |0°052 | 1-421 Sulphide of arsenic, . . 113°42414 |0-1111)1-49 The mean of these products is 1:626, which is rather more than double the average deduced from the 16 binary compounds. But Berzelius considers oxide of chromium as a quarternary compound. Now 0375 x 4=1°5. The other two he makes ternary compounds and 0:375 x 3= 1:125. Numbers which deviate too far to admit us to adopt Berzelius’s atoms as the true ones. Let us now attend a little to the five binary compounds at the end of table second. The atomic weight of water multiplied into its specific heat gives 1:125. This number corresponds with that be- longing to the ternary compounds. Now, we might con- sider water as a compound of one atom oxygen and two on the Atomic Weights of Bodies. 267 atoms hydrogen, which would place it among the ternary compounds. In that case the atom of hydrogen would weigh only 0:9625. This number multiplied into 3°2936, the specific heat, would give us 0°206, which is considerably below the average number 0°375. But this may be owing to an error in the determination of the specific heat of hy- drogen. Were we to adopt 4°177 for the specific heat of hydrogen the number calculated from the experiments of Delarive and Marcet, the multiplication of that quantity by 0:0625 would be 261, which approaches somewhat near the mean 0°375, though still at a considerable distance. In the present state of our knowledge, it would be hazard- ous to determine whether water be a binary or ternary compound. Corrosive sublimate is precisely in the same predicament as water. It consists only of two atoms united, and yet the product of its atomic weight by its specific heat is 1-175, which is nearly 0°375 x 3. In the present state of our knowledge I see no other conclusion to which we can come, than that when an atom of mercury and an atom of chlo- rine unite to constitute corrosive sublimate, the quantity of heat united to each of the constituents, while separate, be- comes augmented by one-third when they unite together. Common salt, chloride of potassium and chloride of cal- cium are also binary compounds, according to the theory universally admitted by chemists; yet the mean product of their atomic weight by their specific heat is 1-587, which is nearly equal to 0°375 x 4. We must conclude from this, if the presently received chemical theory be true, that when chlorine combines with sodium, potassium or calcium the quantity of heat united to each atom, before combination, is doubled. The third table consists of compounds of one atom of a metal with 13 atoms of oxygen or sulphur. The mean pro- duct of their atomic weight by their specific heat gives 0°847; while 0:°375 x 2} = 0:9375. The difference is, probably, owing to errors in the determination of the specific heat. No light would be thrown on the subject by examining the atomic weights assigned by Berzelius. He doubles his weights in order to’get rid of the fraction ; and, of course, doubles the number of constituents. In the pre- 268 Dr. Thomas Thomson's Observations sent state of chemistry, lam not aware of any advantage which attends this doubling. The fourth table exhibits the atomic weights and specific heats of 11 ternary compounds. The products differ a good deal from each other, shewing that the specific heats have not been determined with accuracy. But, if we leave out olefiant gas which deviates too far from the rest, the mean product of all the others gives 1:071. Now, 0°375 x 3= 1-125 approaching pretty near the mean. Hence, we may con- clude, that each of these ternary compound atoms contains thrice as much heat as any of the atoms entering into its com- position. So that in ternary compounds each simple atom retains all the heat which was united with it when in an in- sulated or uncombined state. I am afraid that it would hardly be safe to carry our computations much farther. Table fifth contains one substance, chrysolite which is a compound of four atoms. Now, the product of its atomie weight by its specific heat is 1:332, which approximates to 1:500 = 0°375 x 4. Sulphuric acid, the other substance in this table, is a compound of one particle of real sulphuric acid containing four atoms, and one particle of water containing two or three atoms. So that it is a compound of six or seven atoms according to the view which we take of the constitu- tion of water. Now, the number which it gives, namely, 2:144, which is not far from 2°250 = 0°375 x 6. So that, if we reckon water a binary, and sulphuric acid a quarter- nary compound, all the constituent atoms enter into com- bination without parting with any of their heat. Table sixth contains the only two examples of quarter- nary compounds whose specific heats have been determined. Now, 0°375 x 5 = 1:878. A number approaching to that which alcohol yields. If water be a binary compound, the hydrate of lime is only,a quaternary, and its number 1-387 approaches 1:500 = 0°375 x4. The seventh table exhibits the atomic weights and speci- fic heats of 12 sextenary compounds. Now, the mean pro- duct furnished by all these bodies is 1:805. But 0°375 x 5 = 1-865. It would seem from this that the binary atom on the Atomic Weights of Bodies. 269 constituting the base of these saline bodies loses one half of its heat when it unites with the acid. The quantity of heat instead of being six times as great as in a simple atom is only five times as great. At the same time, it must be acknowledged, that the specific heats of these bodies are so imperfectly determined that it may be too small in them all, except sulphate of soda which seems to contain six atoms each furnished with its normal quantity of heat. The eight carbonates and magnetic ‘iron ore at the end of table seven are septenary compounds, or contain seven simple atoms united together. Now, the mean number which they give is 2:077. And 0°375 x 6 = 2°250. It would appear from this, that binary bases lose half their heat when they combine with acids; while the acids part with none of their heat. Table eight exhibits the products of the atomic weights of five octenary compounds multiplied respectively into their specific heats. The mean product is 2:977. Now, 0°375 x 8 =3°500. Hence, it would appear, that all the atoms entering into these compounds retain the heat with which they were furnished when in an uncombined state. Our knowledge of the composition of the eight substances constituting the ninth table is too imperfect to permit us to pursue the investigation. I have added a fourth column, shewing what multiples of 0°375 are obtained when we multiply the atomic weight of each into its specific heat. It might lead to some important conclusions respecting the true constitution of these minerals. But as it would not throw any additional light on the atomic weights of simple bodies, I shall here terminate this paper, which has been ~ drawn out toa much greater length than I contemplated at first. Articte III. Notice of the Parr. By Sir Witu1am Jarvive, Bart.* Tue fishes inhabiting the rivers of Berwickshire are com- paratively limited in the numbers of their species, but some of them are of so much importance and value, while others, as the little fish we are now about to notice, although * Proceedings of the Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club, p. 82. 270 Sir William Jardine’s Notice abundant, and familiarly known as a pay, has yet some unrivalled mysteries in its history, and there are, I believe, only a few persons at the present time, who are able to say what it really is, or to point out the distinctions which separate it from its congeners. Among naturalists gener- ally, an uncertainty seems to have existed whether this was the young of some of the migrating salmon; but more lately, this opinion seems to have resolved itself into this, whether the parr was a species, or only the young or variety of the common river trout. The following observations are the result of comparisons made last month between Tweed specimens of the parr and 8. Fario. We shall first, how- ever, shortly notice the habits of the former. Among the British Salmonide, there is no fish where the habits are so regular, or the colours and markings so con- stant. It delights in the clearest streams, with rocky or gravelly bottoms, and seems pretty generally distributed in Britain in those which have this character; but is not at all found in the low and flat districts, where the waters are deep and sluggish. It frequents the shallower fords, or the heads and lower parts of streams, in shoals, hanging nearly in one place, and in constant activity from the exer- tion, apparently day and night. It takes any bait with the greatest freedom at all times, and when no trout, though abundant among them, will rise or bite. That part of its history which is yet unknown is its breeding. Males are frequently found so far advanced, as to have the milt flow upon being handled ; but at the same period, the females had the roe in a very backward state. Neither have they been seen in an advanced state at any other season, or dis- covered spawning upon the shallower streams, like the common trout. It is probable that this little fish may also be found in some of the continental alpine and subalpine streams, but I cannot say so from observation. In the north of Europe I suspect it is wanting; and in our late excursion to Sutherland, a perceptible decrease of its num- bers was observed towards the north. It should also be observed, that I have never seen the parr, or been able to find any traces of it, except in rivers which had an uninter- rupted intercourse with the sea. The size is from three to siz inches in length; very rarely specimens reach eight of the Parr. 271 and nearly nine inches. It abounds in nearly all the Ber- wickshire rivers. The general colour on the upper parts is a greenish-grey, changing to pure silvery white on the lower parts, which, however, are sometimes tinted with yellow. When the streams which they frequent are impregnated with moss from some of the small alpine sources, upon each side is a row of oval-shaped marks of a deeper tint, and more inclining to bluish-grey than that of the upper parts ; and it is probable, that from a somewhat similar marking being seen in the young of the common trout, and the young of several other Salmonide, the supposition of this being identical with some of them was first surmised. In the parr these mark- ings are narrower and more lengthened in their form. The general smaller spotting of the sides seldom extends below the lateral line, and upon the gill-cover there are almost always two black spots; sometimes one is only distinctly marked, but a trace of the other is perceptible, and the relative position of them is almost always alike. In com- parison with a trout of similar size, the parr is altogether more delicately formed; the nose is blunter; the tail more forked ; but the chief external distinction is the great com- parative power of the pectoral fins, which are longer, much more mascular, and nearly one-third broader; and we shall at once see the necessity of this greater power, when we consider that they serve to assist in almost constantly suspending this little fish in the most rapid streams. Scales of the parr, taken from the lateral line, were altogether larger, the length greater by one-third; the furrowing more delicate, and the form of the canal not so apparent or so strongly marked towards the basal end. In the osteology of the head, which appears to offer the most constant and well-marked distinctions in this tribe, the general delicacy (still continuing the comparison with a trout of same size) of the bones is in all parts kept up. The opercle, forming the posterior edge of the gill-covers, is much more rounded, approaching, in this respect, to the form of it in the salmon ; in the trout, the lower corner is decidedly angular. The inter opercle is longer and narrower. The mazillary bone is much shorter, but broader at the posterior end, whence the much shorter or less gape in the parr. The vomer is much 272 Mr. J. Crichton on a weaker. The bones of the rays of the gill-covers are longer and much narrower. The tongue is longer, weaker, and not so broad. The under jaw much weaker, and the dis- tance between its rami one-third less. The teething much more delicate. These are the principal distinctions which appear in the external form and osteology of the head. In the latter every bone differs, and the differences appear constant in all that I have taken to pieces; and in this state, therefore, I have no hesitation in considering the parr perfectly dis- tinct from any species or variety of trout we are acquainted with, and entitled to hold a separate rank in our Fauna. From the Migratory Salmon it is separated entirely by its habits; and, I consider it should therefore stand in our systems as the Salmo Salmulus of Willughby and Ray. The correct distinguishing marks to be seen by a person who has not leizure to make a minute examination, are the great size of the pectoral fins, the shortness of the maxillary bones, and consequent small gape, and the narrow breadth between the rami of the lower jaw. ArticueE IV. On a very powerful natural Magnet. By Mr. J. Cricuton, Glasgow. To the Editor of the Records of General Science. Str,—The extremely small loadstone which belonged to my deceased father, and of which you desire to receive some details, is perhaps the most powerful of its kind ever known. By the scientific reader it will probably be regarded as a very curious and rare production of nature, while by some others it may be thought to possess interest of a dif- ferent description. Since no other person, now alive, knows any thing of its history, I shall, from my own immediate knowledge and circumstantial recollection, give the best account of its origin, which at this time, it is possible to put on record. In 1772, or the succeeding year, when Benjamin Franklin was in Glasgow, he called on the late Professor Anderson. Much of the conversation which took place between them very powerful natural Magnet. 273 was on electricity; both were enthusiasts in this branch of” science. And, at their joint representation, the thunder- rod, still on the College steeple here, was erected with a view to its protection from the effects of lightning. Magnetism also became the subject of discussion, in the course of which, the Professor desired my father, who at that time lived in the Professor’s house as his mechanist, to exhibit some artificial magnets he had just finished. On this occasion Franklin mentioned, on the authority of his friend Washington, that some place in Virginia afforded very fine loadstones, and added, that on his return to America, he would endeavour to procure a specimen and send it to the Professor. This was not neglected, for in 1776, the Professor re- ceived the promised mineral, which was probably brought to France by Dr. Franklin, whence he transmitted it to Glasgow as a present from Washington himself. The most promising portion of the mass was selected, and my father then working on his own account, was employed to.arm it in the most approved manner; but, though this was care- fully performed, its power was in no way remarkable. Several smaller portions of the mass were similarly fitted up; these, however, like the principal one, proving almost value- less, the Professor declined making further trials, and finally laid aside all thoughts of the matter. Some years afterwards, I think in 1781, my father, casually rummaging a lumber-box which stood under his work-bench, perceived some small fragments of the almost forgotten loadstone surrounded by iron filings and other ferruginous dust, and remarking that one of these frag- ments carried a larger beard of filings than the others, he was thereby induced, at his first leisure, to bestow, what he then thought, a little hopeless labour in grinding it toa proper shape with due regard to its poles. The diminutive iron arms were attached in a temporary manner by means of a thread, when, to his great surprise, its first load, though hastily applied and supposed to be in excess, required sensible force for its removal. It now seemed worthy of some additional labour; the form in regard to polarity was re-examined, and when finished in this respect, the stone, after being weighed, was VOL. Il. T 274 The Art of Dyeing. with its arming enclosed in a thin case of gold, having a ring at top for suspending it. Its load, a pyramidal shaped piece of soft iron, was now made of what was judged a weight rather under its maximum power, that is, 783 grains; the stone itself weighs precisely two and a-half grains; it carries, therefore, 313 times its own weight. It is now about 55 years since this little spark of the mine was first enclosed; upwards of 30 years ago the case was opened, in order to apply arms of perhaps a better shape; the old ones, however, appearing. in all respects faultless, the whole was immediately put together in its original state. Scientific indviduals have frequently suggested the pro- priety of keeping it with the load constantly attached, as a mean, they allege, of increasing its strength. This, I ap- prehend, is rather a gratuitous assumption ; besides, con- stant adhesion could not be maintained owing to the tremors incessantly taking place in every dwelling house. Though it is not doubted, that, by careful application, the load could be increased to considerably more than 800 grains; still, as there is reason for thinking that violent separation of the load, under such circumstances, might prove injurious, the trial has never been made. The same mass of iron has been used as its load from the beginning, and is placed merely in contact with the arms. The power of adhesion seems to be the same as it has ever been. James CRICHTON. Glasgow, \st March, 1836. ARTICLE V. The Art of Dyeing. (Continued from page 218.) Test of the Potash.