LHMoon & Son Bookbinders NUMBERS 41 -50 1971 - 1974 Records of the Queen Victoria Museum Edited by W. F. ELLIS Director of the Museum PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM COMMITTEE LAUNCESTON CITY COUNCIL NUMBERS 41 -50 No. 41 Parasites of Tasmanian Native and Feral Fauna, By R. H. Green and B. L. Munday. Part I, Arthropoda. No. 42 The Classification, Distribution, Analysis and Sources of Materials in Flaked Stone Implements of Tasmanian Aborigines. By F. L. Sutherland No. 43 Quaternary Geomorphology of Flinders Island. By R. C. Kershaw and F. L. Sutherland. No. 44 Parasites of Tasmanian Native and Feral Fauna, Part II, Helminthes. By B. L. Munday and R. H. Green. No. 45 A new Tasmanian Species of Milligania (Family Uliaaeae). By W. M. Curtis No. 46 The Murids and small Dasyurids in Tasmania. Parts 5, 6 and 7. Part 5 Anteahinus swainsonii (Waterhouse), Part 6 Anteahinus minimus (Geoffroy), Part 7 Sminthopsis leuoopus (Gray). By R. H. Green. No. 47 A new Genus, Pviscab della, for Aquatic Jawed sanguivorous leeches from Flinders Island, North-east Tasmania, and Southern South Australia (Hirudinoidea: Richardsonianidae). By L. R. Richardson. No. 48 A Tasmanian Record of Sphyvna (Sphyrna) zygaena (Linne, 1758) (Sphyrnidae), with a consideration of the species of Hammerhead Sharks in Australian waters. By E. 0. G. Scott. No. 49 The Final Phase of the Extinct Tasmanian Race 1847-1876. By William E. L. H. Crowther. No. 50 Recent additions to the Tasmanian Flora and some notes on nomenclature. By D. I. Morris and W. M. Curtis. 20SEPm PARASITES OF TASMANIAN NATIVE AND FERAL FAUNA PART 1, ARTHROPODA by R. H. GREEN QUEEN VICTORIA MUSEUM B. L. MUNDAY TASMANIAN DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RECORDS OF THE QUEEN VICTORIA MUSEUM No. 41 EDITED BY W. F. ELLIS DIRECTOR OF THE MUSEUM ■ A •' ' ' ' " ' \!i / \ 'i ■ ' ■' \ -\ r t ^ ; ' (' iJyK.. A; 7 .\ ..i i . -I rd»s ‘ . PARASITES OF TASmNIAN NATIVE AND FERAL FAUNA PART 1. ARTHROPODA by R. H, GREEN, Queen Victoria Museum, Launceston Tasmania B. Li MUNDAY, Tasmanian Department of Agriculture, Mt. Pleasant Laboratories, Launceston, Tasmania. Manuscript received 2/6/71 Published 9/8/71. PREFACE This diecklist has been cxmpiled fron personal records and published literature for workers interested in the distribution of parasites of native and feral fauna. As neither of the authors are parasitologists oriissions and errors in classification probably have occurred despite valuable assistance provided by others. Coimients and corrections will be welconed. The notation used places the name of the author of the parasite after the parasite's name, and a reference to the Tasmanian occurrence of the parasite after the host’s name(s). The list contains only those parasites collected directly frcm the host. An asterisk (*) indicates only a tentative determination. PARASITE HOST Class ARACHNIDA Order ACARI Family VEmANVSSIVAE Genus Myonyssus Myonyssus decumani Tiraboschi, 1904 Isoodon obesulus, Domrow, 1963ii Genus Omithonyssus OmithonysBUs sylvianm (Canestrini and Fanzaqo, 1877) Turdus menu Tampers, con. Calaby Passer domesticus, Domrow, 1936h Genus Triohonyssus Trichonyssus womersleyi Dctnrow, 1958 Chalinolobus gouldi, pers. can. I'fomersley Nyctophilus geoffroyi, pers. con. '"fcmerslev Eptesicus pumilus, pers. com. Womersley Genus Dermanyssus Dermanyssus hirundinis dermanyssus gallinae (de Geer, 1778)] Meliphaga flavicollis, Domro^^7, 1963fc Records of the Queen Victoria Museum, No.*41 2 Parasites of Tasmania Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus PARASITE Eahinonyssus Eahinonyssus vatidipes Dcmrciw, 1955 Domrownyssus Domromyssus dentatus Hirstionyssus Hirstionyssus musauli (John^n, 1849) Triahosurolaelaps Triahosicrolaelaps orassipes Womersley, 1956 Triahosurolaelaps striatas Damrow, 1958 Australolaelaps Australolaelaps vatidipes Australolaelaps greeni Donrow, 1966 Andreaaarus Andreaaarus radfordi Dotnrow, 1963 Gyrmolaelaps Gymolaelaps anneatans ''fomersley, 1955 HOST Potorous tridaatyluSj Donrow, 19636 Anteahinus minimus, pers. con. Calaby Mus musaulus, Donrow, 19636 Triahosurus vulpeoula, pers. con. Calaby Pseudoohrius aonvolutor, Donrow, 1961 Potorous tridaatylus, pers. con. Calaby Bettongia aunioulus, Donvrow, 1966a Vasyurus viverrinus, Domrow, 1963a Eudromiaia lepida, Donrow, 1963a Isoodon obesulus, Donrow, 19636 Anteahinus swainsonii, pers. con. Calaby Anteahinus minimus, pers. con. Calaby Eaelapsella Laelapsella hwni Wbmersley, 1955 Haemolaelaps Haemolaelaps marsupialis (Berlese, 1910) Haemolaelaps domrowi Wonersley, 1958 Haemolaelaps hattenae Donrow, 1963 Mesolaelaps Mesolaelaps handiaoota (WOnersley, 1956) Mesolaelaps antipodiana (Hirst, 1926) Mesolaelaps australiensis Hirst, 1926 Hydromys ahrysogaster, Mundav, 1966 Rattus lutreolus, Donrow, 19636 Rattus norvigiaus, pers. con. Calaby Isoodon obesulus, Donrow, 1961 Perameles gunnii^ Donrow, 1961 Bettongia aunioulus, Domrow, 19636 Rattus lutreolus, Donrow, 19636 Isoodon obesulus, Donrow, 1961 Perameles gunnii, Donrow, 19636 Oryatolagus aunioulus, Donrow, 1961 Vasyurus viverrinus, Donrcw, 1961 Parasites of Tasmania 3 Genus Family Genus Genus Genus Family Genus Genus Genus PARASITE Laelaps Laelaps asaismilis t'fcmerslev, 1956 Laelaps aalabyi Dotnrcw, 1961 Laelaps oybiala Donrow, 1963 HOST Mastaaomys fuaous Rattus lutreolus, Donrow, 1961 Pseudomys higginai, Donrow, 1961 Mastaaomys fusousy Donrow, 1963i Dermanyssidae not yet determined have been collected fron Eudromioea lepida Eptesiaus pianilus Nyatophilus geoffroyi Chalinolobua gouldi Pipiatrellus tasmniensis Taahygloasus setosus Triahosuxms vulpecula Leiolopisma pretiosim TROMBICULIVAE Neotrombiaula Neotrombiaula novaehollandiae Siseaa Siaeaa vandiemeni Donrow Guntherana Guntherana kallipygoa Wallabid rufogrisea, pers. con. Calaby Thylogale billardieriy pers. con. Calaby Potorous tridaotylusj pers. con. Calaby Triahosurus vulpeauta Leiolopiam oaellatum, pers. con. Calaby Leiolopisma metalliaum, Domrow, 1962 Leiolopisma entreoasteauxiy Donrow, 1962 Triahosurus vulpeaula Trombiaulidae not yet determined have been collected fron: Eptesiaus pwnilus LISTROPHORWAE Campy loahirus Campyloahirus ahelopus Trouessart, 1893 Listrophoroides Listrophoroides expansua Ferris, 1932 Cytostethum Cytostethum promeaea Donrow, 1956* Cytostethum pseudoaharaatum Donrow, 1956 Cytostethum mollisoni Domrcw, 1961 Pseudoaheirus oomolutor, Domrow, 1958 Rattus lutreolus Potorous tridaatyluSy Donrow, 1961 Potorous tridaotylusy Donrow, 1961 Potorous tridaotyluSy Donrow, 1961 4 Parasites of Tasmania Family Genus Family Genus Family Genus Family Genus PARASITE HOST Cytostethum nanophyes Potorous tridaatylus, Dcmrow, 1955 Dcmrow, 1955 Listrophoridae not yet determined haye been collected frcm: Thylogale billardieri PSOROmVAE Aaaroptes Aoaroptes vombatus CHEVLETIVAE Neooheytetiella Neoaheyletiella artami Dcmrow, 1966 APGASIVAE Argas Argas (Carios) australiensis Kohls and Hoogstraal, 1962 Argas (Carios) sp. IXODJVAE Ixodes Ixodes eudyptidis, Maskell, 1885 Ixodes auritulus Neunann, 1904 Ixodes kerguetenensis Andre and Colas-Belcour 1942 Ixodes uriae White, 1852 Ixodes kohlsi Arthur, 1955 Ixodes ornithorynahi Lucas, 1845 Ixodes tasmani Neumann, 1899 Vombatus ursinus, pers. com. Calaby Artamus oyanopterus, Dcmrcw, 1970 Eptesiaus pimitus, pers. ccm. Calaby Chalinolobus gauldi, pers. ccm. Calaby Pipistrellus tasmaniensis, Roberts, 1964 Eudyptula minor, Roberts, 1964 Larus novaeholtandiae, Roberts, 1964 Sula bassana, Roberts, 1964 Tyto novaehollandiae, Roberts, 1970 Puffinus tenuirostris, pers. com. Ryan Seriaomis htmitis, Roberts, 1964 Strepera fuliginosa, Roberts, 1964 Puffinus tenuirostris, Roberts, 1964 Peleoanoides urinatrix, pers. com. Calaby Diomedea exuZans, Roberts, 1964 Strepera fuliginosa, pers. can. Calaby Eudyptula minor, Roberts, 1960 Eudyptula minor, Roberts, 1960 Puffinus tenuirostris, pers. con. Ryan Phalaoroaorax sp., pers. com. Ryan Ornithorhynohus anatinus, pers. ccm. Calaby Taahyglossus setosus, Roberts, 1964 Wallabia rufogrisea, Roberts, 1964 Thylogale billardieri, Roberts, 1964 Bettongia ouniculus, Roberts, 1964 Potorous tridaatylus, Roberts, 1964 Vombatus ursinus, Roberts, 1964 Isoodon obesulus, Roberts, 1964 Perameles gunnii, Roberts, 1964 Triahosurus uulpeaula, Roberts, 1964 Pseudoaheirus aonvolutor, Roberts, 1964 Parasites of Tasmania 5 PARASITE Ixodes hydromyidis Swan, 1931 Ixodes feaialis Vferburton and Nuttall, Ixodes anteohini Roberts, 1960 Ixodes australiensis Neumann, 1904 Ixodes aornuatus Roberts, 1960 Ixodes hirsti Hassall, 1931 Ixodes triahosuri Roberts, 1960 Ixodes sp. HOST Petaurus breviaeps, Roberts, 1964 Eudromiaia lepida, pers. con. Roberts Saraophilus harrisi, Roberts, 1960 Dasyiirus viverrinus, Roberts, 1964 Anteahinus sminsonii, pers. can. Calaby Hydromys ahrysogasteVt Roberts, 1964 Mastaoomys fusous, pers. can. Calabv Pseudomys higginsi, Roberts, 1964 Rattus lutreolus^ Roberts, 1964 Rattus rattus, Roberts, 1964 Rattus norvegiaus, Roberts, 1964 Rydromys ohrysogaster, pers. con. Rvan Saraophilus harrisi, Roberts, 1964 1909 Dasyurops maaulatus, Roberts, 1960 Dasyurus viverrinus, Roberts, 1964 Isoodon obesulus, pers. com. Calabv Anteahinus sminsonii, Roberts, 1970 Dasyurus viverrinus, Roberts, 1964 Anteahinus minimus, Roberts, 1964 Anteahinus sminsonii, Roberts, 1970 Potorous tridaatylus, Roberts, 1964 *Petroiaa phoeniaia, Roberts, 1970 *Colluriaincla harmonica, Roberts,1964 *Seriaomi8 humilis, Roberts, 1964 *Meliomis novaehollandiae, Roberts, 1970 *Strepera fuliginosa, Roberts, 1964 *Craatiau8 torquatus, Roberts, 1964 *Sturnus vulgaris, Roberts, 1970 *Thylogale billardieri, Roberts, 1964 *Potorous tridaatylus, Roberts, 1970 Bettongia auniaulus, Roberts, 1964 Vombatus ursinus, Roberts, 1964 * Isoodon obesulus, Roberts, 1964 *Peramele8 gunnii,Rdberts, 1964 *Trioho8urus vulpecula, Roberts, 1964 *Da8yurops maaulatus, Roberts, 1970 ^Pseudomys higginsi, Roberts, 1970 *Rattus lutreolue, Roberts, 1964 * Rattus rattus, Roberts, 1964 *Rattus norvegiaus, pers. con. Calafcy f^s musaulus, Roberts, 1964 Wallabia rufogrisea, Roberts, 1960 Potorous tridaatylus, pers. can. Kano Triahosurus vulpeaula, Roberts, 1964 Pseudoaheirus aonvolutor, Roberts, 1970 Seriaornis humilis, Roberts, 1964 Bettongia auniaulus, Roberts, 1964 Triahosurus vulpeaula, Roberts, 1964 Rattus lutreolus. Robots, 1964 Rattus rattus, Rcbeibs, 1964 Seriaornis humilis, pers. cxxn. Calaby Meliomis novaehollandiae, pers. can. Calaby Aoanthiza euingii, pers. con. Calaby 6 Papasites of Tasmania PARASITE HOST Genus Amblyoma Ambtyomiia postoaulatum Neumann, 1899 Amblyorrma limbatwn Ifeumann UrJcxiwn host, Neumann, 1899 Unrecorded host, Roberts, 1970 Genus Aponomm Aponomma hycbosauri Denny, 1843 Aponorma aonaolor Neonann, 1899 Aponomma auruginaus Schulze, 1936 Tiliqua nigrotutea, Roberts, 1964 Tiliqua aasuarina, Roberts, 1964 Amphibotupus diemensis, Roberts, 1964 Denisonia supepba, Roberts, 1964 Denisonia aoponoides, pers. con. Calaby Noteohis eautatus, Roberts, 1964 Taahyglosaus aetoaus, Roberts, 1964 Vombatua upsinua, Rcterts, 1964 Class INSECTA Order PHTHIRAPTERA Sub Order MALLOPHARA Division AMBLYCERA Family MEMOPONWAE Genus Aotormithophilus Aotoimithophilus hoplopteri (M^oberq, 1910) sens. lat. Lobibyx novaehollandiae, pers. com. Calaby Genus Longimenopon Longimenopon sp. Paahyptila tuptup, pers. can. Clay Genus Anaiatrona Anaistvona vagelli Anoistfona sp. Paahyptila tuptup, pers. oom. Ryan Ptepodpoma leaaoni, pers. con. Clay Genus Austromenopon Austromenopon transversum (Denny, 1842) Austvomenopon stammeri Tiittnermann, 1963 Austromenopon sp. Lopua navaehotlandiae, pers. con. Calaby Paahyptila vittata, pers. oon. Clay Paahyptila aalvini, pers. can. Clay Paahyptila tuxtup, pers. con. Clay Paahyptila belaheri, pers. con. Clay . Peleaanoidea upinatpix, pers. can. Calaloy Puffinua tenuipoatpia, pers. con. Calaby Maaponeatea giganteua, pers. oon. Clay Genus Colpoaephatwn Colpoaephatum zerafae Ansari, 1955 Colpoaephalum fregili (Denny, 1842) Falao bepigopa, pers. con. Calaby Copvua taamaniaus, pers. com. Calaby Parasites of Tasmania 7 PARASITE Genus Eidmnniella EiSmannietla pustulosa (Nitzsch, 1866) Genus Kurodaia Kurodaia subpaahygaster (Piaget, 1880) Kurodaia sp. Genus Nosopon Nosopon Vuaidum (Rudow, 1869) Genus Menaoanthus Menaaanthus mutabilis Blaqoveshtchensky, 1940 Menaaanthus sp. Genus Myrsidea Myrsidea strangeri Clay, 1970 Myrsidea sp. Genus Pseudomenopon Pseudomenopon aonaretum (Piaget, 1880) Pseudomenopon sp. Genus Psittaaomenopon Psittaaomenopon psittaaus (Le Souef and Bullen, i Family BOOPIVAE Genus Boopia Boopia tarsata Piaget, 1880 Genus Paraheterodoxus Paraheterodoxus n. sp. Family RICIWIPAE Genus Rioinus mugimaki (Uchida, 1915) Rioinus sp. HOST Sula bassana, pers. con. Calaby Tyto novaehollandiaej pers. can. Calaby Ninox nouaeseelandiae^ pers. can. Calaby Circus approximans, pers. con. Clay Sturnus vulgaris, pers. can. Calaby Synoious ypsilophorus, pers. cxm. Calaby Corruriainata harmonica, pers. con. Calaby Artamus oyanopterus, pers. can. Calaby Corvus tasmaniaus, pers. con. Calaby Malurus ayaneus. Clay, 1970 Paahyoephala peatoralis, pers. con. Calaby Zoothera dauma, pers. con. Calaby Melithreptus validirostris, pers. con. Calaby Corvus tasmaniaus, pers. con. Calaby Strepera fuliginosa, pers. con. Calcihy Porphyria melanotus, pers. con. Clay Tribonyx mortierii, pers. con. Calaby Platyaerouseximius, pers. can. Calaby Vombatus ursinus, pers. com. Murray Bettongia auniaulus, pers. con. Clay Rhipidura fuliginosa, pers. con. Calaby Aoanthiza ewingii, pers. com. Calaby Meliphaga flaviaollis, pers. can. Calaby 8 Parasites of Tasmania Division Family Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus PARASITE ISCHNOCERA philopteuwae Alaedoeaus Alaedoeaus delphax (Nitzsch, 1866) Ardeiaola Ardeiaola sp. Brueelia Brueelia Brueelia daumae (Clay, 1936) Colooeras Coloaeras sp, Colooeras ohinensis (Kellogg and Chapman, 1902) sens. lat. HOST Daaelo gigas, pers. ocm. Calaby Botaurus poioHoptiluSj pers. ccin. Calaby Paahyoephala peotoralis, pers. can. Calaby Cinolosorra punotatum, pers. oon. Calaby Malurus ayaneus, pers. con. Calaby Anthoohaera paradoxa, pers. oon. Calaby Strepera arguta, pers. con. Calaby Zoothera dauma, pers. con. Calaby Phaps ahalaoptera, pers. con. Calaby Streptopelia ohinensis^ pers. con. Calaby Columbiaola Colwrhiaola tasmaniensis Tenderio, 1967 Craspedorrhynohus Craspedorrhynahus sp; Doaophoroides Doaophoroides brevis (Dufour, 1835) Doaophoroides sp. Cuolotogaster Cualotogaster eynoiaus (Clay, 1938) Goniodes Goniodes retraatus (Le 55ouef, 1902) Falaolipeurus Faloolipeurue suturalis (Rulow, 1869) Phaps ahalaoptera, Tenderio, 1967 Aaaipiter fasaiatus, pers. ccni. Clay Aquila audax, pers. con. Calaby Halliaeetus leuaogaster, pers. con. Calaby Faloo berigora, pers. con. Calaby Diomedea exulans, pers. con. Clay Maoroneates gigas, pers. con. Clay Synoiaus ypsilophorus, pers. con. Calaby Synoiaus ypsilophorus, pers. can. Calaby Aquila audax, pers. con. Clay Parasites of Tasmania 9 Geniis Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus PARASITE Naubates Naubates prioni (Enderlein, 1908) Naubates alypeatus (Giebel, 1874) Naubates heteroproatus Harrison, 1937 Naubates sp. Halipeurus Balipeurus pelagiaus (Dennv, 1842) Halipeurus falsus paaifiaus Edwards, 1961 Halipeurus diversus (Kellogg, 1896) Halipeurus proaellariae (J. C. Falaricius, 1775) Paraalisis Paradlisis obsoura (Rudcw, 1869) Peotinopygus Peotinopygus bassani (Fabricius, 1780) Peotinopygus gyrioomis (Denny, 1842) Peotinopygus subsetosus (Piaget, 1880) Pe Inatooerandra Pelmatooerandra setosa (Gietsel, 1876) Philopterus Philopterus sp. HOST Paohyptila turtur, pers. oan. Clay Paohyptila vittata, pers. octn. Clay Paohyptila beloheri, pers. con. Clay Halobaena oaerulea, pers. oom. Calahy Pterodroma lessonii, pers. oom. Clay Paohyptila turtur, pers. ccm. Ryan Pelagodroma marina, pers. con. Calaly Peleoanoides urinatrix, pers. con. Calahy Puffinus tenuirostris, pers. com. Calahy Pterodroma lessonii, pers. oan. Clay Maoroneotes giganteus, pers. con. Clay Sula bassana, pers. con. Calahy Phalaorooorax oarbo, pers. com. Calahy Phalaorooorax melanoleuoos, pers. octn. Calaby Peleoanoides urinatrix, pers. com. Calaby Collurioinola harmonioa, pers. can. Calahy Cinalosoma punatatum, pers. can. Calaby Zoothera dauma, pers. can. Calaby Melithreptus validirostris, pers. con. Calahy Phylidonyris novaehollandiae, Anthoohaera paradoxa, Corvus tasmanious, pers. con. CalaJay Strepera fuliginosa, pers. con. Calaby Strepera aurguta, pers. con. Calaby Turdus merula, pers. con. Calaby PhysooneIloides Physoonelloides australiensis Phaps ohalooptera, pers. con. Calaby Tendeiro, 1969 Quadraoeps Quadraoeps ououllaius Charadrius ouaullatus, pers. con. Calabv Tintnermann, 1955 10 Parasites of Tasmania Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus PARASITE HOST Quadraaeps rensahi Tiitmermann, 1954 Lobibyx novaBhoilandiae, pers. can. Calaby Saemundssonia Saemundssonia loakleyi Clay, 1949 Saemundssonia platygaster (Denny, 1842) sens. lat. Saemundssonia lari fallai Unmennann, 1951 Saemundssonia africana syaophanta Hmnennann, 1962 Saemundssonia desolata Tirnnennann, 1959 Saemundssonia sp. Sterna albifvons, pers. ootn. Calaby Charadrius biainatus, pers. con. Calaby larus novaehollandiae, pers. con. Calaby Lobibyx nooaehollandiae, Tiitmermann, 1962 Paahyptila vittata, pers. con. Clay Paahyptila salvini, pers. ccm. Clay Halohiena aaerulea, pers. can. Calaby Pterodoma lessani, pers. can. Clay Strigiphilus Strigiphilus aursitans group Strigiphilus aitkeni Clay, 1966 Strigiphilus n. sp. Podargoeous Podargoeous strigoides Elnerson and Price, 1966 Stumidoecus Stumidoeaus sturni fSchrank, 1776) Hinox novaeseelandiae, pers. con. Calaby Tyto novaehollandiae. Clay, 1966 Aegotheles aristata, pers. con. Calaby Podargus strigoides, pers. con. Clay Sturnus vulgaris Traheaulus Trabeaulus hexaaon Puffinus tenuirostris, pers. con. Calaby (Waterston, 1914) sens. lat. Trabeaidus sahillingi Pterodroma lessonii, pers. can. Clay Rudow, 1866 Tumiaola Tumioola sp. Degeeriella Degeeriella rufa (Burm, 1838) sens. lat. Degeeriella fusaa (Denny, 1842) Degeeriella fulva (Giebel, 1874) A ustrogoniodes Austrogoniodes waterstoni (Cunnings, 1914) Tumix varia, pers. con. Calalay Coturnix peatoralis, pers. con. Calaby Palao berigora, pers. con. Calaby Circus approxirrans, pers. con. Clay Aaaipiter fasaiatuo, pers. com. Clay Eudyptula minor, pers. con. Calaby Parasites of Tasmania 11 PARASITE Genus Sub Order Family Genus Gen\is Rallioota Ralliaola aampbelli Bnarson, 1964 Ralliaola mortieri Elnerson, 1964 Ralliaola lugens (Giebel, 1874) ANOPLURA HOPLOPLEURIVAE Polyplax Polyplax spinulosa (Burmeister, 1839) Roplopleura Hoplopleura irritans Kuhn and Ludwiq, 1967 Roplopleura mastaaomydis Rjhn and Ludwiq, 1967 Roplopleura aalabyi Johnson, 1960 Roplopleura paaifiaa EVinq, 1924 Nyirphs not determinable Order Super Family Family Genus Super Family Family Genus Family SIPHONAPTERA PULICOIVEA PULICIVAE Pulex Pul ex irritans Linne, 1758 CERATOPHVLLOWEA RHOPALOPSVLLWAE Parapsyllus Parapsyllus australiaaus Roths., 1809 Parapsyllus taylori Jordan, 1942 PVGIOPSVLUVAE HOST Tribonyx mortierii, Eitierson, 1964 Tribonyx mortierii, Bnerson, 1964 Porphyrio melanotus, pers. com. Clay Rattus lutreolus, pers. com. Calalay Rattus rattus, pers. com. Calaby Rattus lutreolus, Kuhn and Ludwiq, 1967 Mastaaomys fusaus, Kuhn and Ludwiq, 1967 Pseudomys higginsi, Kuhn and Ludwiq, 1967 Rattus rattus, pers. cctn. Calalay Paahyaephala olivaaea, pers. ocm. Calaby Larus nooaehollandiae, pers. con. Calaby Charadrius biainatus, pers. can. Calaby Triahosurus vulpeaula, pers. con. Calaby Eudyptula minor, pers. con. Calaby Pelagodroma marina, pers. con. Mardon Puffinus tenuirostris, pers. con. Calaby Puffinus tenuirostris, pers. con. Calaby 12 Parasites of Tasmania Genus Genus Genus Genus Genus PARASITE Hoogstraali Hoogstraali vandiemeni Ehiit, 1958 Pygiopsytla Pygiopsylla hoplia Jord^ and Roths 1922 Pygiopsylla zethi (Roths., 1904) Pygiopsylla sp. n. HOST Serioornis Tnmilis, Holland, 1962 Omithorhynaus anatinus, cers. con. Mardon Potorous tridactylus, pers. com. Calaby Isoodon obesuluSs pers. con. Calaby Peramelee gunnii, pers. can. Calabv Triahosurus vulpeaula, pers. con. Mardon SaraophiluB harrisi, pers. con. Calabv Dasyurops maoulatus, pers. con. Mardon Dasywrue viverrinus, pers. can. Calabv Anteohinus swaineonii, pers. con. Calabv Anteahirais mininus, ners. con. Calabv Hydromus ahrysogaster, pers. com. Calabv Mastaoomys fusaus, pers. com. Calabv Pseudomys higginsi, pers. com. Calabv Pattus lutreolus, pers. con. Calabv Rattus rattus, pers. can. Calabv Rattus njorvigicu.8, pers. can. Calaby Potorous triidaatylus, pers. con. Calabv Bettongia cuniculus, pers. com. Calabv Isoodon oheeulus, pers. com. Calabv Perameles gunnii, pers. com. Calabv Dasyurops maoulatus, pers. com. Mardon Dasyurus viverrinus, pers. com. Mardon Rattus lutreolus, pers. con. Calabv Potorous tridactylus, pers. con. Calaby Rattus lutreolus, pers. oon. Calaby Aoanthopsylla Aaanthopsylla rothsahildi (Rainbow, 1905) Aaanthopsylla saintilla (M. Roths., 1936) Aoanthopsylla sp. n. ChordstopsyI la Chordstopsylla oahi (Roths., 1904) Bradiopsylla Bradiopsylla eahidnae (Denny, 1843) Isoodon obesulus, pers. can. Calaby Perameles gunnii, pers. com. Calabv Triahosurus vulpeaula, pers. con. Calaby Eudromiaia lepida, pers. con. Calaby Dasyurus viverrinus, pers. con. Calaby Dasyurops maoulatus, pers. can. Calaby *Smintlwp8is leuaopus, pers. con. Calaby Pseudomys higginsi, pers. com. Calaby Rattus lutreoplus, ners. can. Calaby *Ceroartetus nanus * Eudromiaia lepida, pers. con. Calabv Anteohinus swainsonii, pers. con. Calaby Ceraartetus nanus, pers. con. Calabv Eudromiaia lepida, pers. can. Calabv Triahosurus vulpeaula, pers. com. Calabv Eudromiaia lepida, pers. com. Mardon Taahyglossus setosus, pers. con. Calaby Parasites of Tasmania 13 Genus Genus Family Sub Family Genus Family Genus Family Genus Family Genus PARASITE Lyaopsylla Lyaopsylla nova Roths ., 1904 Uropsylla UropsyZla tasmaniaa Roths 1905 STEPWANOCIRCIPAE STEPMNOCIRCIME Stephanoairous Stephxnooirous peotinipes Roths., 1915 ■ Stephanoairous simsoni Roths., 1905 Stephanoairous dasyuri Skuse, 1893 Stephanoairous n. sp. MACROPSyurVAE Maoropsytla Maaropsylla heraules Roths., 1905 ISCHNOPSVLLWAE Porribius Porribius sp. LEPTOPSVLLIVAE Leptopsylla Leptopsiflla segnis (Schonherr, 1811) HOST Vombatus ursinus, pers. ocm. Calaby Saraophilus harrisi, pers. ocm. Calaby Dasyurops maaulatus, pers. com. Calaby Dasyurus viverrinus, pers. com. Calaby Pseudomys higginsi, pers. ocm. Calaby Rattus lutreoVus, pers. ccm. Calaby Dasyurus viverrinus, pers. ccm. Calais Rattus lutreolue, pers. ccm. Calaby Potorous tridaatylus, pers. ccm. Calaby Isoodon obesulus, pers. ccm. Calaby Perameles gunnii, pers. ccm. Calaby Dasyurops maculatus, pers. ccm. Mardon Dasyurus viverrinus, pers. ccm. Calaby Rydromys ohryeogaster, pers. ccm. Calaby Rattus lutreolus, pers. ccm. Calaby Rattus rattus, pers. com. Calaby Anteahinus swainsonii, pers. ccm. Calaby Anteahinus minimus, pers. ocm. Calaby Anteahinus swainsonii, pers. ocm. Calaby Rydromys ahrysogaster, pers. ccm. Calaby Mastaaomys fusaus, pers. ccm. Calaby Rattus lutreolus, pers. ccm. Calaby Rattus rattus, pers. ocm. Calaby Chalinolobus gouldi, pers. ccm. Calaby Pipistrellus tasmaniensis, pers. ccm. Calaby Ryatophilus geoffroyi, pers. can. Calaby Eptesious pumilus, pers. ocm. Calaby Anteahinus minimus, pers. com. Mardon Rattus lutreolue, pers. can. (^laby Rattus rattus, pers. com. Calaby Rattus norvegiaus, pers. can. Mardon Mus musaulus, pers. con. Calaby 14 Parasites of Tasmania Family Genus Order Family Genus Family Genus Family Genus Genus Genus Family Genus PARASITE host CERATOPH/LLIPAE Nosopsyttus Hosopsyllus fasaiatus (Bose. D'Antic, 1801) Nosopsyttus londiniensis (toths., 1903^ DIPTERA CHLOROPWAE Batraahomyia Batraohomyia sp. MUSCIPAE Passeromyia Passeromyia sp. HIPPOSOSeWAE Omithophila Omithophila metalliaa (Schiner, 1864) Omithonrya Omithomya aviaularia nigriaomis (Erichson, 1842) Omithomya opposita W^Ucer, 1849 Ortholfersia Ortholfersia phaneroneura Speiser, 1902 WCTEPmWAE Basilia Basilia multiepinosa (Musgrave, 1927) Basilia n. sp. Fattus lutreolus, pers. con. Marriott Fattus norvegiouSj pers. con. Mardon Fattus rattus, pers. con. Calaby Ovinia levis, pers. ocm. Hic)4/ J<:'/w • M ^ 4 ''4^4 4,444*C Qi. Figure 4. Broad areas of Tasmanian Aboriginal flaked implement stone type associations. 16 Stone Implements of Tasmanian Aborigines overlain by Cainozoic sediments and basalt flows, and Cambrian cherts and silicified breccias outcrop to the west and south (Burns, 1964). This matches the implement materials and some of the silicified breccia may have been quarried from the Ulverstone area (Figure 5, Appendix 2). Many of the implements show pre-flaking waterworn and percussed surfaces (33% at East Devonport, 20% at Mersev Northdown) suggesting considerable use of transported materials washed into beach and river deposits, and a few such quarried deposits are known (Figure 5, Appendix 2). Some of the collections at Northdown contain spongolite (up to 5%) and some dolomitic phthanite typical of west coast collections, and these are probably exotic materials brought in by Aborigines. The North Coast Area (West Beach, West Head, Five Mile Bluff, Pipers River, Pipers Rivulet). These collections differ from those further west in hornfelsic rocks dominating over cherts, and thev often contain appreciable amounts of silica and quartzite, which becomes dominant at Pipers Rivulet. The collections also generally lack silicified rudites, and where present to any extent, as at West Beach, they are generally not Cambrian types. The hornfelsic rocks include a distinctive banded chert hornfels with relics of fenestellid fossils typical of Permian strata (up to 20% at West Head and 5 Mile Bluff). The cherts are often exotic Cambrian types, and the chalcedony-opal includes silicified wood. Rare basalt appears in the collections as at Piper Rivulet. Geologically the area consists of Lower Palaeozoic slates and quartzites overlain with Permo-Triassic strata intruded with Jurassic dolerite to the west and south, and covered in parts with Cainozoic sediments and basalt flows (Marshall, et.al., 1964). Some of the collection materials (up to 35%), particularly the cherts, show pre-flaking waterworn and percussed surfaces indicating transported materials. Much of the hornfelsic rock was presumably obtained from alluvial material washed into the area from the west into the Piper River drainage, and cherts presumably represent pebbles freed and washed down from the Permo-Triassic beds. The chalcedony-opal, and silicified wood presumably comes mostly from the Cainozoic volcanic areas, and the quartz and quartzite comes from veins in the Lower Palaeozoic strata, recycled material from the younger strata, and in the case of West Beach, material derived from Precambrian outcrops at Badaer Head. Thus, much of the material was probably obtained by the Aborigines in detrital form and quarried beach deposits extend from Badger Head to west of Bridport (Figure 5, Appendix 2). Northern and Central Tasmanian Area (Barnards Creek,Donovons Creek, Mt. Leslie, Relbia, Powranna, Cluan, Liffey, Great Lake). Collections here generally have high hornfels contents, sometimes with minor quartzites. Most of these are chert hornfels typical of Jurassic dolerite/Permo- Triassic contact rocks, but some represent silicified Cainozoic sub-basaltic beds. In a few cases exotic cherts and chert breccias of Cambrian types are present, and are probably recycled materials from the Permo-Triassic strata. The materials generally match the geology of the area (Blake, et.al. , 1956; Blake, 1959; Longman, et.al., 1966) and were either quarried directly from outcrops or were obtained from local detrital deposits (Figure 5, Appendix 2). Midlands Area (Campbell Town, Ross, Mona Vale, Tunbridge). These collections contain moderate to high contents of hornfelsic rock (50 - 90%) associated with quartzites (up to 25%), chalcedony-opal (up to 30%) and quartz (up to 10%) . This correlates with the local geology of Permo-Triassic strata stone Implements of Tasmanian Aborigines 17 intruded with Jurassic dolerite and overlain with Cainozoic sediments and basalt lavas (Nye, 1921, 1926). Most of the hornfels and quartzites suites are typical of Triassic strata contacts (Figure 5, Appendix 2), but silicarenaceous cherty hornfels in the Ross - Mona Vale (12%) and Campbell Town (5%) collections probably represent Permian strata contact roc)cs which outcrop between Ross and Campbell Town. Vein quartz in the collections presumably derives from pebbles freed from Permo-Triassic strata, and the chalcedony-opal is a product of the Cainozoic volcanic roc)cs . Northern East Coast Area (Cape Portland, Cobler Rocks, Eddystone Point, Ansons River, Ansons Bay, Bay of Fires). This region shows collections with moderate amounts of hornfelsic rocks (50 - 65%) associated with quartz, chalcedony-opal and quartzite. Excavations in the area (Jones, 1965) suggests that surface collection distributions are inaccurate in that quartz was the dominant material used by the aborigines in much of the area, and was presumably neglected by previous collectors, due to its 'amorphous' nature. The geology of the area is essentially folded and quartz-veined Palaeozoic quartzites and slates, intruded by granitic bodies; there are minor areas of Jurassic dolerites invading Permian strata, Mesozoic (?) appinitic rocks and Cainozoic sediments and basaltic lavas (Jennings and Sutherland, 1969) . This is consistent with dominant quartz implement association. Tourmaline in rare quartz implements suggests granitic origin for some of it, and hornfelsic rocks are mostly Palaeozoic strata-granite contact types, with rare types typical of Permo-Triassic strata-dolerite contacts. Pre-flaking waterworn surfaces and exotic Cambrian rock types are much rarer in these implements than in adjacent areas to the west and south; this again reflects the general paucity of pebbly Permo-Triassic source outcrops in the area. Pebbles of hornfels, quartzite and quartz were quarried at the Bay of Fires and St. Helens, flinty beach pebbles and quartz-chalcedonic agate from veinstones in Jurassic dolerite were worked at Cape Portland, Tertiary olivine-basalt pebbles were utilised at Cobler Rocks, and pebbles of porphyritic pitchstone of unknown provenance were used at Eddystone beach (Figure 5, Appendix 2). Rare stone core scrapers and tools are known from the Furneaux Group Islands (Tindale, 1941; Rhys Jones and R. A. Littlewood, pers. comm.). These include a crude tool of slightly sheared 'greywacke' from Whitemark, Flinders Island (possibly locally derived stone), and quartzitic ('greybilly') tools from N. W. Cape Barren Island of uncertain source. East Coast Area (Dianas Basin, Scamander, Falmouth, Piccaninny Point, Beach End, Douglas River, Bicheno, Courland). This composite region has typical implement materials of the northern east coast association, derived from folded Palaeozoic beds and granite intrusions, intermingled with hornfelsic rocks typical of the south-eastern coastal association derived from Permo-Triassic strata intruded by Jurassic dolerite (Walker, 1957; McNeil, 1965). This results from juxtaposition of the two geologically distinct terrains against a large fault along the east coast, downthrowing the younger rocks inland. Many of the collections show high contents of hornfelsic rocks, and proportions of types derived from older Palaeozoic, Permian and Triassic rocks vary considerably. Triassic types are most commonly recognised and Permian types, with relic bryozoan fossils, were noted in the Piccaninny Point, Long Point, Seymour, Fingal Rivulet, Falmouth, Scamander and Dianas Basin collections, with greatest frequency at Dianas Basin (15%) and Scamander (10%). The Permian types presumably come from outcrops in the Fingal - St. Marys - Upper Scamander area, and were probably indirectly obtained by Aborigines from detritus washed down towards the coast. 18 Stone Implements of Tasmanian Aborigines Types typical of Palaeozoic granite contacts occur in the Biclieno, Beach End and Cullenswood collections and quarries are known in these rocks nearby (Figure 5, Appendix 2). Some collections contain implements with pre-flaking waterworn and percussed surfaces (8% at Long Point, with 2% Cambrian cherts, banded chert breccias, and spilitic breccia) and these are presumably pebbles freed from Permo-Triassic strata. Granitic outcrops along the coast provide a source of quartz, which is predominant in implements along Freycinet Peninsula (Figure 5, Appendix 2); an implement of quartz in pegmatite is in the Courland collection. Hughes (1959) reports artefacts of 'chert' among middens on Schouten Island, a rock type he did not find on the Island; he infers aboriginal transport from the mainland, while Crowther (1950) records some use of the local material (Figure 5, Appendix 2). Southern East Coast and Southern Midlands Area (Oyster Bay, Little Swanport, Grindstone Bay, Orford. Bream Creek, Carlton, Nubeena, Hunterston, Oatlands, Lake Dulverton, Elderslie, Hunting Ground, Melton Mowliray, Kempton, Bagdad, Pontville, Tea Tree, Brigliton, Dromedary). Very high contents of hornfelsic rocks (mostly between 85 - 100%) characterise collections of this area. The hornfels suite consists dominantly of chert hornfels and cherty hornfels, occasionally associated with minor quartzites, and they are nearly all typical of Triassic strata-dolerite contacts. A few collections contain Cambrian cherts and chert breccias, presumably from pebbles freed from Permo-Triassic strata. In general, collections match the local geology (Hills, et.al., 1922; Nye, 1921, 1922; Blake, 1958), but discrepancies occur. Chert hornfels from Permian contacts, with relic bryozoans, form 4 - 5% of the collections at Early Rises, Grindstone Bay and Ironhouse Point, but no outcrops of the rock are mapped in the vicinity. Rare implements of cherty silicified rudites, identical to the type outcropping around Droughty - South Arm area, are found in the Early Rises, Grindstone Bay, Little Swanport and Pontville collections and may have been carried tn from the south by the Aborigines. The Aboriginal camps at Roaring Beach, Tasman Peninsula, contain chippings of quartz, quartzite, feldspar, jasper and other materials, besides the local chert hornfels, and were probably carried in from else¬ where; similarly on Slopen Island, amongst implements of cherty local stone, there are some of an indurated mudstone not found naturally on the island (0. W. Reid, ms. comm.). A Pontville collection includes an implement of spongolite, typical of the west coast material (Q.V.M. cat. no. 1963:44:450), which, if genuinely located, infers aboriginal transport of over 200 miles. Numerous Aboriginal quarry sites are known in the area (Figure 5, Appendix 2). Most are in hornfelsic and quartzitic rocks at Jurassic dolerite - Triassic strata contacts with a few Permian strata contacts. Quarries are particularly abundant in the Swanston - Oatlands area, on the major Aboriginal migratory route inland along the Little Swanport River valley to the Midlands and Central Plateau. Areas of cherty hornfels up to 3/4 mile across were worked with rounded hand-size dolerite hammer stones. These hammers show impact scars, occur sporadically amongst the flaked debris, and were brought up from nearby creek beds. Quarried sub-basaltic (?) quartzite is known at Lemont, minor agate was worked near Little Swanport and Jurassic dolerite was quarried on the Swansea coast for use in large scraping and pounding tools. Very large "axes" were made from a quarry near Bothwell (133j, Coal Valley and Plttwater Area (Campania, Richmond, Orielton, Penna, Sorell, Four Mile Creek). These collections resemble the hornfels-quartzite-chalcedony-opal collections of the geologically similar Midlands area, and again the appearance of chalcedony-opal sbNoo Figure 5. Known and reported Tasmanian Aboriginal stone source sites, numbers refer to site localities, description of site and sources of information, as listed in Appendix 2. 20 Stone Implements of Tasmanian Aborigines reflects the presence of widespread Cainozoic basalts (Gatehouse, 1967; Loveday, 1957). The Four Mile Creek (Iron Creek) collection contains abundant vein quartz and quartzites of Precambrian types, and these were probably obtained from detrital pebbles freed from the Permo-Triassic and younger strata. The Richmond and Penna collections contain some silicified breccias, and pass transitionally into the adjacent Southern East Derwent area collections, which typically contain such material. Aboriginal quarry sites are known in chert hornfels (Orielton), quartzite (Campania), and in chalcedony, opal and jasper at a number of places around Sorell associated with volcanic centres (Figure 5, Appendix 2.). Southern East Derwent Area (Bridgewater, Old Beach, Risdon, Shag Bay, Geilston Bay, Lindisfarne, Bellerive, Rokeby, Droughty Point, Single Hill, Ralphs Bay, Sandford, South Arm). These collections generally contain 60 - 90% hornfelsic rocks, and commonly include silicified breccias (up to 15^. The silicified breccias are distinctive rocks containing angular to rounded fragments in a cherty matrix and grade to silicarenaceous cherty hornfels. Sources of such rock are known at Droughty Point and Pipe Clay Lagoon (Figure 5, Appendix 2) and the Clifton Beach collection from near this latter occurrence contains up to 40% silicarenaceous cherty hornfels of this type. Opaline material is locally important around its quarry sources as at Shag Bay, and mudstone, quartzite and sub-basaltic cherty hornfels were quarried to a minor extent from Geilston Bay to South Arm (Figures 3 & 5, Appendix 2). This is an area of Permo-Triassic strata intruded by Jurassic dolerite, and overlain in places with Cainozoic sediments and minor basalt flows (Lewis, 1946; Green, 1961; Banks et.al., 1965). Generally, the collections show some correspondence with the geology, although the implements of hornfels types typical of dolerite - Triassic strata contacts are anomalous on South Arm and suggest Aboriginal transport. Sou thern West Derwent Area (Ouse, Bushy Park, New Town, Cornelian Bay, Kingston, Bruny Island). Collections of this area show fairly high contents of hornfelsic rocks, commonly associated with quartzites (up to 25%) , and many are notable for the high contents of silicarenaceous and silicirudaceous cherty hornfels (50% at Kingston, 30% at New Town). Such rocks were obtained from Permian strata near dolerite contacts (London Marsh, Oyster Cove, Chalky Point and Great Bay - Bruny Island), from sub-basaltic Cainozoic "grey billy" (Kingston, Coffee Creek, N.W.Bay), or from beach pebbles of these rocks (Margate and N. Daniels Bay); and from Triassic strata- dolerite contacts (Ellendale, Plenty River, Port Huon), as detailed in Figure 5, Appendix 2. The collections match the general geology of the area (Hills, et.al., 1922; Lewis, 1946; Prider, 1948; Hale, 1953; Anand Alwar, 1960; Banks, et. at., 1965). SUMMARY The flaked stone implements of the Tasmanian Aborigines were mostly made from siliceous materials. Use of a wide variety of such materials reflects the complex geology of Tasmania. Commonly used materials include cherty hornfelsic rocks, cherts, impure cherts, spongolite, quartzites, chalcedony, opal, silicified breccias, and rarely dolerite, basalt and other miscellaneous rocks. Broadly, implement collections in the eastern half of the State are dominated by hornfelsic rocks. This corresponds with a geological region of abundant contact metamorphic zones of Jurassic dolerite and Palaeozoic granites, with quartz becoming stone Implements of Tasmanian Aborigines 21 most significant in the granite areas. The collections in the western half of the State are more variable and may be dominated by cherts (with chert breccias), impure cherts (dolomitic phthanites), spongolite (silicified silicispiculites), quartzites and quartz, with rare concentrations of hornfelsic rocks. Collections over the State fall into eight main stone associations (Figures 3 and 4). In many cases implement collections in an area show high correlation with the local geology, but in some instances much or part of the material is extraneous. There are indications of aboriginal transport of favoured materials to distances up to a few hundred miles, and to the other side of the State from the source. About 180 sources of raw materials used in the implements are now known, ranging from extensively quarried rock outcrops to worked detrital deposits (Figure 5, Appendix 2). some island rocks were used locally, e.g. Hunter Island (Appendix 2). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author is grateful to numerous people who helped considerably in the compilation of this study. The topic was suggested to the author by Mrs. T. B. Kemp, Sydney, who guided much of the initial work and made arrangements for the examination of implement collections in the Australian Museum. Information, help, criticism, and discussion during the project were provided particularly by Mr. Rhys Jones, Dept, of Prehistory, School of Pacific Studies, A.N.U.; Mr. Harry Lourandos, Anthropology Dept., University of Sydney; Mr. R. 0. Chalmers, Australian Museum; Mr. 0. W. Reid, Hobart; Prof. W. D. Jackson and Dr. R. M. Jacklyn, University of Tasmania; Dr. E. Williams, Tasmanian Mines Dept.; Miss P. Giles, Hobart; Messrs. B. H. Brimfield, R. Tanner, D. Walter and J. M. Curtis, Launceston and Messrs. P. C. Sims and R. Webb, Devonport. Messrs. N. and P. Young, and M. Lester of Andover, and W. and P. Dunbabin, Swanston, hospitably guided the author to aboriginal quarries around Swanston and Andover. The project was commenced while the author was employed at the Queen Victoria Museum, Launceston, and much help was given by Mr. W. F. Ellis, Director, and staff members. The work was finalised at the authors present place of employment, with the assistance of Dr. W. Bryden, Director, Trustees and staff of the Tasmanian Museum. REFERENCES ANAND ALWAR, M. A. 1960. Geology and Structure of the Middle Derwent Valiev. Proa. Roy. Soo. Tasm. 94, 13-24. BANKS, M. R. et.al. 1965. Geological Map of Hobart. Dep. Min. Tasm. BLAKE, F. et.al. 1956. Great Lake Sheet. Geol. Surv. Tasm., 1 - mile Geol. Mao Ser. No. 53. BLISSETT, Ser. 1958. Buckland Sheet. Geol. Surv. Tasm. 1959. Longford Sheet. Geol. Surv. Tasm. A. H. 1962. Zeehan. Explan. Rep. Geol K/55-5-50 . 1- mile Geol. Map Ser. No. 76. 1- mile Geol. Map Ser. No. 47. Surv. Tasm. 1 - mile Geol. Map BRANNAGAN, D. F. and MEGAW, J. V. S. 1969. The Lithology of a Coastal Aboriginal Settlement at Curracurrang, N.S.W. Aroh. and Phys. Anthr. in Oceania, 4, 1, 1-17. 22 Stone Implements of Tasmanian Aborigines BRIMFIELD, B. H. 1968. Bipolar Scalar Artefacts from North Eastern Tasmania. Mankind 6, 12, 691-693. BRYDEN, W. 1960. The Story of Tasmanian Aborigines. Tas . Mus . Booklet, G'vt. Print, Hobart. BURNS, K. L. 1964. Devonport. Explan. Rep. Geol. Suvv . Tasm. 1 - mile Geol . Map Ser. K/55-6-29. CAINE, N. 1968. The Blockfields of North eastern Tasmania. Dep . Geog. Publ. G/6 . Aust. Nat. Univ. Pres. CAREY, S. W. 1946. The Geology of the Launceston District, Tasmania. Rea. Q. Viot. Mus. II, 1, 31-46. CHAPPELL, J. 1966. Stone Axe Factories in the Highlands of New Guinea. Proa. Prehist. Soa. 32, 30-72. CROWTHER, W. E. L. H. 1950. On the Formation and Disposal of a Collection. Proa. Roy. Soa. Tasm. for 1949, 83-92. DANA, E. S. 1954. A textbook of Mineralogy . Ed. W. E. Ford. 4th Edition J. Wiley & Sons Inc. New York. DAVID, T. W. E. 1924. Geological Evidence of the Antiquity of Man in the Commonwealth with Special Reference to the Tasmanian Aborigines. R. M. Johnston Memorial Lecture. Proa. Roy. Soa. Tasm. for 1923, 109-150. GATEHOUSE, C. G. 1967. The Geology of the Richmond - Sorell Area. Proa. Roy. Soa Tasm. 101, 1-7. GEE, R. D. 1966. Table Cape Sheet. Geol. Surv. Tasm. 1 - mile Geol. Map Ser. No. 22 GREEN, D. C. 1961. The Geology of the South Arm - Sandford Area. Proa. Roy. Soa. Tasm.. 95, 17-34. HALE, G. E. A. 1953. The Geology of the Dover District. Proa. Roy. Soa. Tasm. for 1952, 97-135. HIATT, B. 1968. The Food Quest and the Economy of the Tasmanian Aborigines. Oceania. 38, 3, 190-219. HILLS, C. L. et. al. 1922. The Coal Resources of Tasmania. Miner. Resour. Geol. Surv. Tasm. 1. HUGHES, T. D. 1959. Schouten Island. Tech. Rep. Dep. Min. Tasm. 3, 81-88. JENNINGS, I. B. 1963. Middlesex, Explan. Rep. Geol. Surv. Tasm. 1- mile Geol. Map. Ser. K/55-6-45. JENNINGS, D. J., and SUTHERLAND, F. L. 1969. The Geology of the Cape Portland Area, North-East Tasmania, with Special Reference to the Mesozoic (?) Appinitic Rocks. Teah. Rep. Dep. Min. Tasm. 13, 45-82. JONES, RHYS. 1965. Archaeological Reconnaissance in Tasmania, Summer 1963-1964. Oceania 35, 191-201. -1966 . A Speculative Archaeological Sequence for North-west Tasmania. Rea. Q. Viat. Mus. (N.S.) 25. stone Implements of Tasmanian Aborigines 23 1967. Middens and Man in Tasmania. Aust. Nat. Hist. 15, 11, 359-364. _ 1968. The Geographical Background to the Arrival of Man in Australia and Tasmania. Avoh, and Phys. Anthro. in Oceania, 3, 3, 186-215. LEGGE, R. W. 1930, Tasmanian Stone Culture: Some Notes on Distinctive Types, Spokeshaves, Borers and Chipping Tools and Their Probable Uses. Proa. Ploy. Soo. Taam. for 1929, 39-43, LEWIS, A. N. 1946. The Geology of the Hobart District. (Mem. Vol) Mercury Press. Hobart. LONGMAN, M. J, et. at. 1966. Launceston. Exptan. Rep. Geol. Surv. Tasm., 1-mile Geol. Map Ser. K/55-7-39. LORD, C. E. 1928. The South Coast and Port Davey, Tasmania. Proa. Roy. Soo. Tasm. for 1927, 13-14. LOURANDOS, Harry. 1968. Dispersal of Activities - The East Tasmanian Aboriginal Sites. Proa. Roy. Soa. Tasm. 102 (II), 41-46. LOVEDAY, J. 1957. The Soils of the Sorell-Carlton-Copping Area, South-East Tasmania, with Special Reference to the Soils Formed on Basalt. C.S.I.R.O. Aust. Soil Publ. 8. McBRYDE, I. 1966. An Archaeological Survey of the New England Region, N.S.W. Ph. D. Thesis. University of New England, Armidale. McNIEL, R, D. 1965. The Geology of the Mt. Elephant-Piccanniny Point Area, Tasmania. Proa. Roy. Soo. Tasm. 99, 27-49. MARSHALL, B. et.al. 1964. Pipers River Sheet. Geol. Surv. Tasm. 1 - mile Geol. Map Ser. No. 31. MAXWELL, J. A. 1963. Geochemical Study of Some Chert and Related Deposits. Geol. Surv. Canada. Dep. Min. Tech. Surv. Bull. 104. MULVANEY, D. J. 1969. The Prehistory of Australia. Thames and Hudson, London. NOETLING, F. 1907. Notes on the Amorpholithes of the Tasmanian Aborigines. No. 1.- The Native Quarry on Coal Hill, near Melton Mowbray., Tasm. Nat. 1, 2, 14-19. - 1909a. Notes on a Chipped Boulder Found near Kempton. Proa. Roy. Soo. Tasm. for 1908, 1-10. - 1909b. The Native Quarry of SyJidal near Ross. Proa. Roy. Soa. Tasm. for 1908, 44-52. - 1909c. The Aboriginal Designations for Stone Implements. Proa. Roy. Soa. Tasm. 1908, 60-67. - 1910. Preliminary Note on the Rocks Used in the Manufacture of the Tronattas. Proa. Roy. Soa. Tasm. for 1909, 85-102. - 1911. Comparison of the Tasmanian Trohatta with the Archaeolithic Implements of Europe. Proa. Roy. Soa. Tasm. for 1910, 265-278. - 1912a. Notes on the Marks of Percussion on Siliceous Rocks, Proa. Roy. Sno. Tasm. for 1911, 1-20. _ 1912b. The Manufacture of the Tero-Watta, ibid. 38-61. 24 Stone Implements of Tasmanian Aborigines NYE, P. B. 1921. The Underground Water Resources of the Midlands. Underg. Wat. Supply Pap. Tasm. 1. - 1922. The Underground Water Resources of the Jericho-Richmond- Bridgewater Area. Ibid. 2. - 1926. The Campbell Town-Conara-St. Marys District. Ibid 4. PETTIJOHN, F. J. 1949. Sedimentary Rocks. Harper Bros. New York. PLOMLEY, N. J. B. (ed.) 1966. Friendly Mission; The Tasmanian Journals of George Augustus Robinson, 1829-1934. Tasm. Hist. Research Assoc. Hobart. PRIDER, R. T. 1948. The Geology of the Country around Tarraleah. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasm. for 1947, 127-150. QUICK, Lelande 1963. The Book of Agates. Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd. London. RITZ, H. B. 1909. On Dr. Noetling's Conclusions Respecting the Aboriginal Designations for Stone Implements. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasm. for 1908, 68-72. ROSENFELD, Andree 1965. The Inorganic Raw Materials of Antiquity. Weidenfeld & Nicholson, London. ROTH, H. Ling 1899. The Aborigines of Tasmania. 2nd Edit. Halifax (England). SCOTT, E. O. G. 1942. Stone Artefacts of Non-Tasmanoid Facies Found or Obtained in Tasmania. Rec. Q. Viet. Mus. 1, 2, 35-67. SCOTT, J. R. 1873. Memorandum. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasm. for 1873, 24-25. SHOTTEN, F. W. 1968. Prehistoric Man's Use of Stone in Britain (The Henry Stopes Lecture, 1967). Proc. Geol. Assoc. 13, 4, 477-491, SMYTH, R. B. 1878. The Aborigines of Victoria; with Notes Relating to the Habits of the Natives of other Parts of Australia and Tasmania. Melbourne & London: 2 Vols. SPRY, A. H. 9, 2. and BTiNKS, M. R. 1962. The Geology of Tasmania. J. Geol. Soc. Aus t SPRY, A. H. and BAKER, W. E. 1965. The Precambrian Rocks of Tasmania, Part VII. Notes on the Petrology of Some Rocks from the Port Davey-Bathurst Harbour Area. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasm. 99, 17-26. STEPHENS, T. 1909. Comment. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasm. for 1908, p. iv. SUTHERLAND, F. L. 1965. Tin Tinalysis of the rock types and their distribution in the flaked stone implements of the Tasmanian Tiborigine. A.N,Z.A.A.S., 38th Congress, Hobart, Section F., Abstracts. and CORBETT, K. D., 1967. The Tertiary Volcanic Rocks of Far North-Western Tasmania. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasm. 101, 71-90. TINDALE, N. B. 1941. Tintiquity of Man in Australia. Aust. J. Sci. 3, 144-147. - 1942. A Tasmanian Stone Implement made from Bottle Glass. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasm. for 1941, 1-3. stone Implements of Tasmanian Aborigines 25 VERHOFSTAD, J. 1965. Glaucophanitic stone implements from West New Guinea (West Irian). A.N.Z.A.A.S., 38th Congress, Hobart. Section C. Abstracts. WAHLSTROM, E. E. 1955. Petrographic Mineralogy. John Wiley & Sons Inc. New York. ‘' WALKER, J. B. 1902 . Early Tasmanian Papers. Tas. Govt. Print WALKER, K. R. 1957 . Geology of the St. Helens-Scamander Area Soc. Tasm. 91, 109-114. WESTLAKE, E. mms. "Tasmanian field diaries of E. Westlake". Pitt Rivers Museum Oxford; photocopy, Aust. Inst. Abor. Stud. Library, Canberra. ' Plate 1. Site of Aboriginal quarry, 2*5 miles S. of Sloop Point, north of Gorge Point. Quartz veins in the quartzite outcrop have been extensively worked on the sunny northern face (near standing figure). Quartzite hammerstones, found around the outcrop, were carried up from the boulder beach in the foreground (P. C. Sims and R. Webb party, photo). Plate 2. Close up of north face of quarry site in Plate 1, showing host quartzite outcrop with quartz veins, with remaining quartz flakes and quartzite hammerstones (some broken) around outcrop base (P. C. Sims and R. Webb party, photo). Plate 3(a). Aboriginal quarry, east bank, Marshalls Creek, Swanston area, showing litter of flaked cores of cherty hornfels rock. (b). Close up of flaked cores at quarry site, showing associated dolerite hammerstones. Plate (3b) Plate 2 Plate 4(a). Extensive Aboriginal quarry, E. side of Pikes Creek, 3/4 mile from junction with Little Swanport River, Swanston area. Numerous flaked cores and flakes, with associated dolerite hammerstones, have been exposed by land clearing operations. , (b). Close up of flaked blocks of cherty hornfels rock in Aboriginal quarry on S. bank. Pepper Creek, Swanston area. Plate 5(a). Extensively worked Aboriginal quarry in silicarenaceous cherty hornfels, exposed in. low-tide reef, S. shore of Oyster Cove. (b) Closeup of flaked surface of Oyster Cove quarry outcrop, standing between 1 to 2 feet high and littered with flakes at its base. Plate 5(a) Plate 5(b) 30 Stone Implements of Tasmanian Aborigines TABLE 1. COMPARISON OF STONE TYPE PERCENTAGES IN SITE COLLECTIONS. Numbers in brackets refer to number of samples in oollection. S=spongolite, IC=impure chert, Qt=quartzite, Q=quartz, H=hornfels suite, C=chert, 0-C=opal-chaicedony, SB=silicified breccia. WEST COAST Locality & Collector Legge Parker Jones Aust. Museum Ellis Mt. Cameron West (60) S 61% IC 38% (85) S 47% IC 36% Qt 9% (23) S 72% IC 10% Qt 8% (35) S 71% IC 23% Qt 4% West Point (99) S 61% IC 38% (24) S 50% IC 34% Qt 8% (42.) IC 38% Qt 33% S 27% Arthur River (32) S 80% IC 17% (66) S 64% IC 33% Temma (20) S 92% IC 8% (70) S 71% IC 23% C 6% Ordnance Point (143) S 94% (72) S 93% (28) S 100% Sandy Cape (352) S 80% IC 15% (33) S 45% IC 40% (26) S 91% IC 6% (161) S 67% IC 27% stone Implements of Tasmanian Aborigines 31 NORTH COAST Locality & Collector Legge Parker Salter Wilkinson Braemer & Others Northdown (54) (70) (77) C 57% C 70% C 47% H 17% SB 19% H 28% SB 7% H 10% SB 13% Qt 9% S 5% 0-C 6% Qt 1 S + O-C + West Head & Beach (68) (33) (23) H 38% H 69% H 69% Qt 27% C 31% C 2 3% C 17% SB + SB 9% Q 8% 0-C + O-C + Pipers River (49) (41) H 33% H 40% C 28% C 23% 0-C 22% Q 22% Q 13% Qt 12% Qt + O-C + EAST & SOUTH TASMANIA Locality & Collector Legge Parker Salter Aust. Mus. Braemer & Others Winton (80) H 47% O-C 29% Qt 12% Q 12% (61) H 90% Qt 10% Mona Vale (212) H 69% Qt 12% O-C 12% (237) H 88% Qt 7% O-C 5% (69) H 84% O-C 10% Qt 6% 32 Stone Implements of Tasmanian Aborigines Locality & Collector Legge Parker Salter Aust . Mus . Braemer & Others Tunbridge (538) H 60% Qt 27% 0-C 10% Q + (46) H 84% 0-C 8% Qt 6% Q + Seymour (630) H 89% 0-C 6% (21) H 100% Kelvedon (36) H 97% (110) H 95% Mayfield (90) H 100% (22) Hey. H 100% Orford (115) H 97% (33) H '100% (67) H 96% Oatlands-L. Dulverton (36) H 81% Qt 8% Q + (21) H 95% Qt 5% (113) H 91% Q 6% Qt + Melton Mowbray (211) H 91% Qt 6% 0-C + (28) H 93% 0-C 7% (49) H 92% Qt 5% (20) H 95% Qt 5% Pontville (20) H 85% Qt 5% 0-C 5% (435) H 86% Qt 8% 0-C 4% Geilston Bay (42) H 71% 0-C 17% Qt 7% SB 5% (62) Jack. H 77% Qt 10% 0-C 7% SB + Bellerive (27) H 82% SB 11% Qt 4% 0-C 4% (26) H 87% SB 6% Qt 6% stone Implements of Tasmanian Aborigines 33 Locality & Collector Legge Parker Salter Aust. Mus. Braemer & Others Rokeby (23) H 58% Qt 21% SB 12% 0-C + (215) H 90% SB 5% Qt + 0-C + New Town (306) H 89% Qt 8% (45) H 85% Qt 15% 34 Stone Implements of Tasmanian Aborigines APPENDIX I - LIST OF IMPLEMENT COLLECTION LOCALITIES IN DISTRIBUTION MAP OF STONE TYPES (FIGURE 3). Initial figures refer to site numbers on map, followed by site names, letters refer to collectors identity and following numbers in brackets refer to number of implements in each individual collection at the site. Collection identities are: L=Legge, P=Parker, S=Salter, A=Australian Museum, B=Braemer, J=Jones , W=Whittle, E=Ellis, C=Curtis, F=Fenton, H=Heywood, Wi=Wilkinson, Hu=Hume, Bu=Burns , Ha=Hay, G=Green, Ja=Jacklyn, K=Kemp, SW=Sims & Webb, W=Walter, Su=Sutherland , Y=Young . 