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EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

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RECREATIVE SCIENCE;

% ItKorir anir |lmmkanar

INTELLECTUAL OBSERVATION.

YOLUME I.

GROOMBRTDGE AND SONS, PATERNOSTER ROW.

TH^^DEAVOUB.

We are of God^S "workmansliip, created in
his image, an^:^ft©a with, powers to perceive
and appreciate the wonders of his skill in the
creation whiclj* exists around and above us.
It is our priyiege that we find delight in the
investigati6n of causes and the detection of
analogieSj^s well as in observing the distinc-
tive featurejf'of objects in the great system of
harmonies which we designate as Nature.
"When thtf visual organs have reached the
limit of -dieir ability, the eyes of the mind
penetrate beneath the surface in the dis-
covery of laws, and the imagination and the
fancy blend with physical facts the graces of
poetry, and so heighten and intensify enjoy-
ments which had their beginning in the
merest exercise of the senses. Science de-
fines and classifies the results of research,
brings together related facts, deduces from
them general conclusions, and so lays the
bases of systems of knowledge which are the
pride and glory of our civilization. This is
an age of invention and discovery, and the
meanest affairs of life, equally with the
noblest works of utility and elegance, are in-
debted to science, either for their origin, or
at least, for the fundamental principles out
of which they spring. "VVe banish darkness
from our streets by the help of the chemist ;
we know the day and hour at which an
Vol. 1.— iTo. 1.

eclipse or occultation will occur by the pre-
dictions of the astronomer; the sun paints
pictures for us on media prepared by the
photographer ; and places separated by dis-
tancchold converse by the instantaneous com-
munications of the electric wire. To speak
lighi^ly of scientific studies is to ignore the
entjre fabric of our social life, with all its
amelioration for the body and the spirit;
. but to stimulate the spirit of research, is to
help in the onward march of human advance-
ment, and realize the idea of the poet, that
" the thoughts of men are widened by the
progress of the suns."

By " Eecreative Science," we understand
the cxiltivation of the various branches of
physical r.nd mathematical inquiry in a way
to afford amusement as well as instruction.
Every science has its recreative features ;
every separate and single fact in Nature has
a sunny side, and when we have solved a
hard problem we may find repose and
refreshment in tracing out what poetical
analogies it may yet induct us to in the
consideration of its recreative features. The
properties of a sphere require the highest
abilities of the mathematician to demonstrate,
but we have the model of every sphere in a
dew-drop; it is held together in the co-
herence of its particles by the same forces
which give form and consistence to the
world ; and if the astronomer were to use the
dew-drop as a key to the fundamental laws of

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

astronomy, and tb.erefrom explain tlie idea of
gravitation, he would be treating his subject
in a recreative manner, wbich would engage
tbe attention of a thousand times as many-
minds as would take interest in a cold mathe-
matical formula. To enlist the sympathies of
the young, and brace up the powers of mature
minds in the investigation of natural pheno-
mena, wiU be the object of the work now
offered to the public. Truth wiU herein have
all the vestments of beauty that of right
belong to it ; science, in the sternest sense of
the word, will never be sacrificed to any
mere literary effect ; but we shall gather, as
the bee does, the sweetest honey-drops from
the fields of human learning, and at every
step recognize, in hope and faith and love,
the Source of things created, and point the
mind of the student to the great Benefactor,
by whose will the worlds sprung into being,
and man was designed to exercise the powers
of his reason in regions to which sense alone
would never admit him. Nature lies before
us as a panorama ; let us explore, and find
delight. She puts questions to us, and we
may also question her ; the answers may
oftentimes be hard to spell, but no dreaded
sphinx shall interpose when human wisdom
falters. Linking the departments of know-
ledge together by the threads of their in-
evitable connection, let us help one another
in our several regions of research, and so
load the way towards the. perception of
harmonies of which we have already the
foreshadowings in the genuine poetry of
science. Nature must supply the warp and
woof from which the imagination is to weave
the web of enchantment ; if it be pleasant to
gather the material, how much more so to
behold the first thread, then the indication
of the pattern, and at last the completed
picture.

SCIENCir AND THE BOY.

THE DUTY OF THE TEACHES .

Instil the love and reverence which you feel,
The sweet delight in flowers and the sky,
By pictures, books : in landscapes fair and wide.
In the high mountains and the boundless sea.
Teach him to love all these ; moreover, name
The petals of each flow'ret, class each shell:—
Mark well the wondrous fashion of God's work, in
Bird, animal, and insect.

His young heart
Will pulse and throb with a njost holy awe
When he shall mark the infinite wisdom shown
In each and all, an atom or a globe,
Proceeding from God's hand ; When he shall know
That not a feather stirs beyond its place,
That not a beauty but still has a use —
That even in the roughest, hardest things
Strange glories lie ; that in the wing o' the gnat,
The skin of snake, or eye of crawling toad, • • '
Such clouds of glorious colour are contained.
That the skilled pencil and the cunning brain
Of man can scarcely picture ; the rough shell,
Touched with Art's polish, brightly glows and glads
Each eye that sees it, and a shred of wood
Holds in its little space most wondrous forms.
* * * * When this glimpse
Thou hast given him of this world we have and hold,
Bring forth those instruments by Science made
To show the upper and the lower worlds,
And mark the two infinities of each.
Peer through the telescope, world-systems show,
And tell what various knowledge testifies ;
Of star-globes floating in the abyss of blue ;
Eeason of worlds in worlds ; of suns that gem
The sky like gold-dust sprinkled on a robe, •
But yet are suxs. Each step you farther go
Unveil new wonders, till he shall fall down,
Knowing his infinite smallness, and gasp out
His humble prayer to Him who made them all !

And now the microscope produce, and show

Design and glory in a filmy wing,

That plumes more gorgeous than the ostrich bears

Deck the poor moth ; the house-fly has a foot

Fitted with instrument so wisely made.

That man, but in the gray age o' the world.

Found comprehension for it.

Show him how prodigal of work God is,

How every small ephemeris sets forth

Purpose and science, if born but to die,

As we in our weak knowledge still must deem.

Show him the mjTiads which live within

A drop of water ; that Intelligence

Creates and orders, and still cares for each;

And then his heart will throb and bound again,

Knowing his greatness, and thus led to God

By steps hewn in the Infinite Unknown,

But not uncertain, he will wisely pray —

Reverence himself, and love his neighbour too.— $

RECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

THE PLANETS.

To no otlier subject can tlie oft-repeated
assertion of "We live in an age of dis-
covery" be more aptly applied, tban to tbe
glorious science of Astronomy. Whereas in
the scbool-days of our fathers, and indeed of
most of us, the number of known planets
was only eleven, the last fourteen years have
increased the list to sixty-four. It is now
difficult for any but the astronomer to keep
pace with these rapid discoveries ; our most
recent works on the subject are almost sure
to be half a dozen planets in arrear with
their information, for even whilst the sheets
are passing through the press, a number of
diligent observers are still exerting them-
selves, in order to add new worlds to our
solar system.

It may be asked, how is it that the nine-
teenth century has done so much in this par-
ticular branch of astronomy ? Many great
names had preceded those of the present
time, many diligent observers lived and flou-
rished in the eighteenth century, yet why
had they overlooked so many planets ?

Fig. 1.

The systematic plan now adopted of
sweeping the heavens with large telescopes,
and mapping down all the stars in the neigh-
boui'hood of the ecliptic, has mainly contri-
buted to these planetary discoveries. All the
planets are situated in a small zone of the hea-
vens near the ecliptic, so that if such stars are

mapped down, and the same region of space
is again returned to, and carefully compared
with the previous maps, it is quite evident
that if a certain map had contained ten
stars, and on sweeping over the same si)ace
a few months later, eleven were found, a new
comer must have travelled into this map. An
hour's observation with the double-image
micrometer is sufficient time to enable the
astronomer to ascertain whether this addi-
tional body be a planet or a star.

In short, to make this assertion clear, the
double -image micrometer, from its peculiar
construction, shows two images of the same
object ; and as a planet moves much more
rapidly than a star, if the speed of the new
body be compared with one of those pre-
viously mapped down, an hour's time will
amply prove whether both bodies are moving
with an equal speed.

The two images of the new body, and the
two images of the body in comparison with
it, are, by means of a rackwork adjustment,
made to show four objects in one and the

Fio. 2,

same straight line, as in Eig. 1. Now,
if both the objects are stars, their re-
lative positions will remain unaltered, whilst
if one is a planet, they may possibly, show
themselves as in Fig. 2. Having previously
read off the vernier of the position micro-
meter when the four images were in a straight'

i

PvECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

line, and again in an hour's interval, after
moving the screw so as to again place them
in the same straight line, it follows, that the
redaings of the vernier will give the exact
movement which has taken place during
that hour.

Sometimes the number of stars in a cer-
tain map wiU he found to have diminished,
and then it is evident that a planet had been
previously mapped down as a star, and if
this stranger cannot be detected in an adja-
cent map, it will be lost for a time at aU
events. In this manner, and also owing to
clouds obscuring the sky before the requisite
verification coidd be accomplished, and the
heavens remaining overcast for several
weeks afterwards, some planets have eluded
the vigilance of observers.

To the equatorial telescope we are in-
debted for aU these discoveries, for it is ab-
solutely requisite that we should be able to
turn to any particular portion of the heavens
that we may desire, in order to enable us to
return to the required spot. This telescope
moving on circles of right ascension and de-
clination, accurately divided into degrees,
minutes, and seconds of space, and having
dials which will show these positions, it
becomes an easy matter to find any required
portion of the heavens. Such telescopes are
more numerous than they used to be, and in
the hands of a corps of observers, both public
and private, and all directing their energies in
the same direction, it is not to be wondered
at, that such labours should be rewarded by
the discovery of bodies hitherto unknown.

Another circumstance remains to be men-
tioned, i. e., formerly, astronomers were sa-
tisfied if they constructed maps of the stars
down to the 6th magnitude, now, such maps
descend to the 10th, 11th, and 12th magni-
tudes ; and as it is in the 9th, 10th, and 11th
magnitudes that the bulk of these planets are
classed, we can see a sufficient reason why so
many planets have been previously over-
looked.

There is a singular history with regard to
Goldschmidt's planet Daphne, resulting in
the discovery of another new planet. Unfa-
vourable weather setting in soon after its
discovery, prevented a sufficient number of
observations being made in order to ascertain
its proper orbit; therefore this planet was
lost, and its discoverer set about the task of
rediscovering it. On the 9th of September,
1857, Goldschmidt conceived that he had
found it, but Schubert has since proved that
the object seen on that date could not be
Daphne, but a netu planet. A delicacy seems
to exist between Schubert and Goldschmidt
as to whom the discovery should be ascribed,
the latter having discovered it, yet thought
it to be Daphne, whilst the former, from cal-
culation, showed that it could not be that
planet. Hitherto it has received no other
name than Pseudo-Daphne, to distinguish it
from the true Daphne.

With the exception of Neptune, the whole
of the new planets are what astronomers have
termed Asteroids, or minor planets, and their
discovery was in the first instance to be
ascribed to Professor Bode, of Berlin, who, in
the year 1772, ventured to predict the dis-
covery of a new planet.

That well-known astronomer became aware
of the fact that a numerical relation existed
between the distances of the planets from
each other and from the sun. If we take the
numbers 0, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, 192, and 384,
and add 4 to each of them, we shall have 4,
7, 10, 16, 28, 52, 100, 196, and 388 expressing
the order and proportion of the distances of
the planets from the sun. Thus Professor Bode
found that 4 represented Mercury, 7 Venus,
10 tho Earth, 16 Mars, 52 Jupiter, and 100
Saturn, and that this numerical law held
good with all the planets, with the solitary
exception of a break between 16 (Mars) and
52 (Jupiter) ; there wanted a planet which
should be expressed by 28, and so satisfied
was Professor Bode that one existed, that he
boldly came forward, and predicted it.

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

On the 1st of January, 1801, Piazzi dis-
covered the planet Ceres, and tlie gap was
filled up ; yet, strange to say, in 1802, Dr.
Olbers discovered another (Pallas) at the
same mean distance from the sun as Ceres ;
and in 1803 Harding detected Juno, and in
1807 Dr. Olbers found Vesta ; all of which
can be represented by the number 28. Astro-
nomers at length began to argue that, as
these planets were very small, probably
others would be discovered, which, collec-
tively, would be equal in a somewhat similar
bulk to the other planets. However, no fur-
ther discoveries resulted until the year 1845,
when Hencke, after many years' dUigent ob-
servation, detected Astraea ; since which date
planet after planet has been- added to this
list, until it has rapidly become swollen to
sixty- four, fifty-six of which constitute a ring
of planetsi whose mean distance from the
sun niay be represented by S8, and to this
number no doubt others will be added.

The numerical law of which we have been
speaking, gave promise of other bodies being
found exterior to Saturn ; 196 would repre-
sent the distance from the sun of a planet
exterior to Saturn, and such a planet (Uranus)
was detected by Sir William Herschel ; and
again, 388 would represent another still fur-
ther removed from the sun.

Owiag to the power of gravitation, plane-
tary bodies exert an influence over each other ;
thus, a body can be pxilled outtoards if under
the influence of a body exterior to it, or in-
wards if of one interior to it. !N"ow Uranus
was observed to receive this outward in-
fluence, and, consequently, a planet exterior
to it was conceived to exist. A dozen years
ago the independent abstruse calculations of
M. Le Verrier, a French, and Mr.- Adams, an
English mathematician, based on these per-
turbations, were confirmed by the discovery
of the planet Neptune.

Should another planet exist, still more re-
mote, at a numerical distance represented by
772, calculation may again be the means of

finding a body so far removed from the sun j
and thus the solar system may be again
expanded considerably beyond the bounds
which it is now shown to occupy.

We are apt to conceive that planets move
around the sun in almost circular paths, and
indeed they would do so, were it not for the
influence exerted upon them by other bodies.
Supposing that no influence were exerted
upon a planet, its motion would be repre-

Fig. 3.

sented by Fig. 3. Yet, as this is not the
case, the annexed diagram, Fig, 4<, of

Fio. 4.

a planet's orbit, acted upon by an extc'
rior planet in the one portion, and by an in-
terior planet in another portion of the orbit,
will give some idea of the efiect produced.
It is necessary to understand this, in order
to be conversant with the effects produced
by one body upon another — effects which,
studied by our best astronomers, have been

«

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

the means of bringing to light bodies whose
existence was previously unknown.

Speaking of the mean distances of the
asteroids from the sun, Flora (Hind's) is
the nearest, viz., 209,788,000 miles, with a
period of 1193 days. Ariadne (Pogson's)
Was formerly considered to hold this post of
honour, but the latest elements by Weir give
its mean distance as 210,022,000 miles, with
a period of 1195 days. Sygeia (Gasperis')
is the most remote, viz., 301,324,000 miles,
with a period of 2054 days. The eccentricity
of the orbit may, however, in several cases,

take a planet much nearer the sun than
Flora's mean distance, or when in aphelion,
much further off than the mean distance of
Hygeia. For instance, Melpomene's peri-
helion, and Themis's aphelion may be con-
sidered as the present known limits of the
asteroidal region. Of the asteroids, Vesta is
the brightest, and Atalanta and Hestia the
faintest.

The following is a list of the planets of
our solar system, together with the names of
the discoverers, the place and date, and the
number each astronomer has discovered :—

ign.

Ifames of the Planets.

Date of Discovery.

Discoverer.

.

. Mercury . ,

. Known to the Ancients

—

—

. Venus .

Do.

— . ,

—

The Earth (or Tellus)

Do.

—

—

Mars .

Do.

—

1

. Ceres . . .

1801, January 1 .

Piazzi .

2

. Pallas .

1802, March 28 .

Olbers .

3

, Juno .

, 1804, September 1

Harding

4

. Vesta .

1807, March 29 .

Olbers .

5

. Astrfea , ,

1845, December 8

Hencke .

6

Hebe .

1847, July 1 .

Hencke .

7

. iris ; .

1847, August 13 .

Hind .

8

Flora .

1847, October 18 .

Hind .

9

Metis . . . "

1848, April 25

Graham

10

Hygeia . ,.

1849, April 12

Gasperis

11

. Parthenope .

1850, May 11 . .

Gasperis .

12

Victoria

1850, September 13

Hind .

13

Egeria .

1850, November 2

Gasperis

14

Irene*

1851, May 19

Hmd .

15

Eunomia

1851, July 29

Gasperis

16

Psyche

1852, March 17 .

Gasperis

17

Thetis .

1852, AprU 17

Luther .

18

Melpomene .

1852, June 24

Hind .

19

Fortuna .

1852, August 22 .

Hind .

20

Massilia t .

1852, September 19

Gasperis ,

21

Lutetia

1852, November 15

Goldschmidt

22

Calliope

1852, November 16

Hind .

23

ThaUa

1852, December 15

Hind .

24

Themis

1853, April 5

Gasperis .

25

Phocea ,;.

1853, AprU 6 • .

Chacornac

26

Proserpine .

1853, May 5 .

Luther .

87 -

Euterpe

1863, November 8

Hind .

28

Bellona \

1854, March 1

Luther .

29

Amphitrite |

1854, March 1

Marth .

SO

, Urania. . ,

1854, July 22 . .

Hind ,

81

Euphrosyne.

1854, September ]

Ferguson

83

Pomona

1854, October 26 .

Goldschmidt .

Number each
Place of Discovery, Observer has
discovered.

Palermo

Bremen

Lilienthal

Bremen

Driesen

Driesen

London

London

Markree

Naples

Naples

London

Naples

London

Naples

Naples

Bilk

London

London

Naples

Paris

London

London

Naples

Marseilles

Bilk

London

Bilk.

London

London

Washington

Paris .

* Irene was independently discovered four days later, by Gasperis.

+ Massilia one day later, by Chacornac.

J Amphitrite one day later, by Pogson, and two days later, by Chacornac,

1
1
1
2
1
2

1
2
1
1
2
8
3
4
4
5
1
5
6
6
1
7
8
7
1
2
9
3
1
10
1
2

BEOEEATIYE SCIENCE.

ign.

Names of the Planets. Date of Disooverj

\ Discoverer.

Place of Discovery.

83

Polyhymnia ,

. 1834, October 28

. Chacornac

. Paris .

84

Circe .

. 1855, April 6

. Chacornac

. Paris

85

, Leucothea .

. 1855, April 19

, Luther .

. Bilk

86

Atalanta

, 1835, October 5

. Goldschmidt .

. Paris

87

. Fides .

. 1855, October 5

. Luther .

. Bilk

38

. Leda . ,

. 1836, January 12

. Chacornac

. Paris

39

. Lfetitia. . ,

. 1836, February 8

. Chacornac

. Paris

40

. Harmonia .

. 1856, March 31

. Goldschmidt .

, Paris

41

. Daphne

. 1856, May 22

. Goldschmidt

. Paris

42

. Isis . .

. 1836, May 23

. Pogson .

. Oxford .

43

, Ariadne

• 1857, April 15

. Pogson .

. Oxford

44

. Nysa .

. 1857, May 27

. Goldschmidt

. Paris

45

. Eugenia

. 1857, June 28

. Goldschmidt

. Paris

46

. Hestia . ,

. 1857, August 16

. Pogson .

. Oxford

47

. Aglaia .

. 1857, September 15 . Luther .

. Bilk

48

. Doris .

. 1857, September 19 . Goldschmidt

. Paris

49

Pales .

. 1857, September 19 . Goldschmidt

. Paris

50

, Virginia*

. 1857, October 4

. Ferguson

. Washington

51

. Nemausa

. 1858, January 22

. Laurent

. Nismes

63

. Enropa

. 1858, February 6

. Goldschmidt

. Paris

53

. Calypso

. 1858, April 8

. Luther .

. Bilk

U

, Alexandra .

. 1858, September 11 . Goldschmidt

. Paris

55

, Pandora

. 1858, September 11 . Searle .

. Albany

56

. Pseudo-Daphnet

. 1837, September 9

. Schubert

—

—

. Jupiter

. Known to the Ancients. —

—

_

. Saturu ^

Do.

—

—

. Uranus ,

. 1781 .

. W. Herschel

. London

—

. Neptune 1 .

. 1846 .

. Le Verrier

. Paris.

Number each
Obgerver baa
discovered.

. 2

. 3

. 4

4
5
4
5
1
2
(5
7
3
G
8
0
2
1

.10
7

11
1
I

. 1
. 1

Of the small planets, nine were discoreretl in 1857, eight in 1852, six in 1854, five in
1856, and five in 1858, four in 1853, and four in 1855, three in 1847, and three in 1850, two
in 1851, and one in 1801, 1802, 1804, 1807, 1848, and 1849. Goldschmidt lays claim to the
discovery of eleven, Hind of ten, Gasperig and Luther of seven each, Chacornac of five,
Pogson of three, Olbers, Hencke and Ferguson of two each, and Piazzi, Harding, Graham,
Marth, Laurent, Searle, and Schubert of one each.

Sighfield House Observatory, Nottingham. - E. J. Low:fi.

HOW TO GATHER DIATOMS.

■^ase-j-

The Diatomacese being objects of interest
to most persons possessed of a microscope,
a few plain directions for gathering them
may be appropriate to a time when aU who
can get a brief holiday, are either away,
or going to the seaside, or wild inland dis-
tricts, where the finest are to be had.

With a general understanding that they
all grow in water, fresh, salt, or a mixture of
the two, the materials required for collecting
are : — From one to two dozen of " Preston
Salts" bottles with corks ; a long light stick,
for which the two thick joints of a cheap
fishing-rod answer well, the hollow serving

* Virginia, fifteen days later, by Luther.

+ Pseudo-Daphne, discovered by Goldschmidt, September 9th, 1837, yet thought by him to be Daphne.
Schubert, from calculation, proved it could not be Daphne. Yet neither astronomer has as yet named it.

{ Neptune, independently discovered from calculation by Le Verrier and Adams, and found telescopically
tyDr. GaUe. '

8

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

for the attachment of — 1st, a curved cutting-
hook, like a reaping-hook in miniature ; 2nd,
a small muslin net ; and 3rd, an old spoon.
A good Coddington lens and slip of glass, or
a " live-box," may help in some cases to a
knowledge on the spot of what we have found;
but the objects of our search are so minute,
that not much can be done in this way in the
field.

How can I tell what to look for? the
youthful student may say. The answer to
which is, that in mass when growing, they
might be compared to brown jeUy, coating
other water-plants, or stones, or the surface
of mud at the bottom of the water.

Spring and autumn are the most favour-

portion with the hook, and transfer dexter-
ously to another bottle ; we shall find Melosi'
ras and Synedras. In small tributaries to the
main stream we may be fortunate enough to
obtain Campylodiscus costatus and C. spi-
ralis, princes of the tribe> and Surirellas, or
the exquisite Meridian. Boggy pools yield
some elegant species, as Eunotias, Himan-
tidia, not elsewhere to be had ; and wells of
spring-water, Tabellarias and some Dia-
tomas. In shallow streams stones may be
picked from the bottom containing interest-
ing species ; mountain torrents yield
Gomphonema geminatum, the finest of its
genus, and the curious Tetracyclus lacus-
iris. Encyonema may be met with where

able periods for them. Suppose we are out
for the day on a Diatom-hunt, our pockets
stored with as many bottles as they wiU hold,
and the other necessary appliances with us :
we make for a stream and go up its banks ;
covering the stems and blades of grass over
which water flows, we may see this brown
jelly-like material, which is best got by
gently cutting off some of the blades of the
grass to which it is attached, and putting them
into a bottle, which is to be fiUed with water
to prevent shaking. CymbeUas and Gom-
phonemas are what we shall probably have
got. The white water- crowfoot, and grasses
growing towards the centre of the stream,
may be thickly covered at their floating
tips with brown waving threads ; cut off a

water runs rapidly and constantly, as over
a dam.

At the seaside we shall meet very dif-
ferent kinds ; as, growing on large or small
sea-weeds, the beautifvil flag-like Ac/man-
thes and Striatella, the Bhabdonemas and
Grammatophoras, fine Melosiras, and small
arborescent forms, from one to two inches
in length — these are Schizonemas. Also,
if very fortunate, Amphitetras, Biddulphia
pulchella and the Isthmias. Along the
sands of quiet bays, at about the line of
half-tide, in furrows constantly wet, many
interesting species may be found. To get
these in a state fit for carrying home, the
yellowish facing of the sand should be scraped
up with a spoon, and a quantity put into a

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

half-pint bottle, to be filled with, sea-water ;
after a good shake, the sand will, in a few
seconds, fall to the bottom, and the water
with Diatoms is to be poured off, when they
will settle as a sediment, which latter should
be put into the smaller bottles.

Brackish water furnishes Siddul/phia
atirita, Melosira nummuloides, and fine
Pleurosigmas and Naviculas.

The gathering from each place should be
put into a separate bottle, and it is well to
put in a slip of paper with the cork, on which,
with lead pencil, the locality may be noted.
Extreme care in washing bottles and corks,
previous to putting by for another occasion,
is essential.

On getting home we may seem to have
brought back nothing but bottles of dirty
water ; this should be emptied into saucers,
putting the named slip by each, and with
a few hours' exposure to sxmlight the Dia-
toms will be found in a beautifully clean
condition, on the surface of the mud, and
may then be carefully removed for examina-
tion, and preservation, if thought desirable.
Of these we must treat on a future occa-
sion.

In addition to those above-named it may
be well just to indicate other sources, some
of which are hardly accessible to dwellers in
large towns, except at the annual holiday
time.

Such are the stomachs of shell-fish fresh
from the sea, oysters and scallops especially;
of crabs and lobsters, of haddock, cod, and
the different kinds of flat fish ; whence very
fine kinds not otherwise obtainable, habitants
of the deep sea, may be procured. It is es-
sential that the shell-fish should be fresh from
their oozy beds, since the ceaseless currents
produced by the action of the cilia (micro-
scopic hair- like processes) with which they are
furnished, rapidly wash the Diatoms away, and
the result of much patient search may, from
inattention to this circumstance, prove a
blank. A large infusorial animalcule, the

Noctiluca, cause of muck of the phospho-
rescence of the sea, proves to be a capital
Diatom-gatherer.

Deposits on the shores and at the bottom
of lakes, now or previously existent at such
spots ; of this many instances have been
recorded, in which complete strata have been
formed from the valves of Diatomacese, that
lived and died on the spots where their re--
mains occur.

Ehrenberg has described a remarkable
species {Orthosira mirahilis), as inhabiting
moss growing on trees. Our distinguished
countryman Mr. Ealfs started one day in
quest of this, and bringing home a quantity
of the mossy coatings of trees growing in
the neighbourhood of Penzance, Cornwall^
his place of residence, found on his retiirn
that he had really got this Diatom in
abundance. An attempt has been made to
explain away the singular fact of a Diatom
inhabiting such a locality, by the hypothesis
that the examples found had been blown
there by the winds. But this seems a
purely gratuitous supposition, since it is per-
fectly well known that moss growing in
alpine localities, where it is moistened with
mists and the perpetual trickling of springs,
furnishes a home for some beautiful species
of the tribe ; the occurrence of Diatomaceae
in fragments of earth adhering to the roots
of dried plants obtained from various parts
of the world, shows that Diatoms do live in
moist earth. We have only to suppose that
the species in question is endowed with an
unusual power of retaining its vitality during
periods of drought, and the difficulty vanishes.
If our readers will take up this question, it
may soon be solved ; they wUl find it one of
exceeding interest, and furnish valuable aid
to the cause of science. The words used in
the definition, were in effect that they gene-
rally lived in water, but certainly not at all
times, invariably.

TuFFEN West.

*o

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

WAYSIDE WEEDS AND THEIE TEACHINGS.

IN SIX HANDFULS.

" There's a dance of leaves in that aspen bower,
There's a titter of winds in that beechen tree,
There's a smile on the fruit, and a smile on the flower.
And a laugh from the brook that runs to the sea."

The Gladness of Nature. — Beyant.

— x'i^sralptn.^ —

TsE science of plants, Botany, has tHs great
advajitage over every otlier department of
natural history, tliat its objects are not only
most readily accessible, but tbat tbey bave
been familiar to most of us from cbildbood.
The first steps of the entomologist, tbe geo-
logist, or the mineralogist, are made, as it
were, into a new world, wherein all is
strange and unknown — to the novice we
might say chaotic — but who does not know
the first easy paths which guide us into
Flora's realms P Are they not to every child
bordered and carpeted with daisies, and but-
tercups, and sweet-scented violets ? Have we
Aot picked in them chickweed and groundsel
for our favourite birds, and looked at
the scarlet poppies somewhat doubtfully as
poisonous, putting them under the same
anathema as " hemlock," which, however,
was often not hemlock at aU P Then, again,
are not these paths overhung with the wild
rose and honeysuckle for our summer shade ?
And when, after long absence, it may be, in
the smoky town or in some foreign clime,
we return to retread the paths again, see
these old familiar faces, do we not know
their names as well as we do our own P

" The cowslip, crocus, columbine,
The violet and the snowdrop fine.
The orchis 'neath the hawthorn-tree,
The blue-bell and anemone.
The wild rose, eglantine, and daisy."

We know them all, and many another, with-
out any teaching.

Truly this name-knowledge is qo des-
picable foundation for our future botanical
education — a far better one than we could
find for any other science ; sounder, too, for

it has not only a place in the head but in
the heart ; dull and dead must that heart
be, that greets not warmly the old friends of
our first toddling days.

On this foundation we purpose to build,
and thus to avoid what so often proves a
first and formidable difficulty when subjects
are dealt with of which the learners have no
previous knowledge. We mean to take, both
for text and illustration, the commonest way-
side weeds and flowers familiar to all, and wo
mean them, being their own interpreters, to
teU us a great deal. We will try whether
they cannot outline for us, if we may so
speak, the plan of the flowery world, and
whether we cannot gather from their simple
teachings some idea of the great design, in
accordance with which the vegetable king-
dom is constructed and arranged. It may
be that many will be content with this, but
should some desire to go farther, and to gain
more knowledge of the numberless forms
of vegetable beauty and structure to be
met with amid the native plants of our own
land, and still more strikingly, perhaps, amid
those of other latitudes, they will find the
foundation begun upon our common " Way-
side Weeds," a solid because a practical one.

We call them common, and, in one sense,
they are so — the sense in which we have
chosen them for illustration ; but common are
they in no others, for as surely and as well
as the most gorgeous exotic, do each and all
show forth the goodness, the wisdom, and
the power of that great Creator, whose

" Steps are beauty, and his presence light."

A few words as to our arrangement.

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

11

Each of. our prospective liaadfuls is made to
embrace a certain section of plants, related
to eacH other ia the natural classification.
It is by no means requisite that all the plants
named should be gathered at once, and, in-
deed, as they often blow at different periods
of the year, this would be impossible ; but
enoiigh may always be found to illustrate our
text, not only as regards the classification of
the flowers, but with reference to the other
botanical lessons which have been appended
to each section. A general summing up will
probably gather ouj* handfuls into one. If
many common wayside flowers are familiar,
and deck our first early wanderings in the
fields, no less so are the fruits which succeed ;
heps and.haws, crab apples, hazel nuts, sloes,
blackberries, strawberries, and many another,
for

" Blackberries so mawkish now,

Were finely flavoui-ed then."

He or she must be veritably town born and
bred, if they do not know these the common
fruits of childhood's garden, and thus, pre-
suming upon the knowledge, we will add
our baskets of hedge-row fruits to our hand-
fuls of wayside flowers.

Handful I. — Flowers in Many Piecijs,
. " Many-Petaled."

Weeds are flowers — The Handful — Poppies — But-
tercups and Marsh Marygold — ^Wallflower and Lady's
Smock — Violets — Lychnis — Stitch wort — Chickweed
and Geranium — Petals or flower-leaves — How attached
" — Their shape and parts — A corolla — Stamens, their
site, and how distinguished^-Pistil or central organ ;
its forms — Calyx ; its forms, etc. — Position of parts of
flowers in handful the first — Likeness and Difference
— The Buttercups and Crowfoots — Poppy characters —
Wallflower and the Cruciforms — Eegular Flowers —
Starwort and Geranium — Summary.

Let US see what we have got. Weeds
every one of them ! Weeds we all know them
to be, but flowers they are as well ; we wUl
therefore give them the name indifferently,
weeds or flowers, as it may be. Poppies
in their red, from the corn-field or wayside ;
bright shining buttercups from the meadows,
with their magnificent cousin the marsh

marygold ; a stray wallflower from the,; old
castle waU, or garden if you wUl, for it ip
a true British wUdling ; lady's smock ; and
a charlock — the yellow flower you always caU
wild mustard — or, if you like it better, a
water-cress. Do not forget our wee blue
friends the sweet violets, for, except the fra-
grant wallflower, they are the only scented
blossoms in our bundle. Add to these a
scarlet lychnis ; one of the brilliant white
stitchworts, or starworts, abetter name, from
under the May hedgerow, and with it its
little sister the common chickweed, and the
mouse-ear, like a hairy chickweed, though it
is not one ; lastly, put in a common wayside
geranium, and we have handful No. 1, from
which we are to learn a whole heap of bo-
tanical lore.

Our paper is headed " Many-pieced, or
many-petaled flowers," TJnbotanical people
call the pieces of a flower " leaves ; " but as
the same term is applied to the leaves of the
plant generally, the pretty term " petal" is
more convenient ; we therefore, for the future,
shall always speak of petals, albeit it gives
our first initiament into botanical terms.
Take all the flowers of our handful, or as
many of them as you have got, and look at
these petals ; pull them off if you possess a
good show of specimens, and you wUl ^ee
that they are all xinconnected with one
another. First comes the bright red poppy,
with its four petals (Fig. 1), aU attached

Fig. 1. — Petal of Common Poppy.

beneath the projection in the centre of thfe
flower (Fig. 6). .

1^

BECEEATITE SCIENCE.

Put down the poppy and take up the but-
tercups, all you have gathered (Figs. 2, 3, 4),

Fio. 2.— The Bulbous-rooted Ranunculus, back view.
o, "petals of expanded blossoms ; b, reflexed calyx, or
flower-cup; c, blossom half expanded, the flower-
cup not yet turned back ; d, peduncle, or flower-
stem ; e, bract or flower-leaf.

and, if it chances to be in the handful, the
marsh marygold, which probably some of

Fio. 9. — Back view of blossom of Common Buttercup,
or Creeping Ranunculus, a, petal ; b, flower-cup, in
fiv^ sections ; e, peduncle.

my readers know as the " May blob." Any
and all of these have, as you see, five petals

Fia. 4.— Section of Buttercup blossom, a, petal ; 6,
stamens ; c, pistils ; d, flower-stem, or peduncle ; e,
receptacle.

(Fig. 3), and though the central organ

(Fig. 4 c) is not exactly similar to that of

Fig. 6. — Seed vessel or pistil of
Fig. 5. — Buttercup Common Poppy, a ; b, stamen ;
petals. c, part of petal.

the poppy (Fig. 6), you may yet observe a
likeness in the attachments of the petals.

Fig. 7. — Cruciform blossom of
Wallflower, a, petal ; b, sta-
mens ; c, flower-cup, or calj'x ;
d, peduncle, or flower-stem.

Fig. 8.— Petal
Wallflower,
limb; 6, claw.

of

JIECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

18

Take the wallflower, another of your bunch
of blossoms; its petals are very different
from the petals of the poppy or the butter-
cups. The latter, you have already seen, are
oval and pointed at the baso (Figs. 1, 5) ; in
the instance before us they are prolonged
into the claw (Fig. 7 b), in contradistinction
to the broad portion or limb. A somewhat
similar petal you find in the scarlet or white

Fig. 9.— Blossom of Lychnis, Fio. 10.— Petal of Lych-
•with pistils only, a, petal ; nis. a, limb ; 6, claw.
b, pistils ; e, calyx.

lychnis (Figs. 9, 10), although in other re-
spects it is diverse. Clawed, likewise, but
less distinctly so, are the five petals of the
wild geranium (Figs. 11, 12). However, there

Fig, 11.— Blossom of Com- Fig. 12.— Petal of Wild

mon Wild Geranium Geranium, a, limb ;

(Uerb Robert), a, petals; 6, claw.
b, calyx.

is no occasion to go over in succession every
plant in our handful ; you can do that alone,
and pulling off the petals compare their
varied shape and cuttings, as well as their

attachments and numbers ; having done this,
you wUl have gained some knowledge of one
of the divisions of the kingdom of botany
— the many-petaled {polypetalous) flowers,
with their petals attached beneath what
botanists call the pistil, but which, tdl we
have formally introduced it, we must call
the central organ of the flower. In the ma^
jority of flowers, however — we shall see,
hereafter, not in all — between the central
organ and the petals we have just been exa-
mining, there is a greater or less number
of small bodies, little heads siipported on
slender stems (Fig 13). In the poppy and

Fig. 13.-Stamen, Fio. 14.— Organs of Wall-
magnified, flower, a, stamens; 6, pistil.

ranunculus, these little bodies are very mamer-
ous, almost too numerous to count easily
(Fig. 4) ; but look into your wallflower, you
have no difficulty there, for six is all you
can find (Fig. 14), only you wonder to see
that, in every blossom you examine, two
are shorter than the others. Put down the
wallflower, and take up your wUd mustard

i

Fig. 15. — Blossom of Common
Charlock, a, petal ; 6, b,
calyx sepals; c, stamen; d,
pistil.

Fig. 16.— Calyx or
flower-cup of Com-
mon Lychnis, a,
calyx ; b, stamens.

u

EECREATIYE SCIENCE.

(Fig 15), or your water-cress, and you will
find the same tking. Be sure you hare got
au established fact, and do not forget it.
Take your lychnis, a red one, however,
an^ you will find ten of these little bodies
(Fig. 16) ; but, probably, no central organ.
Try to count them in the violet, there are
only five ; but you have some difficulty, for
they all adhere together, and two of them
have little spurs superadded, which might
confuse a beginner. These little bodies,
which we have just been examining, are
called the stamens, but what they are,
what is their structure and functions,
we must tell in a future page, only remark
that, in thejloioers you have examined, their
attachment, in the composition of the blos-
som, is the same as that of the petals. Put
aside the stamens, or pull them off, and we
come, at length, to our friend in the centre,
whose name we have already let out— the
pistil (Figs. 4, 6, 17, 18), and a very varied

Fig. 17.— Pistil of Lychnis.
«, ovary; 6, styles; c,
receptacle.

Fig. 18. — Seed -vessel
and pistils of Com-
mon Stichwort.

piece of structure it seems, judging by the
specimens. In the poppy it is short, round,
and marked or rayed on tlie top ; in the
buttercupi it seems made up of a number of
projecting pieces ; in the wallflower, it is
prolonged ; in the lychnis, rounded and oval,
crowned by the thread-like styles. Ob-
serve, in all these cases, it rises from a little
seat or receptacle, to which are attached the
petals and the etamens. You will not, how-
ever, have advanced far in your botanical
studies before you discover that this single
mode of attachment is by no means uni-

versal ; but one thing you wiU find constant,
the relative positions of the organs of the
flower, which we have just gone over. Pe-
tals, or corolla, as the petals are called
collectively, stamens and pistils, are al-
ways placed in the same order, one within
the other. They may not all be present ; in
some blossoms they are never all present
together, but you will never find stamens out-
side the petals, or pistil outside the stamens.
Spencer Thomson, M.D.

{To he continued.)

TAME FISHES.

Peocithe a twenty-inch bell-glass ; set it on a
stand in a north window ; lay down a bed of
pebbles; plant a few tufts of water- weed
(Anacharis), and fill with river water. After
it has stood a few days, procure three small
Prussian carp and six minnows. Have no
gold-fish, no molluscs, and no roekwork. Al-
low the conferva to grow on the glass, except
on the side next the room, which keep clean.
Every morning and evening feed the
fishes with very small earthworms, gentles,
or small caterpillars, and be careful to drop
them in only one or two at a time, so that
none be left to foul the water. Frequently
sit beside the vessel, and watch the gambols
of your pets ; now and then tap on the front
of the glass with your finger-nail, and so
accustom them to your presence. By degrees
they will get bold and playful; be sure to
tap with your finger-nail before you feed
them, and instead of dropping the food in
for them to take it in their own way, hold
a worm between your fingers at the surface,
and one of the boldest of the minnows will
snatch it away playfully. Persevere, and
you may .call them together by tapping on.
the glass, and have them feed from your
fingers, and even submit to be tickled on
the back in quiet enjoyment of your friend^
ship and familiarity. H.

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

1*

HUMBOLDT.

IN TWO PAETS. — PABT I.

HIS STUDY.

BIETH AND EAKLY LIFE.

It is well to be reminded, in tlie midst of
tke rejoicings for victory in one nation and
tlio meanings of defeat in another, that the
great march of science still continues across
the noise of smoke and wailing, that the
passage of knowledge is tmintermpted cither
by blockade or siege. IN'othing will do this
forns more thorouglily than the lives of groat
and wise men, of the soldiers of science, of
the pioneers of progress, of the true apostles
of peace. By their lives we shall be re-
minded that ^

" We may make our lives sublime,"
and, to continue the quotation,

" Departing leave behind us
Footprints on the sands of Time ;"

footprints which will be assurances to those
who follow, that great men have been be-
fore them, who have turned from the hurry,
bustle, noise, and smoke of glory ; the over-
excitement and maddening rush for gold,
the scramble for honours, or chicanery of
place, to that quieter, calmer, better path of

daily labour and daily worship, of patient
investigation and pure thought, which rises,
like calm incense in an evening sky, towards
the throne of the All-Knower ; which abounds
in love to our brothers, since it abounds in
benefits conferred on them ; which eases and
soothes men's minds disturbed by angry pas-
sions, and is in its intensity a kind of noble
faith, even in the Pagan philosopher, since
by it he venerates and worships the Creator
in his works, and looks through IS'ature up
to Nature's God.

There is no " life " of the present day
which wiU better illustrate the foregoing
than that of Frederick Henry Alexander,
Baron Humboldt, known since his elevation
to the peerage of humanity, simply by the
last name. Humboldt's mother, a woman
of great intellectual endowments and some
beauty, was the widow of Baron Holwede
when she attracted the attention and love o^
Major Humboldt, an aide-de-camp to the
Duke of Brunswick, during the seven years'
war. She did not long remain a widow.

10

BECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

She entrusted herself, lier fortune, and one
son by lier first marriage, to the aide- de-
camp, and on the 22nd of June, 1767, at Pots-
dam, gave birth to Charles William Hum-
boldt, and at the chateau of Tegel, near
Berlin, on the 14th of September, 1769, to
the subject of this paper. The elder brother,
Charles, grew up to be one of the finest wits
in Germany ; he was a poet, critic, philolo-
gist, statesman. His brother was, after his
kind, a statesman too, one who interpreted
the laws of Nature, and, after living a very
long life, full of honour and renown, has died,
leaving behind him the name of the greatest
naturalist and savant of his country.

IDTJCATIOK — THE FIBST IMPrLSE.

The two boys were but young when they
lost their father, and their education and
introduction to the world was therefore left
entirely to Madame Humboldt. This lady
had entrusted one Joachim Campe in the
education of her eldest son. The master was
then well known as the author of "The
Young Crusoe ;" now he is forgotten, save
when connected with his pupils, for it is the
property of great men to render all around
them celebrated. Various was the instruc-
tion given to the young Humboldts. Besides
Campe, Christian Kunth should be men-
tioned amongst Humboldt's teachers. From
their father's chateau the two boys went to
Berlin, Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and, lastly, to
Gottingen.

It was at the last place, whilst his brother
was writing poetry, and was filled with all the
enthusiasm of the ardent spirits of the time
in regard to that event, the French Eevo-
lution — an event which, by the way, disap-
pointed and horrified all its admirers — that
Alexander happily met a gentleman of some
notoriety, who had been round the world
•with Captain Cook. The glowing narration
of the beauties of Nature, which Humboldt
heard from the mouth of this man, George

Forster, fired him with the first desire to be-
come a naturalist. He had made a debut
in literature. He came out with something
very scientific, something excessively learned,
the result of cramming. He wrote abso-
lutely " On the Textile Fabrics of the Gre-
cians," about which he could have known
nothing. Henceforward he was to abandon
" textile fabrics," and to inquire not how
Penelope's petticoat was spun, but how God
made this earth, and in what way He had
clothed the plains with verdure and the
forests with leaves.

GEOBGE rOESTEE.

To this George Forster, in truth, the
world should give credit for much of Hum-
boldt's glory. It is a great thing to have
given the first impulse to a youthful genius.
Man, or book, which does it cannot be too
highly estimated. "Robinson Crusoe" has
filled our navy, rendered our merchants
famous, has given a seaward impulse to the
nation which other people seek in vain to
possess. So old George Forster, gossiping
over his modest can of Bavarian beer about
his voyage with the great Captain Cook, sets
that in a flame which eighty years cannot
quench, and which in its progress, like a
great fire on a high hiU, casts its reflection far
and wide.

"With George Forster, Humboldt made his
first scientific tour. He travelled to England
and to France, examining the earth, its
strata, and the mineral productions of each
countiy. He was also actuated by a strange
desire to go to the new world, and to observe
the life of a savage, to mark how far it dif-
fered from that of civilized man, but that
desire was not yet to be gratified. With the
advice and assistance of Forster, he pub-
lished his first scientific work on the " Basalts
of the Ehine" ( Uber des Basalts aus Bhein)
in 1790, when he had scarcely passed his
twenty-first year. He had already become
known for his ardent desire of knowledge,

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.:

17

for Lis love of experiment and deep fervour
in tracking a truth, so far as one can, to its
fountain-liead. Indeed, this, more than fa-
mily influence, procured him his first employ-
ment, that of inspector of mines in the pro-
vinces of Bayreuth and Anspach. Holding
this office, he was ever at work, and issued
his second work, on the "Fossil Flora of
Friberg" [Flora suhterranea Fribergensis,
etc.) He told us what shapes flowers had
before the flood, how they bloomed and fruc-
tified ; he gave us their forms, and the thick-
ness of their fibre, and, by induction, showed
us what soil they loved, and what brilliant
colours they gladdened the young world
with. Working stiU on, in a few more years
he had advanced his studies from the dumb
stone world, or fossil vegetable life, to that
more wondrous organism around and about
h.im, experimented on the nervous system of
men and animals, and published his third
work, " Tiber die Gereizte Nerveuse et Mus-
culaire." The world began now to talk of
this young savant, this devourer of books,
this perpetual worker and thinker, who
seemed determined to master the whole
circle of knowledge.