—We cannot perceive whether the potash is good or bad. This is determined by means of sulphuric acid. The more sulphuric acid potash requires to saturate it, so much the better is it. The following pro- cess should be adopted: Take any measure, one for ex- Test.of the Potash. 275 ample, which may contain 3 loth (-234 Troy ounce) water, and measure with it any flask, in order to ascertain how many of such measures it can hold; 90 such measures are now to be added, and 90 grans (86:3 grs.) of sulphuric acid of the sp. gr. 1°850 accurately weighed out. Pour some water out of the flask and agitate the sulphuric acid in it. Wash the vessel well out with water so as to lose no sul- phuric acid, and then add this with as much water as will again fill up the flask. Several loths (half-ounces) of the potash to be tested are now to be well rubbed in a mortar, 10 grans (9°59 grs.) weighed out, dissolved in a little water and mixed with some tincture of litmus. When this is done, measures of the above mentioned sulphuric acid test solution are to be added gradually, until the blue solution of potash begins to become red. If the red colour remains after the solution is heated, it is a proof that all the alkali in the potash is saturated with sulphuric acid, and the quantity of sulphuric acid solution is now to be estimated. Since now each mea- sure indicates a grain of sulphuric acid, so we calculate according to the quantity of sulphuric acid employed, the quantity of alkali contained in the potash, or what is the same thing, the strength of the potash. Thus, 49 grans (47: grs.) of sulphuric acid indicate 473 (45°5 grs.) of pure potash.* A more convenient test of the potash for the dyer is this. Several ells} of cotton dyed chemical blue,{ the process for which will be subsequently described, are to be rolled up, and laid uniformly together ; equally large pieces are then to be cut out from it with a hollow chisel. A good specimen of potash is then to be taken, and 1 gran (959 gr.) dis- solved in 300 (287-7 grs.) pure water; heat the solution in a porcelain basin over a spirit lamp, and put into it one portion after another of the chemical blue cotton, in such a manner that the first shall have lost its colour before the succeeding one is introduced. At last a point will be attained when the cotton will no longer be deprived of its colour, but will retain its blue colour. * Or more correctly, 5 grs. sulphuric acid indicate 6 of caustic potash.—Enpir, ¢ The Berlin elle is equal to 6669 millimetres or 2°188 English feet.—Kprr. t Records, vol. i. p. 323, t2 276 The Art of Dyeing. The testing is now completed. The portions of cotton which have been decolourized are to be counted. Should they amount to 6, it follows that 6 chemical blue pieces of cotton to be deprived of colour require 1 gran of good potash. If another specimen of potash is now examined, and it is found that 1 gran of this can decolourize only 3 pieces of the same cotton, it follows that the last is only half as good as the first specimen. It is obvious, that in this method of testing, the same cotton must always be employed which served at first for the examination of the good potash. If it is wished to determine in this way the actual quantity of potash in a ley, the first trial, upon which the estimate in future trials depends, should always be made with 1 gran (‘959 gr.) of pure potash instead of the ley. For a correct estimate, let 3 loth or 120 grans (115-08 grs.) of potash be weighed out, and dissolved in 593 loth (27:9 oz.) of water; 3 a loth (:234 oz.) of this solution which may be employed for examination contains | gran (*959 gr.) Carbonate of Soda.—Crystallized carbonate of soda pos- sesses a similar action to potash. It is only used, however, when the potash cannot be employed in consequence of its containing foreign salts; for example, as an addition to saturate the acid of the aluminous mordant, and to clear madder-red by depriving it of the trace of yellow. In the exhibition of the oil mordant the potash is used. Carbonate of soda does not answer. Carbonate of soda can be rendered caustic like potash, or can be deprived of its carbonic acid by means of lime. It should be observed, that, in general, 143 lbs. crystallized carbonate of soda and 120 lbs. of good potash bear the same proportion to the lime employed. Carbonate of soda does not become moist in the air, but effloresces into a white powder. This renders it fit for printing. A case seldom occurs, however, where it is proper except in a colourless ground of chemical blue, to discharge the yellow pattern. The thickening is produced by starch gum. As carbonate of soda is often mixed with glauber salt which deteriorates it, it is necessary to submit it to chemi- cal examination. The soda should be tested in the same Ammonia. 277 way as potash. It is to be remarked, that 49 gran (469 gers.) of sulphuric acid require 143 gran (137°1 grs.)* The chemical blue calico may be used for the same object ; hence, a known quantity of pure carbonate of soda gives a standard to judge of the other kinds. For this purpose a solution of 2 grans (1°918 grs.) of pure crystallized car- bonate of soda are heated with 300 grans (287°7 grs.) of water and as many pieces of cotton are to be added as shall be decolourized. In other respects the proceeding may be conducted as with potash. Ammonia.—Occurs in commerce under the name of spirit of salmiac, forming a clear solution with a pungent odour. When solution of ammonia is placed in an open vessel in the air or heated, the ammonia is dissipated and pure water remains. Ammonia, therefore, although it has almost all - the properties of potash and soda, should not be employed when it can be volatilized. Hence, ammonia does not answer for printing alone. As it dissolves many substances, for example, oxide of copper; it is employed to bring it upon calico, in which case the ammonia is volatilized and the copper colour remains upon the calico. If we blow tobacco smoke upon paper coloured with Berlin blue it acquires a reddish colour. This proceeds from the ammonia which is contained in tobacco smoke. Here then ammonia itself produces the change of colour. Chemical blue calico also acquires a violet colour from ammonia. In stables where much ammonia is disengaged the same action is always produced. A calico manufacturer once sent some chemical blue goods packed up in a box, the empty portion of which was filled up with straw. The whole of the goods in the vicinity of the straw were found when unpacked to have become as blue as a violet. It turned out that the straw had been taken from a stable where it had been in contact with urine and other substances containing ammonia. In printing rooms where mordants containing ammonia, for example, ammoniuret of copper, are printed, no chemi- cal blue goods should be allowed to hang. * The atomic numbers are 50 parts sulphuric acid of sp. gr. 1°847 to 146°9 carbonate of soda,—Epir. 278 The Art of Dyeing. Since the violet blue is a very agreeable colour, so the above observations suggest a method of imparting it to chemical blue. Mix, therefore 1 lb. of solution of ammonia with 300 lbs. water, pass the goods through it, and allow them to dry without washing them. Much ammonia destroys chemical blue like potash and soda. As ammonia is an alkali, it prevents the action of acids. It removes, therefore, spots which have been produced upon coloured cotton by vinegar, lime juice, sulphuric acid, &c., and is, therefore, useful in practice as it produces no spot itself; but, in consequence of its volatility, soon disappears. It is to be observed, therefore, as was noticed with vinegar, that we can only expect a result from the use of ammonia when the spot is not too old and cannot be washed out. Lime.—Quicklime evolves heat in contact with water, and becomes slaked lime. In this state it dissolves in water. Lime-water contains but very little lime. The quantity dissolved diminishes with the heat of the water. Thus, 656 lbs. of water at 32° dissolve 1 lb. lime, and 753 lbs. water at 59° dissolve only a lb. of lime, while of boiling water 1280 lbs. are required for the same quantity of lime. As heat is disengaged in slaking lime, we must, in order to obtain strong lime-water, add the remaining water after cooling, or place the whole mixture in a cool place and stir it frequently. Calico can without great risk be boiled with lime-water or milk of lime, when it is carefully washed, and then passed through an acid to remove any lime still adhering to the fibres. Otherwise the lime makes the fibre rough, brittle and tender. Lime especially injures calico under the influence of light. If a portion of calico is saturated with lime-water, laid for some days in the sun, and again saturated and laid out three or four times, the stuff becomes remarkably white, but so tender that it can be pulled to pieces with the fingers. Lime acts upon most colouring matters like mordants. Calico which contains lime is therefore dyed as if it were mordanted. Such calico cannot be employed to form a white base out of the same ground, unless the lime is Alum. 279 removed. This is done by digestion in dilute sulphuric acid. Lime decomposes sulphate of iron, and dissolves indigo with its assistance. Upon this depends the exhibition of the cold vat. If we dissolve yellow chromate of potash in water, boil it and introduce into it a portion of cotton impregnated with the sugar of lead mordant, the cotton immediately assumes a clear yellow colour. If the same experiment is repeated, only using lime-water instead of common water, the colour produced is not yellow but orange. Upon this depends the production of chrome-orange.* Also other colours, viz., wood colours (Fernambuc, log- wood, yellow wood) are made darker by the lime-water which makes the red blueish. It is not, however, to be recommended as it makes the colours dull and coarse. Lime-water is also used to moisten the cotton which is to be dyed blue in the cold vat. Chalk is a combination of lime with carbonic acid. It is quite insoluble in water, and, is therefore, without action upon cotton. When chalk comes in contact with acids it combines with them and destroys their action. This property renders the chalk a useful assistant in washing some calicoes which are printed with acid dischargers. An excess of lime is, there- fore, mixed with water, and the cotton passed through this chalk-water before it is rinsed. As the chalk here im- mediately combines with the acid and separates it from the cotton, no injury can follow. Hence, these patterns pre- serve their regular edge. It is well in most cases to have the chalk-water, luke warm. Alum is employed for the exhibition of the aluminous mordant. To obtain by means of it a pure yellow or red colour, it is absolutely necessary that it should be free from iron. As all the alum which occurs in commerce is not free from iron, and, as the iron contained in alum cannot be seen, it is necessary to have recourse to a test for it. This consists in placing a piece of the alum to be tested in a solution of 1 loth (469 oz.) Prussiate of potash in 200 loths (93-8 oz.) of water. If the colour of the surface of the alum remains unchanged, the alum is free from iron. * See a Specimen of this colour.—Records, vol. i. p. 18.—Enir. 280 The Ari of Dyeing. If, on the other hand, blue spots appear, the alum contains iron. This test is quite certain when the alum is introduced in pieces into the solution. Powdered alum and alum solu- tion cannot be tested in this way with certainty. It is often difficult to obtain alum free from iron. The dyer may employ the following method advantageously. Let 100 lbs. of alum and 150 lbs. water be boiled in a tinned vessel, and be poured off into a wooden vessel which con- tains 150 lbs. of cold water, and be agitated until the whole is cooled. Alum free from iron precipitates like flour, while a portion remains in solution with the iron. If the alum-flour is now dissolved in water and the solution allowed to cool, pure alum is obtained in crystals. This will not be rendered blue by the addition of Prussiate of potash. The mother liquors which remain in both cases are em- ployed for the exhibition of mixed mordants to dye brown, olive or gray. The alum dissolves copper, and gives dull colours. Copper vessels must not, therefore, be employed to dissolve it. Alumalso takes up tin. This is, however, rather use- ful than hurtful to the dye. If we boil copper in a solution of alum, wherein tin is soldered, no copper is dissolved; but tin is taken up. We can therefore protect colours containing alum when boiled in copper, thoroughly, from the injurious action of the cop- per, by soldering a piece of tin in the inside of the vessel. The solubility of alum in water is not great. It requires 13 lbs. of cold water, at 54°3, to dissolve 1 lb. of alum. This is the case especially in winter when the water is colder, and dissolves still less. There is, however, a method of remedying this disadvantage to the dyer. This is done by taking away from the alum a portion of its acid. Dis- solve 32 lbs. alum in 80 lbs. boiling water, and add gradually 4 lbs. chalk-powder suspended in 80 lbs. of hot water, and heat them until effervescence ceases. A small quantity of alum only separates on cooling, while, without the addition of chalk, 16 or 20 lbs. of alum are separated on cooling from the hot solution. If 11 Ibs. of crystallized carbonate of soda are employed instead of the chalk, scarcely any alum separates during the first 24 hours. The acid which the alum contains is the sulphuric. Hence, the alum may Sulphate of Iron. 281 prove injurious to cotton fibre. If cotton impregnated with a solution of alum is allowed to hang up for some time, the cotton is brittle. Alum saturated with chalk or soda acts less injuriously. Sulphate of copper or blue vitriol is of little use to the cotton dyer. As a mordant it cannot be employed by itself, as it does not combine with the cotton fibre. If cotton is saturated with a solution of sulphate of copper and dried, the whole of the sulphate of copper is removed by washing. Liquid ammonia dissolves sulphate of copper, forming an azure blue colour, and affording a useful copper mordant for many purposes. With decoction of logwood, sulphate of copper affords a very remarkable combination which can be employed in block-printing. Sulphate of copper almost always contains iron. This is determined by liquid ammonia into which a solution of . sulphate of copper is poured, so that after being stirred, a smell of ammonia is given off. If yellow flocks remain un- dissolved, they are peroxide of iron. Very small quantities of iron separate in the course of 24 hours. Sulphate of iron or green vitriol is an essential ingre- dient in the cold vat. But every kind of sulphate of iron is not equally good. Such must be chosen as appears yel- lowish green, but not yellow. It must also contain no copper. This is ascertained by means of a piece of polished iron. If the latter does not change its colour after being immersed for some hours in a solution of sulphate of iron, then the vitriol contains no copper. If it acquires a red coating the presence of copper is indicated. Such vitriol may be purified from copper by boiling it with iron nails. In contact with air and cotton the sulphate of iron under- goes a change which the manufacturer should be acquainted with, as it explains the numerous hybrid