1. Bluff Point, L(222). 2. Mt. Cameron West, P(85). 3. " " " , L(60). 4. " " ", A(23) . 5. " ■' ", E(35) . 6. Green Point, L(58). 7. Marrawah, J(320). 8. West Point, L(99). 9. " ", J(42). 10. " " , P(24). 11. Mawson Bay, L(137). 12. Bluff Head Point, L(86). 13. Arthur River, J(66). 14. " ", L(62). 15. Sundown Creek, E(71). 16. Rebecca Creek, J(35). 17. Tcmma, L(20). 18. ", P(70) . 19. Ordnance Point, L(143) 20. " ", J(72). 21. " " , E(28) . 22. Thornton River, E(20). 23. Sandy Cape, L(352). 24. " " , E{161) . 25. " " , A(26) . 26. " ", J(33) . 27. S. Sandy Cape, E(24). 28. Italian Creek, E{28). 29. Skull Creek, E(37) . 30. Trial Harbour, J(62). 31. Strahan, B(26). 32. Sloop Point, SW(45). 33. Gorge Point, SW(200). 34. Birthday Bay, SW(llOO). 35. N. Port Davey, K(20). 36. S. Port Davey, K(20). 37. Rocky Cape, J(57). 38. Mole Creek, Bu(109). 39. Mersey Bluff, S(37). 40. East Devonport, B(61). 41. Northdown, S(54). 42. " , Wi{70). 43. " , B(77). 44. West Beach, P(68). 45. " " , W(23). 46. West Head, Wi(33). 47. " " , G(76). 48. Five Mile Bluff, L(361). 49. Pipers River, L(49). 50. " " , H(42). 51. Pipers Rivulet, P(37). 52. Donovans Creek, H(21). 53. Barnards Creek, W(33). 54. Mt. Leslie, W(31). 55. Beams Ford, W(26). 56. Relbia, H(95). 57. Cluan, S(24) . 58. Liffey River, H(26). 59. Powranna, P(30). 60. N. Great Lake, Hu(127). 61. S. Great Lake, C(349). 62. Campbell Town, B(35). 63. Winton, P(61)- 64. " , L(80). 65. Woodford, L(42). 66. Ross, L(51). 67. Mona Vale, L(212) . 68. " " , S(237) . 69. " " , B(69). 70. Tunbridge, P(46) . 71. " , L(538) . 72. Cape Portland, Su(20). 73. Cobler Rocks, W(20). 74. Eddystone, W(20). 75. Ansons River, L(50). 76. Ansons Bay, L(64). 77. Bay of Fires, L(39). 78. Dianas Basin, L(21). 79. Scamander, L(56). 80. Falmouth, A(94). 81. Cullenswood, L(39). 82. Fingal Rivulet, L(42). 83. Piccaninny Point, L(llO). 84. Seymour, A(21). 85. " , L(630). 86. Long Point, L(607). 87. Douglas River, L(34). 88. Denison River, L(24). 89. Beach End, L(i57). 90. Courland, L(141). stone Implements of Tasmanian Aborigines 35 91. Bicheno, L(53). 92. Oyster Bay, L(20). 93. Kelvedon, L(36). 94. ", P(llO) . 95. Mayfield, L(90), H(22). 96. Lisdillon, L(106). 97. Little Swanport, L(234). 98. Little Swanport River, L(33). 99. Banwell, L(124). 100. Seaford, L(54). 101. Stonehenge, H(27). 102. Grindstone Bay, L(65). 103. Iron House Point, L{57). 104. Triabunna, L(40). 105. Orford, L(115). 106. " , S(33). 107. " , A(67). 108. Soldiers Beach, M.I.,Y(72). 109. Oatlands, A(21). 110. " , B(113). 111. Lake Dulverton, S(36). 112,. Melton Mowbray, S(28). 113. " " , B(20). 114. " " , L(211). 115. " ", A(49). 116. Hunting Ground, W(154). 117. " " , F(340) . 118. Elderslie, W(50). 119. Kempton, L(37). 120. Dysart, H(28). 121. Hutton Park, L(22). 122. Bagdad, Ha(51). 123. Pontville, S(20). 124. " , B(435). 125. Tea Tree, W(28). 126. Campania, P(33). 127. Richmond, L(177). 128. Orielton, P(75). 129. Sorell, L(55). 130. " , P(39) . 131. Four Mile Creek, L(23) . 132. Bream Creek, P(il7). 133. Carlton River, A(26) . 134. Carlton, A(449). 135. Primrose Point, A(29). 136. Nubeena, A(107). 137. Hermitage, L(90) . 138. Ouse, P(27) . 139. Bushy Park, P(20). 140. Dromedary, W(23). 141. Glenfield, Ja(74). 142. Old Beach Road, Ja(121). 143. Risdon, S(71). 144. E. Shag Bay, Ja(173). 145. N. Shag Bay, Ja(66). 146. N. Geilston Bay, Ja(62). 147. N. Shag Bay Par)<, Ja(66) . 148. Shag Bay Park, Ja(180). 149. Geilston Bay, P(42). 150. Lindisfarne, W(35). 151. 152. 153 . 154 . 155. 156 . 157. 158. 159. 160 . 161. 162. 163. 164 . 165 . 166 . New Town, S(306). " " , A(45) . Cornelian Bay, B(21). Bellerive, P(27). " , S(26). Penna, P(2 3) . Single Hill, L(23). Rokeby, P(215). " , L(23). Droughty Point, P(54). Ralphs Bay, H(28) . Sandford, P(70) . Kingston, A(31). Clifton Beach, A(23). South Arm, S (89) . S. Ralphs Bay, L(60). 36 Stone Implements of Tasmanian Aborigines APPENDIX 2 - LIST OF KNOWN TASMANIAN ABORIGINAL QUARRIES AND STONE SOURCES (FIGURE 5) . Geological stratigraphic symbols . PC=Precambrian basement, Cs=Carabrian strata, Mb=Paiaeozoic Mathinna beds, DG=Devonian granite or contact, Pms=Permian strata, Trs=Triassic strata, Jdl=Jurassic dolerite contact, Tms=Tertiary marine sediments, Tbs=Tertiary sub-basaltic sediments, Tbp=Tertiary basaltic pyroclastics. Asterisk indicates sample held in Tasmanian Museum collection (M3712-3727; M4035-4078). West Coast (N. to S. ). See also Hunter Island under Additional Data below. !• N. Mt. Cameron West . Worked outcrop (spongolite ?), now covered by large sand drift (e. E. Abblitt, pers. comm.; Sutherland and Corbett, 1967). 2. Mt. Cameron West Carvings . Flaked quartzitic fragments in multi-coloured conglomerate, 100 yds. N. of carvings site; underlying shaley outcrop and nearby beach boulders were also worked (H. Lourandos, B. H. Brimfield, pers. comm.). 3- E. Mt. Cameron West Carvings *. Quarried dark cherty outcrop (PC) surrounded with numerous loose flakes, N. bifurcation of creek, just S. of carvings and about 1 mile inland (W. Bryden, pers. comm.). 4. S. Redpa *. Minor worked blocks of silicified limestone (Tms), Salmon River track, 4 miles S. of Redpa (J. Wigg, pers. comm.; F.L.S., obs.). 5. Green Point . Worked fragments and boulders of conglomerate, quartzite and other rocks (P. Giles, pers. comm.). 6. S. Arthur River . Quarried dark cherty outcrop (PC), coast about 1 mile S. of river mouth (R. Jones, pers. comm.). 7. Sundown Point . Worked dark cherty low-tide reek (PC), 1/2 mile N. of point (W. D. Jackson, pers. comm.). 8. Nelson Bay . Worked dark cherty low-tide reef (PC), 3/4 mile S. of Nelson Bay River (W. D. Jackson, pers. comm.). 9. S. Temma . Worked spongolite boulders (Tms), inland near No Mans Creek (jT Wigg, W. D. Jackson, pers. comm.; Sutherland and Corbett, 1967). 10. Ordnance Point . Small low-tide spongolite exposure (Tms), N. of point (w. D. Jackson, pers. comm.). 11. Green Creek . Worked quartzite pebbles and flakes, beach S. of creek (F.L.S., obs .) . 12. Thornton River . Worked spongolite outcrop (Tms), between 1-1^ miles upstream from river mouth (W. D. Jackson, pers. comm.). 13. Granville Harbour . Worked quartz and granite beach pebbles (H. Lourandos, pers. comm.). 14. Trial Harbour . Use of hornfels and other rocks from shore deposits (F.L.S., obs.) 15. Strahan . Worked, poor-grained quartzite and quartz pebbles. Ocean Beach (¥. H. Brimfield, pers. comm.). stone Implements of Tasmanian Aborigines 37 16. Sloop Point . Two superficially quarried quartzite outcrops (PC), about 1000 Ft. apart, each worked on about 10 sq. ft. on an 8 ft. high face, angled about 45^, S. end of coastal midden, 8 miles S. of Cape Sorell Lighthouse; small, sharp, but little worked implements were mainly manufactured and apparently were mostly carried away to the midden area (P. C. Sims and R. Webb party, pers. comm.). 17. S. Sloop Point . Extensively worked, prominent quartzite and vein quartz outcrop TpC/, 40 ft. high, 2% miles S. of point. Vein quartz was quarried along the whole of the sunny northern face, using quartzite hammerstones (many shattered in use) brought from the adjacent pebble beach. Remaining implements are little worked flakes and include some rare foreign chert (P. C. Sims and R. Webb party, pers. comm.; Plates 1 £. 2 ) . 18. Gorge Point . A few worked quartzite, quartz, schist and chert fragments are associated with quartz, hematite and spongolite implements and fractured quartzite pebbles. Material was apparently carried in at least 1 mile from its nearest source (P. C. Sims and R. Webb party, pers, comm.). 19- Birthday Bay . Worked stones, carried at least 350 yds. from nearest source, are associated with numerous implements, and include chert, spongolite, quartzite, vein quartz, schist and slate. The implements are classified as 26% knives, 24% end scrapers, 23% points, 9% duck-billed scrapers, 7% pounders, 6 % concave scrapers, 3% augers, 2% cleavers, and needle-like point ground from slate (P. C. Sims and R. Webb party, pers. comm.). 20. Port Davey . Worked outcrop of cherty quartzite, on shore of Schooner Cove (Lord, 1928) . 21. S. Port Davey . Worked, hard boulders of quartzy rock, Windowpayne Bay (Plomley ,1956 228; Jones, 1966; Hiatt, 1968; D. King, pers. comm.). North Coast (W. to E. ) . 22. Rocky Cape * , Quarried cave walls and prominent nearby quartzite outcrops (PC), and worked material from raised and present beaches. .Metadoleritic material probably derived from dykes 100 yds. from North Cave and 400 yds, S.E. of South Cave (Jones, 1966 and pers. comm.; H. Lourandos, pers, comm.). 23. Jacobs Boat Harbour * . Probable quartzite (Tbs) source (F.L.S. obs.). 24. E. Wynyard . Worked crude quartz and quartzite pebbles on beach and rocky outcrops, 8 miles W, of Burnie (B, H, Brimfield, pers. comm.), 25. Penguin . Outcrop and pebble source of cherts and chert breccias (Cs), ET of Watcombes Beach (F.L.S., obs.). 26. Lodders Point . Worked boulders of yellowish breccia (Cs?), shoreside, W. of point (W. D. Jackson, pers. comm.). 27. W. Ulverstone . Worked greyish breccia outcrop (Cs?), in gulley above Bass Highway, 2 miles W. of Picnic Point (Noetling, 1909b;Lourandos, 1968; W. D. Jackson, pers. comm.). 28. Forth. Worked hornfels pebbles, Lillico Beach (B. H. Brimfield, pers. comm.). 23- E. Devonport . Worked hornfels and quartzite pebbles, from Pardoe Beach as far 38 Stone Implements of Tasmanian Aborigines as Northdown (B. H. Brimfield, pers. comm.). 30. Badger Head . Worked chalcedony, hornfels and quartzite beach pebbles (B. H. Brimfield, pers. comm.). 31. E. Low Head. Worked chalcedony, hornfels and quartzite beach pebbles (B. H. Brimfield, pers. comm.; F.L.S. obs.). 32. Currie . Worked chalcedony, hornfels and silicified wood beach pebbles (¥rimfield, 1968 and pers. comm.). 33. Tam O'Shanter Bay . Quarried chalcedony, hornfels and quartzite and minor silicified wood beach pebbles (H. Lourandos, B. H. Brimfield, pers. comm.). 34. Tam O'Shanter Bay . Flaked outcrop (9x6 ft. across) of multicoloured quartz pebble conglomerate, some well grained, others poorly grained. On beach line % mile E. of Lulworth (B. H. Brimfield, pers. comm.). 35. Tam O'Shanter Bay . Flaked outcrops of white, poor grained quartzite at two spots ^ mile E. of Lulworth (B. H. Brimfield, pers. comm.). 36- Weymouth . Worked chalcedony, hornfels, quartzite and silicified wood beach pebbles (Brimfield, 1968 and pers. comm.). 37. W. Bridport . Worked hornfels, chalcedony and quartzite beach pebbles (B. H. Brimfield, pers. comm.). 38. Blackmans Lagoon . Worked quartzite, quartz and hornfels pebbles from beach, about 400 yds. N. of Lagoon (B. H. Brimfield, pers. comm.). 39. Cape Portland * . Chalcedonic veinstone cutting country rocks, used in local implements (Jennings and Sutherland, 1969) . 40. E. Cape Portland * . Worked flinty beach pebbles, including silicified sponge (Tms?) samples (B. H. Brimfield, pers. comm.; F.L.S. obs.). North and Central Tasmania (N. to S.) . 41. Tamar River. Reported quarry source (Roth, 1899; Noetling, 1909b). This may refer to cherty hornfels (Jdl-Pms) at Dilston (Carey, 1946). Petrified wood, quartzite, quartz and hornfels pebbles were utilised from all along the river edge (B. H. Brimfield, pers. comm.) e.g. Robigana, Hillwood. 42. Frankford-Glen^arry . Worked white quartzite and quartz nodules and pebbles in bush soilsand creekbeds (B. H, Brimfield, pers, comm.). 43. Windermere . Worked, variable sized chalcedony and quartzite pebbles in gravel beds, on "Native Point"; site now greatly disturbed by gravel mining (B. H. Brimfield, pers. comm.). 44. Tayene * . Worked quartzite pebbles and host siliceous conglomerate (Tbs), E. of road, 2 miles N. of Tayene (F.L.S., obs.). 45. Launceston . Worked quartzite and weathered dolerite pebbles from gravel beds, Pegatta Point, 1 mile N. of Launceston, East Tamar (David, 1924). stone Implements of Tasmanian Aborigines 39 46. St. Leonards . Worked fragments of dense blackish cherty hornfels, E. bank, N. Esk, S. end of Hoblers Bridge (G. Jackson, pers. comm.). 47. E. Garrick . Sparse, worked, large, poor-grained quartzite pebbles, 100yds. S. of Meander River, 10 miles W. of Launceston on Bass Highway; site since destroyed for grazing (B. H. Brimfield, pers. comm.). Also at Exton. 48. Perth . Reported quarry (Roth, 1899; Noetling, 1909b); cherty hornfels outcrop TJdl-Pms) and boulders in river (F.L.S., obs.). 49. Delmont . Broken greyish quartzite nodules, littering area about 800 ft. by 80 ft., "Little Forest", on hillside, W. bank on turn in Lake River, 500 yds. W. of Cressy-Campbell Town Road, with associated fashioned quart- ite, hornfels and chert implements (B. H. Brimfield, pers. comm.). 50. Walls of Jerusalem . Worked fragments of cherty hornfels (Jdl-Trs), above western walls (K. D. and E. B. Corbett, pers. comm.). 51. W. Great Lake * . Reported quarry near Split Rock (Smyth, 1878, 404-405; Roth, 1899; Noetling, 1909b; Jones, 1966; Hiatt, 1968). Probably relates to cherty hornfels outcrop, (Jdl-Tb-Trs), N.W. side of Canal Bay (F.L.S., obs.), and in vicinity of Liaweene Canal (W. D. Jackson, pers. comm.). 52. S. W. Great Lake . Reported quarry, west of Swan Bay (Lourandos, 1968) . 53. S. Great Lake * . Reported quarry (Lourandos, 1968). Probably cherty hornfels float (Tbs), associated with worked fla)ces, N. end of Becketts Bay, S. E. side Maclanachans Point, exposed during 1968 drought low-level (F.L.S., obs.). 54. Lagoon of Islands . Worked pavement of cherty hornfels between dunes, N. end of lunette (W. D. Jackson, pers. comm.). 55. Lake Sore11 . Source outcrop of cherty hornfels (Jdl-Trs), inland of Dogs Head Point (W. D. Jackson, pers. comm.; F.L.S., obs.). 56. Bronte . Extensive cherty hornfels (Jdl-Trs?) source, London Marsh TFrider, 1948) . 57. Mt. Rufus . Numerous worked fragments of whitish finegrained stone, walking track on slopes about 1 mile E. of summit (A. Hewer, pers. comm.). East Coast (N. to S. ) 58. Cobler Rocks * . Worked beach boulders and pebbles (H. Lourandos, pers. comm.), including olivine-basalt (ident. F.L.S.). 59. Eddystone Point * . Quarried beach boulders and pebbles (D. I. Groves, pers. comm.), including cherty hornfels (Mainly DG-Mb types) and a porphyritic rhyo-dacitic pitchstone (ident. F.L.S.). 60. Bay of Fires . Worked hornfels, quartz and quartzite beach pebbles (B. H. Brimfield, pers. comm.). 61. St. Helens . Ibid, including Dianas Basin (F.L.S., obs). 40 Stone Implements of Tasmanian Aborigines 62. Piccininny Point. Quarried hornfels outcrop (DG-Mb) and worked beach pebbles (H. Lourandos, 1968 and pers. comm.). 63. Long Point . Ibid. 64. MacLean Bay . Worked cherty hornfels beach pebbles, near lagoon toward S. end of bay (K. D. Corbett, pers. comm.). 65. N. Bichen o. Ibid, opposite Diam.ond Island (W. D. Jackson, pers. comm..). 66 . Bicheno . Ibid, 3/4 mile S. of Diamond Island {W. D. Jackson, pers, comm.). 67. N. Cape Lodi . Worked cherty hornfels boulders, (W. D. Jackson, pers. comm.). 68 . Half Moon Bay . Ibid. 69. Butlers Point . Extensive quarried contact (DG-Mb) and worked hornfels beach boulders, N. side of point (W. D. Jackson, pers. comm.). ^ 6 . Bluestone Bay . Quarried quartz veins in granite and worked quartz and hornfels pebbles on beach (H. Lourandos, pers. comm.). 21. Wine Glass Bay. Quarried quartz veins and worked beach pebbles, S. end of Bay; similar workings extend along much of Freycinet Peninsula (H. Lourandos, W. D. Jackson, pers. comm.). 22. Schouten Island . Worked beach pebbles on eastern shore, (Crowther, 1950). 22. Webber Point . Dolerite outcrop (Jdl) worked for large scraping tools, on beach S. of Point (B. H. Brimfield, pers. comm.). 74. S. Swansea. Worked hornfels beach pebbles, south to Kelvedon Beach (B. H. Brimfield, pers. comm.). 25. N. Kelvedon . Cherty hornfels (Jdl-Trs) quarry site (Lourandos, 1968 and pers. comm.). 26. Kelvedon . Cherty hornfels (Jdl-Trs) quarry site (Crowther, 1950; Lourandos, 1968 and pers. comm.). 77. S. Kelvedon . Quarried cherty hornfels (Jdl-Trs) at 30 Acre Creek (W. D. Jackson, pers. comm.). 78. Mayfield . Cherty hornfels (Jdl-Trs) quarry site (Crowther, 1950; Lourandos, 1968; and pers. comm.). 29. Lisdillon * . Extensively worked cherty hornfels (Jdl-Trs) quarry area, h mile across, W. side Tasman Highway, *5 mile N. of Lisdillon Rivulet (W. D. Jackson, R. M. Jacklyn, pers. comm.; F.L.S. obs.). 80. W. Little Swanport . Worked fragments of carnelian and other agates, with associated agate hammerstone, N. side Stonehenge Road, 2 miles W. of Little Swanport; site destroyed by later collectors (P. Giles, pers. comm.) 81. Little Swanport . Minor worked cherty hornfels outcrop (Jdl-Trs), W. bank Ravensdale Rivulet (Lourandos, 1968; F.L.S. obs.). 82. Point Bailey . Extensive cherty hornfels quarry site (Jdl-Trs), 3 miles S.W. of Point (Lourandos, 1968; P. Giles, pers. comm.). stone Implements of Tasmanian Aborigines 41 83. Grindstone Bay . Worked cherty hornfels boulders, W. of lagoon, inland of bay, associated with numerous dolerite pounders (W. D. Jackson, pars. comm.). 84. Okehampton Bay . Quarried cherty hornfels outcrops (Jdl-Trs) and beach pebbles, S. E. of Triabunna (Ling Roth, 1899; H. Lourandos, pers. comm.). 85. Spring Bay . Ibid, S. of Triabunna (H. Lourandos, pers. comm.). 86 . Stapleton Point . Quarried cherty hornfels outcrops (Jdl-Trs), W. side of point and 3/4 mile west (Lourandos, 1968 and pers. comm.). 87. N. Maria Island. Worked cherty hornfels and quartz fragments in sand dunes. Soldiers Beach (W. Dunbabin, P. Young, pers. comm.). 88 . Middle Peak . Reported quarry (cherty hornfels-Jdl-Trs?), S. E. slopes, 5 miles W. of Cape Bernier (Lourandos, 1968 and pers. comm.). Midlands and Eastern Tasmania (N. to S.). 89. N. Waters Meeting . Quarried cherty hornfels contact (Jdl-Trs), N. of west Branch River, W. side of road, 7 miles N. of Cranbrook (W. D. Jackson, pers. comm.). 90. S. Waters Meeting . Ibid, W. side of road, 6 miles N. of Cranbrook (W. D. Jackson, pers. comm.). 91. Syndal. Quarried cherty hornfels (Jdl-Trs?) outcrop (Noetling, 1909b; Jones, 1966; Hiatt, 1968; Lourandos, 1968). 92. Lake Leake . Quarried cherty hornfels pebbles and boulders in gravel matrix, orilow hill, 1*5 miles S. E. of southern lake shore (Westlake, mms. ; Noetling, 1909b; David, 1924; Jones, 1967 and pers. comm.). 93. S. Grimes Lagoon . Worked (?) edges on quartzite slabs, (Tb-Trs) N. side Dons Battery (F.L.S., obs.) . 94. Tunbridge . Cherty hornfels pebble source, W. side York Rivulet, 1 mile N.E. of Tunbridge (F.L.S., obs.). 95. Blackmans River . Minor working of cherty hornfels and quartzite (Jdl-Trs), W. bank of river, 2*s miles N. W. of Woodbury (P. Young, pers. comm.; F.L.S., obs .) . 96. W. Blackmans River . Cherty hornfels source (Jdl-Trs), Old Tiers Road 4*5 miles W. of Woodbury (F.L.S., obs.). ' 97. Brents Sugar Loaf . Ibid, S. of road, 6 miles E. of Woodbury (F.L.S., obs.). 98. Macquarie River . Worked cherty hornfels outcrop (Jdl-Trs?) S. of river, N. Side Toombs Lake Road, 14 miles S. E. of Ross (W. D. Jackson, pers, comm.). A reported quarry in this area (Scott, 1873) is not precisely located or yet confirmed in relation to the above site, while Noetling (1909b) has discounted other quarry sites reported by Scott near the Macquarie River, However, Stephens (1909) comments on a cherty outcrop source at the head of Macquarie River. 42 Stone Implements of Tasmanian Aborigines 99. N. York Plains *.Cherty hornfels source (Jdl-Trs), 3 miles S. E. of Anti11 Ponds and along railways N. of York Plains (Hiatt, 1968; Parker Colin., Tas. Mus.; F.L.S., obs.). 100. Mt. Pleasant . Ibid, 1 mile N. E. of Mt. Pleasant (F.L.S., obs.). 101. St. Peters Pass * . Quarried cherty hornfels (Jdl-Trs) outcrop, 3 miles N. of Oatlands (Jones, 1966; Lourandos, 1968; F.L.S., obs.). 102. Flinty Bottom * . Extensive cherty hornfels (Jdl-Trs) workings (F.L.S., obs.). 103. N. Flinty Marsh * . Minor cherty hornfels (Jdl-Trs) working, k mile above in E^ end of marsh (F.L.S., obs.). 104. S. Flinty Marsh. Worked cherty hornfels (Jdl-Trs), 2h miles N.W. of Oatlands (F.L.S., obs.). 105. N. Oatlands. Cherty hornfels source (Tb-Trs?), 1*5 miles N. W. of Oatlands (F.L.S., obs.) . 106. N. Lemont . Loose worked cherty hornfels boulders, D.W.P. Burbury's property, 2 miles S. E. of Toombs Lake - Lemont Road Junction (W. D. Jackson, pers. comm.). 107. Crown Lagoon . Quarried cherty hornfels blocks in ground (Lourandos, 1968, and pers. comm.). 108. Lemont.* . Worked quartzite and rare cherty hornfels blocks (Tbs-Trs), N. side Nala Road, 1 mile W. of Lemont (F.L.S., obs.). 109. Lemon Hill . Quartzite source (Jdl-Trs), now disturbed by commercial quarry (h. Lourandos, pers. comm.; F.L.S., obs.). 110. Pepper Creek . Worked cherty hornfels boulders, W. bifurcation of E. branch, 3 miles S. W. of Little Swanport River junction (F.L.S., obs.). 111. Pepper Creek * . Quarried cherty hornfels outcrop (Jdl-Trs), S. bank, 2 miles S. W. of Little Swanport River junction (W. Dunbabin, pers. comm.; F.L.S., obs.; Plate 4b). 112. E. Marshalls Creek . Ibid. 2*5 miles S. E. of Little Swanport River junction (P. Dunbabin, pers. comm.; F.L.S., obs.). 113. E. Marshalls Creek * . Ibid, 3 miles S. E. of Little Swanport River junction (P. Young, pers. comm.; F.L.S., obs.). 114. Marshalls Creek *. Ibid, E. bank, 1 3/4 miles S. of Little Swanport River junction (N. & P. Young, pers. comm.; F.L.S., obs., Plate 3). 115. Marshalls Creek . Ibid, E. and W. banks, 2 miles S. of Little Swanport River junction (W. & p. Dunbabin, pers. comm.; F.L.S., obs.). 116. W. Marshalls Creek. Ibid, 2h miles S. of Little Swanport River junction (N. & P. Young, pers. comm.; F.L.S., obs.). 117. Pikes Creek . Ibid, E. bank, h-h mile S. of Little Swanport River junction (N. & P. Young, pers. comm.; F^L.S., obs.). stone Implements of Tasmanian Aborigines 43 118. Pikes Creek * . Ibid, E. bank, 3/4 mile S. of Little Swanport River junction (N. & P. Young, pers. comm.; F.L.S., obs.; Plate 4a). 119. Little Swanport River . Minor quarried cherty hornfels outcrop (Jdl-Trs). N. bank, 3/4 mile W. of Pikes Creek junction (N. Young, pers. comm.). 120. Mt. Seymour * . Quarried cherty hornfels (Jdl-Trs), N. E. flank about l*s miles from the summit, E. bank, Lightwood Rivulet, 3*8 miles S. E. of Andover Railway Station (M. Lester, P. Young, pers. comm.; F.L.S., obs.). 121. N. Andover * . Ibid, N. side Andover-Oatlands Road, 1 mile W. of Andover Railway Station (P. Young, pers. comm.; F.L.S., obs.). 122. S. Andover * . Ibid, about 1 mile S. of Andover (N. & P. Young, pers. comm.). 123. Lake Tiberias . Cherty hornfels source (Jdl-Trs), 1 mile S. E. of Stonor, Baden-Rhyndaston Road junction (F.L.S., obs.). Southern Tasmania (E. to W. ). 124. Bluff River . Reported cherty hornfels quarry (Jdl-Trs), 4*s miles N.W.N. of Buckland (H. Lourandos, 1968 and pers. comm.). 125. Orielton . Cherty hornfels quarry (Jdl-Trs), 1000 yds. S. W. of Orielton House (Lewis, 1946, 204). 126. Campania . Worked quartzite outcrop (Jdl-Trs) W. side of Coal River - White Kangaroo River junction (F.L.S., obs.). 127. Tea Tree . Cherty hornfels quarry (Jdl-Trs), S. of Elliots-Phillips Saddle (Lewis, 1946, 199). 128. Pontville . Quartzite quarry (Jdl-Trs), near old railway station (Noetling, 1909b; Jones, 1966). 129. N. Kempton . Quarried cherty hornfels boulder (Noetling, 1909a). 130. Hutton Park . Cherty hornfels quarry S. W. side of Estate (P. Giles, pers. comm. 131. Coal Hill . Cherty hornfels quarry (Jdl-Trs), % mile N. of Melton Mowbray (Walker, 1902, 281; Noetling, 1909b; Jones, 1966). 132. Melton Mowbray .Tfcirf, 4 miles W. of Melton Mowbray (Noetling, 1909b; Jones, 1966) 133. Woods Quoin Rivulet * . Reported quarry, probably cherty hornfels and silicified breccia (Jdl-Pms), 5 miles N. E. of Bothwell (Lourandos, 1968 and pers. comm.; Tas. Mus. colln.). See also under Additional Data below. 134. S. Bothwell . Worked quartzite and cherty jasper outcrop, 4 miles S. of Bothwell on Hamilton Road (P. Giles, pers. comm.; F.L.S., obs.). 135. Clyde River . Reported quarry, probably cherty hornfels (Jdl-Trs), N. bank of river, 6*5 miles W. S. W. of Bothwell (Lourandos, 1968 and pers. comm.). Quartzite and cherty hornfels also appear to have been worked on the S. bank of the river about 4 miles from Bothwell (F.L.S., obs,.). 136. Plenty . Observed use of cherty hornfels outcrop (Jdl-Trs) by Aborigines, Native Tier", about 2 miles S. W. from old Plenty Railway Station 44 Stone Implements of Tasmanian Aborigines (Roth, 1899; Noetling, 1909b; Jones, 1966; Hiatt, 1968). 137. Glenora. Reported quarry, probably cherty hornfels (Jdl-Trs), about 2 miles N. W. of Glenora (Lourandos, 1968). 138. Meadow Ban)cs . WorJced quartzite boulders, above sandstone cliffs, S. side Meadow Banks Reservoir, about 5 miles S. E. of Ouse (W. D. Jackson, pers. comm.). 139. N. Ellendale . Quarry site on "Flintv Hill", about 1 mile W. of Ellendale-Dunrobin road, about 7 miles N. of Ellendale (C. Cooke, pers. comm.), probably cherty hornfels (Jdl-Trs). Southern Coast (E. to W.) . 140. Remarkable Cave . Quarried cherty hornfels outcrop (Jdl-Trs), cliff-top above cave, Tasman Peninsula (H. Lourandos, 1968 and pers. comm.). 141. Two Beach Bay . Quarried pebbles, on beach towards Tunnel Bay, Tasman Peninsula (O. W. Reid, mms. comm.). 142. White Beach . Quarried pebbles, N. end of beach, Tasman Peninsula (0. w. Reid, mms. comm.). 143. S. Wedge Bay . Quarried cherty hornfels (Jdl-Trs), rocky shore, 2*5 miles S. W. of Nubeena, Tasman Peninsula ( W. D. Jackson, pers. comm.). 144. Roaring Beach . Quarried pebbles, S. end of beach, Tasman Peninsula ( 0. w. Reid, mms. comm.). 145. Billy Blue . Quarried cherty hornfels (Jdl-Trs), S. side of ridge, E. of Roaring Beach, Tasman Peninsula, ( 0. W. Reid, mms. comm.). 146. Mt. Zion .Ibid, about 1 mile S. of Mt. Communication, Tasman Peninsula, (J. Hull and A. R. Watts, pers. comm.). 147. Mt. Communication . Ibid, Tasman Peninsula (Roth, 1899; Noetling, 1909b; Jones, 1966; Hiatt, 1968; Lourandos, 1968). 148. Boat Harbour * . Worked beach boulders and pebbles of cherty hornfels and fine grained basalt, on point, 1 mile N. W. of Slopen Main Beach, Tasman Peninsula (A. R. Watts, pers. comm.; F.L.S., obs.) . 149. S. Slopen Main . Worked cherty hornfels outcrop (Jdl-Trs), shore, 1% miles from old jetty towards North West Head, Tasman Peninsula (W. D. Jackson, pers. comm.). 150. Storm Cove . Ibid, Tasman Peninsula (J. Hull and A. R. Watts, pers. comm.). 151. Slopen Island . Quarried cherty beach boulders, probably washed up from off-shore outcrops (0. W. Reid, mms. comm.). 152. Carlton River . Minor worked cherty hornfels pebbles, E. foreshore, 200 yds. upstream of Carlton-Dunalley road bridge (F.S.L., obs.). 153. Carlton Estuary * . Worked cherty hornfels pebbles, E. foreshore, 2 miles N. E. of Carlton Bluff trig, point (M. Murrell, pers. comm.; F.L.S., obs.). 154. E. Iron Creek * . Minor worked agate pebbles with waste chips, washed down from pyroclastics (Tbp) , S. side of creek, 1 mile E. of Wattle Hill, stone Implements of Tasmanian Aborigines 45 1000 ft. upstream from road bridge (F.L.S., obs.). 155. Wattle Hill * . Quarried jasper-agate blocks, W. of pyroclastics (Tbp), Wattle Hill-Nugent Road, just E. of Noble Farm (F.L.S., obs.). 156. N. Mt. Elizabeth * . Quarried jasper-agate-opal veins in silicified pyroclastics (Tbp), S. bank of Iron Creek tributary, S. W. of Noble Farm (F.L.S., obs.). 157. N. Mt. Elizabeth * . Quarried cherty opalised hornfels (Jdl-Tbp-Pms), liillside S. of Iron Creek tributary,S. of Noble Farm {F.L.S., obs.). 158. Forcett Creek * . Extensively quarried jaspery outcrop (Jdl-Tbp-Trs), shore bank, just N. of creek mouth, Pittwater {F.L.S., obs.). 159. Sorell * . Worked seams of jasper-opal in basalt, foreshore between Pittwater Causeway and Sorell Rivulet (F.L.S., obs.). 160. Pipe Clay Lagoon . Worked outcrop of cherty conglomerate-breccia (Tbs?), E. side of lagoon. South Arm (Roth, 1899; Noetling, 1909b; Green, 1961; Lourandos, 1968; R. M. Jacklyn, pers. comm.). 161. Goat Bluff . Small quartzitic quarry, S. of Collins Springs (W. D. Jackson, pers. comm.). 162. Droughty Point * . Large, loose quarried boulders of silicified breccia, on beach (Noetling, 1909b; R. M. Jacklyn, pers. comm.). 163. Tranmere Point . Quarried silicified breccia, S. of point (W. D. Jackson, pers. comm.). 164. Lindisfarne . Rare, worked cherty hornfels blocks (Tbs-Pms), above shore between Lindisfarne and Geilston Bays; site now largely built over (F.L.S., obs.). 165. Geilston Bay * . Worked cherty hornfels blocks (Tbs), old lime quarry; site now occupied by golf course (F.L.S., obs.). 166. E. Shag Bay * . Small, worked opal-quartz seam, 120 ft. above S. bank of creek, E. end of bay (R. M. Jacklyn, pers. comm., F.L.S., obs.). 16 7. Shag Bay. * . Worked seam of opal-quartz rock, 30 ft. above E. end of S. bay shore; site largely destroyed by collectors (R. M. Jacklyn, pers. comm.; F.L.S., obs.). 168. Risdon . Worked mudstone outcrop (Pms), and blocks up to 1 ft. across, hillside, 100 ft. above Tommys Bight (R. M. Jacklyn, pers. comm.). 169. Cove Hill . Worked quartzitic fragments (Jdl-Tbs-Trs), E. bank of Jordon River above its mouth, 1 mile W. of Cove Hill (W. D. Jackson, pers. comm.• F.L.S., obs.). 110• Blinking Billy Point * . Worked jasper-opal seams in pyroclastics (Tbp), on foreshore; site now largely destroyed by collectors (W. D. Jackson, pers. comm., F.L.S., obs.). Ill- Kingston * . Worked cores of "greybilly" (silicarenaceous cherty hornfels) in paddocks N. of Whitewater Creek, h mile W. of its junction with Browns River (M. R. Banks, pers. comm.; F.L.S., obs.). 46 Stone Implements of Tasmanian Aborigines 172. North West Bay * . Quarried cherty hornfels, quartzite and silicified breccia (Tbs-Trs), W. of mouth of Coffee Creek, below Howden Road, 1 mile E. of Channel Highway (M. R. Banks, pers. comm.; F.L.S., obs.). 173. Margate * . Quarried boulders of "greybilly", 500 yds. S. of old Sandfly Wharf (Lewis, 1946, 149; Lourandos, 1968). Similar cherty hornfels and quartzite has been worked to the N. around Dru Point while sandstones (Trs) altered to quartzite were sporadically worked along the shore towards Electrona. These rocks probably mark the basalt lead from Margate. 174. Oyster Cove * . Extensively quarried cherty hornfels and quartzitic breccia (Pms) outcrops on S. shore (Crowther, 1950; Lourandos, 1968; F.L.S., obs. ; Plate 5). Similar rock occurs above the S. E. junction of Oyster Cove Road and Channel Highway,and on the S. shore. Little Peppermint Bay. 175. Barnes Bay * . Ibid, Chalky Point, N. side of bay, Bruny Island (N. & P. Young, pers. comm.; F.L.S., obs.). 176. Great Bay * . Quarried boulders and outcrops of cherty hornfels (Jdl-Pms), towards S. end of bay, Bruny Island (Lourandos, 1968; F.L.S., obs.). 177. N. Daniels Bay . Worked cherty hornfels, quartzite and quartz pebbles and boulders, shore 1*5 miles N. of Daniels Bay, Bruny Island, F.L.S., obs.). 178. Woodbridqe * . Rare, worked cherty hornfels and silicified breccia pebbles, on shore around creek mouth, S. end of Woodbridge (F.L.S., obs.). 179. Gordon . Worked poor-grained, white-grey quartzite pebbles, on channel shore (B. H. Brimfield, pers. comm.). 180. Huon Point . Reported quarry, probably cherty hornfels (Jdl-Trs), N. of point (Lourandos, 1968 and pers. comm.). ADDITIONAL DATA The Tasmanian Museum collection contains some remarkably large flaked stone Aboriginal "axes", not yet described in the literature. They were collected from the Bothwell area between 1949 and 1963 by Messrs. Maning and Rodway (site 133 in this appendix). They reach about 18 inches across, range from 4 to 40 lbs. in weight and must be amongst the largest flaked implements from Australia; their exact function in uncertain. This site was relocated by the author in early 1971 and further specimens collected (Tasm. Mus. M4098). The material varies from silicified breccia into silicarenaceous cherty hornfe3s and occurs scattered on the river flats 200-300 yds. N. of "Woodspring" Road, 13/4 miles E. of "Dennistoun" Road junction, 4h miles directly E.N.E. of Bothwell township. The site is poorly exposed and has been greatly disturbed by pastoral clearing. Hunter Island , N.W. Tasmania, was visited by Tasmanian Aborigines by canoes from the mainland. During a visit to the Island in February, 1971, the author collected flaked stone implements from midden sites on the west coast and in the large stranded sea-cave on the east coast. The implements were made predominantly from quartzite and some quartz (less than 5% of collections) from the local Pre- cambrian rocks. Waterworn surfaces on many of the implements indicate that much of the stone came from pebbles and boulders along the shore, and no worked rock types were found suggestive of implements carried over by the Aborigines from the mainland. Tcy Qo 3 -4 AUG 1972 VICTO^ QUATERNARY GEOMORPHOLOGY OF FLINDERS ISLAND by R. C KERSHAW and F. L SUTHERLAND RECORDS OF THE QUEEN VICTORIA MUSEUM No. 43 Edited by W. F. Ellis Director of the Museum by R. C. KERSHAW .(Honorary Mai acol ogi st, Queen Victoria Museum) and F, L. SUTHERLAND (Tasmanian Museum) Manusaript received 12/5/71 Published 15/1/72 ABSTRACT Flinders Island consists of a mountainous Palaeozoic basement ridge, flanked by coastal plains built largely of Cainozoic sediments and minor lavas. Sea-level fluctuations have been important in coastal dune building and in developing coastal marine erosional and depositional features. Quaternary dune series recognised include (from oldest to youngest) aeolian calcarenite, aeolianites, unconsolidated parabolic dunes, beach ridges and frontal dunes. Dunes are mainly calcareous on the west coast and siliceous on the east coast, probably due to difference in source and distribution of contributing materials. The wide east coast plain displays an extensive lagoon development, including old inland lagoons, lagoons of the parabolic dunes and coastal barrier lagoons. The coastal plains display evidence of past higher sea-levels, dating from the Tertiary. Possible Pleistocene levels have been observed at 200-250 feet (60-75 m.), 100-120 feet (30-37 m.), 60-70 feet (18-21 m.), 25-30 feet (7.5-9 m.) and 10-15 feet (3-4.5 m.) above MLWS. Marine and littoral shell beds are associated with the last three levels, which are assigned Riss/Wurm and Holocene. Some dunes extend below present sea-level indicating past lower sea-levels. INTRODUCTION Flinders Island, the largest of the Furneaux Group in Bass Strait, has been visited briefly a number of times between 1957 and 1970 by the authors. The resulting geomorphologic observations, associated with aerial photographic study, are discussed. The valuable groundwork provided by the soil survey (Dimmock, 1957) and unpublished regional surveys by Tasmania Mines Department officers (Blake, 1947; Records of the Queen Victoria Museum, No. 43 2 Quaternary Geomorphology of Flinders Island Everard, 1950) made much of the basic work of this paper possible. The geologic aspects of the authors' studies, based in part on the geomorphologic observations, are presented elsewhere(Sutherland and Kershaw,' 1971 ). A map of the geo¬ morphologic features of the Island, plotted from aerial photographic interpretation and/or field work, is presented with this paper. Despite the limitations of a study largely based on reconnaissance field work, it is considered the results should provide a framework for future more detailed work. Flinders Island occupies an important place in the coastal physiographic evolution of Southern Australia. It has an exceptional range of dune development. The Island is bounded by about 120 miles of coastline, exposed dominantly to westerly winds, but strong easterly movements are also experienced particularly in the spring and summer. During storms in Bass Strait waves do not reach heights of these oceanic coasts. On the eastern coast wave action is modified by the shallow offshore slope. Tidal ranges determined from measurements of inter¬ tidal ecological features (R. C. K.) indicated a range of 10 feet (3m.) on the west coast, 5 feet (1.5 m.) at Lady Barron on the south coast, and at least 3 feet (1 m.) on the east coast. The west coast value is close to that of the north Tasmanian coast. Numerous people and institutions have provided considerable help to the authors in their studies of Flinders Island. Complete acknowledgement has been made in the geologic section of this work. The following are particularly thanked for their great encouragement in the compilation of the geomorphological section; Messrs. E. D. Gill and T. A. Darragh (National Museum of Victoria), J. L. Davies and M. R. Banks (University of Tasmania), G. M. Dimmock (Division of Soils, C.S.I.R.O.) and the many residents of Flinders Island who helped with local knowledge. Mr. D. Bishop of Launceston provided a number of useful photographs. GEOMORPHOLOGY Flinders Island may be divided into two basic geomorphologic units: (A) the highlands, controlled by the Palaeozoic basement; (B) the coastal lowlands. A. THE HIGHLANDS The mountain systems on Flinders Island trend approximately north-north-west. The sharply etched granite Strzelecki Peaks massif (2550 feet) , and Mt. Razorback (2285) feet), is a five square mile block bounded by rounded foothills. To the north it is separated from the Darling Range block (Pillingers Peak, Mt. Leventhorpe , Mt. Counsel), by a plateau at 250-400 feet elevation. The trend is then north westerly from Brougham Sugarloaf (1484 feet) towards Mt. Arthur. North-east from Lughrata, a northerly trending granite ridge outcrops through a cover of high dunes. Between Leeka and Palana, an arc of granite peaks from Cape Frankland includes The Paps (580 feet), Mt. Tanner, Mt. Boyes , Mt. Blyth and Mt. Killiecrankie (1035 feet). A surface of rounded hills and wide valleys flank the granite mountains. The soils are old (Dimmock, 1957) . This surface may have been cut by, and was possibly a coastal plain during the highest Cainozoic sea-level stands. It is slightly higher than the Cainozoic basalt flow surface (Sutherland and Kershaw, l.c.) that forms the highest part of the plateau separating the granite massifs. Several rounded granite hills on the coastal plain include Vinegar Hill (351 feet). The Patriarchs and The Quoin. Interpretation of the Topography The Bassian Rise which includes the highlands of Flinders Island is probably i Figure; VnrvJSITTRRT Quaternary Geomorphology of Flinders Island 5 partly a tectonic feature (Jennings, 1959a). Highland and some island group trends of the Bassian Rise suggest elevated fault blocks. These were probably formed by N. N. W. to N. W. faulting associated with the late Mesozoic/Cainozoic movements responsible for present structural features of Tasmania, Bass Strait, and Southern Victoria (Jennings, 1959a; Spry and Banks, 1962; Richards and Hopkins, 1969). Flinders Island topography suggests fault blocks mostly with south westerly facing scarps and, possibly, downward tilts to the N. E. Aerial photographs show a strong N. W. joint trend in the granite basement (see also Hughes, 1959). Most of the basic dykes associated with the late stage cooling of the granite trend N. E. (Sutherland and Kershaw, l.c.), suggesting that the N. W. joint set is later and probably reflects the late Mesozoic/Cainozoic uplifts. Both the Strzelecki Peaks and the Darling Range show marked alignments parallel to this N. W. jointing. In the former area these have noticeably controlled the drainage system. Prolonged steep faces of these ranges may be fault controlled. Extensive grit beds skirt their flanks (e.g. Loccota Grit) suggesting alluvial fan development on short steep streams over long periods as would be expected on a resistant scarp. Some scarps such as that east of Whitemark to Ranga (Everard in Hughes, 1957), are interpreted as Pleistocene sea-cliff lines, perhaps originally fault controlled. The topographic breaks across the highlands may be the result of cross faulting as indicated by the marked N, E. lineament in the granite just south of Mt. Hauland and Pillingers Peak, and by the sharp N. N. E. lineaments in the sub¬ marine topography to the north of Flinders Island (Jennings, 1959a). Thus the eastern coastal plain north of Memana suggests a possible fault controlled concen¬ tration of past drainage as the alignment is more or less S. W. - N. E. The break between Strzelecki Peaks and Darling Ranges may be similarly controlled. B. THE LOWLANDS 1. THE COASTAL PLAINS These significant features of the landscape are divisible into eastern and western units. The eastern plain is the more extensive occupying almost half the Island. (1) The Western Plain (Plate 1) There are three levels: (a) The present coastal plain including the backshore and the bench cut to 20-30 feet above MLWS best developed at Whitemark and Marshall Bay. (b) An old coastal plain between 50-150 feet as at Loccota and west from Centre Hill. (c) A plateau-like surface that slopes gently to the east from 400 feet in the Ranga district to merge with the Eastern Plain. The present coastal plain between one and two miles wide becomes very narrow to the south. The old coastal plain is partly the remains of benches and sediments of Pleistocene high sea-levels. Its edge is marked by a steep scarp near Ranga. Above this is the plateau-like surface, partly formed by basalt. (2) The Eastern Plain (Plate 2) This surface, mostly below 30 feet above MLWS, is characterised by dune and lagoon topography . South of the plateau-like surface east of Ranga, the plain slopes from the Strzelecki massif to the east coast. West from Vinegar Hill the rise inland on 6 Quaternary Geomorphology of Flinders Island Bootjack Plain from the 25 feet bench is gradual. There are low E-W ridges. East from Vinegar Hill E.N.E. - W.S.W. dunes and narrow marshy lagoons rest on the almost flat surface. From Cameron Inlet north to The Patriarchs the plain rises gently for six miles inland to The Dutchman. There are three important features in this area: (i) The beach ridges and lagoons of the coastal barrier. (ii) A series of E.N.E. - W.S.W. parabolic dunes and associated lagoons. (iii) Nelson Lagoon, the largest lagoon area on the Island, now fully drained. The plain extends 15 miles north from The Patriarchs to the Arthur River and 10 miles inland to the limestone hills of the Lughrata District. This gently sloping surface has few lagoons. A narrow belt of E.N.E. - W.S.W. dunes near the coast, extends inland at "Wingaroo". North of Memana there is a probable former marine embayment with old low, E.N.E. - W.S.W. dunes on the inland margins. The Eastern Plain slope persists to the edge of the continental shelf. Whether emergent or submergent features predominate is a matter of viewpoint . 2. THE DUNE SYSTEMS The following dune systems are recognised in this study: (1) Palana Limestone Dunes. (2) Inland Siliceous Dunes. (3) Trousers Point Aeolianite Dunes. (4) Unconsolidated Parabolic Dunes. (5) Beach Ridge and Frontal Dunes. (1) Palana Limestone Dunes. Red-brown soils (Ranga Association of Dimmock) derived from Palana Limestone and containing limestone boulders are widespread on the western coastal plains. Old dunes can be discerned on this undulating surface. In places they exhibit aeolian bedding. Considerable depths of this limestone or aeolian calcarenite occur in some areas. Sink holes are common (Everard, 1950) and a cave is known near Ranga. This cave, described by Hope (1969) contains floor deposits over 8,000 years old and appears to be stranded from an old drainage level about 40 feet above the adjacent creek. Distribution These dune limestones occur principally in (a) the Palana, (b) the Lughrata and (c) the Ranga districts. (a) At Palana limestone rises from sea-level to 400 feet on both sides of Pi^stts River. It is partially covered by Holocene sand dunes along the coast while inland there is a typical red-brown soil horizon. South-west of Palana it forms an off-shore stack. (b) At Lughrata the limestone is cut by a bench at 20-30 feet (6-9 m.) above MLWS. It rises to 500 feet inland over a core of granite hills. (c) At Ranga the limestone rests on the granite basement to over 200 feet. Several smaller areas occur, e.g. at Killiecrankie Bay where a 20 feet thick i 1. Western Coastal Plain, south from Loccota. Cape Barren Island in the background. 2. Eastern Coastal Plain, looking east from Vinegar Hill toward Cameron Inlet. 3. Blow-out in Lughrata Sand Dunes, north from Palana, looking north¬ easterly, profile of Palana Limestone Dunes exposed. 4. View of Lughrata Sand Dunes ne'ar Loccota looking south toward Trousers Point. 3£>- . 8 Quaternary Geomorphology of Flinders Island limestone arch shows aeolian bedding. Nature of the Limestone These limestones resemble those found in southern Australia (Hills, 1940; Coulson, 1940; Sprigg, 1952; Boutakoff, 1963; Gill in Jennings and Mabbutt, 1967) which are considered to be of dune origin. Evidence for a similar origin for the Flinders Island deposits is given by Dimmock (1957). The present writers support this view. At Palana a limestone capped profile of old sand dunes (oriented at right angles to the shore) is overlain by unconsolidated dune sands (Plate 3). Similar limestone "profiles" rest on sands elsewhere, e.g. north of Killiecrankie. Aerial photograph study reveals the outline of parabolic dunes in each of the limestone areas. Some dunes with aeolian bedding are easily recognised in the field (Plate 10), but the oldest are visible only on photographs. Incipient subsurface consolidation in the unconsolidated calcareous dunes of Lughrata Sand at Marshall Bay suggests an early stage in Palana Limestone Dune formation. Origin and Development The Palana Limestone Dunes are found inland from the unconsolidated Parabolic Dunes at Lughrata but are overlain by these dunes at Palana. The series evidently extended below sea-level, vide the sea stack near Mt.Killiecrankie, and the eroded lumps of limestone on the'beach at Palana from the truncated dunes. Sutherland and Kershaw (l.c.) present faunal evidence that the series is Pleistocene or in part older. At Marshall Bay, truncation by the 25 feet (7.5 m.) above MLWS bench, correlated with the Riss/Wurm Interglacial sea, suggests that the limestone is older than, or at least as old as this Interglacial. In Victoria, dunes of this Interglacial age have a "travertine" crust while older dunes are lithified through¬ out (Gill in Jennings and Mabbutt, 1967). Some Palana Limestone Dunes have developed a crust only, e.g. at Palana. However, dunes are frequently lithified throughout and probably cover a range in time from at least the early Pleistocene to the Riss/ Wurm Interglacial. Jennings (1959b) discusses the opinions of authors favouring the view that anv halt in glacial sea-level oscillations could foster dune developmen-t.. It should be possible to relate dune series to observed sea-level stands. On Flinders Island, however, individual Pleistocene dune series are obscured by general parabolic re-orientation. The heights reached by the limestone dunes are due at least in part, to migration of dune material up the granite slopes, as in Victoria (Gill, 1943). Thus, it is not possible at present to separate dunes older than the Riss/Wurm into more than one series. The Palana Limestone Dunes are apparently much more extensive than the younger Unconsolidated Parabolic Dunes of the Island. This may be due to the presence of more than one series. Gill (1943) does not consider present conditions adequate to account for similar dunes at Warrnambool. He postulates the presence of greater quantities of calcareous material during the Pleistocene. Derived Tertiary foraminifera within the Palana Limestone suggests part of this material originally came from erosion of calcareous marine Tertiary beds. The following sequence of events leading to the Palana Limestone is suggested: (a) Coastal fore-dunes formed. (b) Parabolic dune migration followed. (c) Dunes eroded by subsequent high seas. The subsequent history is inferred partly from studies of the Unconsolidated Dunes. Initial soil is sandy with increase of carbonate with depth (Dimmock, 1957) Quaternary Geomorphology of Flinders Island 9 causing induration. Erosion exposes the limestone on which is formed red-brown soils. Caverns develop, e.g. the limestone gorge near Ranga cut by the creek flowing east from Barclays Hill, may have developed by cave collapse. (2) Inland Siliceous Dunes. These occupy two principal regions on the eastern plain. They rest on surfaces from 15-20 feet to over 200 feet above MLWS. The aerial photographs reveal parabolic dune formations, with some very low and hardly discernible dune remains on the ground. The paler coloured sands compared to the dark soils of the swales clearly defines the dunes. Detailed mapping will probably reveal several series, but the present approach is generalised. Four groups are recognised. Altmoor Sand Dunes These are developed east of Ranga at about 200 feet above MLWS level where the Altmoor Sand partly covers a sloping plain of stratified deposits of estuarine (?) origin (Blake, 1947). The dunes are low, sometimes long, and of east-west alignment. Former hills south from The Dutchman are partly buried by them (Dimmock, 1957). This suggests the material derived from the Palana Limestone Dunes to the west. It is doubtful whether this explanation applies to all the dunes. Some may be related to Pleistocene shorelines. Liapota Sand Dunes East-West undulations are present in the Liapota Sand (Dimmock, 1957). Dune form is not evident and the undulations may represent translocated material derived from the Palana Dunes (cf. Altmoor Series). The Liapota Sand has covered former granite hills and buried older soils including some from the Ranga Association. Field observations and study of the aerial photographs reveal dunes which seem more appropriately assigned to old shorelines. Bootjack Sand Dunes These dunes are developed at about the 100 feet level north of Memana. They form a narrow belt of sandy rises belonging to the Bootjack Association of Dimmock which show some trace of parabolic form. Their appearance in aerial photographs suggests the eroded stumps of ancient dunes. Petibela Sand Dunes These are clearly parabolic dunes developed in the Petibela Sand below the 100 feet level, in contrast to the Bootjack Sand Dunes to the south. The trailing flanks of the parabolas are greatly elongated and have assumed a hairpin shape, pointing E. N. E. The dunes occupy several distinct regions separated by soil of the Memana Association of Dimmock. This soil is apparently developed on an old bay floor with flanking shorelines of different ages. Dimmock has described features which suggest bay bars. Some of the ridges mapped may be bars and not dunes. (3) Trousers Point Aeolianite Dunes. This aeolianite has considerable lime content, but is a distinct variety of the Palana Limestone Dunes. The dunes are typically developed in the Loccota District as a result of a suitable balance between siliceous and calcareous sediments. Some of the dunes rest on the plain south of Whitemark at 20-30 feet (7-9 m.) 10 Quaternary Geomorpholoqy of Flinders Island above MLWS inland from Lughrata Sand Dunes. Where exposed in the road cutting north of Loccota they display marked aeolian bedding. An eroded cliff of aeolianite rests on granite south of Trousers Point (Grid. 420N-890E.) . It outcrops between 15 feet and 25 feet above MLWS for a distance of approximately 20 feet. Aeolian bedding is a feature and snail shells were found in situ. The top of the cliff conforms with the 25 feet level in this vicinity, suggesting planing by a Riss/Wurm Interglacial sea. There is a dune of similar facies at the head of a former bay here. Between tide levels 5-6 feet above MLWS there is an outcrop of aeolianite resting on the granite shore showing that the dunes extended below present sea-level. Aeolianite boulders rest on the hillside between 50 and 100 feet in this area. There is thus evidence of higher and lower sea-levels, Holocene erosion has left a cliff face now above high tide level with vegetation at its foot. (4) Unconsolidated Parabolic Dunes. Stabilised dunes of loose to semi-consolidated grey sand extend inland on east and west coasts. The relatively poor soil horizon supports a considerable coastal vegetation. These parabolic dunes are at least in part older than the modern coastal foredunes of Lackrana Sand which display little or no soil development. There are two series: Lughrata Sand Dunes Dunes composed of Lughrata Sand are best developed in the Marshall Bay - Lughrata region (Plate 4). East-west dunes extend over one mile inland. The limestone platform on which these highly calcareous dunes rest is exposed by ancient blow-outs. At Palana (Plate 3)' active blowing is most extensive, so soil develop¬ ment is limited. Similar dunes are developed north of Palana, in Killiecrankie Bay, in Fotherin- gate Bay, in many small areas associated with beaches facing west, and elsewhere not directly associated with beaches. There are many small blow-outs. Nala Sand Dunes (Plate 2) Dunes of Nala Sand are extensively developed on the eastern coastal plain. North of The Patriarchs they are confined to a narrow coastal strip, but extend inland in the vicinity of "Wingaroo". These dunes are highly siliceous. The height is below 20 feet and the alignment varies from E. S. E. - W. N. W. in the south toE. N. E. -W. S. W. in the north. Blue Rock Sand Dunes These siliceous dunes are developed in the Blue Rocks - Whitemark area in part within the Blue Rocks Soil Association of Dimmock. They are low dunes with east-west orientation, contemporaneous with the Lughrata Sand dunes. Discussion The Unconsolidated Parabolic Dunes show advanced parabolic dune development, particularly on the eastern plain. They have moved several miles inland leaving trailing flanks in places linked by small cross bars. Jennings (1957b) has discussed Landsberg's (1956) work on the relationship of summation of wind regimes to dune orientation in relation to King Island dunes. Jenkin (1968) has noted her work in relation to Gippsland dunes and has illustrated dune formation and movement. These discussions are applicable to the Flinders Island parabolic dunes. Mapping from aerial photographs reveals obvious trends comparable with wind roses from N. E. Tasmania (Davies, 1965). Quaternary Geomorphology of Flinders Island 11 (a) Origin of Dune Material . The predominance of calcareous dunes north of Palana may be related to the following factors: (i) Dune building at a maximum during a period of low rainfall and reduced stream erosion by Pratt's River: (ii) the apparent removal of sediment by tidal movements around North Point to Beagle Spit. A large area of sand is exposed at low tide and berm construction occurs. Sand blows are extensive. Pieces of lime¬ stone from the underlying older dunes litter the shore. Conditions favouring large populations of marine animals leaving calcareous skeletal remains would no doubt be a significant factor in the growth of extensive calcareous dunes. The east coast siliceous dunes have been built from an off-shore source. The east coast has a long history of beach ridge and dune building, but river sources of sediment are absent or insignificant at present. The few outlets are localised in their contribution. Vast quantities of sediment, however, have been moved by past drainage as evinced by the extensive beds of grit that flank the mountains and form the coastal plain. With regard to the east coast, it is postulated that tidal movements through the straits to the north and south of Flinders Island behave in a similar manner to rivers. This idea is referred to later in dealing with the beach ridges. Siliceous dune development on the west coast is largely confined to the vicinity of Pats River, the largest stream on Flinders Island. There are extensive off-shore tidal flats here. Other west coast streams make little contribution. The presence of the Liapota Sand adjacent to the coast, sandwiched between belts of calcareous dunes, is a curious feature which may lend weight to a theory of wind deflation, or may suggest an old series of siliceous dunes developed under a different set of conditions. It is noticeable, regarding the development of the west coast calqareous dunes that their greatest area at Marshall Bay is consistent with the absence of streams. Palana Limestone Dunes around Ranga are similarly consistent. Smaller areas, notably in the south, are very restricted and the calcareous dunes south of Whitemark are noticeably lower in carbonate. Sediment from Pats River and other small streams may be responsible. The highly calcareous dunes at Marshall Bay are classic examples of parabolic dune development. Inland the older Palana Limestone Dunes further reflect the long history and extensive development of calcareous dunes here. A contribution of reworked material from older calcareous dunes cannot be ignored, notably at Palana. The west coast with its large tidal range and reduced exposure should be an excellent source of calcareous material. (b) Parabolic Movements . Although dune stabilisation is now general, there is evidence of active blowing in the past. Thus Dimmock (1957) describes two "A" horizons separated by light coloured calcareous sands indicating two active periods within the Lughrata Sand Dunes. Blow-outs have initiated movements at least twice during Holocene beach ridge development. The formation of the Lughrata Sand Dunes and Nala Sand Dunes is apparently late Glacial to Holocene, at least in part pre-dating the beach ridge series. Major periods of blowing are thus required to account for the extensive parabolic movements in these dunes. Initiation of parabolic dune movements on Flinders Island may have been associated with the transgression of the sea during an arid Post-Glacial Thermal 12 Quaternary Geomorphology of Flinders Island Maximum (Gill, 1955). However, Galloway (1965) and Jenltin (1968) have doxjbted the aridity during the Post-Glacial Thermal Maximum, and there is evidence that lagoons on Flinders Island were larger in the past. Sprigg (1959) related increased dune movement to the "Roaring Forties" belt of high impact winds. This wind belt at present is orientated across Tasmania and wind regimes along the southern Australian coast show a south-westerly influence. The southward displacement of the "Roaring Forties" wind belt during the Tasmanian summer (Langford, 1965) suggests that, during the Post-Glacial Thermal Maximum, the greatest impact of the wind belt was south of Tasmania. If Sprigg is correct, dune movement on Flinders Island from such major blowing would be more li)cely prior to a Post-Glacial Thermal Maximum and there is evidence of stormy climates during the wlirm (Galloway, 1965) . The Flinders Island beach ridge and foredune system developed from the post glacial maximum sea level. A similar system must have existed prior to this to provide the material for the parabolic system. Parabolic dunes of the Nala Sand Dunes abut abruptly against and are truncated by the oldest of the beach ridges. This ridge most probably represents the highest Holocene shoreline. Increased dune movements would certainly have resulted from the action of this sea-level, but it is difficult to substantiate an hyphothesis which associated the whole of the parabolic system to this cause alone. Dunes, of the Nala series furthest inland show greater consolidation suggesting greater age. The series as a whole appears to provide evidence of two periods of major blowing, with two periods of minor blowing subsequently. These later periods observed within the Lughrata Sand Dunes and the East Coast Beach Ridges may or may not be contemporaneous. At the present time minor blow-outs show some activity. In the Palana District sand blowing is considerable. It is suggested (i) that dune or beach ridge growth has occurred, to varying extent, with the fall and subsequent rise in sea-level during the Wurm Glacial and (ii) that parabolic dune movements resulted from stillstands or fluctuations during these movements, associated with such phenomena as storm conditions and the movements of the Roaring Forty Belt. This is compatible with a theory of dune formation at Portland, Victoria (Boutakuff, 1963) and Gill's statement (1964) that "such dunes were built successively as the sea advanced and retreated". Age of the Unconsolidated Parabolic Dunes The Nala Sand Dunes are older than the East Coast Beach Ridges. Near Lady Barron the ridges rest on the floor of an apparent former bay. Elsewhere the presence of former shorelines and the truncation of the Nala Sand Dunes by the ridges suggest that the ridges date from a Post-glacial maximum sea-level. The Nala Sand Dunes are accordingly regarded as early Holocene and possible have their origins in the late Wiirm. 