DEATH OP HIS MOTHER — THE PEOJECT OF
LIFE.

It was late in the year 1798 that Hum-
boldt lost his mother, his best and truest
friend. To her he had always submitted, by
her, famous and great as comparatively he
was, he had ever been controlled. Her life
alone bound him to the Old World, for he had
long desired to experimentalize in the New.
Freed by death from this dear tie, he eagerly
flew to Paris, bought aU the scientific in-
struments which he felt he should need, dis-
posed of his estates in Prussia, and obtained
permission from the French to j oin the Baudin
scientific expedition then fitting out to survey
South America. But the French Govern-
ment were not quick enough for his hunger

for knowledge. The expedition being de-
ferred from time to time, he determined to
wait no longer, and, in company with a
young savant named Bonpland, Humooidt
set out for Spain,

The grandees of that country were by no
means Tincourteous to the two young savants.
Might not these two mineralogists discover
a new PotosiP or, better still, a gold miie?
or, indeed, it may be a diamond mine ? Kings
of Spain and other great folks are fond of
diamonds and gold, and material wealth ; so
they would ];ut forth their hand to welcome
the young philosophers. His Majesty of
Spain was pleased that young Humboldt
should scientifically overrun his American
possessions ; so be it, he is eveiysviiere well
received.

buonapaete's expedition akd humboldt'3
expedition.

In the meantime, whilst the preliminaries
are being settled, the two philosophers meet
with an English nobleman, a savant too, not
too often met amongst our peerage at that
time. This was Lord Bristol, and at his
behest, and with his aid, Bonpland and
Humboldt, leaving things to be arranged for
them in Spain, prepared to run over and
explore the wonders of Lower Egypt — a field
for any one, and a field of wonders too. This
was denied him however. Buonaparte, hated
by Enghshmen, was preparing his, by no
means scientific, expedition to Egypt. Napo-
leon hated ideologues ; what could scientific
men want in Lower Egypt? The sword
questioned the right of the pen, brute force
was in the ascendant ; Lord Bristol was
arrested at MUan, and Napoleon went to
Egypt ; whilst the savant stayed at home, or
rather in Spain, during the year 1788-89.

In May, 1799, however, Humboldt ma-
naged, in the Spanish frigate " Pizarro," to
avoid the Enghsh who were blockading the
Spanish ports, but whose ships a storm had

0

l^

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

scattered, and to set sail for South. America.
He touclied at Teneriffe, and ascended the
celebrated peak. Hereby be established the
Plutonian theory of the earth's formation in
contradistinction to the Neptunian.

AMEEICA AT LAST.

An epidemic, which broke out on board
the " Pizarro," forced the captain to land his
passengers at Cumana, on the north-east coast
of Venezuela, and here aU Humboldt's long-
ings and aspirations were satisfied. He em-
ployed eighteen months in collecting speci-
mens and exploring the country, and in a
frail canoe ran up the Orinoco, penetrated
to its source, and found its junction with the
Hio Negro and the Amazon. Here his soul
drank in that which he had so long longed
for, and his eyes were feasted on immea-
surable space. Here, says he, " you find a
plain, bare indeed of any tree, but covered
with rare herbs. Not a hill, not a rock, rises
like an islet in this boundless space, this sea
of Jand. Only some fragments of vast heaps
of alluvial soil surge up, thinly scattered in a
space of two hundred square leagues, and
appear slightly higher than the surrounding
plain. * * * In the midst of this grand
and wild Nature a diverse and savage people
live, separated each from each by a strange
diversity of tongue. Some, like the Ottomacs
and the Taurodos, are wanderers, living on
grubs, ants, gums, and earth; others are
more cultivated, and possess intelligence and
gentle manners. The vast space between the
Cassiquaire and the Atababo is peopled not
by men, but by tapirs and apes formed into
societies. Figures and characters cut upon
the rocks testify that formerly civilization had
advanced here. Intheinterior of the steppes,
the tiger and the crocodile make war upon
the horse and the bull ; upon its woody boun-
daries man perpetually seeks to slay man;
some, aliens of Nature, drink the blood of
their enemies; others, apparently without

arms, are yet prepared for murder, and slay
with the poisoned nail of their thumb ; the
weakest tribes, creeping along the sandy
shore, eiface with their hands the traces of
their timid footsteps. Thus, in the most ab-
ject barbarism, as in the deceptive glitter of
refined civilization, man ever creates for him-
self a life of misery. The traveller who over-
runs all space, no less than the historian who
interrogates all ages, has ever before him the
sad and changeless picture of human discord."

Sad, indeed, is the reflection; sad, but
true. It is for the good, the tender, the
truly brave, and the kind, to knit up this
ravelled garment of life. Well might Hum-
boldt, observing the littleness and vileness of
man, turn again to the continent — to that vast
expanse, "wherein you grow almost accus-
tomed to regard men as something imimpor-
tant in the order of Nature." But Humboldt
loved man equally with Nature, and for him
treasured up knowledge, no less than for
himself. Geology, ethnography, and geogra-
phy were the especial objects of his many
travels ; to these were also added natural
history. After returning to Cumana with
his friend Bonpland, and their admirable
collection, they again set out and reached
Quito in January, 1802. Five months were
devoted to Quito, and to the exploration of
its mountain valleys and the chain of snow-
capped mountains which surround it. He
ascended, on the 23rd of June, 1802, Chim-
borazo, the summit of which is 21,420 feet
above the sea.*

In his " Cosmos," Humboldt has beauti-
fully described the glorious sensation of
looking out from the high mountain over the
plains beneath him, and then told us that, to
his latest day, the impressions he then had

* There is a school rhyme about this : —
" Chimborazo vras formerly thought to be
The highest mountain which ever man did see,"
We need scarcely remind our readers that the Eastern
Hemisphere boasts the highest mountain, the Everest,
a peak of the Himalayas.

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

19

will never be effaced. He was right; many-
years afterwards he would sit in the even-
ing of the day, meditating upon the grand
plains of South America, upon the golden
prairies and mountain-heights of lands he
had visited half a century before — of scenes
as far removed in space as they were in time.

THE PUnSUIT OF SCIENCE.

Humboldt's courage in the pursuit of
science was immense. With Aime Bonpland
and a guide he passed whole nights in those
frozen mountain peaks, where a false step
might have been destruction, and where the
very elements were at war with him. He
ascended to so great a height that the rare-
fied atmosphere so affected him, that the
blood gushed out from his nose and eyes ;
but even then the ardent traveller did not
turn back, he went on until his senses reeled
and he had reached the highest summit.

But it was now time for him to rest from
his labours. The soldier of science had re-
turned laden with spoils. It was necessary
to arrange and classify those spoils, and
Humboldt and Bonpland determined to re-
turn to Europe. This they did, previously
visiting tlie United States, and being received
with much acclamation by the people, and
great friendship by Jefferson, who was then
President. In 1804, they set foot in Bor-
deaux, after an absence of five years from
Europe.

THE EEStJLT OF TBAVEL — HUMBOLDT's
WOEKS.

The result of this voyage forms the mo-
nument— the greatest, most complete, and
lasting monument to Humboldt and his com-
panion. It was published throughout a
series of years, but it is too vast and too ex-
pensive a work for any but the -wealthj savant,
or the public library. The mere titles of
the books will show the reader what the
labour must have been to obtain such a
result :—

1st. — " Travels in the Equinoctial Eegions
of the New World." Paris, 1807—25, 3 vols,
in 8vo.

2nd. — " View of the Cordilleras and the
Indigenous Tribes of America, with their
Habits, Manners, etc." 1810. In folio, with
sixty -nine plates.

3rd. — " Zoological and Anatomical Obser-
vations on South America." 2 vols, 1805
—32.

4th.—" A Political Essay on the King-
dom of New Spain." Under this title he
gives his views of the policy, agriculture,
mineral wealth, social and monetary economy,
civil and mihtary transactions of this king-
dom. With an Atlas. Paris, 1811, 5 vols.

5th. — " Astronomical Observations, and ,
Trigonometrical and Barometrical Measure-
ments." 2 vols, in 4to. 1812.

6th. — " General and Physical Geography
of South America." 1807.

7th. — "Essay on the Geography of
Plants." 1805.

8th. — " A Political Essay on the Island
of Cuba."

The very titles of these works will show
the reader what an admirable, thorough, and
continual worker was their author. The ex-
tremely short hst we give of them could be
driven out to a dozen times the length were
we to particularize a thousandth part of the
contents. Each of these works, though de-
pendent on others, is complete in itself
Maps, plans, charts, drawings of plants,
rocks, ruins, insects, men, skeletons, trees,
animals, minerals ; in short, of almost every
thing relating even distantly to science, are
there to be found bearing the impress of the
hand and mind of the great worker. Hum-
boldt knew well that his work was that of a
life-time. He devoted to it the finest years
of his for nearly a quarter of a century, the
work being issued in Paris during his sojourn
there from the years 1804 to 1827.

It is in this sketch quite impossible to
analyse these works. They are full of new

20

EECKEATIVE SCIENCE.

ideas and scientific induction. In one part
he settles a question as to a South. American
tribe ; in another he suggests and carries out
completely h.is system of the Geography of
Plants, and shows us how we may judge of
the climate, the heat, the soil, and the gene-
ral nature of a country by its indigenous
vegetation. In a third he teUs us the politi-
cal history of a nation, and takes its social
and economical measure. Little of import-
ance is omitted. He is equally reliable on
aU points.

During bis sojourn in Paris, Humboldt
was the savant of the day. AU learned men
flocked to hear him and see him. He worked
with some who are stiU foremost in the
march of science. He wrote with Gay Lus-
sac, Leopold de Buch, and Arago. He was
sought for and honoured by kings and princes.
He was elected member of the chief scientific
societies of the world, and he was entrusted
with more than one political mission. He
had long been ennobled by the King of
Prussia, whom he accompanied to Naples.
Monarchs delighted to confer on him their
orders of knighthood and of merit ; but at
the death of the philosopher, when heralds
sought to chronicle these gewgaws, to give a
fictitious brilliancy to the great man, aU,
save one modest star, which he often wore,
were found neglected, tarnished, and covered
with dust, in the drawer of that old bureau,
at which he had so often sat, pen in hand, to
chronicle his thoughts and his discoveries.
Hain Fbiswell.

WATEK-GLASS IN PHOTOGEAPHY.

Now that Dr. Johann Puchs (formerly
Professor of Mineralogy at the University
' of Munich) is dead, and therefore indifferent
to praise or criticism, men are taking great
interest in his inventions relating to water-
glass, sometimes called soluble glass — inven-
tions which promise yet to do good service

in many a department of science, art, and
manufactures. Fuchs died on the 5th of
March, 1856, at the advanced age of eighty-
two. A few months before his death, of
which he is said to have had a presentiment,
he was induced to write a pamphlet describing
the principles, and some of the applications of
his discoveries, in order, as he nobly says, "to
render the experience gained by myself and
others available for further investigations."
In a thoroughly unselfish spirit he disclosed
every detail that could in any way assist
future workers. For a translation of this
pamphlet, this country is lately indebted to
H.R.H. the Prince Consort, who has chosen
the journal of the society of which he is the
patron (the Society of Arts) as the medium
of its publication ; the Rev. John Barlow,
M.A., having previously, in 1854, given a
popular exposition of the subject to the
members of the Royal Institution, on one of
their Friday evenings. The chemical prin-
ciples of Fuchs' invention have also been for
some years explained, and the results exhi-
bited, at the lectures on chemistry delivered
at our Government School of Mines and
Museum of Geology, Jermyn Street, by its
eminent Professor of Chemistry, Dr. Hof-
mann. Added to these sources of informa-
tion, we have the report of an Imperial
French commission, sent to LUle to examine
the works of M. Kuhlmann, a distinguished
follower of Fuchs, and to whom great credit
is due for his ingenuity, enthusiastic per-
severance, and success. This latter report is
translated in the Athenceum journal.

We can here only attempt to open the
subject for our readers, photographic and
others, leaving them, should they feel in-
cited to further inquiry, to pursue the matter
under the authorities just named.

The story of Fuchs' life, in relation to
his invention, is the old, old sad one of too
many benefactors of our species — a story of
disappointed early hopes, and a life of costly
struggle against apathy, ignorance, prejudice,

BECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

21

and unjust self interest. If the theory of M.
Flourens he true, that a hundred years is the
true normal standard of man's life, then
assuredly Fuchs may have lost twelve of his,
by the adverse influence of disappointment
and vexation, which even the bravest admit is
felt on the failure of their legitimate hopes.
Fuchs, in early life, had little attention paid
to his really valuable discoveries. The world
was then too ignorant and scoffing to pay
attention to a man whose processes were
founded upon elaborate, yet unassailable che-
mical reasoning. Its scientific faith was in
inverse proportion to its ignorance. Let us
take care that a future generation may not
have to say the same of us. At the very period
at which Fuchs was vainly asking attention
to his views respecting water-glass, one Nice-
phore Niepce, of Chalons, on the Saone,
was here in England ready to unfold his re-
markable opinions in relation to light, and
to dispose of his marvellous processes of pho-
tographic drawing and engraving — processes
by which Daguerre was completely anti-
cipated ; but no one heeded him, and he
returned to France a disappointed man, as
we have lately learnt. Fuchs did not care
to conceal his disappointment, for he com-
mences his memoir with these words : —
" In 1825 I had an opportunity of pub-
lishing a paper on water-glass, which at that
time hoAvever did not meet with the attention
which the subject well deserved. It was
even stated that it difiered in no respect
from the well known ' liquor silicum' [water
of flints], and, consequently, was nothing new.
Experiments were made, but abandoned as
soon as they did not lead to satisfactory
results ; undertaken as they were without
the necessary knowledge or imderstanding.
Greater expectations were raised than could
in the nature of things be satisfied ; failures,
owing perhaps to faulty manipulation, fre-
quently caused the process to be abandoned
before it had been put to a fair test." How
complete a picture is this of the trials and

obstacles that have to be borne and sur-
mounted by men who are philosophically in
advance of their time, or who have to cast
their suggestions amongst uncultivated, pre-
judiced, or selfishly interested minds ! May
we hope that the recital of such instances as
these wiU make the present generation pursue
more lovingly a wiser and more considerate
course — a course uponwhich,itis to be hoped,
we are now penitently inclined to enter.
Worthy Fuchs was obliged to chronicle, that
" There are always persons to be found who,
themselves unable to carry on experiments,
are always ready to condemn those of others,
upon the faith of a single experiment, in
which they failed ; as," says he, " I have ex-
perienced myself, more than once." He
adds, " An inert love of the customary and
habitual almost invariably exerted the usual
adverse influence." Shall we ever take
warning by the past, and learn to estimate
duly the "usual adverse influence "of many
things, " customary and habitual," amongst
us ? But, to suppress nothing, the good old
man, before his death, quaintly vrrites, "A
few years have changed much, and it has
been thought since that the water-glass, after
all, did not belong to the class of superfluous
things, and that few other bodies toere capable
of being put to so many various applications."

Let us now make a few brief notes of
what these applications may be, and endea-
vour to get a rational idea of the chemical
and physical principles upon which they
depend. But, first of all, what is this water-
glass, and how can it be procured ?

The water-glass, or soluble glass of Fuchs,
as it is designated in Gmelin's •* Handbook
of Chemistry," is, chemically speaking, a
tetra-sUicate of potash— a compoimd of si-
lica, otherwise called silicic acid, and potash.
The liquor silicum, already alluded to, is
a mono-silicate. There is also a bi-sili-
cate. Technically, Fuchs distinguishes four
kinds of water-glass— potash water-glass,
soda water-glass, double water-glass, and

22

EEOEEATIVE SCIENCE.

fixing water-glass — each, having its appro-
priate qualities and uses. Potash, water-
glass is made by fusing together, for five
or six hours, at a high temperature, in a
fire-proof pot, a mixture of

15 parts of pulverized quartz or pure quartz
sand (otherwise silica, or silicic acid),

10 parts of well-purified potash,
1 part of powdered charcoal.

The charcoal is said to decompose any sul-
phuric acid left in the potash, and so a perfect
vitrification of the mass is obtained. The
hard, blistered, grayish black mass thus
obtained is pulverized, then boiled with five
times its weight of water, in which it slowly,
but almost entirely, dissolves, in the course
of a few hours. The solution is finally
evaporated. With a larger proportion of
silica, as pure rock-crystal, quartz, sand, or
flint are termed, an insoluble glass, resembling
ordinary glass, is the result.

Water-glass may also be obtained by
Messrs. Hansome's method of dissolving
broken flints in a solution of cUustic alkali,
at a temperature of 300'^ Fahr. Or an
aqueous solution of potash may be saturated
with freshly precipitated hydrate of silica,
and evaporated. Or a fourth method may
be employed, as indicated by Mr. Way, who
dissolves a peculiar kind of sand, which he
has described, at the ordinary boiling heat,
in a solution of caustic alkali (potash or soda).

In order to obtain the mass prepared by
either of these methods in the anhydrotis state,
it must be heated till it fuses, when all water
is expelled. It is then a hard, transparent,
rather infusible glass, which, on exposure to
the air, absorbs so much water (without any
external change, excepting that it becomes
slightly fissured), that it swells up strongly
when heated.

Its composition, when made with potash.

u-

Potash . . . . . . 27-57

Silicic acid, fourcombiniug proportions 72'43

100-00

An analysis, by Forchammer, established the
theoretical statement of its constitution.

When fully charged with combined water
it is termed hydrated water-glass. Simply
drying the solution of water-glass yields this
hydrate, which is colourless, transparent,
and brittle, but softer than glass. It is
slightly alkaline, and, after thorough drying,
contains 26 per cent, of potash, 62 of silica,
and 12 of water. The salt is permanent in
the air ; does not absorb carbonic acid from
it; and effloresces only when accidentally
mixed with other salts of potash. In the
fire it swells up with loss of water, then
fuses, and forms anhydrous soluble glass.
Dilute acids decompose it, with separation
of silica. It dissolves but slowly in cold,
but readily in boiling water. After eva-
poration, it becomes very tenacious,
and may be drawn out in threads, like
melted glass. It dries up to a varnish, when
spread upon wood, paper, linen, etc., the
combustibility of which it diminishes. Sal
ammoniac precipitates silica immediately
from its solution. Alcohol also precipitates
the soluble glass from its aqueous solution,
withdrawing, however, some of the potash,
until, at last, on washing the precipitate,
octo-silieate of potash alone remains.
Phosphate of alumina, and carbonate,
phosphate, or sulphate of lead, when rubbed
lip with a solution of soluble glass, yield a
tenacious mass, which becomes as hard as
stone in the air. Baryta, strontia, lime, alu-
mina, and oxide of lead combine with the
whole of the silica and a part of the potash,
to form an insoluble compound. Nearly aU
the soluble salts of the earths and heavy
metallic oxides produce a btdky precipitate.
These details of its chemical behaviour will
enable the experimental reader to carry on
those further investigations, which Fuchs so
earnestly desired to see accomplished. The
writer of this notice has proved that positive
and negative photographs withstand suffi-
ciently the action of boiling caustic alkali.

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

23

Therefore, although the soluble glass is de-
scribed as being corrosive, experiments should
be carried out as to its applicability to the
improvement or preservation in any way of
photographs on glass, paper, or porcelain ;
tlio suggestion of which was one of the
main objects in introducing this subject
under its present heading.

Let us now, before considering some ap-
plications more foreign to our own subject —
photography — see if we can get a closer
philosophical insight into this strange and
useful thing, soluble glass, or tetra-silicate of
cither potash or soda. Its essential basis is
the non-metallic element, silicon — or sili-
cium, as it has been called by some, from
its supposed metallic nature. Berzelius de-
scribed silicon to be a brown powder,
and judging of it in this condition, he
compared it with carbon and boron, two
other non-metallic elementary bodies. How-
ever, as aluminium, the new white metal, the
basis of alumina and of clay, turned out to be
metallic, it might be that silicon, the basis
of silica, would also have to be classed
with the metals. The researches of the
distinguished Prench chemist, M. Deville,
on aluminium, have, however, led to the
production of many-sided crystalline plates
of silicon, translucent and nearly colourless,
not having any of the ordinary metallic pro-
perties. We must now, therefore, view silicon
as a non-metal, and group it with boron and
carbon, to which it has several points of
resemblance.

This silicon, obtained by the action of
aluminium and heat on silicious materials,
burns in oxygen gas to form a white powder,
the oxide of silicon, or silica, or silicic acid,
as it is vai'iously termed. Pure rock-crystal,
opal, beryl, chalcedony, hornstone, jasper,
quartz, flint, sand, part of all clays, etc.,
consist of this silica or silicic acid ; indeed,
it is one of the most abundant things in
nature, as may be at o-nce observed from this
description of it. It is in one state sobible

in water, and is found in parts of plants,
animals, and animalcules, and notably in.
the canes, grasses, and stalks of cereals.
This silica, or pure flint, fuses under the
oxy hydrogen blowpipe to a clear bead; when
fused, it may be drawn out into long threads
like glass ; dropped in a state of fusion into
water it solidifies to a transparent mass,
free from flaws, and remarkably hard and
tough, so that it sustains the blow of a ham-
mer without breaking. It seems to harden,
like steel, by sudden cooling. Silica can be
evaporated from solution by steam. The
Geyser tubes of Iceland owe their formation
to the fact of the possible solubility and
volatility of silica, joined to its peculiar
power of losing this solubility under freslx
circumstances. Silica is tasteless, inodorous,
and, though chemically an acid, is without
action on vegetable colours. It can, under
certain conditions, combine with water to
form a hydrated silicious jelly. The so-
luble form of silica, obtained by preci-
pitation from a silicate, loses its solubility by
simple evaporation at a boiling heat, or little
more. The varied and remarkable properties
of silica must undoubtedly lead to further
applications in practical manufacturing hands.
The water-glass is the main door by which a
practical man may best enter.

The silicic acid, or silica, being understood
to be an acid, we can now see at once that, like
other acids, it may form " salts." Soap is a
stearate of soda — stearic acid and soda. This
salt is miscible with water, while the acid of
the salt, the fat, is not. So, in the same way,
silicic acid, in its insoluble form, is made
miscible with water by means of an alkali-
potash or soda. In both cases stronger agents
can throw out the combined acids, and, as we
shall see in the case of water-glass, with novel
and highly useful results. Even bodies not
acid, as sal ammoniac, etc., can throw down
the silica under useful conditions. But the
scientific details and marvels of silica are ex-
haustless, and the eager student must pursue

24

EECEEATIVE SCIEI^CE.

them further in. Gmelin and the authors al-
ready named.

And now, in conclusion, to consider some
of the applications of silica in the form of
Trater-glass to the arts. First, as most inte-
resting to us, it is proposed to make careful
photographic experiments with varieties of
water-glass, adding more or less sUica, as may
be deemed fit. Water-glass has heen also
proposed (and is undergoing fair trial), in
order to protect building stones from decay.
The expectation is that water-glass, applied as
a wash, will hare its silica deposited by atmo-
spheric carbonic acid, in minute adherent par-
ticles, upon the surface of the stone, which
will thus be shielded by a flinty substance
from the acids which smoky rain brings down
in large towns ; and where carbonate of lime
exists in the building stone, a further action
is expected from the formation of an insoluble
silicate of lime, another protective agent.
The decaying surfaces in the cathedral of
Notre Dame, in Paris, the new Houses of Par-
liament, at Westminster, and many other simi-
lar buildings have been thus treated. Then it
has been proposed to mix soluble glass with
mortars, to enable them to set under water,
by virtue of the insoluble silicates, which
would form under circumstances of contact
between water-glass and the materials used.
Another and very important (for the fine arts)
application is in the stereochrome system of
painting, invented by Puchs, and worked out
successfully by Kaulbach in Germany, and
Kuhlmann at LUle. The principle is to pre-
pare a surface of cement or stone or slate in
a manner proper to receive dry colours, and
then to fix these colours on the wall or surface
by means of a varnish of the soluble glass,
which is syringed on, and left to dry. In a
short time the carbonic acid of the air and the
earths in the surface throw down the silica, or
flint, the alkali partly combining ; or it efflo-
resces out, and is easily washed ofi", the picture
remaining adherent, and only removeable by
mechanical disintegration. Experiments made

in exposed places, as to weather, have proved
to be perfectly successful. A crucial experi-
ment was made at Berlin by suspending a ste-
reochrome painting for twelve months in the
open air, under the principal chimney of the
New Museum at Berlin. During that time it
was exposed to sunshine, mist, snow, and rain,
and nevertheless retained its full brilliancy
of colour.

To allude again to photography, it may be
observed that from the description given of
the behaviour of water-glass in a concentrated
form applied to paper — its acting as a cement,
or glue — it will be advisable to try its powers
in the preparation of paper previous to the for-
mation of the photographic image. Its action
when mixed with gelatine and tanning mate-
rials also seems worthy of study by the pho-
tographer. It should be applied in a dilute
form to the finished photograph, as a concen-
trated solution is reported to dry pulverulent.
Bodies that do not cement well together with
Avater-glass alone, can be made to cement by
the addition of other substances. The various
affinities of water-glass are very curious and
interesting, and deserve minute study. Wa-
ter-glass has been used successfully in paint-
ing upon glass, and it is in this direction
that we also hope for valuable results to
the photographer. The true way is to let
each one in his own department endeavour to
apply water-glass and its sUicious correlatives
in the best way his ingenuity can devise. It
is confessedly a new and unworked subject,
on which nothing very definite ought at pre-
sent to be pronounced ; but surely enough is
here ofiered to stimulate to further trials.
Wood and textile fabrics are rendered less
combustible by the application of water-
glass, and we have been informed by Dr.
Miiller that a glass-maker in Germany var-
nished the wooden roof blocks of an entire
village with water-glass, now thirty years
ago, to render them less liable to accidental
combustion. Theatrical dresses and proper-
ties have also been alleged to be suitable for

BECliEATIYE SCIENCE.

25

similar treatment. Kulilmann successfully-
exposed some old paintings on wood, pro-
tected by water-glass, to intense lieat and
numerous washings. This treatment tkey
resisted. On glass, artificial sulphate of
baryta, applied by means of water-glass, im-
parts a milk-white film of peculiar beauty,
and this resists washing with warm water.
By the action of a strong heat, the silicious
varnish is transformed into a fine white ena-
mel. Here, again, photographers on glass have
a clue to further results. Kuhlmann, more-
over, finds that an unassailable ink is made
by grinding carbon with the water-glass. In
calico printing the silicate has been tried
instead of albumen to impart fixity to the
colours, which, if not alterable by an alkali,
resisted soap and washing. In printing and
dressing stuffs, the water-glass, with starch
and lime, or baryta, might be used to replace
gelatine and tannin sometimes employed.
Tannate of gelatine or starch, with lime or
baryta, and the silicious material, have also
been used in painting in distemper.

The study of water-glass is full of in-
terest, for by its aid the formation of
minerals and natural petrifactions can be

elucidated. In short, buUders, engineers,
manufacturers, artists, chemists, physicists,
geologists, and naturalists in general, may all
find their account in studying the capabi-
lities of this ingenious water-glass of Fuchs,
and its applications in the hands of Kaul-
bach, Kuhlmann, and others. Should it be
thought desirable, we may return to the
subject at a future day. We have here
given only a hasty resume of the vast mass
of facts and conclusions contained in the au-
thorities already named.

Puchs himself promised further details

as to the applications of water-glass, but

death stayed his hand. TS'e have already

mentioned his presentiment of death when

I about writing his pamphlet. This was only to

i be soon too true, and, as Dr. Pettenkofer re-

! marks, " he who never deceived others, and

I rarely himself, was not deceived in this pre-

j sentiment." His last words are, " To the

! Giver of all good be thanks for all joys and

I sufferings experienced! May his blessing

be upon the work !
; " Omnia ad majorem Dei honorem et gloriam !
i " Munich, Nov. 20, 1855."

T. A. Malone.

NIGHT-PLYINa MOTHS.

A CEETAiN number of the moth tribe may be
fitly separated as night-fiyers, for the reason
that several true moths fly by day, and are
nearly as fond of the bright sunshine as the
light-seeking butterflies, whose natural ele-
ment it is. Those moths which only fly by
night generally pass the day in a kind of tor-
por, from which some species cannot easily be
awakened. In this state they may be found
resting upon the trunk of a tree in a shady
place, or on the underside of a leaf, and no
amount of disturbance seems to rouse them
from their trance. A pinmay be stuck through

the body, transfixing the dormant msect to
the trunk of the tree on which it is resting,
without stimulating it to exhibit any sign of
awakening consciousness ; and not till the
time of flight arrives wUl it make any attempt
to escape. It will then raise its wings lei-
surely, and try their strength as usual, with-
out appearing at first to be aware that it is
secured to the spot by an instrument passed
through its body. The wings are at last put
into the rapid motion used in the act of
flying, and this action is continued with
occasional cessation till the hour of flight is

2a

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

passed, when the insect will relapse into the
previous state of torpid repose. This is one
of the proofs put forward by entomologists
to show that insects aro almost insensible to
pain, and that the sensation of a moth in
such a position as the one described is rather
that of submitting to an inconvenience than
of any acute sense of pain. The anatomical
structure of insects is such, indeed, especially
in the distribution of the nervous system,
that any concentrated sense of pain, similar
to that conducted to the brain by the nerves
in the higher classes of animals, appears

I would call the collector's attention, as they
are well worthy of examination. Many of
these, from being of nearly the same size, and
generally of a brownish colour, are thought
by the tyro to be all of the same kind.
Every species is termed " a moth " — neither
more nor less — a comprehensive term by
which the uuentomological world describe
any of the tribe that happen to enter the open
window late on a summer night, and flutter
round the candle. The moth and the candle
have, indeed, been associated in many a couplet
and many a proverb, neither the poet nor the

to be impossible to them. This will relieve
the minds of many tender-hearted collectors,
who might refrain forming a collection
through fear of causing unnecessary suffer-
ing. Some of the most splendid of our native
moths fly either very late in the dusk of the
evening, or at different hours of the night ; as,
for instance, the G-reat Red Underwing, the
still more beautiful Lilac Underwing, and
many others ; but these do not so often enter
living rooms as some of the smaller and
less conspicuous species, to which last kinds

proverb-maker imagining that, even during
the same evening, a dozen or more very
distinct species may be observed, each ap-
proaching the light inhis own peculiar fashion,
and each having a pecvdiar flight, by which
its species may be distinguished as cha-
racteristically as by the differences of the de-
licate markings, or the structure of the palpi
and antennse.

Linnajus, in his " SystemaNatura;," placed
all the moths, with the exception of the Spliin-
gidce, m one grand group, which he called

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

27

Phalcena, a fanciful name deriyed from the
Greek word ^a^aiva, meaning an insect wWchi
flies towards a candle at night — a name
evidently suggested to the great Swedish
naturalist by the old proverbial image of the
moth and the candle. The name is, however,
no longer applied to the general group, to
which, as a whole, it has been shown to be
inappropriate.

Among those, however, which are strictly
night- flyers a very pretty collection might be
made ; and some account of their habits, as
observed by the student, and an accurate and
careful description of theirtime of appearance,
etc., might be made to form a very interest-
ing record. The following are a few of the
species which are attracted by a lighted
candle. Supposing the window to be open,
and a bright light burning upon the table,
a succession of these scaly-winged visitors
wotdd, on a mild summer evening, in July
or August for instance, continue to appear
from dusk to dawn, each with its peculiar
kind of flight ; but only a few can be se-
parately noticed. Among these, Pheosia
Dictcea, popularly called the Swallow Promi-
nent (No. 1), ought to be distinguished. This
pretty genus of moths, of which there are two
British species, are known as the " swallows,"
on account of the long lancet-shaped wings,
and their remarkably rapid flight. The front
pair of wings of this elegant insect are deli-
cately marbled with shades of brown upon a
white ground, the brown being blended in
some places with a soft tone of gray. In its
fitful flight, when agitated by the light of the
candle, this insect continually darts towards
the ground, and is lost in the darkness, soon
to appear again glancing swiftly past the
light, and then downward into the shade as
before.

The caterpillar of this elegant moth is of
a shining, reddish brown, with small white
spiracular marks above the legs. It has the
last segment conspicuously humped, as is
usual with the caterpillars of this genus, and

those of several allied genera, from which
they are made to form a group, popularly
known as the " Prominents." One species
of a closely allied genus has two additional
humps, or segments, nearer to the head, from
which peculiarity the specific name "Dro-
medarius " has been conferred upon it. The
caterpillar of Pheosia Dictcea feeds on the
foliage. of the poplar, birch, and other trees,
and there are two distinct broods, the perfect
insect appearing both in June and August.
It is, however, by no means a common species,
and if the young collector should find it
come to his light on the first evenings of his
experiments, he may consider it a prize.

Agrotis Corticea, the Heart and Club Moth
(No. 2), is less fleet on the wing than the pre-
ceding, and instead of flying downwards,
towards the floor, invariably flies towards
the celling, attracted apparently by the mUd
white light by which it is pervaded. This
moth, with its markings of plain brown, un-
varied by any other tone, is yet well worthy
of examination. The two brown marks in the
centre of the front pair of wings, the upper
one shaped like a heart, and the one next the
body in the form of a club, are the most in-
teresting, as having suggested the popular
name of the insect ; but the other bandings
and scalloped transverse lines also form very
intricate and delicate tracery. Agrotis Cor-
ticea belongs to a very numerous genus, com-
posed of sixteen, or as some make it, twenty-
three or more species, many of which are
very common, as the Heart and Dart, and
many others ; but Corticea, the species de-
scribed, is rather rare, and the caterpillar, as
yet, remains unknown.

Cosmia Pyralina, the Lunar-spotted
Pinion Moth (No. 3), if it enter a room,
attracted by the light, is veiy wUd and irre-
gular in its flight, dashing from the candle to
the ceiling, and from the ceiling to the floor.
Its front wings are very richly shaded with
full warm tones of brown ; the light band
towards the fringed edge, which widens and

58

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

forms a light patch, at the front edge, being
of a pale and dusky peach-blossom tone. It
is a very pretty insect, but by no means com-
mon, though I have taken it more than once
in a lighted room — always, I believe, on a
rainy evening towards the end of July. The
caterpillar of this pretty moth is pale green,
with longitudinal stripes, of a paler tone, of
the same colour, and a yeUow line; edged
with black above the legs. It feeds on the
foliage of the plum, pear, and other fruit-
trees, in April and May.

CUsiocampa Neitstria, the Lackey Moth
(No. 4), is as abundant as the last described
species is rare ; and yet it is seldom seen in
the perfect form, as it is a swift night-flyer.
Though the perfect moth is seldom noticed,
unless sought by the entomological student,
the caterpillars are known to every child,
and, more especially to every gardener, by
whom they are deemed pests of the worst
description. Their bright longitudinal stripes
of fuU blue-gray, pale silvery gray, orange, red,
and black make them very conspicuous, and
have been thought to resemble the lacings of
rich liveries, from which circumstance both
species has received the name of the
•' lackeys." The moth, on entering a room,
attracted by a light, has the same wild flight
as the species last described, and is rather
difficult to capture, even with the aid of a
proper net. This moth is of a delicate light
buff colour, with a darker band, edged with
lighter lines of the same tone.

Later in the season may be taken JPetasia
Cassinea (No. 5), popularly known as the
Sprawler, which, like the last, is much more
rare in the winged state than in the caterpillar
stage of its existence. It is, however, often
attracted by a light, when its flight becomes
random, dashing heedlessly on all sides,
through the flame of the candle, up to the
ceiling or down to the floor. This species
seldom appears before November, and is
often found as late as December. It is
late in the hour of its flight as well as

in the season, often retarding its visit to the
expectant candle, till one or two in the
morning. The caterpillar generally feeds
on the foliage of the privet ; it is green, with
yellow stripes, and, above a light line at the
side, has a broad line of rich brown,
shading off at the upper edge and blending
with the green.

Still later appears the remarkably elegant
little moth, Fcecilocampa Populi, the Decem-
ber Moth (No. 6), which, with its semi-trans-
parent wings of deep purplish gray, with their
pale buff transverse bands, will not fail to be
considered a prize by the young collector. It
is easily attracted by light, and, if any be in
the neighbourhood, wiU make its appearance
between the hours of seven and ten, on
favourable evenings. The caterpillar of this
pretty wintry visitant is pale ash-coloured,
getting darker on the back, and having two
pairs of red spots on each segment. It is
found in June on the foliage of poplar-trees,
becoming a chrysalis, when full fed, early in
July, and remaining in that state till De-
cember, at which seemingly unseasonable
time for so delicate a little creature, the moth
emerges from the warm protection of its close
horny chamber.

Great numbers of moths of more common
species will come to the candle of the student,
and many also of the larger and more con-
spicuous will doubtless reward a persevering
nocturnal watch, even in a room ; but a light
in the open fields, or in a wood favourably
situated, would yield a stiU more ample
harvest ; though it is not all the night-flying
moths, nor even the greater number of them,
that are attracted by a light ; so that the
fable of the moth and the candle does not
hold good with regard to the whole moth
family, and is, in fact, only applicable to a
very small section of it.

H. Noel Humpheets.

BECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

29

SCIENCE ON THE SEA-SHORE.

I. FLINTS AND SPONGES.
0

Waem work on the shiuing sands, with tlie
blazing sun in the meridian, and the surface
of the broad and scarcely-ruffled sea co-
vered with a throbbing vapour, that seems
too oppressed to rise freely, and panting for
a friendly breath of wind to help it in its
journey upward. Not a cloud to give a
momentary shadow and idea of coolness;
and the heat seeming to come down in pulses
to which every vein in the body beats time.
"Were it not for the faint gurgle of the sea
breaking into sluggish lines of foam along
the pebbled shore as the tide rises, we shoidd
believe we were consigned to an oven, to
test the limits of human endurance. But
the water is real — it sparkles as it breaks
along the shingle, and its music is cool to
the ear, and mentally subdues the fever of
the body. But to turn one's eyes to the
chalk, which right and left seems to be in-
candescent, is to risk blindness ; it is too
white to be gazed upon intently, and we
must wait tUl the fervent sun sinks, hissing,
into the wet horizon. There, after all, is a
cool nook, and just in the very place in which
we may trace the lines of flints as they lie in
regular strata from the base to the summit.

What is flint P How it has puzzled the
philosophers to answer the question, and how
has the microscope assisted them ! The most
interesting point in the first step of the in-
quiry is, that flint always occurs in chalk,
and usually in separate nodules, as flies occur
in amber. There is one notable exception,
in the continuous stratum which rises from
the beach near St. Margaret's Bay, and there
may be a few other examples ; but the rule
is, to find flints in beds, pretty regularly
sprinkled over the surface, and every block
having its own contour, distinctness, and
individuality. Why should it occur in chalk ?

and if a deposit from water, why shoidd it
be in separate nodides P

Take a thin slice of flint, properly pre-
pared for the microscope, and let the in-
strument unravel its history. If used to
the detection of fossil infusoria, you will
hardly fail to find them in it, and you
gain one step towards an answer as to
its history. Organized forms have had
something to do with its formation; at
some time very far back in the past there
has been animal life there, and that life was
marine. But you cannot account for the for-
mation of separate and independent nodules
of silica, scattered over a bed of chalk, by
the help of these infusoria. Try a splinter
of flint broken off in the rough ; but be very
careful not to spoil your object-glass by bring-
ing the two surfaces into close contact. Now
what do you seeP Eemains of shells, and
here and there distinct traces of a sort of
reticulated structure, sparry incrustations
of a contour which you cannot but believe
is derived from some organic form, long
since annihilated. These appearances are re-
peated in various specimens, and have a
general relationship one to the other, especi-
ally in the interlacing lines and spiculae of
which they consist. Now observe this speci-
men of Pachi/matisma Johnstonii, which I
have obtained on purpose for the comparison.
Do you note the starry spicule with which
its pores are beset, and which you see are
flinty, and constitute the basis of the crea-
ture's skeleton ? There is your index to the
history of flints. The organic structure va-
riously observable in the specimens owe
their origin to sponges, in the structure of
which sUex is the main ingredient, just as
carbonate of lime is the principal material in
the bony skeletons of madrepores.

If we revert back in imagination to the
period when these flints were formed, we
see the floor of the ocean abundantly peopled
with marine creatures. There were star-
fishes, echinites, madrepores, and infusoria ;

30

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

but the sponges were, perhaps, the most
numerous. Consisting of sUica, with a very-
perishable organized tissue, these were ready
at any time to undergo petrifaction, if
circumstances were favourable. Bring two
globules of mercury near to each other, and
see how readily they run together into one
mass. There you have a mechanical example
of the way in which silica was precipitated
from the water, and aggregated into nodules
about the spiculsB of the sponges, and by de-
grees filled up the whole skeleton, preserv-
ing its form, but destroying its substance, and
thus changing sponges into nodules of flint.
Mr. Brande has imitated this very process in
experiment, and has seen the formation of
flinty nodules about a nucleus, when finely
powdered silica has been mixed with other
earths, and the whole diffused through water.
Every separate sponge offering a separate
nucleus, suffices to explain why flints should
commonly appear, as they do, with such de-
cided individuality of character ; they are
petrified sponges, formed in much the same
way as those petrified forests travellers tell
us of, where the trees are all fiint; the woody
fibre has disappeared, but the original struc-
ture is still traceable in the mass of silex in
which the perished organisms are now repre-
sented. That silica abounded in the seas of
the period in which the chalk beds were depo-
sited IS certain ; but we are far from having
arrived at a clear idea as to the chemistry of
the whole subject to which flints introduce us.
We can see the sponges in the flint, and the
flint in the sponges, and the more we ob-
serve, reason, and compare, the more are we
convinced of their geological and chemical
relations.

Then comes the question, what is a
sponge? Down here, in this wet hollow,
we are sure to find some ; in dark places,
where the water is of some depth, almost
every fragment of sea-weed has attached to
it some living species of sponges, and they
Vary in size and structure, from mere specks

to large and substantial masses. ]^ow and
then we may find them on the shells of
oysters and crabs; and once, in our aqua-
rium, a fine hermit came out of his shell to
die, and was foTind to have a sponge as large
as a hazel-nut attached to his soft body, just
below the insertion of the last pair of legs.

Animal life may be said to begin or end
in the sponges, they are the very lowest in
the scale of animated nature ; but it is quite
certain they are not members of the veget-
able kingdom. Take a piece of sponge, such
as is commonly used on the toilet table, and
dip it into a thin solution of size, and you
have a fair resemblance of its condition
when living. The sponge proper is the skele-
ton, the gelatinous coating is organized and
animal; and the best proof of the fact is
afforded by the microscope, which reveals
ciliary motion, and there is an end of the
difficulty as to what place it should occupy.
The openings in the sponge are chambers,
interlaced with sHicated fibres, and, by the
play of the cilia on the gelatinous surface,
the water is made to circulate from chamber
to chamber, so that the sponges obtain their
food by the same process as a vorticella
or rotifer — namely, by creating currents
through the agency of cilia. The exterior
film is the life of the sponge, the skeleton is
a deposit. But the film must be under-
stood as pervading the inner as well as the
exterior chambers, so that the currents of
water pass through the entire mass, and
carry nourishment to all the mouths for
which the cilia work so incessantly. A very
dead sort of creature is a living sponge. It
has none of the organs of sense which dis-
tinguish terrestrial animals, and not even
the irritability which makes a sea-anemone
of so peevish or spasmodic a temper. But it
has its history, however brief, like others of
the great class of zoophytes. The sponges
increase by gemmation. Little buds appear
within the openings of the reticulated mass,
and these at last detach themselves, and

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

31

exhibit tlie same play of cilia as their
parents.

But, instead of at once becoming fixed,
the action of the cilia causes the sponge to spin
about in the water, so as to have a real loco-
motive power of finding for itself a site, where
it casts anchor, and for the rest of its days
never knows either the pleasures or the pains
of travel. If every separate flint was once a
separate sponge, this locomotion accounts for
their detachment and their subsequent con-
cretion in distinct nodules.

In the tank fitted up by Mr. Bowerbank,
and presented to the Crystal Palace, there
were, not long since, a number of living
sponges, in very good condition for observa-
tion. Whether they remain there we know
not, but we can teU those who keep aquaria
that, if the dredge or the hand-net bring up
specimens which it is wished to preserve,
that the great secret is darkness. In the
light they soon perish and cause putrescence ;
in a very subdued daylight they live for a
length of time, and may so be preserved for
microscopic observation. There are not less
than sixty species inhabitmg the British
coasts, and they differ considerably in their
conformation, though corresponding in their
physiological structure.

ShIELEY HlBBEED.

THE KEY TO A BIED'S HEAET.

The number of feathered songsters that an-
nually find their way into cages in England
alone, and are kept unhappy prisoners there,
can hardly be credited. It may be fairly
stated at very many thousands. Of these,
multitudes die from neglect or starvation;
and how many broken-hearted? The few
that survive, with certain choice exceptions,
drag on a miserable life of lingering cap-
tivity. Eorming a part of the household
furniture, they are kept until they are worn

out ; they are then replaced by others ! There
is "fashion" in bird-keeping as well as in
everything else. The question is. Should
these things beP I say, No. Birds have
very, very tender little hearts ; and they are
quite willing to love us, if we will only let
them. But we won't ! Let us reform this
altogether.

I shall take it as granted that every
reader of Recreative Science is of a genial
and kindly disposition. There will there-
fore be a cordial assent to the doctrine,
that we should strive to make everything
li"ving beneath our roof "happy." How is
this to be done ? Nothing more easy. There
needs but the will, to accomplish the object.
This leads me to remark upon a very inte-
resting fact, viz., that every human being is
a magnet — powerful as any steel magnet can
be, albeit formed of a softer material. The
powers of attraction and repulsion are born
with us ; an observant eye may detect them
in daily operation. Thus, no one person can
touch another person without imparting and
receiving some influence from the contact.
Try this on a bird. Fondle it, and press it
to your cheek : it will soon become sen-
sible of your affection.* The eye, the hand,
the breath, the will — all act on it. There
are many of these sweet secret aifinities run-
ning throughout Nature. Opportunity dis-
covers them. The influence is excited by
proximity ; it is developed by contact. How
very much of the enjoyment of life is lost
from the want of a knowledge of this little
secret! "Natural Magic" should be sedu-
lously studied. It gives us irresistible power,
over both man and animals ; and thus enables
us to live in Uoo charming worlds at once.f

* During a recent professional visit to the north
of England, and wliile in Liverpool more particularly,
I quite astonished all the lovers of hirds. Ere I took
my departure, I had made many of them quite pro-
ficients in the Art of Bird- taming.