colours obtained with the iron mordant. If we place 3 an ell (1:09 feet), of calico in a flask, and moisten it with a solution of 4 loths (1°876 oz.) sulphate of iron in 16 loths (73 oz.) water, pour off all the pure solution, and place the flask inverted in water, so that its mouth shall penetrate about an inch below the surface, it will be found that the water ascends. Hence, it is obvious, 282 The Art of Dyeing. that the calico saturated with the solution of sulphate of iron absorbs a portion of the air contained in the flask, and water takes its place. The cotton which was previously colourless now assumes a yellowish colour. As a piece of calico saturated with a solution of sulphate of iron under- goes the same change in the open air, when it is yet cold and slightly moist, if the cotton has not been too rapidly dried, it is evident that it is the air, which, in both cases, produces the change upon the solution of sulphate of iron. These properties render it impossible to employ sulphate of iron itself as a mordant with good effect; as all those places which remain in contact with it longer than others, or are more exposed to the air, exhibit from the assistance of the air more iron, and acquire a darker colour. The acetate of iron, prepared from iron and vinegar, or, from sulphate of iron and sugar of lead, undergoes the same change. Pyrolignate of iron is, however, less changeable. The sulphate of iron, as well as the acetate of iron mor- dants which were prepared by means of sulphate of iron, are not fit for mordanting calico, in order to produce a colourless ground. On the other hand, they are very useful for first printing (vordruck.) In order to prevent the inconveniences now mentioned, the solution of iron vitriol should be saturated with air before being employed asa mordant, and for this purpose should be placed in a flat vessel exposed to the air, or it may be poured from ‘one vessel into another in a small stream. Both methods are, however, tedious. The object in view is sooner attained by roasting the sulphate of iron till it becomes yellow. Sulphate of iron thus roasted leaves behind, when dis- solved in water, a quantity of oxide of iron, and contains much free sulphuric acid. It will, therefore, prove injurious to the calico unless it is converted into an acetic acid salt by means of sugar of lead. If iron alum, however, can be procured, it is best to em- ploy it for preparing the iron mordant. The object is thus obtained without difficulty, and with precision. This will be farther treated of afterwards.* * See a specimen of Iron Buff, Records, i. 17,—Enpir. Acetate of Soda. 283 Sulphate of manganese has only lately been employed by manufacturers for obtaining bistre. If to a solution of sulphate of manganese we add caustic ley, a brownish white precipitate falls, which, by exposure to the air, be- comes dark brown. This precipitate constitutes bistre. To fix it on the cotton, the latter is dipped in a solution of sulphate of manganese, dried and passed through strong caustic ley. At first the cotton acquires but little colour. After some time it becomes dark brown.* Acetate of lead.—Good sugar of lead should be completely white, afford an acid re-action and give a red colour to blue litmus paper. Sugar of lead consists of acetic acid and oxide of lead. It decomposes all sulphuric acid salts, and changes them ‘into acetates. If solutions of sugar of lead and alum be mixed together, a white preciptitate falls. This is sul- phate of lead produced from the sulphuric acid of the alum and the lead of the sugar of lead. The acetic acid of the sugar of lead remains in the supernatant liquor in combi- nation with the alumina of the alum, and forms a solution of acetate of alumina. Solutions of iron and copper vitriol, when mixed with a solution of sugar of lead, give the same precipitate of sul- phate of lead, as both are sulphuric acid salts. In the former case, the supernatant liquor contains acetate of iron, in the latter, acetate of copper in solution. In this way, by means of sugar of lead, all soluble sul- phurie acid salts may be converted into acetates. As sugar of lead is easily soluble, it may be agitated with the solutions of the sulphates, so as to decompose them by stirring them sufficiently long. Acetate of lead produces no injurious effect upon calico. In situations where animal substances putrify, for ex- ample, near emunctories, stables and dunghills, this salt is covered with a blackish gray coating. This proceeds from sulphur contained in the putrifying bodies which forms sulphuret of lead. Calico impregnated with sugar of lead mordant must be kept away from such situations. Acetate of soda decomposes sulphuric acid salts like sugar of lead, but with a less favourable result, for the soda * For specimen of Manganese Bronze, see Records, i, 17. —Enir. 284 The Art of Dyeing. forms with the sulphuric acid glauber salt or sulphate of soda, which does not separate, but remains in solution. This circumstance often impedes the manufacturer, and renders it impossible to employ a strong acetate of alumina mordant of alum and acetate of soda, as such a mordant does not thicken well with starch. The glauber salt con- tained in it destroys the pasty nature of the mordant and makes it watery. On this account a pattern printed with it will not preserve a regular edge. Acetate of soda is, however, very useful for the prepara- tion of mordants which are not thickened with starch, but with gum or tragacanth, as for example, with acetate of tin formed of tin salt and acetate of soda. As the salt of tin is a muriatic acid salt, it is improper to employ sugar of lead for the purpose of converting it into an acetate, as the tin mordant will by that means be rendered impure by the presence of muriate of lead which affects the purity of the colour. By the use of acetate of soda, on the other hand, common salt is produced, which has no injurious action on the dyes. Acetate of lime or pyrolignate of lime now occurs in commerce for the purpose of being employed instead of sugar of lead. When a solution of it is mixed with one of alum, gypsum precipitates, and the supernatant liquor is acetate of alumina. This contains still much gypsum dis- solved in it, and it cannot, therefore, be employed for many colours, as for example, madder-red. Salt of tin as employed in chemical manufactures occurs in yellowish white crystals, which form a clear solution with a small quantity of water, but with much water give a milkiness which settles into a white precipitate. Salt of tin consists of muriatic acid and tin, and produces, when printed upon cotton in a strong solution, injurious effects if allowed to remain in contact with it for any length of time. As, however, salt of tin, employed as a discharger, quickly produces its action, the cotton may be washed after the printing, and the injurious effects prevented. Salt of tin is an important ingredient for yellow and red block-colours. It is better to employ, in this case, acetate of tin, which may be formed by double decomposition with acetate of soda and muriate of tin. For this purpose, we Prussiate of Potash. 285 mix. 104 loths (46-9 ozs.) salt of tin, with 136 loths (63°78 ozs.) of crystallized acetate of soda. It is improper to keep any stock of acetate of tin, as it is very readily decomposed, but it should be first formed in the dye. The salt of tin, should, therefore, be mixed first, and immediately before printing, the necessary quantity of acetate of soda should be added, and both stirred well together. If a solution of tin be mixed with alum, decomposition ensues, and sulphate of tin precipitates in the form of a white powder. Both should not, therefore, be employed together. Should this, however, happen, the solution of the salt of tin may be added before the sulphuric acid, in the proportion of 104 loths (48°77 ozs.) salt of tin, and 25 loths (11:7 ozs.) sulphuricacid. Sulphate of tin is formed, which is miscible with the solution of alum. When salt of tin is mixed with a solution of soap, the tin separates in com- bination with the oil of the soap. Notwithstanding this decomposition, this mixture affords a very useful solution for clearing madder-purple and Turkey-red. The propor- tions are 4 loths (1:87 oz.) to 3 or 400 loths (187: ozs.) oil soap, which should be dissolved in a great quantity of boiling water before adding the salt of tin. The mordant which occurs in this treatise, underthe name of tin mordant, No. 1, consists of 10 lbs. salt of tin, 10 Ibs. water, and 10 lbs. muriatic acid. It is an excellent dis- charger of colourless grounds, especially, of iron mordants. If we dissolve 104 loths (48°77 ozs.) of salt of tin, in 200 loths (93:8 oz.) water, and saturate the solution by a stream of chlorine gas, a salt of tin is formed, called per-chloride of tin. It answers equally well as a discharger, (Tin mor- dant, No. 2), but, especially, as an addition to colours printed by the block. This per-chloride of tin, may be converted by means of acetate of soda, like salt of tin, into a less corrosive acetate of tin. As the per-chloride of tin contains twice the quantity of chlorine contained in the salt of tin, it is necessary, in order to convert it into an acetic acid salt to employ twice as much acetate of soda. We must, therefore, add to the above quantity 272 loths (1274 ozs.) In this case also, the necessary quantity of acetate of soda, should be added, immediately before applying it to the print. Prussiate of potash.—This salt, constituting a well-known 286 The Art of Dyeing. article of trade, is termed also ferro-prussiate of potash, and is employed for producing light blue colours upon calico, usually termed chemical blue.* This blue is nothing else than a Berlin or Paris blue, intimately united with the calico, and is formed when the calico impregnated with the iron mordant is dipped in a solution of prussiate of potash. In order that this salt may exhibit a sure and rapid action, sulphuric acid must be added. When it does not dye without this addition, it proceeds from the mordanted cotton having been previously washed in hot water. The proportion of sulphuric acid is important. If asmall quantity only is used, the blue does not adhere to the cotton, but is soluble in water, and is washed off by the rinsing. On a white ground it spreads and gives it a light blue colour. The best proportion is, 2 lbs. prussiate of potash, and 1 lb. sulphuric acid. The solutions of both in water must be mixed while cold. If this mixture is allowed to stand long it is destroyed; the prussic acid is disengaged, and a blue precipitate of Berlin blue falls to the bottom. No more should be prepared, therefore, than is required. If a piece of cotton dyed with chemical blue be dipped in chlorine water or chloride of lime, it not only remains un- changed, but rather gains lustre. The same happens in the light of the sun. This property makes this colour of great importance in the manufacture of madder-purple, where only such dyes can be used as withstand the action of chloride of lime, and the light of the sun. Indigo and logwood colours want this power. Ferro-prussiate of potash is not poisonous. When it is heated with sulphuric acid solution, the vapour disengaged is, however, delete- rious, as it contains prussic acid. When large quantities of prussiate of potash are poured from one vessel into another, a powder is formed, which smells of prussic acid, and is very troublesome to the nose and throat. _ If a solution of prussiate of potash is mixed with a solu- tion of green vitriol, a white precipitate is produced which becomes light blue in the air. A very strong solution of chloride of lime heightens its lustre and makes it finer. * See a specimen, Records i. 324,—Epir. Chloride of Lime. 287 With iron alum, or with a solution of nitrate of iron, prussiate of potash gives a dark blue precipitate, termed Diesbach, or Paris blue. It is equally useful with the preceding in block-printing, and when mixed with tartaric acid and printed, it acts as a blue discharge for madder- purple. With copper salts this salt gives a brownish-red colour which does not withstand soap. It is equally good, and more valuable to prepare it with catechu and chips of mahogany. Chromate of potash.—There are a yellow and a red chro- mate of potash. The yellow is employed to produce chrome- orange, and the red to form chrome-yellow. When an acid is added to the yellow-chromate of potash it is converted into the red. If one is only in possession of the yellow-chromate of potash, it may readily be converted into the red and into yellow colours by the addition of an acid. For this purpose, nitric acid is employed. Upon 99 lbs. yellow-chromate of potash, pour 60 lbs. nitric acid of the specific gravity 1-288. As an acid converts the yellow chromate of potash into the red, so on the other hand, an alkali changes the red into the yellow. A clear solution of potash is here very proper. Crystallized carbonate of soda may be employed for the same purpose. To 151 lbs. of red-chromate of potash add 143 lbs. crystallized carbonate of soda. The red-chromate of potash is but little liable to adultera- tion, the yellow is more so. The most correct test for the dyer, is the quantity and quality of its dyeing power. The proportion given under chrome colours, affords a standard for judging of the goodness of a chrome salt. Chloride of lime as it occurs in commerce is of very dif- ferent strengths. As it consists of chlorine and lime, and is in the form of a dry powder, it must necessarily contain an excess of lime, and is easily adulterated by means of lime. As this excess of lime separates by solution in water, the value of the chloride of lime may be estimated accord- ing to the quantity which remains undissolved, when the dissolved part is chloride of lime. This may also be muriate of lime and the like. Good chloride of lime must be dry and a little trans- lucent, must bake together and produce no dust on being 288 The Art of Dyeing. stirred. Although chloride of lime may possess all these properties it is not sufficient for the manufacturer. We must test its bleaching power, for this is the property which gives it its value. There are many chemical tests for this purpose, but they are too troublesome to be employed with advantage by the printer and bleacher. The following test effects the object . more quickly: a mordant is prepared of 4 loths (1°87 oz.) alum, 2 loths (-938 oz.) sulphate of iron, 6 loths (2°81 ozs.) sugar of lead, and 32 loths (15 ozs.) water. Some calico is now moistened with the clear solution, washed in water after hanging 48 hours in the air, and dyed with cochineal. The calico acquires a reddish-brown colour, and affords an excellent means of testing the bleaching power of the chloride of lime. This reddish-brown colour from cochineal will be de- stroyed by the chloride of lime, and so much the more rapidly and completely in proportion to its strength. If we bring, for example, a drop of the solution of good’ chloride of lime, consisting of 1 part chloride of lime in 100 water, in contact with the calico, a whitish-yellow spot is imme- diately produced and the colour is dissipated. If the solu- tion of chloride of lime is still more diluted, as for example, 1 chloride of lime with 200 water, a yellow spot is produced upon the cotton by the contact of a drop, but is less pure and regular. By a proportion of 1 chloride of lime and 300 water less effect is produced, and by greater dilution a point is attained where no remarkable action ensues. This lies in good chloride of lime with a proportion of 1 chloride of lime to 1000 water, while, from this a drop, when placed on cotton, produces a sensible bleaching effect. It will be readily observed, that by some practice, this procedure affords a sure and easy method of estimating the strength of chloride of lime. But it is desirable, in order to go properly to work, to make a scale of the cotton by means of chloride of lime, while solutions of the chloride are made in 100, 200 and 300 parts of water, a drop of each solution placed upon the cotton, and the latter reserved for future trials. (To be continued.) Improvements in Science. 289 ArticLe VI. Notice of some Recent Improvements in Science. HEAT AND LIGHT. Extrication of light in the formation of crystals.