'They apparently indicate periods of extensive blowing from the east. Although widely stabilised, the Lughrata Sand Dunes have less mature soil development and less consolidation than the Nala Scind Dunes. They occur frequently in association with beaches and appear to have been modified by frontal dune development and blow-outs, particularly at Palana. Near LeeJta a frontal dune apparently truncates the parabolas. In a number of places north from Cape Franltland the dunes can be clearly seen in the aerial photographs to rest above a rocky shore not in association with beach deposits. Frontal dune and blow-out activity has without doubt occurred within the last 100 years. The Lughrata Sand Dunes have been involved in some activity at least until this time and therefore this activity is contemporaneous with the East Coast Beach Ridges. At first sight a late Holocene age seems conclusive. The View across the bay south of Trousers Point, showing notching at about 100 feet above MLWS. 8. Section through dune, south of Trousers Point, looking north. Quaternary shell bed at Mr. Docker's feet. Slight soil development on this foredune is seen. 5. View from Vinegar Hill across Opossum Boat Harbour with the Potboil in the background. 6. Aerial view of Parry's Bay looking north to Blue Rocks. 14 Quaternary Geomorphology of Flinders Island soil development is certainly of this age. However, the relationship to the shore in some areas suggests that some dunes of Lughrata Sand are older than this. They probably had their origins in late Glacial and early Holocene foredune and parabolic dunes which were overwhelmed by the Holocene rise in sea-level. This was followed by severe blowing with parabolic re-orientation. The prevailing westerly wind is ample to effect this activity. Although active movement inland may have long ceased increase in height due to additional sand being trapped by the vegetation has continued. Soil profile development therefore has remained at an early stage until very recently. However, increased development has ocourred on the inland margin. W. Tuddenham (pers. comm.) has obtained a radiocarbon date of little more than 1000 years B.P. for an incipient Lughrata type soil from Wilson's Promontory. (5) Beach Ridge and Frontal Dunes (Lackrana Sand Dunes). Siliceous ridges and frontal dunes are present on both the east and west coasts of Flinders Island. These ridges typically parallel to the coast, are very extensive along the east coast. On the west coast they are best seen in the vicinity of Whitemark, Parry's Bay and Blue Rocks. Many other sites display varying degrees of frontal dune development, e.g. south of Trousers Point. In some instances this activity is more or less confined to reworking of slightly older calcareous dunes (Plate 8). West Coast Dunes At Whitemark a ridge or foredune, approximately 15 feet above MLWS, is covered with low vegetation on the upper and landward surfaces. The fauna includes numerous land mollusca. Inland another dune, approximately 30 feet in height, is stabilised by tea-tree vegetation. It shows signs of parabolic re-orientation. Further inland again, at right angles to the coast are older siliceous Unconsolidated Parabolic Dunes, regarded as approximately equivalent to the Lughrata Sand Dunes. This description applies fairly well to much of the coast from Blue Rocks to Whitemark. In the Loccota area parabolic Lughrata Sand Dunes replace the siliceous dunes. Here the frontal dune is markedly but not extensively re-oriented and modern dune growth is very slight. Pats River is the main source of siliceous sediment for the Lackrana Dunes in the Whitemark area. The main movement is south from the river mouth. The development of a foreland has resulted in a small asymmetrical bay just north of Whitemark, analogous in miniature to the bay north of the Clarence River in N.S.W. (Jennings, 1955). Sediment moving north with the tide into Parry's Bay contributes to the extension of tidal flats and to foredunes within the bay. The source for tlie ridge development in the Blue Rocks area is apparently the several small streams draining into Sawyers Bay. The significant movement south tends to prolong Blue Rocks Point. Progradation of the beach appears limited to areas under the influence of these sources of sediment. The foredune increased in height and extent in situ. Modern coastal dune growth indicated by freshness of form with yellow sand lacking a soil profile is relatively rare. To the south of Trousers Point the foredune rises steeply from the beach and has little vegetation cover (Plate 8). Cutting reveals slight soil development. At Whitemark the face of the dune tends to be cliffed. Timber and bottle debris buried within is re-exposed. Little evidence of erosion was seen on the east coast of Flinders Island, but photographs by Mr. Denis Bishop show an area north of Patriarch Inlet where the sea has apparently overwhelmed and denuded ridges (Plate 9). Quaternary Geomorphology of Flinders Island 15 East Coast Beach Ridges This siliceous ridge series is parallel to the coast for virtually its entire length. Its width varies from 0.5 to 1.5 miles. A beach berm was noted at the time of the 1957 visit. Vegetation has stabilised the ridges and is encroach¬ ing onto the beach. The close resemblance to beach ridge series elsewhere in Tasmania (Davies, 1959, 1961; Gill and Banks, 1956) is clearly revealed by comparisons of aerial photographs of Black River (Gill and Banks, 1956, plate 3), Port Sorell (Davies, 1961) and Flinders Island (Dirranock, 1957, plate 9). There are also similar series in South Australia (Sprigg, 1952) , less extensively on King Island (Jennings, 1959b) and Gippsland (Jenkin, 1968). Origin and Development Generalisations on the origin and development of the Tasmanian and Victorian beach ridge series (Davies, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1961; Jenkin, 1968) hold true for the Flinders Island east coast. However the aspect of source of material, obviously of considerable significance, is not so clear. Gill and Banks (1956) note that at Black River, N. W. Tasmania, ridges are only prominent where there is a plentiful supply of sand. The Flinders Island East Coast Beach Ridges, while resembling other Tasmanian series in many respects also appear to exhibit significant differences. There are no bays or significant rivers to facilitate ridge growth. Such drainage as reaches the coast can have only local significance. Contemporary erosion sufficient only to explain the Whitemark ridges. The growth of the cuspate foreland at Sellar Point has been rapid. There is little if any erosion of its southern flank, as noted by Jennings (1959b) for its counterpart at Cowper Point on King Island. There is no apparent deposition on the southern flank of Sellar Point as can be seen from the map. (a) Source of the Sediment The east coast of Flinders Island is exposed to the Pacific Ocean, but wave action other than that of storms is affected by the gentle off shore slope (Jennings, 1955, 1959a). Progradation has proceeded over most of the coast over 40 miles long. East flowing currents in the minor straits of the Furneaux Group such as Franklin Sound, are the fastest and last the longest. In consequence "there is a substantial net transport of sediments westwards" (Jennings, 1959a). This sediment is deposited in sandy shoals (e.g. Vansittart Shoals, Pot Boil) as the Pacific swell is encountered. Jennings (l.c.) refers to "a large tidal delta some 7 miles by 5 miles across, at the southern end of the island". Beagle Spit is a similar shoal at the northern end. The turbulence and 'boiling' of the water at Pot Boil is easily seen from the summit of Vinegar Hill (Plate 5). It is thought that the straits bear a similar relationship to the coast as would rivers as a source of sediment. It is significant that the predominant long term direction of drift of beach materials along the Tasmanian coast has carried and concentrated material on the north-east coast of Tasmania in the vicinity of the Furneaux Group Islands (Davies, 1965). Thus, a large supply of sediment is available to be carried through the straits to the east coast of Flinders Island. Further, the eastern coastal plain of the Island itself has provided material as with each Pleistocene rise of sea level a large bulk of dune material has been eroded away from much of its low lying surface. This material has been held on the continental shelf adjacent to the coast by refracted wave action. This cycle of submergence, emergence, retrogression and progradation originates from the Pliocene on evidence given later. The principle sediment source is thus off shore and probably to a large extent recycled material. A contribution is received from material deposited in the shoal areas, and which, once on the beach, is moved by beach drifting. 16 Quaternary Geomorphology of Flinders Island The removal of sediment from Bass Strait by eastward movement has been responsible for the greater development of beach ridges on the east coast off Flinders Island and for the contrast in the materials of east and west coast dunes. Thus siliceous dune development is favoured on the east coast by sediment abundance while calcareous dune development is favoured on the west by sediment paucity excepting near river mouths. The amount of material carried from Bass Strait will depend on the nature, strength, and extent of current flow in the strait. Drift bottle (Vaux and Olsen, 196i) and drift pumice (Sutherland, 1965) studies indicate that Bass Strait experiences an eastward current flow during the winter and a westward flow during the summer. The eastward winter flow is expected to be the stronger and appears to operate slightly longer than the westward flow. Past move¬ ments of materials may have been much greater than at present, particularly during Pleistocene glacial periods when the eastward winter flow would be expected greatly to dominate. Control by current activity in southern Australian waters may be one of the factors in the distribution of dune material on the southern Australian coast. Thus, calcareous dunes are characteristic from Western Australia to Victoria (e.g. Bastian, 1964; Hills, 1940; Sprigg, 1952), while siliceous dunes dominate the east coast (e.g. Thom, 1965) . Tasmanian dune sands are more calcareous along the west and north coasts than on the south and east coasts, (Davies, 1965) , while on King Island calcareous dunes prevail on the west coast and siliceous dunes on the east (Jennings, 1959b). This distribution possibly can be explained in part by overall prolonged eastward removal of sediment by currents corresponding to winter flow in Bass Strait. The siliceous dunes on the east coast of large Bass Strait Islands are in keeping with sediment accumulation on the side protected from dominant eastward current flow. (b) Wave Action and Deposition ' Except at Sellar Point, fetch is at a maximum in relation to the Flinders Island east coast. Babel Island is the factor in the development of the cuspate foreland. The off-shore contours indicate a gentle slope to the east across the shelf (Jennings, 1959a) and the 10 fathom contour is some 3 miles off-shore. The 5 fathom contour curves inshore from the shoals at Franklin Sound at Cameron Inlet. It is off-shore at Babel Island but close inshore near Patriarch Inlet. The greatest ridge development coincides with the greatest distance off-shore of this line, although the area just south of the Arthur River Estuary is an exception. (c) Beach Alignment Wave fronts on Davies' (1960) diagram of wave refraction from the south-west are co-incident with beach alignment on the west coast of Flinders Island, making due allowance for off-shore features. Beach alignment on the east coast indicates a refracted south-easterly swell. A wave refraction diagram of the south-easterly swell that fits the Ninety Mile Beach in Victoria (Bird, 1961) , when extended, also fits the eastern coast of Flinders Island. This is confirmed by a study of the waves exliibited on aerial photographs. Beach construction on Flinders Island as elsewhere is due therefore to the refracted swell from the south-east Pacific and from the south-west through Bass Strait. This sediment is a source of material for ridge building. The present east coast is largely a repetition of former alignments with modifications such as the closing of Cameron Inlet. The point of repetition of alignment from Pleistocene Interglacial is made by Davies (1960) . During the last Pleistocene Interglacial a large shallow bay existed on Flinders Island, north of The Patriarchs. Ancient dunes up to 100 feet above sea level suggest that it also existed during earlier interglacials. Low sand ridges which are not certainly old dunes are most probably bay sand bars and some have associated shell beds. The soil profile described by Dimmock (1958) for such a ridge favours this explanation. The alignments appear consistent with assymetrical bays showing cuspate foreland development toward The Patriarchs, which were undoubtedly islands in the interglacial seas. Quaternary Geomorphology of Flinders Island 17 Another outcrop influenced the development of a small headland just south east of Patriarch Inlet. These granite outcrops, including Babel Island, have influenced the whole developmental history of the east coast dunes. (6) Correlations and Comparisons between Flinders and King Island Dunes. The New Dunes of Jennings {1959b) are Holocene in age and equivalent to the coastal Lac]crana Sand Dunes on Flinders Island. His Old Dunes cannot be correlated so readily with specific Flinders Island series. At least some of the King Island Old Dunes may be correlated with Unconsolidated Parabolic Dunes on Flinders Island. Some dunes of the Nala Sand Dune Series show a stage of semi-consolidation that, although insufficient to justify an assumption of an age as great as the Riss/Wurm Interglacial, may indicate a Wurm Interstadial age. Some calcareous Old Dunes and aeolinites described by Jennings on King Island may probably be equivalent to similar dunes on Flinders Island regarded as Pleistocene in age. Dune movements appear to have been more extensive on Flinders Island than on King Island, due apparently to topographic differences. 3. LAGOONS AND THE COASTAL BARRIER The lagoons comprise several types which are related to topography. West Coast lagoons are small. At Marshall Bay, elongated and bifurcated lagoons are impounded by the parabolic dunes. At Whitemar)t, the lagoon fauna includes fresh¬ water molluscs and numerous non-living shells of the euryhaline Coxiella are buried in the mud. There are many other small lagoons resulting from impounded drainage. On the Eastern Coastal Plain lagoons are much more extensive, forming both inland types and coastal types related to the coastal barrier, as follows: Old Inland Lagoons Old sites now modified or dry occur at the base of the granite ranges and inland on the plain north of Memana. Soils of two apparently old lagoons at the foot of the Darling Range west of Nelson Lagoon differ from those of other lagoons (Dimmock, 1957). A second series comprises Nelson (8 miles long), Wingaroo and Carnacks Lagoons, and several smaller lagoons (Wingaroo Association of Dimmock). In the Nelson Lagoon area traces of older (?) lagoons and dunes are visible. The extensive growth of this series of lagoons suggests past increased rainfall, Extensive lunettes up to 25 - 30 feet high are present on the eastern shores of these and numerous other lagoons. Inland Lagoons of the Dune Systems These are formed (i) by dune impounded drainage; (ii) in the axes of parabolic dunes; {iii)as lagoons or marshes between swales of elongated dune ridges. Some triangular lagoons, due to dune advance into stream valleys (Jennings, 1957a) are present. Near Mt. Boyes some streams are darned on reaching the plain, but may flow further with winter rainfall. Further south several streams drain into swamps from which engrafted streams drain toward the coast. Many lagoons are much reduced in size. Coastal Lagoons These are impounded by the coastal barrier and beach ridge system. Cameron Inlet and the estuarine Arthur River have defined openings to the sea. Sedimentation 18 Quaternary Geomorphology of Flinders Island in Cameron Inlet is more extensive and current flow meanders towards the mouth. Logan Lagoon entrance is almost completely restricted and the water is brackish. A former connection between Burnett Lagoon and Cameron Inlet is traceable. North and South Chain Lagoons are completely enclosed, but may have been divided from others in the series by segmentation (e.g. Bird, in Jennings and Mabbutt, 1967) . North from Patriarch Inlet large lagoons appear to have grown as result of impounded drainage. Some of these have lunettes. At Hogans Lagoon the lunette has encroached on the oldest beach ridge establishing an age relationship. Coastal Barrier The Flinders Island east coast at various times has consisted of two embayments. One, aligned to the south-east swell, curved northerly to Sellar Point. The other curved inland from the Sellar Point, Patriarchs area then north toward the Arthur River. With the rise of the Post-glacial sea-level barrier bars formed 1.5 miles or more off-shore in the south (Logan Lagoon is 1.5 miles wide, Burnett Lagoon 1 anile and Cameron Inlet is wider still). Barrier growth almost completely enclosed the whole of the coast north to Sellar Point. It may have curved to the south-west towards Cape Barren Island as a former extension of Logan Lagoon is traceable in this direction. Similarly, the Arthur River Estuary was formed and formerly extended for six miles to the south. It is now reduced to four miles. South from the Arthur River the barrier follows the old coast truncating the parabolic dunes. Traces of an old barrier are present particularly in Cameron Inlet where a recurved Spit marks the site. " Coffee" rock, here, is typical of dunes or beach ridges formed in the Late Pleistocene (Bird, in Jennings and Mabbutt, 1967). A marshy remnant of an older section of the Inlet or lagoon may be traced at the entrance to the East River. Upper Quaternary shell beds thought to represent the 7.5 m. sea floor exist beneath Nelson Lagoon and may be traced in a curve towards The Patriarchs, and appear again around Wingaroo. (Sutherland and Kershaw, l.c.) Lower Pleistocene shell beds occur on the plain north from Memana (l.c.). The relationship of the shell beds with dune and lagoon systems suggests successive embayments gradually reduced to the present alignment. Alluvial Fans These also reflect the effect of the topography on drainage. The best example is the fan on Leventhorpe Creek near Memana. Fans are present on the western plain particularly near Blue Rocks. However, their development is rarer on the western than the eastern and northern slopes due to the short steep gradient to the coast here. 4. THE COASTLINE Granite Platforms Granite shores on the Island consist of rounded boulders, or sloping benches deeply incised along joint lines. Water layer levelling and flat platforms were not observed. At present sea-level traces of a notch or incipient bench appear to occur where steep granite faces are present. Older shore-lines are marked by more extensive areas of bevelled granite platform. The 25 feet (7.5 m.) shore-line at Trousers Point is markedly bevelled. Apparently there has been insufficient time for this to have taken place on the present shore. Quaternary Shore-lines Quaternary Geomorphology of Flinders Island 19 Flinders Island supports considerable evidence of old emerged shore-lines showing similar features to those of Quaternary shore-lines described on Southern Australian coasts (Twidale, 1968). Correlative levels for Flinders Island with those measured elsewhere in Tasmania and Victoria are given in Table 1. (a) Previous Flinders Island Literature . Apart from Strzelecki (1845), Johnston (1879) referred to 'raised beaches' with littoral species at 40 - 50 feet (12 - 15 m.) on Furneaux Group Islands and to an oyster bed at 30 feet (9 m.) above high water level 2 miles from the mouth of the Arthur River. Everard (1950) described beds of recent shells (Marshall Bay Coquina, Sutherland and Kershaw, l.c.) from Marshall Bay in the Lughrata District at 50 feet (15 m.) above sea-level. Granite platforms east of Heathy Valley and beach ridges representing former shore-lines paralleling the east coast are also mentioned. Dimraoclc (1957) referred to marine benches cut in limestone at Lughrata at 20 - 30 feet (6. - 9 m.); a bench of siliceous deposits at about 50 - 60 feet (15 - 18.5 m.) near Ranga; a bench at about 30 feet (9 m.) at Blue Rocks. (b) Measurement of Shore-line Heights and Correlative Literature . The datum used in the present investigation was mean low water spring tides - MLWS - (Fairbridge and Gill, 1947). This was determined from direct measurement of intertidal ecological features. Arbitrary starting points were selected for each measurement. Hence allowance for observational error is necessary. High water level was not used because of the variation in tidal range around the Island. It is possible to establish the position of MLWS from the equivalent intertidal ecological zone, but observed HWM varies with factors affecting tidal range and with local environment. The MLWS Measurements quoted can be converted to approximate equivalent MHWS figures by addition of 10 feet (3m.) for west coast, 5 feet (1.5 m.) for south coast and 3 feet (1 m.) for east coast localities. A summary of the main levels converted to approximate MHWS readings is given in Table 1. On Flinders Island the investigations of the present authors indicated old shore-lines at about 200 - 250 (61 - 77 m.), 100 - 120 (30 - 37 m.), 60 - 70 (18 - 21 m.), 25 (7.5 m.) and 10 - 15 (3 - 4.5 m.) feet above MLWS. Jennings (1959b) considered that on King Island levels about 70 feet (HWM) probably can all be assigned to the Riss/Wurm. (c) 200 - 250 feet MLWS (61 - 77 m.) Shore-line . The topography of the Flinders Island highlands suggests ancient bays with cliffed headlands above high level beach remnants. South from Loccota the granite appears to have been planed at about 200 feet suggesting a former shore-line at about this level. Limestone dune at heights of 400 - 600 feet (123 - 184 m.) are found at Palana, Lughrata and Ranga. The age of the contained fauna, their degree of lithification etc. of these dunes, suggests that their age may be such as to relate to earlier high Pleistocene sea-levels. However, precise correlations are uncertain since the levels of the toes of the dunes are largely obscured by later dunes. Limestone dunes also occur at or below present sea-level suggesting the possibility that several dune series may be represented. The 200 - 250 feet (61 - 77 m.) level may even represent the Miocene high sea-level of Bass Strait (Richards and Hopkins, 1969). (d) 100 - 120 feet MLWS (30 - 37 m.) Shore-line . South of Loccota benches are cut in granite at heights from below about 100 feet to some distance above (Plate 7), and there is spur flattening similar to that 09 < O' K O o O •H 1 2 IN in > c r- O o o *-J < o> m i s < s i fo f4 > * a n 0 m in o o i LWM 1 o 1 o r* 1 o o » V o u 1 in 15 o 2 1 1 B5 'C O' o r- *H u ;:! * 1 o bi c -H HWM 1 35 45 65 <9 ►4 ■g •H 5 < M 1-4 1 2 a H m p* • u 1 1-4 s O 3 in o z U f-H VA 2 o J3 VI 2 w * n. in in z IT> 2 fn 1 IN :iC •H O r- IN (fl o o o O 5 » •-4 (N 4J * " 0 r- I 1 O -4 a fN vO -4 3 • r- <0 1^ r- M w Ul Ul 2 u 9 1/) X z <« •J % ■ « U4 £ >4 0 O 2 u a ■A m 7 t ^ a i o in O' i Quaternary Geomorphology of Flinders Island 21 observed on King Island (Jennings, 1959b). Inland from the Arthur River Estuary ill-defined ridges are associated with a bench at 100 - 120 feet (30 - 37 m.). East from Ranga and Barclays Hill super¬ ficial E. W. dunes and ridges are superimposed on a plain of unconsolidated marine (or estuarine) sediments (Blalte, 1947; Dimmoclc, 1957) some six miles from the coast at 100 - 120 feet elevation. Some of these ridges are younger than the Palana Limestone Dunes at Ranga and may be redeposited material derived from them. Other ridges, however, seem unli) A NEW TASMANIAN SPECIES OF MitZigania (FAMILY Liliaoeae) WINIFRED M. CURTIS Manusaript received 6 September 1972 'Published 8 November 1972 This species of Milligania was identified by Leonard Rodway who appended the specific epithet lindoniana to a herbarium specimen col¬ lected by Mrs. Lindon in 1926. However, I have been unable to find any publication describing and naming this plant which will be illust¬ rated in Part IV of "The Endemic flora of Tasmania," Ariel Press, London (in press). The following description is necessary in accord¬ ance with the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, to valid¬ ate the name proposed by Rodway. I wish to thank Mr. R. G. Hood for assistance in preparing the latin diagnosis. Milligania lindoniana Rodw. ex W. M. Curtis, sp. nov. Herba perennis caespitosa rhizomate valido descendente. Caulis erectus tomentosus (8-) 12 - 40 cm. longus dimidio supero inflore- scentia paniculata occupato et basi vaginalibus basibus foliorum et fibris foliorum cariosorum arete obvoluto. Folia praecipue radicali- bus imbricatis; vagina basalis parte antica membranacea clausa; lamina coriacea lanceolata-acuminata (5-) 12 - 20 cm. longa, (l-j 1.2 - 2.4 cm. prope basin lata, infra medium carinata super complanata vel ali- quantum plicata; supra glabriuscula subtus nervata argentea pilis fur- furaceis compressis obtecta, sed margine et nervo medio pilis squama- ceis longis ramosis pronis indutis. Rami paniculae bracteis foliosis subtenti. Flores plus minus 1.2 - 1.5 cm. diametro insidentes pedi- cellis brevibus erectiusculis bracteis parvis subtentis. Perianthim persistens et subter fructu reflexum, fere ad basem sex-partitum lobis angustis-oblongis patentibus; tubus basalis brevis supra purpureus, lobi eborini. Stamina numero perianthii lobis aequalia ad basem lob- orum perianthii affixa, filamentis complanatis loborum circa 3-plo brevioribus et infra medium deltoideis purpureis; antherae basifixae introrsum dehiscentes. Ovarium atrogithagineum 3-loculare basi peri¬ anthii vix immersum; ovula numerosa; stilus brevis; stigmata 3, parva subulata. Capsula membranacea loculis superne breviter longitudinal- iter dehiscentibus. Tasmania: Mount Field West at 4,500 feet, leg. Mrs. Lindon, Dec¬ ember 1926 (Typus in Rodway Collection, Herb. Univ. Tasman.) Milligania lindoniana is widespread but local in montane habit¬ ats; it is found by the sides of streams and in pockets of wet peat on Mount Field West and on Cradle Mountain at altitudes of about 4,000 to 4,500 feet, and at lower altitudes on mountains and wet moors in the south and west of the State. Although resembling M. densiflora Hook.f. Records of the Queen Victoria Museum, No. 45 2 A New Tasmanian species of Milligania in habit it is a smaller plant and readily distinguished by characters of both leaves and flowers. The leaves have on their lower surfaces a close covering of matted, appressed hairs causing a silvery sheen sim¬ ilar to that characteristic of leaves of Astelia alpina R.Br. Larger, scale-like hairs attached by a broad base lie along the midrib and margins; they overlap and are directed forward parallel to the blade. The flowers have the perianth divided nearly to the base into six creamy-white lobes which spread widely; the perianth is persistent and becomes reflexed below the fruit as in M, stylosa F.Muell. ex Benth. The most conspicuous feature of the flower is the crimson colour of the centre. The filaments of the stamens are flattened, broadly triangular in the lower half, and deep crimson; they are joined to the bases of the perianth-lobes and the crimson colour continues over the inner sur¬ face of the short perianth-tube. The ovary is also conspicuous, being dark greenish-red, it is not concealed by the perianth. THE MURIDS AND SMALL DASYUR IN TASMANIA PARTS 5, 6 AND 7 by R. H. GREEN QUEEN VICTORIA MUSEUM, LAUNCESTON RECORDS OF THE QUEEN VICTORIA MUSEUM, No. 46 EDITED BY W. F. ELLIS DIRECTOR OF THE MUSEUM KING ISLAND 144® FIGURE 11. Localities from which A. s. swainsonii has been collected and the possible distributional range based on habitat. Places mentioned in the text are: 1. Cradle Mountain 2. Waratah 3. Cohnna 4. Renison Bell 5. Mount Barrow 6. Kindred 7. Fingal 8 . Royal George 9. Snowy Range 10. St. Valentines Peak 11. Molesworth 12. Maydena 13. Orford 14. Nietta 15. Lake St.Clair 16. Dromedary Range 17. Sandy Bay 18. Arthur River 19. Tasman Peninsula 20. Magnet 21. Henty River 22. Table Cape 23. Flowery Gully 1 L THE MURIDS AND SMALL DASYURIDS IN TASMANIA PARTS 5, 6 AND 7 f^2 5JUN1973 by R. H. GREEN Queen Victoria Museum, Launceston Manusaript reaeived S4/S/1972. Published 9/11/1972. PART 5i Anteohinus swainsonii (Waterhouse, 1840) ABSTRACT The Tasmanian subspecies of Swainsons phascogale Anteohinus swainsonii swainsonii was collected as part of a study of small mammals conducted during 1963, 1964 and 1965. It was found to be confined principally to the western half of the island, with only isolated populations in the eastern half, and to be dependant upon the occurrence of beech ( Nothofagus cunninghamii) rainforest. In this habitat and in the ecotonal periphery it was relatively common and taken in association with the indigenous velvet-furred rat Rattus lutveolus velutinus and long-tailed rat Pseudomys higginsi. It was found to shun the treeless areas of buttongrass (Mesomelaena sphaer-ooephala) , where it is replaced by the little phascogale A. minimus minimus. Males exceed females in body proportions by a significant factor. Development IS slow and breeding may commence before skull ossification is complete. The heaviest male collected weighed 90 gm. and the heaviest female 55 gm. Insects form the greater part of the diet but larvae, earthworms and small vertebrate animals also are eaten. ^ Females may be carrying pouched young from early October to December, eight eing the normal litter though a number in excess of the nipple complement might De produced. The young are born with well developed, sharp claws on the front teet but, soon after attachment to the nipple, the claws lose their sharpness and become less prominent. Records of the Queen Victoria Museum No. 46 2 The Murids and Small Dasyurids in Tasmania Trapping in selected habitat during autumn and winter produced about one A. s. swaineonii to 25 trap-nights, with no obvious bait preference. Many catches appeared to result from the animal's inquisitive nature. Best results were achieved from February to July when populations are at their peak. Some ectoparasites have been collected and determined. A. s. swainsonii appears to be relatively free from predation except in the ecotonal regions and its preferred habitat is secure in the foreseeable future. DISTRIBUTION Sample trappings has shown A. s. swainsonii to be widely distributed in Tasmania (see map, figure 11) and that it occurs principally in association with rainforest. The western half of the island supports the greatest populations and it has been taken at altitudes ranging from about 1000 metres to sea level. The shaded portion of figure 11 which illustrates the probable distribution of A. s. swainsonii is based on the occurrence of its preferred habitat. Within this range there are considerable areas of button grass sedgeland which occur as clearings in the rainforest and, as these vary greatly in extent and distribution, it has not been practicable to define the precise limits. The map thus is intended to show the general range only but it may reasonably be assumed that more than half the indicated area supports rainforest in which A. s. swainsonii occurs. The isolated occurrences in eastern Tasmania are also associated with rainforest which, in some instances, are relatively small relict-like areas. In the course of this study A. s. swainsonii has been collected from areas near Cradle Mountain, Waratah, Corinna, Renison Bell,and Mount Barrow. In addition the Queen Victoria Museum holds single specimens from Kindred (collected on 9"VII.1924), Fingal (12.X.1940), Royal George (4.IX.1969) and a desiccated carcase collected from Snowy Range, west of Huonville, in February 1967. The Tasmanian Museum holds two specimens collected at St. Valentines Peak in July 1962. N. A. Wakefield collected a single specimen at Molesworth on 21.1.1962 (Wakefield and Warneke 1963). Guiler (1960) records it from Maydena, Orford, Nietta, Lake St. Clair, Dromedary Range and Sandy Bay (Hobart suburb). Wakefield and Warneke (1963) record it from near the mouth of the Arthur River and on Tasman Peninsula. They also record the existence of five specimens in the British Museum which were collected at Magnet (near Waratah), Henty River and Table Cape. The last named locality has been cleared for intensive farming for some years and it can be assumed that the species no longer exists in the area. A, s. swainsonii material was found among the sub-fossil bone deposits in a limestone cave at Flowery Gully (Gill 1968). Trapping in this area has failed to catch this species or the endemic Pseudomys higginsi, with which it commonly occurs and which is also present in the Flowery Gully bone deposits. The present habitat in the area is not consistent with that in which the animals are usually found but there is a small reserve of relict rainforest (which is also a fauna sanctuary) a few miles to the south-west (see map, figure 11) where these species probably still live. HABITAT The rainforests (see part 3, plate 8) and adjacent ecotone are the preferred habitat of 4. s. swainsonii . Their composition is variable and dependant upon The Murids and Small Dasyurids in Tasmania 3 numerous factors such as soil fertility, aspect and frequency of fire. Jackson (1965) discusses these influences and their effect on the rainforest and ecotone. In many areas Nothofagus aunninghamii (beech) is the dominant tree, with Atherosperma mosahaium (sassafrass), Euoryphia lucida (leatherwood), Phylloaladus vhomboidaXis (celery-top pine) and Anodopetalum biglanduloeum (horizontal scrub) occurring in varying abundance. In areas which have been subjected to periodic fires the dominant forest canopy is Eucalyptus spp. The understorey also varies considerably in density and composition and includes Olearia avgyrophylla (musk), Pittosporum bioolor (cheesewood), Dvimys lanoeolata (native pepper), Persoonia gunnii (Gunn's persoonia), Anopterue glandulosa (laurel), and Dioksonia antaratiaa (soft tree- fern) , the latter often being dominant in the gullies. Throughout these forests, especially in the beech-dominated fire-free areas, there is a heavy accumulation of litter and rotting timber on the forest floor. This is often covered with a thick mat of wet green moss. Such accumulations form a labyrinth of natural cavities underground in which the animals hide and rest. Additional excavations in the rotting logs and stumps can be easily effected. Firing has removed much of the debris from the ecotonal areas and populations are primarily dependant for shelter on the density of regrowth. The composition of this habitat is also very variable and patchy but in the western highlands it usually includes Meeomelaena sphaeroaephala (button grass), Ghania trifida (cutting rush), Sprengelia inoarnata (swamp heath), Epaoria gunnii (Gunn's heath), Monotoca sp. (broom heath), Boronia vhomboidea (diamond boronia), Leptospermum sp. (tea-tree), Gteishenia alpina (dwarf coral-fern), stunted Casuarina dystyld (oak), stunted Eucalyptus gunnii (cider gum), Poa aaespitoaa (tussock grass), Calorophus lateriflorus (spreading rope-rush), Restio australis(mountain cord-rush), and Lepidosperma filiforme (common rapier-sedge). This scrubby ecotone habitat usually gives way to exposed treeless areas of wet sedgeland dominated by button grass into which A. s. swainsonii rarely ventures. Climatic conditions vary considerably, with annual rainfall exceeding 250 cm. in much of the western habitat but in some of the isolated eastern areas it is only half this figure. Temperature likewise varies from minima as low as -120C. in the subalpine habitat to maxima near 35Oc. on the coast. The subalpine habitat is subjected to annual winter snow falls which may be up to 30 cm. deep for weeks at a time. In the forest areas the dense canopy and heavy litter afford some protection from the snow blanket but, in the ecotone habitat, the island-like nature of the vegetation results in the connecting runways across exposed areas being enveloped and heavy snow falls may cause local isolation. Trapping examination in areas under such conditions near Cradle Mo\intain in June 1966 showed A. i. swainsonii to be present in both the rainforest and the relatively more .exposed ecotone and gave the impression that, though it remains active, it does not habitually leave the shelter provided in the microh^itat beneath the snow covered vegetation. Collecting has shown it to occur in the same habitat as the endemic Tasmanian pseudo-rat P. higginsi (see Part 4) and it is usually caught when trapping for that species but it is not so selective in its_ habitat-preference and may occur in ecotone not normally favoured by P. higgune^ . None were taken in the treeless expanses of button grass(M. sphaerocephala) where its place is taken by A. m. minimus. The isolated occurrences plotted on the distribution map (see figure may at first appear somewhat removed from the normal range o-f habitat but su instances invariably are found to be associated with small patches of relict rainforest. DESCRIPTION Findlayson (1958) gives a description of A. swainsonii based on 16 specimens 4 The Murids and Small Dasyurids in Tasmania collected from Cradle Valley. Wakefield and Warneke(1963) qive a description of A. swainsonii together with a range of tables showing body and skull prop¬ ortions and tabulated comparisons of species, sub-species and samples from geoaraphically different populations. They demonstrate that the nominate Tasmanian form is distinct subspecificallv from that of the mainland Australian A. 3 . mimetes. The small number of Tasmanian specimens available at the time of their study now has been extended and the present description is based on a Series of 30 skins and associated skulls and seven spirit specimens held in the Collections of the Queen Victoria Museum. Tfiese have been assembled in the course of field studies conducted from 1963 to 1966 and were collected principally in the central north-western region. External characters In general form (see plate 20) A. s. swaineonii is stout with relatively large hind quarters and a small thoracic region. The neck is broad and the facial features sharp with the nose long and evenly tapered to the small, naked, dark grey nostrils. The ears are short, well rounded and when folded forward reach to the eyes. They are covered posteriorly and on most of the anterior surface with very short inconspicuous brown hairs. The anterior surface of the lobe region normally carries a tuft like cluster of hair considerably longer than that on the rest of the ear. The eyes are relatively small with the iris dark brown and the pupil black and are set in the sides of the head, slightly behind the . nid -point between the nostrils and the ear. The legs are short and the soles of the feet broad. The upper surface of the feet is covered with short brown hairs. The toes are well articulated and the front feet dexterous. The claws are elongated and sharp, expecially on the front feet and generally lack pigmentation. The first digit of the hind feet lacks a claw and terminates in a naked dark grey pad. The toes of the hind feet carry a few prominent hairs which erupt near the base of the claw and may reach to the claw tip. These are absent or inconspicuous on the toes of the front feet. The under surface of the feet vary from pale grey to a dirty white, but the manus us usually paler than the pes. These are described and illustrated by Findlayson (1958) and Wakefield and Warneke (1963) . The manus is mostly dirty white with the pads showing a slight grey pigmentation. There are four interdigital pads, the inner member of which is considerably larger and more elongated than the remaining three and extends to the inner metacarpal. A prominent outer metacarpal is also present. The digital formula is 3>4>2>5>1. There are usually four elevated digital rings beneath each toe but this number may be reduced or indistinct on digit one and digit five. The pes often appear pale grey in colour as the granulation, pads and digital rings are more noticeably pigmented than in the manus . There are four inter¬ digital pads and an outer and an inner metatarsal. The first interdigital pad and outer metatarsal pad may or may not be joined, partly or completely, in either or both feet. The digital formula is 3>4>2>5>1, with the first being greatly reduced. There are four digital rings beneath the first toe and seven beneath the remainder. The tail is slightlv shorter than the head and body (see table 19) and is gently tapered. In some individuals it appears stout but in others, especially subadults lacking condition, it may be more slender and the caudal vertebra prominent. The tail scales are grev and arranged in about 180 irregular rings with about 25 scales to each ring in the basal region, decreasing to 20 per ring in the mid-region and 10 in the distal region. The tail is covered for most of its length with short bristle-like hairs occurring in sets of three which originate from behind each scale and are arranged in line between the rings. The centre member of each set is considerably longer than the laterals. They are directed acutely towards the distal end and are dark grey on the dorsal surface and pale grey The Murids and Small Dasyurids in Tasmania 5 ventrally- Near the base of the tail they have a terminal or sub-terminal band of liaht tan brown. They are shortest in the mid region, reaching to 3 mm. and on the distal end may increase to 5 mm. About 10 mm. of the extreme basal region of the tail is clothed in soft fur similar to that of the body. Nipple complement may vary from six to eight. Wakefield and Warneke (1963) give the nipple complement of A. s. swainsonii as six, based on the only four specimens in which development was sufficient to permit a count. Of 22 females handle by the present author, six were found to possess six nipples, four possessed seven and five possessed eight. The remaining seven were insufficiently developed. The nipples are normally arranged in line on either side of the pouch but in one instance six were normally positioned and a seventh was midway between the two most anterior members. The pouch is small and inconspicuous in , subadult females but becomes greatly distended in an adult carrying voung. The opening is from the rear but the pouch lacks depth and consists primarily of two lateral skin folds. The scrotum is pendulous and clothed in fur similar to that on the rest of the ventral surface. Pelage Sexual dimorphism is not apparent in the pelage. The fur is soft, very dense and relatively short. When brushed ■<^rom rump to head it does not part readily but retains a dense, matted appearance. Its length is fairly even over most of the dorsum and on the flanks, where it reaches to 12 mm. on fully furred animals, but on the ventrum it rarely exceeds 9 mm. The guard hairs are not conspicuous and reach to 6 mm. above the main pile of the dorsum and flanks but are of lesser proportions on the ventrum and points. Those of the dorsum taper to a fine point and are a lustrous black, coarse and stiff in their terminal half but the basal half is much finer, less robust and a grev colour. Those on the ventrtun are less bold and possess an off-white terminal band. The main bodv pile is leaden grev for most of its length. On the dorsum there is a sub-terminal light tan band with the extreme tip black. On the flanks the black tip is absent and the terminal region is entirely light tan. On the ventrum the terminal region becomes very pale to off-white. The composite effect is dark brownish grey dorsally, being greyer on the head and shoulders and slightly more browner on the rump and near the base of the tail. The flanks are slightly paler and the ventrum appears pale grey. Lvne and McMahon (1951) give some details of the surface structure of the hair. The mysticial vibrissae vary in their conspicuousness between individuals. In some they may be as long as 25mm. while in others thev may not exceed 10 mm. They are tapered over their entire length and are brown in colour, being dark in the basal region and paler terminally. The posterior members are longest and mav be five times that of the anterior members. Several genal vibrissae are usually present, reaching to 20 mm. and usually very pale to off-white in the terminal region. Several supra orbitals mav reach to 15 mm., two to four very pale interramal to 12 mm. and about four ulna carpals to 15 mm. Lvne (1959) gives further detail based upon five specimens two of which (X445 and X446 of his own collection) came from Maatsuyker Island. This is apparently an error of determination as the only Antechinus sp. known from that island is A. minimus • Plastic Dimension Plastic measurements were taken as follows: Total length: From the tip of the nose to the tail tip, measured dorsally with the animal on its back. 6 The Murids and Small Dasyurids in Tasmania Tail: From the base of the tail to the tip, excluding fur, measured dorsally with the tail turned back at 90° to the back. Ear: From the tragoid notch to the ear tip- Pes: From the back of the heel to the extremity of the longest (third) toe, excluding the claw. The statistical details given in tadDle 19 refer to adult or nearly adult animals with fully erupted teeth. This reouired the exclusion of five males and eight females collected in the months of February, March, April and June. Table 19 demonstrates that, on the average, males considerably exceed females in body weight and size, but that there is no significant sexual dimorphism if the length of the tail, ear or pes are expressed as percentage of the head and body length. Wakefield and Warneke (1963) compare statistical data from both Tasmanian and mainland Australian A. swainsonii and show the average head and body lenath of the Tasmanian sample as being smaller than the mainland Australian sample. The present material, detailed in table 19, reverses that finding and shows that, in the average, the head and body length of A. s. swainsonii slightly exceeds the measurements of A. s. mimetes given by Wakefield and Warneke (1963). This is not considered sufficient to be significant and is naturally dependent upon the age of animals in the sample. In other respects the statistical conclusions are nearly similar. The heaviest male was collected near Waratah on 8.VIII.1964. It weighed 90 gm., was exceptionally robust and carried considerable fat deposits. The lightest male was taken near Cradle Mountain on 21.11.1965. It weighed 27 gm. and was a subadult with a head and body length of 104 mm. The heaviest female was taken near Mt. Barrow on 19.VIII.1965. It weighed 55 gm., had a head and body of 127 mm. and was not carrying pouched young. The lightest female was collected at Renison Bell on 6.II.1965 and was a subadult of 27 gm. with a head and body length of 101 mm. This size predominance in favour of males also occurs in the larger Tasmanian dasyuridae Saraaphilus harrisi and Dasyurus viverrinus (Green 1967a). 