\ Having had in my possession, at one and the
same time, no fewer than 306 feathered songsters, and
many other animals, I speak from experience— aM
were tamed by " Natural Magic."

82

BECREATIVE SCIENCE.

But a question here naturally presents
itself, Are all birds alike sensitive ? Are they
all open to these genial influences ? Certainly
not. I am sorry to say there are mani/ in-
stances in which the power I speak of is
inefiectual — quite. Some birds, and other
animals, like certain human beings, show no
sympathy whatever. Nothing can please,
nothing can win, nothing can attract them.
We succeed best with them, when we take
no notice of them ! Strange, but true. This
confirms my remark, that sympathy is the
only true magnet. It must be born with us ;
or it does not exist. It is a part of our-
selves :—

" The tender violet loves to grow,
Within the shade that roses throw;
The myrtle bends towards the rose —
Behold how God his wisdom shows
How nail\ires, formed alike, come nigh.
Attracted by sweet sympathy ! "

It were indeed vain to attempt to unite the
two poles !

But now to our feathered favourites.
Perhaps they have hitherto been treated with
neglect, perhaps ill-fed, perhaps exposed to
all sorts of weather — their too common fate.
Poor little innocents ! Eestore them at once
to favour, and redouble your attention to
them. It is the least you can do to make
amends for your past cruelty. Let them
occupy a place in your drawing-room — why
not on the table, in a noble, spacious dwell-
ing? If they are your friends, don't be
ashamed of them. Talk to them, sing to
them, play to them. They love to hear the
sound of your voice, and they can readily
recognize your approaching footstep. A day
or two will work wonders. You will soon
be able to let your visitors see that your
"pets" really a?'e pets — realities, not coun-
terfeits. To have a bird, or an animal of ani/
kind, in our house, that does not "love" us i
—the idea is quite heathenish.

The next thing is, to show the power of
"Natural Magic" at the breakfast-table. It
is here you will find that you possess the

key to your bird's heart. Invite him regu-
larly as your guest, and bid him heartily
welcome. " Dicky " must be — shall be — one
of our " Happy Family." So place him on
the table — every morning.

Now let us imagine — the morning sacrifice
duly paid, and all comfortably seated around
the well-spread table with smiling faces — •
that we are about to take our grand lesson
in Bird-taming. Open the door, or doors, of
your little friend's dwelling. Let him see he
is invited to be " free." Have ready on the
table-cloth some little delicacy in which he
delights, such as a sprig of ripe groundsel
or flowery chickweed, a wee morsel of egg,
or a bit of sponge-cake — above all, his bath.
His little majesty will note all that you are
doing, and readily resolve in his active mind
the meaning of all he beholds. If he has
been long neglected and treated with indif-
ference, it is just possible he may not realize
on the first morning all you expect from him.
He will, perhaps, alight on the edge of the
open door, look out, survey all that is going
forward, and return to his old quarters. The
rest of the day he will devote to thinking
matters over. That birds do think, I am
quite prepared to " prove."

Next morning, again invite your pet or
pets ; again open their doors, again spread
before them some tempting luxury. Mark
the result ; and let it be decisive evidence that
birds have very retentive memories, as well
as tenderly-afiectionate hearts. Looking up
archly, your little friends will leisurely de-
scend from their seat, hop along the table,
help themselves to some tid-bit, and stare you
boldly — ay, saucily — in the face. They will
then show their " consequence," by coquet-
tishly approaching close to your tea-cup ;
and perhaps, with extended wing, give you
battle. A week will accomplish all this — and
more.

The game is now your own. Every morn-
ing will add to the tameness of your pets,
and their droll audacity will aiford you in-

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

33

finite amusement. Your conquest completed,
you will find many a sweet little song impro-
vised for you, and warbled sotto voce from
the windows of their habitation. Mind and
listen attentively to it. Approach lovingly,
and bend your head forward. Then present
one of your fingers. It will be gently pecked
at. Next, your lip. That will be welcomed
by a "chaste salute." The bird's affection
cannot go beyond this. Such a mode of
salutation seems to be the only natural way
of expressing the deep feelings of an affec-
tionate heart. It rules throughout all Nature.
Let us honour it, and ever rate it at its real
value. Soni soit qui mal y pense !

One word more. When you have won
your bird's heart, mind and keep possession
of it. The heart of a confiding little bird
must not be trifled with. It is not like the
human heart — pliable and elastic as India-
rubber. No ; while one bends, the other
breaks. We mortals have the oddest pos-
sible ideas about " love." We can love one,
twenty, or fifty ! Little birds want only
"one" love. In this they live ; in this they
die — happy. Surely, if only for variety's
sake, it is well to possess — The Key to a

Bird's Heart (?).

William Kidd.

THE GYEOSCOPE.

"What is a gyroscope?" is a question that
many persons have asked, and many more
have found some difficulty in answering.
To furnish a reply to those who have made
the inquiry, and to excite the attention of
those to whom the remarkable phenomena
exhibited by the gyroscope are unknown, is
the object of this paper.

The instrument in question is the Inven-
tion of a French philosopher, M. Poucault,
to whom we are indebted for the celebrated
demonstration of the earth's axial rota-
tion, by means of a pendulum. It consists

of a wheel, carefully attached to an axis,
having the mass of metal composing it dis-
posed around its edge, in order that, when it
is put into rapid rotation, it may revolve for
a longer time than it otherwise would. The
axis of this wheel is himg within a ring,
which latter is suspended to the end of a
semicircular arm, and this, by means of a
spindle attached to the middle of its outer
edge, is placed on the top of a pillar, rising
out of the foot that supports the entire in-
strument.

: The apparatus may, therefore, be de-
scribed as consisting of a heavy foot, a,
from which rises a hoUow piUar, b, support-
ing, by means of the spindle before alluded
to, the semicircular arm, c, with its two
ends upwards, the spindle being a vertical
axis, on which this arm can rotate. The
ring, D, is attached to the end of this arm by
two pivots, which form a horizontal axis, on
which the ring can move ; and through the
edge of the ring, at right angles to the pivots
by which it is suspended, two screws, e, f,
are inserted, and these support the axis of
the wheel, a. These arrangements enable
the wheel, by means of a cord wound round
its axis and quickly drawn off, to have com-
municated to it a rapid rotatory motion, the
plane of such motion being capable of varia-
tion, from the vertical to the horizontal, or
any intermediate position, by moving tho
ring on the pivots which form its axis;
while the spindle attached to the semicir-
cular arm, enables the entire system of
wheel, ring, and arm to rotate horizontally.
■j The following, among other experimentOi,
can be performed with the gyroscope, illus-
trating the following principles : —

That inertia is a property of matter in
motion, as well as of matter at rest.

That the power possessed by Armstrong's
and similarly formed guns, of resisting the
influence of gravity, is due to the gyratoiy
motion given to the ball as it leaves the
muzzle of the gun.

84

RECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

That orhital and axial motioa are in-
timately related, and tliat the speed of one
may regulate that of the other.

That the condition of unstable equili-
brium in which many bodies remain, is to
be explained by the fact of their rotation ;
as, for example, a child's top, etc., etc.

Fig. 1.

Examine the instrument while in a state
of rest, and it will be readily moved in any
direction, the slightest touch being sufficient
to alter the position of any of its parts ; and
if the stand be slowly moved round on the
table, the entire system of wheel, ring, and
arm wUl be moved round with it.

Kotate the wheel by the aid of the string,
as before described, and a remarkable change
wiU be manifest. The wheel wUl now offer
a great resistance to any attempt to alter the
plane in which it is rotating, and the other
parts of the instrument, like it, seem to par-
take of a similar indisposition to be interfered
with. The stand may now be- moved round
on the tablft, but the wheel will not move

with it ; the wheel and ring remaining ap-
parently immoveably fixed. If the instru-
ment be held in one hand by the stand, the
same takes place, whatever be the direction
in which it is moved. If the ring be re-
moved from the arm, while the wheel is
rotating, and held in the hand, the sensation
experienced is like that which would be felt
if it were a living thing struggling earnestly
to escape.

When the wheel is at rest, hang one of
the cylindrical weights, H, on either of the
heads of the screws, e, f, that support the
axis of the wheel, and, as might be expected,
that side will, by the operation of the law of
gravity, be immediately pulled down. He-
move the weight, restore the wheel to its
vertical position and rotate it, and hang the
weight on again. The wheel now resists the
influence of the weight, and maintains the
position it was in before the weight was
applied, the rotation of the wheel apparently
neutralizing the law of gravity.

Not only will the wheel retain its posi-
tion in spite of the influence of the earth's
gravity, represented by the weight,
but the entire system will commence
a rotation on the vertical spindle at-
tached to the semicircular arm. This
last rotation is due to the action of the
weight, for if this be lifted off the move-
ment instantly ceases, and commences
as soon as the weight is hung on again.
If the weight be hung on to the op-
posite end of the axis of the wheel,
the rotation of
the system on
the vertical spin-
dle still takes(;
place, but in the
opposite direc-
tion.

E-otate the
wheel, and then ■^^*^- ^•

remove it and the ring from the arm, and
hang them on to the end of a string by one

HECUEATIVE SCIEN^CE.

85

of tlie screws on wHcL. tlie weight was sus-
pended (Fig. 2). Instead of falling, as might
have been expected, the entire mass preserves
the plane in which it is placed, although the
whole weight of the wheel and ring is on one
side of the point of suspension, and a revolu-
tion of the whole is commenced round this
point.

These secondary revolutions seem to be
due to the law of composition of forces, for
the wheel is acted upon at the same mo-
ment by the gravity of the earth, and also
by the peculiar property of resisting attempts
to change the plane of its motion consequent
upon the state of rapid rotation in which it
has been put.

The peculiar forces exhibited by the
gyroscope may be due to the property of
inertia which belongs to all matter, and by
virtue of which it cannot move itself when
at rest, or stop itself when in motion, or
when in motion change the plane in which it
is proceeding.

Or they may be traced to the direct in-
fluence of the force communicated to the
wheel, all the particles of which, whUe ro-
tating, ha^-e a tendency to fly off in a direc-
tion tangential to the circle in which it is
moving, and in the same plane in which
the rotation is taking place. Any attempt,
therefore, to interfere with the direction of
this plane will have to contend with the
force with which, were they not restrained
by the law of cohesion, every particle com-
posing the wheel would fly off.

E. G. Wood.

Grand Prize Bird Show at SoaxHAMPxoN. — We
hear of a variety of provincial " bird-shows" in prepara-
tion, and among them an important one at South-
ampton, open to all Hampshire. It is announced as
being under the highest patronage, and we hope it will
fully realize the sanguine expectations of its projectors.
Tt will take place late in the autumn, and be under the
superintendence of Mr. \Vm. Kidd, of Hammersmith,
who is to give one of his popular " Gossipping" En-
tertainments on Song Birds each day of the exhibition.

ASTEONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS
EOE AUGUST, 1859.

A TOTAi eclipse of the moon will occur on the 13th
of August, but will be invisible in England. It will
be visible in latitudes 14° and 15° S., and in longitudes
67^° to 158' E. A partial eclipse of the sun will take
place on August 27th, which will also be invisible in
England. It will begin at 15h. 30m. G.M.T., in lati-'
tude 28° 3' S., and longitude 42° 57' E., and end at
18h, 31m. in latitude 77° 23' S., and longitude
121° 34' E. The greatest eclipse will occur in latitude
61° 40' S., and longitude 33" 51' E., at 17h. lm.,G.M.T.,
when above half of the sun's limb will be obscured.

Full moon on 13th, at 4h. 34m. p.m.

New moon on 28th, at 6h, 14m. a.m.

The moon is at her least distance from the earth
on 27th, and at the greatest on the 12th.

The sun is in the constellation Leo until the 23rd,
and then in Virgo.

Mercury is in Leo throughout the moon, and is
favourably situated for observation at the commence-
ment of August. It is in conjunction with the moon
on tlie 28th.

Venus is small, and nearly circular. On the
morning of 21st she will be within 10' distance of
Saturn, and at midnight of the same day within 4' of
Mars, the three planets forming a cluster.

Mars is invisible near the sun, and at its greatest
distance from the earth on August 1st.

Jupiter is in Gemini, and is a morning star.

Saturn is near the sun, and invisible.

August is ; remarkable for the great "number of
meteors, which more especially take pjace about the
9th and XOth.

On the 1st the sun rises' in London at 4h. 24m.
a.m., and sets at 7h. 47m. p.m. On the 31st he rises
at 5h. 11m., and sets at 6h. 48m. p.m.

On the 1st twilight ends at lOh. 40m. p.m., and
day breaks at Ih. 32m. a.m. On the 23rd twilight ends
at 9h. 21m. p.m. On the 7th, length of day 15 hours.
. OccuLTATioN OF Stars BY THE MooN : — On the
13th in Capricomi, 5th magnitude, disappearance,
llh. 59m.; reappearance, 12h. 12m. meantime. On
14th, No. 67, Aquarii, 6th ijuignitude, disappearance,
16h. 40m. ; reappearance, 17h, 41m. On 18th, NoJlOl,
Piscium, 6th magnitude, disappearance, 13h. 31m.;
reappearance, 14h. 25m. meantime. E. J. Lowe,

Highfield Observatory, Nottingham.

OCCTJLTATION OF SaTURN BY THE MoON, MaY 8, aS

observed at Cambridge Observatory, occurred earlier
than was expected. Professor Challis remarked that the
moon's limb, where it crossed the middle of Saturn and
his rings, appeared to be unusually curved, and that both
the ball and the ring were reduced before disappearance
to a very narrow strip of light, and also that a lingering
in disappearance took place. The colour of the planet
was in remarkable contrast with the whiteness of the;
moon's light.

30

RECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

THINGS OF THE SEASON— AUGUST.

FOR VARIOUS LOCALITIES OF BRITAIN.

The following are intended merely as reminders for
ont-door naturalists and collectors :—

Birds Arriyinq. — Mountain Finch, Siskin, Blue
and Gray Gull, Crossbeak, Gray Plover, Purple Sand-
piper, Cambridge Godwit, Knot.

Birds Departino. — Lapwing, Field Titlark, Dot-
trell. Razor-bill, Turtle Dove, Quail, Cuckoo, Swift,
Wryneck, Puffin, Foolish Guillemot.

Insects to be Sought. — Field Cricket, Clouded
Sulphur Butterfly, Camberwell Beauty, Callistus
lunatus, Eed Admiral, Brown Hair-streak, Purple-
edged Copper, Middle Copper, Pear Skipper, Brown-
tailed Moth, Yellow-legged Locust, Painted Lady.

Wild Plants in Flower. — Purple Melic Grass,
Small Teasel, Devil's Bit Scabious, Corn Bell-flower,
Hoary Mullein, Dodder, Marsh Gentian, Alpine and
Water Parsnep, Water Hemlock, Samphire, Fiddle-
dock, Small Water Plantain, Common Soapwort,
Orpine, Horsemint, Wild Basil, Daisy-leaved Carda-
mine. Small Fumitory, Dwarf Furze, Yellow Vetch,
Hawkweeds, Plume Thistle, Southernwood, Fleabane,
Chamomile, Yarrow, Ladies' Tresses, Sea Spurge,
Wild Amaranth, Club Moss.

METEOEOLOGY OF AUGUST,

FROM OBSERVATIONS MADE

AT THE HIGHFrr.r.n HOUSE

OBSERVATORY.

Year.
1842 .,

Greatest

Ueat.

Degrees.

. . 85.5 . .

Greatest

Cold.

Degrees.

. . 44.0 . .

Amount of

Eain.

Inches.

1843 .

.. 85.5 ..

. . 45.0 . .

. . —

1814 .

.. 80.0 ..

. . 40.0 . .

.. 2.3

1845 .

. . 74.5 . .

. . 44.3 . .

.. 4.8

1846 ..

.. 80.0 ..

. . 50.0 . .

.. 3.3

1847 .

. .. 76.5 ..

.. 38.0 ..

.. 1.4

1848 .

. .. 74.7 ..

. . 37.3 . .

.. 4.8

1849 .

. . . 80.8 . .

.. 38.8 ..

.. 1.7

1850 .

.. 79.0 ..

. . 34.3 . .

.. 1.0

1851 ..

.. 84.5 ..

.. 36.0 ..

.. 3.1

1853 ..

.. 81.5 ..

. . 46.5 . .

.. 3.3

1853 ..

.. 77.3 ..

.. 38.0 ..

.. 4.3

1854 .

.. 81.5 ..

.. 40.8 ..

.. 1.4

1855 .

.. 81.3 ..

. . 40.7 . .

.. 1.1

1856 .

.. 93.5 ..

. . 40.5 . .

.. 4.0

1857 .

.. 85.8 ..

.. 46.0 ..

.. 6.3

1858 .

.. 83.0 ,.

. . 39.8 . .

.. 2.8

The greatest heat in shade reached 93.5'' in 1856,
and only 74.5" in 1845, giving a range in greatest heat
of IS.Q" during the past seventeen years.

The greatest cold was as low as 34.2" in 1850, and
never below 50.0" in 1846, giving a range of 15.8 in
greatest cold.

There has never been less than an inch of rain fallen
in August, whilst there was as much as 6.2 in. in 1857.

August is subject to great weather changes, and in
the first fortnight severe thunder-storms usually occur,
more especially about the 9th of the month.

E, J. Lowe

Mt ]M olewortty's d

orner.

How TO Observe the Habits of Birds. — Mr.
Noteworthy has a favourite nook in his garden very
much enshrouded with overhanging branches, where
the birds love to congregate and warble sweetly.
Every year a large patch of hemp is sown to make a
graceful tuft of green, and as soon as it begins to
ripen seeds, the tomtits crowd tlie stems, and in
all sorts of comical attitudes enjoy a daily feast. This
year the feathered family is more numerous than it has
ever been, and very lovingly do they chatter to their
delighted benefactor. The birds on the branches are
not too far ofi" for a minute inspection of theii-plumago
when a short focus telescope is used in the observa-
tion. Mr. Noteworthy once suggested to a London
optician the advisability of producing a' telescope
expressly for naturalists. The hint was not taken ;
it is now ofi'ered to the world : Wanted, a Naturalist's
Telescope, adapted as to focus for the observation of
birds at from five to twenty yards' distance. Cheap
enough to command young people's pocket-money, and
good enough for the vision of a philosopher.

Miniature Eockwork. — The best of all materials
for rockwork in fern-cases and aquaria, except where
only a few loose blocks of stone are required, is com-
mon coke. Break the coke into pieces of a suitable
size for the intended structure. Make a thin batter of
Portland cement, and dip each piece into it. Eepeat
the dipping after the first has set, and then build up
and cement together with Portland. Masses of rock-
work are objectionable in aquaria and fern-cases,
from their enormous weight, but by employing coke,
you have it almost " as light as a feather." To
make a pyramid, take a flower-pot and cement frag-
ments of broken burrs all over it. It may then be lifted
in or out of a tank or fern-case with the greatest ease,
and is far preferable to a permanent structure.

Flints in the Drift. — The recent discovery of
flint implements (?) in the drift, has given rise to con-
siderable discussion as to whether they are to he
regarded as bona fide products of human art, or, as
Mr. Wright has it in his coiTCspoudence with the
Alhenaum, " the result of some mysterious operation
of Nature." Mr. Noteworthy has at present no opinion
on the subject. He has seen some of the so-called
implements, and, instead of jumping to conclusions,
will see them again and again, and in the meantime
revolve the matter in his mind. Those who are in
the habit of visiting the library of the Society of Anti-
quaries should not fail to obtain a view of the objects,
on the presumed histoi'y of which, doubtless, many
very pretty hypotheses will be put forth.

New Solvent and Cement. — Copper dissolved in
ammonia is, by the Builder, said to form a solvent
which acts on woody fibre, wool, and sUk in such
a way as to produce a waterproof cement ; and cotton
fabrics saturated with the solution of wool take dyes
which have hitherto been used only to woollen goods.
Many useful appliances are anticipated from this
discovery.

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

S7

rE'\'ENSEt CASTLE.

THE CEASELESS WOEK OF THE SEA.

EOCK-STBATA AND THEIE MATEHIAIS.

Near wliere tlie Norman Conqueror first set
foot on English soil, stands an old and stately
ruin that,

" Lifting its foreliead gray,
Smiles at the tempest and Time's sweeping sway."

Eoman tiles, peering with, ruddy faces through
the " ivy green " mantling the stately walls,
point to its first founders and to its ancient
prime and glory ; while the great masses of
neatly-trimmed and close-fitting squares of
Caen stone show the extensive additions made
by the martial men of a later age, who pos-
sessed and renovated the fortress.

Before those lichen-covered walls the red-
haired Norman king encamped, when within
their protecting range the ambitious Odo
sought refuge. Stephen, too, sat down before
them ; and from those grass-grown parapets
and bastions, the bright eyes of the lovely
maids of Provence, whom Peter of Savoy
brought over to wed to English lords, looked
out, six hundred years ago upon a damp and
oozy tract around.

Through those gapped and crumbling

walls the "bleak winds wafted from the
main" now sigh and moan, and rushing on,
press down the tall, rank grass on the nume-
rous hummocks that dot the surface of the
marshy plain. These, when the brazen
helmets of the Eoman sentinels glittered on
those solid buttress-towers, were little islets
in a great and shallow bay ; and the river,
which now travels through a long and arti-
ficial channel to the sea, flowed down close
by the castrum-walls, and formed a Eomau
naval port.

While thus the waters of the daily tides
flowed and ebbed around the hummock-isles,
a solid buttress of the Eoman fortress, under-
mined, fell out, and tumbled sidelong on the
muddy slope. So the Normans found it, and
when they mended up the cracks in the old
masonry and extended the works, they built
up, erect and strong, a sallyport over the
prostrate mass.

Gradually, slowly btit surely, and cer-
tainly, from the time when Eoman hands
surrounded the island-hummock with its

Voi„ I.— iS^o. 2.

38

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

stout, broad wall unto this very hour, lias
tlie great change in the physical and geogra-
phical characters of Pevensey levels been
progressing. Unceasing, unvarying in its
process, has been the alteration of the tract
around those ancient castle-walls. The winds

Fig. 1. — Diagrammatical Section of a Chalk-cliff,
showing the waste of land and the sorting of the
materials by the sea. a, Fallen masses of chalk-
rock ; 6,' flints left on the shore by the washing
away of the soft chalk, and forming a beach along
the level of high tide ; c, finer fragments, or sand,
deposited in the tidal zone, between high and low
water ; d, very fine earthy particles, or mud, depo-
sited under water.

driving along the shore, by means of the
boisterous waves, the flint-shingle, derived
from the abrasion of the cliffs of Beachy
Head, first formed a tongue-like bar, the point
of which, ever creeping onward with the ac-
cumulation of each succeeding tide, gradually
shut in the estuary, which then, by means of
the river continuously bringing down fine
particles of mud, powdered by the ro-'n and
weather, from the surrounding hUls anCi lands,
in the lapse of time has been completely silted
up. Thus has been changed the whole
face of the district, and sheep and cattle
graze on verdant pastures that have sup-
planted the brackish waters of the indented
bay. In the mud, sand, and gravel strewn
.over this great plain, river-shells, bones of
wolves and other beasts, of porpoises and
fish, xjockle and oyster-shells, ancient canoes,
and bones of domesticated animals remain

embedded, with the leaves and stems of hazel,
birch, oak, and other of the indigenous trees of
the ancient forests.

Such are not, however, confusedly com-
mingled, but the bones and larger dehris are
deposited in one place, the shells and finer
sediment in another ; the calcareous shells of
the lymnseans are found still in the old river-
course, the oyster-beds at the former river-
mouths — all have been buried upon the spots
on which they lived or grew. The bones and
the canoes are where the currents, according
to their force and strength, deposited them,
affording thus clear evidence of the succes-
sion of the prominent events which have oc-
curred during the progress of the natural
operations instrumental in filling up the
ancient bay.

Just as the history of the old castle itself
has to be made out from the study of its
masonry and its varied styles of architecture
— just as we have to test the knowledge de-
rived from the correlative sources of history,
old deeds, legendary tales, and traditions, by
the indicative characters of its actual struc-
ture ; so, in the study of the past history of
the physical conditions of any portion, how-
ever limited, of the dry land of our globe,
we have to measure all the other corroborative
or extraneous evidences by the standard of
the conditions of the strata, or beds of mineral
matter themselves. As the marks of the
mason's chisel or the trowel are in archaeo-
logical inquiries valuable indications of the
national workman by whose hands they were
made, so, too, the position of a shell in the
consolidated silt, the fragmentary op perfect
condition of a bone, and many other ap-
parently trifling features, have significations
and values of high importance in geological
or physical investigations.

And the rock-strata of the earth are the
consolidated muds, sands, and beaches of
other shores and other ages — their fossils
the petrified remains of the shell-fish, plants,
or beasts, that existed on them or the adjacent

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

89

.ands. Every relic bears its own record, the
faithful interpretation of which is ever to be
got by careful and intelligent study.

Now that we have completed our his-
torical survey of the expanded levels of the
Sussex shores, let us extend our view still
further backward in time, and inquire how
that ancient bay was formed. The surround-
ing land, then, was first excavated by water,
even as since the space thus cleared out has
been refilled and reconverted into dry land
by the same agency. Long before Homan or
Norman trod on British soil — long before the
aboriginal Celt, unknown to us save by the
rude flint axe or arrow-head, or by a few
bleached bones reverently laid in simple cist
of unhewn stones, or hollowed log of wood —
long before the first-born of the human race
began his mundane course of pain and pleasure
— ^long indeed before, far back in the abyss
of time, there have been such changes of land
and sea, such out-cuttings and in-fiUings,
such wearing down of higher lands, such
leveUings of ocean-spoils, both on great ex-
tents and smaller scales. In the oldest rocks
— myriads of ages old — the constituent par-
ticles of quartz or mica, no matter how finely
ground, tell of the still older wasted gneissic
lands from which those particles were thus
derived; the embedded fossils, so unlike the
life-forms of this present age, confirm in their
quaintness the testimony of the rocks; the
rippling sea left ruffles on the sand ; the rain-
dr(?|)s of sudden showers pitted its smooth
and glistening surface ; worms drilled into it,
and shell-fish burrowed in the ooze; green,
limp sea-weeds gently floated in the tidal
pools ; and sometimes the sea in its gentlest
mood spread a gauzy film over the beautiful
scene, and carefully preserved it for ever.

Still the sea was at its ceaseless toU, ever
destroying and ever renovating — restlessly,
ceaselessly biting into the land and heaping
up its spoils upon its shores.

In the smooth, rounded spurs jutting from
the surrounding higher and more ancient

ground into the Pevensey flats — in the
rounded contour of the bounding hills, the
bold, steep escarpment of the chalk downs,
we see as plainly the denuding action of the
ever-toiling sea. If we stripped ofi" their
velvety sward from those far older soUs, we
should find, if we dug downwards below the
subsoil, some great mass of mineral matter,
such as clay, chalk, limestone, or sandstone.

Fio. 2.— Section exposed in a brick-pit near Windsor,
showing the differences of mineral composition, and
the succession of roclc- strata, a, Vegetable soil;
6, London clay ; c, basement bed of London clay ;
d, e, mottled clay and fire-brick earth ; /, bed of
green-coated flints in dark sand ; g, chalk.

If we dug very deep, we should find that
such masses alternated with, or reposed upon,
each other. We should find, too, that these
rocks— fov by that term geologists designate
the great earth-masses forming the crust of
our globe — contained peculiar fossils, or
petrified organic remains, different forms of
which were characteristic and distinctive of
each separate mineral stratum. If the strata
or beds of earth had any particular inclina-
tion, we should obtain all this knowledge
without digging, by simply walking over the
country and noticing what happened at their
outcrops, as those areas are termed where
the beds rise and present their hassetting
edges at the surface. If we thus extended

40

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

our "Walk beyond the immediate region of
Pevensey, we should see, in the railway-cut-
tings, the roadsides, and in the banks of
rivulets, that these sands, clays, and stones
succeed each other in regular and definite
order ; that one after the other they lead up
to the chalk-hills, under which they dip
downwards and disappear. Some of these
strata contain ammonites, or great ornamental
nautilus-like shells, sponges, palatal teeth
and scales of fishes, molluscs or shell-fish,
and other fossil marine objects, which mark
at once their ancient oceanic conditions;
others contain paludina;, or river- snails, gi-
gantic bones of extinct reptiles, plants, and
minute crustaceans {Cypridcn), the relics of

Fig. 3.— Diagram of the Succession of Strata near
Pevensey. a. Tertiary drift ; h, c, d, beds of clialk
forming the downs ; e, upper greensand ; /, gault ;
g, sand and stone ; /), pyritous and ferruginous
beds; i, limestone (ragstone) — lower greensand;
A-, weald clay and sandstone; I, bank of beach
shutting in estuary; m, alluvial or marsh land.
The edges of the strata presented at the surface at
a, b, c, d, e, f, </, h, i, are the outcrops, or hassctting
edges. The direction-aiTow in the chalk (near c)
shows the dip of the strata.

a vastly older estuary. Out of these mate-
rials, as out of the river-shells and oyster-
banks, the bones, leaves, and canoes of Peven-
sey levels, we can clearly read the history of
past events, and repeople the ancient lands
and seas with their ancient inhabitants. We
can tell the lines of the old coasts, the area
of shallow water, the estuary or river-delta,
the region of deep sea. All the evidence is
complete ; the relics so wonderfully preserved
to us throughout countless years — for these
surrounding cretaceous and wealden depo-
sits are of primeyal date, and belong even to
the middle period of geological history — are
as uncommingled and as faithfully indicative
of the ancient physical conditions with which
they were associated and connected.

We can tell the strange kinds of trees and
plants which grew upon the old oolitic land
before it sank down under the chalky sea j we
can trace age by age the old sediments en-
croaching on the sinking land ; we can note
every cessation of its downward course ; we
can perceive the reversal of the movement,
and the sea-bottom uprising again as land,
every fresh ridge of the ocean's margin re-
ceding ever and anon from the wider and
wider extended soil, on which new forms of
plants and animals appear ; until we ap-
proach the age of Man, and find his traces,
too, and his records added to the ever-
changing scene.

Looking backward into the abyss of time,
we see older and older of those sedimentary
formations — other lands and other seas of
still more vast antiquity. We peer into the
profundity of the past until we behold, in our
mental vision, only low insular specks of
gneissic rock ; the land's first boss-like crests
and crowns peeping above the waves and
dotting the wide expanse of an earth-covering
ocean, still warm, perhaps, and reeking with
the primeval central heat. And then—

" One vast expanse of liquid green,
Ocean's self, breaks on the eye
In inexpressible majesty."

Ever and ever, since the dry land first
appeared, has the sea been at its monotonous
toil; ever and ever murmuring, surging, un-
dermining, hurling down the earth, night and
day toUing and labouring. At work even in
its placid moods ; when, basking in the sun's
bright glittering rays, it lies quiescent with-
out a rufile on its polished face, with gently
heaving breast it idly chafes the pebbles of
the shore.

Such is the ceaseless work of the sea, and
thus, through countless ages, have the rock-
strata of our earth been elaborated.

S. J. Mackie.

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

41

WINGLESS BIRDS.

-i-tH'

In days, not very remote, there existed seve-
ral races of wingless (or rather brevipennate)
terrestrial birds, spread over different, and,
indeed, wide apart portions of tbe globe.
Strange is it that, as far as we can ascertain,
none appear to have been natives of the
European continent, at least within what we
may term a recent period. The catalogue of
extant brevipennate birds is not very large,
and yet the species are less closely allied to
each other than might at first be suspected.
How far apart are the ostrich and the kiwi P
Yet both belong to the brevipennate type of
birds. Look first, then, to Africa and the
adjacent portions of Asia; there the ostrich
roams the desert, as it did in old historic daj^s.
Turn we to the great island of Madagascar ;
from this island, eggs of enormous size, evi-
dently those of a brevipennate bird, have
within the last few years been transmitted to
Europe, but whether the bird which laid them
be extinct or not, is a problem yet to be
solved. At the same time indefinite accounts
of one or more large wingless birds, natives
of Madagascar, have been transmitted to
the scientific bodies of Europe, and it may
be that we have yet to become acquainted
with some forms whose history wiU clear up
much which is a desideratum to the ornitho-
logist.

It is a wide leap over to South America.
This great portion of the globe presents us
with two species of S/iea (commonly called
American ostrich), one of which has long
furnished feathers weU adapted for making
up into light dusting brushes. The second
species (Shea Dartvinii) was introduced to
science by Mr. Darwin, and is a native of
the plains of Patagonia. It is there called
Avestruz petise, while the ordinary species
is the Nandu of the Brazilians.

Now for the great Indian islands ; they

give us the cassowary, and another species
recently discovered, namely, the mooruk
(Casuarius Bennettii), of which a pair are
now living in the gardens of the Zoological
Society.

Sail we thence to Australia ; there we find
the emeu{Dromaius Australis, Swainson),the
relict, most probably, of other brevipennate
birds. Let us next glance at the islands
now called Mauritius, Bourbon, and Eod-
rigues. Here existed, untU the middle of the
seventeenth, or beginning of the eighteenth
century, the dodo, the solitario, and, as we
have reason to believe, other brevipennate
birds, whose extinction, partly, no doubt, by
the agency of man, has been marvellously sud-
den. But, so it strikes us, man could not have
altogether accomplished this sudden and total
extirpation ; and are we not here reminded
of those cycles in the lapse of time wherein
races become effhfe, extinct, leaving vague
traditions of their former existence, with the
attestation of their semi-fossilized bones ?

These observations lead us at once to
New Zealand. The fossilized, or rather semi-
fossilized, bones of apterygious birds of gi-
gantic size, prove that at no distant date-
nay, even since a wandering Malay popu-
lation made good their ground upon these
islands, tiU then probably untenanted by
man — many species of wingless birds, some
far larger and heavier-boned than the ostrich,
roamed over lull and glade, and trod down
the fern-brakes with heavy footstep. Have
they, these moas, been extirpated by man, or
have they fulfilled their allotted period ? No
indigenous quadrupeds tenant these islands.
Did the Malay race destroy them, and then,
for want of other food, take to the system of
cannibalism ? We cannot think so. Canni-
balism has long existed in other islands where
such horrible necessity could not have been

42

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

felt. Tlie Pelagic Malays, as their annals
prove, however, had a cannibal propensity.
Be this as it may, the giant moas have hut
recently passed away ; but, as with the great
megatherium and the mylodon, monsters of
the sloth tribe in the primeval forests of
America, they have left a few pigmy repre-
sentatives, lingering on the verge of extinc-
tion, but not yet quite extinct.

New Zealand presents us with a wingless
gaUinule — a semi-water bird — a sort of moor-
hen (notornis), probably the remnant (if in-
deed it still survive) of other wingless birds
of the same type. JVew Zealand seems to

have been the dilecta sedes of brevipennate
birds. But our attention is at present called
to the pigmy representative of the moas.
There still exists a bird called the kiwi, or
kiwi-kiwi {Aptcryx Atistralis), and the fol-
lowing notes were made upon a living
specimen, which came under our immediate
inspection. It was a singular, unbird-like
looking creature. Huddled up in the dark
comer of an appropriated room, there we
beheld it crouched close to the ground, with
its long cane-like beak, supporting crutch-
ways the head and anterior portion of the
body. Annoyed by the light which we let in

upon it, it became restless, altered its posi-
tion, and then, raising itself upright after the
fashion of a penguin, it moved hurriedly to a
more secluded spot. It was then that its re-
markable length of body became manifest,
which in its previous crouching and rounded
attitude was not observable. Its actions
during its endeavours to regain obscurity
were vacillating, as if it did not clearly dis-
tinguish surrounding objects, nor even the
surface of the floor over which it essayed to
make its way. We at once perceived that
its diurnal vision was both imperfect and
limited — it seemed bewildered. Having
gained, like a thing suddenly roused up from
torpor, its dusky retreat, it again assumed
its strange attitude of repose, but less com-
pletely than before ; for, although it crouched
and pressed the point of its beak to the floor,
it occasionally raised the head a little, inas-
much that though the beak pointed down-
wards, it did not form a prop. Its disturbance
seemed more to arise from the unwelcome
light than from our presence ; it exhibited
no terror, no extraordinary agitation, for,
vacillating as its movements were, it did not
dash wildly about, nor did it utter any sound
or cry ; in fact, it exhibited the extreme of
apathy. "We did not see it during the night,
but we were assured that it then roused itself
up, and bored continually into a large arti-
ficial earth-mound in quest of worms, of
which it had an abundant supply. Of its
intelligence we formed but a low opinion.
Do not creatures of the lowest cerebral
development — we speak here of mammals —
pass away the first, and give place to a higher
race of representatives? Was the densely
fur-clad mammoth of Siberia equal to the
" reasoning elephant " of Ceylon, or of inter-
tropical Africa P

On such a subject all speculation is futile
— only we know that the marsupials, once
extensively distributed, are now confined to
Australia, their stronghold, and to America.
In these we have the lowest of mammalian

EECEEATIYE SCrENCE,

43

cerebral development. Fossil relics show
how numerous they must have been, and not
a few existed even in Europe at a prior con-
dition of our earth's surface. They are lin-
gering, and so are the terrestrial wingless
birds. The kiwi treads upon the edge of
the precipice.

Let us return to our notes. On looking
closely at the kiwi, certain peculiarities, ir-
respective of its rudimentary wings, and the
long, slender, lanceolate feathers, with which
it is clothed, attracted our notice. Above
and below the eye, at the base of the beak,
and on the forehead, are groups or pencils of
long whisker-like hairs. Now, if we consider
for a moment the habits of the kiwi in its
native regions, where, by night, it winds its
way amidst the dense fern-beds, bores into
the ground, and seeks shelter in deep exca-
vations, we may, perhaps, not err if we
attribute to these bristles a use similar to
that of the whiskers of the cat, and other
nocturnal quadrupeds — may we not reason-
ably suppose that they serve as feelers, and
thus prove aiders to the sense of sight ?

Another peculiarity was the smallness of
the eye, so contrary to what prevails in birds
of nocturnal habits, such as the owl, the
woodcock, the snipe, and thickknee, which
feed by night. These, however, are birds of
flight. The kiwi is not; its locomotion is
restricted, and it probably requires a less
range of vision amidst the deep fern-brakes
which enshroud it, although the power of
nocturnal sight within a limited range may
be very, or even microscopically, acute. The
admission of a volume of such light as the
night affords, and for which the eyes of
the owl and thickknee are adapted, if ad-
mitted to impinge upon the retina of the
kiwi, might dazzle and bewilder the bird.
This, in fact, would appear to be proved by
the circumstance that the natives hunt it,
during the hours of darkness, by the glare
of torchlight, which, while it betrays the
bird, at the same time confuses and bewilders

it. Professor Owen observes, that in the
kiwi the organ of vision is at a very low
ratio of development, and that the eyeball
is relatively much smaller than in other
birds, but the cornea is very convex ; on the
contrary, the olfactory system is larger than
in other birds; and he remarks, that the
nocturnal habits of this bird, combined with
the necessity for a highly developed organ
of smell, which chiefly compensates for the
low condition of the organ of vision, produce
the most singular modifications which the
skuU presents, so that it may be said that
those cavities which in other birds are de-
voted to the lodgement of the eyes, are in
the Afteryx almost exclusively devoted to
the nose.

The iris, as we particularly noticed, is
dark brown, and the pupil minute, at least
by daylight.

In most birds, the nostrils are placed at
or towards the base of the beak, or rather
upper mandible ; in the kiwi their situation
is most singular; they appear as minute,
narrow fissures, placed one on each side of
the tip of the upper mandible, which is at
that part somewhat [swollen and notched ; a
furrow runs from the base of the mandibles
to the hnear nostrils. The internal olfac-
tory apparatus and the pituitary sur-
face, on which the olfactory nerve freely
ramifies, is complex and extensive ; hence
the acuteness of the sense of smell, on the
exercise of which this bird so greatly depends
for obtaining its food.

There is another point in the kiwi which
cannot but strike every one who sees it
in its erect attitude — we aUude to the vast
muscidar development of the thighs, as they
are popularly called, by which the assump-
tion of this attitude is rendered easy. The
tarsi are short and stoxit, the toes are four in
number, without any intervening webs, the
three anterior are strong, and armed with
powerful claws, weU adapted for the exca-
vation of burrows. The hind toe is very

41

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

short, and terminates in a sort of spur, of a
conical figure. With, tliis spur, and tlie
anterior claws, the kiwi is said to defend
itself very vigorously, striking with rapidity,
and a degree of force proportioned to the
vast muscular volume of the thighs.

It is said that the kiwi is in the habit of
stamping upon the ground, in order to disturb
the worms, which it seizes with its beak the
instant they make their appearance. But
we doubt this ; the limbs, as the bird stands
upright, do not seem to be adapted for this
sort of action, nor did the mound of earth,
bored all over by the creature's long bill,
exhibit any traces of this stamping opera-
tion. A similar habit has been attributed
to our lapwing, but no one who has studied
the economy of this lightly- tripping bird can,
upon consideration, believe that the stamping
powers of its feet are so energetic as to alarm
the worm in its retreat.

With respect to taste in the kiwi, we may
presume, from the connection of this sense
with that of smell, that it is tolerably acute.
Although the tongue is short, it is more 'de-
veloped, according to Professor Owen, than
in any of the ostrich group.

The sense of touch probably resides, to
a considerable degree, in the tip of the beak,
but of this we cannot speak positively, nor
do our observations enable us to state any
decisive opinion as to the perfection of the
sense of hearing, although we may infer
from the habits of the kiwi that this sense
is as acute as in the ostrich or cassowary.

The natives highly value the skin of the
kiwi, which is made into dresses and mantles,
wdth the feathers on, and which the chiefs
•wear by way of distinction. Dogs are em-
ployed in its capture.

Mr. Gould describes two species of kiwi,
or, as the natives, doubling the word, term it,
kiwi-kiwi ; viz., Apteryx Australis, the spe-
cies recently in the gardens of the Zoological
Society, and Apteryx Oivenii ; but a larger
species is found in the middle island of New

Zealand, and called by the sealers the Fire-
man.

The first, and we believe the only notice
of this bird, appears in a communication to
Mr. Gould from Mr. F. Strange, from
which we take the following extract : — " I am
told that a second species of Apteryx is to
be found on the middle island, that it stands
about three feet high ; it is called by the
sealers the Fireman. Aware from your
figures and description, that the sexes differ
considerably in size, I pointed this out to
my informant; but he stiU persisted that
there are two species, in confirmation of
which opinion, he added that he had taken
the eggs of the two birds, and found those
of the one species to be much larger than
those of the other. The larger kind are
nearly the size of the emu's ; they are some-
what long in form, and blunt at the ends ;
their colour is dirty white. They are de-
posited in a burrow, on a nest formed of roots
and sticks, and a few of the bird's own
feathers." — Froc. Zool. Soc, 1847, p. 51.

Of this species we have no detailed in-
formation ; but its alleged size prevents our
regarding it as identical with Apteri/x Owenii
(Gould), which is not larger than Apteryx
Australis, being only eighteen inches in
length, from the tip of the beak to the end
of the body.

Speaking of this bird, a specimen of
which he received from New Zealand, by
way of Sydney, unaccompanied by any in-
formation as to the locality in which it was
procured, or any particulars of its habits or
economy, Mr. Gould says : " It appears to bo
fully adult, and is about the same size as tlje
Apteryx Australis, from which it is rendered
conspicuously different by the irregular
transverse barring of the entire plumage,
which, with its extreme density and hair-
like appearance, more closely resembles the
covering of a mammal, than that of a
bird; it also differs in having a shorter,
more slender, and more curved bOl, and in

HECREATIVE SCIENCE.

45

tb.e structure of its feathers, which are much
broader throughout, especially at the tip,
and of a loose, decomposed, hair-like charac-
ter. The wing is even more rudimentary
than in the Apteryx Australis" — Proc. Zool.
Soc, 1847, p. 93.

"When Mr. Strange wrote, he was un-
acquainted with the existence of the Apteryx
Owenii, and therefore speaks of his Fire-
man as " a second species ; " but when it

comes to be accurately known, it will form
the third.

The eggs of the Apteryx, as more recent
discoveries prove, are of large size, compared
with the body of the bird, and the young
are hatched with complete clothing, and
capable of using the beak and legs with due
effect, reminding us in this respect of the
mound-making birds of Australia.

W. C. L. Maetin.

THE " CONSECEATIO " COINS OF THE EOMAN EMPEEOES
AND THEIE FAMILIES.

IN TWO PAET3. — PAET I.

AMOna the fine series of Eoman coins known
as the '"large brass," none are more inte-
resting than those technically termed the
"consecratio" coins. These remarkable
pieces of, money, struck to commemorate the
apotheoses of some of the Eoman emperors,
and other members of the reigning families
who successively occupied the imperial
throne, are frequently of very fine execution,
and generally bear some very striking, and
more or less symbolic device. The magni-
ficent funereal rites lavished on the remains
of the great or powerful, have, from the
earliest times to the decline of Paganism,
been of an impressive character, and have,
more or less, according to the manners and
genius of the people, embodied some of
the leading religious convictions of the time.
In the space, however, of a short detached
article like the present, it would be impossible
even to allude to the rites connected with
the interment of the dead, as practised among
the Egyptians, Assyrians, Jews, or other
ancient peoples. But in order to exhibit and
explain the source of the earliest devices
used on the consecrational coins of the Eo-
mana, it wiU be necessary to allude, in some

detail, to the funereal honours paid to the
remains of Alexander the Great, which were
performed under the auspices of the first
Ptolemy, King of Egypt, the earliest occasion
known on which coins were struck in com-
memoration of such an event, and bearing a
device connected with some of its leading
features.