—Rose took from two to three drachms of glassy arsenious acid and digested it in a colourless glass vessel, with 1} ounces of not fuming muriatic acid of |the usual strength, and half an ounce of water; he brought the mixture to the point of ebullition, and allowed it to remain at this temperature for 10 or 15 minutes, and then cooled it as slowly as possible, by gradually withdrawing the spirit lamp which had been employed in the boiling. When the crystals began to form in a dark place, it was attended with a strong light; the production of every small crystal being accompanied with a spark. If the vessel be shaken, numerous crystals suddenly shoot out, and a corresponding number of sparks is observed. When the quantity of arsenious acid amounts to an ounce or an ounce and a half, with the quantity of muriatie acid already mentioned, on being shaken, the evolution of light from the crystals formed is so powerful, that a dark room is thoroughly lighted. When the hot solution of arsenious acid is allowed to cool rapidly, so as to deposit a pulverulent mass of arsenious acid, little or no light is developed. The same happens when the glassy acid is treated with nitric or acetic acid, because these acids dissolve very little arsenious acid. A faint light is observed with sulphuric acid. When a great quantity of arsenious acid is treated with aqua regia, a strong light appears during cooling. Rose explains this phenomenon by stating, that there are two isomeric forms of arsenious acid, one translucent and glassy, the other opaque and like porcelain, In each of these states the acid has a different specific gravity, and a different solubility in water. He conceives that by the action of the acid in the case detailed, the glassy acid is changed into the opaque state; and that by the formation of the new substance in a crystalline form the appearance of light is produced. This would require further investigation, because the VOL. II, U 290 Notice of some Recent researches of Mr. Graham have clearly proved that there is no such law in nature as isomerism, and that the term should be dropped, unless we choose to designate every new fact by a Greek compound. There is an amusing dis- cussion in the January number of the Journal de Pharmacie, between Couerbe and Pelletier, in which the absurdity of the doctrine is exposed. The former asserts, that C H is not isomeric, with C2 H2, while the latter affirms, that it is so, and laughs at the contrary idea. The truth is, they may both be merry. There seems little doubt, that the different forms of the arsenious acid depend upon the relations of that substance to water. The same phenomenon of the disengagement of light had been observed before, during the crystallization of sulphate of potash. Rose supposes that the salt was obtained from the residue after the distillation of nitric acid, and was, therefore, sesqui-sulphate of potash, which dissolves in that state in water; but, when it separates from its solution, is converted according to Phillips into bi-sulphate and sul- phate of potash.* Specific heat of salts soluble in water.—Rudberg has fur- nished a formula for determining this important question. Let M represent the water in which a salt is dissolved, T its temperature, m, t, c respectively the mass, tempera- ture and specific heat of the salt, that of the water taken as unity, 7 the temperature of the liquid after solution, and A the quantity of heat thereby absorbed or evolved. The last Nis a general term compounded of 1, the heat become latent by the solution of the salt; 2, the heat disengaged by the change of volume; and 3, of the heat produced by chemical combination, when the salt undergoes such a combination. Without considering how the one or the other of these Greek letters can be determined by itself, it is remarked, that their sum, positive or negative, is, in the first place, a necessary proportional of the mass of salt; and, secondly, is unchangeable, while the proportion of the salt to the water is not changed. When two experiments are made with this proportion constant, but the temperature of the salt different, the temperature of the water besides in both trials being either equal or not, we have in the first case, * Pogoendorff’s Annalen, xxxy. 481. Improvements in Science. 291 M’ (T’ — 7) + mec (t—r’)=m), or, M = pm’ ia (T’ — 7’) +ec(t—r)=2.. And in the last case p(T’ —7r') +e (t —r") =. Eliminating from these two equations, we obtain the value of c, or the specific heat of the salt. The following are the results : Solutions of Common Salt. Temperature of the Weight of the Salt j Experiment.) Salt. | Water.) Solution.|| Water. Salt. Hie Bias to) 0 0 grms. | grms. l ; 15-29 | 1:0| 13-95 || 76°595) 5:955) 7-75 15°69 | 43-2 | 14-906] 76°635| 5:905| 7-705 23 15°26 | 0°5| 13°28 | 61-575} 8-125] 13-195 15:06 |43°6/| 14°07 | 64-700) 8-100) 12-983 3§ 15°914| 0-5 | 13-047) 80-540) 25-540) 31-711 15°867| 49-5 | 15°559| 80-535) 25-105) 31-172 45 17-053} 0°6 14-889 80-575) 12-430) 15-427 17:267| 45°3 | 16-296] 80-570) 12°385) 15°372 Calculation gives the following values for c and X. Salt in 100 parts c r 7-740) 0° 1725} 15-002 13-089} 0:1744| 12°776 15°400} 0°1781) 11°483 31°441|0°1732| 6°867 The mean value of c is = 0°1743. The value of \ changes with the quantity of salt. When the solution of the salt contains no more than 4 per cent. of salt, the value of \ = 16°8. With a maximum of salt, its value appears to be = 34. With a minimum = 18°6. With a solution of sulphate of magnesia, the mean value of c was found to be = 0°2906 and ) a constant quantity.* Temperature at different depths.—M. Quetelet has pub- lished some observations, which he has made at Brussels, in reference to the temperature at different depths. Ata depth of 17 centimetres (6°18 inches), the mean temperature of the year 1834 was 51°; at 55 centimetres (21-6 inches), the mean temperature was 51°3; at 75 centimetres (29°47 inches), the temperature was 52°°19; at 1 metre (3°28 feet), 52°95.—( Correspondance Mathem. et Phys., viii. 303.) * Poggendorff’s Ann, xxxy. vu 2 292 - Notice of some Recent Mode of measuring high temperatures.—Lampadius, after endeavouring to point out the deficiencies in the modes which we already possess of ascertaining the melting points of those substance which require a high temperature for fusion, recommends his Photoscope for this purpose, which measures the light at different temperatures, such as dark red, cherry-red, red heat, light red, white heat and dazzling white heat. He gives, however, no description of his in- strument, but refers to his Bettragen zur Atmospharologie.* CHEMISTRY. I. Solidification of carbonic acid.—Thiloriet has suc- ceeded in reducing this gas to a solid state, by exposing it to a temperature of 148° F.(?) Even when exposed to the air, it remains in this state for a short time. Its elastic force appears to be deteriorated by being solidified, as in this state it gradually dissipates. It may be also rendered solid by suddenly raising it from a liquid to a gaseous state. When a stream of the acid is directed into a small glass phial, the latter is filled with a white powder. If a small portion of the solid acid is placed in a stoppered vessel, it soon fills the flask with a thick vapour, and the stopper is forcibly expelled.— Gazette Medicale, Oct., 1835. Il. Naphthaline and its compounds.— Naphthaline was pro- cured by Laurent, by boiling coal-tar in the open air until it was deprived of its water, and then distilling it in a retort with a eopper beak and a glass receiver. The first product is a yellow substance which turns black in the air, and deposits much naphthaline. The second contains more naphthaline; the third is viscid, orange-coloured, and con- tains much para-naphthaline. The last contains a substance with the colour of realgar, which has not been examined. The first oils produce the naphthaline. These are distilled and purified by crystallization by means of alcohol. The specific gravity of its vapour is 4-528 by experiment. Hence, we may consider its composition, 10 atoms Carbon, . . 4:166 = 7:5 10 atoms 5 ,, | Hydrogen, . ‘347 = *625 5° 3 4-514 8:125 It is, therefore, a bi-penta-carbydrogen or C1° H3. * Journal fiir praktische Chemie, iv. 181. Improvements in Science. 293 1. Chloride of naphthaline* of Laurent is obtained by combining chlorine with naphthaline without heat. It is a white powder, but may be obtained in rhomboidal plates by solution in ether. Smell strong. Melts at 284°. When distilled, it is decomposed, but it may be volatilized in an open tube. Insoluble in water; little soluble in alcohol; more soluble in ether.’ Boiling sulphuric and nitric acids decompose it. Potash takes up muriatic acid from it. Potassium destroys it. It consists of carbon 45, hydrogen 2:9, chlorine 52:1. 2. Chloro-naphthalase.—W hen chlorine begins to act upon naphthaline, an oil is formed which it is difficult to separate from the preceding chloride and naphthaline. By dissolv- ing it in ether, and allowing it to stand for some hours, the latter separates. Lastly, by dissolving it in alcohol and allowing it to settle, we observe that the solid chloride precipitates first, then the oily chloride, and last of all, the naphthaline. In this way it may be isolated. It contains carbon 60:9, hydrogen 3:9, chlorine 35:2. 3. Chloro-naphathalese.—When naphthaline is treated with chlorine; after being liquified, the matter becomes solid. A product is obtained which affords chloro-naph- thalese by the simple action of potash. The product is placed in a retort along with a strong solution of potash in alcohol. Heat is applied and the alcohol collected. Pour a little water on the residue, the excess of potash and some chloride of potassium will be separated. An oil is deposited which is treated again with alcohol and potash. It is then precipitated by water. In a few hours it becomes a pearly mass crystallizing by sublimation. This is chloro-naph- thalese. It consists of carbon 61:4, hydrogen 3:, chlorine 30°6. 4. Perchloro-naphthalese.— If, instead of treating the preceding body with potash, we distil it, it is partly de- * Laurent employs a new nomenclature to designate this numerous class of compounds. It consists in changing the vowel of the final syllable of the name of the substance in proportion as the hydrogen is replaced by combining bodies. Chloro-naphthalase will contain 2 atoms of hydrogen less than naphthaline, and will have gained 2 atoms of chlorine. Chloro-naphthalese will contain 4 atoms of hydrogen less than naphthaline, and will have gained 2 atoms of chlorine. Chloro- naphthalise is not known. Chloro-naphthalose contains 8 atoms of hydrogen less than naphthaline. ; 294 Notice of some Recent composed, and a portion passes over with an oil. By ex- pressing the product between paper we obtain a pure sub- stance which crystallizes by means of alcohol in needles with a rhomboidal base. It is isomorphous with the preceding. If this pyrogenous compound is treated with a current of dry chlorine at the usual temperature, the gas combines with it and forms a solid, which, when dissolved in ether, crystallizes in small prisms. It is colourless, insoluble in water, little soluble in alcohol, more so in ether. It may be distilled. It consists of carbon 25:4, hydrogen 1:2, chlorine 73:4. 5. Chloro-naphthalose—When naphthaline is submitted to the action of chlorine it liquifies, and muriatic gas is evolved. The matter becomes solid. By applying heat and continuing the action, a crystalline mass is obtained, which may be purified by dissolving it several times in alcohol or ether. The crystals are oblique prisms. Chloro- naphthalose is white and insipid. It distils without change. Burns with a green flame. Ata red heat, lime converts it into chloride of calcium and carbon. It consists of carbon 45°6, hydrogen 1:5, chlorine 52:9. 6. Hydro-chlorate of chloro-naphthalase.—This compound is produced by first passing a current of chlorine over naph- thaline ; this process should be stopped when the only pro- duct, which was heated during the re-action, begins to de- posit a white matter. This oil is a mixture of naphthaline, oily chloride, and solid chloride. When exposed to a tem- perature between 122° and 140° in a small capsule, then dissolved in ether and exposed to a cold of 14°, the greater part of the solid chloride is deposited. The ethereal solu- tion when mixed with alcohol and exposed to the air de- posits 2ths of oil. The remainder, when exposed to a heat sufficient to expel the ether and alcohol, is pure hydro- chlorate of chloro-naphthalase. It is only, slightly yellow, soluble in alcohol and ether. Chlorine converts it into hydro-chlorate of chloro-naphthalese. It is decomposed by potassium, and partially by distillation. Its constituents are carbon 61:435, hydrogen 3°525, chlorine 35°040. 7. Hydro-chlorate of chloro-naphthalese or solid chloride is obtained by the process just described. After the action of Improvements in Science. 295 the chlorine has ceased, it is necessary to take up the oily matter with the ether, and to dissolve the residue in this liquid with heat in a closed flask, and to crystallize by cool- ing. Boiling sulphurie acid converts it, Ist, into a matter insoluble in water, and soluble in ether. When this solution is evaporated a transparent varnish is left. 2d. Another substance which remains in solution and gives, with barytes, an incrystallizable salt soluble in aleohol, which is probably a sulpho-salt analogous to the sulpho-naphthalates. Hydro- chlorate of chloro-naphthalese consists of carbon 44°79, hydrogen 2°70, chlorine 52°51. 8. Bromo-naphthalase~—When a few drops of bromine are poured upon naphthaline a lively action ensues, heat and hydrobromic acid are disengaged, and an oily product is formed. This consists of carbon 50°9, hydrogen 2:9, bromine 46:2. This oil is evidently a mixture of two substances, the first of which has not been separated, but the second. 9. Bromo-naphthalese may be obtained by distilling a mixture of bromine and naphthaline. Hydrobromic acid, a bromine oil, and charcoal come over, and towards the end of the process crystals of bromo-naphthalese appear. These are formed most completely when the bromine has been added in excess to the naphthaline. In dissolving this product in alcohol and evaporating, we obtain six-sided prismatic needles. They are white, insoluble in water, volatile, very soluble in alcohol and ether. They consist of carbon 42°9, hydrogen 2:1, bromine 55, 10. Bromide of chloro-naphthalese is formed by pouring bromine upon chloro-naphthalese in a close flask. The latter dissolves and solidifies into a crystalline mass. When purified by alcohol it resembles the chloride of chloro- naphthalese, and consists of carbon 23-5, hydrogen 1-05, chlorine and bromine 74°45. 11. WNitro-naphthalase is formed by the action of boiling nitric acid upon naphthaline. A new oil is obtained first, which solidifies very slowly by cooling, forming a crystal- line mass of large needles. It consists of two bodies very soluble in alcohol and ether, the one is solid or nitro-naph- thalase, the other is liquid. The former is expressed he- tween folds of paper. It is then dissolved in alcohol. On 296 Notice of some Recent cooling, drops subside to the bottom of the vessel, containing much nitro-naphthalase, which is separated by solution in aleohol. The alcohol lets fall crystals. They are four-sided prisms terminated by acute pyramids. Colour sulphur- yellow. Volatile. Insoluble in water; very soluble in alcohol and ether. Analysis gave carbon 69°86, hydrogen 4:07, azote 8°53, oxygen 17°54. 12. Nitro-naphthalese may be formed by boiling the pre- ceding with nitric acid for a long time. An oily layer appears. The whole is evaporated rapidly. When the oil and acid are nearly equal in quantity, the two layers be- come confused, and if the vessel is removed from the fire, the whole becomes solid which is nitro-naphthalese. It presents the form of microscopical needles. It is neutral, insoluble in water, very little soluble in boiling alcohol. It contains carbon 54°83, hydrogen 2°9, oxygen 29°57, azote 12-7. 13. Maphthalase.—If we heat nitro-naphthalase with from 8 to 10 times its weight of lime in a small retort filled up to the neck, a brown oil is disengaged containing naph- thaline, ammonia and undecomposed nitro-naphthalase, while a thick oil condenses in the neck of the retort which becomes solid on cooling. The lime is blackened by a de- position of charcoal. The solid matter is washed with ether which takes up the foreign matter. A yellow powder naphthalase remains. Cold sulphuric acid forms with it a fine blue solution. - It resembles Jdrialine in this property. It consists of carbon 87°, Hydrogen 4°8, oxygen 8°2.* III. Compounds of phosphorus and hydrogen.