8 Males 14 Females Weight 48-90 (62.1) 31-55 (43.8) Total length 219-253 (234.5) 199-228 (210.5) Tail 90-115 (102.9) 80.3% 83-103 (91.6) 77% Head and body 122-140 (131.6) 112-127 (118.9) Ear 17-18 (17.4) 13.2% 15-17 (16.1) 13.5% Pes 20-22 (21.5) 16.3% 18-21 (19.1) 16.1% TABLE 19. Weights (gm.) and measurements (mm.) of A. s. swainsonii. Quotations show the extremes of adult or near adult animals with the mean in brackets and relative lengths of tail, ear and pes when expressed as a oercentage of the head and body length. The Murids and Small Dasyurids in Tasmania 1 Skul] The measurements oiven in tahle 20 are from animals collected durinq this study. Onlv those with -^ullv erupted adult teeth and ot a body weight in excess of 44 qm. for males and 30 am. for females were selected. This resulted in the inclusion of all and onlv those of the table 19 series. The fontanelle was ossi¬ fied in all except two males and four females. Measurements were made, with slide calipers araduated to one tenth of a millimetre, as illustrated bv Wakefield and Warneke (1963). Table 20 shows the skulls of males to exceed those of females in qeneral proportions. This is in conformitv with bodv weiaht and plastic measurements as is also the case with the larqer Tasmanian dasvurids Saraophilus harrisi and Dasyurus viverrinus (Preen 1967a). Ossification of the fontanelle is slow and animals mav commence to breed before it is complete. male with a fontanelle ooenina of 1 x 2 mm., collected on 27 June 1963, weiohed 64 qm. and had a head and bodv lenath of 129 mm. Testes were developed to 11 x 7 mm. A female with a fontanelle ooeninq of 0.5 x 0.5 collected on 16 October 1964, weiahed 45 am. and had a head and bodv lenqth of 113 mm. Phe was carrvina eiaht small pouched vounq. Tooth wear is insianificant and does not appear to be of use in determinat¬ ion of the animals age. The development of the full dental complement is somewhat slow and animals are well advanced before all teeth are fullv erupted. The third premolars of both iaws are the last positioned, beino immediatelv preceded bv the fourth mol¬ ars of the upper iaw. Pour Pebruarv collected individuals are detailed in table 21 oivina a comparison of the final staaes of tooth eruption with the animals bodv weiaht and size and dearee of fontanelle ossification. The complete adult dental complement is I 3 , , pm^, ^ 4 . Wakefield and Warneke (1963) oive further details of the skull and dentition of A. swainsonii and compare it with A. flavipes. HABITS Disposition and activitv A. swainsonii has an alert and active disposition. It will bite viqorouslv when first handled and the canine teeth are capable of oenetratina the skin of the hand. With a little encouraaement it soon tames and is easilv handled. Wild cauaht individuals have been found to take insects from the hand within an hour of capture. It has an inquisitive nature and when at larae explores it's surroundings with zeal: a habit which I believe is often responsible for its being trapped desnite normallv unattractive bait. Individuals kent for cantive studies were occasionally liberated inside mv house for periods up to one hour. Thev were not alarmed and activelv explored secluded retreats, behind the furnishinas, apoarentlv searching for orev. Stealth and caution was alwavs evident and, when thev abandoned cover, thev usuallv cros¬ sed open floor spaces with a quick dash or, as was more often the case, followed the wall footing or edges of furniture, rlimbing activities were limited to drapes and places where a firm foothold was easilv obtained. On sawdust and leaf litter it was often observed to "plough" the surface bv pushing its nose beneath the material to turn the litter with its head in a "ploughing like” manner. 8 The Murids and Small Dasyuride in Tasmania No observations have been made on the species in the wild state. Natural retreats Within its favoured habitat there is usualIv an abundance of decaving timber and accumulated litter which provides good natural cavities, sometimes forming a labyrinth of surface runways and chambers in which A. s. swainsonii gains shelter and seclusion. This habitat is also favoured by the two indig¬ enous rats P. higginsi and R, I, velutinus and there does not aooear to be any difference in the preferences of any of the three soecies. In the ecotonal regions <4. 8. swainsonii shelters in hollow logs, natural cavities and beneath dense vegetation such as mature stands of cutting rush (Ghania trifida) and button grass (Mesomelaena aphaeroaephala). In 1967 a local naturalist brought to the Oueen Victoria Museum an old desiccated carcase of A. 8. swainsonii, It was stated to have been found in a nest of eucalvpt leaves, placed in a crevice of a "stringy bark" tree and at a height of about eight feet above the ground. The area was described as virgin forest in the Snowv Range near Huon, southern Tasmania at an altitude of about 600 metres. Food An examination of the out contents of wild soecimens has shown that in¬ sects form a maior part of the diet. Chitineous parts are usually well broken up but soft items 3te not so well masticated. Earth worms were found in sev¬ eral stomachs and were usually broken into pieces. In one instance a grub, about 30 mm, long, was found to have been swallowed in one piece. In captivity it has been found to take items ranging in size from mosguit- oes to house mce and domestic sparrows. Lizards (see plate 20), moths, spid¬ ers, cockroaches and the like were all readily accepted. EFEEDINn Wakefield and Warneke (1963) found breeding in A. swainsonii to be res¬ tricted to a short period in late winter. Their conclusions are based on a collected, over a period of six years, from Loch Valiev, Victoria. The present author has found the Tasmanian subspecies to breed later and over a more extended period. Ten males trapped in February, two in March and two in April appeared to vear old with retracted scrotum and undeveloped testes, ales collected at the end of June, in August and September were found to have pendant scrotum with the testes well developed. Ten females were trapped in June and one in Auqust have the pouch undeveloned. All were found to iQC/i have been collected with pouched voung. These were 16 October 1964 with eight voung of a crown/rump length of 6 mm. and irNovembe; 1965 w^t^ eight voung of a crown/rump length of 10 mm. I'lovemoer lyoD witn One female collected on 24 October 1965 was found to have the couch in breeding condition. The pouch skin was oink with eight nipples of a brighter studies but°wL°not’"noticert ^his animal was kept alive for cantive pecterara reLl? f produce voung. Embryonic resorption was sus- found to occur in F. Z """ plate 21). This excess of voung over the nipple complement would pro- The Murids and Small Dasyurids in Tasmania 9 vide a hiqher chance of all the nipples beina occuoied and allow for some mortality at birth and on the journey from the vaginal opening to the nipple. A female trapped alive on 11 February was lactating. She was not carry¬ ing young and the' pouch was partly contracted. The mammary glands were swol¬ len and eight nipples measured about 4.5 mm. (not stretched). She was tagged, released and never recaptured. A female collected on 23 February had recently ceased lactating. The pouch had retracted to 17 mm. in diameter and was furnished with six nipples, only four of which show evidence of having been suckled. These measured about 3.5 mm. each (not stretched). The remaining two were the anterior pair and were not developed. This indicates that females may be supporting pouched voung from early October to the end of the year and suckling as late as February. Description of young The pregnant female collected on 18 October 1966 was found to have two prominent uterine sacs in the shape of laterally compressed spheres measuring 17 X 12 mm. Each carried six embryos of a crown/rump length of 2.3 mm. The emlprvos^were_approximately kidney shaped with little character except for slight "budding" where the face, front legs and hind legs were developing. The pouch of the lactating female collected on 16 October 1964 was fur¬ nished with eight nipples of a length of 2 mm. each and some entangled pouch liairs of a pale grev colour and about 6 mm. in length. She had been killed in a strap trap some hours before being collected. The pouch opening measured 18 X 13 mm. and had a slight fold on the anterior edge to provide a pouch depth forward of the opening of about 4 mm. The uterine sacs were contracted to 10 X 5 The eight young were dead and could be removed from the nipples With the slightest tension, Thev had a crown/rump length of 6 min. and appeared to be near to newlv born. The back and neck were prominently arched and the facial features such as eyes and ears were almost indistinguishable. The lower jaw appeared swollen and relatively large when compared with the rest of the head. The hind legs were club-like buds without diyision of the toes and were directed Forward towards the nose. The tail was pointed, short and only barely exceeded the length of the hind limbs. The front legs, when viewed through a low-power microscope, were found to be equipped with a well formed manus, five splayed toes each with a prominent curved and sharp claw. This advanced devel¬ opment of the manus would assist the newlv born voung in their initial climb from the vaginal opening to the nipple. The pouch of the female collected on 13 November 1965 was furnished simil¬ arly to the preceding specimen except that the nipples were about 3.5 mm. in length. The pouch opening was 25 x 25 mm. The uterine sacs were completely contracted and the eight young were firmlv attached to the nipples, even though dead. The young had a crown/rump length of 10 mm. They were clustered together mostly outside the pouch proper in the abdomino-inguinal recion neck were well arched with the hind feet and tail ° chin. Examination under a low-power microscope showed that the vibrissae had not erupted but a few dark hairs had just erupted in the crown of the head. The rest of the body was completely naked. The ears appeared as slight swellinos on the side of the head and the eves toes partly formed. The front feet were well developed but lacked the promin- ent curved sharp claws observed in the above mentioned (and younger) animals tL^thP nrn'" ® the claws were very short, stout and blunt suggesting that the pronounced extensions present at birth are shed soon after the young are secure on the nipples. Such prominent and sharp claws would be unnecessary TABLE 21. COMPARISON OF BODY SIZE, WEIOHT AND FONTANELLE OPENING WITH THE FINAL STAGES OF TOOTH ERUPTION IN FOUR A. s. swainsonii 5.11.1965 8.11.1965 11.11.1965 21.11.1965 Date 3 2 IS d Sex 29 35 27 Wt. (gm.) 108 105 103 104 Head & Eodv (mm.) 1.5x2 1.8x2.4 1.0x1.5 0.5x1 Fontanel Openina •d -d 5 3 3 S CO O 1 CO CO O 11 II 1 CO CO CO CO CO Deciduous teeth oresent T3 1 1 (O CO 1 1 1 CO CO Adult teeth not erupted 53 T3 3 53 3 3 3 CO coco CO 1 CO CO 1 1 11 ^1 t CO coco CO CO CO 3 3 3 ^ jr 4r 1 1 1 ^ ^ s- Adult teeth partly erupted 5 N) O . o • ^ 3 M H- *> h-* H- 'X 3 W CD > rl’ CO G (D 53 W W O > tr* W CO !> 3 O "d 5 > Cd CO o ■d Co G ft S Co O 3 td > > ■d 53 N CD n I-* 3 Q) 0 p) fD < ft h-* U) iQ to (D 0 »» rt 0 Pi a 0 ft 0 3 w fi- H- Pi Pi JW 3* H- 0 h-* cr ft n n £U H* H« fli H* HI rt n I-* rt (D V pi (D 3 pj t-' H* cr 3 3 I-* fD Id £3 rt CU 3 O (D rt G* rt Q 0 pi cr H- rt 3 Qj 3 3 CO rt rt —• H{ 1 0 H- CO l-i O rt H- (D O 3 3 to ■rt - (D Z CD CO CO CD CO O 0 H’ • 3 m r» h-' M to 3 i-h 00 cn cn cn cn -o to cn cn CO cn cn cn 53 KO cn c?\ CO H* CO 3 . • 00 • v4 H-* 13 N> CO • cn • • (D to 4a. H* h-* to 00 cn »o cn H CD CD 4a 3 M- hh (.h M- hf H- •t o o o O O O o o M I-* CO M to 4a 00 H cy> H* M CO to cd ro tn o o o O O o I-* < ft M CT> .Cii^ 00 cn cn H* Pi 3 ro CO o -0 cn M ft Qj CD CO CO CO CO to CO 0 • 0 (0 0 M h-l to • Hh 00 cn cn cn ««o 4:^ cn • t 50 u» o cn CO 4^ CO Pi 1 1 1 1 3 KO cn (y\ M 03 M to vQ • • • • cn CO 0 !-• m • t » cn 4» o H-* H to 00 cn cn cn cn 3 0 to CD -o •O cn cn Pi U) to o cn CO H ro 3 hi. 1+ ht i+ H- hf H- 1+ o o o o o o O cn o o f-* M to 4a 0 to cn CO cn &> CL o h-> to 00 cn CO CO ft fli H- Id 0 Oi 3 MALES FEMALES The Murids and Smalt Dasyuride in Tasmania 11 durina suckling and would probably be capable of inflicting injury as the young develop and gain in strength. MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS Trapping No attempt was made specifically to trap A. s. swainsonii, All animals collected were taken in traps set for small mammals in general and indigenous rats in particular (see parts 1 - 4). The common household rat trap was the principal means of collecting. Sherman box traps, made of galvanised sheet steel and measuring about 22 x 8 x 8 cm., were used when live animals were wanted. Various baits were used including rolled oats, peanut butter, honey, raisins and chopped bacon mixed in various proportions. Apple, cheese, bacon, raisins, raw meat, plain bread and bread scented with vanilla were also used separately. No preference was noticed and the majority of catches appeared to result from the animals' inquisitive nature or as a consequence of walking over the trap. The trap sites chosen were usually semi-secluded such as inside a hollow log, beneath fallen timber, beneath dense vegetation, putside holes and beside large logs where animals would have a tendency to run. Trapping success was variable but in good habitat one in 25 trap nights was a reasonable expectation. Very little skull damage occurred as a result of the use of snap traps. Some details of the smallest and apparently youngest animals trapped are given in table 21. Field studies Field studies were conducted in the Cradle Mountain area and were incid¬ ental to the study of indigenous rats (see parts 1 - 4). In 560 trap nights 16 A. s. swainsonii were trapped alive, ear tagged with numbered fingerling fish tags, weighed, measured, examined and released. They comprised seven females, eight males and one animal the sex of which was not recorded. Tagging was undertaken in two adjacent areas selected principally for their populations of the indigenous rats P. higginai and W. fusaus. The lat¬ ter species was found inhabiting an area of poa tussock into which A. s. swain¬ sonii had penetrated from the adjacent heavy beech rainforest. Traps were set to form two parallel lines about 40 metres apart and at intervals of about 20 metres between traps. One site was on the edge of beech (Nothofagus) dominant rainforest cind the other, though only about 100 metres distant, was treeless and vegetated principally with poa tussock (see parts 3 and 4). The first 240 trap nights, during October and December 1965, failed to produce any A. s. swainsonii though a number of rats were captured. Subsequent trapping on 320 trap nights in February, June, July and October 1966 produced 16 Ai s. swainsonii on 12 occasions . Two males and two females were retrapped on the day of capture and in the vicinity of their original place of capture. Only one A. a. swainsonii was retrapped after a significant time lapse. This was a male originally trapped on 12 February 1966 and retrapped on 3 June 1966 about 300 metres distant from the original place of capture. It had gained in body weight from 32 gm. to 65 gm. Keeping in captivity Several adult A. s. swainsonii were kept in cages 18 inches by 10 inches by 12 inches high. Diet consisted of raw mutton, dead birds, mice and insects. Though they ate regularly and appeared healthy, none survived more than three months. 12 The Murids and Small Dasyurids in Tasmania All such captives could be easily handled and exhibited little fear or ferocity. When handled, activity appeared to be stimulated mpre by their inquisitive nature rather than any desire to escape and biting of the hand rarely occurred. The nose was often used to pry into spaces in a semi-closed hand or between the fingers and they showed considerable ability to force their way through tight places. When released inside the house their active curiosity would be continued as outlined under "Habits." Parasites Ectoparasites have been collected whenever opportunity permitted and have been lodged with the National Insect Collection in Canberra. Table 22 gives details of these sanples. TABLE 22. ECTOPARASITES COLLECTED FROM A. s. swainsonii ACARINA Ticks (determined by Dr. F. H. S. Roberts) Ixodes tasmani Cradle Mountain (larvae) 20 . Ill .196 3 ; (?) 22. VI.1964; Renison Bell (nymph and larv¬ ae) 23.11.1964 I. anteohini Waratah (? nymph and larvae) 27.VI, 1963; Renison Bell (larva) 23,11.1964; (?) 6. II. 1965; Cradle Mountain (??) 22. VI. 1964; (?) 12.11.1966 INSECTA Fleas (determined by Dr. G. M. Dunnet) Aoanthopsylla sp. nov. Cradle Mountain 20.III.1963- 26. IV.1963 Pygiopsylla hoplia Cradle Mountain 20.III.1963 Stephanoairaus sp. Cradle Mountain 26.IV.1963 Maoropsylla heraules Waratah 27.VI.1963 Mites (determined by Mr. R. Domrow) Gymnolaelaps anneatans Cradle Mountain 20.III.1963 Lice Undetermined nymphs only, Cradle Mountain 18.X.196 6 The brains of two A. s. swainsonii were sent to the Department of Agricul- ture for inclusion in a survey of Toxoplasmosis in Tasmania and one produced positive results (Munday 1966). The lungs of two were examined by the same autnority for Emmonsia oresaens: both produced negative results. Natural enemies /• appears to be relatively free from natural predators. . ® larger dasyurids, masked owl Tyto aastanops and larger snakes doubtless ke some toll in ecotonal habitat where populations overlap but its preference for dense rainforest keeps it mostly beyond the reach of these predators. Feral cats rarely occur in this habitat. pi-cuai-uxs. rerai The apparent inability of A. in dry sclerophyll forest may be s. swainsonii to establish and maintain itself a result of predation. Many such areas appear The Murids and Small Dasyurids in Tasmania 13 ideally suited to its requirements. These are often the stronghold for the larger dasyurids, owls, hawks and feral cats. In this habitat the niche may be occupied by the very much larger and often prevalent short-nosed bandicoot Isoodon obeeulus. This animal's diet overlaps that of ,4. s. swainsonii in many respects and, though it favours bushland and forest areas, it generally shuns the rainforest habitat in which A. s. swainsonii occurs. Much of Tasmania's rainforests are in the western region and extensive areas are included in national parks. Because of high rainfall and naturally damp conditions they are relatively safe from uncontrolled fires. I see no reason why A. s. swainsonii should not continue as a common mammal within the confines of its present distributional limits. PART 6. Anteahinus minimus (Geoffroy, 1803) ABSTRACT The Tasmanian subspecies of little phascogale Anteahinus minimus minimus was collected as part of a small mammal study from 1963 to 1966. Its distrib¬ ution was found to be confined mostly to the western half of Tasmania, Maat- suyker Island, Flinders Island and King Island. Its preferred habitat is the wet sedgeland and drainage areas, provided sufficient vegetational cover exists, where it utilises the well defined runways formed by the indigenous velvet- furred rat ftattus lutreolus velutinus and broad-toothed rat Mastaoomys fusaus. Males exceed females in body proportions by a significant amount. The heaviest male collected weighed 57 gm. and the heaviest female 52 gm. This is considerably less than the average for A. s. swainsonii (given in part 5). Insects, larvae and earthworms are included in the diet. A female, carrying six pouched young of a head and body length of 40 mm., was collected on 6.XII.1964. The nipple complement has been found invariably to be six. Trapping in selected habitats during autumn and winter produced a catch of about one A. m. minimus to 40 trap nights with no obvious bait preference. Most catches were made on runways formed by indigenous rats. Some ectoparasites have been collected and determined. The already restricted habitat of A. m. minimus is being progressively invaded by man's penetration of the western region for its industrial, mineral and grazing potential. The species seems destined to be drastically reduced by further habitat destruction. DISTRIBUTION A. minimus was a relatively little known mammal for many years. Recent studies have shown it to be widely distributed but found principally in the western half of the island. Wakefield and Warneke (1963) suggest that the typical habitat of the species is coastal but the experience of the present author indicates that this is not necessarily so in Tasmania. Here its dis¬ tribution is associated with the wet sedgeland and swampy drainage areas which range from subalpine to the coast (see map, figure 12) and it has been collected at altitudes ranging up to 1000 metres. Its probable present distribution is shown in figure 12. This is based on the localities from which specimens have been collected and the range of its preferred habitat. Within these limits there are extensive areas of rainforest which are broken up by the wet sedge- lands occurring as forest openings (Jackson 1965). A. m. minimus rarely occurs 14 6 ® KING ISLAND 144® FIGURE 12. Localities from which A. m. minimus has been collected and the possible distributional range based on habitat. Places mentioned in the text are: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Waratah Cradle Mountain Corina Serpentine River Scotts Peak Lake Pedder Locotta Parenna Magnet Selbourne South Mount Cameron Maalsuvker Island Blue Rocks St. Valentines Peak Hummock island Clarke Island Waterhouse Island Tasman Peninsula Cox's Bight Scottsdale Flowery Gully Port Oavey I 50 lOOKM I-1_ L I I The Murids and Smatt Vasyurids in Tasmania 15 in the rainforest but it is usually present in the associated treeless, sedge- land openings and ecotonal areas, provided the vegetational cover is suffic¬ iently dense. Trapping conducted in the course of this study produced specimens from near Waratah, Cradle Mountain, Corinna, the Serpentine River Valley and Scotts Peak near Lake Redder, Locotta on Flinders Island and Parenna on King Island. The Queen Victoria Museum also holds two males (reg. nos. 2054 and 2055) collected at Magnet (near Waratah) on 3.II.1904 and 9.II.1904 respectively. Once a mining settlement. Magnet is now abandoned and access is difficult. The two specimens were taken when they entered an occupied house. Also included are a male (reg. no. 1944/73) which was caught alive on the bank of a creek near Selbourne on 8.VIII.1944, a male (reg. no. 1944/57) found dea^ in the bush near South Mount Cameron on 24.VII.1944, a male (reg. no. 1946/1/11) from Maatsuyker Island and a male (reg. no. 1961/1/12) from Blue Rocks, Flinders Island in June 1961. The Tasmanian Museum holds specimens collected one mile west of St. Valentines Peak on 13.VII.1962 and four males collected near Lake Pedder in February 1967 (Andrews 1968). Wakefield and Warneke (1963) trace the history of its discovery and taxo¬ nomy and cite additional records from King Island, Hummock Island (= Chappell Island), Clarke Island, Waterhouse Island, Tasman Peninsula, Cox's Bight, the far north-east coast and Scottsdale. The draining of swamps and land develop¬ ment has no doubt resulted in the local annihilation of some of these populations. Among the subfossil bone material from the Flowery Gully limestone caves are several maxilla and mandible remains which were determined by Mr. J. A. Mahoney as this species (Gill 1968). HABITAT The wet sedgelands -(see part 3, plate 1) and associated drainage areas have been found to be a favoured habitat of A. m. minimus and with few exceptions, all specimens collected have been taken in or near to areas of Mesomelaena sphaeroaephaZa (button grass). This may be interspersed with Calorphus Zateriftorus (spreading rope-rush), Restio austraZis (mountain cord—rush), and Lepidosperma fiZiforme (common rapier- sedge) . The extent and distribution of this plant community is considerably affected by fire and Jackson (1965) discusses this and other influencing factors. A. m. minimus also occurs in the ecotone on the verges of the rainforest where the plant community is more complex and may include Ghania trifida (cutting rush), SprengeZia inoarnata (swamp heath), Epaaris gunnii (Gunn's heath), Leptospermum sp. (tea tree), Monotooa sp, (broom heath), Boronia rhomboidea (diamond heath), GZeiohenia aZpina (dwarf coral-fern), stunted Casuarine dyetyla (oak), stunted EuoaZyptus gunnii (cider gum) and occasionally patches of Poa aaespitosa (tussock grass) Spagnum moss occurs widely and in some places forms moss bogs several feet deep. This habitat likewise is favoured. Collecting has shown A, m. minimus usually is present in the same areas as the indigenous broad¬ toothed rat [Mastaoomys fusaus) and usually is taken when trapping for that species but it appears less selective in its habitat preference and will pene¬ trate the ecotone and drier elevated banks more than M. fusaus. On only one instance has A. m. minimus been taken in rainforests. This was a subadult female trapped near Corinna on 8.II.1964 and was probably a footloose vagrant. The isolated occurrences from areas not included v;ithln the principal dis¬ tribution range (see map, figure 12) indicate old records or the presence of isolated relict populations. These are probably the remains of an earlier wider distribution which has been reduced progressively by gradually changing climatic and environmental conditions. They occur in the vicinity of relict-like habitat which is similar to that previously described. Near Selbourne there are expanses 16 The Murids and Smatl Dasyurids in Tasmania of river flats which once were wet marsh lands but, in recent years, have been drained, ploughed and sown to improved pastures. It is reasonable to assume that this was the habitat of the specimen (reg. no.1944/73) and that the exten¬ sive habitat alterations have since annihilated the local population. Climatic conditions are variable with rainfall ranging from over 250 cm. in western areas to about half this figure in the eastern habitats. Temperat¬ ure may fall to -12 C in the western subalpine region during the winter and reach about 35 C on the coast during summer. Much of the subalpine habitat is subject to heavy winter snowfall which may lie at a depth of 30 cm. and consid¬ erably more in the exposed drifts, for several weeks at a time (see part 2, plate 2). This results in the isolation of areas and restricts the individual range by confining the animals beneath the snow. Trapping and examination of the habitat under these conditions indicates that A. m. minimus does not leave the shelter beneath the snow covered vegetation but continues to live an apparently normal existence in the micro-habitat until released by the thaw. In February 1967 the Queen Victoria Museum and the Tasmanian Museum com¬ bined to undertake a zoological survey in the vicinity of Lake Pedder. The location in which the work was carried out (see part 4, plates 14 and 15) is at an altitude of about 290 metres and the habitat is consistent with much of the western highlands. Much of it will be flooded with the completion of dams for water storage for the generation of electricity. Trapping undertaken by J. w. Swift resulted in the capture of four A. m. minimus in an area of tea- button grass swamp in the Serpentine River valley, an aerial view of which IS illustrated by Davies (1965) , near Scotts Peak and near the shore of La]4>2>5>1. The tail is shorter than the head and body (see table 23) slender and tapers gently to a fine tip. The tail scales are not well defined and in colour, distribution and bristle arrangement approximate those of 4. s. suainsonii (see part 5). The bristles on the extremity of the tail may reach 4 mm. but on the rest of the tail the longest rarely exceeds 2 mm. On the dorsal surface they are very dark brown but on the under side they fade to very pale brown. Body pelage extends on to the basal region for about 10 mm. The nipple complement has been found to be always six which is in conformity with that found in A. m. minimus by Wakefield and Warneke (1963). They record eight as the standard complement in the mainland Australia A. m. maritimus. Nipples are arranged three on each side of the pouch but in subadult animals they are difficult to locate because of lack of pouch •development. When pouch development takes place the openina is from the rear but it lacks depth and is formed primarily by lateral skin folds. The scrotum is pendulous and well formed in tones similar to the adjacent ventral pelage. Pelage Sexual dimmorphism is not apparent in the pelage. The fur is soft, dense and relatively short, particularly in subadults, and will not part readily even is brushed backwards. The main pile is longest on the back and rump where it reaches to 12 mm. in well furred individuals but on the ventrum, it rarely exceeds 8 mm. On the crown of the head it is reduced to 5 mm. Guard hairs exceed the main pile by about 5 mm. on the back and rump, 3 mm. on the ventrum and 1 mm. on the crown. They taper to a fine point and on the dorsum and flanks are a lustrous black, coarse and straight in their terminal half but finer and less robust in the basal half. Those of the ventrum are less bold and of a pale sandy brown colour. The main body pile is leaden grey for most of its length. On the dorsum and flanks there is a subterminal band of tan which, in adults with mature pelaae, is pale towards the head but on the rump is darker and has a rich lustre. The extreme tip of most fibres is a lustrous black. On the ventrum the black tip is absent and the main pile terminates in a very pale sandy tan. This is often much darker in the region of the base of the tail. In subadults with immature pelage the tan is usually lacking or absent. The composite effect in mature adults is a dark brownish grey dorsallv, being distinctly inclined to a rich tan hue on the rump, posterior flanks and round the round the base of the tail. The ventrum appears as a very pale sandy grey Plate 20. Anteahinus swainson-ii swainsonii, a captive animal feeding metallic skink lizard. Plate 21. Anteahinus swainsonii swainsonii, trapped on 18 October 1966 pregnant condition. Dissection revealed 12 embryos. on a in a Plate 22. Anteohinus minimus minimus, female with six pouched young, trapped on 6 December 1964. Plate 23. Sminthopsis leuaopus, adult male and subadult female which were found in a nest of shredded bark in a stack of firewood near Holwell on 16 April 1965. photo by Mr. H. J. King. 20 The Murids and Smalt Dasyurids in Tasmania becoming shaded with tan near the base of the tail. In subadults with immature pelage the effect is usually a more uniform dark brownish grey except for the paler ventrum. This distinct tan effect in the region of the rump of most adult A. M. minimus is a character which points to this species and helps tentatively to separate it from the nearly similar A. s. swainsonii. Lyne and McMahon (1951) give details of the surface structure of the hair. The mysticial vibrissae are in five rows and reach to 20 mm. but in adults they are often reduced due to breaking of the tips. They are noticeably less conspicuous than those of s. swainsonii which on the average are considerably longer. The vibrissae are black and gently tapered over their entire length and if unbroken terminate in an extremely fine tip. Because of breakage the longer posterior members are often reduced, the number showing usually ranging from four to ten. The shorter and finer anterior members are more numerous and are not noticeably reduced by breaking. A few genal and supra orbital vibrissae are also present and one or two ulna carpals show on some animals. An albino A. m. minimus was collected from the south west of the state in February 1967 and lodged with the Tasmanian Museum (Andrews 1967). Plastic dimensions Plastic measurements were taken as described in part 5. The details given in table 23 are based on adults or near adult animals with fully erupted adult teeth. This has necessitated the exclusion of four males and one female collect¬ ed in the month of February. Animals collected on offshore islands have also been excluded. Males attain a greater body weight and size than do females, (see table 23). This is in conformity with other dasyurids (Horner and Taylor 1959, Wakefield and Warneke 1963, Green 1967a). There is no significant difference between the sexes in the length of the tail ear and pes relative to the head and body length. Expressed as relative percentages, these measurements are less than those given for A. 8. swainsonii in part 5, particularly for the tail. Measurements given by Wakefield and Warneke (1963) for A. m. maritimus, in the average exceed those of A, m, minimus but the small samples available render the results inconclusive. They give the greatest head and body length in their series of males of A. m. maritimus as 140 mm. This is 8 mm. less than the largest animal (weight 55 gm.) collected in the present study (see table 23). The smallest male collected from the Tasmanian mainland was a subadult with the third upper premolars and the fourth upper and lower molars not fully erupted. It was one of three nearly similar subadult males trapped near Lake Pedder in February 1967 and had a body weight of 34 gm. and a head and body length of 93 mm. The pelage was considerably shorter than that of adults and lacked the tan shading, being almost a uniform mouse grey. smallest female was a subadult with upper and lower third premolars and fourth molars only partly erupted. it was trapped near Waratah in June 1963, had a body weight of 30 gm. and a head and body length of 98 mm. Its pelage was shorter and more greyish than the adults but the difference was not as pronounced as It was in the smallest male. The smallest male collected was a subadult trapped near Locotta on Flinders The Murids and Small Dasyurids in Tasmania 21 Island on 25.11.1967. It had a body weight of 19.5 gm. and a head and body length of 88 mm. 10 Males 12 Females Weight 30-57 (44.8) 24-52 (32.25) Total length 174-230 (195.9) 165-203 (178.83) Head and body 103-148 (118.6) 99-115 (104.83) Tail 65-84 (77.3) 65.2% 65-88 (74.0) 70.6% Ear 13-15 (14.35) 12.1% 13-15 (14.18) 13.5% Pes 17-20 (18.45) 15.6% 17-18.5 (17.33) 16.5% TABLE 23. Weights (gm.) and measurements (mm.) of A. m, minimus. Quotations show the extremes of adults or near adults with the mean in bracjcets and relative lengths of tail, ear and pes expressed as a percentage of the head and body length. Skull Measurements given in table 24 were made as described in part 5 and are from animals collected from the Tasmanian mainland. Individuals from offshore^islands and those in which all the adult teeth had not fully erupted have been excluded. On the average males were found to exceed females in all the proportions measured. This is in conformity with the plastic measurements as is also the case with other dasyurids. The fontanelle ossifies at an earlier aoe than in 4. s. swainsonii as no A. m. minimus were collected in which it was not completely closed. This is considerably more adyanced than was found with 4. s. swainsonii (see part 5). Tooth wear is not obyious and does not assist in determining age. Deyelop- ment of the full adult dental complement is slow and animals are well adyanced before it is complete. The third premolars and fourth molars are the last to erupt . The complete adult complement is Ij , Cj, PMj, M 4 . Wakefield and Warneke (1963) giye additional details of the skull and photographs of the type held in the Paris Museum. HABITS Disposition and actiyity 4. m. minimus is alert and active in verv much the same manner as 4. s. swainsonii (described in part 5). One female was kept in captivity for ten days but always maintained a neryous, spiteful disposition and would bite yigorously wheneyer handled. When released its actiyity was always directed towards escape ^ c U 0 (t) •ri VO H3- ov r- O -0 4J VO C\ (N CM 00 VO in C (M CM in CM CM <0 -H -M > CO 0) 1—c Q W o VO VO 1—1 o O O o o CO 0 Q U CO •«r CM CO •«r o w CO in 1—1 rH o CM rH ij < •H 41 44 . 44 44 +4 44 ♦4 s r-i o> <7\ 00 ov VO CTV c VO VO CO CO VO •«a' in 0“ (N r—1 fO O r* m rH rH CO p:^ in r- 'Cf (O 00 — W CM H rH >4- C 0 0) a 00 o O o o o 0 0 Z 0) rH rH rH rH rH p CO c c o (U •H h P fC o u ■H 0 cn U H-. 1 £ P •-• P w X p 2" TJ c P •H £ (T3 0 P p x: p (U u c fC p tn p P (1) rH p r C f-H rH to c (U IXJ P o p 1— 1 0 p u rH rtj ••H •H nJ P P P rH 0 •H x: ITS rtj P nJ rH p *—1 £ 0 P p 0 '0 m O P m 0) 0) nj > 0 m c rH p m tQ p a < < CD CO 3 e •ri E E O CO a a Q § CO K O CO Eh z W m C< (1) D H CO -p <. Q) K e CM 3 PQ < £h The Murids and Small Dasyurids in Tasmania 23 and it lacked the docile inquisitive nature of. A. s. suainsonii kept under similar conditions. Natural Retreats The preferred habitat of 4. m, minimus is generally treeless and wet. Consequently the onlv available nesting sites are in the dense surface vegetation sufficientlv elevated to clear anv free water. No nests which could be positively attributed to this species have been found. It makes use of runwavs formed and used bv native rats beneath the vegetation but it probablv plavs little or no part in their formation and- maintenance. Trapping has shown it usuallv lives in close proximitv to the indigenous rats M. fusous and B. 1. velutinus, both of which -Form and maintain extensive runway systems (see parts 2 and 4). Food An examination of the gut contents of wild specimens has shown most to contain finelv masticated insect remains. In one case insect remains and very small grubs were present while in another the contents were solely very small grubs. One gut was found to contain an earthworm. Mr. Denison King informs me that he has watched Anteahinus sp. attempting to catch small birds. In his garden at Port Davev he had attracted wrens and other birds to a feeding area with bread crumbs. This food also attracted B. 1. velutinus. The birds paid little heed to the rats but, upon the approach of a phascogale, the alarm call was always given. On several occasions he saw a phascogale make a sudden dart towards small birds on the ground but did not see any succeed in catching one. On the basis of adjacent habitat it is probable that the phascogale in question was of this species. BPEEDUIG Onlv one A. m. minimus has been collected with young in the pouch (see plate 22). This was on 6.XII.1964 from an area near Cradle Mountain. The female's bodv weight (excluding young) was 52 gm. with a head and body length of 115 mm. The pouch was distended to occupy almost all of the abdomino- inguinal region and lacked anv anterior or posterior depth. The lateral flaps were produced as if to fold round the voung on each side. The six nipples were situated in the posterior half and arranged in the form of a U with the distance between the anterior pair being about twice that of the posterior pair. The pouch was furnished with a few reddish brown hairs to 5 mm. in length and the mammarv glands and nipples were enlarged. Onlv one other female has been collected which showed indication of breeding. This was a live trapped animal caught on 18.X.1964 in which the pouch was enlarged to an area of 15 x 15 mm. The six nipples were 2 mm. in length and appeared to have been lightlv suckled. Because of the possibility that she may have been about to produce voung it was decided to keep her in captivity. On 27.x.1964 she was found dead with the pouch and nipples considerably contracted. No indication could be gained as to the possible fate of her voung, but upon reflection it appeared she may have eaten them while in the trap as a result of stress during her initial period of captivity. Seven females trapped during the month of June all lacked anv signs of pouch development. 24 The Murids and Small Dasyurids in Tasmania Subadult males collected in February had scrotums of about 8x6 mm. but by June the scrotums of males had enlarged to 18 x 16 mm. with testes to 10 X 8 mm. It is probable that the breeding season of A. m. minimus parallels that of A. 8. saainsonii , that is from September to the end of the year (see part 5). This is somewhat later than that indicated for A. m. maritimus on mainland Australia by Wakefield and Warneke (1963). Description of young The six pouched young (3 males and 3 females) of the female mentioned aboye are believed to be the only ones of this species collected to date and are spirit preserved with the female, reg. no. 1964/1/316. They had a mean weight of 3 gm., a head and body length of 40 mm. and a tail of 15 mm. The head, from the base of the skull to the tin of the nose was 18 mm. and appeared large in comparison to the body. No teeth had erupted but the lower incisors were well advanced and produced a swelling in the gum. The eyes were closed and the ears sealed and non-functional with the pinnae directed posteriorly. The claws of the manus were stout, strongly curved and of an off-white colour, often with dark tips. Those of the pes were slightly less pronounced and of an off- white colour with dark tins. The pouch of the females appeared as two lateral inguinal folds each of about 3 mm. long and 2 mm. apart. The scrotum of the males was approximately spherical, pendant and about 1.5 mm. in diameter. The entire ventral surface was clothed in fine white hairs to 0.3 mm. in length while on the dorsal surface the pelage was grey and reached 5 mm. Vibrissae were well developed, the mvsticial being in five rows numbering up to 5, 8, 9, 11, 9 per row and reaching to 5 mm. Also present were up to 5 genal to 3.5 mm., 2 supraorbital to 3.5 mm., 4 interramal to 2 mm., 8 submental to 1 mm., 6 ulnarcarpal to 2 mm., and 1 medium antebranchial to 2 mm. MISCELLANEpilS OBSERVATIONS Trapping No attempt was made specifically to trap A, m. minimus and all animals collected were taken while trapping for small mammals in general as described in part 5. No bait preference was noted and many animals were caught as a result of their having fired the traps by walking over the trigger mechanism. Trap sites where A. m. minimus were usually caught were on surface runways formed beneath dense vegetation. Trapping success was variable and populations were often difficult to detect from the general aooearance of the habitat. The autumn and winter months appear most productive and, at this time of the year habitat, a catch of one in 40 trap nights might be expected. Skull damage as a result of the use of snap traps occurred rarely. Adult males were caught during the months of February, March, April and June but no ma?url malL O^obefand'Lcelj^L!'’^" February, June, Parasites Ectoparasites Insect Collection collected during the study have been lodged in Canberra and the following determinations with have the National been provided. The Murids and Small Dasyurids in Tasmania 25 ACARINA Mites (determined bv Dr. F. H. S. Roberts) PneumonyssuB dentatus Waratah June 1963. Gymnolaelaps annectans Waratah June 1963. INSECTA Fleas (determined by Dr. G. M. Dunnet) Stephanooireus sp. nov. Waratah June 1963. Pygiopsylla koplia Waratah June 1963. The brains of two A. m. minimus were sent to the Department 'of Agriculture for inclusion in a survey of Toxoplasmosis in Tasmania and one produced positive results (Munday 1966) . The lungs of one were examined by the same authority for Emmonsia cresaens with negative results. What is believed to be the first report of pulmonary mites in A. minimus is made bv Mundav (1966) as a result of this examination. Natural enemies No evidence has been found to suggest heaw predator pressure on .4. m. minimus. No doubt some are talten bv snakes, masked owls [Tyto oastanops) , and quolls (.Dasyurus viverrinus) . The latter species is prevalent in some areas near to A. m. minimus populations and has been found to take indigenous rats. Feral cats do not occur in sufficient numbers to be of sionificance as a predator species. It appears that the areatest factor limiting its population is the availability of suitable habitat which closelv parallels that of the indigenous rat M. fuscus. Both species once enjoved a wider range of distribution than todav (see also part 4) but climatic chance and habitat alteration, both natural and man made, have resulted in this being restricted mostly to the western region and, in the case of A. m. minimus, on some of the offshore islands. Much of its habitat is subjected to summer fires which, because of the remoteness and lack of anv commerciallv valuable vegetation, often burn uncontrolled for long periods. Though fire was a factor in the maintenance of these treeless areas in the pre European era (Jackson 1965) it does, at the same time, render the effected areas uninhabitable for several years. It also appears that the stage of regrowth at which rehabitation occurs is approximately equal to the stage at which it will support free burning. In some of these areas cattle are grazed during the summer months and, because of their being attracted to the drainage areas for water and feed, they can bv their concentrated trampling, "camping" and grazing render the area uninhabitable. Another factor which will in future further reduce the habitat is the flooding of some valleys bv the damming of rivers for hvdro-electricitv production. The habitat so often follows the low Iving areas, which are the first to be inundated as the reservoirs fill. It is also possible that mineral development will, in the future, have some detrimental effects as it brings with it the inevitable environmental changes. 6 KING ISLAND 144° FIGURE 13. Localities from which S. leucopus has been recorded. Places mentioned in the text are 1 . 2 . 3. 4. 5. 6 . 7. 8 . 9 . 10 . 11 . 12. Binnalong Bay Waratah Mount Barrow Holwell Clarke Island West Sisters Island Scottsdale Maydena Ha\Mey Orford Port SoreM Flowery Gully I 50 lOOKM I-1_I_1-1 The Murids and Small Dasyurids in Tasmania 27 The occurrence of 4. m. minimus on King Island and Flinders Island to the apparent exclusion of X. s. suainsonii is interestina and leads to some speculation as to the local environment prevailing at the time of the recent isolation following the last land bridge. At present there is on Flinders Island (Green 1969) and on King Islands (paps, prep.) a distinct bias towards a wet sclerophyll rainforest avifauna amongst the species which are traditionally sedentary though most of the habitat is now of a dry sclerophvll nature. In addition a number of sedentary dry sclerophyll species which may be expected to occur are in fact absent. It appears probable that at the time of recent isolation, a habitat existed which somewhat resembled that occurring in western Tasmania today. This is a mosaic of rainforest with wet sedgelands openings in which A. swainsonii and 4. minimus occur in close proximity. The chanaes in climate and resultant changes in vegetation which have since ta)cen place could be responsible for the dis- appearance of A. swainsonii from the Bass Strait islands and the reduction of A. minimus to its present extremely limited populations on these islands. Because of its limited overall distribution, the scarcitv of its habitat and the continuing pressure upon these areas to alter the environment, it must be considered as one of our rare and endanaered marsupials whose future welfare should be watched with concern. PART 7. Sminthopsis leuaopus (Gray, 1842) ABSTRACT In about 6,000 trap nights, set principally for native rats, four S. leuaopus were incidentally trapped. Two others were hand caught. The habitat included coastal tea tree, drv sclerophvll forest and beech- dominated rainforest up to an altitude of about 600 metres. A nest composed of shredded bark and containing three S. leuaopus was found amongst billets of firewood stacked in the bush. An adult male and subadult female were captured and held in captivity for up to 60 days. S. leuaopus apparently is a rare animal in Tasmania DISTRIBUTION The scarcity of Tasmanian specimens of S, leuaopus and the diversity of habitat in which this animal has been found makes an assessment of its distribution difficult. Over the four year period (1963-1966), when sample trapping was conducted in many areas and habitat types in northern Tasmania, only four were collected from three localities. An additional two specimens came to hand from another locality as a result of woodcutting operations. As shown in the distributional mao (ficure 13) it has now been collected from both coastal and inland areas. The Oueen Victoria Museum holds one male from Binnalong Bay, collected on 9.VI.1963, one male from near Waratah 9.VII.1964, and two subadult females from near Mount Barrow 19.VII.1965. An adult male and subadult female collected from near Holwell on 16.IV.1965 are held in the author's private collection. The National Museum of Victoria has one specimen (rea. no. M4343) 28 The Murids and Small Dasyurids in Tasmania from Clarke Island and two (reg. no. M4584 and M4459) from West Sisters Island (Le Souef 1929). The latter specimen was originally mistakenly determined as Phaacogale flavipes flavipea. Lord and Scott (1924) giye details of a specimen from the Scottsdale district, Sharland (1962) records it from near Maydena, Guiler (1960) states that it has been recorded in recent years from Hawley and Orford, and Mr. Les Hill of Devonport observed and photographed it near Port Sorell. Among the subfossil bone material from' the Flowery Gully limestone caves are several maxilla and mandible remains determined by Mr. J. A. Mahoney as of this species or Anteohinus minimus (pers. comm. A. J. Mahoney; Gill 1968). HABITAT The distribution and diversity of habitat in which S. leuaopus has been collected suggests that it has little or no preference. The four localities from which the author has personally handled animals are all quite different. The specimen from Binnalong Bay was taken by J. W. Swift while sample trapping for rats on the edge of a small brackish lagoon, only a few hundred metres from the coast. The site was an accumulation of logs, tea-tree and sandy soil which had been bulldozed together during clearing operations some time previously. The vegetation nearby was mostly tea-tree scrub and heath which gives wav to light eucalypt forest about 100 metres inland. Repeated trapping in the area on several subsequent occasions failed to catch further specimens. The introduced rat Rattua rattus was common in the vicinity. Despite many hundreds of trap nights in the subalpine rainforest only one has iDeen taken in this environment. This was in dense beech (Nothofagua ounmnghamii) dominated habitat near Waratah at an altitude of about ThP ^ ="'• already on the ground, and ir. In J ^^^-like hole in the butt of a large decaying beech stump rat tP where the velvet-furred rat (ff. 1. velutinua), the long-tailed rat (P. higg^naz) and Swainson's phascogale {A. a. awainaonii) are plentiful. forest^Lmfnat»H Holwell animals were collected is heavy dry sclerophyll Euoalyptua spp. and at an altitude of about 300 metres. They were caught by hand when disturbed from a nest of shredded bark built amona firewood which had been cut and stacked at the stump some tlmrprevLusiJ? ^ oroxi^L^tr^aoh® "ight in close 450 metres P hiafill'- and T rainforest at an altitude of about The remaininci^rpoo?d= r also taken in the same vicinity, me remaining records are from areas of equally diversified habitat The climatp SfLfsrannLTlv‘^subiec?ed*'r^^-®^'^® Islands to the subalpine raj-nroresr annually subjected to winter snow falls. DESCRIPTION of '^^52) and Lyne (1967) give abridged descriptions The Murids and Small Dasyurids in Tasmania 29 External characters In general form (see plate 23) S. Icuaopuo is lightly built with short legs and a tail shorter than its head and body. Its snout is slightly elongated, with a sharply pointed nose, the general facial appearance being somewhat "fox like." The nostrils are naked and grey, the eyes prominent and situated slightly behind the mid-point between the nostrils and the ears. The iris is dark brown and the pupil black. The ears are relatively large, broad and rounded terminally with a sparse covering of very short grey and brown hair over a grey skin. A slight tuft of hair of a similar colour to that on the cheeks, is present on the anterior edge of the ear laterally adjacent to the tragoid notch. The upper surface of the feet is sparsely covered with short white hair. The toes of the front feet are stout and equipped with claws which are sharp but only slightly curved and generally lack pigmentation. The digital formula is 3>2 = 4>5>1. There are four prominent interdigital pads, a prominent outer metacarpal pad and a small inner metacarpal pad. The outer and inner metacarpal pads are weakly striated while the interdigitals and the remaining naked surface of the manus is strongly granulated. These features are less obvious in the subadults. The first toe of the hind foot is greatly reduced and rudimentary. It lacks a nail and terminates in a naked pad. The remaining four toes are elongated with sharp slightly curved claws which may have a pale brown piomentation. The hairs which erupt from near the base of the claws may reach beyond the end of the claws. The digital formula is 3>4>2>5>1 though there is little difference between 2, 3, 4, and 5. The first interdigital pad is situated near the base of the first digit and is small, smooth and inconspicuous. The remaining three interdigital pads are prominent. All are weakly striated on the aoex and surrounded by strong granulations which extend over the remainina naked surface of the pes. A narrow ridge covered with white hair divides the upper half of the naked pes. It originates near the inner edge of the heel and tapers to terminate laterally adjacent to the first interdigital oad. At its terminal point is a large granulation which appears as a rudimentary outer meta-tarsal pad. The tail is covered with bristle-like hairs about 1.5 mm. long. On the dorsum they are mostly black, the laterals being brown with a black terminal band while on the ventrum they are white. Those on the extreme tip may be slightly longer than on the rest of the member. The nipple complement has been indecipherable as only subadult females were available. One of these, collected on 18th August, was found to possess at least eight faintly developed nipples. The scrotum is pendulous and covered with hair of the same colour as, though somewhat shorter than, that of the belly region. Pelage The fur is soft and dense reaching to 10mm. on the dorsum, 9 mm. on the flanks and 8 mm. on the ventrum. The guard hairs are inconspicuous and reach to 3 mm. above the main pile. Those on the dorsum are entirely black, on the flanks they are white with a black subterminal band and on the ventrum they are entirely white. The terminal half is thick and robust tapering to an extremely fine tip. The basal half is finer and less robust. 