After tne death of the Macedonian con-
queror, at Babylon, in the year 323 before
the Christian era, the vast possessions sub-
dued by the Grecian arms were seized upon
by his powerful lieutenants, to the prejudice
of his infant son by the celebrated Eoxana,
and in defiance of the efforts of his half
brother, Philip, who had been appointed
regent. Egypt fell to the lot of Ptolemy
Lagus, who succeeded, partly by superior
diplomacy and partly by force, in retain-
ing permanent possession of that noble pro-
vince. In order to give a colour to his
assumed right as the successor of Alex-
ander, he conceived the idea of claiming the
remains of his former sovereign, for the pur-
pose of depositing them in the city which
he had founded, and which bore his name.
The demand was the more plausible, inas*

46

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

much, as in founding tlie city, wMcli lie named
Alexandria, the Macedonian prince had evi-
dently intended it to form the metropolis
of his vast empire ; for which purpose its
situation at the junction of Asia and Africa,
and its power to command the south and
east of Europe by fleets issuing from the
great naval nursery of the Nile, rendered it
admirably fitted. In that city, therefore, as
a last token of respect to its great founder,
Ptolemy proposed that his remains should
be deposited, rather than at ^JEgas, the ancient
burial-place of his ancestors in Macedonia.

The ulterior views of Ptolemy ia obtaining
possession of the remains of Alexander were
probably not perceived by Archidseus, who
■ had been charged with the direction of the
obsequies, and no opposition was made to
the demand of the ruler of Egypt. Archi-
dseus, and those in power in Asia, were pos-
sibly rejoiced at being rid of the expense
and responsibility of superintending the obse-
quies of their great leader, and the imperial
remains were, therefore, transferred to Alex-
andria, where the obsequies were performed,
under the auspices of Ptolemy, with extraor-
dinary splendour.

We learn from Callixines, of Ehodes, in a
passage preserved by Athenseus, that the
great procession was closed by a magnificent
car, drawn by elephants, in
which was placed a golden
statue of Alexander. This
car, the elephants, and the
golden statue of the con-
queror are accurately repre-
sented in the coin engraved above, one of
those which were struck by order of Ptolemy
to commemorate the event. The figure of
Alexander is represented holding a fulmen,
or thunderbolt, either in token of his dei-
fication after death, or in allusion to the
descent from Jupiter Ammon, to which he
had laid claim. It was most probably in the
latter signification, as the deification would
only have taken place after his death, whereas

he had been represented in the same manner
duriag his life-time, especially in the famous
picture in the Temple of Diana at Ephe-
sus, to which M. Longperrier alludes in
his instructive essay on the Ptolemaic coin-
age. The inscription above the car is
"nxOAEMAIOT BSAIAEnS" ("of the King
Ptolemy"), meaning money of the King
Ptolemy, for he had already assumed the
regal title, and that is the usual form of in-
scription on the money of all sovereigns of
that epoch. On the obverse is the portrait
of Ptolemy, without any inscription. The
head is very fine, and represents the king ia
the flower of his age, the features, however,
showing a striking resemblance to those of
the monetary portraits found on coins issued
at the close of his long reign, when he is
represented as at an advanced age. I merely
mention this fact to show that the portraits
of princes on ancient coins of that compara-
tively remote period, were evidently executed
with great care and accuracy, and that a
most interesting portrait-gallery of historical
characters has thus been preserved on coins
when every other record of their form and
feature has been swept away. The gold
coins struck to commemorate the obsequies
of Alexandei' appear to have been of unusual
weight, the one from which the above
engraving is made is apparently a hemi-
stater, but weighing 109|- grains, while to
the attic standard, to which the famous gold
coinage of Philip of Macedon was adjusted,
only 66 grains were assigned to the half
stater. It is true that the Greek sovereigns of
Egjrpt, in order to acquire popularity, and a
reputation of great wealth, issued gold money
of the ancient Macedonian standard, which
was much heavier than the Athenian, and it
might be supposed that the present coin was
of that standard; but it is, in fact, still
heavier, and was, doubtless, issued of such
great additional weight in honour of the
special occasion to which its device refers.
No other consecrative coin of this kind

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

occurs in the Egyptian series. A coin
«truck by Ptolemy PMadelplius, the son of
Lagus, is, however, of a somewhat analogous
character. Philadelphus succeeded to the
throne on the abdication of his father, after
whose death he caused a coin to be struck in
his honour, and also in that of his mother
Berenice. On this coin — which may perhaps
be termed a " consecratio" coin — like those
of the Eomans about to be described, the por-
traits of Ptolemy the Eirst, and that of his
last queen, Berenice, the mother of Philadel-
phus, are represented in profile, one over
the other, accompanied by the inscription
0EOI, gods, in token of their supposed recep-
tion after death among the deities of the
Grecian mythology. This is, therefore, a coin
of somewhat similar character to those long
afterwards struck by the Eomans, at the
time of the apotheosis of certain emperors ;
for that the " apotheosis " of Ptolemy was a
deification of precisely analogous character
we learn from the pastoral poet Theocritus,
in his 17th Idyl.

In the year 14 a.d., just 337 years after
the death of Alexander the Great, died
Augustus Csesar, the first Roman emperor.
His successor Tiberius, and a servUe senate,
decreed to him a place among the gods, and
on a simultaneous issue of the public money
were stamped appropriate devices to com-
memorate the deification. Alexander of
Macedon was stOl the hero-type emulated
by more recent rulers, especially by Augustus,
though he may be said to have been rather
the Alexander of peace than of war — what
Alexander might have been, after the con-
solidation of his conquests, had he not been
prematurely carried ofi* by disease, instead
of reaching a ripe old age like his Roman
successor in the empire of the world. How-
ever this may be, Augustus had evidently
wished his name to be associated with that
of Alexander, as a ruler over equally vast
possessions, and the senate hastened to
flatter this predilection of their dead emperor

and his successor, by causing coins to be
issued in commemoration of his obsequies,
precisely similar in device to those struck by
Ptolemy at the funeral of Alexander. The
Roman device was, however, made more
splendid; the increased dimensions of the
large brass coinage affording more scope to the
designer than the limited space of the small
gold pieces issued at Alexandria. Instead of
two elephants, /o«r were yoked to the car
(as represented below), the car itself being

also of more splendid structure, with a kind
of stage on the top. It is, in fact, the pecu-
liar kind of car called Thersa, which was
only used for the purpose of conveying the
statues of the gods to the circus, on the
solemnization of the sacred games. The
statue of Augustus is in the exact position
of the sitting figure of Jupiter, which is
found on the silver tetradrachms coined in
the reign of Alexander the Great, even to
the chair or throne, which is accurately
copied in all its details. Above the ele-
phants, instead of an inscription, merely con-
taining the name and title of the reigning
sovereign, as on the Egyptian coin, the fol-
lowing legend is placed, divo attgitsto
S.P.Q.E., which at length should read, divo

ATTGTJSTO, SENATUS POPULTJS QUE EOMANTTS.

To the Divine Augustus, The Roman Senate
and People.

It has been said that the elephants were
adopted in this device as being typical of
dignity and eternity ; of diguity on account
of their size and stately walk, and of eternity

48

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

from tlie great age to whicli tliey live, wliicli
often exceeds 300 years. But it is much,
more probable that in this instance tliey
were merely adopted as symbolical of
conquests in tbe East, as was usual in
that age. It is true tbat in India tbe
elephant has been from remote antiquity
a symbol of royalty, and strength, and eter-
nity ; but the Romans had probably no such
theory in view, and were possibly altogether
ignorant of the symbolic and semi-sacred
character conferred on these animals in
central India.

But there is, nevertheless, a symbol of
eternity represented on this coin, which
consists of the crown of rays worn by the
emperor. Bepresentatives of emperors were,
during the early periods of the empire,
never crowned with rays tUl after dei-
fication, that kind of coronet being precisely
analogous to the celestial crown of modern
heraldry ; but it was afterwards assumed by
the Boman princes during their lifetime. The
statue holds in its left hand the Iiasta j)ura,
or unarmed lance, as an emblem of peace.
The reverse of this coin has in the centre
two large capital letters, S. C, for Senatus
Consultu (by decree of the senate), and the
name and titles of Tiberius.

The apotheosis of Julius Cajsar had been
previously commemorated in a somewhat
similar manner by Augustus and the senate,
by the issue of a special coinage, which, how-
ever, did not bear any device of the usual
cliaracter of the Boman " consecratio " coins
of the regular types, and I have therefore not
engraved it. Yet it may not be irrelevant
to refer to it in this place, as recording the
appearance of a natural phenomenon which
occurred at the time, and gave additional force
to the. superstition concerning the ascent of
the spirit of Caesar to take its place among
the gods. During the games established in
honour of the deified Julius, a comet of un-
usual brilliancy was observed, which remained
visible, even in the day-time, for seven days.

This was, of course, believed to be the spirit
of Caesar ascending to its place among the con-
stellations, and it was therefore represented
on some of the commemorative coins then
issued. It was the Julium Sidus of Horace,
the Csesaris Astrum of Virgil, and was men-
tioned also by other writers of the time. Sir
Isaac Newton conjectured that it might have
been a previous appearance of the great comet
of 1680, as the time agrees tolerably well with
one of its periodical visits. But some of our
modern antiquaries have thought that the
star represented on the coin does not refer to
a comet which had just appeared, but merely
to the planet Yenus, in allusion to the pre-
tended descent of the Julian family. This
supposition is rendered somewhat plausible
by the fact that the planet Venus is, in the
south, often visible during the day, and
may have been especially observed to be so
at the time of the death of Cajsar. I am,
however, inclined to think that the object on
the coin is intended to represent the comet
which then appeared, though it does not bear
a very accurate resemblance to an asteroid
of that class. The Boman theory of this en-
rolment of a mortal among the gods was not
very dissimilar to that of canonization of saints
in the modern Bomish ritual ; the Christian
canonization being possibly but a continua-
tion of the Pagan apotheosis, like many other
forms still retained in the unreformedChiirch.
The term, as used among the Bomans, did
not mean simply the elevation of an emperor
to divine honour by his successor, and his
formal enrolment among the gods, but was an
indirect expression of the national belief of
the immortality of the soul, which gives to
the monuments connected with the cere-
monial of consecration a far deeper interest.
It was, in fact, the popular creed of the
Boman people that the souls, or manes, of
their ancestors became deities, and in this
feeling it was that the manes of parents were
worshipped by their children.

H. Noel HusipnuExs.

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

49

THE GEEEN TEEE-FEOG.

— »>j*q;?»«>i

Many years ago I made a note of tlie green
tree-frog, as one of the desiderata of my
little collection ; and, though I inquired
often, I never succeeded in obtaining it till
this time last year, when a kind letter from a
lady informed me of the offer of three fine
specimens. I lost no time in accepting the
gift, and in a few days they were safely do-
miciled with me at Newington. I have de-
rived so much amusement from my " sticky-
toed " friends, that I believe a brief account
of them will be interesting to students of
natural history generally, and especially to
that section of them who delight in aquaria,
and kindred homely pursuits.

There are several species of frogs which
may be collectively described as " green,"
but the green tree-frog is most distinct in
appearance and habit from all the marsh-
inhabiting ranas, for it is amphibious in only
a qualified degree, and, as its name implies,
it lives very much among the branches of
trees. It is known among naturalists as
Syla arhorea, sometimes as Syla viridis, on
account of its bright green colour. It is a
native of France and Germany, hence readily
adapts itself to the climate of this country,
and will, perhaps, some day be acclimated as
an addition to our fauna. The only difficulty
apparent at present, in regard to its perma-
nent location in Britain, is the variableness
of our climate ; for this frog becomes tho-
roughly torpid in winter, and for that reason
continued cold weather is congenial to its
constitution. The occasional outbursts of
sunshine with westerly winds in winter dis-
tiirb its hybernation, and make it active
at a season when it ought to be at rest, and
hence it is just probable that it may never be-
come a permanent resident in these islands.

Leaving that point to be determined by
experience, let me call your attention to the

pretty creature here figured. His colour is
vivid emerald green over the whole of the
upper surface of the body, with the exception
of two black marks, which extend from the
eyes to the inner side of the shoulders.
Beneath, his colour is a greenish white, and
the skin is semi-transparent, and of a most
delicate texture. The eyes are prominent,
and of a lustrous black, as beautiful, indeed,
as the eyes of a toad, which, to my think-

ing, are among the most beautiful of aU the
eyes in creation, except, of course, the eyes
through which a human soul peeps. Hyla
arhorea has a particularly neat contour, full-
grown specimens are not more than half the
size of the common frog, but the structure is
more compact and graceful; and when in
activity, the long legs and button toes indi-
cate at once its chief characteristic, that of
climbing and leaping. The activity of the
creatiu-e adds to the interest we derive from

50

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

its beauty wlien kept as a pet. Its habit is
to sit perfectly still on the summit of tbe
rockwork iu tbe glass, or on a flat leaf of a
plant wben set at liberty in a greenLouse;
but tbe moment a fly passes, it wakens up,
becomes restless, and screws its legs together
for energetic action. Fixing its beautiful
eyes on a buzzing bluebottle, froggy waits
his opportunity, and presently at one spring
he pounces on the victim, and swallows him
whole. The bluebottle goes buzzing to its
sepulchre. It is in this lively method of
taking its prey that we are enabled to note
particularly the manner in which this frog
is equipped for the curious life it leads.
The toes are all furnished with suckers,
which enable it to hold firm to whatever
object it may alight upon, so that though it
may miss the mark of its appetite, as some-
times happens, it never falls or loses its
balance, but is instantly at rest on some kind
of support, and as immobile as if nothing had
happened.

Syla arborea has all the ordinary charac-
teristics of a reptile, though possessed of
considerable individuality. The hybernation
is quite of the reptile type, and the changing
of skin takes place in precisely the same
manner as in the common toad. The creature
first changes colour, and becomes mopish.
The vivid shining green gives place to a
dark hue, which, as the time of exuvation
approaches, deepens to a bottle-green. In a
day or two he is again as bright and lively as
ever, sporting a new jacket ; his eyes have a
fresh sparlde, and his appetite is so keen,
that the flies can no longer crawl over his
nose with impunity — they are pounced upon
and bolted, the moment they come within
reach of his spring. One thing strikes me
as worthy of special notice, and that is, that
the flies have not the least sense of danger,
and make towards him as they do towards
glistening objects generally. The instinctive
fear of enemies is a common fact in the natu-
ral world, but between Hylas and his proper

dinner there is no evidence of its existence,
the dinner may, when he is in an idle mood,
playfully tickle the nose that is presently to
recognize its savour.

Though it delights in water, and needs
to have it always within reach, it is in summer-
time but partially amphibious . It wUl now and
then swim round, and then ascend the glass,
where it wiU remain motionless for hours, hold-
ing tight by means of its toe-suckers and the
delicate membrane of the stomach, which in-
deed it depends on chiefly when attached to
a smooth surface. Being quite familiar with
its history long before I obtained specimens,
I prepared a cage of wire gauze to stand on
a glass dish for them, when the three were
presented to me. Unfortunately, I trusted
the manufacture of the cage to a man who
had neither brains nor fingers, and the result
was, that having given them a branch to
climb upon, a supply of water, and a piece of
rockwork rising out of it, two made their
escape the same night through a gap in the
wirework, and were never heard of more.
The cage was then cast aside, and the lonely
representative of his race transferred to a
bell-glass, neatly prepared for him with
pebbles and rockwork. A small flower-pot
^^as made the basis of the rockery, and
on it was fixed, with plaster of Paris, some
small pieces of broken burrs, so as to form a
pyramid. A ten-inch bell-glass gives him
plenty of room, and escape is prevented by
covering the top with the wire gauze lid
of the disused cage. Once or twice a
week Mr. Hylas has liberty to leap about
and climb the windows, where he catches
flies for himself. Meanwhile, the rockwork
is lifted out, the pebbles washed, and the
glass cleaned, and the whole made bright for
his reception again. He has become very
tame, and wiU sit on my finger, and leap from
it when the buzzing of a blow-fly makes him
for the moment a sort of aerial tiger ; then
his quickness of sight, and spasmodic rapidity
of action are indeed amusing. Ordinarily,

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

51

fliea are caught and put in for liim, but lie
will never touch, a dead one, and, like a toad,
will only take them when he sees them move,
and then it is accomplished instantaneously.
When not hungry, he allows any poor winged
captive that may be wandering about, " wait-
ing to be eaten," to walk over him and tickle
his nose to any extent — he takes no notice,
and, without moving a limb, goes on with his
palpitation, which is the only sign given that
he is stdl alive. This curious throbbing
action of the gullet denotes the activity of
the respiration in these frogs. But they
breathe through the skin over the whole sur-
face of the body as well, and hence, if kept
immersed in water, with no means of escape,
soon perish by asphyxia.

Last autumn I followed the advice given
by Mr. Thompson in his " Note Book of a
Naturalist," and saved for my pet some dead
flies for winter food. Mr. Thompson says
he kept one in a vase for six years, and in
the winter fed it with dead flies, moistened
with warm water, " which it took freely from
the fingers." But my specimen would not
take them during the winter, though I re-
peatedly presented them, and sometimes
gave them a tremulous motion, with my
fingers, in [hopes he would imagine the
fly to be alive. But the attempt was as un-
necessary as it was futile. From November
till March he ate nothing at aU, and after
the first fly had been caught and given him
he became as active as ever. Like most
other reptiles, the more complete their hy-
bernation, the more certain are we of pre-
serving them in health. When my bees
began killing the drones last year, I gave my
pet. a handful of the helpless creatures, and
he devoured them wholesale as long as they
had any amount of activity. The drowned
drones had, of course, to be cleared out
quickly, or the vase would have looked most
unsightly.

To the loss of the two specimens I attri-
bute the fact that I have never yet heard the

music of this frog, which is said to be most
discordant, and by no means deficient in
volume. Mine has been a perfect mute ; but
I apprehend that when several are kept in
company, the social feeling finds utterance,
but they have too much sense to croak when
there are no companions to join in chorus.
Should I ever be so fortunate as to meet
with a benefactor equally liberal with the
one to whom I am already indebted, I shall
expect to make acquaintance with many in-
teresting points in the history of this pretty
Eana, which, like the music, need companion-
ship for their development. I know of several
collections of them, but the parties are not
so well stocked that I would venture to ask
for gifts.

Shielet Hibbeed.

DEATH AMONG THE GOLD-EISH.

Wheeevee you meet with folks who keep
gold-fishes in the old-fashioned glass globes,
you will be sure to hear the melancholy com-
plaint that they will die in spite of every
care taken to preserve them. The water ia
changed most regularly, the glass kept beau-
tifully clean, the vessel shaded from the sun-
shine ; yet, alas ! alas ! death is always busy
amongst them. Is it internal disease ? Is it
external fungi P No ; the cause is starvation.
Every other pet is expected to eat, but these
gold-carp are expected to subsist on — nothing!
" But don't they eat the animalculaj P " Non-
sense ! Give them a few small earth-worms,
or anglers' gentles, twice a week, and to pre-
vent the necessity of frequently changing the
water, throw in a handful of Anacharis
(water-weed) ; and, instead of floating in suc-
cession "on their watery bier," they wUl get
plump and healthy, and grow as rapidly as
in their native waters. Some of our gold-
fishes have been in our possession seven
years, and have increased in size three times
what they were originally. H.

52

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

WAYSIDE WEEDS AND THEIE TEACHINGS,

IN SIX HANDFIJLS.
HANDFUL I. CONCLITDED,

There ffeiiiains yet, for examination, one
other part of tlie flower. Exterior to all the
organs we have hitherto described, you can-
not fail to have noticed a covering, or set
of coverings, to which, as they hold the
blossom generally, botanists have given the
name of calyx, or flower- cup (Figs. 2, 3, 9,
16, 19, 20, 21.) This calyx, moreover, has its
many differences, even in the limited number
of plants we have as yet examined. It is
divided, in most of our examples, like the
corolla, into separate pieces; and as the
divisions of the corolla are named petals,

Fro. 19. — a, cal)'^ or
flower-cup of stitch-
wort ; b, stamens.

FicJ. 20. — Expanding flower
of common poppy, throw-
ing off calyx, a.

so are those of the calyx called sepals.
Generally speaking, the calyx, or flower-cup,
is green, but we see it in the wallflower (Fig.
7) more or less deeply coloured; and in the
buttercup (Fig. 2) yellowish in hue. Fre-
quently the number of the sepals, or calyx
divisions, corresponds to those of the corolla,
but not invariably, as we see in the poppy
(Fig. 20), in which there are but two divisions,
and these joined at the top, more or less
completely. Moreover, this poppy calyx
does not, as in the wallflower, the chick-

weed, the violet, or the geranium, continue
attached to the flower, but is cast oflT while
in the process of floral expansion.

Calyx, corolla, stamens, pistils — these, bear
in mind, are the parts of a perfect flotccr,
which always preserve the same relative
positions within one another. With the
exception of the lychnis, already noticed,
you will find it so in every plant in our
Handful. To make sure, look at the bright
white, well-named starwort, or stitchwort,
which we have not yet noticed ; all the parts
are just as you have seen them in the rest.
Differing in many respects, in this all our
plants agree — the petals are perfectly dis-
connected from one another, and from the
stamens, and with the stamens are fixed to
the little receptacle on which is placed the
pistil. Now these characters, as we call
them, though apparently unimportant to a
superficial observer, are far from being so to
a botanist; they mark. In fact, one division of
botanical arrangement — a division, more-
over, which comprises within its limits
many other plants and families of plants
beyond the few common weeds we have
selected as examples. The buttercup or
crowfoot family, or, as it is called botanl-
cally, the Hanunculus genus, is made up of
numerous individual members, all differing
from one another, but yet bearing the
general family face. Some so like that you
will not distinguish them till the dliference
has been pointed out ; others, though similar,
still so difi'erent, that you cannot mistake
them for each other.

You have, in all probability, gathered
into your handful at random, a lot of Avhat
you call buttercups ; they have all flowers

heceeatiye science.

53

about the same size, with bright yellow
shining petals, and look as like as possible ;
but take this one, which you gathered in the
meadow — if you have got it up by the roots
{as you ought to do every plant, the size of
which in the least admits it) — you find
that it has a bulbous swelling root, that
its stem is upright and hairy, and its
calyx sepals are turned back (Fig. 2) from
the fully-expanded flower. This, which
is the ranunculus biilbosa, or bulbous-
rooted crowfoot, put beside the other which
is in your Handful, and which, when you
gathered it, you thought was precisely
similar. Compare the flower-cup (Fig. 3)
with the last. It spreads — in old blos-
soms it falls off— but does not turn down,
even in the fully-expanded flower, its root
is not bulbous, and attached to it " are
side-stems, scions, which rest on or run
along the ground. This is the ranunculus
rcpens, or creeping crowfoot ; and no less
different is this third species, the ranunculus
acris, or upright meadow crowfoot, which
very likely grew beside the other two, and
which, just as likely, you took into your
Handful in perfect innocence of any differ-
ence. It, too, has a spreading, and not a
turned-back calyx, but it has no scions.
Make another comparison of these three
near relations ; their faces are all very similar,
are they not? Look at the little stems,
peduncles, which support the blossoms. In
the first two species you examined, the
bulbous and creeping crowfoots, these stems
have little channels or furrows cut on their
surface; in the last, the upright crowfoot,
they are mostly rounded. Pray look over
these little distinctions again, get them into
your memory, and tell us, could you mistake
these plants for one another again P Quite
impossible, for sniiill as the marks of differ-
ence may be, they are constant. Lastly,
get into your mind an idea of the general
appearance of these plants — the general hahit.
as botanists call it — and you will have

achieved a practical lesson in plant lore
which will not readily be forgot. The above
are three of the crowfoot family, with a
strong resemblance ; but there are many of
the same family, or, let us designate it
properly, genus, very different; some have
comparatively small flowers, and some are
white, as we find in the common water
ranunculus, which is so common in every
streamlet and ditch that it well deserves to
be called a wayside weed. Look now at the
leaves, not the petals, but the plant-leaves, of

Fig. 21. — ^Leaf of Common Buttercup.

the buttercup race, with which we have just
scraped acquaintance ; they are aU divided
more or less deeply (Fig. 21), but we find
others with leaves perfectly undivided : these
are the spearwort ranunculuses, and one of
them you may gather at the side of almost
any pond. The buttercup-like flower of the
spearwort you cannot mistake. One word
more about our friends before we part. The
members of the buttercup genus are most elo-
quent expositors of many botanical facts, andi

54

RECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

you are now in possession of tlie key to some
of their peculiarities. If you use your eyes
you cannot miss finding species different from
those most common ones upon which we have
founded our first lesson. Gather all you can ;
never mind, at first, if you do not know their
names, hut put them together, and compare
in every part — leaves on the stem, and leaves
springing from the root-crown, hairs or no
hairs on any part, pistils plain or otherwise.
These exercises will teach you how to look
at plants, and make the very commonest
weeds convey as much instruction as you
coidd get from the rarest exotic. We have
dwelt somewhat upon this ranunculus family,
not only because of the well-marked cha-
racters of its members, but because so many
of them are familiar to us aU from childhood,
and meet us in every country walk. "We
must now say adieu, and look to the rest of
our Handful.

Take another look at the poppies. You
could not mistake a poppy, putting colour out
of the question, for a buttercup. The petals
composiag the corolla are separate ; it is true
the stamens are numerous, and both are
attached to the flower in the same manner as
in the ranunculus, but here the resemblance
ends. The calyx, as we have seen (Fig. 20),
is entirely distinct, both in its divisions and
in its development, and the round central
pistil in one piece of the poppy (Fig. 6) is
abundantly diverse from the many pistils of
the ranunculus (Fig. 4). There are many
other differences, which at present we are not
prepared for.

We go to the waUflower (Fig. 7), the water-
cress, or the charlock (Fig. 15), aU plants of
the same great botanical section as the ranun-
culus and the poppy; that is to say, they have
many-petalled flowers, and petals and sta-
mens (Fig.l4) are similarly attached ; but how
different are they otherwise. The petals are
clawed (Fig, 8), the stamens are definite in
number, not many, and the central pistil is
altogether dissimilar, as we shall see more

clearly when we come to examine our basket
of fruits. Now, the waUflower, the water-
cress, the wild mustard, and many similar
plants, belong to a most important family,
called the CrucifersD, or cross-like plants, the
petals being arranged in the shape of a cross,
as a very little examination will show. Turn-
ing for a moment from wild to cultivated
plants, you wiU. find the characters of the cru-
cifera well marked in any turnip, cabbage, or
radish, which may chance to run to seed in
your garden. In an economical point of view,
there are few plant famUies more valuable to
man than these crucifers.

Buttercup, poppy, wallflower, each types
of their own particular family, have regular
flowers; you can di-
vide them in any direc-
tion through the centre
into two equal halves.
Not so our sweet little
violet (Fig. 22), which
holds its place beside
them. It, too, is many-
petaled, and has sta-
mens and petals at-
tached like the others,
but its flower is irregu-
lar ; to divide its five
petals equally, you
must cut the centre in
one direction only. The stamens and pistil, a
single glance wiU show, have their distinctive
marks.

The lychnis, stitchwort, and chickweed
bring us back to the regular flowers. The
stamens (Figs. 16, 19) are more than in the
waUflower, fewer than in poppies or butter-
cups. The petals are clawed (Fig. 10), the
shape different, and, speciaUy, the pistU
(Figs. 17, 18) differs from the plants we have
already examined.

Lastly, take the common wayside gera-
nium (Figs. 11, 12), which we gathered into
our Handful. Still we find the distinct petals
attached with the stamens as before, only, at

Fig. 22. —Blossom of
Violet, a, corolla ; b,
calyx; c, peduncle or
flower-stalk ; d, bracts ;
e, spur of corolla.

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

55

the base of tlie latter we come upon some-
thing new, the organs are united just in the
reverse to those of the violet. The pistil,
with its five lobes at the base, and its long
beak, is very different from any we have yet
met with, and with it we have arrived at the
end of our first gathering. Just let us
review what we have learned from it. We
began, supposing that we knew nothing what-
ever of plants, and that all the stock of know-
ledge we had to start with was the recog-
nition of the very commonest weeds of the
ivayside. Those which we selected for our
first lesson were taken because of the one
common character so often alluded to, the

attachment of the distinct petals and the
stamens to the organ named the receptacle,
which supports the pistU. We have seen that
but for this common character they differ
widely, and we have learned, at the same
time, what are the parts of which a complete
and perfect flower is composed, namely, the
calyx and its sepals, the corolla and its petals,
the stamens and the pistUs, and these organs
we now know, and look for in a special order.
Enough here for one lesson, albeit we have
a much better capital of information to start
with when we go forth in search of a Second
HandfiJ.

Spencer Thomson.

HUMBOLDT.

IN TWO PAETS. — PABT II.

HUMBOLDT AT BEELIN.

The Life of Humboldt, like a term at col-
lege, naturally "divides" at a certain period.
We have seen him collect his material, and
digest the substance of his great work. His
fame has culminated. His presence is every-
where sought for. Men who could not appre-
ciate his scientific foresight or his brilliant
suggestions, could yet believe in results.
'• Sien ne reussii Jamais comme le succes,"
says the French proverb. " There's nothing
in the world half so successful as success,"
cry the Americans, endeavouring to trans-
late the untranslatable. He, who had been
laughed at for a visionary when he sold his
estates to procure means to explore the New
World, was now declared to be the wisest of
mankind ! He who had been a mere savant,
an ideologue, was now consulted on state-
craft no less than upon geology — was thought
to know something of the government of the
world, since he had learnt much of its forma-
tion, and was brought from his study to be

the privy councillor of his sovereign. Let
young and ardent spirits take comfort as
they think of this. Persevere ; have one idea,
be true to it, follow one, act by another;
have will, determination, and purpose, and,
with God's blessing, the world will talk of
you yet.

In 1827, Humboldt was called to, and
finally settled at, Berlin, with the title of
privy councillor and many more substantial
honours, which he continued to enjoy till the
time of his death, that is, during the reigns
of the late king of Prussia, Frederick William
III., and his successor, Frederick William IV.
A friend to almost every successive adminis-
tration, he was enabled often to tender the
ministry good advice, which was more gra-
ciously received from him than from any one.
Science is of no party; its politics are univer-
sal, since it only can desire the good of man-
kind. For two years Humboldt tarried in
peace in his native town, when he was called
by a great potentate once more into the fields
of science.

5G

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

THE JOXTENEY TO ASIA.

Hard work in tlie fields of knowledge
never kills any one. Only the weakly and
the desultory fall victims to mental exertion.
With. Humboldt it was far otherwise. At
sixty he was as vigorous as ever, and in the
year 1829, when he had reached that age, he
undertook a most hazardous expedition in
Central Asia, in company with two of his
friends, Ehrenberg and Gustave E.ose.

This expedition, suggested by and carried
out under the auspices of the Emperor Nicho-
las, was directed eastward by Moscow, Kasan,
Catherineburg, the Oural Mountains, To-
bolsk, and Altai. Thereat the travellers
branched out towards the military posts on
the borders of China. Returning to Altai
westward, Humboldt and his companions
passed the steppes of Ischim, Orenburg,
Astrakan, and the Caspian Sea. Thence they
returned to Moscow, after having travelled
over, in the space of nine months, more than
2300 geographical miles. The result of this
was not so brilliant as that of his early la-
bours, but it was very useful. He made Cen-
tral Asia better known to us. By and through
him, the curious extravagances of Marco Polo
and the earlier adventurers were corrected,
our maps made more perfect, and our know-
ledge of the mineralogy and climatology of
Asia extended. The relation of it was pub-
lished in Paris in 1843, and in German at
Berlin in 1844, under the title of " Central
Asia," etc. In 1849 he published a further
addition to his Researches, under the heading
of Steppes and Deserts, wherein he com-
pletely overthrows the theory which had
grown up upon Marco Polo's foundation, of a
vast central plateau in Asia, to the north of
China. This may be seen at a glance by
consulting his admirable " Map of the Chain
of Mountains and Volcanoes in Central Asia,"
drawn out in 1839, and published in 1843.

Of the purely scientific results of this
travel much may be said. Humboldt deter-

mined many of the most important facts in
connection with terrestrial magnetism, find-
ing that in those vast regions the sun had
more perceptible magnetic power than fur-
ther north upon its satellite. To his energy
and discoveries are due governmental mag-
netic establishments in Russia, America,
France, Prussia, and England, wherein ob-
servations are taken and registers kepi, and
through which much, if not all, of our know-
ledge is gained. Professor Dove, of Berlin,
has reduced many of these registers, and
through them has discovered the laws regu-
lating the distribution of heat over the
world's surface.

THE NEW EEVOLITTION.

In the midst of these labours, time had
gradually whitened the head of the lover of
science. Time had wrought wonders also
everywhere. People were growing wiser,
less estranged, more kindly to each other.
Humboldt had lived, when a young man, in
the midst of the excitement of one French
revolution. He saw in it the result of care-
lessness, cruelty, and luxury on the part of
the nobles ; and of ignorance, neglect, and
starvation in the body of the people. Ho
welcomed it as the forerunner of a better
age, but found it spend its angry course in
blood, sound, and fury. He had watched
each actor tread his part upon the stage and
then disappear, and the great actor of all fall,
at "Waterloo, from that bad eminence to which
by cunning and blood he had raised himself.
This was during his American expedition and
his earlier life. Not to be behindhand, France
in 1830, when he was sixty-one years of age,
and had just completed his Asian journeys,
prepared another revolution, which quietly
settled down in the election of Louis Philippe,
the citizen king.

It was a delicate flattery towards the
savant's political learning, that to this mon-
arch Humboldt was accredited by Frederick
William III. to acknowledge his government.

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

57

aud to congratulate liim on account of his
accession to the throne.

Since that period he each year, until the
time of his death, renewed his visits to Paris,
greatly to the satisfaction of his very many
admirers and friends there, and about this
period (1835-38) he published his " Critical
Examination of the Geography of the New
World."

HtTMBOLDT IN ENGLAND.

Allied as we are with Prussia, with
almost the certainty of an heir of English
descent one day filling the throne, it is some
satisfaction to record that, in addition to
diplomatists and warriors, she sent us in the
train of her ambassadors at least one genius.
In 1841 he came, in company with Frederick
WiUiamlV., to London, and was present at
the christening of the Prince of Wales, the
Prussian monarch being the royal sponsor.
He was received with enthusiasm, and feted
all over the country. With the exception of
a flying visit to Copenhagen in 1845, this
was, we believe, the last journey undertaken
by the great traveller.

THE 1A.ST GBEAT WOEK, THE " COSMOS."

The evening of life had come — slowly,
indeed, but surely — upon him. Calmly phi-
losophical and happy, witli a mind full of
shadowy pictures of the beauties of the natu-
ral world, with a still greater love for Grod's
earth, a still fonder appreciation of its won-
ders, when he might momently be called to
quit it for ever, the wise and good old man
determined to undertake a colossal enter-
prise ; one fit, we might suppose, rather for
the fire and energy of youth, than for the
flagging hand and pausing brain of old age.
But Humboldt was one of those perpetual
workers who must work or not exist, to
whom alone the grave brings rest when it
reduces the quick hand to stillness and the
busy brain to dust. He thought with Drydon,

• A setting sun

Should leave a track of glory in the skies."

And the track of glory which he left is his
monumental work, the " Cosmos."

In his "Pictures of Nature" {Anischten
de Natur), he had from time to time culled
choice experiences from his voyages ; in the
" Cosmos " he determined to' pass in review
the whole sum and substance of what wo
human creatures know of heaven and earth
— that is, of physical, not of spiritual, know-
ledge. He has attempted the seemingly
contradictory task of being scientific and
picturesque — hard, dry, and full of details,
and yet light, amusing, and instructive. He
has wedded the exactness of a carpenter's
rule to the glowing description of the pen of
a poet, and in this he has generally suc-
ceeded. By his " Cosmos " he is more uni-
versally known than by any other book. He
himself has told us that he regards it " as a
work offered to the German public, in the
evening of an active life, the plan of which
had been present in his mind, in faint out-
line, for more than half a century."

It is impossible for us here to give a
description of the work. The time it took in
publication will show its vastness. The first
volume of the German edition appeared in
April, 1845, and the fourth, thirteen years
afterwards, in 1858. A translation by seve-
ral scientific gentlemen, amongst whom
General Sabine may be mentioned, of the
first two parts, has appeared in London.
The whole work has not, we beheve, been
translated, or at least published. The
"Cosmos" is the one work of the great
man which will carry him down to poste-
rity ; it is the Iliad of this modern Homer,
the old man eloquent as the poet, but hap-
pily not blind ; the ^neid of the new Virgil.
" Who else," cries one of his critics, " could
have achieved, who but he could have at-
tempted, the Atlantean service ? Spread his
'Cosmos' before a young and ardent mind,
which has just accomplished its liberal nur-

58

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

ture, and say, 'Read and eompreliend ;* tlie
comprehension exacted will, when acquitted,
have added an education."

Thus he grew, flourished, and culminated,
full of honours, bearing them meekly as he
should do ; the friend of kings, nor less so of
the humblest scholar.

HX7MB0LDT AT HOME.

Three years ago, one* who knew him well
described him thus : — He is the observed
of all observers, as well known in Berlin
as the " TJnter den Linden." In spite of his
eighty-seven years, he works unweariedly in
those hours which are not occupied by the
court. He is active and punctual in his im-
mense correspondence, and answers every
letter of the humblest scholar with the most
amicable affability. The inhabitants of Ber-
lin and Potsdam aU know the great man per-
sonally, and show him as much honour as
they do the king. With a slow but firm step
and a thoughtful head, whose features are
benevolent, bent rather forward, he has a
dignified expression of noble calmness, and
bends down to, or responds to the salutations
of the passers-by, with kindness and without
pride. He wears a very simple dress ; and
frecxuently holding a pamphlet in his hand, he
wajiders through the streets of Berlin or
Potsdam iinattended, and unostentatiously,
a noble semblance of a head of wheat bend-
ing beneath the load of its precious and
golden ears. Wherever he appears he, is re-
ceived by tokens of universal respect ; the
passengers step aside so as not to disturb his
thoughts, even the very lowest looks respect-
fully after him, and says to his neighbour,
" There goes Humboldt."

the last woeds op geeat men — hum-
boldt's last WOEDS.

Time came at last when the philosopher
was to return to earth, to cease from the con-

* Professor Klencke.

templation of G-od's world here, and to open
his eyes upon the heaven of that Almighty
Workman, whose wondrous doings he de-
scribed so enthusiastically and had so ardently
loved. Yes, Humboldt was to say his last words
— words which all men, great and little, have
to say. The whole of life is to be summed up
in one moment ; and out of the fullness of
the heart thenthe mouth speaketh. Strange
have been those disjointed sentences of dying
schoolmen, warriors, philosophers, or kings.
Strange, too, and yet not to be utterly unac-
counted for, the fondness which we have for
death-bed scenes and last words. Last words,
and more last words ! Uh hien ! What do
they teach ? We try to snatch from them
some meaning, we qtiestion these moribund
sentences as if they could teach us something
more than we know of the world which is to
come. We fancy that as Moses from tho
mountain took that Pisgah-view of the pro-
mised land, so from the summit of the death-
bed others shaU see something of a brighter
land stUl. But though —

" Examples preach to the eye ; care then, mine says,
Not how you end, but how you spend your days."

This life-ending is full of intense interest. It
will be worth while recording some of these
mortuary sayings, for from them one may
judge men well. Harry Marten, the great
republican, as his last words, wrote the
couplet above. Washington told his doctor,
" I am dying, I have been dying a long time ;
but I am not afraid to die." Dr. Johnson's
dying adjuration was, "Live weU." Scott
repeated the advice to his son-in-law, "I
have but a minute to speak to you, my dear ;
be a good man, be virtuous, be religious,
nothing else can give you comfort when you
come to lie here." Nelson said to Hardy,
" Thank God, I have done my duty ! I have
done my duty ! " Sir Harry Vane blessed
the Lord, that he (Sir Harry) never deserted
the righteous cause for which he that day
sufiered. Hampden, shot through the spine,
and in great pain, yet prayed to God, " Oh,

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

59

spare my bleeding country. Have these
realms in thy special keeping. Confound and
level in the dust all those who would rob
the people of their just rights and lawful
prerogatives." Cranmer held his hand into
the fire, the hand which had signed his re-
cantation. " This hand," said he, " hath
offended, this unworthy right hand." When
Ealeigh died, he spoke as nobly as he had
lived. Hunning his finger along the edge of
the axe, he said, "This is a sharp medicine, but
it wUl cure aU diseases ;" and he told his exe-
cutioner when he altered the position of his
head, " So the heart be right, man, no matter
which way the head lies." Napoleon, acting
in his death over again the scenes of his life,
mutters as his last words, " Tete d'armee."*
Wolsey, whose tortuous church policy had
raised him to be the chief man, under the
king, throughout broad England, mourned
that he had not served God as weU as he
had served his king, for then, indeed, " he
would not have been deserted." Groethe, who
had endeavoured to know all that was know-
able, cried out, as death's shadow hovered over
him, for "Light, more light." And Newton,
the great discoverer of the laws which re-
gulate our sphere, the first who could clearly
read the system of the Maker, said, meekly,
" I do not know what I may appear to the
world, but to myself I seem to have been
only like a boy playing on the sea-shore, and
diverting myself in finding now and then a
smoother pebble than ordinary, whilst tTie
great ocean of truth lay aU undiscovered
before me."

Characteristic all these. Curious also is
it, as regards Humboldt, that Jean Jacques
Rousseau should have anticipated him in his
death words. Jean Jacques, who loved na-
ture as intensely as any one, although his
brain had been turned by "vain philosophy,"
lay dying on a fine evening; there was a
sunset glow in the sky, which, as Sidney

* Some historians write, " Tete * * * Armee." The
difference,is essential.

Smith would say, " glorified the room," and
Jean Jacques breathed his last aspirations
thus — " How pure and beautiful is the sky.
There is not a cloud. I trust the Almighty
will receive me there."

It is on the 5th of May, in this present
year of grace, and at three in the afternoon,
that Humboldt lies dying ; the sun shines
brniiantly into the room, and the departing
philosopher thus addressed his niece : — " Wie
herrlich diese strahlen ; sie scheinen die Erde
zum Himmel za rufen !" " How glorious are
these rays, they seem to call the Earth to
Heaven !"*

When he was committed to the grave
Berlin presented a scene that will be ever
memorable to those who witnessed it. Early
in the morning the people assembled in
countless crowds in the Unter den Linden,
and in Friedrich-strasse, through which the
procession was to pass. Oranienburger-
strasse, at No. 67, in which street Humboldt
died, was closed to the populace, and nearly
all the houses in it were draped with black
flags and other insignia of mourning. Those
who were about to take part in the cortege
assembled by degrees before the house, and
soon the greater part of the literati and
known men of Berlin assembled, when those
who had not seen the great philosopher since
his death hastened to take a last look at his
remains. The coffin consisted of a single
shell of oak, and was placed in Humboldt's
study. Leaves of palm-trees and blooming
exotics surrounded his portrait by Hilde-
brandt, the emblems reminding the spec-
tator of the long and dangerous travels in
tropical lands which Humboldt had accom-
plished.

AU his friends having taken a last linger-
ing look at the body, it was conveyed to the
catafalque in front of the house, and as soon
as the coffin appeared in sight all of the im-
mense crowd who were able to obtain a sight
of it instantly uncovered in token of the
* That is, to link the Mortal with the ImmortaL

00

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

respect they entertained for their great coun-
tryman.

The cavalcade was soon afterwards in
motion, and after the chief mourners, among
whom were his servants and those of his
family, followed the students of the Frederick-
WUliam University, about six hundred in
number, led by marshals bearing black rods ;
next came a band of musicians, and after
them eight clergymen. Before the Frederick
Gymnasium in Friedrich-strasse the pupils
were assembled, as were also those of
another school in the same street, and as the
procession approached, the boys sang a hymn,
"Es ist bestimmtinGottesEath."* Through-
out the whole line of procession the crowd
took off their hats, and at the windows of
the houses, which were filled by the resi-
dents, many other marks of respect were
observed among the populace, who filled
every nook and corner whence a view of the
cortege could be obtained, and unbroken and
mournful silence prevailed. As soon as the
Linden was passed, the sound of the tolling
bells came upon the ear, mingled with
the strains of a hymn sung by the Choral
Society of Berlin: — " In Arm der Liebe ruht
sich gut."t Under the portico of the cathe-
dral, the goal of the procession, were the
Prince Eegent,the Prince Frederick William,
Prince Albrecht, the young Prince Albrecht,
and Princes Frederick, George, Adalbert,
and Augustus of Wurtemberg, and Frederick
of Hesse Cassel, who received the remains
of the illustrious deceased with xmcovered
heads.

The altar was richly decorated with pahns
end blooming flowers, and there were four
immense candelabra bearing wax tapers, the
light from which mingled itself with that
of the sun, which had broken bright and
clear through the morning fog, and at that
moment lit up the vaulted arches of the
sacred edifice.

* It is decreed by will of God.

+ In the arms of love, how sweet to rest.

The Princes and Princesses Frederick
Wilhelm, Carl, Frederick Carl, and Frederick
of Hesse, witnessed the mournful ceremony
in the church. A funeral sermon was preached
by the general superintendent of the clergy,
M. Hoffman, after which the assembly sang
a hymn, " Jesus, meine Zuversicht," * a prayer
was offered up, then the usual service for the
dead was proceeded with, and a hymn by the
congregation closed the ceremony.

The coffin rested in the church during the
day, but at night it was removed to Tegel, a
village near Berlin, were Humboldt's early
days were passed, and there entombed.
There rest the remains of Humboldt's bro-
ther William, who preceded him to the tomb
twenty-four years ago, and the place is fur-
ther distinguished as containing a beautiful
statue of " Hope," by Thorwaldsen.

So ended the life-long labour of Love. A
sweet life this. Not dedicated to selfish
aims or sordid gains ; not to tortuous policy
or diplomatic lie ; not like that of one called
away but a few weeks after him. Prince
Metternich, of equally widely extended fame.
God approving the simple and earnest life,
made it long beyond that of others, and calm
and untroubled, like sweet music, to its close.
Now, whilst the noise of drumsand trumpets,
of march and countermarch, of victory or
defeat, fill the post-horns of all Europe, it is
good to look upon it. When we see around
us men struggling for sordid gold, it is sweet
to look again on one who thought the earth
and sea and sky somewhat richer than a
banker's book. At all times it is pleasant to
ponder on such a life, and to remember,
whilst we do, that

" Only the actions of the just

Smell sweet and blossom in the dust."

Hain Feiswell.

* Jesus, my final hope. Zuversicht — Providence
or trust.

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

61

TALK ABOUT TREES.