—M. Leverrier finds that when phosphuretted hydrogen is exposed to the action of light, the sides of the glass are speedily covered with a yellow amorphous matter, which may be dried and heated at a temperature of 284°, without either undergo- ing combustion or becoming luminous. It is insoluble in water and alcohol; chlorine changes it into hydro-chloric acid and chloride of phosphorus; nitric acid causes it to burn. With solutions of copper, silver, &c. it gives phos- phurets containing more phosphorus than those obtained by the phosphuretted gas. It consists of hydrogen 1623, phosphorus 195 or Hi Ph. It may be also prepared by * Ann, de Chim., lix. 196. Journ. de Chim. Medic., i. Improvements in Science. 297 passing chlorine through phosphuretted hydrogen. The gas which remains after the separation of the sub-hydret of phosphorus is a sesqui-hydret consisting of 18°719 hydrogen and 201:11 phosphorus or Ht: Ph. Leverrier considers that the sub-hydret is formed by the light, and does not exist in the inflammable gas; because as analysis always indicates an excess of phosphorus in the latter, we cannot consider it a pure chemical compound, but rather a mix- ture of sesqui-hydret (H1: Ph) with a compound containing less hydrogen, which cannot be the subhydret (H? Ph) as this is solid. He conceives that it must be a compound H Ph, which has not yet been isolated, corresponding to hypo-phosphorus acid, and inflaming in the air. When ex- posed to the action of light it is decomposed into Hi Ph and H1: Ph. and is, therefore, a compound possessing little stability like nitric oxide to which it corresponds. He estimates the quantity of sub-hydret at -2,, and the hydret or H Ph at +4 of the weight of inflammable gas. The gas prepared from phosphorus acid consists of +1872 hydro- gen, and 1:966 phosphorus = H1: Ph, and is, therefore, the same as that produced by the action of light upon inflammable gas. This is certainly a very simple view of the subject. Leverrier, like his countrymen on other subjects, seems ignorant of what has been done before him to clear up the anomalies in the combinations of phosphorus and hydrogen. If he had made himself acquainted with the ingenious re- searches of Mr. Graham, he would have discovered that his theory does not agree with the experiments of Mr. Graham, for the latter found that potassium and other substances, in very minute quantity, destroyed the inflam- mability. If, however, we suppose that Mr. Graham per- formed his experiments under the influence of circumstances calculated to produce the decompositions which Leverrier has shewn to take place, then the anomalies are removed. The compounds of phosphorus and hydrogen, according to Leverrier, therefore, are 1 Sub-hydret. H Ph Solid. 2Hydret. . H Ph A gas spontaneously inflammable in the air, which has not yet been isolated ; decomposed by light. 298 Notice of some Recent 3 Sesqui-hydret H1: Ph A gas not inflammable ; decom- posed by light. 4 Perhydret . H2s Ph A gas produed by heat from phosphite of lead according to H. Rose.* IV. New class of Borates.—In a paper published in the Kongl. Vetensk. Acad. Handl., for 1834, a class of simple borates is described. Borax and carbonate of soda were boiled together. An effervescence took place; the gas which was disengaged was passed through a tube containing lime- water; a precipitate fell. Hence, the opinion, that borax is a biborate appears correct. Crystallized borax and an- hydrous carbonate of soda were mixed and heated to the melting point of silver, in a platinum crucible; the mass had lost all the water of the borax and the carbonie acid of the soda, but acquired no appearance of fusion. It was dissolved in water, concentrated, and allowed to crystallize in an air tight vessel. Sharp four-sided prisms appeared with truncated extremities. The angles were 70° and 110°. This salt has an alkaline taste, and absorbs carbonic acid from the air. It melts at 57 C (134°6 F.) in its water of crystallization, but does not crystallize on cooling. A portion of the salt melted in its water of crystallization remained for many days at the temperature of 32° without crystallizing. 1:046 grms. of the original crystals of this salt lost by heating 0:502 grm. of anhydrous salt, and lost 0°542 water, which the author considers equivalent to 8 atoms of water and the composition of the salt NaB + 8 HO. 4-098 grms of the crystallized and melted salt, gave 2°26 after heating =6 atoms of water. 8 atoms are equal to 52°11 per cent. and 6 atoms to 44832 per cent. of water. A similar salt is obtained by heating in a white heat boracic acid and carbonate of potash. It dissolves in very little water, and it is, therefore, difficult to obtain it in regular crystals. Solutions of these salts added to neutral solutions of earthy and metallic oxides, precipitate borates of the same composition.—(Poggendorff’s Ann. xxxiv, 561.) V. Xanthic acid.—This acid may be prepared from the Xanthate of potash by means of sulphuric acid. The Xan- * Ann. de Chim. lx. 174. Improvements in Science thate is formed by neutralizing an al potash with bi-sulphuret of carbon. the acid and finds it to consist of 299 coholic solution of Zeise has analyzed Sulphur 56-440 = 8 4 atoms. Carbon . 32°169 = 4°5 Boe yg Hydrogen. 4377 = 625. Dhigaas +3 Oxygen. 7014 = 1 Line 100° 14:125 Its formula is, therefore, $+ C°® H5 O. Xanthic acid- Xanthate of potash contains potash . 29°244 70°756 Xanthate of soda 4 soda 21:536 78:464 Xanthate of barytes ;, barytes - - 40:402 59°598 Xanthate of lead 4 oxide of lead 49°638 50-362 Xanthate of copper» oxide of copper 38°0 62:0 (Poggendorff’s Ann, xxxv. 487.) VI. Bromide of deuto-carbydroge compound which was previously known, mine into a current of olefiant gas. liquid, with a sweet taste. Density 2-164. 2 vols. carbon *8333 2 ,, hydrogen. -1398 1 ,, bromine . 5°5555 6°5286 The density of the vapour by experiment was 6°489. formula is C2 H? Br. Iodide of deuto-carbydrogen.— ing this compound, is to pass 0 The best temperature of 131°. needles appear in t white by the action of the gas. I The iodine speedily stance is obtained, which when washed an constitutes iodide of deuto-carbydrogen. ways becomes slightly yellow. in water. Soluble in ether and alcohol. easily that it is difficult to determine vapour, but anal n.—Regnault formed this by dropping bro- It is a colourless It consists of his "25 10: 11°75 Its method of obtain- lefiant gas into the bottom of a matrass with along neck containin g iodine, at the melts, and yellow he neck of the vessel, which become n taking them up by water holding in solution some ammonia, a crystalline sub- d dried in vacuum, By drying, it al- It melts at 1633°. Insoluble It decomposes so the density of its ysis shewed its composition to be, 300 Notice of some Recent 2vols. carbon. . . ‘8333. lies 2vols. hydrogen. . +1398 . > lL. vol: ‘aodine: .. hi 4¢ie/8:6780:. «)inbditd 9°6511 17°50 Its formula is C2 H?2 I. Bromide of aldehydene—If we mix some bromide of deuto-carbydrogen with a concentrated solution of caustic potash in alcohol, a white precipitate subsides, the liquor effervesces, evolving a peculiar odour. If the mixture is kept at the temperature of about 95°, a gas distils over having an odour of garlic. This is bromide of aldehydene. It may be purified by passing it through water and chloride of calcium. The density of its vapour is 3°691. Analysis gave its constituents, carbon 22°674, hydrogen 2°923, bro- mine 74°603. It appears, therefore, to contain just half the quantity of bromine which the bromide of deuto-carby- drogen possesses. I should, therefore, be inclined to con- sider its formula C? H* Br?, notwithstanding the new name which Regnault has given it, and the theoretic views which he has propounded. It is, therefore, a sub-bromide of deuto-carbydrogen. Lodide of aldhydene is formed in the same way as the last compound. A gas comes over with an odour of garlic. When exposed to the cold of a mixture of ice and marine salt, a portion is condensed which is the iodide. The den- sity of its vapour is 4°78. This corresponds nearly with 2 volumes carbon, . °8333 1:5 2 volumes hydrogen, -1398 "25 3 volume iodine, . 4°3390 7:875 5°3122 9-625 This is also a sub-bromide of deuto-carbydrogen.—(Ann. de Chim., lix. 358.) M. Darcet Fils has also examined the first two com- pounds. The results agree with those of Regnault.—(Journ. de Chim. Medic., 1. 377. VIL. Composition of the Dutch liquor.—Regnault has examined this substance after taking every precaution to purify it, and has found its composition the same as that obtained by Dumas, viz. Improvements in Science. 303 Chloriné, ais to TAB? Garbonyni «oe hi ar 24065 Hydrogen,. . . 4:03 100-00 Its specific gravity he found 1°256. Its boiling point 180°}. The density of its vapour was 3°45 by experiment. VIII. New ether.—When a solution of caustic potash in alcohol is agitated in the Dutch liquor, white crystals are formed, and if after digestion for some hours, the hand is applied to the vessel in which the mixture is contained, bubbles are disengaged which burn with a yellow flame, with green edges resembling hydro-chloric ether. It is composed of Chlorine: « +). «))/<) (97:08 Carbon; 4%) ¢)-s ao 8809 Hydrogen,. . . 483 100°00 Regnault conceives that the Dutch liquor being a com- pound of one atom of each of its three elements is composed of this new ether and muriatic acid. The new ether liquifies at about —17C(+1° F.) It possesses an odour like garlic, and is destroyed by the electric spark. When heated with potassium, carbon is deposited and a white vapour forms, which is probably naphthaline.—( Ann. de Chim., lviii. 301.) IX. Action of Diatase.—Diatase prepared in the manner already described (Records, vol. i. p. 196.) possesses the following properties as determined by Guerin. Ist. One part of diatase dissolved in 32 of water and mixed with 4:08 starch produced no change in 63 days. 2d. The three parts of starch added to two of diatase do not increase in size at a temperature below 129°, at which water causes it to burst. 3d. Diatase liquifies and converts into sugar, starch previously made into a paste without any absorption or disengagement of gas, both in air and in vacuo. 4th. 100 parts of starch converted into paste with 3900 parts of water, treated with 6:13 parts of diatase dissolved in 40 parts of cold water, and kept during an hour between the temperatures of 140° and 149°, gave 86°91 parts of sugar. 5th. A paste of 100 starch and 1393 water brought in con- 302 Notice of some Recent tact with 12:25 parts of diatase dissolved in 367 parts of cold water, when preserved at a temperature of 68° for 24 hours, produced 77°64 parts of sugar. 6th. The same ex- periment repeated at the temperature of melting ice gave, at the end of two hours, 11°82 sugar. 7th. Between 10° and 23° starch paste is rendered fluid without the production of sugar. 8th. The most favourable proportions and cir- cumstances for the production of a great quantity of sugar are a slight excess of a diatase or sprouted barley, about 50 parts of water to one of starch, and a temperature be- tween 140° and 149°. 9th. Starch-sugar prepared either with diatase or sulphuric acid crystallizes in cauliflower like forms, or in prisms with rhomboidal faces. It has the same composition as grape-sugar. 10th. Diatase even in excess does not convert into sugar gummy matter dissolved in water with starch-sugar, but when this matter is isolated it converts it almost completely into sugar. 11th. Diatase produces no effect on gum arabic, cane sugar, nor sugar of yest. 12th. A solution of diatase in water decomposes in the air. 13th. When sugar of starch, obtained either by sulphuric acid or diatase, is submitted to the spirituous fer- mentation, the sum of the weight of the alcohol, carbonic acid and water of crystallization differs from the weight of the sugar by about three and a half hundreths, proceeding from the formation of acetic and lactic acids, &e. 14th. To determine as exactly as possible the quantity of alcohol in a liquid containing a substance which retains the alcohol strongly, it is necessary to push the distillation until the liquid passing over no longer affects the centesimal areo- meter.—( Journ. de Chim. Medic., i.) X. Method of colouring ornaments of gold.—Manufacturers possess a number of receipts for colouring ornaments, but the following is most commonly employed: 2 parts of salt- petre are mixed with 1 part of sea-salt and 1 part of Roman alum, in a quantity of this mixture equivalent to about three times the weight of the ornaments to be coloured, dissolved in boiling water so as form a very concentrated solution where the ornaments are placed. This solution is called the sauce. Here they remain at a boiling tempera- ture for 15 or 25 minutes, according to the shade to be given them; they are then washed in pure water and the operation terminates. If lustre is required, they are after- Improvements in Science. 303 wards burnished; their weight is diminished about ,';. The sauce takes up some copper, silver, and a certain quantity of gold; it is preserved for the purpose of extract- ing these metals. After it has been used, it takes the name of colour water. When allowed to stand at rest, it becomes limped, and a white deposit separates, called deposit of the colour waters, and the supernatant liquor is termed clear waters. Sulphate of iron is added to the clear waters, and then bars of iron are plunged into them. A precipitate containing gold falls down, called black matters. The white deposit, consists of water 10°8; soluble salts 48°8 ; insoluble matter 39°8 = 99-4. The insoluble portion con- tains, sub-alum 71°8; proto-chloride of copper 5:0; chloride of silver 8:5; oxide of iron 14°; metallic gold -776 = 100:076. The black matters consist of, water 13°1; soluble salts 44°5; insoluble matter 41:8. The insoluble matter contained oxide of iron 64:; oxide of copper 26°; metallic gold 5°08; metallic silver 1:12 =96-2. The assayers fuse the black matters with a mixture of potash, pearlash and borax to extract the gold and silver. The composition of the deposit from the colour waters, shews that in the action which the mixture of salts exercises upon the alloy plunged in the boiling sauce, the alum is decomposed, and aban- dons sulphate of potash and a great part of its sulphuric acid, to be transformed into a double insoluble sub-salt. The sulphuric acid which the potash loses, is taken up by the potash of the nitre, and by the sodium of the sea-salt, converted into soda by the agency of the nitric acid set at liberty. By the process described then, the concentrated colour- water dissolves a portion of the gold at the temperature of ebullition; the metal remains in the liquid in the state of chloride, and a deposit of sub-alum takes place. The silver is still more strongly attached and is converted into chloride, and if the proportion of marine salt is sufficient, this chlo- ride dissolves like the gold, but on cooling, a portion separates, and if the liquor is much diluted with water, the remainder precipitates and the solution only retains slight traces.* Pyruric acid.—This acid was obtained by distilling tar- * ‘heel de Chim, lx. 304 Notice of some Recent taric or racemic acids at the temperature of 392° F., and rectifying in the water bath, the product of the distillation, which is a yellow matter. In this second process, the first half which contains acetic acid is laid aside. The last half is a yellow liquid with a feeble smell, a thick consistence and an acid taste, specific gravity 1°25. It does not ery- stallize at 41°. It consists of carbon 46-042; hydrogen 3°762; oxygen 50°195. It appears, therefore, to be tartaric acid, combined with the half of its radicle, or pyro-tartaric acid, combined with an atom of carbonic acid. Its atomic weight is 9961, and its capacity of saturation 10:04. Its salts do not crystallize but present an appearance like gum.—(Journ. de Pharm. May, 1835.) When citric acid is distilled at a temperature of between 392° and 482°, an acid is obtained distinct from pyro-citric acid. It differs only from citric acid in having an atom less water, and the same capacity of saturation. Nitro-sulphuric acid.—M. Pelouze formed this acid by causing the deutoxide of azote to act upon a solution of sulphite of potash and potash dissolved in water ; the quan- tity of gas absorbed is in the proportion of 2 vols. to | of sulphurous acid contained in the salt. Now, 2 vols. sul- phurous acid, and 4 vols. deutoxide of azote, combine with the alkali and form a new compound, the formula for which is, Az? SO4 + KO. This salt crystallizes in beautiful quadrangular prisms, but is decomposed: in contact with water at the tempera- ture of 32°, giving origin to sulphate of potash and pro- toxide of azote. All the acids, even the most weak, produce a disengagement of protoxide of azote, but when the heat is gentle, sulphate of potash is formed, and deutoxide of azote disengaged. Nitro-sulphate of ammonia in decom- posing, sometimes gives out so much heat as to produce explosions, by decomposing the sulphate of ammonia formed. This salt is decomposed by the bodies which have the same effect on deutoxide of hydrogen; this phenomenon takes place even with bodies which do not decompose the latter. It affords a ready method of disengaging protoxide of azote in the stomach. Majendie is trying its effect asa remedial agent.