30 The Murids and Small Dasyurids in Tasmania The main body pile is a leaden grev for most of its length. On the dorsum there is a pale tan subterminal band with the extreme tip black. This becomes progressively paler on the flanks and on the ventrum the terminal region is entirely white. The composite effect is dark grey dorsally becoming paler on the flanks and a very pale grey ventrallv. In some individuals the facial region appears slightly browner due to the subterminal tan band being darker and more extensive. Lyne and McMahon (1951) give some details of the surface structure of the hair. No attempt has been made to assess the number or position of vibrissae. Lyne (1959) illustrates the facial vibrissae of a specimen (Tas. Mus. 568) and gives the following vibrissae distribution for the species. Mysticial 4, 7, 7-8, 8 (vibrissae below row four not included), genal 8-9, supraorbital 2, interramal 4, submental 3?, ulnar carpal 1-3, medial antebrachial 1, (two to three submentals were present in the adults examined bv me). The mvsticial are the longest and most prominent, reaching to 25 mm. Colour ranges from black to white but generally blends with that of the accompanving pelaae. Plastic dimensions Plastic measurements were taken as described in part 5. Because of the few specimens available the details of each is given in table 25. Skull The measurements given in table 26 were made with slide calipers graduated to one tenth of a millimetre, in the same manner as illustrated by Wakefield and Warneke (1963). Because of the few specimens available the details of each is given. The fontanelle was fully ossified and the adult dental complement was complete in Q^ch specimen. No abnormal tooth wear was apparent. The dental formula is I5,C},PM|,M^. The central pair of upper incisors are set well in advance of the adjacent members. They are sliahtlv lonaer but do not protrude. The posterior upper premolars are large and stand above the rest of the tooth line. The lower canines are small and barely exceed the adjacent members. MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS In captivity An adult male and a subadult female (see olate 23), collected together in a nest near Holwell on 16.IV.1965 were keot in captivity for 28 days and 60 days respectively. They were always alert with a timid, defensive disposition. When handled they would bite^ viporously, holding on for some seconds, but rarely with sufficient strength to inflict a bleeding wound. Thev showed no tendancv to tame and would attempt to escape at every opportunity. Host of the day they spent huddled in a rough nest in the corner of the cage. Natural retreats Tt appears from trapping and observations that S. leuoopus has its nest retreat in a hole in rotting timber or similar such cavities. The animal trapped at Binnalong Bay was taken beneath a pile of bulldozed logs and rubbish. The Waratah animal was trapped at the entrance to a rat-like hole in the side of a large decaying stump. The two from near Holwell were found in a rough nest composed of TABLE 26. CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS Cin millimetres) OF SIX S. leuaopus COLLECTED DURING THE STUDY PERIOD. H* t-* !-• h-* ui KD V£) 4^ VO VO I-* I-* M \ \ \ Z I-* to 0 Ul Ln to 4^ 00 -o c» VO CD NJ to to to to to M CU u> to to -o cn cn (D (0 3 PJ to VO (O 4::* 4::>. U !-• rt p) cr N cr-^ M M w I-* H ht 03 (jj to to cn 4^ (D 0 • • • • • Q> 3 to OJ Ln 05 •O Oi D) f+ b* H- o o ^ 0 o :3 cn cn rt Ln Ln 05 05 cn ft 0 H H OJ LO to to 00 H* cr 0 H- ft rt p. 0) 0 M 3 *13 !_• JU h-* !-• M H* !-■ M (D !-• (jJ to to Ln 42i. 4:» 3 CU rt to 05 u> O I-* n Q> 3* M OJ ti f-ht) > 0 0> 3 (jJ LO CO CO CO CO •i I-* rt D) P) (T> Ln 05 -o Ln CO 3 rt H (D H- H- 3 3 0 2 M > 4:>> 4;^ 4;^ K-fO M 1 3 < LJ to (O 05 05 05 uU3 (D rt 0 3* t-- H- pj to rt h{ •o -o CO 00 00 (D S Bi 05 o Ln *o Co 4^ u>Qi rt 3* d3 E NJ Ln i-3 > H W o 05 H X 05 K C5 O S 0 } O o It* M n w D D a H z o w td 05 K W JO H M I-* H* H M M cn VO VO 4^ VO VO 05 05 05 cn 05 05 50 05 cn cn 05 4k CO CD cn \ \ cn \ \ vQ !-• I-* t-* w \ \ \ \ t-* t-* to I-* Z cn cn to 4k 0 00 •-0 00 VO to cn cn > > > 3 C 3 C5i U Q> D* o* 6* 3 3 d > OJ 3 ft> M M !-• v3 D* Oi a rt rt rt C3 C 3 3 I-* H- t-‘ rt ft rt 2 2 3 (3 (3 CD pi p) P> 3 g 3 t-* I-* I-* cn P> P» 0) (3 (3 (3 (3 h-* H I-* X (D (3 (3 s: 1 !-• I-* 1 CO 1 vQ (3 CO 00 o 3 H- • • vQ cn 3* rt ^ td K M h-* M 3 0 fl> 00 00 VO H O 3 Oi PJ VO 05 CO 05 to 00 • ^ Qi w« t?» -o CO VO VO 00 3 p) VO 05 to 00 3 H* • t-* M M to I-* H 3 Cd 'O 00 H* VO 3 P) • • n cn »-• H* to to h-* 3 ^ 00 I-* o VO 3 (3 • • • • • W cn cn cn cn cn I-* H to ^ o to -O o § ^ 1 1 X X X 3 0 H* !-• • rt to cn cn ''i I-* J-* 00 to o ^ (D 1 1 1 X X X 3 cn 05 03 00 § rt • (D ^ cn a 3 3: K s CD 0 rt rt o P> H- h-* » • I-* H 3 X s P> 3 0 (3 td CD (3 rt PJ C3 I-* fu P) I-* P) M P) H !-• 3* 0 !-• n 3 p. Q 0 vQ rt %: tD P) H H H' I-* Ln VO VO 4k VO VO < < < < < < H H H • H H • IH M H • H-* H H VO M H* O VO • « 05 • VO p) 05 t-* M cn h-* 05 rt cn VO VO VO CO (3 05 C75 05 cn cn 4k 32 The Murids and Smalt Dasyurids in Tasmania shredded stringy bark placed in a narrow space in the middle of fire wood stacked in the bush. This nest was said to have three animals in it but one eluded capture. Similar nests in similar sites with animals in them have been seen in the vicinitv on other occasions (pers. comm. J. G. Hodge). The two trapped near Mt. Barrow were taken in beech rainforest where rotting timber was abundant (pers. comm. J. W. Swift). Mr. Les Hill informed me that he observed and photographed one which was living in a hollow log near Port Sorell. It was attracted outside for photography with pieces of raw meat. Sharland (1962) records three found in a substantial nest of shredded bark 45 feet up in the side of a gum tree near Maydena. Food No gut contents have been available to determine natural foods. In captivity they were found to eat raw meat, small lizards and insects without apparent preference. Trapping Of the four animals taken in traps, one was in a Sherman box trap, described in part 5 and three in breakback rat traps. Bait in each instance was bread and there was no proof that any of the four had attempted to eat the bait. It appeared probable that they had been trapped accidentally or as a result of curiositv. No trappinu was undertaken for S. leuaopus specifically and the four specimens were taken while trapping for small mammals in general and rats in particular on about 6,000 trap nights in the three years 1963 to 1965. Parasites Fleas and mites were collected from the Waratah specimen on 9.VIII.1964 and ticks were collected from both the Mt. Barrow specimens on 19.VIII.1965. All have been lodged with the National Insect Collection, Canberra. The fleas have been determined by Dr. G. M. Dunnett as Aaanthopsylla ? rothsohildi. Natural enemies There is nothing to suagest other than normal predatory pressure on 5. leuaopus and It can be reasonably assumed that it is subjected to the same natural enemies as are the other small dasyurids (see parts 5 and 6). The scarcity of captures despite the fairlv extensive trappinc in a range of habitats suggests that it IS rare and much more scarcely distributed than anv of the small mammals dealt with in the former parts of this series. Its distribution in a wide range of habitat, from the warm coastal regions to the subalpine rainforests, must provide eguard against future threats from land utilisation and man-made habitat changes. However, the pattern thus far also suggests that it mav be a'relict species with f colonies survivina in scattered localities. Much remains to be learnt Sion SSlahVSS^" distribution of this small dasvurid. The lack of inform- ^ present obscures the reason for its raretv in what appears to oe a suitable environment. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to express his thanks investigation, in particular Mr. J. W. Swift to all who have assisted in this of the Oueen Victoria Museum and Mr. The Murids and Small Dasyurids in Tasmania 33 Denison King of Port Davey for their assistance in the collection of material and information, and Mr. T. E. Burns for determination of botanical samples. Mr. R. M. Warneke, Victoria Fisheries and Wildlife Department provided helpful criticism of the manuscript for which I am most appreciative. Grateful acknowledgement is also made for the financial assistance of a grant from the Science and Industry Endowment Fund, administered by the C.S.I.R.O., which has facilitated the investigation. REFERENCES ANDREWS, A. P. (1967). Albinism in marsupials. Tas. Nat. No. 10, August 1967,4. -- (1968). Some recent mammal records from the Lake Pedder area, south-west Tasmania. Pap. Proa. R. Soa. Tasm. Vol. 102, 17 - 21. DAVIES, J. L. (1965). Landform 19-25, Atlas of Tasmania (Lands and Survevs Department, Hobart). FINDLAYSON, H. H. (1958). A case of duplex convergent resemblance in Australian mammals, with a review of some aspects of the morpholooy of Phasoogale (Antechinus} suainaoni. Waterhouse and Phasoogale (Anteohinus} flavipes Waterhouse. Proa. Roy. Soa. S. Aust. Vol. 81, 141-51. GILL, Edmund D. (1968). Aboriginal bone implements from fossil bone beds, Tasmania Rea. Queen Viat. Mus. No., 31. GREEN, R. H. (1967a). Notes on the Devil (Saroophilua harrisi) and the Ouoll (Dasyurids viverrinus) in north-eastern Tasmania. Rea. Queen Viat. Mus. No. 34. - (1967b). Rea. Queen Viat. The murids and small dasvurids in Tasmania. Parts 1 and 2. Mus. No. 28. - (1968). Rea. Queen Viat. The murids and small dasyurids in Tasmania. Parts 3 and 4. Mus. No. 32. - (1969). The birds of Flinders Island with references to other eastern Bass Strait Islands and an annotated list of other vertebrate fauna. Rea, Queen Viat. Mus. No. 34- GUILER, E. R. (1960). Marsupials of Tasmania. Tas. Mus. publication 1960. HORNER, B. Elizabeth and TAYLOR, J. Marv (1959). Results of the Archbold Expedition No. 80. Observations on the biology of the Yellow-footed Marsupial Mouse Anteahinua flavipes flavipes. Amer. Mus. Nov. No. 1972. JACKSON, W. D. (1965). Vegetation, 30-35, Atlas of Tasmania (ed. J. L. Davies), (Lands and Survevs Department, Hobart). LE SOUEF, A. S. (1929). Notes on some mammals from Bass Strait Islands, including a new subspecies of Pseudochirus. Aust. Zoologist Vol. 5, 329-32. LORD, Clive E. and SCOTT, H. H. (1924). A Synopsis of the Vertebrate Animals of Tasmania. Hobart. 34 The Murids and Small Dasyurids in Tasmania LYNE, A. G. and McMAHON, T. S. (1951) . Observations on the Surface Structure of the Hairs of Tasmanian Monotremes and Marsupials. Pap. Proa. R. Soa. Tasm. 1950, 71-S4. - (1959). The systematic and adaptive significance of the vibrissae in the marsupialia. Proa. Zool. Soa. Land., Vol. 133, Part 1, 79-133. LYNE, Gordon (1967) . Marsupials and Monotremes of Australia, Melbourne. MONDAY, B. L. (1966). Diseases of Tasmania's free-living animals. Tas. Dept. Agric. Res. Bull. No. 5. SHARLAND, Michael (1962). Tasmanian Wild Life, Melbourne. WAKEFIELD, N. A. and WARNEKE, R. M. (1963). Some Revision in Antechinus. (Marsupialia) 1. Viat. Rat. Vol. 80, 194-219. ADDENDUM On 11 October 1970 a female S. leuaopus was caught alive near Round Hill about one mile north of Binnalong Bay. It had been flushed from a nest, composed of shredded bar)c and leaves, placed behind the lining in an old abandoned bus. It was passed to the Queen Victoria Museum and lived for ten days in captivity. During this period it appeared active and healthy and fed regularly on live insects and raw meat. Its death was not preceded by any ailment. Upon subsequent examination it was found to be carrying a full complement of eight pouched young of a crown/rump length of 12 mm. The female and young have been preserved in spirit (reg. no. 1970/1/4). On 24 October 1971 an adult male in an advanced stage of decomposition was received at the Queen Victoria Museum. It was stated by the donor to have been brought home by his cat and left on the door step of his suburban home in Emu Heights, Burnie. The specimen has been preserved in spirit (reg. no. 1971/1/3). r f I A NEW GENUS, PRISCABDELLA, FOR AQUATIC JAWED SANGUIVOROUS LEECHES FROM FLINDERS ISLAND, NORTH-EAST TASMANIA, AND SOUTHERN SOUTH AUSTRALIA (HIRUDINOIDEA: RICHARDSONIANIDAE). by LAURENCE R. RICHARDSON 4 Bacon Street, Grafton, N.S.W, RECORDS OF THE QUEEN VICTORIA MUSEUM No. 47 EDITED BY W. F. ELLIS DIRECTOR OF THE MUSEUM 1 1 J » 7 2 5JUNi973 ^VICTO®"^ A NEW GENUS, PRISCABDELLA, FOR AQUATIC JAWED SANGUIVOROUS LEECHES FROM FLINDERS ISLAND, NORTH-EAST TASMANIA, AND SOUTHERN SOUTH AUSTRALIA (HIRUDINOIDEA: RICHARDSONIANIDAE). by LAURENCE R. RICHARDSON 4 Bacon Street, Grafton, N.S.W. Manuscript received 21/3/1973 Published 18/5/1973 ABSTRACT Prisaabdella resembles Piohardsonianus and Habeobdella in the general morphology of the reproductive systems, differs from these in having salivary gland papillae, and from all other Richardsonianidae in having a variable pattern limited to incomplete narrow contrast stripes along the paramedian lines and lateral in the paramedian fields. A detailed topographic analysis leads to the conclusion that Prisaabdella conforms to a 7-banded pattern. A tropical-subtropical origin is proposed on the presence of salivary gland papillae. Records of the Queen Victoria Museum No. 47 2 A New Genus of Leeches On the nature of the pharynx and associated structures, the morphology of the reproductive systems, and the general somital annulation, the leeches detailed here belong in the Richardsonianidae, and would be associated with the g. Riohardsonianus. They differ in having salivary gland papillae on the jaws, a feature recorded previously (v. Soos, 1969) only in some of the genera of the tropical-siabtropical belt. The presence of these structures in the leeches described here, is a departure from a broadlv-based zoogeographic 'rule'. They differ also in pattern. In these leeches this consists of an inner and an outer pair of colour stripes, the outer pair or both pairs more or less interrupted anteriorly, and showing much individual variation. The appearance is monotone decorated bv spaced thin narrow colour contrast stripes. The pattern otherwise in the Richardsonianidae is boldlv banded longitudinally with colour contrast stripes and dark bands continuous from in and near the ocular arch to the terminal somites of the body, with significant interruptions only in the median band, and rarely minor interruptions in other bands in some few individuals. The nature of the variation in pattern in the few specimens of the new genus is paralleled among australian terrestrial auriculate jawed sanguivorous leeches in which the pattern consists of longitudinal dark bands with contrast stripes and/or elongate contrast maculae. In some species, not yet described, the stripes and bands are complete in some specimens; the stripes broken anteriorly in others; and the stripes suppressed anteriorly in others; all from the one location. In the new oenus, as in the terrestrial leeches, the tendency is for the pattern to persist on the posterior portion of the body and to exhibit suppression on the anterior portion of the body. The nature of the topographically defined pattern in the Richardsonianidae is reviewed later in this paper. This shows that there is a basic element of pattern common to all genera, including the new genus, and two primary forms of pattern. I also review the basis for the zoogeographic 'rule' concerning genera having salivary gland papillae on the jaws. In preparing the review of pattern, I was led to examine again Benham's accounts (1904,1907) of Hirudobdella antipodum, the only 'jawed sanguivore' in this Region which cannot be admitted to either the Richardsonianidae or the Ornithobdellidae; nor is there any other established family suitable for it. The pharynx terminates in xii, and accordingly the caecate crop is unusually short. In the two established families in this Region, the pharynx terminates at viii/ix, or in ix; etc. Additional to the above and other differences (Richardson, 1969), I now find that Benham (1904, pi. viii, fig.2) clearly shows that the dorsal median field in antipodum is much wider than the paramedian fields, being almost twice the width of a paramedian field in somite iii back into somite ix. As shown here (Fig. 1, a, b.), as in all other australian aquatic jawed sanguivores, the median field from in v and posteriorly along the body, is always much narrower than the paramedian field, the median about half of the width of the paramedian field along the greater length of the body. 4 New Genua of Leeches 3 Prisoabdella aen.nov. Derivation: priscus, pertaining to the ancients + bdella, a leech, f. Richardsonianidae; 16 complete 5-annulate somites, ix to xxiv; xxv, 4-annulate; somital sense organs, circular, large, generally obvious; jaws, moderate in size; salivary gland papillae present on the jaws; teeth, strong, spaced, about 50; dorsal salivary glands, sparse, no obvious aggregation of ducts into columns; radial muscles of pharynx, a distinct extrinsic system in vii to x; pharynx and associated structures, hirudoid: entrance to and lumen of pharynx, narrow, the lumen tubular, wall thin, internal muscular ridges weak arranged as a pair of ventrolaterals and a dorsomedian, none ending independently on the margin of the entrance to the oharynx; pharynx, terminating in ix; crop, with a short simple compartment in ix, x to xviii each with secondary anterior caeca and primary caeca at the median leyel, the primary caeca increasing in length posteriorly; xix, with small anterior caeca, and postcaeca originating at the median level and extending in the paramedian chambers to xxvi; intestine, tubular, connecting terminally to the rectum; genital pores, xi and xii b^/b^; testes, (? normally) 9 pairs; epididymis posterior to the elongate fusiform ejaculatory bulb, the relationship linear; median regions of the reproductive systems, bimyomeric, mesomorphic, each formed on a posteriorly directed primary loop; penis sheath reflecting in xii; oviducts, long; common oviduct, not intimately associated with the vaginal duct, short; vagina, large with a large vaginal caecum; vaginal duct, elongate, folded. Size, medium. Pattern, contrast stripes interrupted anteriorly, incomplete or reduced '7-banded'. Aquatic. Sanguivorous. Australian Region. Type species: Prisaabdella hiakmani sp. nov. Prisaabdella hiakmani sp.nov. Holotype: One specimen, 44.0 mm long, dissected, collected Memana, Flinders Island, Bass Strait, March 24, 1966. Collector, R. H. Green. Deposited Queen Victoria Museum and Art Gallery, Reg. No. 1972/14/3. Right ventrolateral jaw removed, mounted separately. Paratype: One specimen, 46.0 mm long. Same locality, date, and collector as holotype. Deposited, Australian Museum, Sydney, Coll. No. W 4300. The following description is taken from the holotype. General form Preserved, moderately contracted. Depressed, low convex above, flat below; margins, obtusely rounded; the width, uniform along the middle half of the body, narrowing gradually anteriorly to the anterior sucker which is about half of the maximum width, more gradually and then abruptly posteriorly to form a narrow base for the posterior sucker which is about 3/4 of the maximum width. Accordingly, the leech appears heavy-bodied. Total length, 44.0 mm; width of anterior sucker, 4.0 mm; at v/yi, 4.5 mm; yii/viii, 4.0 mm; at x/xi, 12.5 mm from the anterior end, 8.0 mm, and of this width back to 36.0 mm; the base of the posterior sucker, 4.0 mm at 42.0 mm; and this sucker, 5.0 mm in diameter; the depth of the body uniformly about 4.0 mm. Colour Preseryed. In the hand, black excepting for one pair of very narrow wide Fig. 1. Prisoabdella hiakmani g. et sp. nov. All illustrations taken from the type. a. Dorsal aspect, somites iv to and b. somites xxiv to xxvii, showing somital annulation and topography of pattern, c. Ventral aspect, somites xi and xii, showing nephropores, genital pores etc. d. Dental margin of right ventrolateral jaw, arrow indicates medial end. e. Jaws and internal muscular ridges of pharynx exposed by a median ventral longitudinal incision, arrow marks midpoint in length of pharynx, f. Crop compartments, somites xviii and xix, caeca, postcaeca, intestine and rectum, g. Anterior region of male paired ducts, medial aspect with dorsal aspect to left; male median region; female reproductive system, vagina displaced to show left medial aspect, arrow indicates dorsal aspect, black square the original location of end of caecum. Somites and somital ganglia indicated by Roman figures; annuli, '^ 2 ' etc.; somital ganglia shown at relative size, scales in millimeters, 2.0 mm, or as indicated. Abbreviations: an.r., annular ridge; ce., caecum; c.od., common oviduct; ej.b., ejaculatory bulb; ej.d., ejaculatory duct; epid., epididymis; f.p., female pore; m.p., male pore; nepr., nephropore; ov., ovary; pe.s., penis sheath; pr., prostate; sp.d., sperm duct; te., testis; v.d., vas deferens; va., vagina; va.d., vaginal duct. 6 A New Genus of Leeahes spaced longitudinal yellow stripes on the dorsum. Under the lens, uniformly dark slate grey, plumbeous, on all aspects. A pair of very faintly yellow narrow stripes along each side of the dorsal midline, and an outer pair of wider distinctly yellow stripes about half way between the inner pair and the margins. A dorsal median longitudinal band is black, darker than the general back¬ ground colour, and occupies the full width of the median field. Pattern. Fig. 1, a, b, c. Preserved. On the dorsum, a dark band alona the median field; an inner pair of narrow, weak pale contrast stripes along the lines of the paramedian sense organs; an outer pair of wider, stronger light contrast stripes are lateral in the paramedian fields. The dorsal median band completelv fills the median field and is detectable from in ix to xxvii. Anterior to ix, the field is of the background colour. The inner pair of contrast stripes are very narrow, uniform in width, each no more than 1/5th of the width of the median band, occupy the line of the paramedian sense organs, and extend from in ix to xxvi/xxvii. There are vague indications that these stripes extend anterior to ix, and might be broken. The paired stripes lateral in the paramedian fields are narrow anteriorly, wider posteriorly as the body width increases, to be not more than the width of the median band. They extend from in vi a2, just medial to the 5th eyes, as separated patches mostly on bg and bj back into x and then continuous from the middle of x to xxiv/xxv or to just enter xxv. There are no marginal stripes excepting anteriorly where the margin is slightly paler than the general background colour, which is continuous across the intermediate and marginal fields onto and across the venter along the greater length of the body. Annulation. Fig.l, a, b, c. Preserved, contracted so that the annuli are longitudinally high convex. Interannular and intersomital furrows, strong, equivalent; somital limits not generally recognizable as such; no obvious areolation; somital sense organs obvious everywhere on the dorsum in white circles, detectable on the venter; sensillae, obvious as wide—spaced white points; nephropores, obvious as small pits close to the posterior border of a^ or ,b 2 , just medial to the ventral intermediate line in viii to xxiv. Annulation of i, ii, and iii, indefinite; the 1st two pairs of eyes, minute, obscure; iv, 2-annulate, aja 2 with the 3rd pair of eyes and 1st obvious paramedian and supramarginal sense organs a 2 = t> 5 >bg; ix to xxiv, complete 5-annulate (total 16); ix, bj = b 2 b 5 >bg; X, b^ = bj = a 2 >b 5 b,; somites xiii to xx, irregularly contracted so that the somital annulation is not fully assessable A Hew Genus of Leeches 1 with confidence, but the general annulation of the midnephric series appears to be, bj^ = b 2 = a 2 (? slightly > or =) b 5 >bg; xxi, b^ = b 2 b 5 = b^; xxii, distinctly bib 5 = bg, as also xxiii; xxiv, b 2 b 5 = b^; xxv, 4-annulate b^ = b 2 = a 2 a 3 ; xxvi/xxvii, incomplete across the median field; xxvii, uniannulate, much reduced; anus at the posterior border of xxvii. Posterior sucker with 5 or 6 concentric rings of areolae on the dorsal surface, and about 48 muscular rays near the margin on the ventral surface. Genital pores, xi and xii bs/bg. Body wall and muscular system Body wall, moderately heavy; the two layers of oblique muscles, equivalent and relatively thin; longitudinal layer, thicker, more strongly developed with heavy, close, wide muscle strands. Dorsoventral muscles, sparse; paramedian palisades present as spaced bundles of fine strands in the contiguous portions of adjacent somites; intermediate palisades, almost a uniform row of individual strands. Alimentary tract. Fig. 1, d, e, f. The lower surface of the margin of the velum is almost smooth, divided into flat areolae some having a central sensilla-like structure. This surface terminates with a low, rounded soft transverse fold which continues ventrally onto the inner surface of the lateral portion of the wall of the sucker at v/vi and has the nature of an annular ridge. Behind this there is a deep poorly formed annular groove in vi and the anterior part of vii. The surface of the groove is smooth, and the groove houses the jaws, the soft wall of the groove folding into temporarv longitudinal ridges between the jaws, each then being housed in a deep pocket which is not a permanent structure. In end view, the jaws are about as tall as wide at the base; the sides, concave; the dental margin obtusely rounded and in side view, initially straight, then progressively convex. Salivary gland papillae are distinct on the sides of the jaws. The papillae are large, coarse, well-spaced, and typical in form. The dental margin of the right ventrolateral jaw has 48 narrow tall teeth, the tallest (0.045 mm) at the medial end; the height of the row reducing more abruptly in the medial third than in the remainder of the row so that teeth in the middle of the row are 0.022 mm high, and the last ten or twelye teeth are low, almost granular. The entrance to the pharynx is posterior in vii, restricted by the bases of the jaws, and no more than the width of the base of the dorsomedian jaw. The wall of the pharynx is thin, with six thin internal muscular ridges arranged as a pair on each of the dorsomedian and ventrolateral aspects; the ridges of each pair fusing into a single ridge which enters the base of the corresponding jaw. No ridges end independently on the margin of the entrance to the pharynx. 8 A New Genus of Leeches The pharynx terminates with a sphincter in the middle of ix. The extrinsic radial muscles are an obvious system in vii back into x. Spaced individual salivary gland cells are present in vii to x. These are sparse. There is no obvious aggregation of the ducts into columns. The crop is thin-walled, lined with a longitudinally rugose epithelium, and divided into somital compartments; the 1st, a short narrow, acaecate compartment in the posterior half of ix. In x to xviii, each compartment carries a pair of simple caeca anterior on the compartment, and a second pair along the median region of the compartment; both about equal in size in X, then progressively the posterior the larger and longer, extending into the paramedian chambers from xiii to xviii; the compartment in xix carries a pair of small anterior caeca, and the postcaeca which originate from the lateral aspects of the median portion of the compartment, extend into the paramedian chambers, and terminate in xxvi. The intestine is tubular, lined with a transversely rugose epithelium, connects terminally to the crop, is acaecate, and ends with a sphincter at xxiii/xxiv, where it connects terminally to the acaecate tapering tubular rectum. Reproductive systems. Fig. 1, g. Male gravid; female, mature. Median regions, bimyomeric, mesomorphic. Genital pores, xi and xii bs/b^. Testes, simple saccular; the posterior on the left at xxi/xxii, the vas deferens extending to xxii/xxiii commencing with an undeveloped testis in the paramedian chamber, and the most anterior testis at xiii/xiv, i.e. 9 testes on the left, those in xxi/xxii to xiii/xiv all in the median chamber, connecting each by a short vas efferens to the convoluted vas deferens in the paramedian chamber which becomes thin-walled in xiii, extends to xii/xiii and expands into a convoluted much folded epididymis in the posterior half of xii; male duct continued as a much wider coilinq sperm duct in the contiguous halves of xi and xii; sperm duct narrowing abruptlv to connect terminally to the ventral end of the elongate fusiform muscular ejaculatory bulb which is ventral for the first third, ascendent, and dorsal for the terminal third, terminating by narrowing and turning ventrallv as a narrow muscular ejaculatory duct which enters the median chamber and passes into the ventral face of the prostate covering the atrium. The male median region extends as a penis sheath along the recurrent and procurrent limbs of a posteriorlv directed loop reflected in the middle of xii, the whole in the median chamber. The female reproductive system is entirelv in the median chamber. The single pair of simple saccular ovaries is situated in the posterior half of xii at the level of the epididymis; oviducts, thin-walled, delicate, long, joining to form a common oviduct which commences without a distinct atrium. The median region is formed on a posteriorly directed loop in the vertical plane, reflecting at xiii/xiv. The thin-walled common oviduct is little wider than an oviduct, short, occupying no more than the 1st half of the recurrent limb, much folded on itself, partially associated with the vaginal duct which is about twice the length of the common oviduct. The vagina completes the recurrent limb and extends briefly onto the procurrent limb. It consists of a very large caecum extending to ganglion xii A New Genus of Leeches 9 the length and width of the caecum both equal to the width of the vagina. The caecum and body of the vagina are dorsal to and conceal the oviducts, common oviduct, and vaginal duct. The vagina reduces gradually around the elbow of the loop, the median region continuing as a long wide strongly muscular vaginal duct which occupies the length of the procurrent limb and is thrown into wide compact loops before terminating at the female pore. The prostate glands form a cap totally covering the male atrium and extending briefly along the penis sheath. The albumin glands are a thick ensheathment of the anterior l/3rd of the common oviduct. Paratype General form and colour, as type. Pattern much less complete than in the type. The median band is not black, only very slightly darker than the general background colour of the dorsum, and recognizable from in v to xxv a. 2 . The inner paired contrast stripes along the lines of the paramedian sense organs are generally vague, not detectable anterior to xiii, both indicated faintly from in xiv posteriorly into xxiv, nowhere showing as obvious continuous stripes but as an interrupted series of spaced faint very narrow elonaate patches each extending over only a few annuli. The outer paired contrast stripes lateral in the paramedian fields are of the width in the type, both much more reduced, more broken and shorter than in the type, and asymmetrical, the left shorter than the right. Both are represented by a patch on v 33 into vi aj^; the left with a small patch anterior and another posterior on vi as and a minute patch on viii bs and on ix bg; the right with patches on ix bg and bg, and x aj; both stripes then vaguely indicated on the contiguous annuli of x and xi, more strongly in xi a 2 to xi bg and in xii aj to xiii b^; then the left continuous from in xiii bg to xv b 2 , and the right more weakly indicated from in xvi 32 to xvii a 2 . Otherwise, the general background monotonous above and below, excepting for obvious white circles enclosing the somital sense organs, nephropores, and genital pores. General somital annulation as in type. The furrows i/ii and ii/iii, not detectable; ii, with the 1 st pair of eyes also has distinct intermediate somital sense organs; iii, the 2 nd pair of eyes, and distinct paramedian and supramarginal sense organs; iv, the 3rd pair of eyes, and distinct paramedian, supramarginal and marginal sense organs; vi, the 1 st complete series of somital sense organs; relative lengths of annuli in v to viii, as in type; ix to xviii, not assessable with confidence, but xii and xiv as in type; xviii and xx, as xxi in type. In general, 32 the longer annulus in the midnephric and postnephric series; xxv b 2 , the last complete annulus. Alimentary tract. Lower surface of the velum, annular ridge and annular groove and the housing of the jaws, as in type. Salivary gland papillae, minute, arranged in at least three rows parallel to the dental margin on the dorsomedian jaw. 10 A New Genus of Leeches Wall of pharynx, thin; dorsomedian muscular ridge, not subdivided; ventrolateral ridges, as in type. Crop, intestine etc., as in tvpe. Reproductive system. Essentially as in tvpe; epididymis, more extensively developed; ejaculatory bulbs subfusiform, almost vertical, and lateral to the prostate; penis sheath, reflected at ganglion xii; female system as in type, excepting the midregion of the vaginal duct more coiled than in type. Additional material The following have the characteristics of the g. Priscabdella. All differ from the type in lacking a black median band, the median field being the same as the general background colour of the dorsum. Leeches in (a) and (b) from north-eastern Tasmania have obvious contrast stripes along the paramedian lines essentially complete from within the ocular area to and into xxvii; in (c), from southern South Australia, these stripes are very vague, consistently broken on a 2 from in xxvii to x a 2 /b 5 , and a few minute patches anterior to this. All have distinct wide pale bands in the submarginal fields, separating the dorsum from the venter along the length of the body. The general appearance suggests two species separate from the type; but the material is limited, not uniformly preserved, and for the time being I assign them provisionally as Priscabdella (?) hiokmani with the anticipation that reasonable series will enable the recognition of these as representative of other species in the genus. (a) Gladstone Lagoon, north-east Tasmania. Collected 2/11/72, R. Mawbey and B. Knott. Per Dr. P. S. Lake, University of Tasmania. One specimen, 45.0 mm long; extended, strongly depressed. Preserved. Slate grey on all aspects, the margins slightly paler; contrast stripes of the paramedian lines, pale yellow, narrow, no wider than the sense organs, present on iii to v, broken along vi, then essentially continuous to xxvi/xxvii. Contrast stripes lateral in the paramedian fields, yellow, narrow (2/3rds width of median field), present on vii a 2 and a 3 , faintly indicated on viii on the left, elongate patches on both on ix bg and X b^, and both essentially continuous from just in xi a 2 to xxiv/xxv. Dorsal median field uniform in colour alona its length, very faintly darker than the general background colour of the dorsum, but nowhere an indication of a definite dark black band. General somital annulation as in type. Somites xvi to xxii, bj=b 2 =a 2 =bc slightly >b6; xxv a 3 , last annulus complete across venter; xxvi/xxvii, lacking in median field; genital pores, xi and xii bs/bg. Pharynx and associated structures as in type; jaws with distinct salivary gland papillae. General morphology of the reproductive systems, as in type; ejaculatory bulbs, fusiform; penis sheath folded into a short anteriorly directed secondary fold; vaginal caecum, large, of the width of the vagina, the length just shorter than the width, and the caecum just shorter than in type. A Hew Genus of Leeches 11 (b) Cape Portland Lagoon, north-east Tasmania. Collected 2/11/72, B. Knott and R. Mawbev. Per Dr. P. S. Lake, University of Tasmania. Four specimens, preserved, strongly contracted: 27.0 mm, 28.0 mm, 28.0 mm, and 29.0 mm. In the hand, almost black; under the lens, grey on the dorsum, the venter paler grey and immaculate, dorsum and venter separated by a pale band in the submarginal field, the band distinctly paler than the venter. Dorsum of the posterior sucker, grey; the venter of the colour of the submarginal band. Dorsal median field, grey, of the general colour of the dorsum. Inner paired contrast stripes of the paramedian lines, narrow, distinct in all, very faintly yellow; commencing in iii or iv a^ and extending back into xxvii; both broken from xii 3-2 to xiii 32 in one, from xv bj to xvi 32 in a second, and complete in two. The outer paired stripes are lateral in the paramedian field; yellow; narrow (2/3rds width of median field); symmetrical in the 29.0 mm specimen with elongate patches on vii a 3 and viii a^, on ix b 2 , on x br and bg, and then continuous from xi a 2 to end at xxiv/xxv. Asymmetrical in the others. The 27.0 mm specimen has patches on both sides in vii 32 and aj, the left continuous from xi b^ to xviii a 2 , broken to xix a 2 , continuous from in xix bj into xxiii b 2 , with patches on xxiii bg and xxiv bi; the right continuous from xiii bj to xxiii b 2 . One 28.0 mm specimen has patches on the left in xi bs and xii b 2 , then continues from in xii a 2 to xv bj, broken to xvii a 2 , and continues from in xvii bs to end in xxv b^; on the right, continues from in xiii b^ to end in xxiv a 2 . The other has small patches on the left on viii bj and ix b^, then continuous from in ix bs to end in xxiv b 2 ; on the right, an elongate patch on viii b 5 and bs, then continuous from in x bj to end in xxiii b 2 . General somital annulations as in type, but vii 33 distinctly > than viii aj in 3 specimens (27.0, 28.0, 29.0 mm); 32 long and recognizable by its length in the midnephric somites of 3 specimens; xxv 33 , the last complete annulus in all; xxvi/xxvii, lacking in the median field in all. In the 27.0 mm specimen, the furrows viii bs/b^ and ix hi/h 2 are lacking across the median field and these annuli are distinctly coupled as viii (b 5 =bs) and ix (bi=b 2 ); these furrows complete in the other specimens, the annuli still coupled, but in the 29.0 mm specimen ix bj distinctly < b 2 . The 27.0 and 29.0 specimens dissected. Pharynx and associated structures, as in type; salivary gland papillae, small but distinct. Ejaculatory bulbs inflated subfusiform in the 27.0 mm specimen, fusiform in the 29.0 mm specimen; penis sheath reflecting at xii in both; vagina fully inflated in both, the vaginal caecum expanded to be shorter than wide. (c) North Para River, Rowland's Flat; 2 miles North, 2 miles East of Lyndoch, South Australia. Collected, 10/1/71, F. Parker, (No. 923). Per Mr. M. Tyler, South Australian Museum. Deposited, South Australian Museum, Adelaide. One specimen. Preserved, contracted, total length 73.0 mm. General form, background colour, and pattern, as type. 12 A Hew Genus of Leeahes There is no indication of a black median dorsal band. The inner paired contrast stripes along the lines of the paramedian sense organs, indicated very vaguely by small paler grey narrow patches, an individual patch on each 'b' category annulus from in xxvii anteriorly to x a 2 A^^; otherwise, only on the left, a small patch on vii a 2 and a 3 , another on vi a 2 and a 3 , and V aia 2 . There is a transverse patch of yellow on ix bo which extends across the median field and just enters the paramedian fields. The outer paired contrast stripes lateral in the paramedian fields, are narrow as in the type, brightly yellow, and fully obvious; on the left, an elongate patch on viii bs to ix b 2 , a minute patch on the contiguous annuli of ix and x, and then continuous from x a 2 /b 5 back into xxiv b 2 ; on the right, an elongate patch from iv/v to vii a,, a patch on viii b 5 to ix b 2 , then essentially continuous from x a 2,^5 back into xxiv b 2 . Supramarginal fields of the colour of the dorsum; submarginal fields distinctly pale grey, paler than the light grey of the venter. General somital annulation as in type. Relative lengths of annuli cannot be assessed with any confidence. Pharynx and associated structures as in type. The salivary gland papillae are very obvious on all jaws, more so than in type. The teeth are somewhat larger and more crowded than in the type, but the row has the same form: initially large, tall teeth, the row then rapidly reducing in height over the next few teeth, and reducing more gradually beyond this so that the greater length of the row appears relatively uniform in height. General morphology of the reproductive systems, as in type; ejaculatory bulbs subvertical, elongate fusiform; the penis sheath, as in type; female median region with the common oviduct connecting closer to the end of the vagina than in type, and the vaginal caecum shorter than wide. DISCUSSION Two matters relating to the new genus warrant more detailed examination. These are the evidence in the Richardsonianidae of systematic and other values in the topographic description of pattern; and the distribution of aquatic jawed sanguivores having salivary gland papillae on the jaws. The inclusion of colour and pattern in specific descriptions of leeches continues from pre-linnean zoology as a simple generalized description which is still used by some workers (v. Sawyer, 1972); or by some few, an intimately detailed topographic description in terms of the longitudinal lines of cutaneous somital sense organs, the fields between these lines, and the somital annulation. The value of the latter technique was shown by Whitman in 1886. It was used extensively over many years by Moore from 1901. It provides a precision in the description of pattern in leeches which is exceptional among soft-bodied invertebrates. As shown in the present leech (Fig. 1, a, b, c.), the morphologically central (neuromeric) annulus in each somite carries six spaced dorsal and six spaced ventral somital sense organs with one other in each marginal area. A New Genus of Leeches 13 These are regularly arranged and form recognizable longitudinal lines: right and left dorsal paramedian, intermediate and supramarginal lines; right and left ventral paramedian, intermediate and submarginal lines; and a marginal line along each side (v. Fig. 1, b, xxiv). The fields on toe dorsal and ventral aspects are: the median field, between the paramedian lines; the paramedian fields, between the paramedian and intermediate lines; the intermediate fields, between the intermediate and supramarginal or submarginal lines; the marginal field, between the supramarginal and submarginal lines, or the marginal field may be recognized as divided into supramarginal and submarginal fields divided along the line of the marginal sense organs, usually midway between the supramarginal and submarginal lines. The width of the body of the leech increases along its length. It will be seen (Fig. 1, a, b.) that this increase in width occurs with increase in width of the paramedian fields on the dorsum, the median field (Fig.l,c.) on the venter; and that the other fields are relatively constant in width along their length. This is a simple indication of the morphological stability of the lines of the sense organs. Not all leeches exhibit topographically definable pattern. Some are monocolorous; others, sparsely to richly maculate, the maculae not referable to lines or fields. Patterns are tooograohicallv definable where there are metameric maculae restricted to definite annuli in each somite and relatable to the topographic lines and fields; or there may be longitudinal stripes of light contrast colour and longitudinal bands, complete or interrupted, and with a precise topograohic arrangement. Genera were long defined mainly on the external meristic morphology combined with the general nature of the pharynx and the crop. Since the latter conforms to habit and, with some few exceptions external meristic morphology is monotonous in aquatic jawed sanguivorous leeches, the number of "genera" was relatively small; the content'of the "genera", heterogenous; and the "species" in a "genus" were diverse in pattern. From this was established the tradition that pattern had no systematic value other than at the species level. There could be no familial value in pattern in the former cosmopolitan F. Hirudinidae which included terrestrial and aquatic jawed sanguivorous leeches; jawed and jawless macrophagous aquatic and terricolous leeches; etc. In my studies on aquatic and terrestrial jawed sanguivores and other leeches of the australian and other regions, I have shown that the combination of the organisation and relationship of structures on the anterior region of the male paired duct, with the detailed nature of the pharynx and associated structures, and the morphological forms of the median regions of the reproductive systems, closely defines genera and differentiates genera among leeches of common habit and similar external meristic morphology. This led to the fragmentation of the former Hirudinidae into families of zoogeographic regional status, with two such in the australian region. In one, the Ornithobdellidae, pattern is not topographic in the two genera as so far known, OrnithobdeZla and AetheobdeZta, excepting an occasional specimen of toe latter has a black band along the dorsal median line. 14 A New Genus of Leeches In the other, the Richardsonianidae, the pattern as known to me until now has consisted of essentially complete, uninterrupted longitudinal dark bands and light contrast colour stripes along the dorsum in seven of the eiaht oreviouslv defined genera. The pattern in the eighth, the g. Euvanoph^la Richardson 1969, as noted in the field by Dr. H. Cogger, includes a narrow interrupted median band between two narrow orange red stripes; otherwise, dark brown with orange red margins. In the seven genera, and hence possibly also in Eupanophila, the paramedian lines of sense organs are contained in liqht contrast colour, a very narrow stripe in those with a median band, and typically the sense organs median in the stripe; or in the absence of a median band, as in Goddavdobdella Richardson 1969, the paramedian sense organs are lateral in the broad stripe which occupies the median field and extends into the paramedian lines. The only appreciable variation I have seen is in Ka-vyohdeLLa. Richardson 1972. In most specimens, the paramedian sense organs are central in a narrow paramedian stripe; in some few, the median band is wider, the sense organs nearer to the medial than to the lateral border^of the stripe; in others, the band may contact, partially, or almost entirely enclose the sense organs; but in none are the stripes shifted so as to be distinctly in the paramedian fields. It may be noteworthy that in my few good specimens of ' Rivudo' {’Limnobdella ') mauiana Benham 1907 from New Zealand, a leech having a strong resemblance to the g. Riahardsonianus Soos 1968, the paramedian lines of somital sense organs are distinctly included within the median band and the paramedian fields contain each a narrow inner stripe separated by a wider dark band from an outer stripe of about the width of the band, and the outer stripe extends into the intermediate lines and includes these sense organs. I have not seen this combination vet in any australian specimens of the g. Riohat'dsonianus or of the other genera. In Quantenobdella Richardson 1969 the paramedian fields are each completely occupied by a wide dark band with a narrow stripe along each line of intermediate sense organs. In the other genera, the paramedian fields contain each a medial inner band and a lateral outer stripe. In Riohavdsonianus the band and the stripe are much of the same width and the stripe is extended into the intermediate line to include these sense organs. In Goddavdobdella, Eunomobdella Richardson 1969, Bassianobdella Richardson 1970, Kaiyabdella Richardson 1972, and Haheobdella Richardson 1972, the band in the paramedian field is wider; the stripe, narrower and the stripe is restricted to the paramedian field. The stripe does not include the intermediate sense organs. The intermediate line of sense organs are included in a band which may extend briefly into the paramedian and intermediate fields, or as in Habeobdella occupy the greater part of the intermediate field. In Habeobdella, the supramarginal lines and fields are occupied by a contrast stripe. In Riohavdsonianus, the intermediate fields are each occupied by a band which may or mav not extend to include the supramarginal lines, and the supramarginal lines and fields mav be included in a marginal stripe, or the stripe restricted to the supramarginal field on the dorsal aspect. This is much the same in Quantenobdella, excepting that the bands of the intermediate fields are short, and terminate in somite xi. In this manner, these three genera have a pattern which can be termed 5-banded: a median band; a band in each of the paramedian fields; a band in each of the intermediate fields. A New Senus of Leeches 15 In Goddavdobdella, Bassianobdella, Kaiyabdella and Eunomobdella, the intermediate field is occupied by a narrow stripe; the line of supra¬ marginal sense organs is included in a band which extends briefly into the contiguous fields, or may continue laterally into the supramarginal field, and the supramarainal field may be included in a stripe or a band. Accordingly the pattern for Goddardobdella is 6-banded, there being no median band; and 7-banded in the others which have this band. It can now be seen that the pattern in Prisaabdella, although variable, the dark colour of the median band sometimes suppressed as also the contrast colour of the stripes; the median band complete or shortened; the stripes, more or less interrupted, etc., can be assessed as having; a median band; the lines of the paramedian sense organs included in contrast stripes; the paramedian field, containing a wide band in the medial portion and a contrast stripe lateral in the field and reduced to be narrow. As such, Fviscabdella has the basic pattern present in the 5-, 6-, and 7—banded genera with the exception of Quayitenobdella, a crenus which on morphological grounds cannot be associated with any other genus in the fami ly. The 7-banded Bassianobdella and Kaiyabdella can be associated also on the morphology of the median regions of the reproductive svstems, general somital annulation, etc. Eunomobdella and Goddardobdella can be associated on the morphology of the median regions of the reproductive systems, differ in general somital annulation, the presence of salivary gland papillae on the jaws in Goddardobdella, etc., with the weak and interrupted median band in Eunomobdella assessable as a measure of suppression of the band which is lacking in Goddardobdella. Prisaabdella, Richardsonianus, and Habeobdella, can be associated on the morphology of the median regions of the reproductive svstems. The general somital annulation of Habeobdella is uniaue in the family, setting this genus apart from the other two both with the same general somital annulation. In line with the other examples, it would seem that this association of Priscabdella with two 5—banded genera would indicate that the pattern in Priscabdella is assessable as a reduced form of the 5-banded pattern. Accepting this, the restriction of the paramedian contrast stripe to the paramedian field and the exclusion of the intermediate line of sense organs from this stripe in both Habeobdella and Priscabdella set these two genera apart from Richardsonianus in which these sense organs are included in the paramedian contrast stripe. This difference gains significance when it is appreciated that the paramedian contrast stripes are restricted to the paramedian field and the intermediate line of sense organs are excluded from this stripe in Bassianobdella, Kaiyabdella, Eunomobdella, and Goddardobdella, genera in which the intermediate field is occupied by a contrast stripe, and not a band as in both Habeobdella and Richardsonianus. All bands are of the same strength in the two latter genera; the median band darker in the 7-banded genera, as also in Prisaabdella. We are led then to the conclusion that the pattern in Prisaabdella is either a reduced or not fully developed 7-banded pattern. 