Theee is no wood that does not contain a
variety of trees which, however they vary in
character, belong, according to naturalists,
to two great families, known as endogens and
exogens. To the former belong those graceful
and gigantic denizens of the tropics which we
are more familiar with in paintings than in
person; where the bamboo and fan-palm
rear their polished stems and broad-leaved
foliage to the skies. These trees are not con-
sidered to possess a true bark, but in some
kinds the cuticle, or outer covering, is com-
posed to a great extent of silex, or flint, so
much so in some kinds of cane as to emit
sparks, if struck with steel, and forming a
beautiful object under the microscope. En-
dogens are hollow in the middle, or, as in
the case of sugar-cane, made up of a suc-
cession of tubes ; but, nevertheless, although
not capable of being used for the ordinary
purposes of wood or timber, they are emi-
nently adapted for purposes which are con-
ducive to the comfort and convenience of
the inhabitants of those regions where they
are found. It is only necessary to take a
glimpse at the mechanical products of the
Indian Archipelago, to illustrate this. "We
have only to remember the beautiful baskets
and fans which are formed, not only of the
bodies and branches of these trees, but of their
leaves, which are tougher and less perish-
able than those of our own country. Nay,
we may go further, and refer to the houses
which are built entirely of bamboo, and in
South America are very much like immense
bird-cages. These species of trees are com-
posed of filaments, readily divisible, but the
surface as awhole,longitudinally,is extremely
hard and polished. The palm best known to
us is the cocoa-palm, which grows to a vast
height without a single branch, and has a
head of leaves, amidst which the cocoa-nut,
so familiar to us, grows. This, whilst it is

green, and might be injured, is defended by
a shell of great thickness, composed of fila-
ments of somewhat the same character as
the wood itself, or rather the cuticle. Of
late years a most important article has been
introduced into this country in the shape of
matting made from this fibre, and twisted
into ropes ; it is durable and cleanly, inas-
much as its rough surface readily allows of
being cleansed from dust, etc. Those who
have visited the bamboo forests of India
have seen a beautiful, if not a sublime sight.
Imagine a forest of polished columns of Na-
ture's own making, branching out at obtuse
angles upward in every direction, and ter-
minating in silken tufts of foliage, glancing
to the sxin with every zephyr that blows. As
one universal link is kept up in all Nature,
these wondrous natural structures are but
vast examples of the silken grass stems that
are crushed beneath our feet as we wander
in the summer meadows : erect these (in
thought) into a thousand times the size, and
diminish yourself to a fly's bulk, and you
have the Indian scene before you. Among
the endogens we have some of those spe-
cimens ofendurabUity which seem almost in-
destructible by time and the rigour of cli-
mate. Thus, the Draccsna draco, found in
Teneriffe, was but a few years since, if it be
not now, alive, being computed to have been
in existence in the fourteenth century — this
is really a splendid species. The mode in
which endogenous trees grow may be
illustrated by supposing that a bundle of
straight fibres were placed side by side
around a circular pole, that they were
tied in at the lower end, the pole then with-
drawn, and that they retained their po-
sition, they would appear as in the ac-
companying figure. And thus in reality
they grow, concentring at the root, and
often terminating at the apex, in the

62

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

endogens, in a single bud. Various opi-
nions have been formed as to the mode in
wbich these fibres were originally formed,
some botanists contending that each filament,

or each, bundle of fibres, is, in fact, a root of
a leaf, and this is strengthened by the fact
that in the endogens the fibres forming the
leaf lie side by side in parallel lines. The
leaves of this family of plants are sometimes
of great size, extending to as much as forty
feet in width — enough to cover a dinner-
table with an extempore green cloth I En-
dogens contain a great proportion of trees
yielding fruit applicable for food, and, per-
haps, fewer poisonous plants than the exogens,
and there is a remarkable contrast in size in
some specimens. When we come to consider
the exogens, we find amongst them all those
trees which we may truly call " timber," and
which are found in such numbers and varie-
ties in Old England, not to mention others
which have been found capable of existing
in an English climate. In this class we have
what may be truly called " wood," and de-
fined as that portion of the tree existing be-
tween the pith and the bark. ' Botanists
regard this substance as bundles of woody
tissue or fibre, but, taking a timber tree as
a whole, it is divided as follows : — The cen-
tre, pith ; next to that, heart-wood ; then sap-
wood ; then bark. The pith is a cellular sub-
stance, large in comparison to the size of the
plantwhen very young ; this comparison, how-
ever, is soon lost as the young plant becomes
a tree, and in old age is nearly indiscernable.
Linnajus — that father of naturalists, whose
works, imperfect as they are, having relation
to modern discovery, will long stand unri-
valled— amongst other theories, considered
that the pith held the same place in trees
that marrow does in the himian frame, and
was, in fact, the centre and soul of the

life ; this, however, was never, I believe, fol-
lowed, because it was untenable ; and, there-
fore, at the present day, pith may be defined
as a cellular substance found in the centre of
the bole and branches of a tree, but not of
the roots (that is, of exogens). When
young it is filled with fluid and grains of
starch, which disappear when the foliage be-
comes organized, and so serves as a magazine
for nutriment. The supposition is, that at this
period its office is performed, that it then
dies, and, gradually contracting in bulk, at
length entirely vanishes. There is no doubt,
however, that a communication is kept up
between the centre and circumference of tim-
ber-trees, as the rays which radiate to the
bark seem to prove. These are called me-
dullary, or marrow-like (founded, perhaps, on
the fact that they communicate with the cen-
tre), and these again communicate with the
leaves by cords of a fibro-vascular tissue.
The heart- wood, which is resident next to the
pith, forms, towards the centre, the true
timber, and the support of the tree by its
firmness and solidity. This increases in
density and hardness as years pass away,
partly, no doubt, by age, and partly by accu-
mulated pressure from without. Heart- wood
may be regarded as comparatively a dead
substance, although it cannot be denied that
it always contains some moisture or juices,
but these arc not in active circulation.
Whilst the tree is a growing tree, the mode
in which it is formed is by a constant anniial
deposit and outward growth, by which layer
upon layer being added, the tree gradually
increases in bulk, and those rings are formed
which we see at the end of a fresh-cut stick
of timber. External to the heart-wood is the
sap-wood, or alburnum, which may be re-
regarded as the heart-wood in a young or
progressive state. The circles seen in the
heart-wood are known as spurious grain, and
are in fact nothing more than the junction of
the annual deposits. The medullary rays are
also known as silver (/raifi. The sap-wood,

EECKEATIVE SCIEN'CE.

63

or alburnum, with tlie bark, is in truth, tlie
growing part of the tree, which, being con-
stantly deposited from the bark and inner
bark, becomes in its turn conyerted into
wood or timber.

Spring giyes a new impulse to vege-
table life, and the living juices of trees, no
less than the current in our own veins, feel
the influence of the genial ray. The absence
of that amount of moisture in the upper part
of trees which occurs in winter, causes the
cellular tissues to become, as it were, vacua,
and the sap rises by what is called capil-
lary attraction.

. Of the specific gravity of woody fibre,
water forms usually two-thirds ; but woods
difier extremely in this particular as well
as in their contractile power, which de-
pends entirely upon the direction of the
fibres. The lighter the wood, the greater ca-
pacity it has for imbibing moisture, and some
trees secrete a vast amount, either of watery
sap, as in the JBetula alba, or white birch, or
gum, as in the caoutchouc (Siphonia elas-
tica) ; others, such as Brazil-wood, log-wood,
etc., have very useful qualities for staining
by the juices that they secrete. Others, such
as mahogany (^S^y^e^e«^« ?wa7^o^(^M^), rose-wood,
which is produced by a species of Mimosa,
king-wood, etc., are coloured by these juices,
and are used in ornamental work. Satin-
wood [Chloroxylon Stoietenia) is well known,
and yields a wood-oil, as also does the sandal-
wood (Sandonicum) of the family 3£eliaceai ;
ebony {Ebenacece) and calamander-wood (of
Ceylon) arc examples of this kind. With
the characters of the fir tribe we are weU
acquainted, it being a matter of notoriety
that they yield all the resins, and that tar is
made from their roots.

With regard to the rising and falling of
the sap, a familiar illustration has often been
given in proof of the alleged fact, that there
is a much greater quantity of sap in the upper
than in the lower part of a tree ; namely,
that if a piece of the bark is cut out trans-

versely in spring, the sap exudes in much
greater quantity from the upper part than
from the lower. This is owing to the fact
that the sap current is upward in the wood
and downward in the bark.

The last portion of the tree to be consi-
dered is the bark. This substance, which
varies from a mere thin skin to a coating a
foot in thickness, as in the case of the Dou-
glas Fir of America, is composed of several
parts. The innermost (we have been proceed-
ing from the centre) is called the liber, and a
soft viscid substance, called cambium, or pa-
renchyma, which form what are called the cor-
tical layers, or layers of the bark. Through
this substance the ligneous cords and medul-
lary processes pass, and it is perforated by
cellular tissue ; wood being, in fact, a col-
lection of tubular and vascular tissue. Outer-
most of all is the true bark, the epidermis, or
cuticle, through which the atmosphere acts
on the plant ; not referring to the leaves,
which forms matter for separate considera-
tion. The bark is, in fact, an organization
to inspire and expire by, but whether the
wood is formed by or from the leaves is
a vexed question. The leaves of exogens
ramify from a centre or midrib, and are
netted in the most exquisite manner ; whereas
those of endogens, as I have before observed,
grow in parallel lines. Endogens are so
called because there is a continual develop-
ment towards the interior, and we find them
spoken of by Theophrastus. Several elabo-
rate works have been published on this class,
to which the grasses belong. Endogens some-
times terminate in a single shoot, whereas
exogens are furnished with buds which are
axillary, or resembling arteries from the main
vein. When the spring-growth in trees
takes place, there is a spontaneous separation
between the liber and the bark, which ia
necessary for the growth of the wood ; an
addition to the wood is taken from the liber,
and the cortical layers again receive an
external addition, and so the tree progresses.

04

EECHEATIVE SCIENCE.

The embryo tree is indeed a. wonderful
object, and well worth examination j but it
is not until the second year of its life that
woody fibre begins to be deposited ; before
that period it is a mass of cellular tissue
only, pierced longitudinally with woody mat-
ter ; when, however, the future tree is once
actually and regularly formed, all goes on in
the same routine to its fall by the hand of
man or the decay of nature.

The bark is continually renewing inter-
nally as it externally perishes, and seems to
form a protection and a vehicle as circum-
stances of situation and climate require.
Thus cork, that useful and well-known sub-
stance, is the product and covering of a
species of osikiCluercus suher), grown chiefly
in Spain. As to the uses of wood, the forma-
tion and situation of the tubes or cells, the
form of the cotyledons or seed-leaves, or
the botanical arrangement, I shall now say
nothing ; suffice it that the exogens are the
more numerous, and are found in all coun-
tries, and number nearly 60,000 species, that
is, of exogens generally, including trees ; the
ordering of which is not considered by any
means satisfactory. Some of the noblest
specimens of timber of which this island
can boast are of the cedar (cedrus) or
fir (pinus) kind ; and the silver-fir (genus
JPicea) has attained in some instances a
vast growth. But what are these com-
pared to the cotton-trees of California,
the boabab, or monkey-bread tree (Adam-
sonia digitata) of Africa, which is of this
tribe {Bomhacece), being said to be the
largest tree in the world, giving a bulk of
60 feet in circumference to 12 in height!
If travellers can be credited, when one of the
Californian trees has fallen from old age
or some other cause, the way is com-
pletely blocked up by its prone stem, which
rises in diameter to the height of a man on
horseback ! A hollow cotton-tree has formed
the shelter for a party of horsemen from the
El norte, or sudden hurricane of the South

American continent, and a habitation during
a whole winter for a squatter and his famUy ;
and they frequently reach the enormous
height of 350 feet !

O. S. EoriTD.

WAEDIAN CASES.

It is too often the case that those who intend
to embellish their dwellings with fern-eases
defer the planting of them till the season of
flowers is fully over. The cases are then
placed in the windows, and planted with
ferns, but owing to the rapid decline of the
season, there is not sufficient warmth to
enable the plants to make fresh roots in
their new abodes ; and besides this, having
completed their season, and formed the
hidden fronds which are to appear next
spring, they have but little disposition to
send out fibres into the soil to which they ,
are thus untimely introduced. Hence, where
such adornments are used only in the winter
they should be planted at once, while vege-
tation is still active, in order that they may
be, to use a horticultural phrase, "esta-
blished" before winter sets in. Evergreen
ferns should be chosen for the purpose, and
unless the cultivator has had some expe-
rience, the hardiest British and exotic ferns
should have preference over kinds that are
tenderly constituted. A very simple way of
stocking fern-cases which are to take the
place of flower-stands and other summer
embellishments, and which are to be re-
moved in the spring, is to procure an assort-
ment of healthy plants in small pots, arrange
them to produce a good effect, and then hide
the pots by a covering of fresh moss, which
wiU. keep its green colour till spring. Cinders
are the best drainage for fern-cases, and
turfy peat the best soil.

H.

EECKEATIVE SCIEN"CE.

65

COLLECTING AND PRESEEVING FUNGI.

COLtBCTINa FOE THE TABLE.

EiEST procure an. oblong flat-bottomed
wicker basket, about from four to six inches
deep, but with no lid, such as is commonly-
used by butter salesmen in country markets.
Have a clean cloth large enough to line
the whole of the basket, and form two folds
over the top. Also procure a sharp knife and
a house-painter's brush. Select dry weather,
if possible, and go out as early in the morn-
ing as you can conveniently. When you reach
your collecting-ground avoid most carefully
all fungi that have been broken by cattle or
other causes, also all which from their shri-
velled appearance, change of colour, or other-
wise, indicate they have passed their prime,

selecting only those which are still attached
to the earth or other substances, and are still
living and in a growing state ; collect each
separately ; first clean away with the brush
all dirt, dust, grass, or foreign substances,
especially flies ; next, cut ofi" the root a good
inch from the extremity, and throw away
with it the attached mould. You will now
readily see, by the porousness of the stems,
which are attacked by maggots. Such will
always be the oldest, and had better be kept
in a corner of the basket by themselves.
The cloth should be constantly kept covered
over the fungi, both whUe collecting and re-
turning home, to prevent the attack of flies,
etc., which are always on the look-out ; in

fact, where they are in any abundance it is
well to collect and prepare them in heaps on
the ground and put them all in the basket at
once, as by constantly opening you may truly
shut in instead of out many of your greatest
enemies.

The above directions will stand good
for most of the agarics, helvellas, morells,
boleti, lycoperdons, etc. ; there are a few ex-
ceptions, however, as Agaricus atramentari-
ous and cornatus, which are of such a juicy or
deliquescent nature that in a few hours or less
a large portion of the fungus turns to liquid,
and would make a miserable mess and con-
fusion in a basket with other species. They
should, therefore, be collected in a large pie-
dish or some other earthen vessel.

The truffle will require a very difi*erent
process in collecting, the task being gene-
rally left to dogs trained for the purpose, and
known as truffle-dogs. The truffle-hunters
in Hampshire (where they are rather com-
mon on the chalk, and especially under beech-
trees) are furnished with a stout ash stick,
about the size of an ordinary broom-handle,
and tapered at one end to a rather stout,
blunt point ; this point, for about three inches,
is iron, in the form of an extinguisher, and
firmly fitted on the wood. "With this, when
the dogs have indicated the whereabouts by
scratching, the collector grubs them up. As
they are of a solid nature, and in form and
size somewhat resembling potatoes, of a dark
colour, with an irregular, warty surface, they
may be collected in a bag, basket, or what-
ever is most convenient. Having now col-
lected and conveyed home our specimens, our
next aim is either to preserve or prepare
them for the table. Of course, I now allude
to the thirty species which, with proper
treatment, are known to be wholesome, and
which are natives of our land and compara-
tively common.

G6

BECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

SALTING AKD PICKLING.

They may be preserved in a variety of
ways for tlie table, tlie most usual being
dried in tbe open air, strung on strings, or
preserved in oil, vinegar, or brine. Agaricus
procerus. Boletus edulis, and Tuber ciberium
may be even preferred raw ; wbUe others, as
the belvellas, having somewkat the consis-
tence of leather, are decidedly improved by
cooking. There can be little doubt we have
poisonous species, as Boletus luridus, Agaricus
muscarious, etc., care should, therefore, be
taken in collecting, and all brine, vinegar,
or oil in which they have been preserved
should be thrown away, as it is supposed
that the poison is extracted by the liquor in
which they have been preserved, while the
fungus, even in poisonous species, becomes a
wholesome food.

PEESERVATION OF FUNGI IN LIQUIDS.

The higher orders of fungi rarely appear
in the herbarium, from the erroneous impres-
sion that it is impossible to dry them. It is
quite true that many are of so delicate,
fragUe, and watery a nature, that it is quite
impossible to dry and press them ; for these
there is but one simple process, that of im-
mersing them in bottles of a solution pre-
pared for that pui-pose. There are many of
these solutions in use for botanical, zoolo-
gical, and anatomical purposes, but only one
or two, I find, can be even moderately de-
pended upon. Most spirits defy nearly all
efforts to prevent evaporation, and they
extract and destroy the colour of the plants,
by which they lose their transparency. On
the other hand, most solutions, from a com-
bination of chemical salts, become opaque,
and form a crystalline deposit round the
mouth of the jar, which, from contact with
the air, gradually feeds upon the covering of
the vessel ; nor are acids always to be de-
pended upon, extracting the colour and more
or less destroying the most delicate and deli-

quescent species, especially if exposed to
agitation. Where expense is not studied,
one evil is, to a certain extent, remedied by
throwing away the solution in which they
have been preserved for about a month, and
which by that time has extracted the colour,
then replace it with fresh, and there is not
that danger of the liquid being discoloured.
A few will be found of such a solid and dry
nature as to require no drying, and must be
kept in a cabinet, or drawers, as they will
not flatten by pressure. We now come to a
large bulk of the higher orders, which,
although it is not absolutely necessary to
keep them in solution, it is looked upon as a
laborious and difficult task to dry and press
them, and when done, the sections, etc.,
usually taken are but a humble apology for
the whole plant. For these I can recom-
mend the following methods as far superior
to those in general use : —

DRYING FUNGI FOE THE HESBAEIUM.

Procure a wire cage, such as ia used by
rat-catchers, about twenty-four inches long,

WIEE CAGE.

twelve wide, and twelve deep, with a
shelf of the same material in the centre, or
of smaller dimensions, according to the re-
quirements of the collector. Let the wire
be sufficiently close to keep out the ordinary
flies, but no smaller, as we require a free
ventilation; should the flies still get in,
cover with a net sufficiently fine to ex-
clude intruders. Arrange the fungi in rows

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

67

with stems downwards, resting on strings
crossing from side to side, and each, free from
its neighbour. Let this cage be suspended
in the air if possible, as from a clothes' line,
and in a draughty situation, as a passage
between two houses ; a cool, shady spot being
preferable, as it is the air, and not heat, which
we wish to dry them. The surface of the
fungi may be also pricked freely with a
darning needle. As soon as they commence
shrivelling, or show symptoms of drying,
remove them from the cage, bend down the
stalk in the direction of the pileus, or cap,
and gently press them for twelve hours ; re-
move them from the press, and again lay
them flat in the cage, and expose them to the
air till they appear sufficiently dry to bear
further pressure. Again remove them, and
lay them between flannel three or four times
double ; on this put a thin layer of cotton
wadding, another layer of flannel, then a
fresh layer of fungi, and repeat the layers of
flannel and wadding as long as you have spe-
cimens. Put them in a box of suitable size,
and subject them to pressure by placing a
sheet of paper over the whole, and spreading
sand lightly over the surface till the whole is
covered about an inch and a half deep. Leave
them for about two days, then remove them,
and press between drying paper, put on per-
fectly hot, for twelve hours.

DRYIKG IN SAND AND LIME.

There is another process, not generally
known, by which they may be preserved
either in their natural form or flattened for
the herbarium.

Take the whitest sand, nine pounds, pow-
dered lime, one pound. Mix thoroughly and
sift through a fine sieve, let the whole be
well dried and kept in an earthen vessel
closed against the air and damp, ready for
use.

Take tin boxes, of different sizes, perfo-
rated freely with holes, large enough to ad-
mit a moderate-sized pea, on the top and

on all sides, from the top to about two
inches from the bottom, but no lower. Kext,
take some sheets of blotting-paper, drying-
paper, or flannel, line the sides of the boxes
as low as the holes, but no lower ; put a
layer of the mixed sand and lime in the box
(not heated), then place your fungi stems
upwards, gently shake in the mixture till it
reaches the edge of the pileus or gills, but not
to cover them; nowtakea few strips carelessly
torn from your paper or flannel, sufficiently
long to cross the gills of the fungi and touch all
sides of your box, like the medullary rays of
an exogenous stem. This, by means of capil-
lary attraction, will absorb the moisture from
the gills of the fungi as well as that taken up
by the sand, and convey it to the paper at

ooooooooo

'^: 9 o o: n 'a io'''n' O' »'io'o'|le

» s, 'e, a. a 6 e,! e Alalia'-' 9

I G 'fP C: o '&' 0„o' O M O • 0

TIN BOXEa WITH HOLES.

the sides, where it will evaporate through the
holes and escape into the atmosphere; the
box should be filled with the mixture to
within half an inch of the top, but do not
cover the top with paper. When all the
boxes are prepared let them be stood in a
shzo oven, on the hob of a fireplace,
the funnel of a steamer, the boiler of an
engine, bath-room, or any situation where
there is a regular and not too high a tempera-
ture. Take especial care that the tempera-
ture is not excessive, and that the sand ia
not put in hot. I have little faith in drying
by pouring heated sand upon them. It is
not a sudden and high temperature we re-
quire, but a low continuous heat, and that
from beneath, driving the moisture to the
surface, where it will evaporate. To ascer-

G8

BECREATIVE SCIENCE.

tain if tliey are sufficiently dry hold a piece
of clean diy glass over a perforated box at a
tolerably high, temperature. If moisture is~
still remaining it will soon be indicated by a
foggy appearance on the glass. With respect
to flattening, as fungi are generally of a
tough leathery texture, they may be flattened
with care in an ordinary press, and I believe
that their form, like that of most cryptogam! c
plants, may be restored by boiling water.
Specimens to be collected for the herbarium
should not have the roots cut off".

FUNGI ON THE STEMS OF TEEES.

The parasitic and epiphytal fungi demand
but few words. They are mostly on leaves
of plants, and will simply require to be col-
lected between the leaves of a folio book, and
pressed by means of a string tightly bound
round it. Many on the bark of trees, stems of
plants, decayed wood, etc., may simply be
shaved off by a chisel or sharp stiff knife, and
driedin a warm room, or in the sun, and pressed
if inclined to shrivel. Those found in or on the
surface of liquids will require a very different
treatment ; when first removed from the
liquid they must be placed, on a pad of blot-
ting-paper, six or eight sheets thick, and laid
on a sloping board to drain, and during inter-
vals as much must be absorbed as possible by
gently pressing blotting-paper on the surface.
No attempt should be made to press them
tiU as much moisture as possible is absorbed
by exposure to the air, and take especial care
to keep them in a moderately cool tempera-
ture till the liquid appears absorbed ; they
should then, if possible, be placed on the
paper intended for mounting, and paper and
specimens together put between folded sheets
of blotting-paper, and pressed very tenderly,
and with care not to rub off the bloom. If
very delicate, or of an irregular surface, they
ought not to be pressed, but dried by the air,
and protected on the herbarium paper by a
light wooden frame surrounding them. Those
that are found on bread, cheese, potatoes,

and other decomposing; provisions, should be
dried by exposure to the air, and mounted for
the herbarium in white card-board boxes with
glass lids ; many of the extremely delicate
must at once be mounted between glass for
the microscope, being the only way to pre-
serve them. Many of the agarics and other
fungi may have their delicate colours pre-
served by absorbing any moisture on their
surface with a piece of blotting-paper, and
varnishing them with a hard transparent var-
nish immediately they are removed from the
ground, or wherever they grow, and sus-
pended with strings in the air. Where the
whole plant is coloured, and several are col-
lected, different parts of each should be var-
nished, as the moisture cannot evaporate
through the varnish.

PEESEEVING THEM WHEN MOtTNTED.

Pungi are so delightful a relish to insects,
that they will soon be devoured if not
poisoned. Camphor so soon evaporates as to
became a most expensive, troublesome, and,
some say, most inefficient remedy, and its
perfume becomes deleterious where in con-
stant use, producing headache, etc., when
confined in a room without ventilation.
Turpentine and other essential oils become
most obnoxious in glass cabinets, their re-
sinous and greasy consistency encouraging
the accumulation of dust on the specimens,
the glass becomes dull and greasy, and,
even if suspended in phials, are liable to
be upset, and cause sad ^havoc in a collec-
tion neatly mounted. A solution formed of
spirits of wine, corrosive sublimate, and a
very small proportion of camphor, is most
generally efficacious ; but the use of this wiU
vary almost as much as the plants vary them-
selves. In the leaf fungi the camphor must
be omitted, as it forms a crystalline deposit.
For many of the agarics water must be
added, or the mixture will destroy the colour.
With the more delicate a coat of varnish
answers admirably, as it at the same time fixes

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

G9

tliem to the paper, aad prevents their being
rubbed off.

I use three ounces of corrosive sublimate
at the time (sufficient to poison a little mul-
titude), and have always several preparations
in hand ; but I should advise amateurs not to
manufacture for themselves, as poisons are
dangerous tools to play with.

MOUNTING.

The larger species must be glued on paper
the size of the herbarium. For this purpose
the best transparent glue must be obtained,
broken and soaked in cold water two days
before using. There can be no rule with
such an extensive and variable order as
this, but in some cases oil, in others mutton
fat, and in others lime-water must be mixed

with the glue. For the smaller a solution of
gum acacia should be used, with a little
whiting and moist sugar, and four drops to
the pint of oil of cinnamon. The most
delicate may be floated on paper from gum-
water, and when dry by exposure to the air,
lightly coated with varnish; the same process
as used for seaweeds will be useful for many
fungi. Leaf fungi will form good practice
and good objects for drawing or tracing,
mounted between two sheets of glass ; the
smaller species should be mounted on small
pieces of paper, and pinned on the herbarium
paper, they can then be removed from time
to time, as others are added. Both sides of
the fungus shoidd be shown when pos-
sible.

Feedeeick. y. Beocas.

DIATOMS:

HOW TO EXAMINE AND PEEPAEE FOE THE MICEOSCOPE.

Having obtained, as supposed in our last,
the materials for examination in a satisfactory
condition for working with, let a little of the
brown jelly-like substance be taken up on the
point of a pen-knife, and placed on a slip of
glass, three inches by one, called a slide ;
over this put a piece of thin covering- glass,
and, if necessary, add a drop or two of the
water from which our objects were taken. A
very small portion will suffice, for the power
to be employed makes it seem two or three
hundred times as much as it really is. In such
an examination as this, use for the ordinary
slide a larger one, with a slip cemented at
the bottom, called a glass "table ;" this will
prevent water running down on to the frame
of the microscope, which would, particularly
if it contain salt, quickly injure it. •

If now we have got hold of naviculge or
their allies, a very curious sight will be pre-
sented, the whole of the objects in the field

of view being endowed with active life and
moving about in different directions. This
motion is well calculated to arrest atten-
tion ; it is not the rapid meteor-like whirl of
most of the infusorial animalcules, but a
gentle gliding in one direction, the distance
and the time occupied in traversing it being
clearly defined and readily noted by a good
watch ; there is then a brief period of rest,
and the return journey is duly proceeded
with. Should two meet in their paths, they
may either glide past one another, or, after
being stopped in their forward course for an
interval, they will set off back again ; so also
if it be a fragment of stone by which they are
arrested. That the force with which they
move is considerable will be readily seen by
the vigorous way in which bits of stone, etc.,
will be pushed aside. Calculations of the
rate of speed in different species have been
made, to the effect that the most rapid will

Gt

70

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

get over a space equal to an inch, in about
tkree minutes, and tlie slowest in about an
hour ; but such convey a very erroneous im-
pression, since the minute size of the objects
is left out of the account, and the above dis-
tances should be multiplied by three or four
hundred to obtain a true idea of the rate of
speed as seen with the microscope. The rea-
sons for, and way in which, these motions are
effected are involved in some obscurity. The
most probable supposition is that they are
connected with vital processes, the formation
of oxygen, and growth of the minute organism.
That there are external organs for producing
it has been asserted, and lately revived, but
the most careful and trustworthy observers
agree that with the best glasses they have
never seen any such ; and the very delicate
mycelioid filaments with which some species
especially are liable to be infested have no
motion, and can therefore have nothing to
do with it. Erustides detached from fila-
ments or their stalks, where they have such,
will occasionally move, but in a more languid
and irregular way than those which live free.

To ascertain readQy the exact characters
of a Diatom which may appear new or doubt-
ful, the best way is to put a little on talc,
and expose to a gentle red-heat ; the pecu-
liarities of shape, the angles, the markings,
then come out with great sharpness, and may
be studied with ease and satisfaction. The
simple way of drying on talc presents advan-
tages for preservation in an herbarium, for
interchange with brother (or sister) collectors
through the post, and so on.

To mount for the cabinet, however, most
will prefer them put up with Canada balsam,
on glass slides. Filamentous forms we have
seen well and readily prepared by careful heat-
ing on a slide, and then covered up. There is
so little satisfaction in mounting in fluid, and
30 much risk of loss, that we do not recom-
mend this mode of preservation. The usual
way of obtaining Diatoms in a fit state for
mounting, is to put some of the material into

a little porcelain or platina cup, to pour
nitric acid over it, and then to boil for a short
time ; what remains should then be carefully
washed with pure water several times in suc-
cession, in a precipitating glass, allowing the
fine white powdery sediment, composed of
Diatoms, to fall between each time of washing.
Yery ingenious ways of obtaining those of
different sizes, as large, middling, and small,
have been adopted, on the principle of allow-
ing different periods to elapse for the
sediment to faU. The advantage of these
will be best appreciated in working with
fossil, or semi- fossil gatherings. It has been
asserted that the acid begins to act upon the
Diatoms injuriously after more than a minute
or so of boiling, but we have met with only
one or two instances, and those somewhat
doubtful, where such an effect appeared to
have been produced, and, on the other hand,
have known them boiled by the half-hour
together without any harm resulting. Caus-
tic potash and soda, however, will very
rapidly destroy them, and form with them
soluble silicates. It would be interesting to
ascertain whether ammonia wiU do the same,
and under what circumstances : that it will
in certain conditions, appears extremely pro-
bable, or what becomes of the beautiful theory
by which the formation of flints out of
sponges is accounted for ?

When the acid has been thoroughly
washed away, the Diatomacean sediment may
be kept for any length of time in small labelled
bottles, with a little pure water; and to mount
them, nothing more is required than to shake
the bottle, take up a small portion of the
milky fluid, put it on a slide, and when quite
dry, add Canada balsam, and a thin covering-
glass.

It is sometimes advisable, especially when
working with new and rich gatherings, to
look carefully over a slide before the balsam
is hardened ; different views of a rare form,
such as could hardly otherwise, may thus be
obtained, on moving it by gentle pressure on

BECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

n

tte covering-glass whilst under observation.
Had this simple expedient, which, is equally
available to examinations in water, been more
generally adopted, our knowledge would be
more complete than it is of some doubtful
forms, whilst others would never have ob-
tained admittance on our lists to become
"opprobria Diatomearum" — horrid puzzlers
that we know not what to do with. An easy
way of hardening the balsam, when the
mounting is complete, is to put the slide on
the mantel-piece, in a room with a fire, for a
few days, or it may be put over a water or
sand-bath, on a little metal table heated by a
spirit-lamp j or where many have to be done
at once, in an ingenious apparatus, like the
Dutch-oven in principle, to which the name
"Eetino-Klibanon," or slide-dryer, has been
applied. Tuffen West.

METEOEOLOaY OF SEPTEMBER.

FIWJI OBSERVATIONS AT HIGHFIELD HOUSE OBSERVATORY.

Year.
184:i

Greatest

Heat.
Degrees.
. .. 79.0 ..

Greatest

Cold.
Degrees.
. 42.5 ,. .

Amount of
Eaiu.

Inches.

1813

. .. 78.0 ..

. 35.0 .. .

1811

,. .. 78.0 ..

. 39.5 .. .

. 2.7

1815

. .. 73.0 ..

. 32.0 .. .

. 1.5

1816

. .. 79.5 ..

. 46.5 .. .

. 1.3

1847

. .. 65.0 ..

. 33.0 .. .

. 2.2

1818

. .. 78.0 ..

. 37.5 ., .

. 3.5

184D

. .. 77.7 ..

. 33.8 .. .

. 5.0

1850

.. .. 74.4 ..

. 83.0 .. .

. 2.0

1851

. .. 79.0 ..

. 35.0 .. .

. 1.5

1853

. .. 79.0 ..

. 32.0 .. .

. 5.6

1853

. .. 70.2 ..

. 33.5 .. .

. 2.1

1854

. .. 82.1 ..

. 33.5 .. .

. 0.9

1855

. .. 74.9 ..

. 33.5 .. .

. 0.7

1856

. .. 71.6 ..

. 36.3 .. .

. 2.6

1857

. .. 76.5 ..

. 37.5 .. ,

. 8.0

1858

. .. 85.0 ..

. 37.9 .. .

. 2.3

Tiift a

pnipat. liPflt. in elm

1ft rftfiPliPfl 8.5 n

in 1.<!riK

and only 65.0° in 1847, giving a range in greatest heat
of 20.0^ during the past seventeen years.

The gi-eatest cold was as low as 32.0° in 1845 and
1852, and never below 46.5° in 1846, giving a range
of 14.5° in gi-eatest cold.

Three-quarters of an inch of rain is the lowest
amount that has fallen in September, this occurred 1855 ;
5i inches fell in 1852, being a range of 4f inches.

September is usually free from cloud, and at night
the temperature descends towards the freezing point

E. J. Lowe,

ASTEONOMICAL OBSEEVATIONS
FOR SEPTEMBER, 1859.

Sun in constellation Virgo till the 23d, then in Libra.

On tlie 1st the sun rises in London at 5h. 13m.
r .m., and sets at 6h. 46m. p.m. On the 30th he rises
at 6h. Om. a.m., and sets at 5h. 40m. ;

Twilight ends on the 6th at 8h. 38m. p.m., on
the 28th at 7h. 38m.

Day breaks 12th, 3h. 20m. a.m., 27th, 3h. 59m. a.m.

Full moon 12th, 8h. 31m. a.m. New, 26th, Ih.
56m. p.m.

The moon at greatest distance from earth on the
8th, at midnight. Least distance on the 24th.

Mercury is somewhat favourably situated for ob-
servation, being in Leo at the commencement of the
month, and in Virgo at the end of the month.

Mercury in conjunction with Mars ; evening of the
6th, within 6° of moon on the evening of the 25th.

Venus very smaU, and very unfavourably situated
for observation. Li superior conjunction with sun on
the 27th.

Venus in Leo till the middle of the month, then in
Virgo.

Mars in Leo. Invisible, close to the sun.

Jupiter in Gemini, a morning star, rising midnight.

Saturn is in Leo, and invisible until the end of the
month, and then unfavourably situated for observation.

Uranus is in Taurus.

Occultation of Stars by the Moon : On the 16th,
Epsilon Arietis, 4J magnitude, disappearance, 9h.
55m. p.m. ; reappearance, lOh, 10m. p.m. On the
22nd, mu Cancri, 5th magnitude, disappearance, 111.
29m. a.m.; reappearance, 2h. 21m. a.m.

Eclipses of Jupiter's Satellites : On the 7th, the
3rd moon will disappear at lb. 23m. 59s. a.m., and
reappear at 4h. 25m. 45s. a.m. On the 13th, the 1st
satellite wiU disappear at Ih. 20m. 52s. a.m.

E. J. Lowe.

THiNaS OF THE SEASON— SEPTEMBEE.

FOR VARIOUS LOCALITIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.

Birds Arriving. — Sea Curlew, Snipe and Snipe
Jack, Green Sandpiper, Bean Goose.

Birds Departing. — Blackcap, Nightingale, 'White
Throat, Sedge Warbler, Beed Warbler, Wood Wren,
Grasshopper Lark, Eeed Sparrow, Swallow (H. rus-
iica), Eed-backed Shrike, Flycatcher, Chiff-chaff,
Stone Curlew, Wheatear, Ring Ousel, Sandwich Tern,
Common Tern, Black Tern, Euff.

Insects. — Twelve and Sixteen- Spotted Ladybird,
Clouded Yellow, Convolvulus Hawk-moth, Death's
Head Hawk-moth, Helophanus fennicus, Chlenius
vestitus, Acridia viridissima.

Wild Plants in Flower. — Small Fleabane, Com-
mon Eagwort, Creeping Water Plantain, Jointed Glass-
wort (sea-shore), Saffron Crocus, Grass of Parnassus,
Persicaria, Arbutus, Sharp-leaved Mint, Eed Mint,
Woundwort, Bur Marigold.

72

RECREATIVE SCIENCE.

JVIt JVfotewortliy^s Cf<

orner.

Alleged Shakesperian Fokgeeiks. — Mr. Collyer
discovered, and bought in 1849, a copy of Shakespeare's
works printed in 1632, which contained emendations
by one Thomas Perkins. The book under any circum-
stances was a treasure, and Mr. Henry Eodd, the book-
seller, must have been very careless to let it slip for a
trifle into Mr. Gollyer's hands. The latter gentleman
kept his treasure some time. Then it gradually ooeed
out that he had it. In 1853 he published a corrected
edition of the works, with these new old readings. In
1856 a complete list of all the readings appeared.
Since then there have been floods of papers on the
folio of 1633. All the editors and commentators were
against " Perkins," whoever he may have been, or be,
for he was against all. What with comma, dot, dash,
alteration, new word, new line, altered letters, these
emendations amounted to thousands; of the more
important there are one thousand three hundred and
three. Of these only two hundred and ninety are
worth much. Of them one hundred and seventy-three
have been part of the received text for a quarter of a
century, and the remainder one hundred and seven-
teen have fair claims to be received as really emen-
dations.

Nobody knows who " Perkins " was. Some say a
player, others an author; others, one who attended
the plays with the folio in his hands, and corrected as
he heard, or thought should be. His emendations have
no more authority than Stevens's, or Malony's, or yours,
or mine. His volume is bound in rough calf, about the
date of George II., the fly-leaves having a water-mark
G. R., crown and Dutch livre — obvious, by the way,
William III., Gulielmus Rex., and the Dutch arms,
not George II., as Mr. Hamilton will have it — and
having been given by Mr. Collyer to the Duke of
Devonshire, has by him been placed in the hands of
Sir F. Madden, keeper of MSS. of the British
Museum, for the inspection of an inquiring public.
This year, Mr. N, E. S. A. Hamilton, of the MSS.
department, has examined the folio with a microscopic
eye, and has written a long letter to the Times, assert-
ing that the emendations are forgeries ; that beneath
the ink letters are others in pencil in " stiff chancery
capitals of the present century," in "the modern hand
of to-day," with the printer's corrections of the hour,
etc., etc. ; his inference being that some one made all
the corrections with pencil, then had them copied in
antique writing. Some of the corrections have been
allowed to remain, others have been effaced, either by
the knife or chemical agency. The whole gist of Mr.
Hamilton's letter being an accusation of an impudent
forgery by some person or persons unknown, the
forgery being published by Mr. Collyer.

Mr. Collyer has replied to this by a very long letter,
in which he re-states all that he has ever asserted.
Firstly, in reply " to what is meant, although darkly
asserted," that " he is the author of the psncillings and
Ijotes in ink," he has, in 1856^ declared on oath that he

was not, and the affidavit is filed in the Queen's
Bench. He has also sworn that the very book, fifty
years ago, belonged to one Parry; and had been given
to him by a relation, George Gray. There is also this
to be said, viz., that had Mr. Collyer wished for fame,
he might have appropriated all the emendations, and
have burnt the volume. This he did not do ; had he done
so, he would have had a brighter Shakesperian fame
than all the commentators put together ; but he adds,
" This I did not do, in spite of the warnings of a
friend, that my enemies would never forgive my disco-
very, and that their hostility would outlive my ex-
istence." Thus, apathetically, Mr. Payne Collyer,
who further states his determination not to waste any
more time in answering, but if, need be, again to esta-
blish his fair fame by law. The whole correspondence
is curious. Mr. Collyer never claimed for his folio
more than the value any conjectural emendation
should have. He has not stated that the corrections
were by any one of authoritj-, yet many of them are so
apt that they are iri'efragable. Mr. Hamilton's accusa-
tions so far fall to the ground ; for if the corrections
were made yesterdaj', they would be of equal value as
if made, as Mr. Collyer says, in the 17th century. Mr.
Hamilton's statement does not touch Mr. Collyer's
reputation ; and relying, as we must, on the word of
the latter gentleman, we think Mr. Hamilton's deduc-
tions too hastily made. The folio of 1632 has, after
all, done much to give us something like an amended
text of Shakespeare. *

How Many Eggs does the Cuckoo Lay? — It is
generally supposed that the cuckoo lays only one egg.
This is incorrect. Colonel Montagu says, " I dissected
a female cuckoo early in May, which weighed 3j ozs.
The ovaries and iiterus were vastly distended, but I
imagine no egg had been laid. The largest vitellus
appeared to be of sufficient size to separate from the
ovarium, but it was still attached. The next egg in
succession was not one quarter so large. The third
and fourth were nearly of the same size, not more
than half as large as the second. There were two
others rather inferior, and a seventh not half so large
as these." Colonel Montagu adds, " These may be
considered as the portion of eggs destined to be pro-
duced within the season." The cuckoo divides her
favours evidently, and is often found " absent without
leave."

CoLOUES OF Shells. — The endless diversities of
shades and colours, varying from the sober coat of the
garden snail to the delicate and glowing tints which
are diffused over some of the finer species, in the infi-
nite profusion of undulations, clouds, spots, bands,
and reticulated figures, with which those architects
enrich their structures, are strongly calculated to
attract attention, and excite investigation. The in-
strument by which they paint those beautiful colours
is called " the mantle," and is placed in the anterior
part of the body. It is furnished with pores, through
which the secreted fluid is carried, and applied to
enlarge the volume of the shell.

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

73

MANAGEMENT OF AQUARIA.

The "aquarium mania" may be considered
aa fairly dead : It died out properly and com-
pletely 5 but the aquarium remains, and
every earnest student of botany and zoology
■will prize it as a irmmph. of art acting as
the handmaid of science. We rarely hear of
" aquarians in trouble" now-a-days, because
the. thousands who set up aquaria, without
the least idea that to be successful they must
be managed on philosophical principles, have
long ago given them up as " troublesome ;"
but the scientific observer and the intelligent
cultivator of Instructive recreations agree in
regarding the aquarium as a valuable means
of bringing together many curious objects
from various departments of Nature. What
a store of valuable Information would it have
furnished to Mr. YarreU for the enrichment
of his work on fishes? How many of the
mistakes of Professor Johnston would have
been corrected had he possessed such means

as we now have for the study of zoophytes P
And how much earlier would have been dis-
sipated the doubts that long hung like dark
clouds over the classification of Infusoria,
and the question as to animal or vegetable
among various divisions of the Protozoa, had
the important balance of forces been earlier
arrived at ? How poor the resources of the
microscoplst in the absence of a reservoir to
guage with the dipping tube ; how unsatis-
factory the researches of the marine phytolo-
gist without the help of a tank in which to
note the effects of light on Algae ; how nar-
rowed the field of labour for botanist and
zoologist alike without such a means of
having always at hand living specimens of
the least known but most interesting aquatic
plants and animals.

There is no necessity for me to go over
old ground, and tell a thrice-told tale. Most
of the readers of this work have aquaria,

Vol. I.— No. 3.

74

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

wliich. tliey would improve as experience
miglit direct them ; and many who have not
yet essayed to make friendship with Neptune
and the many sea and river gods that might
he invoked to favour the enterprise, would
speedily begin if certain doubts and difficul-
ties were removed from their minds.

Granting tanks are properly constructed,
so that none of the metal used can come into
contact with the water, how will you place
them as regards the light ? I have a variety
of tanks ; some used for ornament, and others
for purposes of study only. Some of the
latter are objects that no casual observer
would tolerate ; but toleration is not expected,
for only a few scientific friends ever see them
beside myself. The most important result of
my experience in tank management is this
lesson, applicable to all kinds of vessels —
leave them alone. An aquarium can neither
look well, nor do well, whether used for orna-
ment or facility for scientific observation,
unless it is allowed very much indeed to take
care of itself. The whole secret of securing
success, is to make the first arrangements on
sound principles, and then to consider whe-
ther the light in which they are to be placed
is likely to prosper or ruin them. For ma-
rine objects there is no form of tank so gene-
rally safe as the " slope-back," invented by
Mr. Warrington. The light finds its way
into the water almost vertically in such a
vessel, and that is in accordance with Nature.
A cool position, safe from frost, vertical light,
little or no side-light, and a general if not
total exclusion of sunshine ; these are the
conditions as to light under which success
has been and wiU be most general. But ves-
sels kept for ornamental purposes cannot
always be so placed, and ingenuity must de-
vise the means of compensation. A river
tank will bear more light than a marine ves-
sel. Sunshine may be permitted occasionally
to stream through it, to the delight of bleak
and minnows, which gambol rarely when
the scene is thus made magical for awhile ;

but a constant flood of fuU daylight into
and through a river tank quickly fouls the
water by inducing a rapid growth of minute
vegetable forms, and therefore the conditions
just recited should not be forgotten. Suppose
a rectangular tank, transparent on all four
sides, to be placed in a window high enough
for the light to pass through it. In a south
aspect such a vessel will become opaque in
ten days, and, if left alone, will become bright
again in a fortnight or three weeks. It will
then assume a muddy hue once more, and
thus cause vexation upon vexation, and be at
last pronounced a failure. But, instead of
thus exposing it to an excess of light, paste
over the side next the window a sheet of
green tissue-paper ; let the window be open
all the summer, night and day, and keep the
blind always down, and from the moment you
have adopted such an arrangement you will
cease to complain of the uncertainty that
attends the management of aquaria. Such
a tank, so managed, adorns the hall of my
residence. It is emptied, cleaned, and refitted
once a-year ; beyond that it has no attention
whatever, except an occasional cleansing of
the front plate of glass, and it is always
beautiful. The fishes in it are mostly old
friends, and tiiere has been but one death
amongst them for three years past. Some
years ago I had a collection of tame minnows
and Prussian carp. They were a thousand
times more worthy the admiration of a " dis-
cerning public" than the horrible " tallfing
and performing fish," which, by the way, is
a quadruped, and not a fish at all. Those
carp and minnows were transferred from a
cool window in a north room, where they had
been under instruction for the space of
eighteen months, to a bench in the garden,
over which I intended to fix a canopy of
calico. Alas ! the sun found his way to the
bench before the canopy was ready for its
place — the water in one day became a dark
mass of green confervoid soup. In three
days the carp were all dead, many of the

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

75

minnows vrere dead also, but one or two of
them survived, and at a sad price I learnt one
more lesson as to the effects of light upon
aquaria. A powerful sunshine in a room
wUl, of course, not be so dangerous as on a
wooden bench between two hot walls ; but it
is a question of degree only, and whoever
desires to see a beautiful collection of river
plants and animals, must be prepared to shut
out excess of light if the position of the vessel
be such as to admit it. Many readers will,
doubtless, be surprised when I assure them
that the vegetation ordinarily used in river
tanks is altogether unsuitable. If tanks are
to be managed on the self-supporting prin-
ciple, away with the flowering rushes and
water violets, water milfoil, and all the tribe
of NymphcBa, and trust for the supply of
oxygen to the spontaneously produced vege-
tation, of which there will be plenty, if the
foolish system of scrubbing and cleaning and
changing the water be given up. Once a-y ear
is often enough to change the water, and it
only needs to be changed then in order to
lay down fresh pebbles in the place of those
which have become black, and to make such
other changes as taste may suggest, for
variety's sake. The majority of aquatic
plants do well only for a time. After awhile
they rot at the base, and float away from
their moorings, or get so sickly for want of
deep soil to root in, and hot sunshine to sti-
mulate their growth, as to be a nuisance.
Exceptions may be made in favour of Valis-
neria spiralis, the best of all aquarium plants ;
Anacharis alsinastrum, which will thrive
under the most trying of circumstances ;
Stratiotes aloides, which floats about, grows
well in a subdued light, and occasionally
anchors itself by means of its long cord-like
roots ; Hydrocharis morsus-ranct, which floats
on the surface, and does weU in most posi-
tions ; and the three Lemnas, minor, trisulca,
and polyrJiiza. Anj of these may be per-
manently planted, and it will be very excep-
tional indeed if they do not prosper, espe-

cially if there are no Lymnea, which are very
destructive. With the exception of these,
trust to the Confervce, the Oscillatoriew, Vau-
cheria ungeri, and other low forms of vege-
tation, which come in their own way in every
tank which is left undisturbed, and there will
be plenty of surface for them to rejoice upon
if only the front plate be kept clean, by
means of a sponge attached to a stick.