—(Journ. de Chim. Medic. 1. 438.) Berwickshire. Naturalists’ Club. 305 ArticLte Vil. ANALYSES OF BOOKS. Proceedings of the Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club. Part III. Turis Number contains, 1. An address by the President. . 2. A de- scription of Natica helicoides, a new British shell. By Dr. George Johnston. The characters are, Shell ovato-conical, smooth, white, immaculate, covered with a yellowish epidermis ; whorls 5, rounded, separated by a channelled suture, the spire produced and rather obtuse ; aperture pure white, with a small fissure on the pillar. Length six-tenths; breadth scarcely four-tenths. Hab. Berwick Bay. Ods. This new species was found in the refuse of a fishing- boat. When the epidermis is removed, the whorls appear to be finely striolate in a spiral direction. Animal unknown. 3. List of the Malacostraca Podophthalma found on the coasts of Berwickshire and North Durham. By Mr. R. Embleton, Surgeon. In this list the author describes a new species of Galathea to which he has given the specific name nexa. Its characters are arms hir-_ sute, large ; the hand without spines, the wrist with a single one on the inner side, or, when two, the anterior is much the smaller ; ligament of the shell brown. Three specimens of this hitherto un- observed species have only been found, two in Berwick bay, and the other in Embleton bay. 4. Contributions to the Flora of Berwickshire. 5. Remarks on the mode of formation of the “‘ Fairy Stones” found near Melrose. By the Rev. A. Baird. A description and figure of these have been given in Records, vol. ii. 1. The author supposes that they are stalactites. This is, however, impossible, be- cause they consist essentially of an insoluble, mechanically formed rock. They most likely have been produced by the action of the water at the bottom of a fall, where round basins, and a variety of figures may often be observed. An examination of the locality would determine the origin. G. A catalogue of the Bivalved Shells found on the coast of Berwickshire and North Durham. By Dr. Johnston. These amount to 70. The rarest are Pecten lineatus, P. spinosus, Lima fragilis, Arca fusca, Kellia rubra, Anatina pubescens, Tellina crassa, Psammobia florida, Astarte compressa and Mya norvegica. The cockle and mussel are common. The clams (Pectinid@) are rare, except the small obsoletus which is the favourite food of the flounder. The only oyster-bed is in the channel between Holy Island and the main land, and is the private property of the Earl of Tankerville. In the inventory of the Priory of Holy Island for 1381-2, there is an item of expenditure for “a sloop (navicula) bought of a certain Scotchman 3 ne et shoto) with the oysters and other goods con- tained in it, 100s.” 7. Catalogue of Insects found at Berwick-upon-T weed, in August, 1834. By Charles C. Babington. 8. Notice of the Parr. By Sir William Jardine, Bart.—(See Records, vol. iii. p. 269.) VOL, Ill. x 306 Analyses of Books. 9. On the Instinct of the Water-Hen. By P. J. Selby, Esq. 10. Observations on the Strata of Berwickshire and North Dur- ham. By Robert D. Thomson, M. D. These relate to the determination of the age of the strata on the Tweed, which have been usually assigned to the New Red Sand- stone formation. The rock to which this appellation has been given lies over magnesian limestone in several places. A section is given of the strata of the Durham coal-beds down to the seam which is at present worked, at a depth of 31 fathoms. A fossil tooth is also described and figured. 1l. Notice of the Skeleton of a Red Deer (Cervus Elaphus) found at Cheswick, North Durham. By J.S. Donaldson, Esq., of Cheswick. 12. Remarks on the Tumulus at Cheswick. By J. S. Donaldson, Esq. In this tomb the remains of a skeleton were observed, and the head of a brass spear which must have been originally highly polished, but now covered with verdigris. The tumulus was 20 feet high, and the area of its base 50 feet in diameter. 13. Contributions to the Entomology of Berwickshire. By P. J. Selby, Esq. and Dr. Johnston. 14. List of the Entomostraca found in Berwickshire. By Mr. William Baird, Surgeon. In addition to well known species of this remarkable tribe of ani- mals comprehending Cyclops staphylinus, Cyclops rubens, C. la- cinulatus, C. vulgaris, C. minuticornis C. brevicornis, Cythere flavida, C. gibbera, Cypris detecta, C. striyata, C. vidua, C. pubera, C. monacha, C. reniformis, Daphnia quadrangula, D. pulex, D. sima, Lynceus sphericus, L. quadrangularis, L. la- _ mellatus, L. trigonellus, L. truncatus, the author describes fifteen new species, whose characters we shall give for the benefit of those who interest themselves in such researches. 1. Cyclops Johnstoni. Nova species. Pools of sea-water at Berwick and Cockburnspath. Body of four segments, tail of six, terminated by two short lobes, from which issue two long sete, fully the length of the body.” Superior antenne of about six articulations, stronger than inferior pair. In the male there is a bulla about fifth articulation. In the female they are more slender, more setiferous, and destitute of bulle. Inferior antenne of three or four articulations ; terminated by two or three short sete. All four antennz setiferous at base of articulations. Head beaked. Beneath the antenne are two organs (palpi?) of two articulations, setiferous at base of articulations and at extremities. Beneath these are two organs, which Muller calls hands, of two articulations, ter- minated by a strong curved moveable claw or hook; and beneath these again, are two double organs, or membres particulieres of the French authors, each pair consisting of a short strong common foot- stalk, from which arise two flat bodies, the superior of which is the longer, of two articulations, serrated above, and terminated by three short setz ; the inferior, also serrated above, and terminated by three sete, but consisting of only one articulation. From the three inferior articulations of the body arise three pairs of long setiferous feet ; and On the Entomostraca of Berwickshire. 307 from the second articulation of the tail arise the sexual organs in either sex. This species approaches the C. chelifer of Muller, but differs in many points when closely examined. In Muller’s species there are no articulations to the body, which gradually tapers to the tail, and which he describes as “ farciminis facie.” The superior antenne are only of three articulations; the inferior, which he calls *‘palpi,” of two. The organs beneath these, which I call « palpi,” are furnished with a claw, and only of one articulation, whilst the last pair of particular members, have only the shorter of the two bodies of which they are composed, serrated, the longer being entire. The male in Muller's figure has not the bulle on antennz. 2. Cythere reniformis. Nova species. Sea-shore at Berwick and Eyemouth, &c. Shell reniform ; flesh-coloured ; covered with hairs E both extremities of equal size; antenne furnished with numerous short sete to all articulations; anterior feet falcate, entire; all the feet furnished with claws. This species approaches the C\ viridis of Muller, but differs in colour, in both extremities of shell being equal, and in anterior feet not being serrulated. It differs from C’.. lutea in shell being covered with hairs. 3. C. alba. Nova species. Shore near Dunbar. Shell white, transparent, hairy, acute at posterior extremity, and broader at anterior ; a rim round edge of shell whiter than the rest of shell ; antennz beset with short sete at each articulation. 4. C. variabilis. Nova species. Shore at Cockburnspath and Eyemouth. Shell glaucous, without hairs, ovate, anterior narrower than the posterior extremity ; anterior legs faleate, and furnished with pretty strong claws; antenne slender, without sete. This Species varies much in colour and markings. Some specimens are white, with two black fascie, one at posterior margin, and the other across centre of shell, while the posterior extremity is marked besides by a beautiful reddish or bright bronze spot ; other specimens are of a light flesh colour, with the edges of shell slightly greenish, and the body of the shell marked with dark streaks running across. Some are altogether of a fine flesh colour; while others again are of a very dark brown. All the varieties, however, agree in shape of shell, in size, &c., merely differing in colour and marking. Future observations may perhaps determine them to be of two different species. 5. Cypris Joanna. Nova species. Pool near Abbey St. Bathans. Shell roundish, ovate, narrower anteriorly than posteriorly ; of a brown colour, with an orange mark across back of shell and lower margin ; shell beset all round with rigid hairs, and covered with minute black points or dots ; setee of antenne numerous, about twelve or more. Resembles C. vidua a good deal in shape, but differs totally in colour and markings. Differs from C’. pilosa somewhat in shape, and in not being glabrous, but marked all over with black roughish-looking points. 6. C. minuta. Nova species. ool on Beaumout water at Yet- holm. Shell broader posteriorly than anteriorly; elevated and rounded on upper margin ; slightly sinuated on under margin ; hairy all round ; of a light brown colour with a tinge of green; body of iw 308 Analyses of Books. shell smooth, shining ; posterior legs terminated by one long claw ; anterior legs furnished with a pencil of long hairs from penultimate joint, and terminated by several strong hairs or sete ; sete of antenne numerous. 7. C. elongata. Nova species. Pool on Beaumont Water at Yetholm. Shell much broader at anterior than posterior extremity, which is narrow and much elongated; elevated on upper margin towards anterior extremity, and situated on under margin more to- wards the posterior extremity; white; transparent; hairy; sete of antenne five or six; anterior feet of about three articulations, each articulation furnished with sete ; posterior legs denticulated. 8. C. reptans. Nova species. Yetholm Loch. Shell long almost elliptical, nearly plane on upper, and slightly hollowed out or sinu- ated on under margin, rather ventricose, hairy ; densely ciliated on anterior extremity ; the cilie on posterior extremity fewer but much longer, of a light colour with dark green markings, which appear to be rather irregular ; both extremities have a large broad green spot, which sends out processes as it were towards the centre of the shell ; antenne and feet short in comparison to the sizeof shell. I have never seen this species swimming about in the vessel in which I have kept it, but always creeping on the bottom. 9. C. Westwoodii. Nova species. Yetholm Loch. Shell much elevated and rounded on upper margin, and sinuated on lower, broader at anterior extremity, green-coloured, semi-transparent, densely covered with pretty long hairs all over; second last joint of anterior feet furnished with a pencil of long hairs; posterior feet furnished with a short seta at each articulation, and with a long curved claw at extremities ; antennz indistinctly articulated. 10. C. tristriata. Nova species. Pond at little Swinton. Shell ovate, ventricose, anterior extremity a little narrower than posterior, upper margin rounded, lower sinuated slightly, green, hairy ; on the upper margin, nearly in middle of length of shell, there is a dark mark, from which run to posterior extremity three dark green streaks, the centre one of which is the most distinct and the darkest coloured ; anterior extremity of a rather darker green than the rest of shell. Between the centre and most anterior of the streaks are five or six small lucid spots. 11.C. hispida. Nova species. Pool on Beaumont Water at Yetholm. Shell almost elliptical ; the anterior extremity being a little broader than posterior ; rather ventricose ; very roughly and densely hairy ; of a brown colour all over, with one or two dark brown marks running across centre of shell, in the anterior of which are four or five translucent spots ; both extremities of a darker colour than other parts of shell. ‘he whole shell is very hispid, spines rather than hairs covering the shell; antenue slender ; sete seldom much divaricated, about twelve in number. The markings of shell are not in all specimens very distinct. 12. C. lucens. Nova species. Yetholm Loch and pools on Beau- mont Water. Shell white, shining, without spot; almost opaque ; ventricose ; elevated on upper margin towards posterior extremity, and reniform underneath ; anterior extremity narrower and flatter than posterior which is arched and broad, the inferior angle being, however, On the Entomosiraca of Berwickshire. 309 prolonged to a point ; a few fine hairs at each extremity. This species differs from C. detecta in being ventricose, and more arched in upper margin ; and from C. candida in being reniform, in not being ovate, and in want of rigid hairs which beset that species. 13. C. compressa. Nova species. Yetholm Loch. Shell round, shaped, compressed rather narrower anteriorly than posteriorly ; of a grey colour, more or less deep; semi-transparent ; at either ex- tremity beset with fine hairs ; in some specimens spotted as if little pieces were hollowed out ; anterior feet provided with several long bristle ; eye large; antenne terminated by numerous long sete. From the flat compressed shape of shell, its motion through the water is very much like that of some species of Lynceus. 14. Lynceus harpe. Nova species. Pool on Beaumont Water, and in Dunglass Pond. Shell harp-shaped ; ribbed longitudinally, the ribs resembling the strings of the harp ; rounded posteriorly, sinuated anteriorly, and terminating in a point projecting forwards ; antenne four, long, nearly the length of the shell, each consisting of three articulations, and terminated by three long linear sete ; shell smooth, extept anterior edge where it is sinuated, being there ciliated ; tail serrated, terminated by two strong sete ; head rounded, and beak blunt. Differs from ZL. truncatus in sinuated anterior margin of shell, blunt beak, and long antenne; in not being truncated on posterior extremity ; in wanting the thirteen little teeth at the base ; and in wanting the two thick and large upper feet: differs from L. quadrangularis in shape, in sinuated anterior margin, in more dis- tinct ribs, and in blunt beak. 15. L. hamatus. Nova species. Yetholm Loch. Shell trun- cated anteriorly, and ciliated ; upper part gibbous ; tail not serrated, gibbous, terminated by two sete ; two upper feet large, and each furnished at extremity with a strong claw or hock curved upwards ; antennez of three sete each: approaches L. trigonellus, but differs from it in beak being blunted and stronger ; in tail not being serrated ; in wanting the strong pediform organ below palpi and above the feet ; and in the upper feet having the strong hooks. The descriptions of the Entomostraca, and those of the new shell Galathea nexa and fossil tooth are illustrated by three plates of etchings, beautifully executed (we must tell it) by an accomplished female member of the club. The results of the labours of this association, during the past year, are thus shewn to be satisfactory in the highest degree. We hope its members will persevere. They have instituted an admirable school for themselves, and they must effect a great deal if they con- tinue to persevere. We understand that similar clubs are now form- ing upon the same plan in various counties. We wish them every success. ArticLe VIII. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, XC. I.— Adulteration of Jalap Roots. A very clumsy adulteration of this article was detected by Herber- ger. Portions of the root were joined together with flour, and 310 Scientific Intelligence, Sc. covered on the outside with tincture of jalap.—Buchner’s Repert., xviii. 118. Il.— African Guaiae. THE negroes employ in syphilis, instead of guaiac, the hard and veiny wood of a shrub belonging to the tribe of Leguminose, which was described by Linneus under the name of Guaiacum Afrum, Sp. 547. 