16 A New Genus of Leeches In the aauatic jawed sanguivores, all the ducts from the salivary glands may terminate along the base of the row of teeth, or some and possibly all mav terminate in papillae on the sides of the jaw. The papillae may be uniform in size, or varv with larger papillae closer to the dental margin. It might be considered that such papillae are remnant from an earlier macrophapous condition; but there is nothing as vet to support this, nor any acceptable explanation for the presence of such papillae in some kinds, and absence from other kinds of aquatic jawed sanguivores in the same area. The dentition of the jaws was closely examined bv many earlier workers. In the literature available to me, there is no reference to papillae earlier than Whitman, who in 1886 described and figured a considerable niomber of "wart-like prominences" on the sides of the jaws of Hirudinaria javanica of Batavia. Whitman included this only as an item in description. The presence or absence of papillae was given systematic value by Blanchard (1893:28) who considered them to be typical of the g. Limnatis and for this reason assessed Poeailobdella and later Hirudinaria as subgenera in Limnatis . I review briefly (1972) the unfortunate consequences following from Blanchard. Even now, it is possible in some areas to refer only to group-complexes when considering leeches having salivary gland papillae on the j aws. The basis for a zoogeographic 'rule' that aquatic leeches with salivary gland papillae on the jaws' are restricted to the tropical-subtropical belt, is in the distribution of: the 'iimnatis-complex' (Mediterranean, Ethiopian, Oriental); the 'Hivudinavia-Poeailobdella' complex (Oriental); Asiatiaobdella Richardson 1969 (Oriental); Aliolimnatis Richardson 1972 (Ethiopian); Limnobdella Blanchard 1893, FintobdeZla (Caballero 1937) Richardson 1969, (Sonoran, Neotropical); and in the australian Region, Goddardobdella (north¬ eastern New South Wales, Queensland, Northern Territory, Papua New Guinea), and the monotypic Quantenobdella (Lord Howe Island). The genera having these papillae cannot be assembled into a single systematic group, as was attempted bv Blanchard. Each is a component of its own zoogeographic fauna. The zoogeographic 'rule' has a broad zoological basis. As with other such 'rules', it provides no more than an hypothesis usable in seeking understanding of data which cannot be encompassed within the systematic framework. The broad zoological basis of the'rule' has warranted the assumption that a leech possessing such papillae is tropical-subtropical in distribution, and that systematic relationship for the leech is to be found within this faunal component in its Region. It has also been assumed in the past that such a relationship will be found only with other genera which also possess these papillae. This is not the case in the Australian Region. Of the nine genera here which lack papillae, four are subtropical in distribution. Of the latter, one, Kaiyabdella, is closely associated with the southern g. Bassianobdella. The application of the 'rule' to Quantenobdella on the basis of its distribution and the possession of salivary gland papillae does not become unreasonable simply because no relationship has vet been found to any other genus in the Region. The distribution of Goddardobdella is fully typical of the'rule'. If A New Genus of Leeches 17 in seeking relationship for Goddardobdella we take guidance from former long established practise and place major value on the number of complete fully annulate somites, Goddardobdella with ix to xxiii complete fully annulate (total 15), stands apart from all other genera in the family, these all having ix to xxiv complete 5-annulate (total 16). If we place primary systematic emphasis on the form of the female median region, Goddavdobdella becomes associated with Eunomobdella, both subtropical in distribution, both lacking a vaginal duct which is present in all other genera in the family. Eunomobdella bAcY-s salivary gland papillae. The third assumption as set out for the 'rule' above cannot be sustained. Equally, we can no longer relv on the number of fully annulate complete somites as a primary guide to relationship among genera. The form of the female median region associates Prisaabdella with Riohavdsonianus and Habeobdella. The known distribution for all three is essentiallv Bassian. The zoological basis for the 'rule' is so broad that the 'rule' cannot be abandoned in the case of a single exception. There remains then the high probability that the 'rule' is applicable to Prisaabdella, If so applied, Prisaabdella is to be assessed as tropical- subtropical in origin. The relationship of Prisaabdella, Richardsonianus, and Habeobdella, favours a similar origin for the two latter genera. Since Prisaabdella, Richardsonianus and Habeobdella are entirelv sang¬ uivorous, there can be no reason to consider that the unusual incomplete¬ ness and variability of pattern in Prisaabdella has a primary nutritional basis. Accepting a tropical-subtropical origin for Prisaabdella, it is reason¬ able to assume that the variability in pattern comes from partial failures in some secondary physioloaical process based on an enzyme series for which temperature optima for one or more enzymes are not adequately available in the present environment. The variability in pattern is the expression of some measure of failure in physiological adaption, an adaption which has been accomplished by Richardsonianus and Habeobdella. POSTSCRIPT Prisaabdella sp. ?. National Museum of Victoria, G. 827. Wilsons Promontory, Vic. Coll. J. A. Kershaw. Xmas. 1905. One specimen, 26.0 ram, strongly contracted, unsuitable for dissection. Dorsum, plumbeous; median field of the general background colour; contrast stripes, weakly yellowish, those of the paramedian lines, narrow, complete from v/vi to in xxvii, those lateral in and about >s the width of the paramedian field, of the same length; dorsum divided sharply from the pale grey venter; no marginal stripe; general somital annulation, as in type; iv/v, the first furrow; a 2 distinctly long in the midnephric series; xxv 33 , the last complete annulus; well-formed annular groove housing jaws with large obvious papillae; medial teeth stronger than in type. 18 A tiew Genus of Leeches ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The new species is named for Professor V. V. Hickman in appreciation of his many significant and diverse contributions to australian zoology, including leeches. I express my thanks to the Director, the Queen Victoria Museum and Art Gallery, Launceston and to Mr. R. H. Green, Zoologist to the Museum, for the opportunity to study and report on the specimens from Flinders^ Island: to Mr. M. J. Tyler, the South Australian Museum, for the speciman from Lyndoch, South Australia; and to Dr. P. S. Lake, the University of Tasmania, Hobart, and Messrs, R. Mawbev and B. Knott, for the specimens from north-east Tasmania. This study was conducted under an award from the Australian Research Grants Committee. REFERENCES BENHAM, W. B. 1904. xxi. On a new species of leech (Hirudo antipodum) recently discovered in New Zealand. Trans. N.Z.Inst. 36: 185-192. - 1907. Two new species of leech in New Zealand. Idem. 39: 181-193. BLANCHARD, R. 1893. Revision des Hirudinees du Museu de Turin. Boll. Mus. Zool. Anat. Comp. Turin. 8(145): 1-32. RICHARDSON, L. R. 1969. A contribution to the systematics of the hirudinid leeches, with description of new families, genera, and species. Acta Zool. Hung. 15 (1-2): 97-149. - 1972. Baasianobdella fusaa sp. nov. (Hirudinoidea: Richardsonianidae), with an initial demonstration of systematic values in the lengths of annuli in the mid-nephric somites. Rea. Aust. Mus. 28(8): 129-139. SAWYER, R. T. 1972. North American freshwater leeches, exclusive of the Piscicolidae, with a key to all species. III. Biol. Monogr. 46; 1-154. SOOS, A, 1969. Identification key to the leech (Hirudinoidea) genera of the world, with a catalogue of the species, v. Family Hirudinidae. Acta Zool. Hung. 15 (1-2): 151-201. Qo 3 A TASMANIAN RECORD OF SPHYRNA (SPHYRNA) ZYGAENA (LINNE, 1758) (SPHYRNIDAE), WITH A CONSIDERATION OF THE SPECIES OF HAMMERHEAD SHARKS IN AUSTRALIAN WATERS by E. O. G. SCOTT Honorary Associate in Ichthyology Queen Victoria Museum (one text figure) RECORDS OF THE QUEEN VICTORIA MUSEUM No. 48 EDITED BY W. F. ELLIS DIRECTOR OF THE MUSEUM 1 i 31 i it- 1 J A TASMANIAN RECORD OF SPHYRNA (SPHYRNA) ZYGAENA^' (LINNE, 1758) ^ i: . w' (SPHYRNIDAE), WITH A CONSIDERATION OF THE SPECIES OF HAMMERHEAD SHARKS IN AUSTRALIAN WATERS E. 0, G, SCOTT Honorary Associate in Ichthyology, Oueen Victoria Museum (one text figure) Manuscript received 20/6/1973 Published 18/10/1973 ABSTRACT A Tasmanian example of Sphyrna (Sphyrna) zygaena (Linne, 1758), from George Bay, Cornwall/Dorset, is described and figured. A second hammerhead shark from the same locality is provisionally determined, on the evidence of a photograph, as the same species. Though this species appears in early papers in this country, it has disappeared from Australian systematica over the last forty years. Some consideration is given to the status in the Australian sphyrnid fauna of this species, and, briefly, of some other species. The Australian list given in the latest catalogues, Munro (1956), Whitley (1964) as S. (S.)leuini (Griffith & Smith, 1834) and 5.^ (^, ) ligo Fraser-Brunner, 1950 , is found to comprise S. (S.) zygaena (Linne, 1758), S. (S.) lewini (Griffith S Smith, 1834), S. mokarran (Ruppell, 1835), and, with some doubt, S. (E.) blochii)(Cuvier, 1816), a key to which is provided. Material, - The specimen descjribed and figured is a young male example of Sphyrna (Sphyrna) zygaena (Linne, 1758), 610 mm in total length, collected by Mr E. Gatenby in George Bay, Cornwall/Dorset, Tasmania on 17 April 1970- Q.V.M, reg. no. 1970.5.14. Records of the Oueen Victoria Museum No. 48. 2 Hammerhead Sharks-Australia In the Launceston Examiner of 16 February 1971 there appeared a photograph of a large sphyrnid with the caption "The first hammerhead shark ever caught in Tasmanian waters under game fishing rules was baited at the weekend by St Helens charterboat skipper, Mr Tom Tucker. The shark weighed 206 lb and measured 9 ft in length, with a girth of 5 feet." As far as can be judged from a copy of the original black and white photograph, which provides a tolerably clear view of the head, this shark was very probably an example of S. (S.) zygaena. St Helens is on George Bay, the locality of the Museum's shark. No other specimen of a hammerhead is at present available in this Museum's collections, and Mr A. P. Andrews, Curator of Vertebrates, Tasmanian Museum, Hobart, informs me no examples are possessed by his institution. Methods.-^ Except where otherwise noted (e.g., marked "direct"^, or where clearly inapplicable, all dimensions are measured between parallels. This is in agreement with fairly general practice, and conforms to specifications for biometric data for sharks formulated by Whitley (1943:114). Methods of procedure used in the taking of measurements are essentially those adopted by Springer (1964:562-568) and followed by Gilbert (1967). Family status; subgenera.- The sphyrnids share many important morphological characters with the carcharinids, and the hammerheads are referred to the Carcharinidae by some writers, e.g., Regan (1906), Norman [unpublished MS classification - fide Gilbert (1967)]. However they are accorded family rank as the Sphvrnidae in most major works on classification, e.g., Gill (1861), Jordan (1923) , White (1937), Berg (1940), a procedure followed here. [By some early local writers, working with older concepts of elasmobranch families, they are referred to the Carcharidae or Carchariidae (modern Odontaspidae) ; treated by, e.g., Castlenau (1872), Macleav (1882), Johnston (1883, 1891)]. It is debatable, and debated, whether Platysqualus Swainson, 1839 and Eusphyra Gill, 1861 are better treated as genera or subgenera, the latter course, which has customarily been followed by Australian systematists is adopted here. ' FAMILY SPHFRNIDAE GENUS SPHYRNA Rafinesque, 1810 Walbaum, 1792:580. Type species, Squalus zygaena Linne, 1758, by subsequent designation of Gill, 1861. Name inadmissible by International Commission rulings, 1907, 1910, Sphyrna Rafinesque, 1810:46,60. Type species, Squalus zygaena Linne, 1758, by subsequent designation of Jordan & Gilbert, 1883. Gilbert, 1967:10 (synonymy). Zygaena Cuvier, 1816 ["1817"]:127. Type species, Squalus by absolute tautonymy. Preoccupied by Zygaena Fabricius, zygaena Linne, 1758, 1775, in Lepidoptera. Platysqualus Swainson, 1839: 318. Type species, Squalus tiburo Linnd^, 1758, by original designation. 1861:403,412. Type species, Zygaena bloahii Cuvier, 1816 [”1817"j/ by original designation. Hammerhead Sharks-Australia 3 SUBGENUS Sphyrna Rafinesque, 1810 Sphyrna (Sphyrna) zygaena (Linne, 1758) Tlie subjoined table of synonymy - restricted, apart from several key extralimital citations, to the Australian literature - includes, for reasons considered below, an unusually large number of cases, now virtuallv unresolvable, of possible treatment of more than a single species. For overall clarity and typographical economy, the notation"? in part" is here rendered by an asterisk: placed above the author's name, the symbol refers to the entry as a whole; placed above the page number, to the text only, excluding any illustrations; placed above the illustration numbers, to some, not all, items figured. Squalus zygaena Linne, 1758 "Europe", "America". Sphyrna zygaena Rafinesque, 1810:46 [specifically, Sicily].? Peters, 1877:132 [Moreton Bay, Queensland]. Ogilvy*, 1889:1769 [east and south coasts of Australia, Tasmania].? Studer, 1889:263 [also in synonymy of S. lewini in Whitley, 1934:192; Moreton Bay, Queensland]. Stead*, 1906:232 [list of some Australian sharks]. McCulloch, 1921:221*,pi. 16, fig. 14a [figure after Garman, 1913, pl.l; New South Wales List]. Waite 1921, 14*, fig. 14 [figure after Day, 1878, pi. 186, fig, 4; South Australian list]. Waite, 1923:32, unnumbered fig, [figure after Day, 1878, pi. 186, fig. 4; South Australian list]. Lord*, 1923:61 [Tasmanian list]. Lord & Scott, 1924:6,20*, unnumbered fig. [outline figure, based on Day, 1878, pi. 186, fig. 4; Tasmanian list]. ? McCulloch & Whitley, 1925:129 [Moreton Bay specimen of Peters, 1877; in Queensland list]. Lord*, 1927:12 [Tasmanian list]. McCulloch*, 1929:14 [Australian list; "New South Wales, Queensland, Western Australia, all warm seas"]. Bigelow & Schroeder, 1948:436 [extralimital references and synonymv]. Stead*, 1963:116, fig. 32 [S. zygaena discussed, together with S. tudes, S. bloohii; but gloss by Whitley, incorporated in general text, recognizes as Australian onlv S. lewini and S, ligo-, figure reference in text for S. zygaena leads to a figure, under the same vernacular name, but labelled S. lewini, reproduction of original figure of Griffith & Smith, 1934, pi. 50]. Gilbert, 1967 a:31, figs 8, 9, 21c, 22c, pi. 6c [references and synonymy; Australian material, USNM 29020 (head), USNM 39992 (1), Sydney (Port Jackson)]. Gilbert, 1967i):76. Zygaena zygaena Cuvier, 1816 ["1817"]:127. Zygaena malleus Valenciennes, 1822:223. "French" coasts , Brazil. Castelnau, 1872:216. McCoy, 1881:23, pi. 56, figs 1, la-c [species attributed to Shaw, i.c., Shaw, Nat. Misc. t.276; Victoria]. Macleay*, 1882:355 ["Shaw"; "synonyms numerous"; Port Jackson, Port Phillip]. Johnston*, 1883:137 ["Shaw"; cites M. Allport's MS Tasmanian cataloaue]. Lucas*, 1890:43 ["Shaw"; cites McCoy, 1881, pi. 56; Victorian list. Port Phillip]. Johnston*, 1891:17 (reprint, 38) ["Shaw"; Tasmanian list],? Waite, 1899:34 [in synonymy of Thetis specimen, off Shoalhaven River, New South Wales];McCoy, 1881, pi. 56 cited; identified as S. lewini-, probably S. zygaena. ? zygaena leuwinii [sio] Ramsay, 1881:96 [Port Jackson example; footnote refers to a Queensland specimen (Haswell); not Zygaena lewini Griffith & Smith, 1834:640, pi. 50, type locality, "off the south coast of New Holland," i.e. , Sydney" (Whitley, 1934:192)]. Sphyrna lewini [not Zygaena lewini Griffith & Smith, 1934, as above]. ? Waite, 1899:34 [Thetis specimen; see also above under Z. malleus]. ? McCulloch, 1911:9 [Endeavour specimen, off east coast of Flinders Island, Bass Strait]. 4 Hammerhead Sharks-Australia Waite, 1921:15 [in synonymy of S. zygaena; species attributed to Lord (in Griffith)]. McCulloch & Whitley*, 1925:129 ["Lord"; accept, in Queensland list, Haswell cited by Ramsay, 1881:96 and Ogilby, 1916:81]. McCulloch*, 1929:14 [Australian list]. Whitley*, 1940:120, figs 19, 21, 23, 127, 128^-D [figs 19,21, 22 aboriginal representations of a hammerhead shark not recognizable specifically; probably not fig. 127, photograph, "appears to be a large S. tude8'‘[=S. mokarran (Ruppell, 1835)] (Fraser-Brunner, 1950:213); not figs 1284-D, all of which are S. lewini; Australian catalogue]. Whitley, 1948 u:262, text figs 3, 4, pi, 24, figs 1, 2, 2a-b,3[19 specimens mentioned; of 4 figured, specimens 2, 3, 5, not 1, appear to be S. zygaena]. Whitley*, 194823:8 [Western Australian list]. Fraser-Brunner, 1950:219, in part, [in synonymy of S. lewini places Whitley, 1948a, whose material includes S. zygaena (see above)]. Scott*, 1955:60 [South Australian sharks and rays], Munro, 1956:11*, fig.73 [not either of figs numbered 73 (reproduction of under surface of head not very clear), which are S. lewini after Whitley, 1934, pi. 28, figs A, B]. McCulloch*, 1958, 4:421 [Aust. Encyl. article; reissue after McCulloch's death]. Munro*, 1958:113 [New Guinea]. Scott, 1962:21*, unnumbered fig. [not fig. apparently a redrawing, with some inaccuracies, of Whitley 1934, pi. 28, fig A, which is S. lewini]. Goadby, 1963:30, unnumbered fig. [not fig., which shows features not found in any known sphyrnid; Australia]. Marshall, 1964:16*, pi. 7, figs 19A, B[not fig., which is 5. lewini, after Whitley, 1934, pi. 28, figs A, B; Queensland]. Roughley, 1966*:241. Munro, 1967:8*, pi. 1, fig. 7 [not illustration, which is S. lewini, after Whitley, 1934, pi. 28, figs A, B; New Guinea). *Grant, 1972:14, unnumbered fig. [ head as shown suggests S. zygaena but some features of illustration are not to be found in any species; Queensland]. Cestraoion (Cestraoion lewini Ogilby, 1916:81 [species attributed to Lord; McCoy, 1881, pi. 56, fig. 1 cited; "Coast of South Queensland. Moreton Bay"] . ?? Sphyrna tudee Borodin, 1932:69 [Southport , Queensland]. Description.- Except where otherwise specified {e.g. , "direct"), or where such a convention is clearly inapplicable, dimension in this description are regularly cited as millesimals of total length (between parallels), 610 mm. Head moderately expanded, greatest width.259 , or 1.18 head length (to fifth gill slit), or 1.95 greatest anteroposterior extension of ocuionarial expansion, or 4.27 preoral length (to front of upper lip); width at tips of preocular prominences 233. Dorsal profile descending rather rapidly to snout tip, gently, almost evenly, convex, but with slight concavity near its middle; ventral profile about reverse of dorsal below gill slits, in advance of this flatter, slightly sinuous, with small notch at mouth. Dorsal profile of portion of head behind hammerhead expansion and what may be regarded as its forward tumid continuation to tip of snout transversely convex, strongly so over gill slits, decreasingly so anteriorly; dorsal profile of wing-like lateral expansions transversely slightly concave, rising highest at margin above eye. Transverse outline of ventral surface much like that of dorsal, but somewhat less convex mesially in advance of mouth, considerably less convex behind it. Width at level of scallops of anterior border, at tip of preocular prominences, at middle of eye, at first gill slit 4.7, 6.5, 5.2, 1.1 depth at these points; greatest depth of head, found at fifth gill slit, 82, or a little less than one-third greatest head width. Hammerhead Sharks-Australia 5 Anterior profile of oculonarial expansion with shallow scallop in each half, equidistant, directly, from naris and tip of snout; median segment moderately and evenly convex, without median concavity, its chord approximately 100, height of its arc 21. Tips of preocular prominences in advance of upper lip by less than an eye diameter. Posterior angle of expansion behind angle of mouth by about an eye diameter; most anterior point on posterior border about level with labial fold; shortest direct distance between anterior border (at nostril) and posterior border 64. Orbit rather large; its horizontal diameter 1.2 its vertical, 2.25 in preorbital length, 1.1 longest (second) gill slit, 1.6 its direct distance from nostril. Narial flaps rather broad, outer edge curving fairly rapidly inward, tip obtusely pointed; free exposed border about one-third eye. Internarial 0.72 greatest width of head, somewhat less than half length to pectoral origin. Inner narial groove well developed, at its anterior extremity curling briefly on to ventral surface near scallop in anterior border of head, its chord 1.06 direct distance from its anterior extremity to tip of snout; distance between anterior tips of grooves 2.62 in greatest head width, rather more than half internarial. Snout 62, a shade less than one-fourth greatest width of head, subequal to shortest direct distance from naris to posterior border of oculonarial expansion. Mandibular symphysis just posterior to a line joining anterior margins of orbits; width of mouth cleft 63, equal to distance from snout tip to midway between front of upper and front of lower lip; small labial furrow at outer angle of lower jaw, shallow groove flanking labial fold internally. Second>first>third>fourth>fifth gill slit, longest 1.4 shortest; fifth behind, fourth above, pectoral insertion; fourth and fifth closest together, distance between them 0.6 length of fifth, remaining intervals increasing anteriorly, being 1.35, 1.67, 1,80 that between fourth and fifth. Length to first dorsal 266, subequal to interval between hind end of its base and hind end of base of second dorsal, or to distance from pelvic insertion to vent; fin fairly erect, moderately broad; base 3.06 that of second dorsal, 0.41 length of head, 1.83 pectoral base; anterior border almost straight for about 0.7 of its length, thereafter becoming convex, with increasing rapidity distad; tip bluntly rounded, directed backward, a vertical dropped from it intersecting inferior margin of lobe near its mid¬ point; distal border virtually straight above, briefly concave where it passes into superior border of lobe; lobe 0.3 fin base, superior border very slightly concave, inferior border more concave, most so proximally, slender terminally, pointed; as preserved carried half an eye-diameter above dorsum. Interdorsal 248, subequal to interval between pectoral and pelvic insertions, 1.1 in upper caudal lobe. Length to second dorsal 603; origin about 0.62 length of anal base; base 0,69 anal base, subequal to distance between middle of anal base and origin of lower caudal lobe; anterior border at first slightly convex, curving more rapidly posteriorly; distal border slightly concave in anterior half, then becoming virtually straight to constitute superior border of lobe; inferior border of lobe slightly concave in about anterior one-fourth, then virtually straight; lobe slender, pointed, extending 0.56 of distance to precaudal pit. Length to pectoral 213, subequal to distance between end of its base and middle of ventral base; base 1.83 in first dorsal base, 1.27 in anterior, 0.62 in posterior, interpectoral distance; direct length of fin 0.56 head, 1.25 vertical height of first dorsal; greatest width normal to longitudinal fin axis 0.54 direct length; anterior border convex, slightly so proximally , increasingly so towards tip which is bluntly rounded; distal border moderately falcate, comprising an inner, slightly concave segment, about an eye-diameter long, joined roundedly to an almost straight outer segment about two and a half times as long; internal tip rather rapidly rounded; posterior border 6 Hammerhead Sharks-Australia sliqhtlv sinuate, with one median concave arc, two terminal convex arcs; distance between margins of two pectorals at lips of inner angle 33, at point of nearest approach 18. Length to pelvic 457, subegual to distance between middle of pectoral base and origin of lower caudal lobe; base 0.96 anal base;lenqth 0.87 length of an anterior border mostlv weakly convex, briefly somewhat concave proximally; anterior angle very broadlv rounded; distal border virtually straight in first half, qentlv concave in second; posterior ancle acute; posterior border sinuous, concave flanking clasper: clasper short, failing to reach tip of pelvic by about half its own total outer length, or bv about one-fourth of its own inner length; subcvlindrical; tip rather bluntlv rounded. Length to anal 577, a little more than twice distance between terminations of first and second dorsal bases; base 1.04 pelvic base, 1.44 second dorsal base; height 1.27 height of second dorsal', anterior border briefly concave proximally, later boldly, almost evenlv convex; outer ancle acute; distal border slightly concave in first half of backwardlv directed segment, then strongly concave till it becomes inferior border of lobe, this border barelv convex through about three-fourths of its length, thereafter straight; superior border of lobe virtually straight; lobe slender, pointed, its tip reaching just beyond middle of inferior border of lobe of first dorsal; most advanced point on distal border slightly anterior to a perpendicular dropped from the axil. Length to origin of lower lobe of caudal 692, to origin of upper lobe (at precaudal pit) 711: length of fin (between parallels) 0.31 total length, subequal to interval between end of pectoral base and anal origin. Upper lobe carried at an angle of about 25® to anteroposterior axis of bodv; length subegual to distance between pectoral origin and end of pelvic base; width (obliguelv from precaudal pit to junction with hind bodrder of lov;er lobe) 3.54 in its length; width at notch egual to vertical diameter of eye; anterior border slightly convex, the fleshv fin fold low throughout its length, obsolescent anteriorly; tip acuminate, somewhat recurved; terminal secondary lobe with its anterior border almost straight, eaual in length to width of fin at notch, posterior border slightlv emaroinate, twice as long; direct length of lobe 5.44 in direct length of caudal: lower border from notch to junction with lower lobe nearly straight, its length eaual to distance between end of pelvic base and inferior origin of caudal. Lower lobe of caudal carried at an angle of about 45°; moderate; length 2.70 in upper lobe; width (slightly obliquely from its origin to junction with lower border of upper lobe) 1.60 in its length; anterior border slightlv sinuous, the median one- third or more concave; ancle backwardlv rounded; posterior border straight. Length to middle of vent 474; well defined slit 14 long; lips rather quickly elevated along the middle of their length; anterior end reaching to bases of mixoptervgia; delimited posteriorly bv a narrow membranous band stretched between pelvics, proconcave anterior border free, proconvex posterior border attached. Upper precaudal pit (fio. 12?) proconcave; open, the walls, especially the posterior, rising gradually; width somewhat exceeding length, 3.5 in width of caudal oreduncle here. No lower precaudal pit. Teeth in upper jaw (fig. la) 12-0-12; first small,nearly erect, almost symmetrical, the outer edge straight; rest markedly oblique, increasingly so after the first one or two; inner margin smooth or slightlv serrate, straight or just barelv convex; outer margin smooth, deeolv incised; cusps of outermost small but well developed; a few functional teeth of a second row at sides of jaw, with elements of an imperfect third series anteriorly. Teeth in lower jaw 10-1-10; median symphvsial tooth small; in general similar to teeth in upper jaw, but smaller, especially the first three or four, which are slender, more Hammerhead Sharks-Australia 1 erect than the rest. On some teeth in which the border is entire it is constituted by a narrow hyaline band within which can be traced a more or less continuous crenulated line. Dermal denticles (fig. Id) (sample from near base of first dorsal) small, imbricate, blade thin, well arched, total lenath subequal to width, convex lateral marains diverqina raoidly from narrow pedicel; modally three ridges, median strongest and sliqhtlv lonaest, terminatina in sharp teeth, margin between teeth strongly excavate. The disposition of the ampullae of Lorenzini on ventral surface of head is as illustrated (fig. le). General color dar)c slatv arev, at times faintly olivaceous, shading without clear line of demarcation into off-white or somewhat yellowish white below; the darker upper area covering about two-thirds of height of body at first dorsal origin, about half at anal origin, rather more than one-third at caudal origin' on sides some small irregular dark markings, differing on the two sides, the most conspicuous four or five streaks running downwards and forwards behind anal. Head whitish below; above concolorous with dorsal surface of body, except for a narrow encroachment of whitish from lower surface on to anterior border, exceeding a millimeter in width mesiallv, becoming more slender laterally, fading out near middle of paired scalloo; between gill slits whitish with some obscure duskv shading; pupil white; iris dark blue; exposed portions of ocular caosule mostly brownish; nictitating membrane whitish, somewhat marbled with duskv. First dorsal with dusky areas basallv and near hind border and border of lobe; elsewhere intermediate in color between upper and lower parts of flank, except for a conspicuous black line along anterior border. Second dorsal somewhat lighter than tail nearby; margined with dark brown on anterior border and upper border, with faint continuation along superior (not inferior) border of lobe. Upper surface of pectoral moderately duskv, somewhat lighter anteriorly in preaxial half. Lower surface whitish, with some duskiness near outer angle and very narrowly along posterior border. Pelvic mostly somewhat lighter than dark body color. Anal off-white, crossed bv two narrow dark markings, the anterior nearly straight, forwardly oblique, the posterior, near base of lobe, proconvex. Dimensions-- Table 1 sets out, as thousandths of total length, some dimensions of our specimen: except where otherwise noted {e.g., marked "direct"), or where such a method is clearly inapplicable, dimensions are measured between parallels. The data afford, though at times in another formulation, the information called for bv the"set of standard measurements for comparative and biometric studies of Australian sharks" devised bv Whitley (1943:114), and includes all dimensions given in the hammerhead revision of Gilbert (1967; table 4); together with some additional items. Of the 21 dimensions in Gilbert's table, 14 are provided for 24 specimens, comprising 8 Atlantic and 10 Pacific examples of length 400-599 mm, 3 Atlantic and 2 Pacific of length 600-799, and 1 Pacific of length > 800, material for the two oceans being exhibited separately; the remaining 7 dimensions are for 23 specimens only, data being unavailable in these entries for the single large Pacific shark. Gilbert lists extreme values and mean for each group: overall extremes and weighted mean'are given in the present table. Remarks on the specimen.- The specimen agrees well with the description and figures of S. (S.) zygaena in Gilbert (1967), the chief points of Fig. 1. - Sphyrna zygaena (Linne, 1758): a juvenile male, total length 610 mm, caught by Mr. E. Gatenby in George Bay, Cornwall/Dorset, Tasmania, on 17 April 1970; Queen Victoria Museum Reg. No. 1970.5.14. a.- Lateral aspect: x 1/3. b Upper precaudal pit: x 2. a.- Three teeth: x ca 4. Cj.- Fourth upper tooth. C 2 .- An inner (replacement)tooth from anterior part of upper jaw. C 3 .- Fourth lower tooth. d.- Dermal denticles: x ca 50. Sample from right flank 1 cm below middle of base of first dorsal. f.- Ventral aspect of head: x 1/3. Semidiagrammatic showing disposition of the ampullae of Lorenzini, and, by a slight tilting, the course of the inner narial groove: elements of chondrocranium, traceable in outline beneath the integument, not depicted. 10 Hammerhead Sharks-Australia difference it exhibits being: (i) most advanced point on posterior border of anal occurs barely in advance of ("slightly posterior to") a perpendicular dropped from the axil [see above, comment on specimens figured by Whitley, 1948a]; (ii) values slightly below the minimum reported by Gilbert (1967, table 4) for length of upper border of anal lobe (37: of. 38), vertical height of anal (21;24), length of caudal (289,*290: though the latter measurement may be ta)50% <55% of the direct distance from naris to snout tip. However, it should be noted that, while the extent of prolongation in the second dorsal and anal lobes of specimens 2 and 3 (text fig. 4) is compatible with S. zygaena, in both specimens the most anterior point on the posterior border of the anal lies anterior [Gilbert (1967:33)"slightly posterior"] to a perpendicular dropped from the axil of the fin [slightly anterior also in our specimen] . It must further b& observed that by citing this paper (including references to illustrations) under S. lewini Fraser-Brunner (1950:219) presumably accepted all the material it deals with as belonging to that species. 14 Hammerhead Sharks-Australia Both S. zygaena and S. lewini are recorded from Australia in Gilbert's 1967 revision, the former on the basis of specimens examined [USNM 29020 (head), USNM 39992 (i) , Sydney (Port Jackson)]; with the latter in the species distribution map (map 3) with a notation for "confirmed literature reference" [presumably that of Gilbert & Smith, 1834]. SYNOPSIS OF SPHVRNIDAE REPORTED FROM AUSTRALIA Hammerhead sharks have been reported from Australian waters under seven specific names (in several generic and subgeneric combinations) these are here briefly reviewed. (i) S. malleus (Valenciennes, 1822) - regularly attributed locally to Shaw, Synonym of (ii). Chief entries listed above. Australian description: McCoy (1881:23)[measurements only]; ? Waite (1899:34) [as S. lewini]. Australian figure: McCoy (1881, pi. 56, fig. 1) [lithoaraph bv Schonfeld not very good]. (ii) S. zygaena (Linne, 1758). Chief entries listed above. Australian description: McCoy (1881):?Waite (1899), as above for (i). Australian figure: McCoy, 1881, as above for (i). (iii) 5. lewini (Griffith 5. Smith, 1834). Chief entries listed above. Australian descriptions: ?Waite (1899:34); Whitlev (1934:192)[Oqilbv's 1908 specimen from Moreton Bav, Queensland, reported by him as S. tudes]-, Whitley (1937:4)[Bateman's Bay, New South Wales]; ?Whitley (1948:262) [? some of 19 individuals, in particular specimen 1]. Australian figures- Whitlev (1934, pi. 28); ? Whitlev (1948, pi. 24, fig. 3); Whitley in Fraser- Brunner (1950, fig. 3)[Menapi, Goodenough Bay, Papua; "G. P. Whitley, del." no reference]; illustrations in Goadby (1963:31) and Grant (1972:14) are scientifically worthless. (iv) S. bloahii (Cuvier, 1816). In listina this species as a new record for Australia Ogilby (1908:4) stated onlv "The [Queensland] Museum possesses a couple of fetal examples of this unmistakable shark taken from a female killed in Rockingham Bay." Though occurring in the Queensland check-lists of Ogilbv (1916) and McCulloch & Whitlev'(1925) , and surviving to appear in the Australian check-list (McCulloch, 1929) , this record has since been overlooked, ignored or rejected. S. bloahii differs trenchantly from ^ii other species in having the nostril situated far from the eye, about halfway to tip of snout; the question naturally presents itself as to whether it was the presence in his specimen of this feature in his specimen that prompted Ogilbv's "unmistakable". Gilbert (1967, map 1) includes in his distribution map a symbol denoting "confirmed literature reference" on the Queensland coast and notes in the text "The species has also been recorded from Queensland, Australia (Ogilby, 1908, o.4); this area apparently represents both the eastern and southern limits of its range." Mr R. J. McKay, Curator of Fishes, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, has been good enough to make a search for Ogilby's material and he informs me it is not listed in their 1969 index of tank specimens, and does not now appear to be traceable. Mr McKay adds he has examined, in the light of Gilbert's 1967 revision, four hammerhead sharks in the collection labelled Sphyrna zygaena and finds them all to be S. lewini. Hammerhead Sharks -Australia 15 (v) S. tudes (Valenciennes, 1822). Fraser-Brunner called attention to some confusion in the application of the name 5. tudes , and Tortonese (1950ii) showed the three types comprise two species - these have been identified by Gilbert as S. tudes (two types extant) and probably S. mokarran (Ruppell, 1835) (type lost: identification partly by locality), the former being restricted to the western Atlantic and the western Mediterranean. With S. mokarran Gilbert synonymizes S. ligo Fraser-Brunner from New South Wales. As noted above, the hammerhead recorded by Oqilby as S. tudes has been shown by Whitley to be S. lewini. Fraser-Brunner has remarked of a photograph giyen by Whitley (1940, fig. 127) of a shark from Broome that it "appears to be a large S. tudes." This would presumably be S. mokarran-, and S. tudes has no real place in the Australian list. (yi) S. ligo Fraser-Brunner, 1950. Treated by Gilbert as a synonym of (y). Australian description: Fraser-Brunner (1950:214). Australian figures: Fraser-Brunner (1950, fig. 1, fig. 2, part). The present writer is not in a position to express an informed opinion as to whether or no S. ligo and S. mokarran are conspecific. However, attention may be called to some discrepancies between Fraser-Brunner's account of the former and Gilbert's account of the latter. (i) "S. mokarran is unique among members of the genus Sphyrna in having ... strongly serrated teeth at all sizes;" teeth of S. ligo as figured appear to be smooth (no reference, in description, to margins): (ii) antero-lateral pore series figured as an arc of subequal width throughout, in S. ligo as a broad subelliptical patch: (iii) figure for S. mokarran shows on each side an imperfect continuation of the arc running backwards and outwards, the tips of the two continuations being connected by a line of pores, slightly forwardly convex, situated about five times as far from snout tip as from mouth; figure for S. ligo has no such continuations, the posterior tips of the patches being connected directly by a virtually straight line of pores, situated two-three times as far from snout tip as from mouth: (iv) first dorsal base "almost twice" (S. mokarran) , "one and a third" (S. ligo) pectoral base: (v) anal base "slightly (up to one-sixth) longer" than second dorsal base (S. mokarran) ; second dorsal base " a little longer" than anal base {S. ligo) . The marked difference in the form of the first dorsal in the illustration (from Bigelow & Schroeder, 1948) of a juvenile male of S. mokarran, 673 mm long reproduced in Gilbert and in Fraser- Brunner of his type, 325 Iona from tip of snout to precaudal pit, appears to be covered by Gilbert's note on the fin "excessively curved in embryonic and post-embyronic individuals." [In Fraser-Brunner's "Base of dorsal fin contained three and a quarter times in length of head,", "three" should read "two".] (vii) S. mokarran (Ruppell, 1835). See remarks above on status of this species under S. tudes. Reported from Australia by Gilbert (1967:26) on the basis of material examined: "Pacific Ocean: Australia: USNM 40014 (1), USNM 40026, (1), MCZ 969 (1) Richmond River, New South Wales"; with an additional item concerning S. ligo Fraser-Brunner, "BMNH 1890.9.23.231 (X-ray of head of holotvpe of Sphyrna ligo), Clarence River, New South Wales." 9. mokarron does not appear hitherto to have entered the Australian literature:for extralimital references see Gilbert, above. Springer (1944). The list of Australian Sphyrnidae, given in recent local lists as S. (S.) lewini and S. (S.) ligo, thus becomes, in the light of our present knowledge: S. (S.)^^zygaena (Linne, 1758), S. (S.) lewini (Griffith s Smith, 1834), S. S. mokarran (Ruppell, 1835)[with S. (S.) ligo Fraser-Brunner, 1950 as a probable synonym]as satisfactorily recorded species, with the inclusion of S. (E.j bloahii (Cuvier, 1816) in some doubt. 16 Hammerhead Sharks-Australia KEY TO SPECIES REPORTED FROM AUSTRALIA Outer narial groove present; nostril farther from eye than from tip of snout. Head width ^1.5(=1.5-2.3, modally > 2.0) head length. Vertebrae <150 (known range 117-124).S. (E.)blochii Outer narial groove absent; nostril closer to eye than to tip of snout. Head width < 1.5(=1.0-1.3, modally < 1.2) head length. Vertebrae>150 (known range 179-204).2 I Inner narial groove absent (represented by a thin line). Perpendicular dropped from apex of first dorsal passing behind tip of fin lobe. Length of anterior margin and vertical height of second dorsal both < those of anal. Teeth strongly serrate at all sizes. S. (S. )mokarra*' Inner narial groove present. Perpendicular dropped from apex of first dorsal intersecting fin lobe. Length of anterior margin and vertical height of second dorsal both < those of anal. Teeth smooth in young, sometimes weakly serrate in adults ... 3 Median segment of anterior border of head without a scallop. Inner narial groove extending _> distance from inner margin of naris to tip of snout. Distance from naris to orbit < (=* 5 ) diameter of eye. Lobe of second dorsal extending < 2/3 distance from fin base to precaudal pit. Lateral borders of median anterior patch of pores on ventral surface of head concave, series narrowing posteriorly to a point of one or two pores. Rostral fenestra present. Lower precaudal pit absent. S. (Sj 3 ygaef‘^ Median segment of anterior border of head with a scallop. Inner narial groove extending< Js (0.4-0.45) distance from inner margin of naris to tip of snout. Distance from naris to orbit = diameter of eye. Lobe of second dorsal extending >2/3 (=3/4 - 4/5) distance from fin base to precaudal pit. Lateral borders of median anterior patch of pores on ventral surface of head straight or barely convex, ending behind in a transverse line, its length about half greatest width of patch. Rostral fenestra usually absent. Lower precaudal pit usually absent . S. (S.)lewi’'' If S. (S.) ligo is to distinguished from S. (S.) mokarran, an examination should be made of the margin of the teeth, the disposition of the ampullae of Lorenzini, and the relative sizes of the bases of the two dorsals, the pectoral and the anal fins; and reference made to the text above. REFERENCES ANONYMOUS, 1972. Warm water killed abalone, rock lobster. Aust. Fisher., 31 (7);31, 4 maps. Canberra, Dept Prim. Industry. BERG, L. S, , 1940. Classification of fishes both recent and fossil. Trav. Inst. Zoot. Acad. Soi. U.R.S.S., 5 (2):87-517, 190 text figs. [English version issued by J. W. Edwards, Ann Arbor, Michigan, U.S.A., 1947]. BIGELOW, H. B., & SCHROEDER, W. C., 1957. A study of the sharks of the suborder Squaloidea. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 117 (1):1-150, 16 text figs, 4 pis. Hammerhead Sharks-Australia 17 BORODIN, N. h., 1932. Scientific results of the yacht "Alva" world cruise, July 1931 to March 1932, in command of William K. Vanderbilt. Bull. Vanderbilt Mar.Mus., 1 (3):65-101, pis 1-2. BRIGGS, J. C., 1960. Fishes of worldwide (circumtropical) distribution. Copeia, 1960, 3:171-180. CASTLENAU, F. L., 1872. Contributions to the ichthyology of Australia: No. 1. The Melbourne market. Proa. Zool. Acalim. Soa. Viat. , 1:29-242 , 1 pi. CUVIER, G. L, C. F., 1816 ["1817"]. La^regne animal, distribue d'apres son organisation, pour^servir de base a I'histoire naturelle des animaux et d'introduction a I'anatomie comparee, ed. 1, 2, xviii + 532 pp. DAY, F., 1875-1878. The fishes of India; being a natural history of the fishes known to inhabit the seas and fresh waters of India, Burma and Ceylon. Text and atlas in 4 parts, London. fowler, H. W. , 1941. The fishes of the groups Elasmobranchii, Holocephali, Isospondyli and Ostariophysi obtained by the United States Bureau of Fisheries steamer "Albatross" in 1907 to 1910, chiefly in the Philippine Islandsand adjacent seas. V. S. Hat. Mus. Bull.,100, 13:ix + 879 pp, 30 text figs. FRASER-BRUNNER, a, 1950. A synopsis of the hammerhead sharks (.Sphyrna) , with description of a new species. Rea. Aust. Mus. , 22 (3):218-219, 3 text figs. CARMAN, S., 1913. The Plagiostomi (sharks, skates and rays). Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., 36:528 pp, 77 pis. GILBERT, C. R. , 1967a. A revision of the hammerhead sharks (family Sphyrnidae). Proa. U. S. Nat. Mus., 119, 3539:1-88, 22 text figs, 10 pis. --- , 1967b. A taxonomic survey of the hammerhead sharks (family Sphyrnidae) in Sharks, Skates and Rays, ed. by P, W. Gilbert, R.F.Mathews and D. I. Rail: pt 1, art. 3: 69-77: volume 624 pp. Baltimore, John Hopkins. GILL, T., 1861. Analytical synopsis of the order of Squali, and revision of the nomenclature of the genera. Ann. Lya. Nat. Hist. New York, 7: 367-413. GRANT, E. M., 1872. Guide to Fishes [of Queensland], 2nd ed. (1st ed. 1965): xxiv + 472 pp, 334 unnumbered text figs, 100 pis (color). Brisbane, Queensland Government. GOADBY, P., 1963. Sharks and other Predatory Fish of Australia, noted on p. 2 as reprint of 2nd ed., 1963, on p. 4 referred to as 3rd ed.: 124 pp, 56 unnumbered figs and pis. Brisbane, Jacaranda Press. GRIFFITH, E. & SMITH, C. H. 1934. Class Pisces in Cuvier, Animal Kingdom, 10, English ed. JOHNSTON, R. M., 1883. General and critical observations on the fishes of Tasmania: with a classified catalogue of all the known species. Pap. Proa. Roy. Soa, Tasm. (1882») : 53-144; also Roy. Commiss. Fisher, Tasm, Dept, 1883:xxix-lx. 18 Hammerhead Sharks-Australia JOHNSTON, R. M,, 1891. Further observations on the fishes and fishing industries of Tasmania, together with a revised list of indigenous species. Pap. Proa. Roy. Soo. Tasm. (1890);22-46; also reprint, 1891:1-25. JORDAN, D. S,, 1923. A classification of fishes, including forms and genera as far as known. Stanf. Univ. Publ. Biot. Sai., 3 (2):i-x+77-243. KLEIN, J. T., 1792. In Walbaum, J. J., Petri Artedi... Genera Piscium... Pt 3 in P. Artedi renovati...Ichthologica:723 pp., 3pls (not seen). LINEAWEAVER, T. H. & BACKUS, R. H., 1970. The Natural History of Sharks:256pp, 49 unnumbered figs. London, Andre Deutsch. LINNE, C. von, 1758. Systema Naturae, ed. 10, 1:824 pp. LORD, C. E., 1923. A list of the fishes of Tasmania. Pap. Proa. Roy. Soo. Tasm. (1922):60-73. - , 1927. A list of the fishes of Tasmania. J. Pan-Pac. Res. Inst., 2(4) -.11-16. LORD, C. E. & SCOTT, H. H., 1924. A synopsis of the Vertebrate Animals of Tasmania: 340 pp., 116 unnumbered figs, 39 unnumbered pis. Hobart, Oldham, Beddome & Meredith. LUCAS, A. H. S., 1890. A systematic census of indigenous fish, hitherto recorded from Victorian waters. Proa. Roy. Soa. Viat. (n.s.), 2 (1889):15-47. McCORMICK, H. W., ALLEN. T., & YOUNG, W. E., 1964. Shadows in the Sea: The Sharks, Skates and Rays:lx+415 pp, 122 unnumbered figs. London, Sidgwick & Jackson . McCOY, F., 1881. Prodomus of the Zoology of Victoria, dec. 6:1-46, pis 51-56. Melbourne, Government Printer. McCULLOCH, A. R., 1911. Report on the fishes obtained by the F. I. S. "Endeayour" on the coasts of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania: Part 1. Zoot. Res. Endeavour, l(l):l-87, 19 text figs, 16pls. -, 1921. Check-list of the fish and fish-like animals of New South Wales: Part 1. Aust. Zool., 1, (7):217-227, 1 unnumbered text fig, pis 16-18; also, with parts 2, 3, as Aust. Zool. Handbk, 1, 1922, xxvi+104 pp., 1 unnumbered text fig., pis. 1-43. Sydney, Royal Zool. Soc. N.S.W. (2nd ed. 1927, 3rd ed. 1934). -, 1929-30. A check-list of the fishes recorded from Australia (pts 1-3, 1924, pt 4, Index, 1930). Aust. Mus. Wem. 5:x+534 pp. -, 1958. Hammerhead Sharks. Australian Encyclopaedia, yol.4: [This 10-yolume work, issued as "First printing" in 1958, was based on a 2-volume work published in 1925-27]. Sydney, Angus & Robertson. McCULLOCH, A. R. & WHITLEY G. P., 1925. A list of the fishes recorded from Queensland. Mem. Qld Mus. (2): 125-182. MACLEAY, W., 1882. Descriptiye catalogue of the fishes of Australia. Proa. Linn. Soa. R.S.W., 6(1): 202-387. MARSHALL, T. C., 1964. Fishes of the Great Barrier Reef and Coastal Waters of Queensland:566pp, 12 text figs, b. and w, pis 1-64, col. plates 1-72. Sydney, Angus & Robertson. Hammerhead Sharks-Australia 19 MUNRO, I. S. R. , 1956. Handbook of Australian Fishes, 2 in Aust. Fisher. Newsl. [since 1969 Aust. Fisher.] 15 (8) : 9-12 (15-18 of journal), figs 57-86, Canberra, Dept Prim. Industrv. _-, 1958. The fishes of the New Guinea region. A check-list of the fishes of New Guinea, incorporating records of species collected by the fisheries survey vessel "Fairwind" during the years 1948 to 1950. Terr. Papua and N.G. Fish. Bull.^ 1:97-369, fig. 1, 3 maps {^Fapua H.G. Agr. J., 10 (4) ] . --, 1967. The fishes of New Guinea: xxv+650 pp, 23 text figs, 78 pis, 6 col. pis. Port Moresby, New Guinea, Dept. Agric. Stock, Fisher. OGILBY, J. D., 1889. List of the Australian Paleichthyes, with notes on their synonmy and distribution: Part 1. Proa. Linn. Soa. N.S.W. (series 2), 2 (4):1765-1772. -—- , 1908. New or little-known fishes in the Queensland Museum. Ann. Qld Mus., 9:3-41. ---, 1916. Check-list of the cephalochordates, selachians and fishes of Queensland. Mem. Qld Mus., 5:70-98, fig. 1. PETERS, W. C., 1877. Uebersicht der...Reise S.M.S. "Gazelle" gesammelten und... ubersandten Fische. Monatsber. Akad. Wiss. Berlin:831-854 (not seen). rAFINESQUE, C. S., 1810. Indice d'ittologia Siciliana: 70 pp., 2 pis (not seen). RAMSAY, E. P. , 1881. Notes on Galeooerdo rayneri, with a list of other sharks taken in Port Jackson. Proa. Linn. Soa. N.S.W., 5:95-97. REGAN, C. T., 1906. A classification of the selachian fishes. Proa. Zool. Soa. loud.:722-758, text figs 1-10. ROUGHLEY, T. C., 1966. Fish and Fisheries of Australia, revised ed. (first publ. 1951):xv+344 pp, 10 text figs, frontispiece, 80 pis (60 color). Sydney, Angus & Robertson. SCOTT, T. D., 1955. The sharks and ravs of South Australia. S. Aust. Nat., 29(4):55-66, 2 figs. - , 1962. The Marine and Fresh Water Fishes of South Australia: 338 pp., figs 1-11 and 368 unnumbered figs. Adelaide, Government Printer. SPRINGER, S., 1944. Sphyrna bigelowi, a new hammerhead shark from off the Atlantic coast of South America, with notes on Sphyrna mokarran from New South Wales. J. Wash. Acad. Sai., 34:274-276, 1 text fig.(not seen). SPRINGER, V, G., 1964. A revision of the carcharhinid shark genera Saoliodon, Loxodon and Rhizoprionodon. Proa. U. S. Nat. Mus., 115, 3493:559-632. STEAD, D. G., 1906. Fishes of Australia. A Popular and Systematic Guide to the Study of the Wealth within our Waters:xll+278 pp, 88 text figs, lOpls. Sydney, William Brookes & Co. —- , 1963. Sharks and Rays of Australian Seas:x+212 pp, 64 figs. Sydney, Angus & Roberston. 20 Hammerhead Sharks-Australia STUDER, T., 1889. (Ed.) Zoologie und Geologie. Pt 3 in Die Forschungreise S.M.S, "Gazelle"...1874 bis 1876 ...1889, vi+322 pp, 33 pis (8color) (not seen). SWAINSON, W., 1838-39. The Natural History and Classification of Fishes, Amphibians, and Reptiles, or Moncardian Animals, 1838, vol. l:v-vi+368 pp, 99 figs; 1839, vol. 2: vi+452 pp., 135 figs. TORTONESE, E., 1950a. Studi sui Plagiostomi, 2:evoluzione, corologia e sistematica della famiglia Sphyrnidae (Pesci martello). Boll. Inst, Mus. Zool. Univ. Torino, 2(2): 39 pp, 11 figs. - , 1950i). A note on the hammerhead shark, Sphyrna tudes Val., after a study of the types. Ann.Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 12, 3:1030-1033. VALENCIENNES, A., 1822. Sur le sous-genera marteau, Zygaena. Mem. Mus. Hist. Nat. , 9 (3):222-228, 2 pis. WAITE, E. R., 1899. Scientific results of the trawling expedition of H.M.C.S."Thetis". Introduction and fishes. Aust. Mus. Mem. 4:132 pp, frontispiece, 10 text figs, 30 pis. - , 1921. Illustrated catalogue of the fishes of South Australia. Reo. S. Aust. Mus., 2, (1): 208 pp, 293 text figs, 1 pi. - , 1923. The Fishes of South Australia: 243 pp, figs 1-4 +321 unnumbered figs. Handbk Flora Faun. S. Aust. Adelaide, Government Printer WHITE. E. G., 1937. Interrelationships of the Elasmobranchs with a key to the order Galea. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 74(2);25-138, 51 pis. WHITLEY, G. P., 1934. Notes on some Australian sharks. Mem. Qld Mus., 10, (4): 180-200, 4 text figs, pis. 37-39. - , 1937. Studies in ichthyoloay: No. 10. Reo. Aust. Mus. , 20 (1): 3-24, 5 text figs, pi. 2. - , 1940. The Fishes of Australia: Part 1. The Sharks, Rays, Devil-Fish and other Primitive Fishes of Australia and New Zealand: 280 pp, 302 figs. Sydney, Royal Zool. Soc. N.S.W. - , 1943. Ichthyological descriptions and notes. Proa. Linn. Soa. N.S.W. , 68, (2): 114-144, 12 text figs. - , 1948a. New Sharks and fishes from Western Australia: Part 3. Aust. Zool., 2: 129-150, 3 text figs, pi.11. -;-, 1948i). A list of the fishes of Western Australia. W. Aust. Fisher. Dept Bull., 2:1-35, map. - , 1949. "Fish Doctor" in Papua. Aust. Mus. Mag. [since 1962 Aust. Nat. Hist.], 9 (10):340-347, 10 figs. --- , 1964. Name-list of the fishes recorded from Australia: appendi B in Presidential address, A survey of Australian Ichthyology. Proa. Linn Soa. N.S.W., 89(1):11- 127 (name-list 32-60). - , 1968. A check-list of the fishes from the New Zealand region. Aust, Zool., 15(1):1-102, 2 text figs. Hammerhead Sharks-Australia 21 TABLE 1 Sphyrna (S.) zygaena CLinne, 1758). Dimensions, as thousandths of total length, of a male 610 mm long from George Bay Tasmania: with comparative data for 24 (asterisked entries 23) Atlantic and Pacific examples from Gilbert (1967, table 4). DIMENSION TASMANIA ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC: RANGE WEIGHTED mean) Length to first gill slit Length to fifth gill slit Length to mouth: upper lip, angle Length to mouth: mandibular symphysis Width of mouth: cleft, tips of labial folds Width, depth of head: at midpoint of scallops : at tips of preocular prominences : At first gill slit : at fifth gill slit ; maximum Length to eve: parallels, direct from tip of snout (profile) Horizontal diameter of eye, of orbit Vertical diameter of eye, of orbit Interorbital Length to nostril: parallels, direct from tip of snout (profile) Internarial Length of inner narial groove (chord) Anterior end of narial groove direct to tip of snout (profile) Distance between anterior ends of narial grooves Nostril to eve, to orbit Length of second (largest) gill slit, of fifth First dorsal: length to origin : base : length of anterior border, of distal : length of lower border of lobe : vertical height Interdorsal Second dorsal: length to origin : base : length of anterior border, of distal : length of lower border of lobe : vertical height Anal: length to origin : base : length of anterior border, of distal : length of upper border of lobe : vertical height 162 220 61,109 66 63, 67 98, 21 233, 36 95, 74 74, 85 259, 85 62 ,.138 24, 26 21 , 22 248 49,106 190 56 54 101 16, 15 22, 17 266 90 139, 82 26 103 248 603 30 31, 41 44 16 577 43 44, 38 37 21 162-192 210-245 45[62]-77 260-290 186-209 263-291 86-105 221-253 589-635 25- 38 43- 52 16- 23 42- 57 38- 45 24- 29 (177.1) (228.6) ( 66 . 6 ) (267.3), (25.8) (190.7) (272.3) (96.0) (237.9)* (606.4) (32.3) (46.0)* (19.5) * (46.5) * (42.0)* (28.6) * 12[23]-30 22 Hammerhead Sharks-Australia continued Pectoral: length to origin 213 : base 49 : length of anterior border, of distal 113, 75 : length of posterior border 38 : total length 125 : maximum width normal to longitudinal axis 110 Interpectoral: at anterior end of base, at posterior end 62, 30 Pelvic: length to origin 457 : base 40 : length of anterior border, of distal 41, 44 ; length of posterior border, total, free 35, 20 : total length 69 : maximum width normal to longitudinal axis 39 Interpelvic: at anterior end of base, at posterior end 39, 15 Clasper: length of inner border 41 : length of outer border, total, free 19, 13 : maximum width, maximum depth 6, 5 Upper lobe of caudal: length to origin (at precaudal pit) Depth, width: : base (precaudal pit to junction 711 with lower lobe) 81 : length of anterior border. of posterior below notch 289,193 : terminal lobe; anterior border posterior 20 , 40 : width at notch 21 caudal: length to origin 692 : base (slightly oblique) 67 : length of anterior border. of posterior 107, 55 of vertebral column 982 . (middle) 474 at first dorsal origin 95, 72 at pelvic origin 79, 56 at anal origin 57, 41 at caudal peduncle (minimum) 38 , 30 maximum (body) 97, 74 195-226 47- 60 438-468 290-312 (212 (49. (449 (300 THE FINAL PHASE OF THE EXTINO TASMANIAN RACE 1847-1876 being AN EPILOGUE TO THE 6th HALFORD ORATION CANBERRA, A.C.T. 23.11.1933 Delivered to the meeting of Tasmanian Fellows and Members of the Royal Australasian College of Physicians, Launceston General Hospital, Saturday, October 7th, 1972 by WILLIAM E. L. H. GROWTHER, k.b., c.b.e., d.s.o., f.r.a.c.p. Far from the clash of arms the just kind earth. Pours out before him plentiful reward, Peace without fear, a life of solid truth. Full of a thousand pleasures — open fields. Free air and moving waters, cliffs and woods. Virgil. RECORDS OF THE QUEEN VICTORIA MUSEUM No. 49 EDITED BY W. F. ELLIS DIRECTOR OF THE MUSEUM Sket-ch Plan oj Ouster Cove SreHon By courtesy, State Archives of Tasmania THE FINAL PHASE OF THE EXTINCT TASMANIAN RACE 1847-1876 by William E. L. H. Crowther, K.B., C.B.E., D.S.O. , F.R.A.C.P. Manuscript received 17/7/1973 Published 26/6/1974 INTRODUCTION As much of the narrative that follows relates to the writer and his family, the use of the first person will be found, perhaps too frequently. My familiarity of Oyster Cove dates from about 1890 when, as a small boy, our school holidays were spent there. Little more than half a mile away from our cottage, were the dilapidated remains of the Reserve buildings to which, in 1847, the last 45 of the Tasmanian natives had been removed from Flinders Island. Here, in the remains of what had been the Superintendent's quarters, lived a Mr. Palmer who supplied us with our daily milk and in the early morning it was often my chore to run bare footed along the track to collect it. We children were great friends with the older settlers, many of whom had first and second hand knowledge of "the blacks" and their habits, notably Mrs. Benoow whose father who had been sergeant in charge of a detail of a British regiment stationed in the Bay. She had close contact with the aborigines as a little girl and used to draw charcoal drawings of them on her white hearthstone to illustrate her stories. My father (E. L. Crowther, M.D.) had one encounter when, as a schoolboy (circa 1855) on the paddle steamer "Cobra" proceeding to his father's saw mills at the next bay and asleep on the deck, he was awakened and told to look over the side of the steamer. There he saw a whaleboat manned by a male native at the steer oar and a woman at each of the other five oars. He remembered them as very ugly, rather like monkeys with their clay pipes in their mouths. Records of the Queen Victoria Museum No. 49. 2 The Final Phase of the Extinct Tasmanian Race My grandfather (W. L. Crowther, F.R.C.S.Eng.) also had encountered them on two occasions when, as a schoolboy, he and a companion made the long 120 miles walk between Hobart Town and Mr. Claibourne's school at Norfolk Plains (now Longford). On both these occasions by rare good fortune they arrived at their destination unharmed. Lastly, on the sad and tragic occasion of the death of the last male Tasmanian and the mutilation of his body, the political and personal detractors of my grandfather accused him of having taken these parts as specimens for the Royal College of Surgeons Museum, London. This was not proved and, on a subsequent hotly contested re-election to the Legislature fought on this issue, my grandfather won by a large majority. Early in 1933 Dr. (later Sir) Colin Mackenzie, then Director of the Institute of Anatomy at Canberra, informed me of my selection to deliver the sixth Halford Oration later that year at Canberra, and invited me to accept this honour. The Oration itself had been founded by members of the Halford family to commemorate the services to medical literature and science of George Britten Halford, their forebear, who, in 1862 had been appointed to the infant Medical School at the University of Melbourne as Professor of Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology. In his communication Sir Colin commented favourably on my interest in the Tasmanian aboriginals and of recent studies on their culture and habits, communicated by myself to the "Papers and Proceedings" of the Royal Society of Tasmania. After reading the names and the academic distinction of my five predecessors in this role, although increasingly aware of my own limitations, I felt that in view of these special interests I should be justified in accepting his invitation. In accepting, and expressing my appreciation of the honour of my selection, I suggested that the title for the address would be "1803 - 1876" " The Passing of the Extinct Tasmanian Race" So, early in November 1933 I went to Melbourne to complete my paper and thence to Canberra. There on the 22nd of that month at the Institute of Anatomy, I carried out my mission. The occasion was of course a very memorable one to myself, marred only by the pain in a tooth socket from an extraction 2 days previously. There was a large audience and the usual kind expressions of appreciation were offered. For myself, I may say frankly that I thoroughly enjoyed the occasion. At the time, however, I was far from satisfied with the small amount of information given as to the final phase of this national tragedy , passed at the aboriginal reserve at Oyster Cove. Recently Mrs. Mary McRae of the State Library of Tasmania, when arranging material in relation to the probation phase of the convict system in V.D.L. circa 1840, located at the State Archives the official visitors book used at that station when, after years of disuse, it was repurchased by the Government to house the survivors of the Tasmanian aborigines. Reading through this volume 619/1 q.v, one found that the special entries by visiting magistrates and especially those of Dr. Wm. Smith M.R.C.S. (the medical The Final Phase of the Extinct Tasmanian Race 3 Officer responsible for the natives) added much information on this forgotten period (1847-1869) during which the survivors from Flinders Island gradually died from epidemics and other diseases aggravated by strong spirits and depression. This medical information, therefore, I have attempted to present as an "Epilogue to the Sixth Halford Oration" about 40 years after that event. OYSTER COVE RESERVE AND ELSEWHERE December, 1847 - 6th July, 1855. Strangely little detailed official information remains in the State Archives relating to the last phase of the survivors of the race after their return to Van Diemens Land from the Flinders Island Reserve. The most intimate and revealing descriptions are to be found in the writings of James Bonwick and J. E. Calder, both prominent members of the community and familiar with G. W. Walker and James Backhouse whose writings also had done much to record the actual relationships between the blacks and the settlers. All four had been acquainted at first hand with the establishments at Flinders Island and Oyster Cove and a study of their writings is essential to an understanding of the events of the following two decades, which witnessed the extinction of the race in 1876. We should expect much information from Dr. J. Milligan, who was for a brief period Superintendent at Flinders Island (appointed on 5th December 1843) and who brought his charges, 14 adult male natives, 22 adult females with 3 boys and 5 girls, to the Oyster Cove Reserve by the schooner "Sisters" in October, 1847. There previously had been friction at Flinders Island between Dr. Jeanneret M.D. and the officer in charge of the military guard detailed at that station and it is possible Dr. Milligan did not welcome this appoint¬ ment as he had returned to Hobart Town in 1846 only to be reappointed in May, 1847. Dr. Milligan had come to V.D.L. in February, 1831 as Medical Officer to the Van Diemens Land Company at Circular Head. He became Superintendent, stock keeper and Surgeon at Surrey Hills, later the new headquarters of the company. His work was excellent and affairs were flourishing when he learned that a Mr. John Chambers had been appointed to his position on 10th February, 1842. Dr. Milligan was very favourably known to Sir John Franklin, the Governor of Van Diemens Land, who promptly selected him as Inspector of convict discipline on 15th December, 1843 and later to be Superintendent and Medical Officer of the aborigines and Commandant of Flinders Island. Earlier in the year Dr. Milligan had married Miss Eliza Lawrence of Launceston, who went with him to his new post where she died between 4th February 1844 and 14th March, 1846. Her tombstone may still be seen there but the cause of death is not stated. Milligan had a scientific mind and interests and was closely associated with the newly formed "Tasmanian Society for Natural Science.” He made notable discoveries in regard to coal deposits in V.D.L. and, as its Secretary, took much interest in the affairs of the newly formed Society. However, one feels that, having suffered the loss of his young wife at Flinders Island, he may have become tired of the aborigines and their problems and did not desire to preside over the sick and ailing remnants of the race. He did, however, make some efforts on their behalf in his reports to the Colonial Secretary such as CSO 24/271/5453 and CSO 24/284/6314. The former No. 5453 is dated 3rd December, 4 The Final Phase of the Extinct Tasmanian Race 1850 with additions on 20.3.1851 etc q.v. In this memorandum Dr. Milligan writes at length to the Colonial Secretary following the death recently of four of his charges as under: 3.12.1850 Detailed information as to the death of "Catherine" long bedridden and in a very feeble state. He adds "everyone else in the establishment in a state of perfect health." On 3.2.1850 "Martha" her daughter, transferred from New Town to nurse "Catherine" and died after a severe illness of many months with "continued fever"; possibly pleurisy or pulmonary tubercular infection. 15.2.1851 "Wilhemena" alias "Wild Mary" died of an "inflamation of the bowel" of 3 days duration. He had also to report the death of the aboriginal man "Neptune" after an illness of little more than three months. The onset of his illness was in the form of a "violent pleurisy,"which, though it yielded to treatment, left a debility so great that he died on Friday 21st March. The last of these five deaths was that of "Edmund" on 26.3.52, also at Oyster Cove, from disease of the heart after an illness "by no means alarming as far as indicated by symptoms, of one days duration." Dr. Milligan comments, "for the last 12 months his [Edmunds] health had been uncertain and on the whole in a declining state." He then passes on to mention the question of the suitability of "The Reserve" from a health standpoint (CSO 24/271 No. 5453) . He writes of "Neptune's"illness. On Monday last he had visited the Reserve with Dr. Lillie (The Presbyterian Divine) and had then conversed with the deceased, whom he had found seated among others in the yard or square in which the aborigines usually play ball; inferring that he was then in reasonable health. Dr. Milligan concludes, 23/9/1852, "This [Neptune] is one of those individuals mentioned by me in a recent personal interview with His Excellency, as likely to sink in the course of the winter." He sums up the problem in these words, "The situation of the Establishment at Oyster Cove is both humid and cold and I conceive detrimental to the health of persons residing there, and in the case of the aboriginals with a mistaken [sic] attention from neighbours, which renders it rather undesirable as a permanent residence for them. Adding, "I learn from some of them [the natives], they would not , with the tastes and habits they have lately formed, again willingly submit to be returned to an isolated position, even though it ensures for them a climate both warmer, drier and more favourable to this locality," he concludes "I may observe here, I never had more than one conversation on this, with the late Colonial Secretary." One may be very sure that, apart from the feelings of Dr. Milligan facing the task of ensuring the survival of the race with "all the cards" stacked against him, and His Excellency most anxious to be able to announce the success of his administration, there would loom in the backgromd the hximanitarian Colonial Office in London, most certainly anxious to have news from Hobart Town to justify their sanction to close down the Flinders Island Establishment and solve all their problems by returning the natives to their homeland. The year 1849 opened well for the natives when Sir William and Lady Denison visited the Reserve. In early January they found all the natives complaining of cold though then in mid summer, sitting in their very close warm rooms, wrapped in their dirtiest blankets. Two of the women demonstrated climbing a large gum tree to 100 feet to take a parrot's nest. This performance amazed the Vice Regal party. Sir William writes "I give them ample rations, and they are well content to stay at home and eat, instead of roaming in the bush at the risk of being starved or shot." The Final Phase of the Extinct Tasmanian Race 5 Dated 31st July 1851, three months after its predecessor CSO 24/2711, we have another long memorandum (CSO 24/224/6314) from Dr. Milligan to the Colonial Secretary for transmission to the Governor. In this communication he reports officially on his return "from a Geological examination of the country about the Mersey and Don Rivers'/ to the effect that, during April and May of this year, the aboriginal Establishment was visited by Dr. Rae of Browns River" in consequence of this many cases of serious illness which occurred and in the course of which 4 deaths took place. Since then several dangerous cases of pleurisy have occurred, and one man, no name attached attacked with peritoneal inflamation, died on June 24th, having been for some time bedridden from reiterated injuries to his foot after the reduction of a luxation which, but for these accidents, he would have recovered from." The Superintendent goes on "I postponed this report until it would appear that the mortality upon the Establishment had abated." It continues "The unusual amount of disease, and the fatal termination which has in many instances followed of late, have been, by many, attributed to the extreme humidity of the ground on which the Establishment stands; but allowing that the site is both cold and humid as compared to many situations in V.D.L. it is to be borne in mind that the mortalities have occurred during the height of summer, and in a season memorable for great drought, and probably a good deal warmer than that of either of the two years immediately preceding it. It is also to be recollected that the aborigines are under no obligation to go out of doors in rainy or bad weather, the only toil expected of them is the procurement of their own firewood, and I have always been of the opinion that this form of regular labour (for upon the performance of it depends their indoor comfort) is rather more beneficial than otherwise. Without it they yield entirely to the natural indolence and love of ease, characteristic of the aboriginal races of these islands - neglect all exercise in the free open air, and moping [sic] themselves up in close, overheated apartments, render themselves like "hot house" plants, obnoxious to the breeze which secures health and vigour to those whose avocations expose their systems to its influence." The aborigines, indeed, were well fed and clothed but their huts were ramshackle and draughty and their meals consisted of meat and flour boiled down and eaten out of iron cauldrons. They had no labour imposed on them. Milligan's report continues: "Their gardens are by no means so well kept as formerly, (another indication of the growth of indolent habits). The fact is, that their wants are supplied, and they have scarcely any inducement to bodily exertion. A hunting expedition extending for 2-3 months, over some of the unoccupied country to the westward or to the islands of the straits or both, would probably do more to re-establish their health than almost any other plan that could be devised. Besides there existed bad influences and circumstances in their neighbourhood, from which they would be removed. These undesirable conditions are a system of traffic carried on with considerable subtlety on both sides, between them and the petty settlers, around which the latter habitually dispenses [sfc] intoxicating and deleterious liquor to them in excess, to the great injury to their health. To this cause it is that I attribute chiefly both their proneness to disease of late, and the excessive mort¬ ality that has marked the course of the maladies, which have been developed in these conditions, which naturally very susceptible, are now jaded and infeebled by irregular habits." Dr. Milligan concludes this important summary (CSO 24/284/6314) in these words "I am glad to report that there has been no death in the Establishment during this year, etc. etc." 6 The Final Phase of the Extinct Tasmanian Race This despatch of Dr. Milligan's submitted to the Governor on 8th May 1851, carried the short comment of His Excellency "I should have no objection to allow of such an excursion as suggested by Dr. Milligan , but this is hardly the season for this, thev might perhaps be made available in assisting the surveying parties." 1847-1852 Christmas at New Norfolk - His Excellency's Party Having read a reference to the interest of the Governor in the sutvivors of the Tasmanians, I consulted "Varieties of Vice-Regal Life", letters home from Sir William Denison to his mother, wherein was the information sought. At Christmas 1847, Sir William was in residence at the Vice-Regal Lodge at New Norfolk, His Excellency had noted that certain of the blacks had gone from the Reserve to Hobart Town to inspect the Queens Orphanage at New Town prior to sending their children there. It was decided that the blacks should be invited to a party at New Norfolk, together with local officials and personal friends from the district and Sir William arranged for two carriages to drive the natives from Hobart Town to New Norfolk, On December 20th the guests were assembled, evidently for an outdoor reception with side shows and games. Sir William continues, the party was assembled as they [the blacks] came in, "....fourteen of them, packed in two carriages, sitting on one another's knees, [or on the floor].... not caring how, in the intense delight and novelty of the visit. [sic They were greeted, and soon seated in the tent. We, including the children [the Denisons] walked up to them. 'Coached' before arrival].... they handled their knives and forks very cleverly, on the whole, and their appetites.... appeared almost boundless. [After demolishing ] immense quantities of beef and plum pudding, we gave them pipes and tobacco, for which both women and men have a great relish.... the children, who did not smoke, were [given] an abundance of fruit and lollypops. [All the while, visitors, invited and uninvited, came to see the blacks, who were quite quiet and orderly. Afterwards shawls and coloured worsted comfiters wef given to the men and bovs.]. [The names of the [natives] on this occasion were, Walter, Eugene, Normy [sic] and Neptune, the 3 boys, Billy, Adam and Moriarty.]. [■The ladies were] Marianne (the Chieftainess) .. . . an immense, stout, masculine-looking woman,.... old Sarah, Marianne's mother, Nancy, Martha,... and two girls, Hannah and Mathinna. [They spoke [sic with a correct] sort of broken English.[Dr. Milligan accompanied them to the party, which they left about 6 p.m.] in the same order they had come. We shook hands all round, and promised to pay them a visit....at Oyster Cove, and they drove off, having, I really [think ] thoroughly enjoyed themselves." There is yet another glimpse from the same source, later in the year, when Lady Denison visited the Queens Orphanage to see how their children were getting on. She went first to the girls side of the building. "[They came out]... grinning showing their ...teeth, and looking very pleased to see us again." me Final Phase of the Extinct Tasmanian Race 1 They first did a native dance to their own song. Lady Denison notes [^ach child has a different language] viz. ["total dialect"] which did not seem tfi have a single root in common with that of the[others]..., and the younger p#rt of [the] community I imagine understood little or nothing but English.... Tv'o of them...sang...[an] English... hymn "Awake my Soul"... learned [at] pj-inders, and.. .sang.it.. .well. " Lady Denison continues, "they are treated apparently with [much] indulgence - not bound down,... [but] follow their own devices to a greater extent than the other children, because of course it ifi only by gentle degrees one can expect to bring them into regular and c]-vilised habits." The day being a public holiday, all the boys, black and white, had been dPwn to the river to swim, the little girls would have followed them as they c#n all swim likes fishes"and when they heard the boys were going,....said ti^ey [wished] to go...and get some oysters." How very simple and easy it all seemed on a warm summers afternoon at the Ofphanage. One has no similar record of the long cold days of the winter rcPutine, kept indoors with epidemics prevalent and consequent ill health and wastage. In fact earlier in the century, gastro enteritis had been epidemic at the Queens Orphanage and caused an alarming mortality among the infants and p^Jorer children of the white settlers until Dr. Edward Swarbreck Hall w^s appointed to their care. This wonderful devout man gave his devoted and humanitarian services to "right affairs" at the school, with remarkable success. A century later Dr. J. Gumps ton. Commonwealth Director of Health, studying his efforts, described him as Australia's first "Sanitarian." James Bonwick, with his knowledge of the Institute, on learning that the native children were to go to the Queens Orphanage, commented "they were sent there to die." Nevertheless, we can be grateful that these poor dejected homeless natives had at least on the above occasions been extended humanity and kindness from Sir William and his Lady. The visitors book in later years only records one more Vice-regal visit to oyster Cove. While it was noted however in the same source with the comment "iio entry was made in the visitors book on that occasion by the Governor." THE OYSTER COVE RESERVE AND ITS INMATES The Reserve itself The Reserve was described as being of 1000 acres, actually it was rather more. The bay of Oyster Cove is about 20 miles from Hobart Town by water and a little more by macadamised road, the latter then in its last stage from the Snug river being unformed, hilly and tortuous. Only about 10 acres of the Reserve was cleared, the remainder being lightly timbered and with a dense low heathy scrub. It was bounded by the steep hills to the south, west and north, flat with foothills between the Bay and steeper ones. A delightful fresh water creek (later named after Mathinna who lost her life in it) bounded the Reserve on the north. It flowed through a deep gully running from the steep ranges to the West that were the watershed not only for it but,on the other slope, also of creeks that drained into the Huon River. The Reserve 8 The Final Phase of the Extinct Tasmanian Race was sheltered from wind, but in winter the morning fog and mists did not lift until late and the area was damp and humid. Actually my father added this area to his estate at Oyster Cove about 1900 and, as we spent out holidays (winter as well as summer) the whole vicinity became most familiar to me. For healthy people with definite occupations, it was an ideal choice. It will be seen that for the natives, ill starred, depressed, old and idle, with no young life around them, housed in the old badly preserved wooden buildings of the convict Probation Station, it was a most unfortunate selection. In 1850 the natives had suffered an irreparable loss in the death of their Catechist, Mr. Clarke (Father Clarke to them). He had been with them at Flinders Island as Catechist and storekeeper, spoke their dialects very well and was their confidant and friend. Thus, they lost the one person to whom they could turn for affection and guidance and who stood between them and the stern impersonal administration of the Colonial Secretary's Department. Although Walter George Arthur and Mary Ann his wife (a half caste) were one assiames both bilingual, they lacked the essential "know how" of the white race and could not in any considerable degree bridge the loss that Mr. Clarke's death had occasioned. His successor was Mr. John Dandridge. Also to enable a closer supervision of the Reserve and of the natives, official Visitors to the Reserve were appointed and were expected to note in an official visitors book, the date of their visit and their observations and remarks as to the administration and welfare of the natives. Visitors to the Reserve - Official and unofficial 1849 - 1869 . As already described,in the weeks between December 6th 1850 and March 1851 five of the natives on the Reserve died of various diseases. The news caused grave concern and each death, as it occurred, was reported by Dr. Joseph Milligan to the Chief Secretary for the information of the Governor. In these successive notifications. Dr. Milligan touches on the vital questions of the suitability of Oyster Cove in the way of climate for the health of the natives . The Governor in reply rejected the suggestion of their being attached to the parties surveying roads in the island. As the weeks passed no new nor drastic measures were taken toward improving their situation and a policy of laissez faire or drift continued. To improve the administration and present some greater degree of super¬ vision, the official visitors book was provided for the Reserve and certain responsible individuals were appointed to make periodical visits to the Establishment and enter in the book their impressions of the wants of the station, the health of the natives, possibly to supplement any report of Mr. Dandridge and, as well, to acquaint the Chief Secretary with affairs at the Reserve. This book.bears the title "Diary of the official visits to the Oyster Cove Aboriginal Reserve ," and its entries cover the dates between July 1855 to June 1869. No new regulations standing orders or other instructions were apparently given to Mr. Dandridge as Superintendent. The book opened on July 27th 1855 and contains the entries of visits by three visiting magistrates and two chaplains at irregular intervals. The Final Phase of the Extinct Tasmanian Race 9 The visiting magistrates were: 1. Sir John Atkinson formerly Superintendent of the convict probation station, (now the Oyster Cove aboriginal reserve) who called occasionally, made observations that were of little or no value, and did little else. 2. Mr. Henry Daldy of Franklin, a pharmaceutical chemist who prided himself on his medical knowledge and had a local reputation as such although without medical qualifications . 3. Mr. G. A. Walpole, Police Magistrate to the Huon, who resided at Franklin and seems to have gradually replaced Sir John Atkinson. His visits were regular, his observations accurate and common sense, and his occasional remarks on the aboriginals, helpful and valuable. He must have been of very great support to Mr. & Mrs. Dandridge. The two chaplains appointed were: 1. The Rev. Edward Freeman, M.A. of Kingston (St. Clements Parish). 2. The Rev. J. Norman, M.A. Surrogate at St. Marks, Sorell. Both were good earnest men of high character, but both failed utterly in their task . Neither had any knowledge of native dialects and as the natives were not fluent in English they became confused and bored with their teaching and instruction. Finally, on seeing the horse of the parson coming down the road above the station, the natives disappeared into the bush until the clergyman concerned left for his home. This failure of communication was a tragedy to the station. The two chaplains, naturally discouraged, ceased to visit the station and the natives later found diversion with the bad white men (of the splitter and sawyer type) living in the locality and obtained strong spirits from them. The women no doubt fared even worse than the men from such associations. So the natives became idle and without interest in their gardens ,their lives centering around the dingy interiors of the huts and their mongrel dogs. Apparently an official appointment had been made of a medical officer after an application from Mr. Dandridge seeking some permanent arrangement for medical attendance at the Reserve (CSO 1/71/1814). In this application, he stressed that Mr. G. Stokell on a previous visit had received as a fee the sum of £ 5 and that he (Dr. Stokell) on that occasion did not record his attendance in the visitors book, the purpose of his visit, nor any necessary treatment. In a second memo Mr. Dandridge reports the severe illness of the aboriginal woman "Harriet" from old age and rheumatism. He considers she should be examined by a medical man as "she may not last through the winter." Mr. Dandridge goes on to write that "the only medical man in the district is Dr. Smith of Kingston, who would require £5 for his fee, added to which the natives have such an insuperable objection to him that I fear his attendance would be productive of little good." He makes also the suggestion that "a Colonial Surgeon should visit the Reserve," once a month in the winter, and as required in the summer." We do not know what reply, if any, came from the Chief Secretary. Be that as it may, Dr. William Smith, M.R.C.S., of Kingston became in effect the medical advisor to the station. He was sent for by Mr. Dandridge as occasion demanded and he gradually assumed the sole medical care of the aborigines. Actually it is almost entirely from his notes in the book that it has been possible to compile this clinical narrative of their last years at the station. His recordings are formal, clear, precise, giving symptoms, diagnosis, medical treatment and the diets he recommended. 10 The Final Phase of the Extinct Tasmanian Race He was apparently a typical example of the medical practitioner of the Victorian era in the use of such diets as beef tea, mutton broth and linseed tea, also using as stimulants, beer, port wine and brandy to strengthen their effect. On occasions he used with each of these a fresh egg beaten up. He also had complete trust in calomel, senna and salts, with very liberal use of the former. Better than this description, are reproductions of examples of his entries from the visitors book, which illustrate his method Plate 1. Precise and pedantic in approach, he could be a stoic, as was shown in the manner he met his end, after a fall from his horse when on professional work (appendix li) . There were certain official visitors who came to the Reserve also in ^1849. Sir William Denison and his Lady were received with a warm welcome when, as stated above, one the native women demonstrated tree climbing on a big gum tree up to 100 feet to take a parrot's nest. With the primitive gear she used. Lady Denison was "glad to avert her eyes, feeling she would fall." January 1849 Sir william Denison records his pleasure, on a visit with the Captain of H.M.S. "Curacoa", at the success of the venture of returning the natives from Flinders Island to Oyster Cove, there being of course no mention of the tragic decline in number of the race, only 2 years after their return. 24 March 1858 On this date Dr. R. F. Nixon, Anglican Bishop of Tasmania, came to the Reserve. A noted watercolour artist he did not sketch on this occasion, preferring to bring his camera. Many years after Mr. J. W. Beattie a professional photographer and historian of the Colony, acquired the "steroscope negatives of Dr. Nixon "producing a notable series of groups of both sexes with glimpses of their huts and inseparable dogs. A very valuable record, second only to Mr. Woolley's formal series of photographs prepared for the Victorian International Exhibition. Two of the series are reproduced in this paper. 31 May 1859 James Bonwick, the noted historian of the Race and their fortunes in the years before their extinction, came to the Reserve in the late autumn of 1859. He had visited the natives at Flinders Island and was extremely well informed in regard to them having written authoritative works on their recent history and habits. From his description (Bonwick, 1870) we gain a glimpse of the personalities among the few survivors of the race. He recognised old "Sophia" then apparently about 60 years of age. She was of the Bruni Island tribe and had born two children. Others were; "Wapperty" of the St. Patricks Head tribe. Her native name denoted "Thunder and Lightening." A negative type. "Flora" His only comment on this lady is on the exceptional width of her mouth. "Patty" or "Coonea" (Ring tailed Opossum) 50-59 years of age. At her death in 1869 at the Hobart General Hospital, her age was estimated at 70 years. She was of the Kangaroo Point tribe and married to Albert. "Caroline" (Queen Caroline) of the Big River (Ouse) tribe. Her native name denoted a Wombat. "Bessy Clark" Under 40, her native name 'Kangaroo Head'. Captured as an infant at Macquarie Harbour by G. A. Robinson. Married to Augustus the Magnificent. Bonwick rates her character and intelligence at a very high level. The Final Phase of the Extinct Tasmanian Race 11 He does not describe any of the males, William Lanney, Augustus, Walter George Arthur or Jackie Allen. We are aware from Mr. Walpole's recordings that all four went on occasional whaling voyages and they v;ere probably out of the Reserve on these formal occasions. Bonwick was unhappy after thi visit and very fearful as to the future of these last representatives of their race. 1859 J. E. Calder another local historian of high repute as Surveyor General, writer and bushman, devotes a chapter in his work (Calder, 1875) to his visit. He did not of course sign the official visitors book. In his book he stressed the need of careful supervision to avert the evils that were fast threatening their eventual extinction. Bonwick similarly drew attention to the lack of religious instruction "if only to prepare them for eternity" and, at the time of his visit, the necessity to prevent their acquisition of strong spirits. Of all the visitors only one type (unofficial) had any permanent effect on the future of the race, namely, the "bad whites" living in the locality, who traded strong spirits with the natives. At least four of the dwindling band owed their end directly to alcohol provided by such people. Perhaps if Mr. Dandridge had been made a Justice of the Peace he could have dealt with that problem with one policeman stationed at the Reserve. The recurrent "Crises" of acute illness at the Reserve and associated factors In considering the final series of deaths at the Reserve, it is of importance to refer again to a sudden series of five deaths there between December 5th, 1850 and March 21st, 1851 already described . There were, of course, a number of other deaths following the return to Van Diemens Land in 1847 but they excited no comment in the press nor officially. The five natives just mentioned were all at the Reserve' and ordinarily Dr. Milligan, the Superintendent, would have been their medical attendant. In Dr. Milligan's absence on a geological excursion, they were attended by Dr. Rae of Kingston. The eldest, Catherine, had been in Dr. Milligan's words "Living in a very infirm state and bedridden, long declining, and her death to be expected." He concludes his brief memo and must soon have, regretted his optimistic report. "I have expected the death of this woman for some time and it is satisfactory to report the rest of the Establishment is in a state of perfect health ." The eWnts of the next few weeks will show he did not have a correct appreciation of the state of health of his "charges". Actually Martha, daughter of Catherine, had been released from the orphan school 2nd February 1851, to help nurse her mother. She became ill and died coi February 3rd. In reporting her death. Dr. Milligan noted "her health had been seriously deranged for many months, and her strength and constitution much impaired from constitutional causes." About 3 or 4 weeks ago her life became seriously endangered bv an attack of "low fever" after which she weakened so very feeble as to afford but little prospect of recovery." This continued fever and marked debility suggest possibly Pulmonary T.B. Two weeks later Dr. Milligan had again to report a fatality when Wilhelmena alias "Wild Mary" died after an illness of 3 days from inflamation of the bowels. 15.2.51. 12 The Final Phase of the Extinct Tasmanian Race Here one must consider gastro enteritis or food poisoning as a cause of death. Next month "Edmund"died at the reserve when Dr. Milligan reported the cause as disease of the heart, "after an illness by no means alarming, as far as symptoms indicate, of one days duration." He adds "for the last 12 months his health has been in an uncertain and declining state;" again T.B. must be considered as a contributing factor. 27 March, 1851 Neptune died after an illness of little more than 3 months wRich commenced with a violent pleurisy which "left a disability so great as to render unavailing any effort to invigorate his system, "and he died on Friday last the 21st." So we may say in four of the five cases, death was preceded by chronic ill-health and a decline and complicated in one instance by acute pleurisy and subsequent decline. The possibility of acute or chronic pulmonary tuberculosis cannot be excluded in four of these five victims. In the official statistics for December 31st 1854 Dr. Milligan reports the number of natives at Oyster Cove as 16 in all; 3 men, 11 women and 2 boys. So it is clear that of the 45 souls, transferred from Flinders Island to Oyster Cove in December 1847, 28 had died from various causes. Apart from the names of the five just given, official evidence of death and its causes is not available. Inquiry at the Registrar's office did not help, as there was no official nominal roll of the names of the natives transferred from Flinders Island and without this information the numerous entries in the long series of registrations of death in the island do not disclose the actual names and causes of the deaths. The recent discovery of the official visitors book thus provides almost the only source of the details and causes of the deaths at the Reserve. It opens only on 27th July, 1855 and closes on the 24th June, 1865. It opens with a record of the visit of Sir John Atkinson S.M. on 27 July, 1855 and we may assiune at that date 16 natives were in residence. They get scant mention in any of the remarks of official visitors until sickness necessitated the attendance of a medical officer. The first visit of Dr. William Smith M.R.C.S. took place on 23rd September, 1858 and it would seem that, since the mortality of early 1851, there had been no call for the services of a medical man, at least there is no entry of any visit from Julv 1855 until 23 September, 1858. There is evidence that in the "fifties and sixties" of last century epidemics of influenza recurred in the Colony and also it was believed that such illnesses were introduced to the Reserve by the visits of local tradesmen or less respectable associations with the "bad whites" in the vicinity, so the infection might well have invaded the station at Oyster Cove 23rd September 1858 , we find for the first time the handwriting of Dr. William Smith in the book recording his visit on that date, although the official file contains no mention of his appointment as medical visitor to the Reserve. Dr. Smith records "that following a note from the Superintendent, he visited the Reserve and found "Sarah, Sophia, Caroline, Wapperty and Mary Ann" suffering from disease and disability, apparently the effect of the "local cold wind." He diagnosed their condition as influenza and put them on what was to become his familiar routine, namely, beef tea, beer, wine, tea, arrowroot and eggs the latter to be taken fresh and broken into the above liquors. He does not mention any mixture or medication to be given. Sophia had swollen glands and Wapperty had fallen and grazed her knees, Mary Ann was just showing symptoms of influenza. Dr. Smith made a vist every second day with one exception till they were over the acute stage of the attack, and in a week ceased his visits. The Final Phase of the Extinct Tasmanian Race 13 leaving them to Mr. Dandridge. Sarah who had had pains in the chest and marked disability and inability even to take her food, had died on 3rd October 1858. The influenza in this case may well have been terminal to pre-existing pulmonary changes. 18th - 20th August 1859 , Dr. Smith was called to Mary Ann, who had pains in her abdomen. Mary Ann was a massive middle-aged half caste, 18 stone in weight, and appears to have been a complete hypochondriac who could be relied upon to waylay Dr. Smith whenever he visited the natives, however hard pressed he may have been with the care of the natives who were really in need of his services, she survived them all (except Trucanini) and moved to Hobart Town with the Dandridges when the station was discontinued. 24th November, 1859 , during Mr. Walpole's routine inspection, he was informed of Bessy Clark as having sciatica and Mary Ann as labouring under an attack of jaundice. 19th June 1860 Mr. Walpole notes "The aborigines are all in a healthy statea portion of them having just returned from an excursion in the bush. Those out on a whaling expedition some time since have not returned." On July 8th he noted Jackie Allen and Billy were back from whaling. 1 2th July I860 Four days later influenza had entered the Establishment and Dr. Smith reports Mary Ann and Jackie Allen as ill with influenza and that Caroline had died a few days previously. She had been suffering for several months from general debility "aggravated by a hacking cough {? Pul.T.B.) that appears to have resulted from gradual exhaustion of the vital powers." The Superintendent and his family were all down with the epidemic as well as the domestics. 14th July I860 On his visit two days later Dr. Smith reported Mary Ann and Wappeirty as sufferers and added "but in all probability the epidemic will run its course through the remainder," which was what actually occurred. 27th August 1860 Sophia, Tippoo, Patty and Emma were sick and in a "depressed" state and their physical powers unusually low. He recommended stimulants such as beer in addition to beef tea, mutton broth and linseed tea, as often as they could be induced to take it. 30th August 1860 Dr. Smith at the Reserve to find Augustus had died previous afternoon. Sophia not so well and Tippoo with a fresh cold and bronchitis. The others, Patty and Emma much about the same. 31st August Sophia and Mary Ann the principal sufferers. Tippoo up this morning in the sunshine, in no pain but much debilitated. Mary Ann in pain and complaining of many disabilities. 3rd September Dr. Smith at the Reserve to find that Tippoo had had a., relapse yesterday and died about sundown. Sophia, Mary Ann, Emma and Patty are improving but complain of coughs etc. There were no more visits by Dr. Smith for the next four months but Mr. Walpole visited regularly. 13th January 1861 Mr. Walpole reported Walter back from a whaling voyage and looKing much worse than before he left the station. Eleven days later, when at the Reserve, he records the natives as in good health except for Betsy who has a fractured arm. 14 The Final Phase of the Extinct Tasmanian Race 1862 was chiefly notable for the fact that the Reserve was free from a severe epidemic attack, Emma and Mary Ann being the principal cause for medical visits. The former probably had advanced pulmonary disease and was approachin the end of her life. Mary Ann seems to always have had some cause for complaint. The general health of the natives for this year was far from cood and it was just good fortune that no mortality was experienced during the winter. 19th April 1862 Dr. Smith was required at the Reserve where Mr. Trappes was acting for Mr. Dandridge in his absence. He arrived at midnight. Emma had been ill earlier in the week but "improved and apparently recovered" only to become ill again during this day. She was found to have a cough, difficulty in breathing and pain in the side of her chest. She was also in very low spirits and sinking. Brandy was prescribed by Dr. Smith in frequent doses. ^When seen the next day she appeared considerably better, having passed a "tolerable night" and was more cheerful. This improvement Dr. Smith implies was due, in part at least, to Mary Ann being excluded from the room. He adds "the dogs also are to be excluded from her apartment as the effluvium from so many animals is anything but desirable in a sick chamber." He prescribed mutton broth for her. By 21st April Emma was much better and brandy was substituted for porter as her stimulant. Dr. Smith also asked for a nurse to be supplied as the native women were not to be relied upon. On May 25th Mr. Walpole found Emma "in perfect health" but the buildings of the Reserve were "so dilapidated as to be uncomfortable", surely a remarkable understatement. 22nd June 1862 By this date Mr. Walpole made his routine visit to find all the.natives at home and in good spirits. Again on 23rd July he found the natives in the same state. On 18th August he once more found all the natives at home including Emma. "The builder is now progressing with repairs and expects to finish in a week." 25th August Dr. Smith called as Mary Ann was ill with obstructive constipation and other symptoms. He prescribed two most drastic prescriptions, Croton oil and a colocynth pill to be repeated in 4 hours if required. August 1863 Dr. Smith sent for as Emma, who had received a severe beating (no mention of the name of the aggressor) also had a severe cold and cough for which a mustard plaster was advised and cod liver oil three times daily. Wapperty also was sick. 3rd August Emma was improving though debilitated. She was to have a pint of beer daily. Wapperty was convalescent. On 25th August Mary Ann had pains in abdomen and obstructive constipation, so Dr. Smith was called to see her. On 3rd October Mr. Walpole visited the Reserve and records "The aborigines have taken the first advantage of fine weather to go kangaroo hunting, 3 only at home,none complaining of sickness." 9th November 1863 Dr. Smith was required for "Jackie Allen" and prescribed a bronchitis mixture, two days later he records his patient as greatly improved. That is the last record in 1863 of Dr. Smith visiting the Reserve. Summer was now over. The Final Phase of the Extinct Tasmanian Race 15 14th July 1864 Evidently another epidemic of influenza was prevailing, and on this day Dr. Smith examined Wapperty and Jackie Allen, the former with pain in her right side and difficult breathing. Three days later at the station he saw also Wapperty and Mary Ann, Wapperty, after being regarded seriously for several days, greatly improved within a week. Jackie Allen is not mentioned. The last official figures for the natives as on December 31st 1863 were 1 male, 5 females total 6. The passing of Emma had not been noted officially. 10th February 1864 This year opens badly at the station for, on February 10th, or. Smith found Jackie Allen very ill on examination, with a violent attack of asthma with delirium and of long standing disease. Jackie Allen was visited five times by the Superintendent during the night and then by Dr. Smith, "but he expired this morning." One may imagine the sadness and consternation at the station. This comparatively young man, home from the sea, to be taken. A small procession followed behind his remains along the track through the scrub to the "dip" in the side of the hill between Oyster Cove and Kettering, where the little burial ground was situated. Now only one male, Billy Lanney, remained and he too was sick in his hut on the reserve below them. V-Jalter George Arthur was soon to meet his death in drowning and his body was not seen again. When, in 1869, Billy Lanney died, it was at Hobart Town, not in the reserve and only the old women were left to lament. Dr. Smith, writing of his death states "Jackie vms perfectly collected and sensible just prior to his death" adding that the disease was evidently of long standing "as I have on innumerable occasions been requested to prescribe for that complaint (? was the "recurrent asthma" in reality chronic Pulmonary Tuberculosis). 2nd July 1864 Billy was ill at the station and Dr. Smith diagnosed his condition as influenza for which he was given an expectorant mixture and Croton oil linament. Later on this date. Dr. Smith was sent for during the night to see Mary Ann and Billy, who were suffering from influenza. Again the expectorant mixture and Croton oil treatment were brought into use. Dr. Smith adds "I saw all the aborigines, the rest appear to be fully well." Two days later visiting the station. Dr. Smith describes Billy as gradually improving and walking about the grounds, he has a copious eruption on the chest (from the Croton linament) his cough is much better. Mary Ann is going for a short walk and greatly improved. 4th July 1864 Mr. Walpole on his visit reports "all the aborigines are now in a healthy state and are away from home at this time." He notes also the improvement of the station as the building materials gradually are utilised. 14th November 1864 One aboriginal male and one woman are on a bush excursion and all were reported in health by Mr. Walpole on his inspection. 31st December 1864 The official statement for this date is 1 male and 5 females at the Reserve, the cost for the year being.5 522. 