This proscription of the very plants which
have been considered the most attractive fea-
tures of the aquarium may create surprise.
Let not the surprise be changed to fear ; you
may have them all, and many other beautiful
aquatics, if you take care not to plant them.
I use a very large variety of British and
exotic plants as tank decorations, and amongst
the number of my favourites are ferns. The
cut at the head of this article represents a
tank which I lately fitted expressly as a water
fernery, and it accomplishes all that can be
desired as a decorative object without vio-
lating any principle of aquarium philosophy.
Instead of planting in the aquarium, pot
plants only are used. They are grown ex-
pressly for the purpose, and may be changed
as often as the extent of the stock of plants
wUl aUow, so as to vary the scene with the
changes of the seasons.

To carry out this scheme all that is ne-
cessary is to model a rockery to the shape of
the tank. But it should not be fixed, for it
may be desirable to remove the whole or
part of it at some time or other, for the pur-
pose of effecting a change in the decorations.
Use pumice-stone or coke. If the latter, dip
it twice in a batter of Portland, as lately
advised by Mr. Noteworthy, and you will
secure the desiderat\am of a substantial and
handsome rockery, weighing only a few
pounds instead of two or three hundred
weight. In the tank, which forms the sub-
ject of illustration, the rock-work consists
of a series of arches, bearing eight sum-
mits, to correspond with the eight sides
of the vessel, the whole resting on four shafts

76

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

from wliicli the arches sprmg. The eight
summits and the centre are hollow, that is, to
use gardeners' language, they have "pockets *'
of the proper width and depth to receive
flower-pots of what we call 4i8-size, the size
most used, and in which very large specimen-
plants may be grown.

By this plan you accomplish two objects ;
you conform to the best principles of aqua-
rium management, by keeping out of the
tank all such plants as are unsuitable, and
you indulge your ferns with a course of
treatment which suits a certain number best
of anv.

Flower-pot encased in Eock-work, partly plunged in
Water, for Ferns.

I was at an expense of some pounds last
spring to make a tank with supply from
the New River, and siphon pipe to keep the
water to a proper level, expressly to grow
twoof our commonest ferns, Osrmmda regalis
and Athyriumf.f. They are in 9-inch pots,
plunged sis inches deep, and have become
magnificent specimens, well worthy of the
trouble bestowed upon them. Yet, the royal
fern is one of the very worst for pot-culture
under ordinary management. In the mode
of managing tanks which I am now advocat-
ing, the ferns need only to be properly chosen.

and their growth will be marvellously per-
fect and luxuriant, provided the bottoms
of the pots only touch the surface of the
water, or are plunged in it not more than
two or three inches. When their season is
over, their removal is a simple affair of lifting
out the pot, which is easily replaced with
another, and so on ad infinitum. The lovely
Cystopteris fragilis, planted in one of Pas-
call's shallow cutting-pots, surfaced round
with Lycopodium denticulatum, makes a beau-
tiful ornament on the summit of a cromlech
in one of my tanks. It is usually two inches
deep in the water ; it grows with vigour and

Flower-pot (flat shape, as in sketch) encased in Eock-
•work, wholly plunged in Water, for Lilies.

delicacy, throws up numbers of new crowns,
and is much more persistent than under any
other method of management. If it casts its
fronds early, I cut them close over, and a new
crop starts at once ; but it rarely shows a
brown frond all the season, its habit is so
changed by this truly aquatic mode of cul-
ture, which is favoured by those convenient
conditions, shelter and shade.

The ferns so used in the tank, repre-
sented above are : Scolopendrium angusti-
folium, Onoclea sensibilis, Asplenium adian-
tum nigrum; Osmunda gracilis. Plaiyloma

HECUEATIVE SCIENCE.

77

falcata, Pteris serrulata, Polystichium coria-
ceum, and Cyrtomiumfalcatum. Tlie last four
are in front and are drawn in detail. The
centre is occupied with, tlie Athyriumf.f.,
the true Lady Fern. There are at least a hun-
dred fern species and varieties which might
be used in the same way, and which, when
so used, could be preserved in a cold frame or
greenhouse, and require but the most ordi-
nary care in cultivation. If we admitted
flowering plants, as we certainly ought, the
names of those suitable are legion. The
pretty blue -flowered Sisyrinchiuin anceps is
a first-rate thing for plunging in the pockets,
and with a set of these all round and a fine
Calla in the centre, you would have a glo-
rious garden of water-flowers without get-
ting involved in a single one of the many
meshes that beset ill-advised experiments
with the aquarium. True aquatics, such as
water-lilies, water-milfoil, starwort, potamo-
geton, sweet-rush, water-plantain, marsh-ma-
rigold, water- cress, and others, which it would

be ruin to a tank to plant in it, might be
grown in pots ready cased in blocks of rock-
work and plunged in a stone trough, cistern,
or fish-pond, and during their flowering sea-
son lifted out and lowered into the aquarium,
to adorn it for a time, and then be removed
back to their original quarters. Those who
have my "Rustic Adornments" will find, at
pages 131 and 401, lists of plants in varie-
ties sufficient to keep almost any number of
tanks gay the whole year round, and the mode
of using them here recommended ofi'ers the
additional advantage that you have not to
plant and wait for the result, and then per-
haps be disappointed, but the result is ascer-
tained at once ; if one of a set of plants is
too dwarf, too coarse, or otherwise unfit to
range with the rest, another can be substi-
tuted, and thus you secure ferns and flowers
apparently growing in situ, with the simpli-
city of arranging a few specimens on an
ordinary flower-stand.

Shielet Hibbeed.

HAEMONIES OE l^ATUEE EEFLECTED IN AET.

THE KETTLE AND THE WASP.

The Nettles [XTrtica, Linn.) are so called
from the burning sensation which their
stings produce. We have three native
species, which are arranged under the
Linnsean class Moncecia, from the stamens
and pistils being usually produced in se-
parate flowers, though growing upon the
same plant; sometimes, however, flowers with
stamens only are found on one plant, and
those with pistils only on another ; but ac-
cording to the natural system, they belong
to the order Ueticace^, Jussieu. Under the
order are associated with it numerous impor-
tant plants, arranged under sub-orders in the
following manner : — 1, UrticecB, containing
the nettles ; 2, CannahinecB, the hemp and
hop; 3, Morece, mulberry, the leaves of

which are so valuable as food for the silk-
worm ; 4, Artocai'pece, the famous bread-fruit,
which forms so important an article of food
in the Pacific Islands, the poison-tree or upas
of Java, the remarkable cow-tree of South
America, from which flows a nutritive beve-
rage like mQk, the highly- esteemed and
valuable friiit the fig, and some plants from
which the useful Indian-rubber is procured.
The nettle is one of the most common of
our wayside plants, and there are few per-
sons who have rambled in the country lanes
and waste places that have not become more
or less acquainted with it, from its being
furnished with those remarkable organs of
defence the stings, which so readily perforate
the obtrusive hand, and cause a smarting,

■78

RECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

burning pain, wliicli is instantaneously felt,
and is continued for some length of time after
the wound has been inflicted. If the plant is
carefully examined, it wiU be seen that it is
clothed aU over with simple hairs; but
amongst these hairs are scattered a greater or
less number of other and larger ones, which
are swollen at the base. If one of these is
removed from the stem with the point of a
sharp instrument, and placed under the mi-
croscope, it wiU be seen as represented in
the accompanying illustration (Fig. 1). The

Fig. 1.

Fia. 2.

upper sharp-pointed process is a hollow tube
filled with a pellucid fluid, which is secreted
by a little gland at the base of the dilated
cellular receptacle, and is there held in re-
serve for use. It will thus be observed what
an admirable though simple contrivance of
defence this sting is; for, if the slightest
pressure is made upon the tube or base of it,
the fluid which it contains is forced through
the opening at the apex, where it is so finely
pointed that it readily enters any soft sub-
stance, such as the stin, and then, from the
acrid nature of the fluid (called by chemists

formic acid) which is pressed through, pro-
duces immediately that pain and burning
sensation which is experienced. All the
species of the nettle are furnished with these
stings, but the poison of some of them is
much more virulent than others.

The difference between the sting of the
Iiettle and that of insects, such as the bee
and the wasp, is so remarkable, that we shall
do well in our rambles to consider it, and
ponder over the wonderful adaptation of tlie
means used to attain the purposes for which
each is made by Jlim who made all things
perfect.

That very busy, active, little insect, the
common wasp, which by many people is
looked upon with fear and dread, is not as
quarrelsome an insect as is generally sup-
posed, but is usually harmless unless dis-
turbed in its work, or in any way provoked ;
but when it is enraged it becomes pugnacious
and revengeful, and uses the formidable wea-
pon with which it is furnished with great
agility. If we capture one of these insects,
and, after having killed it, remove the last
ring of the body together with the sting, and
carefully separate the surrounding parts from
it, it will be seen, under a high magnifying
power, to be formed of a long taper-pointed
process, furnished at the base with cells and
glands, and on each side arise jointed arms,
the end joints being covered with hairs
(Fig. 2). The sting will be seen to be
flattened towards the point like a minute
dagger, one edge being simple and cutting,
the other serrated with eight to ten sharp-
pointed teeth like a saw, having the points
towards the base ; a little below the apex is
the opening into a tube, which, runs the
whole length of the dagger, and communi-
cates with a receptacle at the base, where the
glands are which secrete the poisonous fluid.
The opening into the tube below the apex is
protected by another serrated process, which
seems to act as a valve, and allows the escape
of the fluid, but protects the aperture, and

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

79

keeps it free from obstruction. By tliia ad-
mirable contrivance it will be seen tbat tbe
instrument, from its sharp cutting edge on
one side, and the way in wbicb the points of
tbe teeth are directed on the other, readily
penetrates any soft substance, and that in
the act of withdrawing it from the wound, it
cuts its way out like a saw, and in doing this
it forms a jagged wound ; consequently the
poisonous fluid which has been conveyed into
it more readily produces its specific action,

accident or use some of them become injured
or destroyed, there are abundance of others
to supply their place, consequently a simple
constructed organ is all that is required ;
but in the wasp it is different, for it is
furnished with only one sting, and if that
from any cause became injured, and it was
deprived of its important organ, the loss
would be irreparable ; therefore the All-wise
Creator has so fashioned it as to be most
perfect for the use for which it was made,

Fig. 3.

and the instrument itself is much less in
danger of being injured by frequent use ; and
in order to keep it in a perfect state for use,
it win be seen that the little insect has
the power of freely moving the jointed ap-
pendages which arise from the base, and
that with the brush at the end it is able to
clean it after it has been used, and clear it
from any particles that may adhere to it.
"We thus see that in the nettle the stings are
of the most simple construction ; and if by

and also given it the means by which it can
be kept clean and free from obstruction, and
in a state fit to perform its appointed ofiice.

The nettle is not a plant that is relished
as food by any animals, but its leaves are
selected in preference to any others by many
insects, and it is not an uncommon occur-
rence to see large patches of them entirely de-
prived of theu' leaves. This is generally done
by the caterpillar of the beautiful nettle but-
terfly (Vanessa urtica, Fig. 3) feeding upon

80

HECREATIYE SCIENCE.

them, and those who wish to see the wonder-
ful transformation of this interesting tribe of
insects, should take some of the largest cater-
pillars that they can find feeding upon the
leaves of the nettle, and place them in a cage
made for the purpose, or an ordinary bird-
cage, covered with thin muslin or lace, to
prevent their escape. Then feed them with
the fresh leaves of the nettle until they have
arrived at maturity; after which they become
listless, and soon change into the piipa state,
and thus remain dormant for a time. They
then burst the hard case which covers them,
and the perfect butterfly comes forth decked
in all its brilliant colours, and is soon ready
for flight, and no one, however much he may
have disliked the unattractive caterpillar, will
now fail to admire the perfect insect clothed
in its beautifully-coloured and exquisitely-
arranged minute scale-like feathers. The
butterfly, soon after it becomes fully deve-
loped, deposits a considerable number of
small roundish eggs, and always places them
on or near the plant suited for the young
caterpillar which each egg contains, and in the
course of a short time, by the aid of the heat of
the sun, breaks its delicate shell. Thus, with-
out much difficulty or trouble, may be ob-
served all the remarkable transformations
which the progeny of the butterfly undergoes.
Let us, however, inquire more particularly into
the changes which this insect passes through
in the different stages of its existence, and in
so doing, we shall obtain a general idea of
what takes place in the metamorphosis of the
whole tribe of butterflies and moths.

If the delicate little eggs which the but-
terfly has deposited are collected, it will be
found that about a hundred of them do not
weigh more than a grain, consequently, when
the little caterpillar is liberated from its
shell, it is a very minute, delicate, little crea-
ture; it soon, however, increases in size,
so that in a few days its body is so much
enlarged that its outer coat, or skin, is unable
to contain it ; consequently, this is cast off".

and the body is then seen to have increased
in size. Soon after this change of its coat it
begins again to feed upon the leaves of the
nettle with greater avidity, and in a few more
days it is so much grown as to again require
a new and larger skin. It goes through this
change five times, and each time it has become
considerably larger. It wiU be observed that
a few hours before each time that the lava is
ready to cast its skin, that it ceases to eat,
and it usually attaches itself on the under
side of the leaf of the plant, and there awaits
its change. It has the appearance of being
uneasy, and the whole body is wrinkled and
contracted in length, the skin becomes dry
and shrivelled, and is gradually separated
from the new, but yet delicate, skin beneath
it. At length, after some powerful efforts of
the larva, the old skin is cracked, and it gra-
dually presses itself through the opening.
It then appears for some time very delicate
and ill-proportioned, from the head being
much larger in proportion to the body, but
it will be seen that the head does not increase
in size with the body, but remains the same
until the next change of the skin. In a few
hours after this change has taken place, the
caterpillar begins again to feed voraciously,
but more especially so after the last skin has
been changed, during which period its growth
is much more rapid than at any previous
time. When the caterpillar has attained its
fuU growth it ceases to eat, becomes very
restless, and is diminished in size and weight ;
it completely evacuates the contents of the
alimentary canal, and then suspends itself by
its hinder legs, and attaches itself by a silken
web upon a branch, or other convenient object,
with its head hanging downwards, and thus
it awaits its next and important transforma-
tion, which takes place in from ten to twenty
hours. During this time the body becomes
contracted, and looks dry and shrivelled ; the
four segments nearest the head become larger
than the others, which are repeatedly con-
tracted and expanded; at length the skin

EECBEATIVE SCIENCE.

SI

bursts down tlie back and at the liead, and
with, exertion the insect frees itself entirely
from its skin. It has now attained what is
called the chrysalis, or pupa, state, though
the change is not yet completed ; for it will
be seen that when the skin is separated, that
the legs and antennae, as well as the wings,
are separate from the body, but, after a few
seconds, the pupa makes several powerful
respiratory efforts. During this period the
abdominal segments become more contracted,
the wings, though small, are enlarged and
extended along the sides and under part of
the body. When the skin is being thrown
off there is exuded beneath it a peculiar
transparent fluid, which facilitated its re-
moval. This fluid, which is diffused over the
whole body, and amongst the limbs, soon be-
comes thickened by evaporation, and when
it is quite dry it unites the limbs and wings
to the sides of the body, forming a compact,
hard, horn-like covering to the whole. The
change is now completed, and the pupa per-
fectly formed. Thus we have seen that the
minute eggs, after a certain period, become
hatched, and a small caterpillar is formed,
which feeds upon the grosser substance of
the nettle, and that after it has attained its
full growth it enters upon its pupa state,
having acquired a very different form, and
some new external organs, and at the same
time its internal organization has undergone
a fresh arrangement. The pupa now remains
in a state of perfect quiescence, and con-
tinues tlius in an entire abstinence from all
food for a variable period, which appears to
depend upon the heat of the weather, or
other external circumstances. Thus, if the
lava changes into the pupa state, in the middle
of summer it becomes transformed into the
perfect butterfly in from eight to ten days ; if,
however, this change takes place in the earlier
and cooler part of summer, it remains in that
state about fourteen days, but if it enters the
pupa state towards the end of summer, when
the temperature of the atmosphere is daily

declining, it remains in that state through
the cold of winter until the return of genial
spring sets in. It has been proved by
Eeaumur that if the pupa is placed in an
ice-house, its development into the perfect
butterfly may be retarded for two or three
years ; on the other hand, if some of the
pupa of the same age be placed in a hot-
house, even in the midst of winter, they
become developed into the perfect insect in
from ten to fourteen days. A certain period
of repose is, however, absolutely necessary,
for the insect now undergoes an entire change
of form and habit, and its internal structure
is metamorphosed to enable it to perform the
new functions for which it is destined, for,
from the change which its body has gone
through, it is now unable to enjoy those
pleasures which it did in its previous state.
A short time before the pupa changes into
the perfect insect, all the external parts are
seen to be more developed ; it becomes rest-
less, and moves about more vigorously ; at
length it bursts its case, and speedily dis-
engages itself, stands on the outside of its
late prison with the wings dependent; it then
makes several powerful respiratory efforts.
At each respiration the wings may be seen to
become more expanded and larger, which is
caused by the enlargement and extension of
the air-tubes, and their accompanying cir-
culating vessels which ramify through them.
In a very short time these organs attain
their full development both of beauty and
form ; the insect then remains at rest for
several hours to gain strength, and for the
hardening and consolidation of the rest of
the body ; it then takes to flight, but how-
changed in form, how different in habit !

The form of the .insect is now so totally
changed, that it would be diflicult to believe
it the same creature unless we had watched
it in its different states and changes, for now,
from its being a disagreeable and repulsive
creeping creature, which few people admire
or cherish, feeding and grovelling upon the

82

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

grosser material of plants, it has become
an elegant insect, clothed in garments of
splendid colours, and takes its aerial flights
in fitful gambols, rejoicing in its liberty
and sportive in the genial sunbeams' glow,
sipping the sweet odoriferous nectar with
its spiral tongue from every blooming
flower. How wonderful and complete is
the metamorphosis, not only in its exter-
nal character, but also in the internal ar-
rangement of its organization; for now it
has thrown off its strong mandibles, and is
no longer able to masticate its food ; in their
place is a long spiral tongue or proboscis,
which is only fitted for the absorption of
fluids. Consequently its digestive and assi-
milating organs have also changed their
character, as now they have only fluids to
digest instead of the harder ceUs and fibres
of the plant on which it fed. All these
remarkable modifications of structure are
means by which every part of the body in
its different states are beautifully adapted
to the habits and wants of the individual,
and the insect thus becomes an important
agent in carrying on the operations of Nature
in the various works of creation.

The eggs which the butterfly deposits are
very numerous. From these arise an equal
number of caterpillars, and from their feed-
ing upon the nettle, they prevent its over-
growth to the detriment of other and more
delicately-constituted plants. But the cater-
pillars themselves are the food of many birds,
who greedily hunt them out ; and some flies
of the ichneumon tribe deposit their larva
beneath their skins, and feed upon them,
even during the time that they are under-
going their change, and eventually destroy
them. Thus one part of creation is made
dependent upon another, and the harmony
of the whole maintained in a wonderful
order.

The metamorphosis of the butterfly wUl,
no doubt, remind the classical scholar of that
most interesting and elegant of all the fables

of antiquity which have come down to us—
that of Psyche. Great learning and laborious
research has been bestowed by many men in
the endeavour to trace out the origin of this
myth; but nothing appears to be really
known of it anterior to the time of Apuleius,
who lived, it is believed, towards the close of
the second century of the Christian era. In
his work, " The Metamorphosis," the title of
which was afterwards changed to that of
" The Golden Ass ;" not, however, it is
thought, by the author himself, but probably
on account of its affinity to Lucian's story of
" The Ass," the epithet of " golden " being
added as a mark of admiration. The episode
of Psyche is introduced in the latter part of
the fourth book, and it is continued in the
fifth and sixth ; but the simplicity of the
myth, as no doubt it was in its original state,
is here greatly distorted by many puerilities
and absurdities.

The origin of this symbolical fable may
be traced back to a period much anterior to
the time of Apuleius, especially through the
medium of ancient gems.

The ancient Egyptians likened the sup-
posed renewal of the earth after the fiood,
and the return of Time, to a second infancy ;
and depicted the renovation of the world
under the emblem of a child, and called him
Eros, that is to say. Love. Hesiod, in his
" Theogony," 1. 120, in alluding to the state
of Nature after the deluge, says : "First Chaos
was produced, then TeUus, then Love, the
most beautiful of the gods ; Love the soother
and softener, who relaxed the weary limbs."
Aristophanes, in his comedy of the " Birds,"
1. 695, says, in his poetical language of the
same event : " Sable-winged night then pro-
duced an egg, whence sprouted up, like a
blossom, Eros, the lovely and desirable, with
his glossy golden wings." Love is here used
emblematic of the Divine mercy for the human
race. The Greeks introduced as its com-
panion, the personification of the soul,
originally in the form of the aurelia, or

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

butterfly. Plutarch, in tlie second book of
his "Symposiacon," says : " A chrysalis, after
being stiffened and cracked from dryness,
emits through its opening a second animal
with wings, which is called Psyche."

" The winged animal," Mrs, Strutt says,*
" thus designated by Plutarch under the name
of Psyche, the word by which the Greeks ex-
pressed likewise the soul, is in all probability
that which -3]]lian (iaS\s Pyraustes (Uvpaia-rns),
a word denoting the attractive influence
which light or fire exercises upon the moth.
This truth in natural philosophy is poetically
depicted to the eye by the device, which

Fio. 4.

we see on many ancient gems, of Ciipid hold-
ing a butterfly over his torch (Fig. 4), by
which act is at the same time typified the
suffering of the soul from being subjugated
by passion ; and, mystically, its purification
* as by fire ' from the defilement of matter.
Such an ingenious allegory was not likely to
escape the attention of the poets, and we
accordingly find it alluded to by them at

* A very beautiful and talented work, " The
Story of Psyche, with a Classical Inquiry into the Sig-
nification and Origin of the Fable," by Elizabeth Strutt ;
with designs in outline by John Gibson, Esq., E.A. : to
which we are chiefly indebted for the remarks here
made in allusion to the fable.

an early period. Thus Meleager, B. c. 160,
plays very prettily, in one of his epigrams,
upon the double meaning of the woyd
Psyche, as a moth and as the soul, introduc-
ing it in immediate connection with JEros, or
Love."

The same authoress, in allusion to the
caterpillar says : " At the close of its final
existence as a worm, crawling upon this
lower earth, an emblem of man encumbered
with his material body, this insect lies dead
as it were for a season, in a sort of tomb or
grave, which bears a great resemblance to the
mummies found ia the Egyptian tombs. In
this state of darkness," the authoress con-
tinues, " it remains throughout the gloom of
winter; at the joyous return of spring, the
torpid chrysalis bursts its bonds, leaves its
earthly body (or rather case), never more to
be resumed, and soars up towards heaven,
decked in the most gorgeous attire, and
rejoicing in new life; a beauteous type of the
celestial soul freed from the restraints of
matter, and exulting in liberty and light."

"Like other animal symbols," says Payne
Knight, in his " Inquiry into the Symbolical
Language of the Ancients," "as the owl,
under which Minerva was first depicted,
this of Psyche was by degrees melted into
the human form, the original wings only
being retained to mark its meaning. So
elegant an allegory would naturally be a
favourite subject of art among a refined and
ingenious people ; and it accordingly appears
to have been diversified and repeated by the
Greek sculptors more than any other which
this system of emanation so favourable to
art could have formed."

It would take us far beyond the province
of this work to enumerate all the interpre-
tations which have been given of this fable,
for there are few authors who have written
upon ancient literature or the arts but have
given their ideas as to its symbolical meaning;
in the arts, especially that of sculpture and
engraving upon gems and stones, even down

84

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

to our own times, it is one of the most fa-
vourite subjects treated, and every collection,
either of ancient or modern art, has some
representation of the subject.

That there is a pure and lofty signification
symbolically represented in the fable there
can be no doubt. Archdeacon Nares, in his
"Eemarks upon the Ballet of Cupid and
Psyche," says : " Psyche, the human soul,
formed originally of exquisite purity and
beauty, is placed in a state of refined happi-
ness, of which, however, some of the princi-
pal causes are concealed. Amidst the enjoy-
ments offered to her, one prohibition only is
interposed. It is required, as the condition
on which her happiness depends, that she
shall not attempt to gain forbidden know-
ledge concerning the Author of her blissful
state. Contrary to her own better judgment,
she is over-persuaded by wdcked and mali-
cious suggestions, and actually acquires the
knowledge she was so strictly ordered not to
seek. Her curiosity and disobedience are
fatal. She is driven from her state of hap-
piness, and sent to wander over the earth,
amidst innumerable difficulties and trials ;
yet constantly, whenever she is in any
danger of sinking under the severity of her
situation, some supernatural interposition
fthat is, some divine revelation) prevents her
from despairing, and kindly enables her to
perform that which was naturally beyond
her powers. Even in the first moment of
her condemnation, her judges, we are told,
showed manifest tokens of an afiection to
■which every other consideration was sub-
ordinate. And, finally, when she is depressed
even to hell by the difficulties which assail
her, divine love — for so, with Mr. Bryant, I
am inclined to think Cupid (Eros) — interposes
for her relief, and not only rescues her from
the horrors of that dreadful place, but,
uniting her with himself, places her for ever
in a state of transccndant exaltation and of
perfect bliss." " Such," continues the reve-
rend commentator, "is this extraordinary

allegory, which, that I have not in any respect
misinterpreted, may be seen by recurrence to
Apuleius, Fulgentius, Baucer. Now, if it be
true, as I believe has been conjectured, that the
mystic fables and hieroglyphics of the Egyp-
tians concealed, as beneath a veil, these im-
portant truths, which at first were known uni-
versally to all men, but which in other places,
except when preserved by divine interference
were lost, corrupted, or forgotten — if this, I
say, be true, if it be even probable, why may
we not consider this fable of Cupid and Psyche
as a singular and very curious instance
of the perfect preservation of one of these
religious allegories ? The Greeks, it is well
known, even by their own confession, bor-
rowed from Egypt all their mythology ; but,
if this interpretation be admitted, we can
hardly expect to discover, among all their
thefts, another of any comparable import-
ance." (" Essays," 1810.)

"With regard to the way in which this
subject has been treated by the imagination
and skilful hand of the artist, the most
ancient illustrations known are probably
those found on gems, in which Cupid is re-
presented holding a butterfly over a flaming
torch (Fig.4 ), which we have already alluded
to. At a later period the body of the but-
terfly is transformed into that of a beautiful
female figure, with the wings of the butterfly
attached between the shoulders. After this
period Psyche always appears to be thus
represented. At no period of art has the
fable of Psyche been more beautifully and
elegantly illustrated than by Mr. John Grib-
son, E..A., in whose studio at Rome the whole
series may be advantageously seen. Those
who may be disposed to study the subject
more at length will find it treated with much
skill and learning, and beautifully illustrated
from drawings by Mr. Gibson, in Mrs.
Strutt's work above referred to ; by Mrs.
H. Tighe; D'Israeli's "Curiosities of Lite-
rature ; " Clarke's " Travels," etc.

ElCHAED DeAKIN, M.D.

BBCREATIVE. SCIENCE.

85

WHAT IS A DIATOM P

-«-

Some ten years ago (liow time does run on !—
it seems but as yesterday), a young man on
a visit to tlie Professor of Natural History
in th.e new Queen's College, then the most
recent attraction of " the beautiful city of
Cork," found himself unexpectedly' alone
amongst strangers. By a mysterious decree
of Providence his friend had been taken
alarmingly ill the night before, was then and
for weeks afterwards invisible to all but his
doctor and two amiable and accomplished
daughters. What was to be done? Hap-
pily, a work on the Diatomacese had been
projected, the illustrations to which had been
confided to his care; and, to begin upon,
four slips of glass had been given him, la-
belled " Aberdeen," " Premnay Peat," " Can-
tire," and " Loch Mourne," names now " fa-
miliar as household words " to the initiated
in these mysteries. On the central third of
each of these slips, protected by a square of
very thin glass, was to all appearance a little
fine white dust covered with gum ; the par-
tides composing which dust, when held up to
a bright light, flashed like rubies, diamonds,
emeralds — a perfect coruscation of fairy
gems.

And these were DiatomacecB ? Our young
microscopist, like some of those who now in-
quire of him, had scarcely heard the word
before. To while away the time he now sat
down to these four slides, with the concise
yet comprehensive instructions from his
great captain, to " draw all he saw before
him :" not bad training thib for eye, and hand,
and patience, as all who know what a fine
mounting of similar gatherings, where forms
difiering in age by centuries may be included,
is like. Slowly then during these weeks did
the work progress, and such was the fascina-
tion produced by their beauty in the artist's
mind, that day after day he sat at them ;

night after night, the morning sun frequently
rising ere his couch was sought for brief ne-
cessary repose. An occasional stroll through
the fine scenery in the immediate neighbour-
hood, for health and recreation, afforded also
an abundance of living specimens of many of ■
the forms whose skeletons he was engaged in
depicting, in addition to Desmidiese and other
objects of interest to the microscopist. The
Vice-President of the College, with the warm-
heartedness of a true Irishman, took com-
passion on the stranger, asking him in occa-
sionally to tea and a social evening, when by
other i^rofessors and visitors the question was
repeatedly put with which our chapter is
headed, "What is a Diatom?" To these
learned fellows, versed in aU the circle of
the sciences, the reply that "the siliceous
portion of the infusoria of Ehrenberg, called
by him ' Bacillaria,' had more recently had
this name given to them," served its imme-
diate purpose of conveying ideas on the sub-
ject sufficient for most of the questioners. To
add to the interest of the evening, the micro-
scope was on two or three occasions brought
in, and some of the most elegant forms ex-
hibited.

But some of the readers of Eeceeative
Science may be none the wiser for such a
definition, which, it must be admitted, is after
all vague enough ; since, translated into sim-
pler language, it means little more than that
the name had been changed of some minute
moving bodies found by the microscope in
water, together with such animalcules as our
forefathers used to breed from infusions of
chopped hay, tea-leaves, and so on, and hence
called "Infusoria." The most prominent
distinguishing feature in the portion in ques-
tion being the possession of shields or shells
that resist the action of fire and concentrated
acids, being formed of flint.

86

EECHEATIYE SCIENCE.

Imagine, now, that we have a common
round snuff-box before us ; we see that it is
in two pieces, the top or lid, and the bottom
part, or the box proper. This will give a
tolerable idea of many of the Diatomacese ;
such are " discoid," or of a disc-like shape.
Looking down upon our box, with the eyes
directly over its centre, we just see that its
shape is round, and of its form should from
such a point of view learn nothing more. If
now we turn it so as to display its edge, its
thickness, the form of the mouldings, and the
way in which the two pieces of which it is
composed fit together, are apparent. In a
somewhat similar way a Diatom is rdade Up
of two portions, or " valves," externally con-
vex, which when united enclose a cavity, as
may be rendered plainer by Fig. 1.

^ /

Fig. 1. — Coscinodiscus in outline, a, side view ;
6, front vie

To get a ftdl knowledge of its outward
form, we must turn our Diatom 'upon edge, or,
as this can be seldom done, except with the
very largest, examples must be sought for on
the slide under examination which present
this aspect. In nearly all the Diatomacese,
the shells are marked with lines, or dots,
arranged in such wise as to form patterns of
the most elegant tracery. Of these we shall
have more to say presently.

If now, instead of a round, we take a
long, oval box, we shall obtain an idea of the
shape of another considerable portion of the
Diatomacese, as in Fig. 2.

The two valves of a Diatom, when in
union, constitute a "frustule;" they are gene-
rally alike, but in some few forms the upper
and lower valves are different. The flinty
nature of their shells or valves has already

been mentioned. Closely applied within the
valve is a delicate lining membrane, of the

fT\

( —

Fig. 2. — Pinnularia cardinalis, in outliiie. «, side
view ; t, front view.

greatest importance in the economy of the
little being ; to this, as the term is of com-
mon use in speaking of vegetable cell-growth,
it will be of advantage to give the correct
term, "primordial utricle," at once. This
membrane, from its extreme delicacy, can
seldom be distinctly seen until its collapse
and separation by death from the valve ; it,
too, is occasionally marked with dots or lines.
In or near the centre of every Diatom is a
small-rounded body, the "nucleus" connected
by delicate threads of "protoplasm," with
little patches of soft substance, generally of

Fig. 3. — Surirella biseriata, from a living specimen,
a, side view ; 6, front view ; ?i, nucleus ; p, proto-
plasmic threads ; g, granules, moving towards and
from the nucleus.

a bright brown colour, the " endochrome,"
which means simply "internal colouring
matter." These points may be more clearly
understood by looking at Fig. 3.

liECEEATm: SCIENCE.

8^

Carefully executed studies of the arrange-
ment of tlie endochrome are still a desidera-
t\im, one which the late learned Professor
Smith hoped at some future day to supply,
and for which he had, previous to his death, col-
lected a goodly number of drawings. There
is no doubt it may sometimes assist towards
the ready distinction of species in the living
state, and its bright colours and elegant
arrangement would make a very handsome
series of illustrations ; we know of few
prettier than the common Cymatopleura solea
(Fig. 4).

Fio. 4.— Cymatopleura solea, from tlie life, a, side
view ; 6, front view ; e, patches of endocbrome,
which,' on the front view, is seen to be mostly in
plates.

A circulation of granules has been wit-
nessed in some of the Diatomacese. We
have ourselves seen it in the Surirella (Fig.
3), and two or three other fonns, and have
spent much time in attempts to ascertain if
it be not generally present. The exami-
nation is one requiring, however, such per-
fect management of all the details connected
with glasses, source of light, illumination,
and so on, with time at unlimited command,
that we obtained no satisfactory results, and
commend the investigation to such as are
possessed of all these requisites, with good
powers of observation, and no end of patience.
Eeady access to specimens in the full vigour
of life is also essential, and the ingenious
plan of growing them on damp sand in shal-
low saucers might be resorted to with success,
as an aid to the obtaining plenty of indivi-
duals in such condition, for purposes of study.
Doubtless, after all, a good deal wUl depend
on certain unknown conditions in the life of
the plant, as there are reasons for thinking
that it may be present at one of its stages.

and absent at others, and favouring fortui-
tous circumstances may be required to render
all complete, and reward the happy inves-
tigator. In addition to the brief notice ot
this interestiug phenomenon .in the iiftro-
duotion to the " Synopsis of British Dia-
tomacese," vol. i., p. xxi., the translation from
the German of a paper by Professor Max-
Schultze, given in the " Quarterly Journal
of Microscopical Science" for October, 1858,
p. 13, should be consulted. Some of the
statements of this latter observer are cer-
tainly incorrect, and a friend who has had
peculiarly favourable opportxmities for study-
ing the forms mentioned, thinks others doubt-
ful ; but the subject is one of much interest,
well worthy of careful attention, and pro-
mises to add some useful facts to our very
scanty knowledge of the mysteries connected
with Life.

The way in which Diatoms " increase and
multiply" has yet to be spoken of. The
general increase is by self- division, eachfrus-
tule dividing into two — a mode of growth at
first considered peculiar to, and which can
be studied with unusual advantage in the
tribe, but which is now known to be a very
general mode of increase in vegetable cells,
as also in the cells composing some of the
tissues of animals* Though we are not aware
that the division of the nucleus has actually
been seen by any observer, there can be no
doubt that such is the first stage of the pro-
cess ; the closeness with which it is sur-
rounded by granxJes of the endochrome
may, probably, account for this. Simul-
taneously with this, a rapid increase in the
quantity of endochrome takes place, by
which the two valves are pushed apart, and,
in order to protect the delicate internal
structures, a flinty band is formed, probably
by increase of a gelatinous investment of
each valve, with deposition of sUex. To this
protective covering of the newly-forming
structures, it is unfortunate that nearly every
observer has applied a different name. Pro-

88

BECREATIVE SCIENCE.

feasor Smith called it " connecting mem-
brane," an excellent descriptive term, with
the one fatal objection of too great length.
"We shall adopt the elegant and euphonious
classical word of " cingulum" — a zone, or
band, since proposed for it by a later writer.
The cingulum is always in two portions,
and must, from the necessities of the case, be
so. This may be rendered more clear by
rig. 5.

Fig. 5. — Biddulphia aurita, in outline, ccc, the cin-
gulum ; two new valves, faintly indicated by dotted
lines, are seen in process of formation within it.

This double character of the cingulum,
with the enclosure of that portion formed in
connection with the one valve by that of the
other, has not hitherto been clearly pointed
out. Its use as an admirable provision for
protection of the newer, to whatever extent
the older valves may be pushed apart, is
evident, and also that the regulated access
of water needful for life may be thus allowed.

7lO

Tia, 6.— a, 5, c, d, represent different stages of infold-
ing of the primordial utricle, with division of the
nucleus ; at e this is complete, and at / the new
valves are represented as fully formed ; n, the
nucleus.

Folding in of the primordial utricle, or lining
membrane (Fig. 6), is the next step, and by
it the new valves are secreted, thus complet-
ing the process.

" Multiplication by division " in this way
is probably very rapid. "With a due degree
of patience and care an observer might
watch it through all its stages, and furnish
sound data for calculations on the time occu-
pied, instead of the guesses we at present
have. On the assumption that the entire
process occupies in each case twenty-four
hours, it has been calculated that " we
should have, as the progeny of a single
frustule, the amazing number of one thou-
sand millions in a single month."*

The terms " side view " and " front view"
are used to distinguish the different aspects
of a frustule ; the former when the valve is
fully seen, as in the supposed case of looking
directly down on the centre of our snuff-box ;
the latter, where the cingulum is seen with
merely the edges of the valves, as on turning
the box edgewise.

The term Diatom (from two Greek words
signifying breaking or dividing into two
parts) may be considered as having reference
to the mode of increase by self-division, or,
as suggested by Dr. Carpenter, to the readi-
ness with which in Diatoma, one of the
commonest forms, the highly siliceous frus-
tules, held together merely by a little gela-
tinous hinge at the opposed corners, break
up ; whence the ordinary name of the family,
Brittleworts,

Fig. 7. — Diatoma vulgare, in filament, represented as
growing attached to a blade of grass. To show the
character of the frustule the endochrome has been
omitted.

The true position of the Diatomacea; has
for many years been a subject of controversy,

* Smith, " Synopsis of Br, Diatomacese," Introd,p.x3cr.

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

89

which can here be noticed only in the briefest
manner.

By Ehrenberg, one of their most distin-
guished investigators, they were considered
to be animals, and to this opinion he still
holds, ascribing to them stomachs and a
series of complicated internal organs, with
mouths and exsertile feet, Nearly all good
observers of the present day, however, agree
that erroneous interpretations have been put
by this eminent Prussian naturalist on much
of what he supposed he saw in them, and
are unanimously of opinion that their true
place is with the simpler tribes of the vege-
table kingdom, in which each individual is a
plant by itself, a simple cell. The strongest
objection to this view — that of their inde-
pendent motion — was discussed in the last
chapter, and another, their apparent com-
plexity of structure, will require after con-
sideration. "We have not been so fortunate
as to meet with the arguments of those who
propose to place them in a kingdom by them-
selves, that shall be neither animal, vegetable,
nor mineral, but a combination of the attri-
butes of all. The great point, however, on

which such opinions must be based, the
possession in large quantity of the mineral
earth, flint, in their valves, appears to us
untenable with a reasonable knowledge of
the subject, derived less from books than a
minute and careful study of individuals as
they live and grow. This infiltration with
silex is assuredly a point of minor conse-
quence ; some of the higher plants have
tissues equally richly imbued with this
mineral constituent; as, for instance, the
external layers of cells in the sugar-cane,
the bamboo, and most, if not all, of the
grasses, probably some of the palms, and,
lower in the scale, the horse-tails (Equi-
setacese). In addition to this argument
against the proposed unnecessary separation
is one still more to the point, that the amount
of silex varies, according to species, indefi-
nitely. In some it exists in such quantity
as to render the valves hard and brittle as
glass, e. g., Pinnularia ; in others it is doubt-
ful if there be any at all, as in some of the
Schizonemas, of the more delicate Nitzschise,
and so through every gradation.

TuFFEN West.

THE KALEIDOSCOPIC COLOUE-TOP,

BY JOHN GOEHAM:, ESQ., M.E.C.S., OF TUNBKIDGE.

Have you not seen in the experiments with
Armstrong's electric machine, at the Poly-
technic Institution, a series of sparks passed
along a line of insulated conductors in close
proximity, which in their rapidity of passage
appeared like an unbroken stream of light ?
The lecturer has explained that the fluid
passes in distinct and separate flashes, and,
by a manipulation for the purpose, has
proved that such is the case. Yet, when his
regiment of brass knobs is properly arranged,
the sparks pass from one to the other in such
rapid succession that you cannot distinguish

one from another, and you see a line of light
with apparently not a break in it. This is
sufficient to prove that we must not depend
wholly on the impressions conveyed to us by
our senses, and it also proves that apparitions
of objects remain on the retina of the eye
after the act of real vision is at an end. Go
into a factory and choose for experiment a
rapidly rotating fly-wheel. "When the ma-
chinery is at rest, paint the rim of the wheel
with zigzag lines of blue and Mhite, side by
side, all round, very distinctly, so that there
can be no question as to there being two

90

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

colours unmixed, though in close proximity.
As soon as the machinery is again set in
motion, look at that fly-wheel. The zigzags
have vanished; there is not a line of blue or
white about it, but it is painted of a uniform
gray colour ! Ko ; it is as you left it, in zig-
zags of two colours, but by its rapid action
the eye fails to detect them, and sees the
two as one, and the only point of interest
about it that we need now mention is, that
the change has taken place in the organs of
vision, not in the painting of the wheel.

Chevreid has analyzed the laws of colour
with a view to point out how harmonics and

motion as an agency powerfully operative in
effecting such modifications.

The Kaleidoscopic Colour-top, is intended
for the express purpose of effecting changes
in colour by motion, and promises to become
most instructive to the artist and the philo-
sopher, as well as a source of high gratifica-
tion as a toy for the family circle.

What is the colour-top P Strictly it is
but a coloured card made to revolve horizon-
tally on a vertical axis ; or rather, the card
is an addendum to the simple apparatus whose
business it is to spin when desired, and the
card plays the part of the fly-wheel we just

contrasts are best produced, and iu effecting
his object he has taken occasion to explain
how colours reciprocally act on each other,
so as to heighten, diminish, or otherwise
alter the proper effects of each when
variously brought into juxtaposition. In
this case, too, the changes take place in the
sense of vision, not in the colours them-
selves. But Chevreul's experiments with
strips of coloured paper, instructive as they
are, do not induct us very far into the mysfce-
cious region of blended colours and harmo-
nized tints, and we mxist have recourse to

now instanced as an example of distinct
colours blended into one, different from either
of its components, by rapid rotation.

This is a mere elementary hint of what the
colour- top is capable of in regard to blending
of hues and colours. In the hands of the
man of science it is an instrument of won-
derful power, and, like a magician's shuttle,
weaves as it were the rainbow itself into pat-
terns of endless variety, in which form as
well as colour plays its part in the produc-
tion of extraordinary appearances.

In a description published in the pages

EECHEATIYE SCIENCE.