'The plant was, however, little known. It was afterwards described by the title of Thecdora speciosa. More lately it was placed under Cassia, and by Jacquin it was termed Scotra speciosa from the appearance of its flowers, (Icon rar, i. 75.) and also by Andrew, (Bot. Report, 345.) It is little used in Europe, although it is much milder in its action than the common guaiac wood.— Brandes’ Pharm. Zeitung, No. xxiv., 1835. IlI.—Progress of Geographical Discovery. Caprarn MaconocuiE gave an interesting summary of the pro- gress of Geographical Discovery on the 3d of February, at the Lon- don University, and similar to that of which we inserted a report last year.—(Ieecords, vol. i. p. 155.) He began with 1. North America.—The object for which Captain Back’s expedi- tion was designed, it is well known, was one chiefly of humanity ; it was for the purpose of gaining tidings of the party of Captain Ross. Without requiring, however, to direct his energies on this object in consequence {of timely information of the safety of Captain Ross, Captain Back has accomplished much in reference to completing the geography of North America. He first proceeded to Great Slave Lake, which he found to be one of the longest lakes in America. From thence, he ascended by a river which discharges its waters into the lake; and having transferred his stores over a portage, he arrived at -a large river, which he descended to the sea, first north-east, then east, and lastly, in a north-east direction. His journey terminated in N. L. 67°7, W. L. 94°, very nearly south south-west of Ross’s Isthmus of Boothia, and about 90 miles to the south of it. From this, he attempted to get to the westward, but was prevented by the quantity of ice which was thrown up. From his observations, it would appear, that Boothia is an island with a clear sea to the south of it. Captain James Ross found the ice changed to the south of Boothia in the course of one season, which would indicate the existence of a current and a free passage. The opposite shores of the land of Boothia, and that where Back’s river terminates, are different in regard to geological structure, the former, being lime-stone (primitive lime-stone?) and the latter, gra- nite. There are still, therefore, two questions for solution ; Does the river of Back fall into the Northern Ocean, or into the bottom of Prince Regent’s inlet ? and, Where is the north-east point of North America? Most of those who have been connected with the arctic expedition, conceive that there is a passage by Melville island to the westward, and recommend determining the question at this point. Tn order to complete the geography of the coast, from Point Turn- Scientific Intelligence, Sc. 311 again to the eastward, Captain Back recommends sending a vessel with stores to Wager’s inlet supplied with four portable boats. Mr. King, the companion of Back, in his last expedition, considers, that a better, and much less expensive plan, would be, to make for Atha- pescow lake; and thence, ascend a river, which, according to the Indians, falls into the lake from the north ; a portage of a few miles conducts to the banks of another river, which terminates in Back’s river. The plan, however, advised by Captain Back, is one, which appears to be most feasible, and is likely to be soon carried into exe- cution. A third method which has been pointed out, is, to proceed by Bathurst Inlet and Point Turnagain. Besides this line of coast, which requires to be completed in a geographical point of view, there are still 120 miles untraversed towards Bherings Straits, uninteresting it is true, except in so far as there appears to be a large river which discharges itself into the sea at some point of this line of coast. _ 2. The lecturer described the enterprising journey of Lieutenant Smythe from Lima, across the Andes, down one of the tributaries of the Amazon to the mouth of the latter river, a distance of 2000 miles. That traveller is now preparing for the press an account of his expe- dition. He describes the inhabitants of Bolivia, as well behaved, quiet, although, rather given to intoxication, and carrying on the tillage of the land with spirit. There are few Spaniards in Lower Bolivia, the inhabitants being all indigenous. Humboldt states, that if the waters of the ocean were to rise 1000 feet, this portion, and, indeed, the whole of the central part of South America would be submersed. 3. Africa.—In consequence of the violent disturbances on the Caffre frontier, and the consequent unsettled state of the country, the journey of Captain Alexander has been postponed for a year. But, although, the expedition under the direction of the geogra- phical society has thus been stationary, much has been effected by Dr. Smith, whose journey we formerly noticed, and from whose labours we had great anticipations ; we have not been disappointed. He was enabled to fit out his expedition, entirely by a private sub- scription of £3000, liberally supported at the Cape, and assisted in this country. He proceeded first to Phillipolis, but was obliged, in consequence of the Caffre war, to return. He then proceeded to- ward Kurrechane, (about Lat. 24°,) and having been kindly received by the powerful and intelligent king of that country ; he was enabled to reach that town and to advance beyond it. He proceeded, follow- ing the river to the north-east, which appeared to bend towards Delagoa bay. He ascended a high ridge of mountains and had a delightful prospect, the coast being apparently within 60 miles. He visited, likewise, a very large lake, which is so broad, that the shores are lost sight of in crossing it. The boats here are built, and not hollowed out of trunks of trees. The only information which has yet reached this country of the expedition, has been through the Cape papers, and some letters written by Dr. Smith, to «friend, in London. We may soon, however, expect very particular and in- teresting details. 312 Scientific Intelligence, Sc. 4, Mr. Davidson, a gentleman of fortune and accomplishments, well known in London, by his interesting descriptions of Jerusalem and Thebes, at the Royal Institution, of which we gave reports, (Records, i. 322, ii. 72,) has started for Africa, with the intention of penetrating to Timbuctoo, examining the range of Atlas in his way, and proceeding by Tafalet. He has taken with him an ex- traordinary man, who was born at Timbuctoo, and whose father was governor of Gana—having been carried asa slave to Jamaica, where he was found at the age of 50, or more, by Dr. Madden. This gentleman was struck with him, in consequence of his astonishing acquirements, as he speaks several African languages with great accuracy, and writes Arabic beautifully. Dr. Madden wrote an account of him to this country, and Mr. Davidson requested, that he should be sent over at his expense. While in London, he was intro- duced to the Duke of Sussex, who promised him, that if he should prove faithful to Mr. Davidson, he should, on his return to England, be provided for in one of the Royal palaces for life. He left this country, deeply impressed with the kindness he had received, and the last letters from Mr. Davidson, speak of him in the most flatter- ing strains. ®. The last accounts from the Euphrates expedition, which was then at Birr, living in, what with little regard to classical taste, has been called Fort William, were by no means favourable, the greater part of the members of the expedition being in a bad state of health. The enthusiasm, however, of the commander continued unabated. IV.—On Chemical Symbols. To the Editor of the Records of General Science. Sir,—It is with regret that I see so little attention paid to the in- vitation which you gave to the chemical world to discuss the subject of symbols in the pages of your Journal. If you consider the follow- ing observations of any importance, perhaps you will give them a place in the Records. Though the importance of symbols appears on all hands to be admitted, yet very few, and these very imperfect, attempts appear to have been made to supply a set, which will be applicable to all branches of chemistry, and which shall be free from objections or defects. The idea of symbols appears to have originated with Dalton, and to have been employed by him in the elucidation of his immortal discovery, the Atomic Theory. But the variously marked circles, which he employed, though sufficient to illustrate the nature of atomic compounds, are, nevertheless, so evidently inadequate to answer the end for which symbolic representation is required, that no one, I believe, has ever thought of employing them for that purpose. The next step in the improvement of symbols appears to have been by Thomson in his system, as has indeed been observed by yourself, by substituting the initial letters of the sub- stance, for the circular marks of Dalton, and expressing the com- pound by connecting together the symbols of the substances of which it is composed. This suggestion may be considered as the foundation Scientific Intelligence, Sc. 315 of chemical symbols, for it is upon it that all the plans which have hitherto been proposed are based. It may, therefore, be considered” as a fundamental rule in symbolization, that every simple subtance shall be expressed by the initial letter of its name, or if that be not sufficient to distinguish it, by the two first or by the first followed by the next after it, which will be characteristic of that one substance and of no other. That this plan of symbolization should be adhered to, is, I believe, the opinion of all chemists.* The use of symbols, however, is not to mark the simple substances alone, but to exhibit to the eye in such a manner as to be quite intelligible, and at the same time in a small space, the composition of chemical compounds. These symbols or marks for the simple substances must, therefore, be combined together, so as to express the compounds, and it is in the method of combination that chemists are at variance. The first point which is disputed appears to be, whether every sub- stance should constantly retain its symbol, or, whether it be not advantageous to abbreviate the symbols of some of the most common substances, such as oxygen, sulphur, &c. ‘The latter method of which, Berzelius appears to be the inventor, is countenanced by Thomson, Turner, Graham and seems to be almost invariably adopted. Upon considering the subject, however, this plan appears to be liable to many and serious objections. It had been supposed that oxygen was the only principle capable of forming acids and bases, and, therefore, absolutely necessary to the existence of a salt enter- ing into the composition of both its constituents. It was, therefore, very natural to abbreviate the symbol for a substance which enters into such numerous combinations, as it could apparently be done without injuring the uniformity of the system in the least. But when it was discovered, principally by the experiments and investi- gations of several chemists, and not a little by those of Berzelius himself, that oxygen is not the only substance capable of forming acids and bases, and, therefore, salts; but that chlorine, bromine, iodine, sulphur, selenium, tellurium, and, perhaps, other substances, are capable of forming each a distinct class of salts ; this reason for abbreviating the symbol for oxygen falls evidently to the ground, unless we supply an abbreviation also for each of the analogous substances, This, indeed, Berzelius has attempted to do with respect to sulphur, by employing a comma for its symbol ; thus evidently admitting the inconsistency of abbreviating the symbol of one of these bodies without doing the same to the rest. But, if oxygen is to be represented symbolically by a period, and sulphur by a comma, (without venturing to express hypo-sulphurous acid by a semicolon, ) why should not, on the very same ground, tellurium have a point of admiration, selenium a cross, chlorine an asterisk, and bro- mine and iodine other appropriate characters to represent them symbolically. * With the exception of Mr. Richard Phillips who includes all such concise methods under one class and order. «« A Babylonish dialect Of patched and piebald languages.” —Eprr, 314 Scientific Intelligence, Sc. Is it not much more philosophical as well as more convenient to preserve always the same symbol for the same substance, instead of returning to the old plan of circles, or the still more ridiculous form of the marks of punctuation ? Proceeding, then, on the broad ground, that letters are to form the basis of symbolical representation, and that these letters are to be constantly adhered to, in order to preserve regularity ; if we proceed to take a binary compound (to take the most simple form) and consider it in order to express it symbolically, we find, that in every binary compound, one of the elements is electro-negative, and the other electro-positive ; and that it is the electro-negative element which marks the substances with which this binary compound may be capable of being combined. This peculiarity, therefore, seems to indicate that the electro-negative element ought to form a prominent part of the symbol. Would it not, therefore, be convenient to place the symbol of the electro-negative element in smaller letters than, and as an index to, the electro-positive one? Thus, to express pro- toxide of iron, I would propose to write Fe’, and to express chloride of potassium K¢!, and to express sulphuric acid $3°, making the figure which is the co-efficient, or indicates the number of atoms of the element, a little larger than the symbol for the element, accord- ing to the plan already proposed by Mr. Hiley, (2ecords, ii. 478.) In this manner, the composition, action and mode of combination of the substance would constantly be kept in view, which is un- doubtedly the great object of symbolic representation. The same plan would also suit acids and bases with a compound electro-positive element ; thus, for instance, acetic acid would have for its symbol (AC 2H) 3°, and tartaric acid, (4 C 2 H)5°, Salts, or compounds of an acid and a base, are of course expressed by uniting their formule. As long as the salt is neutral, the com- position may be expressed symbolically without difficulty. Thus, the symbol for anhydrous sulphate of soda would be Na° S3°, and for carbonate of lime Ca° C 2° ; when, however, we are required to express a salt with excess of acid or base, the case is different. A figure must be placed in connexion with the acid or base as the case may be, which will express the number of atoms of it which enter into the compound. Now, this cannot be placed before the acid or base, for this place may be occupied, as in the case of the yellow iodide of mercury, or of claomel, the symbol for which according to Thomson’s view of their composition (which undoubtedly agrees with the atom of mercury, as deduced from the specific gravity of its vapour, and from its specific heat), would be 2 Hg! and 2 Hg! respectively. Nor can we place this figure as an index, according to the common method, for the electro-negative element occupies that position more advantageously. It is, however, equally convenient to place it above the symbol of the acid or base. In this manner the symbol for bi-silicate of lime would be Ca° Si°, and that for borax Na° B 2° ‘+ 8 H°. In still more intricate compounds, as when several salts are com- bined together, as is not unfrequently the case in artificial compounds, and very often in the mineral kingdom, it may be proper to intro- Scientific Intelligence, ¥c. 315 duce the sign + between the symbol of each salt. Thus, the mineral species garnet which is not unfrequently a compound of 1 atom silicate of alumina 1 atom silicate of lime.* would have for its symbol Al° Si° + Ca® Si°, and the soda tartrate of potash would be expressed by K°(4C2H)5° + Na®(4 C2H)>5°. This method of symbolical representation will, I trust, be found to want some of the defects under which the previous ones have laboured, and it seems peculiarly adapted to organic chemistry, the dawn of which seems to be close at hand. I shall bere conclude by apologizing for occuping so much of your time and space. Ss. V.