22nd July 1865 Influenza again was invading the Reserve and Dr. Smith on this date examined Sally, who had heart disease, also Patty with chest infection and Mary Ann complaining of pain in her back. By the end of July all were better but Mary Ann still complained and still had to be seen for some five weeks after "with pains everywhere" and constipation (10th September, 1865). Mr. Daldy on a visit on 25th September found them all in good health. He interviewed Mary Ann in regard to a man in the locality, Adam Booker, who wished to marry her and joins with the Superintendent in recommending that the marriage be allowed to take place. 16 •H m CP • C (Tt •H VD 00 M - O JZ u ^Q) C c : fO t-^ -C +j g ro 05 rH •H ^ TJ r-H 0) •H ‘H S Q O O oi ^ VO 05 05 ^ - = >1 03 -s 05 c s: •H -P C CO 03 D^T5 O 0) P 'H H Q Both from a series of Photographs made from life by Charles Woolley a Hobart Town photographer in 1866 for the Royal Society of Tasmania. 17 A page from the Oyster Cove Visitor's Book - July 21st to August 27th, 1860. The handwriting is that of William Smith. 18 19 Two photos of Tasmanian Aboriginals taken in front of their huts by Bishop Nixon in March 1858 and processed from the original plates of the Bishop by Mr. J. W. Beattie. 20 A sketch of Tasmanian Aboriginals done bv Annie Benbow at Oyster Cove (from memory) in coloured chalks. circ. 1900. The Final Phase of the Extinct Tasmanian Race 21 The year 1865 terminated without more medical visits. An official return of the aborigines at the station 31st December 1865 shows 4 women only. William Lanney was away whaling. The cost of the Establishment for the year was £464. 2nd April 1866 Dr. Smith is sent for, to see Patty "ill 3 to 4 days with cough, strtch in the side and difficulty in breathing." She appears to have been given an expectorant mixture with Tarter Emetic and mustard plaster applied and Croton oil to be rubbed in on the left side of the chest. No eruption found, the bowels quite regular and her appetite at present very good. Dr. Smith prescribed a medium size blister below the breast and to continue the other treatment and strong soups with plenty of onions. "The rest are fairly well." 5th June 1866 Patty was seen again on the 5th and 6th, 11th and 14th. By this time she had very much improved but Mary Ann had boils and Sally complained of a cough. It must be noted here that frequent visits were now being made by Mr. Daldy and Mr. Walpole was no longer coming to the. station. All through the summer Mr. Daldy was available and Mr. Walpole now Police Magistrate at Franklin apparently had handed over his duties to him. The winter and autumn of the year seem to have passed without need for medical visits although Mr. Daldy may have afforded some unqualified advice and treatment. The year closed without serious trouble. 31st December 1866 Official return gives 1 male and 5 females costing £497.6.0. 1867 This year opens on 12th February when Dr. Smith arrived at the station Tlate last night Feb.11) to find Bessy had died. She had been suffering for some days from dysentary (not alarmingly) till a change for the worse came and she unexpectedly died that afternoon. Mary Ann, of course, had to be seen and was prescribed half a glass of brandy twice daily. 24th June 1866 Mr. Daldy visited the station, he noted "The Superintendent in Hobart Town having taken two of the women to hospital (Patty and Lallah Rookh). Wapperty is suffering severely from Diarrhoea and requires hospital treatment. I recommend her being sent up to hospital by the 'Cobra' [a small paddle steamer trading between D'Entrecasteaux Channel and Hobart]. 29th July 1866 Mr. Daldy visited and inspected the station. The Superintendent reported the death of Patty in hospital. Lallah Rookh recovered and Wapperty was better. 8th August Dr. Smith was sent for and found Wapperty suffering from Catarrh and debility, the respiration difficult and the pulse feeble, tongue rough and dry. "She is to have rum and egg every 3 hours with salts occasionally. She cannot be induced to take the beef tea or mutton broth but will eat a mutton chop occasionally." Returning in the evening he found her pulse somewhat stronger and tongue moister. "Continue with diet and mustard plaster and have a blister on the L. side, also Calomel at bed time." Lallah Rookh just commencing symptoms of catarrh. Croton oil rub, and a blister were ordered with a mixture to be taken 4 hourly. Wapperty to have port wine, rather than spirits and new milk and eggs. Mary Ann who has pains in her chest was given warm beer and ginger with Aloetic pills at "certain stated periods." 22 The Final Phase of the Extinct Tasmanian Race August 12th Mr. Daldy also visited station, Wapperty died during his visit. Lallah Rookh complained very much of her throat. 1 9th August Dr. Smith called and found Lallah Rookh very low spirited, "to continue beer and eggs and have a glass of spirits occasionally." This was his last visit in 1867. Subsequently Mr. Daldy called regularly each month with brief written reports on each occasion. This year closed without any further deaths at the Reserve. On 31st December 1867 the official muster was 1 male and 2 females. 3 females died during the year; Bessy, Patty and Wapperty. 1868 Monthly visits by Mr. Daldy until: 22nd July when Dr. Smith was called to see Lallah Rookh suffering from an infection of the chest and cold from imprudent exposure and suffering also from an attack of Salivation. Visited regularly till the end of the month when she was somewhat better. This is the last recorded visit by Dr. Smith but Mr. Daldy carries on valiantly until the end. 13th March 1869 Mr. Daldy makes his last visit when Mr. Dandridge reported the death of William Lanney (the last male) at Hobart Town. Early in 1869 the Administration was faced with the fact that the Reserve now contained only 1 native woman (Lallah Rookh) or Trucanini and the half caste Mary Ann Booker and the decision was made to close it on 31st December 1869. The last entry in the official visiting book from Mr. Daldy on 3rd August 1869 recorded "everything going on as usual." He also noted that V/illiam Lanney had died at Hobart Town on 13th March 1869. His death took place at the "Dog and Patridge Hotel" where he stayed on the first night home from a whaling voyage. The cause of his death was not known. Possibly alcohol played a major part, as his ship the "Runnymede" had only paid him off the day before. Actually, although the Colonial Secretary had made the decision to close the Reserve on 31st December 1869, the position was uncheinged so that "Lallah" might be able to use the bush for exercise and to collect shells. Their life went on as usual at the Reserve until, in July 1873, r-lr. & Mrs. Dandridge moved up to Hobart Town, taking both Lallah and Mary Ann with them. Mr. Dandridge had been retired and Mrs. Dandridge was allowed £ 50 a year for the care and lodging of Lallah and £ 30 a year for Mary Ann. Mr, Dandridge did not have a long retirement, dying in 1874 and Mrs. Dandridge took over the care of the two native women. In September 1875, the Press reported "Lallah Rookh" as critically ill and under the care of Drs. Butler and MacFarlane. The Colonial Secretary authorised Mrs. Dandridge to employ a nurse and Lallah gradually regained her ordinary state of chronic ill health. During her residence in town she became a popular figure, children and their parents visiting her and stopping to chat with her when she took her daily walks in the sun. She was not to see another winter. Early in May of 1876 she became ill with a stroke and was attended by the above named doctors but in a day or two her life came to an end. Mary Ann had preceded her with a similar illness. With the death of "Lallah" on 8th May 1876, the Colonial Secretary acted at once to avoid the possibility of the mutilation of her remains, as had happened to William Lanney. The Final Phase of the Extinct Tasmanian Race 23 Mr. J. E. Calder, on learning of her death, at once made a request that the Government erect a permanent Memorial to commemorate the Race now extinct. No action followed this request. The committee of the Royal Society of Tasmania made a formal application that the remains be put at their disposal for scientific purposes. On 15th July the Colonial Secretary minuted "that the remains of Trucanini were not to be removed from, or in any way disturbed from the place where they are at present, without an order from "the Governor in Council". Dr. J. W. Agnew, the secretary of the Society, was a widely respected and most influential member of the community who knew how to hasten slowly. Late in 1878, at the direction of the Council of the Society, he made another approach to the Colonial Secretary with a request for her skeleton. On 4th December 1878 the application went before the Executive Council, which approved that Trucanini's remains go to the Society, with the proviso that they were not to be exposed to public view (CSD 10/31.488). The skeleton, carefully prepared and articulated, probably was for the best part of half a century on view as the principal object among the articles relating to the Tasmanian aboriginals in the Tasmanian Museum. Some twenty years ago Archdeacon Atkinson drew attention to this fact and, with the Premier, the Hon. Robert Cosgrove and the Bishop of Tasmania, discussed the matter with the Trustees. Her remains were then withdrawn and may now only be examined by bona fide scientists but not by the general public. The sequence of deaths at the Reserve may best be studied by a Nominal Roll and short classification of the nature of the diseases responsible. They are as follows: In compiling a Nominal Roll of the deaths of the aborigines, only 17 names with the dates and causes of death have been given. The remaining 28 of this total of 45 who transferred to Oyster Cove from Flinders Island in December, 1847 have not been traced. Inquiry at the office of the Registrar General was unsuccessful because the names of the aboriginals could not be given. From the files of the Chief Secretary's Department only the names of 5 who died at the Reserve between December 1850 and March 31st 1851 were found and no others were available. The rem.ainder were taken from the official visitors book until the close of the Reserve in 1869. Details of the demise of William Lanney and Trucanini were drawn from the contemporary press. Apparently no full nominal roll of the names of the aborigines came with them from Flinders Island. A nominal roll of the Oyster Cove. DATE NAJ4E 1. 3.12.1850 "Catherine recorded deaths after the DIAGNOSIS Influenza + removal to the Reserve at COWIENT Long history of chronic ill health "Aged and in a long declining state" (Joseph Milligan) 2. 2.2.1851 "Martha" Pleurisy + Health seriously deranged for many months (In last 3-4 weeks seriously endange ed by an attack of fever. J.M. 3. 15.2.1851 "Wilhelmena" or "Wild Mary" Inflamation of Acutely ill for 3 days the bowels (J.M.) 24 The Final Phase of the Extinot Tasmanian Baae DATE NAME DIAGNOSIS COMMENT 4. 26,3.1851 "Edmund" Disease of the heart 5. 21,3.1851 6. 10.10.1858 7. 12.7.1860 "Neptune" "Sarah" "Caroline" Violent Pleurisy 3 weeks + Influenza Influenza + 8. 28.8.1860 9. 3.9.1860 10. 1861 11. May 1861 12. June 1861 "Augustus" Influenza "Tippoo" Influenza "Sophia" Exhaustion "Walter G. Arthur" Male (no name given) (C.S.O, 24/284/6314 31 July 1861) 1862 13. 8.5.1863 "Emma" Chronic Bronchitis debility 14. 10.2.1864 "Jackie Allen" Violent attack of asthma 24 hours duration, not alarming symptoms, in usual health 1 week before when seen by Dr. J.Milligan. Dr. Milligan says onset of violent pleurisy followed by constitutional disturbances. Ill for 10 days, influenza and enlarged glands of the neck, very aged (Dr.J.M) Influenza, she had been suffering for several months from general debility,hacking cough and gradual exhaustion (J.M.) Great prostration ? terminal Influenza (Dr.S.) Relapse of influenza and general debility (Dr. S.) Generalised accumulation of mucous in the lung ? terminal. Drowned from boat in D'Entrecasteaux Channel (? alcohol) Died of peritonitis after being bedridden for a long period from hip front disease following the reduction of a luxation. A mild outbreak of influenza at the Reserve, no fatalities Ill 2-3 days? died from exhaustion Pul. T.B. Another visitation of mild influenza at the station, 4 ill but no fatalities. Dr. Smith's account of the symptoms suggest a generalised confluent broncho pneumonia (possibly influenza). 1865 Influenza again in July- September several natives affected no deaths. The Final Phase of the Extinct Tasmanian Race 25 DATE NAME DIAGNOSIS COMMENT 1866 15. 12.8.1867 "Wapperty" Dysentary diarrhoea 16. 12.7.1867 "Bessie" Dysentary 17. 29.7.1867 "Patty" Diarrhoea 17.8.1867 18. 13.3.1869 "William Lanney" 19. 8.5.1876 "Lallah Rookh" (Trucanini) 20. c. 1855 "Mathinna" Another light epidemic of influen-za, no mortality. Symptoms July l.Ill at the Reserve without constitut¬ ional fever, died at the Reserve. An acute attack of some days duration. Removed from the Reserve to the Colonial Hospital at Hobart Town and died 2 days later. Dr. W. Smith made his last recorded visit to the Reserve to see Lallah Rookh then convalescent from diarrhoea, but troubled with a cough. Died at the "Dog and Partridge" hotel at Hobart this day, after laying off from a whaling voyage. Cause not stated (? alcohol factor). At Hobart Town at the residence of Mrs. Dandridge in Macquarie St. Drs. Henry Butler & MacFarlane in attendance. Age and Debility (after a stroke). With the death of Trucanini the Tasmanian Race was then regarded as extinct. The claims of the other old natives at Cape Barren Is. and Kangaroo Is. to that distinction were never really substantiated. Found drowned in the creek at the Reserve. Had been much in the company of splitters & sawyers. (Drowning + ? alcoholic factor). Comment on the Nominal Roll of deaths at the Reserve It is clear on the study of the records in the visitors book, that the great majority of the deaths at the Reserve were in the winter months and also were closely associated with the recurring attacks of influenza. 26 The Final Phase of the Extinct Tasmanian Race Again it is on record that, of the forty-six individual natives landed at the Reserve in December 1847, by July 1855 there remained only sixteen alive. Against this, we do know the cause of the deaths of the five who died between December 1850 and March 1851 and which head the nominal roll; of the unaccounted 25 who died between 1847 and 1855 no record remains. On inquiry at the office of the Registrar General, the reply v/as that their deaths would be on the Register, but unless the names of individuals were given, he could not supply the information required. This should have been easy to do but the records of the transfer of the Establishment from Flinders Island to Oyster Cove, give only the number and no names of the natives and no nominal roll exists of those who returned to Van Diemens Land. So very reluctantly one must confine this inquiry to the group at Oyster Cove from July 1855 and include the 5 natives who died as stated between October 1850 and March 1855. This leaves 18 deaths to be analysed. Acute cause of death, amounted to 5 in all, namely 1 (Cardiac) and 4 of inflamation of the bowels, diarrhoea and dysentary and one peritonitis. A number of natives died during the recurrent outbreaks of influenza, but Dr. Smith gives the cause of death from that disease as 5. The balance may be grouped as dying from debility, extreme exhaustion and chronic bronchitis. No mention is made of Pulmonary Tuberculosis or Syphilis, but the former disease no doubt was present in certain of the chronic cases who had respiratory infection. Alcohol accounted for the death of "Mathinna" who was drowned in the little creek at the Reserve, also W. G. Arthur who was drowned returning to the Reserve by sailing boat from Hobart Town. Bonwick states that Jackie Allen was drowned on the same occasion but the visitors book records his death as from asthma. A more likely diagnosis would be Tuberculosis of the lungs. It is probable that influenza was only the terminal factor in certain of these debilitated and exhausted individuals. Regarding the diet at the Reserve, it has to be remembered that the natives were provided with a set ration weekly of meat, flour, sugar, tea and salt. Judging by entries of the visiting Magistrates the meat certainly was very often of poor quality, not fresh, with a large proportion of bone. The vegetable gardens at the Reserve mentioned by "Father Clarke" appear to have been forgotten with his death. There is no mention of potatoes, greens and fruit being provided and there were little or no native roots nor fruits and no mention of taking native honey. It must be remembered also that, in their natural state, the natives only partially cooked the bodies of the game they had killed. It was customary for them to place the body on the fire or on the coals to singe off all the hair and then eviscerate it, and eat the warm and juicy meat. From this source must have come their essential vitamins, with occasional sea-food of Crustacea and shellfish both rich in vitamin content. It is noteworthy that, at the Reserve, they always came back from their bush excursions with renewed health and vigour. In view of these facts it may be assumed the condition of "Avitaminosis" must have contributed largely to the mortality at the Reserve. The Final Phase of the Extinct Tasmanian Race 27 When Charles Darwin visited Van Diemens Land in the summer of 1836 on H.M.S."Beagle" the natives were already deported to Flinders Island. He quotes Count Strzlecki (1845) - "At the epoch of their deportation to Flinders Island in 1835 they mustered only 54 individuals while each (native) family in N.S.W. not contaminated by the whites swarmed with children, those on Flinders Island had, during eight years, an accession of only 14." The author (Strzlecki) goes on to make this plea on their behalf: "Leave us to our habits and customs, do not embitter us by constraining us to obey yours, or reproach us with apathy to that civilisation that is not destined for us; and if you can still be generous to the conquered, relieve the hunger that drives our despair to slaughter your flocks and the men that guard them. Our fields and forests that provided us with abundance of vegetables and animal food, now yield no more, and we are famished." Such a plea had really a world wide application, with western civilisations colonising any areas that could be found, and not already annexe'^ by a rival power. It was of no real or practical help to the Tasmanians, indeed the Count probably had already made his own appeal in person to the then Governor, Sir John Franklin, with whom he was on very friendly footing. this plea had been widely disseminated throughout the English community and those of the neighbouring colonies, some action might have been taken, but no appreciable effects seem to have followed its publication. Alan Moorehead in his "Fatal Impact" (1966) has narrated the sad story of the impact of the "Noble Savage" and"Western civilisation" in the Pacific. If the physically superior and more highly cultivated Polvnesian were unable to bridge the gap between the cultures, what hope would the Tasmanians have of doing so? It appears to have been only the question of how long could the small remnant survive: "aftermath"-oyster cove 1351 - 1870 - 1900 - 1907 My own personal memories of Oyster Cove open in the late "nineties" of last century, at our old weatherboard cottage, where we were accustomed to spend our school holidays. Daily, in the early mornings, my companion (usually Alan Butler) and I were accustomed to take the track to the station some half a mile away and bring back the milk required' for the families use. This was purchased from a Mr. Palmer who then lived with his family in what had been the residence of the Superintendent of the Convict Probation Station. About 1900 my father acquired the Station Reserve and it is still in the possession of the family. When at Oyster Cove, it is a pleasant walk along the old track made and used by the natives. The buildings then were broken down and in ruins, nowadays all that may be seen is a flat area around which the buildings of the Reserve, including the huts and.Superintendent's quarters formerly stood. 28 The Final Phase of the Extinct Tasmanian Race Now I must mention a personal matter that gives me much concern. In the spring of 1907 or 1908, as a medical student, I was in the Anatomy class of Professor R. T. A. Berry, a renowned Anatomist from Edinburgh with strong leanings towards the comparative Anatomy of the Australian natives. To assist his research and to obtain additional skeletal material, he made an appeal to his country students to bring him any skulls or other aboriginal bones that may have been found on the estates of their father's or friends. The response was good. Much material came in to the Anatomy museum of the University. Toward the end of the year he sent for me as a Tasmanian to inquire about such material in this state. I was able to tell him of the crania in the Tasmanian Museum available for examination and, as well, the material at "Kelvedon" held by Tilney Cotton, Esq., which early last century had been collected at his ancestors homestead bv the local Colonial surgeon. Dr. G.F.Storev. As well, I told him of the possibility of exhuming bodies at Oyster Cove. The professor had obtained for my Medical school a Dioptograph by which the actual measurements of crania and certain of the other bones might be traced in several "norraae'^ and he proposed to send this to Hobart during the long vacation. In early January of 1909, Dr. Robertson, Senior Demonstrator of Anatomy, arrived and commenced operations with the Dioptograph on the crania at the Tasmanian Museum. That done, I had obtained the consent of Mr. Tilney Cotton for him to go to "Kelvedon" where he was made an honoured guest. Meanwhile, my lifelong friend Wendell Inglis Clark, with whom I shared a room at Ormond College during our medical course, came to Oyster Cove with me to make our preparations there. In due course Dr. Robertson arrived and we settled in around a good fire. That evening Mr. Charles Benbow, a local farmer who had been born in the Cove within a few hundred yards of the station, called in to offer his help. Indeed, as it turned out, his help was vital. He was strong and energetic and a hard worker. Next morning Charles arrived and off we went up the old native track towards the summit of the hills that separated Oyster Cove from Little Oyster Cove (now termed Kettering). About half way up, in a shallow dip, he located the cemetery, which had no enclosure or distinguishing marks, or headstones. It had become covered in bracken wire ferns and had reverted to its natural state. We started to dig in several directions. It was a bland summer day and the soil, a black sand, was firm but easy to the spades. About midday we found the first body at a depth of about 4 feet. After that it was not so difficult to locate others. Each had been buried in a hardwood coffin of split gum still, after 60 years, firm, although moist and friable. The bodies were all infiltrated with tendrils of what may have been fern roots, about 3 times the diameter of coarse horsehair, which had replaced the viscera and soft tissue, but had not damaged the crania very much, and very little affected the long bones. We exhumed I should say about 12 bodies and the parts usable for tracing we brought to Hobart and thence to Melbourne for the full examination of the remains. The remainder we reverently reinterred in the place they came from. In due course Professor Berry's team made exhaustive studies of the remains, the results of which were published in the "Proceedings" of the Royal Society of Victoria and elsewhere. The Final Phase of the Extinat Tasmanian Race 29 The crania less several in scientific care were returned to my father and are now with all ray large collection of skeletal remains of the Tasmanians which as well as an excellent series of Thylacine skulls (now almost extinct), I pres¬ ented to the State Museum on the occasion of its centenary in January 1963. They were described by Professor A. A. Abbie and myself in a brochure published on that occasion. At the time of this exploitation of the aboriginal remains, we were quite unconcerned as to the morality of the undertaking. Whilst I kept my father informed, I did not ask his views on the matter and I assumed that he was agreeable. Certainly I did not sense that he disapproved in any way. Now in these last few months working at the data covering the last few months of the survivors of the Race, I have been able to picture them, name by name, their huts here and there, and their individual habits and pecularities, '"'ibh the males off for an occasional whaling voyage, and the women, apart from occasional excursions into the bush with their dogs,at the last doomed to sittin around in the Reserve waiting for the end. With this additional knowledge came a certain sympathy, affection and sadness that no one had been able to give them hope and health. So my complacency in regard to the recovery of their remains had given place to feelings of deep regret and dissatisfaction with myself. But as an uncle of Joseph Conrad wrote to his nephew, when he was feeling guilty and depressed, "one must stand up to ones conscience as to all the other 'difficulties of life" and, at 18 years of age, the enlargement of science seemed to me to justify such action. To return to the narrative. The decision to close the Reserve was made in September 1869 and became effective on 1st January 1870. Mr. and Mrs, Dandridge may have remained until June 1872 at Oyster Cove as the Government handed Trucanini over to their care and Mr. Dandridge was given a pension of £123.8.10 a year and £60 a year for the care of Trucanini as well as £30 for the care of Mary Ann, whose marriage to Adam Booker seems to have broken down. In a short time (24th July 1871) Mary Ann was admitted to the hospital at Hobart Town with a stroke and partial paralysis and not expected to recover. Mr. Dandridge died on March 4th 1874 apparently at Hobart. Trucanini was to last another 2 years, living with Mrs. Dandridge in Macquarie Street. She was the object of much attention as she went for her daily walk and delighted in talking to all who stopped to speak to her. Her death came on 8th May 1876. She was attended by Drs. Henry Butler and MacFarlane. The obituary notice of the Mercury is reproduced as Appendix I. She was buried in the cemetery above the old Women's Penetentiary at the Cascades. Her remains did not escape the fate she so dreaded; her skeleton at some period was articulated and for many years was on exhibition at the Tasmanian Museum Of recent years public sentiment caused it to be withdrawn from exhibition but it is carefully preserved at the Museum and available for scientific study by authorised persons. There was no public scandal, as was the case when the head and other parts of William Lanney were removed from the body by unknown persons after his death in 1869. On 8th May 1976 Trucanini, in my belief the last of her race, will have been dead for a century. Surely we Tasmanians, their successors, owe a worthy and permanent Memorial or Memorials to commemorate their remembrance and sad and tragic fate. Such a Memorial is long overdue and the appeal should command the support and help of those persons who have been fortunate enough to have been born and to spend their working lives on this lovely island. "And the place thereof shall know them no more". Psalm 103. v. 16. 30 The Final Phase of the Extinct Tasmanian Race REFERENCES AND SOURCES OF INFORMATION BACKHOUSE, James (1843) . A narrative of a visit to the Aust. Colonies . Chap. 15 BONWICK, James (1870). The last of the Tasmanians. Chapters 8-19. - (1884). The lost Tasmanian Race. Chapters 8 and 9. CALDER, James E. (1875) . Some account ... Native tribes of Tasmania. 109 - 115. DENISON, Sir William (1870). Varieties of Vice Regal Life. Vol.l. 66-72-78-79- 81, 87. DE STRZLECKI, P. E. (1846). Physical description of N.S.W. and V.D.L. 352-3-4-5. MOOREHEAD, Alan (1966). The Fatal Impact. ms SOURCES 619/1 S.A. of Tasmania Diary of visits to the Oyster Cove Aboriginal Reserve 27th July 1855 - 24th June 1869. The source of this paper also files of C.S. Dept. Col. Secretary's Dept. The material relating to the aboriginals is not concentrated and difficult to find. Oral information From my father E. L. Crowther M.D. 1843-1931 who, as a school boy had two contacts with them, and remembered the reminiscences of his father and others concerning the last years of the Tasmanian natives. Mrs. Annie Benbow whose father was an N.C.O. of a detail of the Imperial troops stationed in V.D.L. and also a number of the older inhabitants of Oyster Cove who retained vivid memories of the "Blacks". Mrs. Benbow could sing in part at least one of their songs, and it was her custom to sweep the white hearthstones of her kitchen fireplace, and with a piece of charcoal illustrate diagrammatically the stories of the native friends of her girlhood. Appendix I Hobart Town Mercury Hay 9th 1876. Appendix II Hobart Town Mercury January 2nd 1878. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I have to thank the State Librarian (Mr. W. L. Brown) and Mrs. M. McRae, Principal Archivist, State Archives, for permission to quote so copiously from the Official Visitors Book of the Oyster Cove Reserve. 619/1. The Final Phase of the Extinct Tasmanian Race 31 APPENDIX I "Mercury" 9th May 1876. P2 Col. 5 . THE LAST OF HER RACE . Trucanini, or Lallah Rookh, as she was sometimes called, the last of the aborigines of Tasmania, passed away to her eternal rest yesterday afternoon at the residence in Macquarie Street, of her protectoress Mrs. Dandridge. The death of this last scion of a once numerous race is an event in the history of Tasmania of no common interest; and it may well serve to "point a moral and adorn a tale" on the question of the gradual but certain extinction of the aboriginal races of these southern lands. Of Trucanini we shall no doubt hear many interesting narratives now that she had departed this world, but at present we must content ourselves with a few brief facts concerning her life and death, leaving it to others who have leisure and opportunity to favour the public with more extended notices respecting her. That she was a Queen is an admitted fact, and that she had five husbands, all kings, is generally known. The last of these partners of her joys and sorrows was the celebrated King Billy, who died in March 1869, and was the sole remaining male representative of Tasmanian aboriginals. It is a singular fact that Trucanini assisted "Black Robinson" in his efforts to induce the few natives then alive to place themselves under the care of the Government. She accompanied "Black Robinson" on a visit to the natives, distributing presents of various kinds, and when they paid a second visit they were warmly received, and the natives eventually consented to be taken care of by the State. Trucanini has seen them all die, she could tell many very exciting stories of her life, and used to amuse those friends who visited by relating them. At one time, with other natives, she was in Victoria, then known as Port Phillip. A murder was committed, and though she always said she was innocent, she, with another woman and some males, were sentenced to be hanged. Fortunately for her, she had saved a lady and 2 children from the fury of the blacks on one occasion, and this coming the ears of the authorities, her life was spared. Twenty years ago when Mr. Dandridge, who succeeded Dr. Milligan, took charge of the Oyster Cove aboriginal station there were sixteen survivors of the race, including Trucanini, who belonged to the Bruni Island tribe. Fifteen of them died during the life of Hr. Dandridge. Nearly 3 years ago, he with his wife and family removed to Hobart Town, bringing Trucanini with them, and the citizens soon became familiar with the form of her Majesty. She appeared at public gatherings on several occasions, and frequently went out for walks, always in charge of some member of the family with whom she lived. Her short, stout figure, red turban, and dusky features were known far and wide, and always attracted great attention. She was partial to conversation, and was always willing to give such information as was within her knowledge. The death of Mr. Dandridge, two years ago, was the occasion of great sorrow to her, and he never ceased to mourn his loss. Since then she has been under the care of Mrs. Dandridge, the Government having for many years granted £60 per annum for her maintenance. She suffered a good deal from bad health of late. Though sometimes very weak, she always rallied, and promised to live many years. Within the last ten days, however, she had a presentiment that she was going to die, but it did not seem to give her great concern. She required constant attention, and was a source of great anxiety to those in charge of her. Up to Wednesday last she was able to speak, ctnd was, in fact, in possession of all her mental powers. On the evening of that day she called Mrs. Dandridge, and told her that the devil was on her hand, and asked her to catch him, then she fell off into a fit, from which she never wholly recovered, her power of speech was lost to her after that. She still kept up well though, and was attended by 32 The Final Phase of the Extinat Tasmanian Race Drs. Butler and HacFarlane, who did all they could on her behalf, but in vain. On Sunday morning they could give no hope that she would live much longer. Up to the very last she was sensible, and just before she died she recognised Mrs. Dandridge. She passed away as peacefully as a child; and though she was about 73 years old, she did not look half that age after her death. Notwithstanding that she was a great trouble to Mrs. Dandridge and her children, they were very much attached to Trucanini, who fully reciprocated the feeling. She had lived with the family for twenty years and had become like one of themselves, so that it is but natural that they should feel her death,, more acutely than might be expected. The immediate cause of her death was paralysis. It is hoped that we shall not have a repetition of the scandal in connection with the body of King Billy, though threats have been made that such would be the case. Trucanini had a vivid remembrance of that disgraceful affair, and she obtained a promise from Dr. Butler that no mutilation of her body should take place. The body was yesterday afternoon removed to the General Hospital, where it is to be deposited, and when the funeral takes place we know not; but no doubt the Government will see that proper respect is paid to the remains of the departed Queen. "Mercury" May 11th, P2 col. 3 Funeral arrangements for Trucanini still being considered. Application by Royal Society for the body to be preserved for science refused. Main aim to avoid the disgrace of March 1869 when the body of King Billy was desecrated. Body to be buried at Cascades in front of the Chapel. APPENDIX II "Mercury" 2nd January 1878 P3 Col. 3 Death of Dr. Smith It is my painful duty to record the death of Dr. Smith, who was killed by a fall from his horse whilst engaged in his professional duties. The deceased gentleman has been for many years practising in the Huon and Kingborough districts, and his loss will be deeply regretted by all who knew him. He leaves a wife and family of nine children to deplore his death. An inquest was held at Franklin on Monday Dec. 31st, on the body, before Mr. Walpole and a respectable jury, one of whom Mr. George Innes, was foreman, when the following evidence was taken. John Lambert, C.D.C. deposed that on Dec. 26 he visited Southport in company with the deceased, who went down professionally at the request of witness. Deceased and witness left Southport about three o'clock the same afternoon to return to Port Esperance. The deceased was riding a horse which he had borrowed from Mr. Connolly. Witness was also riding, and kept behind deceased on the road so that deceased might take his own time. When they got within about three miles of Port Esperance witness noticed the deceased, who was then trotting, lose his seat, in consequence of the horse having swerved a little to the left. He partly recovered himself, and nearly got back into the saddle but again lost his balance, and made a second attempt to get back into the saddle, but immediately afterwards fell off the horse on to his right side, apparently doubled up, witness hurried up, got off his horse and took hold of the deceased under the arm and raised him slightly and asked him was he hurt. Deceased was then grasping for breath; he said "Oh'. Oh'." placing his hand on The Final Phase of the Extinct Tasmanian Race 33 his right side. "I think my ribs are broken." Witness then assisted him on his feet, when, on being raised from the ground, deceased cried out and said the pain was dreadful. Witness then asked deceased to get on his witness's horse and he walked to a log ten or twelve yards away where he was assisted on the horse, deceased kept putting his hand to his side just above the hip and crying out. After deceased got on the horse he rode without assistance, and witness ran and caught the other horse and went slowly to Port Esperance with the doctor, where the deceased was lifted from the horse and walked into the inn from the stable about 30 or 40 yds. Witness went in shortly after. Deceased was then laying on the sofa in the parlour; he appeared to be resting quietly; he afterwards, at about dark went to bed without assistance. Witness took him some tea which he drank. He was afterwards, about 10 o'clock, visited by the landlady, Mrs. Connolly, who reported him quiet. On the following morning, at about half past 3 witness went into the deceased's room. He was then sitting up in the bed, and leaning on his elbow he complained of severe pain. Witness asked him if anything could be done for him. He said he would like a mustard plaster on the spot. Witness procured the assistance of a female and the plaster was applied. It was then suggested he should be bandaged. Deceased said that would be right. A calico bandage was then put around the deceased and he said he felt easier. Witness continued with the deceased until half past six that morning, when he left for home, the woman (Mrs. Lamb) remaining attending upon him. Witness noticed in going to Southport that deceased was riding with stirrups, and drew his attention to it. Saw deceased upon his arrival at Franklin on the Friday evening in a boat. He was then altogether unconscious, convulsed and breathing heavily, and with difficulty. Witness remained with him until half past 12 that night. There was no change for the better. Saw him during the next day at intervals until he died, but he never recovered consciousness. H. J. Daldy deposed that he was a duly qualified medical practitioner at Three Hut Point. Had that day at request of the coroner, made a post mortem examination of the body of the late Dr. Smith, there were no external marks of injury perceptable; found five of the ribs on the right side fractured at a distance of about three inches from the spine; the liver had been punctured by the fractured end of a rib, which had not caused any serious injury; the interior portion of the right lung had been penetrated or punctured by one of the fractured ends of another rib in such a way as to cause considerable hemorrhage, and the cavity of the chest was nearly full of blood. Witness was of the opinion that the deceased's death arose from the suffocation caused by hemorrhage from the lung. The bleeding would be gradual, such an injury might have been caused by a fall from the back of a horse in particular position or direction. The cause of death was so obvious that he did not feel it necessary to examine the other organs. The symptoms detailed by the first witness were such as would arise from such an injury. It was improbable that surgical assistamce at the time would have been effectual. After the Coroner had addressed the jury, a verdict of accidental death was returned. APPENDIX III ADDENDUM. Additional note on the health of the aboriginals Somehow in reading these pages before printing, I found that the most important factor in preserving the health of the natives has been omitted. Constantly we may read in the visitor's book, that certain of the natives, sometimes the majority had gone on a bush excursion. 34 The Final Phase of the Extinct Tasmanian Race Actually it would seem that no restriction was made on their going off with their dogs "hunting". They found their way principally to the western hills and thence into the Huon valley. . After one lengthy period of absence, it would seem they had gone as far as Port Davey. With their dogs they could run down kangaroo or alternatively get opossums from the trees. So their food would be fresh and full of vitamins, and in this manner they reserved their health and morale. They were not encouraged to visit large settlements or to go to Hobart Town. On such bush occasions they came back in better spirits and health from the change in environment and the rich vitamin dietary. It was only with increasing age and lessening numbers that they remained constantly at the Station, and in that lazy and sedentary existence became victims of influenza and such other diseases, to which they had little or no resistance. RECENT ADDITIONS TO THE TASMANIANFLORA AND SOME NOTES ON NOMENCLATURE by D. I. MORRIS and WINIFRED M. CURTIS RECORDS OF THE QUEEN VICTORIA MUSEUM No. 50 EDITED BY W. F. ELLIS DIRECTOR OF THE MUSEUM RECENT ADDITIONS TO THE TASMANIAN FLORA AND SOME NOTES ON NOMENCLATURE by D. I. MORRIS and f O, v 'CTO^'‘ WINIFRED M. CURTIS Manusavipt Teoeived 22/6/1974 Published 28/6/1974 A new wattle, now naiined Aaaaia pataazekii, was first discovered in January 1970 by Mr. W. Pataczek of the Tasmanian Forestry Commission at Tower Hill near Mathinna in the north-east of Tasmania at an altitude of about 1,400 feet. The wattles were growing as an understorey in mixed forest of Eucalyptus obliqua, E. ovata, and E. delegatensis on soils derived from rock of the Mathinna series. This new species is a tall shrub or small tree growing to about 6 m ,in height. The adult leaves are represented by elliptical phyllodes, up to 5.5 cm ih length by 1.6 cm in breadth, more or less glaucous and similar in shape to those of A. myrtifolia. The small spherical flower-heads, made up of about 15 sessile florets, are produced in long, erect, fairly open axillary racemes towards the tips of the branches. The pod is purplish-brown, oblong, up to 4.5 cm long by 1 cm broad. The maturing ovary is, after anthesis, frequently infested by the larvae of small, as yet unidentified, insects and in the years since the plant was first noticed only a small percentage of pods has reached maturity. A second colonv of the species was found in June 1972 in the State forest on Roses' Tier, growing under Eucalyptus delegatensis and E. dalrympleana on soil derived from granite. This Acacia is attractive in appearance, especiallv when flowering, and is of suitable size for planting in the home garden. Aaaaia pataazekii D. I. Morris, sp. nov. Frutex altus vel arbor parva, 5 — 6 m alta, glabra. Rami juniores angulati. Records of the Queen Victoria Museum No.50. 2 Recent Additions to the Tasmanian Flora basibus phyllodiorum decurrentibus, stipulis minutis. Phyllodia 2.5 -5,5 cm longa, 0.8 - 1.6 cm lata, inaequalia-elliptica , plus minusque falcata, coriacea, aliquantum glauca, apice apiculato vel mucronato, costa prominenti ad marginem superiorem proximiore, venis lateralibus vix manifestis, marginibus vix incrassatis, semi-pellucidis, margins superiors glandem prominentem 2 - 4 mm ex base ferenti. Flores sessiles, c. 15 in capitulis globosis aggregati. Capitula in racemis axillaribus phyllodiis longiores disposita , axe angulato. Pedunculi 3 - 4 mm lonqi, bracteis minutis triangularibus subtenti basibus pedunculorum decurrentibus . Bracteolae furregineae, peltatae,petiolis c. 7 mm longis, laminis gibbosis rhombiformis, marginibus ciliatis. Calvx turbinatus, sepalis per 3/4 loTigitudinem eorum junctis, lobis obstusis, ciliatis. Corolla calyce c. duplo longior; petala 5, discreta, c. 1,5 mm longa, oblanceolata, apice incrassato,cuculiato. Stamina plurima, filamentis c. 2.5 mm longis, antheris 2-locularibus, Stylus c. 2.5 mm longus; stigma vix dilatatum; ovarium tomentosim. Legumen oblongum, 2.5 - 4.5 cm longum, 0.7 - 1.0 cm latum, hepaticum, valvis plus minusque complanatis vel inter semina indentis, marginibus planis vel inter semina vix constrictis. Semina prime c. 6 in quoque legumine sed pauciora maturescentia, ovoidea, coraplanata, c. 4 mm longa, fusca, lateribus eorum notam U-formatam pallidaim ferentibus. Holotypus: Tower Hill, Tasmania, leg. Wolfgang Pataezek, 17, x; 1972 (Herb. Univ. Tasmania, Isotypus in Herb. Kew et Queen Victoria Museum Launceston). This species is named in honour of Mr. Wolfgang Pataezek, an officer of the Tasmanian Forestry Commission, who first recognised the plant as a distinct species. Over a period of several years specimens of an apparently unnamed Leptospermum have been collected from the banks of the Gordon, McIntosh, Littls Henty, Huon and Little Denison rivers. Consultation with herbaria in Melbourne and Sydney has shown that this plant is apparently endemic in Tasmania. Because all the material so far collected has been taken from shrubs growing between the river's edge and the rain forest it has been decided to name the species Leptospermum riparium. It is a straggling shrub, up to 4 m in height, the main stems with flaking bark and the yoiong branches reddish-purple. The leaves are spreading, mainly oblanceolate-elliptical, up to 25 mm long, 4 mm broad. Young leaves are hairy on the margins and veins, becoming glabrous at maturity. The flowers, about 20 mm in diameter, are borne singly at the tips of short axillary branches. The receptacle is turbinate and pubescent, the sepals are 5 - 6 mm long, narrow triangular, red and glandular-dotted. Petals are white, about 10 mm long, 7 mm broad. The mature capsule is woody, persistent, 5 - 8 mm in diameter with the top convex and opening by 5 valves, the wall is at first pubescent, later decorticating. The erect sepals persist on the capsule at least through¬ out the first season and often longer. Leptospermum riparium D. I. Morris, sp. nov. Frutex effusus 3 - 4 m altus, rami juniores sanguinei, pubescentes, vetustiores decorticantes. Folia effusa, 1.0 - 2.5 cm longa, 0.2 - 0.4 (-0.6) cm lata, oblonga-elliptica vel oblanceolata-elliptica, sessilia vel in petiolum brevem contracta, apice acuto vel acuminate, venis 3-5; folia juniora marginibus cilia longa adpressa ferentibus, costa et venae laterales in superficiebus ambabus folii piliferae; folia vetustiora glabrescentia. Flores c. 2.0 cm. diametro, solitarii, ad apicem ramulorum axillarium. Bracteae floribus c. 12, caducae, scariosae, nitidae, stramineae, exteriores parce Recent Additions to the Tasmanian Flora 3 pubescentes, interiores solum ad apicem pubescentes, marginibus ciliatis. Receptaculum turbinatum, pubescens; sepala 5 - 6 mm longa, angusta triangularia, pubescentia, sanguinea, glandibus punctata, marginibus ciliatis, involutis. Petalae c. 10 mm longae, 7 mm latae. Ovarium 5-loculare. Capsula 5-8 mm diametro, apex tholiformis, primo pubescens tandem stratum exterius secedens, capsula matura lignosa, squamata, sepalis erectis, persistentibus certe per primam aetatem et saepe longius. Holotypus t west side of bridge over Huon River, Tahune Forest Park, Tasmania, leg. D. I. Morris, 7. i. 1974 (Herb. Univ. Tasmania, Isotypus in Herb. Kew et Queen Victoria Museum Launceston). Fittosporum undulatum Vent., Descr, Plant. Nouv. Jard. Cels. 76 (1802) subsp. emmettii W. M. Curtis, subsp. nov. Arbor parva ab ssp. undulato distincta habitu erecto et capiti parvo; folia parviora (c. 4 - 9 cm longa, 1.5 - 3.0 cm lata) et teniora, plana vel laminis prope apicem aliquandum parum tortis sed marginibus vix undulatis; flores parum grandiores et in pedicellis recurvis longioribus (1.0 - 2.5 cm longis); petala cerina, exteriora in alabastro puniceis suffusa, erubescentia ubi decolorescentia. Holotypus : Orford, Tasmania, leg. F, Hood, 27. ix. 1973 (Herb. Univ. Tasmania, Isotypus in Herb. Kew et Queen Victoria Museum Launceston). Small trees of this subspecies of Fittosporum undulatum were first found by S. B. Emmett at Mount Ramsav, c. 12 miles S.S.W. of Waratah, Tasmania in the spring of 1874. A herbarium specimen of this date ( in the National Herbarium, Melbourne) was labelled by F. Mueller "Fittosporum undulatum var. emmettii", but this combination was not published. In now according the taxon subspecific rank I am retaining the epithet suggested by Mueller in honour of the discoverer of this plant. No further records of the tree were obtained for almost a hundred years until, in 1973, flowering material was discovered in two widely separated areas. Mr. F. Hood at Orford had, about 30 years previously, removed several small plants from The Thumbs (Orford) to his garden where they flowered for the first time. Mr. E. B. Clayton found trees near the Forth River, on the bank of the Mersey river near Railton, and on Kelcey's Tier near Spreyton, and he was able to collect both flowers and fruits. A small tree distinguished from ssp. undulatum by its erect habit with small crown; leaves smaller (c. 4 - 9 cm long, 1.5 - 3.0 cm broad), of thinner texture, flat or the blade sometimes slightly twisted near the apex but the margins scarcely undulate; flowers slightly larger and on longer recurved pedicels - 2.5 cm long), petals creamv-yellow with outer surfaces flushed with crimson in the bud stage, tending to become pink when fading. Helichrysum baakhousii F. Muell. ex Benth., FI. Austral. 3: 632 (1867) var. kingii W. M. Curtis, var. nov. Frutex incanus effusus ramosissimus, c. 1 m altus, a varietate typica differt indumento conspicuo, foliis parvioribus angustioribusque et odore ^^tico^ Ramuli tomentosi. Folia oblanceolata vel angusta-obovata, c. 4 - 7 mm longa, T c; T 0 mm lata* folia iuniora superficie inferiore ferente indumentm densum piL;™ Pil™- brevio™ ,la„d„U£«o™ suoerficie superiore molliter tomentoso pilis simplicibus glanduliferis, folia plabrespenti. capitula varial.M typlea angualiota et 4 Recent Additions to the Tasmanian Flora phyllariis interioribus paucioribus; apices phyllariorum breves, straminei vel papyracei, effusi. Holotypusi Mount Barrow, Tasmania, alt. c. 4,300 feet, leg. H. J. King, 6. ii.l970 (Herb. Univ. Tasmania, Isotypus in Queen Victoria Museum Launceston). This taxon is named in honour of Herbert John King of Launceston whose pioneer work in recording and photograph,ing Tasmanian endemic plants has greatly extended our knowledge of their variation cind distribution. A hoary, spreading, much-branched shrub c. 1 m high, differing from the type variety in its conspicuous indumentum, smaller and narrower leaves and aromatic smell. Branchlets tomentose. Leaves oblanceolate to narrow-obovate, c. 4 - 7 mm long, 1.5 - 3.0 mm broad; young leaves with lower surface densely covered with fine tangled hairs longer than the intermixed glandular hairs; older leaves with upper surface glcibrescent. Capitula narrower than those of the type variety and with fewer inner phyllaries, these with short buff or papery- white spreading tips. Ueliohrysum baakhousii F. Muell. ex Benth., FI. Austral. 3: 632 (1867) var. oreophilum W. M. Curtis, var. nov. Frutex a varietate typica differt: foliis angustioribus perviridis et capitulis angustioribus. Rcunuli tomentosi. Folia oblanceolata, c. 4 - 12 mm longa, 1.5 - 2.5 mm lata: superficies olivacea, plus minusque pubescens glutinosusque, pilis glanduliferis plerumque in siccitate valde atrans; superficies inferior tomentosa, flavida, pilis adpressis, costa prominenti. Capitula varietate typica angustiora et phyllariis interioribus paucioribus, apices phyllariorum breves, papyracei, plus minusque erecti. Holotypus: Mount Wellington, Tasmania, alt. c. 3,500 feet, leg. W. M. Curtis, 19. i. 1945 (Herb. Univ. Tasmania, Isotypus in Queen Victoria Museum Launceston. A shrub differing from the type variety in its narrower, darker-coloured leaves and narrower capitula. Branchlets tomentose. Leaves oblanceolate, c. 4 - 12 mm long, 1.5 - 2.5 mm broad, upper surface brownish-green, t pubescent with glandular hairs and glutinous, usually becoming very dark on drying; lower surface tomentose with hairs appressed, pale yellow, midrib distinct. Capitula narrower than those of the type variety and with fewer inner phyllaries, these with short, papery-white t erect tips. Geum talbotianum W. M. Curtis, nom. nov. Geum renifolium F. Muell. in Hook. Kew Journ. 9: 300 (1857) nom.illegit. A new name is needed for this Tasmanian endemic because Mueller's name is a later homonym of a North American plant, Geum renifolium Rafinesque, Autikon Botanikon; 172 (1840). It is appropriate that the species should be named in honour of the Lord Talbot de Malahide C.M.'G. , F.L.S. (7th Baron) whose enthusiasm in the collection and cultivation of Tasmanian plants led him to sponsor the production and publication of "The Endemic Flora of Tasmania" (Ariel Press, London). Recent Additions to the Tasmanian Flora 5 Bydatella filamentosa (Rodw.) W. M. Curtis, comb. nov. Trithuria filamentosa Rodw. in P. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1897: 48(1898). The differences between the genera Trithuria and Hydatella have been summarized in a paper by Elizabeth Edgar, "The male flowers of Hydatella inoonspioua (Cheesem.) Cheesem. (Cemtrolepidaceae)"; New Zealeuid Journ. Bot.:4 (2), 153-157 (1966). The characters of the Tasmanian plant named by Rodway justify its transfer to the genus Hydatella. We wish to thank Mr. R. G. Hood for his help with the latin descriptions.