01

of the " Microscopical Journal" of January
lastj the following particulars are given of
the simplest use of the instrument :—

Let A (Fig. 1) be a disc having the three
primary colours, yellow, red, and blue, evenly
distributed in sectors of 120^ on its surface,
and let this disc be fixed to the colour-top and
rotated. Let b be a second disc, blackened
on its upper surface, and having a central
aperture somewhat larger than the spiadle
of the top, as well as a pattern of six or
eight rays cut completely through and out of

on B is effaced. But if the motion of b is
retarded, and at the same time broken up
into a seriesofrapidandregidar jerks, ormore
properly isochronous vibrations, whUe the eye
is held vertically over the spindle, each pat-
tern is retained for an instant before the
eye, yet suflBciently long to form a distinct
image; and owing to the rapidity of the
vibrations, a whole circle of images is thus
portrayed on the retina of the eye before the
image from the first vibration is effaced. In
like manner, the colours of the disc A, which

FlO. 2;

its substance, so that when held vertically
over the disc a it will admit of the colours
being seen through such pattern when viewed
from above. If now the wheel is set in mo-
tion, and the disc b allowed to drop down
upon the spindle of the colour-top, it will be
held in contact with the spindle by centrifu-
gal force, and will revolve in a plane parallel
with the wheel, in the same direction and
with the same velocity. In this case the
colours on a appear mixed, while the pattern

are perceived only as they are transmitted
through the open designs in the disc B,
appear in their primitive purity or unmixed
state, the colour in one sector being reflected
through a given ray of the pattern before the
arrival of the colour from that sector by
which it is immediately succeeded. Hence,
both pattern and colours appear multiplied,
thus producing the combinations.

From the construction of the instrument,
about six revolutions of the disc A occur to

92

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

one single revolution of tlie disc B. When
these relative velocities are maintained, five
groups of all the colours distributed on the
colour-disc are seen occurring in the order of
their arrangement on the disc, and repeated
in perfect symmetry in the various openings of
the patterns. In this way the most beautiful
variations may be effected by using different
colours in various proportions on the disc a ;
for, however numerous the colours, each
colour is reflected through its proper open-
ing in the disc B, at a given interval of space
and time, without the slightest irregularity
or confusion. Fig. 2 represents a non-
rotating disc, and Fig. 1 the same during
rotation.

In order to retard the motion of the disc
B, and, at the same time, to produce the vibra-
tions, the central aperture is made sufficiently
large to admit of free motion on the spindle ;
and there is appended, at or near its circum-
ference, a light weight, such as a piece of
string or silk, which, by its impulses on the
atmosphere during rotation, both retards the
motion and produces the vibrations. The
proportion of the diameter of the central
aperture of the disc B to that of the spindle
of the colour-top is about as four to three—
an aperture of four-tenths of an inch, for
example, to a spindle three-tenths of an inch,
is very effective.

As in the kaleidoscope, so in this instru-
ment, there is only one position for the situa-
tion of the eye with respect to the discs where
the symmetry of the combinations is perfect,
namely, vertically over the spindle of the top,
BO that the whole of the circular field can be
distinctly seen.

For the purpose of giving variety to the
figures formed by the instrument, an assort-
ment of fantastic patterns on separate discs
may be constructed to take the place of the
disc B ; the disc a is also furnished with dif-
ferent colours. A disc of pure white forms
exquisite gray combinations, with every con-
ceivable variety of light and shade ; a disc of

white and green, in equal portions, is resolved
into these elements, and their midtiplication
into a composite form is very agreeable to the
the eye. An elegant arrangement, whereby
patterns may be coloured in the most attrac-
tive manner, is composed of half a disc of
blue, and the rest of white, green, and red, in
equal proportions.

To the artist this instrument will prove of
service in enabling him to select any number
of colours in any proportion, and to adjust
them instantaneously into a symmetrical
pattern. He will thus be enabled to ascer-
tain whether his selection of colours is har-
monious, and he will be able to put to the test
some of those beautiful harmonies which are
introduced into the more recent works on
colour. The following arrangement, adapted
from Sir J. Grardner Wilkinson's work on
Colour and Taste, will serve as an example : —

On the disc a arrange, in the following
order and proportions, the colours : — Blue
129'' ; Scarlet, 42" ; Crimson, 37° ; Orange,
19° ; Yellow, 52° ; Green, 41° ; White, 4D\

Place such a disc on the colour-top, and
rotate ; during rotation drop down upon the
spindle any of the black perforated discs with
strings appended to them : the colours of the
disc A will now reappear multiplied, and pre-
senting themselves here and there, filling up
the open patterns of the perforated disc b,
and forming a polychrome ornament, the
beauty of which can scarcely be surpassed.

The pictures thus presented to the eye
are very beautiful. Their charm would
appear to depend partly upon their being re-
flected to the eye through a perfectly black
medium, which imparts brilliancy and illumi-
nation to the colours, and partly upon their
being exhibited in a state of motion, the
apparent and real direction of which bear no
relation to one another. While the disc is
actually performing one hundred revolutions
per minute, and vibrating about thirty times
during each revolution, the combinations
themselves often appear hanging in space,

RECREATIVE SCIENCE.

93

trembling without progressing, or perfectly
motionless, or gliding round in a direction
contrary to tliat of their real motion. These
frequently recurring and illusory changes
excite the curiosity, give animation to the
pictures, and confer an ethereal brightness,
vivacity, and splendour upon them, which is
altogether and peculiarly their own.

In the preparation of the discs intense
washes of these pigments are chosen, and as
few are required to produce an almost incal-
culable number of changes, the rationale of
the colour-top is as simple as that of the
kaleidoscope ; and, in the production of
colours by it, we are enabled to refer such
colours to their constituents, and thus have
a key to the mixing of colours for every pur-
pose required by art. It is strange, however,
that though red and yellow produce orange
by rotation, and full tones and half tones
result in others intermediate between them,
yellow and blue, however proportioned to
each other, have never yet produced even a

tolerable green. This fact stands in the way
at present of any attempt to form a nomen-
clatm-e of colours which shall have any philo-
sophical value. In all other respects the
colour-top illustrates the laws of contrast,
evokes the complementaries, and enables the
operator to blend colours in softer gradations
than can ever be accomplished by the pencil.
Indeed, for merely visual effects, and as
giving an index to the action of colours, hues,
tints, and shades, upon each other, it obviates
the necessity of mixing pigments until it has
determined previously the nature of the
mixture required for any given tone in all
the range of colouring, with the strange ex-
ception of the tones of green. Let us hope
that this exception may some day be found
capable of explanation ; at present it is a
mystery .

Messrs. Smith, Beck, and Beck, 6, Cole-
man Street, and Messrs. Elliott Brothers, 30,
Strand, are the accredited agents for this
curious and instructive instrument.

WINTER MANAGEMENT OF CAGE-BIRDS.

The time has come when the best of friends

must part. Our " herald of the sky " is now

silent — our free denizens of the woods and

forests have sung almost all their songs, and

thoroughly enjoyed their holidays. They are

soon about to bid us adieu for the season ;

many of them bound on a return-visit to a

foreign land, and the remainder collecting

themselves into families. All we see out of

doors tells us that Summer is gone !

" Yon glittering asters, with their radiant hues,
Convey the last memorial of her reign " —

a reign that will not soon be forgotten. Yes,
Summer, glorious Summer, has departed.
All hail to her successor, Autumn !

" In rosy triumph he came laughing in,
Waving his golden hair."

And have we not, all, felt and enjoyed his

magic power, delighted in his lavish bounties,
and revelled in boundless luxuries of fruit
and flowers — aU- of his own providing P Of
course we have. A wee while longer he will
gladden our hearts ; and then — hurrah for
brave, sturdy Old Winter.

Already the mornings are bright and
fresh ; already the air is clear and clasping.
The red leaf trembles on the spray ; the wind
warbles and sighs among the branches of the
trees. Nature is unrobing ; her wardrobe is
about to be laid aside. Her jewels — how
simple, and yet how beautiful ! Each separate
article of her toilet — how artless, and yet how
lovely ! Oh that we could, all of us, take a leaf
out of her ladyship's Book of Beauty. What
must she think of us her children, I wonder !

This change in the season has duly

94

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

warned our winged summer visitors, that it
is time to take tlieir departure. Many — alas !
too many, are gone. A few only remain ; to
collect their younger families together, and
sing us a sweet parting song. All will then
vanish to sunnier skies, leaving this happy
thought behind them — "We shall meet
again." May it be so! April will soon
conie round again ; and the sooner the better
for us.

We will now turn to those of our little
indigenous friends, who, being part and
parcel of our " happy families," claim a just
right to share in the hospitalities of our fes-
tive board. Be it our pleasing duty to make
them as happy and as comfortable as pos-
sible in the absence of their companions, now
** birds of passage."

It is worthy of note, that by far the
greatest mortality among cage-birds takes
place in the autumn and winter seasons.
This, be it observed, is mainly owing to the
construction of their dwellings. People quite
forget that birds, like themselves, require
exercise to create and maintain warmth. This
they cannot get in the small prisons usually
allotted to them. Look at the cages in
general use, particularly the circular ones.
They are anything but spacious, open at every
point to the passing wind, and perfectly mur-
derous, (at this season) as regards their in-
mates. This description of cage should
therefore be banished at once. It is quite
unsuited — nay, dangerous — for a winter resi-
dence. In summer, by all means give your
birds as much air as possible — the more the
better. I speak now only of the colder
seasons of the year.

The best sort of winter cage for our
smaller song-birds — canaries, goldfinches, lin-
nets, etc. — is one of an oblong shape, made
of mahogany, having the top, back, and sides
closed, and wire open in front only. These
cages, when French polished, look handsome,
and can be made of any dimensions. They
are by no means costly, and as they secure

" Dicky's " health, comfort, and happiness,
by all means open your heart-strings. Your
purse-strings will open at the same time, as a
matter of course.

To prevent his little majesty from being
dull, let the sides of his cage be made to open
and admit the light. This is accomplished
by means of a moveable slip of transparent
glass, made to run in a grove outside the
wire-work. It forms a slide, and can be made
a fixture or otherwise. It wiU be desirable
to have two wooden moveable slides (maho-
gany) in addition. At night they could be
used for warmth, instead of the glass slides.
I caU these my "model" cages.

It will be seen, by what I have said, that
I regard warmth as essential to the welfare
of aU cage-birds in winter ; this as regards
both British and Foreign birds. Eeep them
in as equable a temperature as possible, and
never leave them in a room where there has
been no fire. Sudden transition from heat to
cold has kiUed, and does kill, many a splendid
songster. The lungs of birds are very deli-
cate. How many suffering victims do I
meet with, in my rambles in town and
country ! Here, I find them panting, wheez-
ing, gaping; there, I see them drooping, their
heads behind their wings, their feathers dis-
tended, their throats dried up, and their eyes
glazed in death. All, or nearly all, arise from
neglect or want of proper management.

It must be specially borne in mind, that
in this country the cold weather usually
sets in before birds kept in confinement have
done moulting. Now the moulting season
is very trying under the best of circum-
stances. The birds are in a high state of
fever, and require more care and attention
then than ever. It is a time of suffering ;
and, unless his feathers drop freely, there is
much fear of your pet dying under the effort
of Nature to give him a new dress. Warmth
(but, at the same time, air) is indispensable ;
also, a generous diet, and much tender affec-
tion. We aU know, or should know, the

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

95

value of a kind, fond nurse in the time of sick-
ness. How we relish, anything from her fair
hand ! We are, sometimes, positively afraid
to get well too soon, lest the nurse should dis-
appear together with our ailment (?).

The time required for a bird to moult
properly, is ten weeks. The feathers begin
to drop earlier or later, according to the heat
of the weather. Keep them cheerful, give
them plenty of air, and indulge them with
nice, ripe, juicy salads. They will then
quickly rally, recover their appetites, and
pay you liberal interest in the matter of
song and affection.

Aa regards the food of seedAmdiS — of
which class I am now more particularly
speaking — I would recommend a choice.
Give them canary, flax, and ij>(^-turnip ; not
new seed, but seed that is at least a year
old, and quite sound. Much depends upon
the quality of your seed whether your birds
thrive well and sing well. I find my feath-
ered treasures are greedily fond of grits —
such as are used for gruel j they care for
little else. Meal in this form, denuded of
the husk, is wholesome, and it does them a
world of good.

As regards cleanliness, this is at all times
indispensable. Clean trays, nicely scoured,
plenty of red pebbly sand, fresh water twice
daily, and delicately-clean perches — these are
matters of absolute necessity. Search your
cages too, very closely, to see if there be
any minute vermin secreted in them. If so,
change the cage directly and get a new one.
These "Thugs" drink up the very life's-
blood of your pets' bodies. They sleep in
tortiare, and awake in agony. Their exist-
ence becomes burthensome.

I object to the use of the bath in winter,
but cannot too strongly commend it in sum-
mer. Supply it regularly every morning to
all your birds. If any bird has his claws
affected by dirt, gently immerse his feet in
warm water. Drop them, between two of
your partiaUy-closed fingers, into a shallow

saucer. The dirt will soon become softened by
the water, and wiU drop off. Then tenderly
dry the bird's legs and feet with a piece of
soft rag, pressing lightly the while on his
little body, lest his delicate machinery suffer
damage from the heat of your warm hand.

" Medicine " for birds is needless — quite.
If fed upon a varied diet, such as egg, mace-
rated bread and butter, a plentiful supply of
ripe, green salads, and their general food,
they will never ail anything. Spread plenty
of old bruised mortar — procurable from any
dilapidated wall — on their sand. This they
eat freely, and it aids their digestion. At
night cover their cages over with a piece of
baize. Remove it in the morning when the
fire has been lighted. Always let your birds
face the windows.

I have already given ample directions for
taming cage-birds (see "The Key to a Bird's
Heart," in Eeceeative Science, p. 31).
I hold in reserve, for future numbers,
some other equally astqunding secrets of
Nature. Among them are sop^e most inte-
resting and cixrious facts connected with my
power over wild birds in a garden, making
them tame guests at the breakfast-table. I
also hope to be able to explain the language
of birds and pther animals, and show how
capable they are of becoming (as they really
deserve to be) our friiends and companions.
Long experience in the world of Nature^
my " study " — ^has made me quite a natural
magician. I am nothing, if not surrounded
by my pets. They talk to me, and I talk to
them.. Could I breakfast without themP
No ! Nor they without me ! Would I part
with them P Not for the universe !

Tommy Dot, Slyboots, and Scaramouch,
among my birds, and Signor Snibbledibble,
first and foremost among the whole race of
" Wonderful Warbhng Mice "—give me the
society of these my amiable and loving little
friends and playfellows, and tvho more happy
than I?

William Kidd.

96

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

A TRAVELLING OYSTEE-BED.

Thkbe is, pertapg, no group of animals re-
specting which persons in general take less
interest than that which comprehends the
Crustaceans, or, in other words, crabs, lobsters,
and the like, some of which are continually
presented to our notice as delicacies for the
table. When, indeed, the lobster, the crab,
or the crayfish are dressed and served up,
then attention is paid to them, and their
freshness and flavour are feelingly commented
upon ; but here the matter ends. And yet
the history of the Crustacea, from those of

microscopic size, which give luminosity to
the ocean, to the spine-armed giants of the
•waters, is replete with marvels. Manifold
are the changes which many undergo from
the egg to maturity ; strange are the habits of
others. Some are terrestrial, at least during
a greater portion of the year ; others semi-
arboreal, climbing trees in quest of fruit ;
others take up their abode in the shells of
sea-snails, having probably devoured the legi-
timate owner ; while others live amidst tan-
gled sea-weed, through the masses of which
they wend their way with incredible address.

Many tenant the deep clear water, amidst
rocks and submerged ravines or glens ; and
not a few roam along the margin of the shore.
Largely might we dilate upon this part of
the subject, and largely upon singularities
of organization, but we must here pull in the
reins, our present design being merely to
offer a few observations on the specimen here
figured— ^it is an oyster-bearing crab.

Among all the crustaceans, microscopic
or gigantic, the mode of growth is eff'ected
in a very peculiar manner, evincing most
strikingly the wisdom of God in creation.

We know that crabs and lobsters, and
all their tribe, grow. We see them of dif-
ferent sizes, and according to their mag-
nitude {cceteris paribus) does the fishmonger
charge the purchaser for them.

Now, if we look at a crab or a lobster (and
the observation applies to the totality of the
group, from the minutest to the most pon-
derous), we perceive at once that, like an
armed knight of old, it is cased in complete
and unyielding plates of mail, confining the
limbs and body within definite limits, and
which, like the rigid shoe on the foot of a
Chinese lady, seem to preclude the idea of fur-
ther increase ; yet grow it does, and the crab,
before the year is over, if left to itself in its
native waters, will be found to have increased
surprisingly, perhaps by a third or quarter of
its original bulk and dimensions.

Here, then, are we led to inquire into the
modus operandi by which this increase of
bulk is efiected.

It is by a process termed exuviation, that
is, a moulting of the old shell, that liberty is
given for this now naked animal to expand in
all its proportions. Not only are the plates of
the body thrown ofi", as well as those of the
limbs, but the sheathing of the antenna;, fine
as they may be, even of the spines and hair-

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

97

like filameuts, is also cast off, togetlier witli
the cornea of the eye, and the lining of the
stomach, with its strong grinding teeth, which
some of our readers have, no doubt, heard
called " the lady in the lobster." The crus-
tacean, now denuded, remains a soft, defence-
less mass, invested merely with a thin pellicle.

Various species have their own mode of
effecting this exuviation, and their own diffi-
culties to contend with, for the operation is
not in all cases very easy. Some difference
in this respect may not improbably depend
upon the age or condition of the individual,
or upon causes beyond our present knowledge.

It is at this crisis, when the creature is
soft and clad in a delicate pellicle, that its
growth and general expansion take place ; and
this increase of bulk appears to proceed with
remarkable celerity, a degree of suddenness,
as if the pent-up frame, ready in its confine-
ment for a sudden and energetic process of
development, waited only the bursting of its
wall of durance.

Every species, as we have said, presents
us with its own mode of exuviation ; for the
process is definite, and not irregular or as
the chance may be. The seasons also of
this change are to a great extent determi-
nate, though exuviation may be hastened or
retarded by circumstances, or altogether sus-
pended, even before the normal stature is
attained. Then of course no further moult
takes place, the animal having attained its
maximum of development.

The armour being thus thrown off, and
the soft pellicle-covered body having en-
larged, the secretion of a new coat of mail
from the surface of the pellicle commences
and is speedily completed ; the antennae
being again sheathed, the eyes fitted with
new glasses, and the stomach relined and
furnished with a new grinding apparatus.

It is supposed that crabs, lobsters, and
crayfish undergo this change annually ; but
abundance of food and congeniality of tem-
perature, or the contrary, have, undoubtedly.

much influence in hastening or retarding it.
"We have every reason to believe that the
exuviation of shrimps and prawns is very fre-
quent, at least during the first period of their
active existence, and it would appear that
this is also the case with the young of crabs
and lobsters, the intervals being longer as
maturity approaches. Perhaps a brief ac-
count of the mode of exuviation in two spe-
cies, the common lobster and crab, may be
here admissible. Up to the time of its moult
the lobster is active and vigorous, and con
trary to what has been observed by E-eaumur
in the river crayfish or crawfish (which effects
its freedom not without great struggles and
contortions), it is agitated by no violent
actions or convulsive efforts ; nay, so easy is
the change that fine specimens, in the hands
of the fisherman, have suddenly slipped from
their encasement, leaving only their shell as
the reward of his labour.

It was by a circumstance of this nature
that Mr. Couch was afforded the opportunity
of witnessing the process and obtaining a
perfect case left by the creature when it
made its escape — for escape it did, to the
no small annoyance of the fisherman, who
was congratulating himself on a prize.

In the specimen thus obtained by Mr.
Couch, the sheathing of the antennae (horns)
and complicated appendages round the
mouth, the eye^stalks, and the transparent
cornesB were uninjured. The segments and
joints of the posterior or tail portion of the
body, with the caudal or terminating plates,
were all joined together, but without any
intervening membrane ; while the under parts
from beneath the snout, including the jaws,
foot-jaws, great claws, and legs, with the
breastplate, gullet or oesophagus, and inter-
nal coat of the stomach, formed one connected
portion. The manner in which the animal
escaped was not to be mistaken. " Through
the middle of the carapace (backplate) ran
a luie as straight as if it had been cut with
a knife, and evidently formed by a natural

98

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

process of separation, for it even proceeded
through, the centre of the snout to the ter-
minal pointed process, at the root of which
it turned off on the right side, so that the
least effort of the animal was sufficient to
afford it a passage."

Preparatory to this exuviation or moult,
it would appear that the flesh within the
great claws is astonishingly reduced in vol-
ume and becomes very soft, parting from the
thin, semi-osseous internal plate, which comes
away attached to the joint of the formidable
pincers so that it slips out with little difficulty.

In the river crayfish the mode of exuvia-
tion is different, and not only tedious, but,
according to E-eaumur, even painful.

In the common edible crab. Cancer pagu-
mis, the exuviation, according to Mr. Couch
(an admirable observer), takes place by a
separation of the backplate, or carapace,
from the under investment, the animal lying
on its back during the process.

Previously to this process, as in the lob-
ster and others, the fleshy contents of the
limb-cases shrink very considerably ; other-
wise the flesh of the great pincers {cJielce), in
particular, could not be extricated, for it does
not appear that the shells of these chelcB,
either in the crab or lobster, are fissured.

"The newly extricated crab, not unlike
a lump of dough inclosed in membrane, has,
at first, only strength enough to enable it to
crawl to a place of safety — some crevice or
hole. There it absorbs as much water as
will distend its organs and their common
covering, now as flexible as velvet, to the
full extent of their capacity, by which means
the deposition of the new calcareous crust is
made according to the acquired bulk of the
animal, which is proportionally the most in-
creased in the youngest individuals." In
the earlier stages of life, the exuviation and
sudden pushing forward of growth occur
several times in the course of the year, but
at more distant intervals as the animal verges
' towards maturity.

The drawing represents the carapace,
or large backplate, of a crab, covered
with oysters, one or two of which are at
least from four to five years old, and have
there remained since the time in which they
were deposited as mere dots on the spot
where they have grown undisturbed, until
dredged up by the fisherman. This crab
was alive when we obtained it, and so were
the oysters, and it was a curious sight to see
the crab crawling about with its living but
oppressive burden, the weight of which, on
terra firma, or, rather, the board of the
fishmonger, evidently incommoded it. On
this shell five large oysters were firmly fixed,
so as almost to cover the whole surface of
the carapace. Yet the crab was by no
means large — certainly not fully adult, its
breadth across being only seven inches.
Besides the oysters, there was a sandy de-
posit of considerable extent and elevation
obscuring the head and the intervals be-
tween mollusc shells, and passing underneath
their elevated edges. This sandy deposit,
the particles of which were firmly agglu-
tinated together, and which, on a prima facie
view, resembled a sandy ant-hill, was the
work of minute sea- worms, and was, in fact,
a maze of burrows, which these sea-worms
had constructed, and in which they dwelt, as
in a populous city, and from which, when in
the water, they half-extended themselves,
twirling and twisting in quest of their ani-
malcule food. The sight must have been
very beautiful; but, when we obtained the
specimen, though the crab and the oysters
were alive, the delicate gelatinous sea-worms
had all perished. Still their masonry re-
mained to testify as to their long residence
on a congenial basis.

On considering this crab attentively, the
following particulars struck us. It was not
full-grown, it was not developed, and yet
for four or five years it had not cast its cal-
careous armour. This armour, or at least
the backplate, was thinner than usual, and

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

99

tlie claws were small, in proportion, and by-
no means well-formed ; no donbt, tlie oyster-
shells must have impeded their free action,
at least to some small extent. The colour of
the carapace was paler than usual, and its
texture was brittle. The contents of the
encasement, that is, the body and muscles of
the crab itself, were emaciated, the flesh
was flabby, and, altogether it was unfit for
the table; it was a very "poor crab" in-
deed, probably half- starved, owing to its loss
of activity. Now, our inference is this, viz.,
that at a certain period of its existence,
after acquiring a new suit of armour, the
crab in question became sickly, a regular
and confirmed invalid, from what cause or
causes we pretend not to say; that it
lurked quietly in some sick-room, but not
a very secluded one, not a deep recess;
and that, stirring but little, the oyster-spat
dropped upon it, developed, grew, covered it,
and at length concealed it in the oyster-bed,
among a crowd, to which it belonged not,
and where it was, so to speak, a stray sheep,
a wanderer from its own domains. This, we
know, that it was obtained by the oyster-
dredger, and certainly it had no business in
such a locality. Perhaps the very locality
into which accident introdiiced it caused its
sickness. How long it might have lived had
not the ruthless dredger hauled it up, we
cannot tell ; sure, however, are we that, what
with five oysters, and the sand-agglutinating
sea-worms, it must have dragged on a miser-
able, back-burdened existence. " Call you
this backing your friends ?"

JN"ow the present is not the only instance
of a crustacean covered by shelled mollusca,
or sheU-fish, that has come under our observa-
tion. A few years since, a living, good-sized
lobster was presented to us for examination,
the whole backplate of which was a mussel-
bed ; the mussels stood u.pright in dense
array, forming a compact phalanx, a hedge-
hog-back of mussels, each rooted to the spot
where it had fixed itself in its primitive and

imperfect condition. They were of large size,
indeed of the largest, a sufficient token of
their long quietude. Strange and interesting
was the spectacle.

In the British Museum, and also in some
of the local museums, specimens of lobsters
and crabs bearing oysters and mussels, toge-
ther with other burdensome parasites, are
preserved as curiosities, and well worthy are
they of attention. They prove that causes
which we do not understand arrest the growth
of crustaceans, not only in maturity, but in
their earlier stages of existence, and also that
this arrest of growth is by no means incon-
sistent with a certain degree of vital energy.
In the case of the crab figured, the animal
had certainly not undergone exuviation for
five years, was in a sickly state, but in that of
the mussel-backed lobster no appearance of
sickness was observable ; it was of proper
weight, and thoroughly active, yet the mussel-
bed must have been a fixture for at least
three years. True it is that it was less in-
commoded by its burden than our poor crab,
inasmuch as the large caudal portion (its main
mass of muscles) was not incumbered, leaving
it to its full liberty of movement. Strange
that it should not have cast ofi" its armour
for so long a period ; not more strange, how-
ever, than many other points connected with
the history of the crustaceans, into which
we must not now attempt to enter.

W. C. L. Maetin.

FALLING STARS.

Faliing STAE3 furnish good practice to ama-
teur astronomers for the calculation of their
distances from the earth, as well as their rate
of motion through space. As they are usually
abundant about the middle of November,
we remind our friends in good time, to enable
them to prepare their minds on the subject
of parallax.

100

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

THE " CONSECEATIO " COINS OF THE EOMAN EMPEEOES
AND THEIE FAMILIES.

IN TWO PAETS. — PAET 11.

At tlie deatli of Vespasian, and tlie cere-
monials connected witli the declaration of his
apotheosis, a coin was struck by the senate, in
deference to the wishes of his son Titus, of
similar character to that issued on the death
of Augustus. The car and elephants are,
however, more richly executed ; the leaders
of the elephants are larger and more dis-
tinct, and the statue of the emperor bears
on its extended hand a small figure of Victory.
The inscription over the car is simply div.

AVG. VESP., for DIVO AVGVSTO VESPASIANO.

To the Divine Augustus Vespasianus. The
reverse of this coin has also the large S. C,
and the name and titles of Titus. It was
issued A.D. 180.

Divine honours were conferred also upon
empresses, and the daughters of emperors ;
and similar coins to those above described
were issued in honour of such events. Among
these I have selected for my illustration one
struck by Domitian, at the consecration of
his niece Julia, the daughter of Titus. In
this, as in other examples of coins struck to
commemorate the " consecration" of females,
the inventors of the devices used in the Eo-
man mint displayed great ingenuity ; for while
they strictly preserved the character of the
car and statue first introduced into the Eo-
man coinage, from the Greco-Egyptian type
of the Alexandrian coin, above described,
they, at the same time, succeeded in making
them appropriate to a female consecration.
This they effected by substituting a car-
pentum, or covered car, for the war chariot,
or the thersa. A carpentum device was first
used on a coin struck in honour of Livia,
the wife of Augustus, during her lifetime.
The carpentum was, in the early days of

Eome, a mere covered cart, such as was
used by country people, especially for fe-
males. It was generally drawn by mules, and,
like all other carriages (excepting the thersa
used for the statues of the gods, and the
triumphal car of victors), was strictly ex-
cluded from the streets of Eome during the
republic. After the establishment of the em-
pire, the privilege of using a carpentum in the
streets on public festivals was conceded to the
females of the imperial house, and also to
those of a few other distinguished families;
and its use thenceforward became a badge of
rank. It was in a carriage of this descrip-
tion that the statue of a deceased empress
was placed to be carried to the games of
the circus, instituted in honour of her con-
secration, and at once suggested to the
designers of the types for the coinage, the
idea of producing for the commemorative
coins of deceased empresses an analogous
device to that of the car with elephants.
The coin under description, struck by Do-
mitian to the memory of his niece, bears on
the obverse a rich carpentum, the carpentum
pompaiicum of state occasions, supposed to
contain the statue of the empress, though it
does not appear. On arriving at the circus
the statue was removed with great ceremony,
and frequently placed among the statues
of the gods, as a supposed witness of the
games established in honour of the deceased
personage which it represented. Among
the flatteries accorded to Julius Csesar, as
we are informed by Dion Cassius, it was
decreed by the senate that his iconic or
portrait statue, sculptured in ivory, should
accompany the images of the gods to the
circus in a sacred chariot, and should stand

RECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

101

immediately opposite to that of Jupiter.
In the space above the carpentum bearing
the statue of Julia, on the coin engraved as
below, and running round the border, is the

inscription divae juliae avg. divi titi f.,
Avhich would read at full length, divae juliae
AUGVSTAE Divi TITI FiLiAE. To the Divinc
Julia Augusta, Daughter of the Divine Titus.
Beneath, in what is technically called the
exergum of the coin, is the usual s. p. q. e.,
•and on the reverse there is a large S. C, the
abbreviation of senatvs consvlto (by de-
cree of the senate), surrounded by a legend,
composed of the name and titles of Domitian.
A beautiful and striking variation in the
consecration type is that found on the coins
Struck in honour of Sabina, the neglected
wife of Hadrian. On the reverse of this
elegant coin the figure of the empress, bearing
a sceptre, is represented as being borne to
the regions of the gods on the back of an
eagle. Within the circuit of a floating veil
are seven stars, representing a constellation,
in which her spirit is about to take its abode.
Beneath the figure are the letters S. C,
and on the obverse a fine head of the empress,
veiled, with an inscription to the effect that
the coin was struck in honour of the Divine
Augusta Sabina. It is thought by some
that this coin was not struck by Hadrian
to his long neglected wife, but that after
his death, which occurred shortly after that
of Sabina, it was issued by his adopted son
and successor, Antoninus Pius, out of re-
spect to the wife of his adopted father. The
selection of the eagle as the spirit-bearer

is consistent with its received character as
the messenger of Jupiter, as the swiftest of
flight among birds ; in accordance with which
quality it is made the bearer of the fulmen or
thunderbolt, and is frequently represented at
the feet of that deity, grasping the classical
symbol of the thunder in both its claws.
There is a fine representation of the eagle,
as the bearer of a deified spirit, among the
sculptures of the arch of Titus, in which the
emperor is seen borne between the wings of
an eagle, and crowned by a flying Victory.
A precisely similar device was struck, among
many others, on the " consecratio " coins is-
sued in honour of the Empress Faustina the
younger, the wife of Marcus Aurelius, which
I have engraved in preference to that of
Sabina, as being of better execution.

Another variety of device found upon
the " consecratio " coins struck by Marcus
Aurelius, in honour of his beloved but worth-
less wife, [Faustina the younger, who, at the
especial request of her bereaved husband,
had been not only declared deified, but speci-
fically declared to rank with Pallas as a virgin
goddess, as though such a decree would at
once refute the vulgar opinions regarding her
well known profligacy. Of the coins struck
in honour of the consecration of Faustina, I
have next selected for Ulustration the one of
the peacock type, engraved on next page ;
the spirited and bold style, both of design
and execution, being very remarkable. The
peacock, as being sacred to Juno, appeared to
the designers of that late age, who began to
get critical in the selection of their symbols.

102

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

more appropriate in connection with, tlie con-
secration of an empress than tlie eagle, whicli
was strictly awarded
to Jupiter, and con-
sequently more in its
place in tlie apotheo-
ses of new divinities
,„„ ,._^^^^_p_ of the other sex.
^I'^^MBBr The legend, or in-
scription, is simply
CONSECEATIO (the

consecration) and S. C. On the obverse of
the coia is the portrait of the empress, with
the inscription diva . favstina . pia.

The peacock is made to play a rather dif-
ferent, but less conspicuous part on another
of the consecration coins of Faustina, with
the same motto, conseceatio ; the device
being formed of a richly decorated couch or
throne, having a sceptre lying on the place to
be occupied by the new divinity, and in
front stands a peacock, denoting that the
throne prepared for the reception of Faustina
is equal to that of Jxmo. On another coin, with
the motto aeteenitas, the empress is seen
seated on a throne, borne towards heaven by
two winged female figures resembling the
angels found in the mediseval pictures of the
great Italian masters. Some learned numis-
matists have described these figures as the
Hours, or asJSTymphs of the air; but Tristan
considers them as representing the female
relations of Faustina, who had died before
her, and whose spirits return to bear her to
the realms they have already known. On
another type the new divinity is borne aloft
by a female figure bearing a torch, emblema-
tical, perhaps, of the kindling of a new life.

The next coin I have selected for descrip-
tion, on account of its bearing a distinct kind
of type from those described, though at a
certain epoch a very general one, is also found
on a coin of Faustina's. The device repre-
sented within the legend, conseceatio, is
that of a Kogus, or funeral pyre. Temporary
structures of this kind, only erected to be con-

sumed, were often made of the richest mate-
rials, and surrounded with niches, containing

statues of ivory, and other costly decorations,
and often a number of objects, known to
have been valued by the deceased. In the
more costly pyres, the figure of the deceased,
modelled in wax, was placed on the top of
the pile, with the couch on which it had
been carried, while the real remains were
enclosed in a chamber near the centre of the
structure, which was fiUed with perfumes.
The nearest relative, with his face averted,
set fire to the structiire, while others cast
into the flames cups of perfumed oU, orna-
ments, dishes of food, richly-woven clothes,
and other things supposed to be agreeable
to the deceased. On the apex of the pUe,
in the device under description, is a female
figure in a biga, or car, drawn by two
horses, doubtless a waxen effigy of the
empress in her character of mother of the
camps, mater castrorum, which she had
assumed in order to acquire favour with the
troops. It was customary on these occasions,
just at the moment that the waxen figure
melted into the flames, to release an eagle,
which, taking a lofty flight, represented the
escaping spirit of the material form that had
just been consumed.

At a later period, when the brilliant period
of the empire was past, and the arts had
sunk to a very low ebb, other devices of a
more simple character were adopted, as being
easier to execute. These, however, if less
fanciful, were, perhaps, equally poetical in
their conception, and, if less picturesque.

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

103

were, perhaps, more spiritual ; for, as Chris-
tianity spread, even Pagan rites gradually
assumed a less materialistic aspect, which is
shown in the devices, however poor in exe-
cution, which are found on the " consecratio"
coins of the last emperors. On a coin struck
by Maxentius to commemorate the con-
secration of his son E-omxdus, the kind of
type alluded to occurs. On the reverse of
this coin (engraved below) is represented a
tomb with the doors partially open, as for
the escape of the departing spirit, which is
symbolized by an eagle on the top of the
structure in the act of taking flight. No
human form is carried by the eagle, as in the
earher types of the consecrative coins, but
the spirit is deemed invisible, while borne
aloft to the region of the gods by the bird of
Jove. The inscription is aeteenae me-
MOEiiE (in eternal memory), and below,
M. OST. s., which, at length, would read
MONETA OSTIA SECTJNDA (denoting the
place where the coins were
struck) ; for the national
coinage was no longer
confined exclusively to
E-ome, as in the more
palmy days of the impe-
rial rule, but provincial
mints had been established in various districts
of the empire.

A great variety of types of this last class
might be described, but they are so similar
in their leading characters, that little would
be gained of sufiicient interest to the general
reader, seeking rather the recreations than
technicalities of science. There are, how-
ever, certain ujiexplained types of similar
character in our early Saxon coinage, which
it might prove very interesting to inves-
tigate more fully, as they might turn out
to be consecrative types imitated from
those of the late E-oman coinage, instead
of mere "houses" or fortresses, as they
have been previously described to be. A
more careful examination may prove them
to be representations of tombs copied
from those of the late E,oman coins of the
" consecratio" types, and used on similar
occasions ; this, however, is at present mere
conjecture. In conclusion, I may add that
I he whole series of consecrative coins of the
Eoman empire, from those relating to the
death of the first Cajsar to those of the
latest of the degenerate emperors, forms a
most interesting field of examination and
study, which will yield an abundant har-
vest of recreation as weU as instruction.
The numerous varieties of type issued at
the consecration of Faustina the younger
might alone form the subject of a very inte-
resting essay. H. Noel Humpheeys.

THE EXPANSION OF METAL,

ILLUSTEATED BY EXPEEIMENT.

It is well known that heat afiects the size of
bodies — an increase of temperature expand-
ing, and a decrease contracting them — and
although very little is known of the nature
of heat itself, some of its effects on bodies
which come within its influence may be even
rendered visible, when the amount of heat
applied is far below that of what we call fire.

Every one is familiar with the efiect of heat
in expanding a column of mercury or spirit,
as in a common thermometer ; but probably
comparatively few have seen its effects on a
bar of metal — say of copper, for instance.

The writer has for many years been in
the habit of illustrating the subject by
means of an original contrivance, which may

104

EECBEATIVE SCIENCE.

be easily comprehended by referring to the
accompanying diagram.

Tlie oblong figure represents a common
slate, which, may be suspended from nails in
a wall by the rings g h. The bar extend-
ing from A to c is a copper wire, about one-
tenth of an inch thick, fixed to the slate at
A, but free to move in the direction of its
length at c. The pointer, c f, has a notch

in it at c, on the side towards a, and moves
freely on a fulcrum, d (a well-rounded piece
of metal, securely fixed in the slate, to fit a
small hole in the pointer, c f, at x>), about
one-tenth of an inch below the notch. The
weight of the index keeps the wire a c
(which is filed to a sharp edge at the end c
to fit the notch) against the notch.

If A c be lengthened, it will obviously
(a being fixed) cause the index c f to move
upwards on the graduated arc at f. Apply
a lucifer taper to the copper wire, say at b,
and the index will at once move upwards.
Remove it, and, as the metal cools, it Avill
gradually fall. The experiment is a very
simple one, and illustrates the subject in a
very pleasing manner. The dimensions of
the instrument may be considered as ad
libitum; but a convenient size will be as
follows : — A c = 1 foot ; c D {i. e., from the
notch to the fulcrum) = tV of an inch;
D F = 10 inches. For every hundredth of
an inch movement of the radius c d, f will
move an inch — an amount soon obtained by
applying the taper as above.

The instrument is simply designed to
shoto the expansion and contraction of the
copper wire, not to measure it accurately.
The one constructed by the writer is suffi-
ciently sensible to show a difference in the
length of the wire by the alteration of the
temperature of the air in a room, at different
periods of the year, and by a slight calcula-
tion may be made to answer the purpose of
a thermometer (in some degree), although
an indifferent one.

WlLLIAK C. BUEDEE.

Observatory, Clifton, Bristol,

PHEENOLOGY IN THE POULTRY- YAED.

►SHi'

That the brain is tha organ of the mind, and
the ultimate means by which it is brought into
relation with the material objects around us,
is a fact admitted by all persons who have
bestowed a thought upon the subject. Phre-
nologists, however, take a step in advance of
this position, and map out the brain into
certain regions, asserting that the different

parts have distinct functions to perform ; for
instance, that one part is concerned in the
perception of colour, a second with that of
size, a third with that of form, and so on ;
and that the higher or reasoning faculties are
situated in a distinct part of the brain from
those which are concerned in the perception
of external objects, and that both these pro-

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

105

tlons again are separated from those that
influence the lower animal propensities of
eating, drinking, fighting, etc., etc. Nor do
they stop here, but, procaeding still further,
they assert that the size of these different
parts of the brain is indicative of the power

fundamental principles on which phrenology
is based, I cannot conceal from myself the
serious difficulties which are opposed to its
general reception. One of the most curious
of these I propose to bring before the readers
of Receeative Science in this paper.

Fig. 1. — Skull of a Hen, showing spherical tuberosity.

of the faculties which are exercised by them ;
and, therefore, that we may judge of the
mental character of an individual from a con-
sideration of the shape of his head. If these
statements are true of human beings, they

Among our ordinary domesticated poid-
try, all of which are usually regarded as
being merely varieties of the Gallus domes-
ticus, there exists a breed in which the shape
of the brain and the whole structure of the

Fig. 2. — Longitudinal Vertical Section of the Skull of a Cock, showing the shape of the cavity

containing the brain.

must be also true of the lower animals ; and
phrenologists speak confidently of the great
development of the combative organs of the
bulldog, and so on of other animals.

•Without attempting to deny the great

cranium are of the most extraordinary cha-
racter. The front part of the skull is ex-
panded into a very large protuberance,
which is partly formed of bone and partly
of membrane. By far the larger portion

106

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

of the brain is contained in tKis tuberosity,
and is consequently protected from injury
cbiefly by the skin and feathers ; the hinder
parts of the brain are situated as usual in the
cavity of the skull, and as the communication
between the posterior cavity and that of the
tuberosity is small, the brain necessarily
assumes the form of an hour-glass, the front
portion being, however, much larger than the
hinder.

This very extraordinary structure, which
is developed long before the escape of the
chick from the shell, is constantly present in
all the fowls of the variety. So remarkable
is it, that the celebrated naturalist Pallas re-
garded it as being produced by a cross with
the Guinea-fowl (a supposition which is alike
erroneous and absurd) ; and in the Catalogue
of the Museum of the Eoyal College of
Surgeons, London, a very old specimen was
described by one of the highest of our living
scientific authorities as the result of disease,
whereas the conformation exists in every
fowl of the variety. JSTor is it to be regarded
as a recent or mere temporary freak of
!N"ature ; on the contrary, it has been per-
sistent for centuries, and is hereditary in the
race. It was noticed more than two hundred
years since by the old anatomist Peter
BoreUi, and was described fifty years since
by the celebrated Blumenbach.

That my readers may better understand
the remarkable structure that I have endea-
voured to describe, two engravings are given j
the first being an external view of the skull
of a hen of this variety, showing the large
globular tuberosity, the membrane closing
in the opemngs having been removed ; the
second giving a view of a section of the skull
of a cock, in this the cavity containing the
brain is displayed, and the peculiar shape of
that organ may be inferred from it.

Now, let me ask phrenologists, what
alteration in the mental character of these
birds ought to result from such an extraordi-
nary change in the form of the brain P Surely,

this is not an unfair question ? I, therefore,
pause for a reply ; and if any of my phreno-
logical readers will say what ought to be the
character of such a bird, I will next month
tell them what its instincts really are, and in
what manner its mental faculties are affected
by its very peculiar conformation.

W. B. Tegetmeiee.

AQUATIC ARCHITECTS.

Entomologists are familiar with the diving-
spider, the caddis-fly, and other architects
that pursue their ingenious labours under
water; but it is not generally known that
the larvae of the pretty beetle LepUira
micans passes the winter under water. I
have often taken them in winter when en-
gaged in brook-dragging, and for a time
was puzzled to determine what they were.
On the submerged roots of water-grasses
will often be found attached small, egg-
shaped, brown cocoons, nearly as large as
the seeds of the smallest kidney-beans. On
examining these they will be found to be
the water-cases of larvse, containing within
them the partially-completed beetle in a state
of torpor. As the imago of Leptura micans
passes an aerial life, we must not look to the
parent as the author of this provision for the
safety of its progeny during winter. The
probability is that the insect resorts to the
water-side, and deposits its eggs on the
leaves of aquatic plants, which in due time
are hatched, and for awhile lead an aquatic
life ; and at last prepare for their final change
to winged beetles by constructing a water-
tight cocoon, within which they are ulti-
mately developed. We know very little yet
of the minute economies of insect-life, and
every fact that can be added to their history
introduces us to a new field of observation.

H.

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

107

METEOEOLOGY OF OCTOBER.

FROM OBSERVATIONS AT HIGHFIELD HOUSE OBSERVATORY.

Greatest Amount of

Cold. Eain.

Degrees. Inches.

, 23-0 .. .. —
. 25-0 .. .. —
. 31-0 .. .. 1-6
. 31-0 .. .. 1-7
. 31-0 .. .. 4-3
. 360 .. .. 2-4
. 32-2 .. .. 4-7
. 27-7 .. .. 3-1
. 28-5 .. .. 2-1
. 30-0 .. .. 21
. 28-5 .. .. 2-9
. 27-0 .. .. 3-3
. 24-6 .. .. 0-9
. 80-0 .. .. 4-7
. 290 .. .. 3-8
. 31-5 .. .. 2-3
. 32-2 .. .. 3-3
The greatest heat in shade reached 71*7^ in 1850,
and only SS'O'' in 1842, giving a range in greatest heat
of 13'7° for the past seventeen years.

The greatest cold was as low as 23'0"' in 1843, and
never below 36-0" in 1847, giving a range of 13-0".

In 1854 only nine-tenths of an inch of rain fell
in October, whilst 4-7 inches fell in October, 1848, and
again in 1855, being a range of 8f inches. On 19th
October, 1846, 1"3 inches fell, and on October 7th,
1849, an inch of rain fell. The average rain-fall in
October is nearly 3 inches ; it is a wet month.

E. J. Lowe.

Greatest

Year.

Heat.

Degrees.

1842 . .

.. 68-0 ..

1843 ..

.. 66-0 ..

1844 .

.. 63-0 ..

1845 ..

.. 66-0 ..

1848 ..

.. 70-0 ..

1847 ..

.. 64-5 ..

1848 . .

.. 71-0 ..

1849 ..

.. 69-0 ..

1850 .

.. 71-7 ..

1851 ..

.. 70-0 ..

1853 ..

.. 62-5 ..

1853 ..

.. 65-2 ..

1854 ..

.. 66-4 ..

1855 ..

.. 67-9 ..

1856 .

.. 68-2 ..

1857 .

.. 71-0 ..

1858 ..

.. 69-5 ..

ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS
FOE OCTOBEE, 1859.

The sun in Libra till the 23rd, then in Scorpio.

The sun rises in London on the 1st at 6h. Im., and
on the 31st at Oh. 53m. He sets on the 1st at 5h. 37m.,
and on the 31st at 4h. 34m.

Twilight ends on 3rd at 7h. 26m. ; 31st, 6h. 28m.

Day breaks 5th, at 4h. 15m., 29th, 4h. 56m.

Length of day on the 12th, lOh. 53m., and on the
27th, 9h. 55m.; the decrease being 5h. 22m. on the 5th,
and 6h. 27m. on the 24th.