— New mode of heating Apartments. Ar the Royal Institution on the 11th Instant, Dr. Arnot shewed, that the expense of heating rooms in the usual way by an open fire is enormous, in consequence of the waste of heat. In a chaldron of coals, one half of the heat produced is sent up the chimney, while the remainder radiates into the room; but one half of this is also subsequently sent up the chimney, which is principally occasioned by the width of that aperture. Hence, jths of the fuel is actually wasted. In cold countries an open fire cannot be employed because it is not capable of heating a room when the temperature of the air is very low. Stoves are, therefore, used ; but an objection to stoves is that they become red hot and send too much heat up the chimney. On this account they are often surrounded by porcelain and brickwork. In manufactories, steam pipes and hot air are em- ployed to impart a regular temperature to rooms, without which the cotton yarn would be injured. Dr. Arnot tried to heat his library by means of a hot water box communicating with the kitchen; but he found the expense (£30) too great. He then thought of heating the water in the box itself, and thus making it portable ; and, lastly, he contrived a hot air box of simple construction which answers the purpose completely. It consists of a square box of plate iron formed of two chambers, which communicate at the top, capable of contain- ing any quantity of air in proportion to the size of the room. Pai tant | On one side at the bottom there is a tube which conducts fresh air into a small porcelain furnace enclosed in the box. This air after supplying oxygen for combustion passes to the upper part of the box and circulates into the posterior chamber where there is a chimney. - To prevent the air from becoming too hot, a valve is adjusted to the * Thomson’s Mineralogy, i. 260. 316 Scientific Intelligence, Sc. box formed of a double bar of iron and brass, which opens in propor- tion to the temperature. Dr. Arnot finds that it requires no atten- tion, that a sufficient quantity of fuel deposited in the furnace in the morning lasts for 24 hours, anid thus produces a very great saving of fuel. The heating surface may be increased by having two or more of these boxes at any distance connected by tubes. Dr. Arnot described a method of ventilating rooms by having two parallel tubes, one of them supplied with a fanner to extract the air, and the other with a simular contrivance to force in air. VI.— Magnetic characters of the Metals. Tue opinion of Dr. Faraday, as stated at the Royal Institution in reference to the metals, is, that they are all magnetic, just as they are all capable of being solidified, but that a proper temperature is the desideratum, as with mercury, for the solidification of which a low temperature is required. The analogy is principally derived from the case of iron which loses its magnetic power at an orange heat, and when cooled down regains its attractive power. Nickel exhibits similar properties. When heated and cooled, it retains its negative state long after it has ceased to be visible in the dark. Even when emersed in hot almond oil it loses its magnetic power. This point appears to be between 630° and 640°. Cobalt and chromium are stated in chemical works to be magnetic. Dr. Faraday found that specimens of these metals, which were said to be magnetic, derived that property from the presence of iron or nickel. The result of his experience in respect to chromium is similar to that of Dr. Thomson, who long ago determined that it was not magnetic. Dr. Faraday endeavoured to excite the magnetic power in a number of metals by sinking their temperatures to 60° and 70°, but could not succeed ; nevertheless, he is convinced that the only desideratum, in reference to the de- velopement of magnetism in all metals, is the particular magnetic temperature. VII.—Halley’s Comet. Tus remarkable visitor was first seen in the beautiful sky of Italy, on the 5th of August last, at the Observatory of Rome, by Dumouchel and Vico. Its position then, was near ¢ of the Bull. On the 21st of the same month, it was observed at Paris, Breslaw, and Naples ; on the 22nd at Viennaand Berlin ; 25rd at London ; 24th at Nimes ; 26th at Dublin; 27th at Florence and Bologna; 31st at Yale Col- lege, Newhaven, in North America, by Professor Olmsted and Tutor Loomis, its right ascension, being by observation, 5 h. 50-5 m., and its declination N. 24° 468 ; on the Ist September at Turin and Geneva. By a letter, dated Madras, 27th September, which I have received, it appears, that “ no trace of the mysterious body can be found.”* It was seen by the naked eye at Paris on the 23rd Sept. and at Geneva on the 24th. On the 15th October, with the naked eye, the tail of the comet embraced an extent of 20°, but on the 16th, it appeared to extend only 10° or 12°. On the 30th, it was very Epit. * It was visible in the Bombay presidency on the 6th October. Scientific Intelligence, Sc. 317 distinctly visible to the naked eye all over Europe and America. This was 47 days before it reachd its perihelion, which happened on the 16th of November. The previous calculation of Damoiseau gave the 4th of November for this event, that of Pontecoulant the 7th of the same month. But amore complete calculation of the action of the earth, and, especially, the substitution for the mass of Jupiter of the fraction ;;/;q, instead of 7 5';> rendered it necessary to add 6 days to the previous determination, which brought the number to the 13th, within 3 days of the actual date. When Pon- tecoulant thus deduced the 13th as the date of the perihelion, he proceeded on the calculation, that 1054 globes similar to Jupiter would be necessary to form a weight equal te that of the sun. The recent observations of Airy have shewn, that it should be 1049, which raises the date of the perihelion from the 13th to the 16th; the difference between calculation and observation being only half a day for 76 years. This remarkable coincidence has raised some doubt. The perturbations produced by the planets upon which the French astronomers made their calculations, were as follow : augmentation of revolution by the action of Jupiter 135,34; diminution by Saturn 51,53; by Uranus 6,07; by the earth 11,70 = 66,04 total aug- mentation. Rosenberg, a German astronomer, considers that the action of Venus, Mercury, and Mars, may produce an acceleration of 64 days, viz. 51 days by the action of Venus, and one day by the combined attractions of Mars and Mercury. Pontecoulant asserts, that the action of Venus compensates itself, and that Mars and Mer- cury cannot produce any such powerful effect as that stated by Rosenberg. It is natural to inquire, have any new phenomena been observed, or has any additional information been acquired by the visit of the comet of last year? 1. At the Observatory at Paris, on the 15th October, at 7 o’clock in the evening, by means of a lunar telescope, a sector comprised between two right lines directed towards the centre of the nucleus, was observed a little to the south of the point, diametrically opposite to the tail. The light of this sector greatly surpassed that of all the rest of the nebula. On the 16th, this sector had disappeared, but to the north of the point, diametrically opposite to the axis of the tail, a new sector was observed. On the 17th it remained, but was less bright. On the 21st, at ?-past 6, p. m., three luminous sectors were distinctly seen in the nebula ; the feeblest was situated at the pro- longation of the tail. On the 25rd, the sectors had disappeared. Schwabe, of Dessau, calls these sectors secondary tails. Mr. Cooper, observed one such sector in Ireland, on the 19th October ; and Amici noticed the same at Florence on the 13th. 2. It cannot be said that the last appearance of the comet has added any thing to our knowledge of the nature of space. Supposing it to have passed through a resisting medium, it should have arrived at his perihelion sooner than if it moved through a vacuum. Now, on the contrary, according to Rosenberg, it should have been six days later over the results of calculation, apart from all idea of an ether. The difference though much smaller, found by Pontecoulant, is in the same direction. 318 Scientific Intelligence, §c. 3. No comets have presented hitherto any phases, so that we were ignorant of the nature of the light of these bodies. It was expected that the intensity would have been determined during the last appearance of Halley’s comet, but the remarkable changes which it underwent prevented this from being effected. M. Arago, therefore, adopted another method. On the 23rd October, having applied an apparatus adapted for observation, he saw two images, which pre- sented complementary tints, one red, the other green. By making a half revolution of the telescope upon itself, the red image became green, and vice versa. ‘‘ Thus the light of the star, was not com- pletely, at least, composed of rays endued with the properties of direct light, peculiar or assimilated ; it contained some light reflected specularly or polarized, that is to say, definitely, some light proceed- ing from the sun.” VIII.— Diamonds of the Uralian Mountains, Prorressor Engeiuarpt, of Dorpat, from an examination of the geological nature of these mountains some time ago, gave it as his opinion, that they contained diamonds; but Count Polié was the first to discover them, during the travels of Humboldt in that country. M. Parrot has examined 30 of these precious products of the mine, which were formerly confined to India and Brazil. All of them have 24 triangular faces, more or less irregular and mostly striated. They belong to a kind of rhomboidal dodecahedron, of which each rhomboid is here as it were folded up on the diagonal which passes through the obtuse angles. Several of them have a yellow tinge. They are al] oblong and more or less flattened. Two of them, one weighing 1 carat, and the other $5 carat, contained small black bodies. They are not crystallized, but may be compared to bodies in the form of moss as in agates. They are not acted on by the magnet. Parrot conceives, that as ‘‘ chemical analysis has proved that the diamond is composed almost entirely of carbon and a very little hydrogen like vegetable carbon, it is very probable, that the black matter of tiese diamonds is a species of vegetable carbon, under an uncrystallized form. It is well known also, that jewellers who receive diamonds for cutting, deprive them of the black streaks which are frequently attached to them externally by ignition, which would not happen if these were not formed by a compound of carbon and hydrogen, This observation on the exterior streaks which form a mass with the ex- terior layers of the diamond, furnish us with a new analogy, for admitting with a high degree of probability, that the black matter of the two diamonds which we have examined, is a substance, con- sisting of carbon and hydrogen, and that these diamonds themselves are still imperfect diamonds. But what appears to decide the question is, that the small black masses in the crystal which we exa- mined are isolated and entirely enclosed in the crystalline mass, without touching any of its faces or angles. If they were hetero- geneous bodies, formed previous to crystallization, they would have been placed upon some base and covered there with the crystalline mass, as occurs, for example, in quartz, agates, &c., where the foreign Scientific Intelligence, §c. 319 body, whether crystallized or not, appears to proceed from some angle or face of the crystal. Thus, the black streaks are homogeneous with the mass before it was modified to form the crystal; they are a remnant of the carbon and hydrogen which had not obtained the transparency when the remainder already transparent was crystal- lized.” In eight of the diamonds which he examined, Parrot observed fissures or cracks in various directions, which he conceives, can only be explained, by supposing them to have been first exposed to heat and then suddenly cooled, and, therefore, that they have been sub- jected to volcanic action.—Memoires de L’ Academie Imperiale de St. Petersbourg, iii. 21, 6th Series, 1835. IX.—WSiatistics of the Canadas. Accorpine to Dr. Kelly, the diseases and deaths in Lower Canada from 1820 to 1827, were as follow: fevers 2669, deaths 35; pneu- monia 979, deaths 30 ; rheumatism 550 ; phthisisand hemoptysis 130, deaths 74; catarrh, acute and chronic 1233, deaths 10; dysentery and diarrhea 1195, deaths 2; other diseases 9113, deaths 66. Total diseases 15,869, deaths 217. The mean annual mortality from 1820 to 1831, in Lower Canada, was 1°333 per cent. In Upper Canada 1-253 per cent. In both Canadas from 1810 to 1822, the total number of men was 99-483. Sick 114°883. Total mortality 2461 = 2:54 per cent. It appears from a census made of the country, that the number of births to a marriage, in Lower Canada, is 6, The lowest rate of mortality was in 1799 and 1816, being 1 in 52°72, and 1 in 54:3 respectively. The greatest mortality was in 1810 and 1820, or 1 in 33°14, and 1 in 34-5 respectively. The mean annual temperature at _ Quebec in 1832 was 35°87. The highest range of the thermometer 85°. The lowest 25°. The winds blew 220 days from the west, 121 from east, and 25 variously. The number of snowy days was 63, rainy 96, dry days 210. The mean temperature for 1832, 33 and 34 was 35°-87. The mean annual heat of wells situated 180 and 200 feet above the tide waters of the St. Lawrence was 42°-74.— United Service Journal, Oct., 1835. X.—Mode of preserving minute Animals, EunrenseErgG, of Berlin, has been enabled, by rapid exsiccation upon small plates of mica to form a collection of nearly 300 infusorii, be- longing principally to those which he has published. These objects are arranged upon small plates, similar to those which are employed for examining the scales of butterflies. He has preserved the form and colour, not only of the armed Radiator, but also of the softest Radiator and Polygastrica, even those of the genus Monades. He has also preserved the tissues of plants, the spermatozoes, the different kinds of blood globules with their nuclei, and the lymph, chyle and nervous tubes of a great many animals—Journ. de Chim. 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N.W. 29-425) W byW) } 90/S W by W 2 3 29:241}SW byW|) 29°162|W .N.W.|- 29°184|W.N.W. 29°204|W.N.W. 29°216|W .N.W. Calm, sky cloudless except in S.E. quarter of horizon where there is a bed of cirrostia., with masses of hazy cloud floating below ; in N. E. quarter there is a faint bed of cymoid formation gradu- ally disappearing, also in the N.W. is a patch of cirrostratus. § Gentle breeze, cirrostra. forming over sky except 8S. W. On horizon hazy masses floating below cirrostra. About zenith clouds tending 2 to cirrocumulous formation. 5 Gentle breeze, upper strattum of cirrostra. gradually disappeared, and lower masses of clouds floating copiously over sky. Gentle breeze, sky completely overcast, fog settling on hills. § Breeze increasing, sky overspread with hazy clouds. Fog has dis- ¢ appeared, but lower atmosphere slightly hazy. § Breeze somewhat brisk sky clearing in zenith northward ; hazy clouds still prevalent southward. Brisk wind, sky overspread with hazy clouds in rapid motion. Wind rising, sky clearing about zenith, hazy clouds flying from $.W’. Gentle breeze, sky overcast and lowering, with tendency to rain. The same as last hour. Very gentle breeze, with tendency to fog. The same as last hour. § Brisk wind, slight drizzle, western qr. very gloomy, sky veiled with cirrostra., soft clouds below driving rapidly before wind. Wind strong and custy ; in other respects same as last hour. Wind somewhat fallen ; in other respects same as last hour. The same as last hour. Wind increased and eusty ; in other respects samo as last hour, The same as last hour. Y The same. Very brisk wind, sky clearing from zenith westward. The same as last hour. Nearly calm, sky clearing overhead ; heavy clouds round horizon. § Wind rising in gusts, western horizon clearing, heavy masses of t cloud floating below a higher stratum which nearly veils the sky. ) Brisk but unsteady wind, sky overspread with cirrostratus, soft U clouds floating below. ¢ Brisk wind, upper stratum of clouds nearly dissipated except on eastern quarter of the heavens ; tendency to formation of nimbus 2 in western quarter. Gentle breeze, sky streaked with cirrostratus polarized from N. to S, Gentle breeze, sky thinly veiled with cirrostratus. Gentle breeze, cirrostra. gradually dissipating and leaving clear sky. Very brisk wind, a thin bed of cirrostratus in the eastern quarter of ; the heavens, elsewhere, light clouds floating over a blue sky. Very brisk wind, cumulous masses of white cloud floating over a ; hazy sky. § Cirrostratus forming principally in the western quarter; in other d respects the same as last hour. 5 Very brisk wind, eastern quarter of the heavens thinly veiled with cirrostratus, everywhere else cumulous masses of cloud floating on a blue sky. The same as last hour. The same, § Very brisk wind, atmosphere hazy, a few cumulous masses of cloud tin the west. 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