Full moon on the 11th, at llh. 61m. p.m.

New moon on the 26th, at Oh. 32m. a.m.

Moon nearest earth 22nd, furthest 6th.

Mercury very small, unfavourably situated. In
Virgo at commencement, in Libra at close of the
moon. In superior conjunction to the sun 11th. In
conjunction with Venus on 20th, near moon on 26th.

Venus is at her greatest distance from the earth,
and situated near the horizon ; she is, therefore, ex-
tremely unfavourable for observation. She is in Virgo
till towards the end of the month, and then in Libra.

Mars a morning star, unfavourably situated. In Leo

in the beginning of the month, then in Virgo. On the
30th, at 3h. 20m. p.m. he is only two minutes west
of Eta Virginis.

Jupiter is a fine object after midnight in th6
N.E. He is in Gemini at the commencement, and in
Cancer at the close of the month. The following
eclipses of Jupiter's satellites will be visible : — On
the 4th, at 3h. 54m. a.m., the 2nd moon disappears. 6th,
at Ih. 29m. a.m., the 1st moon disappears. lOth, at
Ih. 40m. a.m., the 4th moon disappears. lOth, at 4h.
24m. a.m., the 4th moon reappears. 13th, at Oh. 2lm.
a.m., the 3rd moon reappears. 13th, at 3h. 22m. a.m.,
the 1st moon disappears. 20th, at Ih. 14m. a.m., tho
3rd moon disappears. 20th, at 4h. 21m. a.m., the 3rd
moon reappears. 20th, at 5h. 15m. a.m., the 1st moon
disappears. 21st, at llh. 44m. p.m., the 1st moon dis-
appears. 26th, at lOh. 33m. p.m., the 4th moon
reappears. 27th, at 5h. 11m. a.m., the 3rd moon dis-
appears. 29th, at Ih. Im. a.m., the 2nd moon disap-
pears. 29th, at Ih. 36m. a.m., the 1st moon dis-
appears.

Saturn is an evening star till the 29th, after which
a morning star. He is in the constellation Leo. A
pleasing telescopic object, although the position of
his rings are not favourable for telescopic observation.
He is 2^ N. of the moon at 7 a.m. on the 21st.

Uranus is in the constellation Taurus, and is be-
coming more favourably situated for observation. He
resembles a star of the 6th magnitude, and cannot be
seen during moonlight.

Vesta is in Cetus, and wUl be brightest on the 5th
(at the time of opposition). This planet, about the
7th, makes an equilateral triangle with the stars Theta
and Eta Ceti. Being of the 7th magnitude, it is only
just visible to the unassisted eye.

The moon is in the Pleiades near midnight on the
14th. There will be an occultation of Taygeta (5th
magnitude star) on the I4th; disappearance, llh. 43m.
p.m., reappearance on the 15th, at 12h. 56m. a.m. ;
another of Maia on the 15th ; disappearance at mid-
night, and reappearance at Ih. 7m. a.m.

The sun south on the 3rd, at llh. 49m. 10s. a.m. ;
on the 18th, at llh. 45m. 18s. a.m. ; and on the 28th,
at llh. 43m. 56s.a.m.

Equation of time on the 1st, 10m. 13s. ; on the 15th,
14m. 5s.; and on the 3l8t, 16m. 15s. E. J. Lowe.

THINaS OF THE SEASON— OCTOBEE.

FOR VARIOUS LOCALITIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.

Birds Arriving. — Eoyston Crow, Common Shovel-
ler, Dartford Warbler, Woodcock, Snipe, Wild Goose,
Teal, Lesser GuiUimot.

Birds DEPARTiNG.-~Common Marten, Sand Mar-
ten, Hobby Falcon, Short-eared Owl, Water-rail, Land-
rail, Eedstart, Sandpiper, Canadian Goose (rare),
King Ousel.

Insects.— Crane Fly, Blow Fly, Water Scorpion.

Wild Plants in Flower. — Common Ivy, Genista
pilosa. Purple Violet, Shepherd's Spikenard, Arbutus,
Winter Green.

108

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

jM? JSToleworthy's Cf<

orner.

The Affection of Fish. — As cold-blooded as a
cod, as senseless as a fish, are proverbs which go far
to deny any overflow of affection to the piscine race.
Those of our readers who, having aquatic vivaria, are
in a position to observe the inhabitants thereof, may
tell us better. Walton, copying from old Burton, tells
us of several very long-lived fish, and of some which
were so fond of him who fed them, that they would
rise at his call. Pennant has a story of the blue
shark permitting its young when attacked to take re-
fuge by swimming down its throat; however that
may be, the question of the return is the most diffi-
cult. The descensus is easy enough, no doubt.
There is another reason against fish having affec-
tion, to which, notwithstanding the classical story of
a Nubian having tamed an oyster ivhtch folloioed
him about like a dog (?), we are inclined to give much
weight. This is their amazing fecundity. A single
child is nearly always a pet, i.e., a spoilt child. A
lai'ge family has very little affection wasted upon its
individual members. How can any one — fish, flesh, or
fowl — ^love 100,000 little ones at once ? Yet, as has
been often quoted, Leuwenhoeck found 9,000,000 eggs
in a single cod ; Petit 300,000 in a carp ; Hamer the
same number in a tench ; in a mackerel 500,000 ; in
a flounder, 1,357,000. M. Rousseau took from a stur-
geon 1,567,000 eggs. Shell-fish are not so prolific ;
nevertheless, a lobster yielded 7,227 eggs; a prawn,
3,806; a shrimp, 3,057. This, we imagine, should settle
the question of the affection of very prolific fish. Of
the affection of the cetacea there can be but little doubt.

Abundance of Fungi. — In the south-eastern
counties of Ireland, there has this year been an
extraordinary increase in the number of mushrooms,
with which the pastures have been literally whitened.
On the hUls, and wherever the grass is of a few years'
standing, they have been so numerous that several
might be found in every square yard. The people
have gathered immense quantities for immediate use,
and for the manufacture of catsup. In some places
whole cart-loads have been seen thrown away, simply
because more had been gathered than could be used.
Nor have other kinds of fungi been less numerous.
A very dry season was succeeded in the beginning of
August by heavy rains, and tlie growth of fungi imme-
diately followed. The immense abundance lias never
been equalled in the memory of even the " oldest
inhabitant."

Naturalist's Telescope. — Mr. Noteworthy is re-
minded that until the opticians prepare an instrument
expressly for out-door observations, much may be done
with the ordinary single opera-glass, purchaseable any-
where for about 12». M. Mr. Noteworthy has long
had one lying in an old drawer, and until reminded of
it by the letter of a reverend friend, had altogether for-
gotten its use and value. To see a tomtit pick the
seeds from a clump of hemp plants is alone worth the
cost of one of these excellent instruments.

Origin of Words. — The history of a word, like
the honest history of any man or thing, will tell you
much ; but to know the history of many, they should
be more wisely spelt. Look at the word "Admiral," for
instance. What business has it with that letter " d " ?
Milton, no mean authority, always spells it " Amiral."
Satan towers above his fellows,

" Like the mast of some tall Amiral."
Its origin is thus given : — In opposition to the
Venetian galleys used in protecting the Crusaders
in the eleventh century, the Turks sent out a gene-
ral governor of the fleet, an Emir or Evieral. The
Venetians, in adopting the ofiicer, took also his name.
Bailey gives the derivation thus : — Amir, Arabic, " gover-
nor ;" oKioff, Greek, " of the sea." Johnson says, " from
the Freilch 'Amiral,' of uncertain etymology." The
French derive it from "Amir," and are logical in their
spelling. If so, why, we ask, do we use the df

EocK-woRK FOR Fern Cases, ETC. — Don't forget
that pumice-stone is very light, free from pernicious
ingredients, and of a suitable colour for miniature rock-
eries, without necessitating the trouble of washing
over with Portland cement. Better still for fern cases
is the petrified moss from Scarborough, Cloughton,
Nidderdale, Knaresborough, etc., which you may get
in quantity either at those several places or at the
London shops where shells and curiosities are sold.

Appearance of a Star under the Telescope. —
There is much difference between a star and a planet,
as seen through a telescope. In looking at the latter the
body is visible ; in the former it is only a concentrated
light, the body itself being too far away in space to be
seen. In order to focus a star, the tube must be
drawn out untU the object is reduced to its minimum
size ; it will then be shorn of its rays, and will put on
a somewhat planetary appearance ; the smaller the
telescope the less planetary will the star appear. If a
telescope be not achromatic, it will not be possible to
focus a star so as to free it frova false light. In look-
ing at a planet eveiy additional power used increases
its size, but in looking at a star the contrary (from the
reason given above) takes place ; the star diminishes
in size, yet increases in brightness, and this diminu-
tion must go on until telescopes are constructed so
large and powerful as to reduce a star to a mere point ;
after this any additional power would increase the
size, as then the body itself would be seen.

Pistol Camera. — Mr. Skaife is reported to have
invented a photographic apparatus which takes pho-
tographs instantaneously, and has been named the
" Pistol Camera," from the rapidity with which "when
presented," it " goes off." Is this shooting the sun,
shooting the moon, or shootuig the shadow?

Nature's Bountiful Provision. — We may obtain
a tolerable insight into Nature's care for her children,
by considering the fertility of two animals only, the
pigeon and the rabbit. It is fairly calculated that a
single pair of pigeons might produce, indirectly, in four
years, 14,760 others. In the same period of timeacouple
of rabbits would have originated 1,'^74,840 bunnies.

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

lOD

SCIENCE ON THE SEA-SHOEE.

II. — rHTSIOlOGY OF SPONGES.

Having obtained a glimpse of tlie important
part the sponges have performed in building
up tbe rocky fabric of tbe world, let us take
note of a few facts of tlieir modern history, and
we sball tlien be better prepared to ascend a
step biglier in tbe ladder of marine zoology. It
must not be supposed that remains of sponges
are found only in flints ; cbalk also abounds
witb tbeir spicules. The muddy deposits now
forming round our coasts receive additions
from the sponges that now people the seas ;
and in the white sand of the Mediterranean
the remains of sponges are in regular process
of deposit, and in many instances these prove
to be almost identical with those found in
the flints (7). On the other hand, many fossils
besides those of sponges abound in flint ;
polypes, foraminifera, fish-scales, desmidije,
true shells, etc., etc., are evidences of the va-
rieties of life which abounded in the ancient
seas. Now, look at this piece of sponge
which I have brought with me to clean the
sides of our glass vessels. It is the common
sponge of commerce. At first sight, the

meshes appear to be confused, but, on close
inspection, we can easily detect channels
passing through from the external wall to
the inner side of the cup-shaped mass.
Around these are numerous small pores, and
the universal prevalence of these pores gives
the family its scientific name of Porifera.
We know but little as to the life of the
sponge. It was at first a stretch of imagina-
tion to conceive the mass contracting and
dilating, and thus causing a regular flow of
water through the pores to the interior, and
by the tubes again to the exterior, the food
being separated for the use of the creature
by the straining process. This has since
been proved to be the mode of its living, the
sponge proper is the frame-work or skeleton,
and the gelatinous living fabric which re-
sides in and upon it obtains nourishment in a
manner similar to that of the minute ciliated
creatures that we delight to watch under the
microscope, churning the water and entrap-
ping all sorts of unsuspecting creatures in
their unscrupulous gullets. It was reserved

Vol. I.— No. 4.

110

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

for Mr. Bowerbank to close an open ques-
tion. He discovered that the sponges are
provided with cilia, and thus fairly esta-
blished them in the animal kingdom. He
saw not only evidences of cilia, but the true
hair-like processes playing with the regularity
of paddle-wheels, transmitting a stream of
water through the mass of the tough skeleton,
and by a regular process of fishing obtaining
its share of the bounties of the sea. Here is
a fine boulder, half covered at this present
low tide. With my bare arm I can reach
down into one of its rough hollows, and with
detective fingers obtain to a certainty one of
the best of the sponges for microscopic ob-
servation. Here it is; a dirty-looking, funnel-
shaped mass, and its name a very inviting one,
"Crumb of bread," which it certainly some-
what resembles. Transferred to a small jar of
fresh sea-water, wrapped round with a strip
of wet flannel, and at once conveyed to the
basket, it will be alive when we get home,
and perhaps may live a week ; and if we put
on all the power we have, with a good light,
we shall see the cilia imitating clock-work.
In the fresh-water sponges [Sjpon^illa), simi-
lar ciliatory appendages have been observed,
and were admirably studied by Lieberkiihn,
who noticed that they disappeared with the
approach of winter, indicating that probably
at that season the creature ceases to feed,
and becomes partially or perhaps whoUy
dormant.

Another good sponge, which we may ob-
tain almost anywhere on the coast, is the
" Sack," which is not so suitable to show the
cilia, but the best of all to illustrate the rela-
tion of the sponges to the history of flint.
Tear it up, and put a fragment under the
microscope, and, wonder of wonders ! see the
maze of geometric forms exhibited in the
bones of the creature ; for who can help re-
garding the spicules as bones, even though a
sponge be invertebrate P It is a wUderness
of sUiceous needles ; no, not needles, pins,
for every one has a knob at the base, and

they cross and recross, so that the eye is
bewildered to trace them out finally ; and
yet all is order and unity. The fingers of the
Almighty Maker were not more troubled in
fashioning that microscopic lace of flint than
in piling up the pinnacles of the Andes.
The jelly-like body of the creature permeates
these spiny meshes of lime and flint, and
thus, from the support it derives from them,
they may truly be regarded as the bones of
a boneless creation. Death dissolves the
living film, but the spicules remain unhurt
for a thousand years, and reveal themselves
in their original sharpness and geometric
accuracy of pattern to the eye of that pene-
trator of mysteries, the microscope (2, 3, 5).
The simplest of the Protozoa is the Hhizo-
poda, of which we have an easily procured
type in the Amoeba, a semi-transparent orga-
nization, found in ponds and infusions. They
are examples of polygastric animalcules, de-
scribed by Pritchard as " with one aperture
only to the body, and no alimentary canal or
lorica." A specimen of Amceha radiosa is
represented in the cut at 1. It consists of a
jeUy-like body, capable of expansion in such
a way as to manufacture for itself legs and
arms, for it has no appendages whatever but
such as it produces at will. Thrusting out
portions of its body, it forms what are called
" pseudopodia," of which the specimen repre-
sented has four. If we were to watch it one
or two might be withdrawn, or one or two
more extemporized, according to its own ec-
centric vagaries. By means of these pseudo-
podia it moves from place to place, and also,
by a process of grasping and contracting
them, it tucks into its body any morsel with
which it comes into contact, and thus makes
its temporary legs serve as feelers, feeders,
and organs of locomotion. Strictly speaking,
it has no mouth, and will as readily wrap up
a grain of sand as a wandering infusorium ;
but a power of digestion it has, and ihe sand,
or the rejected portions of the embraced
infusoria, are expelled through some part

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

Ill

of the body, and tlius it gets its living.
"Within the mass of the creature are the
"many stomachs" which form the basis for
the • classification of the polygastrica ; bnt
they are mere vesicles surrounding a solid
nucleus. The vesicles are by no means per-
manent ; they appear and disappear according
to the -wants of the creature, which thus
manufactures arms, legs, and stomachs as it
wants them, and resolves them back into its
own amorphous jelly-like body as soon as
their purpose has been served. Now the
physiology of a sponge may be considered to
assimilate very closely to that of a rhizopod,
for the gelatinous flesh consists of an agglo-
meration of separate bodies, each formed
on the plan of an Amoeba, yet acting in
concert, and subsisting in one harmonious
scheme of organization. At 4 is a represen-
tation of a part of the body of G-rantia, one
of the marine sponges, which is seen to con-
sist of a sort of community of Amoeba, with
real cilia instead of pseudopodia. We can
understand, therefore, how the cUia cause a
current of water through the meshes of the
sponge, how the particles of nourishment are
seized and appropriated by the stomachs,
and the rejected matters cast out with the
efflux of the stream from the interior. This
sponge has no net-work, and in this respect
differs from the ordinary type of structure.

If we again take note of the porous sys-
tem, which indeed is that which, to ordinary
eyes, is all that is noticeable about sponges,
we shall observe that the larger channels are
few in number, but the small ones ramify
through the whole mass. The larger aper-
tures are called " oscula," and the smaller
pores and the two sets of apertures are con-
nected within by means of canals, which
again connect with another set of canals, and
thus constitute a true circulatory system
from without by the pores to within, and from
within to without by the oscula, and to the
whole of these the horny, calcareous, or sili-
ceous frame-work gives consistence and form.

The passage of the current through the
whole of its course may be very prettily
observed under the microscope, by adding to
the water in which a living specimen is placed
a little finely -powdered indigo. Dr. Grant,
in 1827, first revealed to the world this curi-
ous passage in the history of the sponges, to
which has been added numerous additional
details by more recent observers, among
whom Mr. Bowerbank stands in the first
rank. It should be added, as redeeming
the sponge from the very low position in
which we place the Amoeba, that it can open
and close the oscula at pleasure, and that it
has the power of forming new oscula if a
larger current be required. These actions
have been observed by Mr. Bowerbank in
the common fresh-water sponge.

The story of this wondrous life is not yet
complete. The sponge can patch up any por-
tion of its tough integuments that may suf-
fer damage, and if two separate fragments
are brought into juxtaposition, they will
probably join together and become one mass
as complete as if ah initio united. Professor
Huxley has made observations on the inte-
resting species called Tethys, which consists
of a central whitish granular mass, associated
with cylindrical spicula. Around this is a
yellowish substance containing ova and stel- -
late spicula. External to this is a sort of
sheathing substance called the cortical layer,
shown of a darker tint on the margin of the
section. This cortical layer is of a deep red,
deepest towards the margin, and shading off
to a lighter zone inwards. The lighter portion
consists of closely- woven bundles of fibrous
tissue, with here and there in its substance
stellate spicules, while the darker outside
zone is granular, and contains great numbers
of crystalline spheres beset with short conical
spikes (8). Throughout the whole substance
are bundles of spicula ; at the centre they are
somewhat regular in arrangement, but be-
come more and more confused as they ap-
proach the cortical layer, so as to brace

112

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

tlie wKole fabric togetlier by a felt of
spicules.

The intermediate substance is the seat of
the vital forces ; figuratively speaking, it is the
heart of the sponge. It consists of circular
cells and of spermatozoa in every stage of
development. " The cell throws out a long
filament, which becomes the tail of the
spermatozoon, and becoming longer and
pointed, forms, itself, the head. The perfect
spermatozoa have long, pointed, somewhat
triangular heads, about aoVo^h of an inch in
diameter, with truncated bases, from which
a very long filiform tail proceeds. The
ova are of various sizes ; the largest are
oval, and about gioth of an inch in diameter.
They have a very distinct vitellary mem-
brane, which contains an opaque coarsely gra-
nidar yolk." These details are presented
at 9, where the ova may be seen embedded
amongst the stellate bodies.

It should be borne in mind that the order
of reproduction, so clearly explained by Pro-
fessor Huxley, has been seen only in Tethys,
and it is therefore only by analogy that we
can predicate a similar propagation of ova in
sponges generally. Lieberkiihn has observed,
in the fresh-water sponges, small moving
corpuscles similar to the spermatozoa of
Tethys, and to Carter we are indebted for
drawings of the seed-like bodies occurring
in Sjpongilla meyeni, of which a portion of
one is represented at 6. These are a sort of
leathery capsules, externally tessellated by
spicula, which in section give them the ap-
pearance of toothed wheels. The capsule
is fiUed with spherical cells containing ova,
which when mature escape, through a hilum
from the seed-like body, under the form of
a gelatinous mass, in which certain changes
begin, and the new life of the myriad germs
is developed according to the order appointed
them. But another mode of propagation is
by what Lieberkiihn calls " swarm spores,"
which are proverbially only the seed-like
bodies in a peculiar stage of development.

Be that as it may, Lieberkiihn obtained
swarm spores in active ciliary motion. In a
few days they sank to the bottom of the ves-
sel, where they began to adhere. They then
expanded into a layer of gelatinous substance,
and the characteristic flinty needles were pro-
duced, and on the twentieth day became bona
fide and recognizable sponges. Those who are
familiar with the physiology of the protozoa
will find no difficulty in reconciling with
this distinct spermatozoid reproduction, a sys-
tem of increase by gemmules and divisions.
Sponges certainly do produce bud-like ofisets
which become provided with cilia, and row-
ing away from the parent mass, establish
themselves elsewhere as new colonies. The
lower we descend in the ranks of both animal
and vegetable life, the more numerous do we
find the provisions for extension of the spe-
cies. An Actinia may be cut in twain, and
therefrom become two distinct creatures,
each capable again of multiplication by ova ;
and below this low type, the possibilities of
reproduction are still more varied, and evince
the abundant provision of the great Archi-
tect of the whole scheme for the preserva-
tion, against all accidents and chances, of the
humblest atoms of organized dust on which
he has set the seal of his wisdom and power
and infinite goodness.

In future papers we shall endeavour to
indicate the chief points of interest discover-
able in the several orders of animal life that
abound upon our shores, especially taking
note of those which most readily adapt them-
selves to the confined area of an aquarium.
Those who would follow out into detail the
history of the sponges will be best aided
by Dr. Gr. Johnston's "History of British
Sponges," Griifith and Henfrey's "Micro-
graphic Dictionary," and an excellent " Ma-
nual of the Protozoa," by J. E. G-reene,
B A., in " Galbraith and Haughton's Scien-
tific Manuals."

Shieley Hibbebd.

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

113

FLINTS OF THE UPPER CHALK: FORMATION.

EvEETBODT knows tlie- appearance of flint,
but few persons are acquainted with, its pre-
sumed origin. If we go to the sea-side re-
sorts of tlie Kentish and South-Eastern coast,
we find abundant flints ; if we walk on the
beach, there are flints innumerable, generally
small and rounded, beneath our fatigued
feet ; if we walk along the roads, there are
flints flanking us on each side in the walls.
Gathered from the pebbly beach, they are
selected and split by a sharp blow, and then
built up in mortar, with their split facets
outwards, so as to form an enduring, though
rather rough, piece of walling. Nothing
could present a better exhibition of the cha-
racter and contents of chalk-flints than such
a wall. If a geologist had been employed to
display them in the fittest manner, he could
not have succeeded better than the rough
wall-builder.

Suppose, however, that we enter a garden
of one of the sea-side houses, and hope to
find refreshment in shrubs and flowers ; al-
though the place may by courtesy be called
a garden, it is after all a mere repetition of
flinty specimens. There are more flints than
flowers, more chalk fragments than crocuses,
and more pebbles than peonies. In truth, flint,
either rough or round, either monstrously
large or minutely sharp, meets xis in all di-
rections. There are even flint-faced houses
as well as walls ; there are "flints beneath our
feet, on either hand, and above our head.
Where did all these flints come from ? That
is a natural inquiry, and we shall endeavour
briefly to answer it.

The Upper Chalk Formation is the original
seat and source of all these masses and these
rounded pebbles. Walking along the coast
under the high-rising chalk cliffs, we see
layers of flint lying in the chalk itself, and

forming long-continued beds or seams, com-
monly taking the same course, the same
bendings and wavings, as the chalk itself.
These beds of flint may be seen at Margate,
running all round by the North Foreland,
and continuing to Dover. At Brighton, when
we have passed Kemp Town and approach
Eottingdean, two layers of flint become visible
and strongly marked ; and at Eottingdean
itself may be seen several layers of flat
flint spreading out like hard tiles through
the chalk. In the Isle of Wight similar
siliceous seams are visible, and at Scratchel's
Bay, near the Needles, very remarkable ob-
lique seams of flint are observable in lofty
chalk cliffs. These were not deposited ob-
liquely, but must have been originally hori-
zontal. The fair inference, from their present
oblique position, is, that they, together with
the cliffs, have experienced an upheaval at one
end of the range of cliffs in primeval periods,
when the strata of chalk first formed hori-
zontally were subject to great disturbance
from the action of internal forces. A curious
sign of the great force employed is the shat-
tered condition of many of the flints, though
still imbedded in the solid rock. The dip of
the inclined strata is in general from 70" to
80' ; but many of the teds, through a con-
siderable distance, are quite vertical, and
present the remarkable appearance of chalk
and flints standing as it were head down-
wards, or much as if this page should be
turned half round, and the lines of print
stand upon their ends.

It is a perplexing question which we are
prompted to put as we look up at vast accu-
mulations of flint, so regular in their position,
so irregular in their particular conflguration:
How came these hard bodies — bodies so hard
that their name is a synonyme for unim-

114

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

pressiveness — how came they to lie bedded
in a mass so soft as chalk P the synonyme
for hardness enclosed in that for softness?
Philosophers cannot answer us unhesitatingly,
they can only conjecture. A common flint,
the refuse of our shores, the vilest material
of rough buildings, is, after all the progress
of science, still a standing mystery.

A few points are, however, well ascer-
tained, and they are these : All these flints
were once in a state of fluidity. This is
proved by the fact that they contain in, or
fastened upon, their own substance numerous
petrified remains of sponges and animals,
which we shall presently describe. These
could not have become imbedded in the sub-
stance of the flint, and surrounded by it, un-
less the flint had once been fluid or semi-fluid.
' Plint, also, as we now find it, or any siliceous
substance of a similar character, can be re-
duced again to fluid, or, as it is said, rendered
soluble, when subjected to the action of
caustic alkali (soda or potash) at a high tem-
perature, in a steam-boUer or in chambers
communicating with boilers. It readily fuses
in a vapour heated a little above that of fused
cast-iron. What is called E.ansome's arti-
ficial stone is manufactured by processes of
this kind. Chemists have discovered that
flint, or silex, to use the technical name, is
simply a compound of oxygen with a peculiar
base (silicon). Silex is one of the simple
materials entering into the composition of
many rocks and strata, and that in so large
a proportion that it is computed to form,
either in a fluid or combined state, nearly
one-half of the solid crust of the globe.

A remarkable present production of flint
is now taking place in the siliceous deposits
formed by the celebrated geysers, or inter-
mittent boiling fountains, in Iceland, and on
a still grander scale in New Zealand, where,
■from the crater of the volcanic mountain of
Tongariro, upwards of 6200 feet above the
level of the sea, jets of vapour and streams
of boiling water highly charged with silex

are continually spouting forth. After dash-
ing down the sides of the volcano in cas-
cades and torrents, they empty themselves
into the lakes at the base. As the tempera-
ture of the water diminishes, a siliceous sinter
is deposited in vast sheets, and in incrusta-
tions of flint which are thrown down upon the
extraneous substances lying in the course of
these thermal or warm waters. Further,
silex is actually precipitated by the boiling
waters in the form of stalagmitic concretions,
and in nodules resembling in colour and
solidity the flints of the English chalk. This
has been witnessed and reported by Dr. Dief-
fenbach in his work on New Zealand.

The most stupendous of the boiling pools
whichhe noticed is partly surrounded byacliff
sixty feet high, which is oxydized, corroded,
and undermined from the effects of the heated
vapours which are continually issuing forth in
jets. At the base of this cliff" the pond is con-
stantly boiling with a white foam, and throw-
ing up fountains eight or ten feet high with
great noise and violence. The generally in-
soluble silex is here held in solution by the
alkaline elements and very high temperature
of the water. In another spot is seen a deep
lake of a blue colour, surrounded by verdant
hills, and in the lake are several islets, on all
of which steam issues from a hundred open-
ings between the green foliage without im-
pairing its freshness. On the opposite side is
a broad flight of steps, of the colour and aspect
of white marble, with a rosy tint from silice-
ous incrustation, over which flows a cascade
of boiling water into the lake.

On a small scale, Mr. Jeffreys has per-
formed the same operation as that we have
just described as in actual occurrence in New
Zealand. That gentleman determined, by ex-
periment, that silex is soluble in water highly
heated, without the presence of alkalies or
other chemical agents.

There can now be no difficulty in conceiv-
ing that silex was largely held in solution in
the ancient chalk ocean, but there is considef-

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

115

116

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

able difficulty in understanding how it could
be precipitated in the manner we now behold.
One ingenious and highly probable theory
has been proposed, which is briefly this : —
The common tuberous flints and the hori-
zontal tabular flints, together with those
forming oblique or vertical veins, were all
produced by the same agency. We know,
from the frequent remains of sponges now
distributed throughout the chalk, that these
bodies were abundant in the sea that held
the chalk in solution — so abundant that their
remains are almost everywhere present in cer-
tain beds and localities. Wherever a sponge
settled upon shells or other organic bodies in
the chalk ocean, it gradually enveloped it
and grew round it more or less completely.
It coated over any such mass upon which its
gemmule might chance to settle, in a manner
precisely analogous to the habits of the fresh-
water sponge of our rivers, and to many other
parasitical species which are inhabitants of
the sea at the present period. As the sub-
atance thus built upon was probably, to a
small extent, immersed in silt or mud, we
rarely find more than half or two-thirds of the
surface enveloped, and it is from this circum-
stance that we detect in chalk so many fossils
which are, more or less, imbedded in flint.
It is presumed that any flint found in the
chalk formation was a mass of casing-sponge,
which gradually accumulated round some
organic nucleus, and either left the original
body unchanged in shape, as we often find
it, or in part transmuted the same into its
own substance, leaving only tokens of the
organism which may be detected by micro-
scopical examination. As many of the or-
ganisms would be broken up before the
gemmule of the casing-sponge fastened upon
them, only fragments remain in the flint, and
sometimes only impressions upon its outside.
We select, for illustration, specimens
of chalk flints fiom our own cabinet and
such as may be ordinarily met with by any
observant pedestrian, either in clialk districts

or in gravel districts, such as are common in
the vicinity of London, where the' gravel is
composed of flints derived from the chalk : —

1. An echinus of solid flint, from the chalk
cliffs, Margate. In this specimen the mark-
ings are particularly distinct, and it is evident
that the liquid flint has filled up the original
echinus, which has decayed away, leaving
this interior cast of it.

2. A similar echinus, from the London
gravel, Regent's Park. Althougli this echi-
nus has been rolled about in its after course
from leaving the chalk, yet it is as distinct as
the former specimen Mhich came at once from
the flint in situ.

3. A beautiful little echinite {Diadema
depressa), from a chalk flint in the road on
Haverstock HUl. Flint has entirely filled
and surrounded it.

4. A bivalve shell in flint, from Margate.
In this case the half-enveloping flint was
large, and the shell could not be made port-
able without fracturing the flint. The shell
projected some distance from the mass.

5. A sponge enveloped in a flint casing,
from the gravel of London. The net-like work
of the sponge has been fully filled with silex.

6. A ventriculite (from ventriculus, a ven-
tricle or sac) completely encased in flint, or
perhaps a mere flint mould of the ventriculite,
from the London gravel. This is a prevalent
form in the gravel derived from the chalk.
Probably all such flints have been moulded
in the cup-like cavities of zoophytes. The
top displays the impressions of the reticu-
lated outer surface of the original, the form of
which is conceived, from numerous specimens,
to have been a hollow inverted cone terminat-
ing in a point at the base, which was attached
by fibrous rootlets to other bodies. The
outer integument was disposed in meshes like
net-work, and the inner surface was studded
with irregular openings, which aj)parently
were the orifices of tubular cells. When the
flint filling up the cavity of a ventriculite can
be extracted, it is a solid cone.

RECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

117

7. Another, but imperfect, mould of a ven-
triculite, from the London gravel, showing the"
hollow interior, and on its edge a spine of
an echinus {Cidaris clavigera) is impressed.
Here then we have, as in all the other speci-
mens, palpable proofs that the moulding or
enveloping flint was originally liquid, and
slowly and faithfully grew round or in the
organic nucleus.

Any pedestrian who keeps his eye upon
the flints and gravel laid down upon the roads
around London, as near Hyde Park, Ee-
gent's Park, Hackney, etc., or even by search-
ing the gravel path of his own garden, may
find several such specimens, and reason upon
them as we have reasoned in these explana-
tory remarks.

J. E. Leifchild.

BIRD-PRESERVING.

Almost the first thing a young naturalist
takes interest in is what is commonly called
" bird-stuffing," and with him, when he at-
tempts it, the term is very applicable. Oh !
the wretched, distorted things which rise
from their collapsed state, where it had been
better had they remained, " they mimicked
Nature so abominably." But we must not
suppress and dull the aspirations of genius,
remembering that the most accomplished in
any art had their beginning too. Many
things are required to make anything of this
art — such as delicacy of hand, great practice,
but, above all, patience, the most inestimable
of all common virtues. But I shall proceed
to give a few plain directions, that the aspi-
rant after taxidermal excellency may judge
and try for himself, and not be disheartened.
A fair specimen being obtained, take com-
mon cotton wadding, and with an ordinary
paint-brush stick plug the throat, nostrils,
and, in large birds, the ears, with it, so that
when the skin is turned no juices may flow
and spoil the feathers ; you must then pro-
vide yourself with the following articles : —
A knife of this kind, a, which is very com-
mon ; a pair of cutting plyers, b ; a pair of
sti'ong scissors, c, of a moderate size; a
button-hook, d ; a marrow-spoon, E ; and a
hand-vice, F. With these, a needle and
thread, and a sharpener of some kind, to give
your knife an occcasional touch, you are pre-

pared, so fiir as implements go. Then pro-
vide yourself with annealed iron wire of
various sizes ; some you may buy ready for
use, some not ; but you can anneal it your-
self by making it red-hot in the fire, and
letting it cool in the air. Common hemp is
the next article, cotton wadding, pounded

whitening, and pounded alum, or chloride of
lime ; as to the poisons which are used, thej'
wiU be spoken of by and by. You should
also have a common brad-awl or two, and
some pieces of quarter-inch deal, whereon to
stand the specimens when presei'ved, if to bo
placed as walking on a plane ; if not, some

118

RECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

small pieces of twigs or small branclies of
trees sliould be kept ready for use, of vari-
ous sizes according to the size of the bird ;

■mm.

sometbing of tbis form. Spanish
chestnut, or common laurel cut in
December, will be found to answer
best, but this must be regulated by-
fancy and the requirements of
the case ; oak boughs are sometimes
of a good shape.

The best time for preserving specimens
is in spring, because then the cock birds are
in the best feather, and the weather is not
too warm. In mild weather three days is a
good time to keep a bird, as then the skin
will part from the flesh easUy. If a
specimen has bled much over the feathers,
so as to damage them, wash them carefully
but thoroughly with warm water and a
sponge, and immediately cover them with
pounded whitening, which will adhere to
them. Dry it as it hangs upon them slowly
before the fire, and then triturating the
hardened lumps gently between the fingers,
the feathers will come out almost as clean as
ever. To test whether the specimen is too
decomposed to skin, try the feathers about
the auriculars, and just above the taU, and if
they do not move you may safely proceed.

Lay the bird on his back, and, parting the
feathers from the insertion of the neck to the
tail, you will find in most birds a bare space.
Cut the skin the whole length of this, and
passing the finger under it on either side, by
laying hold of one leg and bending it for-
ward, you wiU be able to bring the bare knee
through the opening you have made ; with
your scissors cut it through at the joint ; pull
the shank stUl adhering to the leg till the
skin is turned back as far as it wUl go ;
denude the bone of flesh and sinew, wrap
a piece of hemp round it, steeped in a strong

solution of the pounded alum, and then puU
the leg by the claw, by which means the
skin will be brought again to its place.

After having served both legs alike, skin
carefully round the back, cutting oiF and
leaving in the taU with that into which the
feathers grow, that is, the "Pope's nose."
Serve the wing bones the same as the leg,
cutting them off" close to the body, and turn
the skin inside out down to the head. The
back of the skull will then appear, and you
will now find it of advantage, as soon as you
have got the legs and taU free, to tie a piece
of string round the body, and hang it up as
a butcher skins a sheep. Make in the back
of the skull a cut of the annexed form, with
your knife, which you can turn back like a
trap-door, and with the marrow-spoon entirely
clear out the brains ; A
representing the neck,
and B the skin turned
back. Having done
this, wash the interior
of the skull thoroughly
with the alum, and fill
it with cotton wad-
ding. The next operation requires care
and practice ; namely, to get out the eyes.
This is done by cutting cautiously until the
lids appear, being careful not to cut the eye
itself, and you can then with a forceps, which
you will likewise find useful, pull each from
its socket ; wipe the orifice carefully, wash it
with the alum solution, and fill it with cotton
wadding. Cut off" the neck close to the skull,
wash the stump, and the whole of the interior
of the skin with the alum, and the shinning
is done. Now comes the stufiing. The ordi-
nary mode used by bird-preservers is a simple
one, and answers very well ; there is a French
method, however, which has its advantages,
and will be adverted to hereafter. Take a
piece of the wire suitable to the size of the
bird, that is, as large as the legs will carry,
and bend it into the following form, a repre-
senting the neck, h, the body, and c, the

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

119

junction of the tail, allowing sufficient length,
of neck for the wire to pasa some distance

beyond the head, and being sharpened at
each end, which may be done by obliquely
cutting it with the plyers. Wind upon this
wire hemp to the size of the bird's body,
which you should hare lying by you to jixdge
from, and it will present something of this
appearance. You can shape it with the hand,

but be careful not to make it the . least too
large; and, after you have finished it to your
satisfaction, you may singe it as the poulterer
would singe a fowl, which will make all neat,
but be particular to wind the hemp very
tight. Then take the skin, lay it on the
table on its back, and pass the wire at the
head into the marrow where the neck is cut
off, through above the roof of the mouth,
and out at one nostril, and draw it up close
to the skull ; turn the skin back, and draw it
down over the hemp body, and pass the wire
spike protruding at the lower end through
the flesh upon which the tail grows, about the
centre, and rather below than above. The
skin may now be adjusted to the hemp body,
and sewn up, beginning from the top of the
breast, and being particularly careful always
to take the stitch from inside, otherwise you
will draw in the feathers at every pull. At
first sew it very loose, and then, with the
button-hook, draw it together by degrees.

With the plyers cut two lengths of wire
long enough to pass up the legs and into the
neck, and leave something over to fasten the
bird by to the board or spray upon which it
is to be placed. The next operation requires
some address and great practice, namely, the
passing the wire up the legs. This is done
by forcing it into the centre of the foot, and
up the back of the legs into the hemp body,
through it obliquely, and into the neck until
it is pretty firm. In doing this, you must
remember the ordinaiy position of a bird
when alive, and, therefore, instead of passing
the wire the whole way within the skin of the
leg, when you get to the part where you
have cut off the bone, that is, the knee-joint,
pass it through the skin to the outside, and
in again through the skin from the outside
where the knee would come naturally in the
attitude of standing or perching — it makes
little difference which. This is essential,
because if the wire be passed the whole way
inside the skin, it produces a wrong placing
of the legs. The accompanying cut will illus-
trate this, a repre-
senting the line in
which the wire should
run. The bird is now
stuffed, and you may
at once place it upon
a spray, or board, as
the case may be. In
placing a bird upon a
spray, the first joint
should be bent almost on a level with the
foot ; and, in placing a bird on a board, one
leg should be placed somewhat behind the
other. If the wings are intended to be
closed, as is usually the case, bring them
into their place, which may be done by put-
ting the fingers under them, and pressing
them together over the back ; you may then
pass a needle, or large pin, of which you
should have a good supply by you, through
the thick part of the upper wing into the
body, and so by the lower wing, and if you

120

EECKEATIYE SCIENCE.

albw these to protrude, you may fasten to
one of tliem a piece of thread, and wind it
carefully and lightly round the body, which
will keep the feathers in their places, and
this thread should be kept on for a fort-
night or three weeks, until the bird is dry.
The tail should be kept in its place also
for the same time, by a piece of thin

wire bent over it thus : ^

The only thing now to do
is to put in the eyes. The colour of course
depends on the bird, and these you may
buy at any fishing-tackle shop. If you do
not use eyes too large, you will find little
difficulty ; the juice of the lids will act as a
sufficient cement. As to the mounting, I shall
say nothing about that now, but shall only
advert shortly to a French method of preserv-
ing, which is more difficult, but has the advan-
tage of superior firmness. It is this : Measur-
ing from the insertion of the neck to the tail,
make a wire frame of this form, the measure

taken being from a to B. Upon this wind
hemp for the neck only, and place in the
skin in the same way as before directed, only
that instead of one wire being passed through
that in which the tail grows, it is a fork
tbat is passed through it. Having formed
this frame, fit on to it two legs thus:

and after the- frame itself is in the skin,

pass these from the inside down each leg,
instead of from the outside, and fasten
them on to the frame with the plyers by
twisting the ends, B B, round the frame,
c, in the first figure. This will make all
firm, and you can then fill the body with
cut hemp, and sew up. One word as to the
other preparations used by bird-preservers.
These are either corrosive sublimate or regu-
lus of arsenic, which is yellow and of a con-
sistence like butter. As I have said be-
fore, in cold weather, when there are no
flies about, alum will do perfectly well : in
warm weather either of the two others may
be used. I should prefer the former — corro-
sive sublimate — as the other is " messy," and
the chief object is to dry up anything which
can be attacked by flesh-seeking insects.
When you have finished your bird, you can
lay the feathers with a large needle — it is as
well to have one fixed in a handle and kept for
this purpose — and, tying the two mandibles
of the bill together with a piece of thread
until the whole specimen has hardened and
dried, the work is done.

O. S. EoUND.

TELESCOPES FOE AMATEUES.

Convinced that cheap telescopes are not
common enough, and that such as are manu-
factured are badly constructed, I venture
therefore to submit the following details of
the best that my brother and myself have, in
five years' experimenting, managed to con-
struct : —

Tube, of zinc at 4|(?. per foot, so con-
structed that it can be used at any length,
from 11 ft. 7 in. to 11 ft. 10 in. Its larger end
3 in., its smaller 2 in., in diameter.

Object-glass — double convex lens of 144
in. focus ; to be had of any optician.

Eye-piece, Huygenian, formed of two
plano-convex lenses, sliding in such a way
that they can be arranged at any distance

IIECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

121

between | in. and If in. apart. Tlie one near
the eye must be 1 ia. and tbe other l^ in.
focus, with their flat sides toward the eye,
and a stop of i in. between them.

Section of Object-glass Box. External dark portion,
wood ; lines across centre, lenses ; corners, putty.

All interiors to be blackened ; the large
tube can be smoked. If the small pieces of
the eye-piece are turned too small, the plan
used in a flute can be adopted.

Each lens should cost I*. 6d., the tube
4s. Gd., and the wooden boxes for lenses 3*.
at the utmost.

At such a price, of course, it is not
achromatic ; but if the tube is straight, and
the object-glass stopped down to about 2 in.,
it will prove very effective on the Sun, Moon,
Jupiter, and Saturn.

Section of Ej'epiece. — a a slide in 6 6 The black
line is a stop of card-board. At tlie extreme right
hand is the position of dark glass for viewing the
sun.

A piece of a smashed negative collodion
plate is a very good substitiite for the black
glass used before the eye-piece of telescopes
when looking at the sun.

Heebeet Hukst.
Upper Clapton.

DO DOGS UNDERSTAND HUMAN
SPEECH P

A GENTLEMAN met with a retriever while on
a shooting excursion. The dog came in obe-
dience to a whistle, and after a little coax-
ing made himself quite friendly. There and
then the dog adopted a master who could
appreciate his noble qualities, and so they
went home together.

Some few weeks after this took place, a
stranger happened to be shooting in tho
neighbourhood, and passing near the house
where the dog had taken up his abode, he
was seen by the owner, who invited him in
to partake of refreshments. In the course of
conversation he was asked, " What sport ?"
*' None worth speaking of," he replied ; " my
dog is unequal to his work. I lost one a
short time since worth his weight in gold,
and, unfortunately, have heard no tidings of
him since." " But how and where did you
lose him ?" inquired the host. " Why, about
fifteen miles from here, while out shooting, I
missed several birds, which made me angry.
I beat the dog, and threatened to shoot him.
When I got into the next field * Grouse ' was
gone. I tliought I should find him at home ;
but no, he had gone utterly, and I believe he
went because I threatened to shoot him." At
this moment the dog entered the room. It
was the lost dog, and of that there could be
no doubt, but he disowned his former master.
To the stranger's call he was stubbornly deaf,
and when he attempted to pat him he re-
sponded with a growl that had no friendly
meaning in it. The dog then crouched under
the sofa, and refused to move until the
object of his hatred left the room. A cord
was then tied round his neck, but he planted
his foot firmly, and could not be moved. His
old master had no alternative but to abandon
ownership, and make him a present to his
host.

There is a saying that the more you beat
a dog tlie more he'll love you ; but here we

183

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

have an exception to tliat cruel way of gain-
ing Lis aflfections. Tlie dog in question Lad
been well trained, and who can doubt his
pride was wounded by the reception of un-
merited blows ? But did he understand the
meaning of those terrible words, " I'll shoot
you," and fearing the murderous threatwould
be executed, deem discretion the better part
of valour P

Michael Westcott.
Wells, Somerset.

A PHILOSOPHEE IN A EAILWAY
TEAIN.

It is, in every case, instructive to illustrate
celestial phenomena by others within the
range of terrestial existence. To those who
are but slightly conversant with the more
recondite facts and speculations connected
with the physical sciences, this method is
peculiarly useful, while from all it is worthy
of regard. The phenomenon before us being
well understood I need not explain it, but
will proceed to show that it may be illus-
trated, in fact experienced, as regards mun-
dane objects ; and this in a simple manner.
It would be well if all who have any know-
ledge of physical science would endeavour to
discover some such illustrations as the one I
am about to give, towards which acquisition
I hope this communication will tend.

This phenomenon may be illustrated in
many ways ; but, as the nature of all must
from necessity be similar, I shall describe
only one. If any person is travelling at night
in a railway carriage, on a portion of line
where some branch or line meets his, and
observes the lights of an approaching train
on that line, they will appear to travel to-
wards him far more perpendicularly than is
really the case, because of his motion, which,
for the time, he should endeavour to forget.
When he reaches the junction of the lines,
any particular light represents the rays

emanating from any star or planet. The
explanation of this is very simple : The car-
riage represents our earth, the rapid motion
of which is not obvious to the senses; the
lights on the distant railway illustrate the
rays proceeding from the celestial bodies,
whether obviously in motion or comparatively
quiescent ; these are seen approaching, ap-
parently at no very acute angle, which is thus
increased, or rather appears to be, from the
motion of the carriage. They represent,
then, a ray on its progress to the earth, and
where the lines join, its impact upon the eye,
which appears to be at a far less acute
angle than reason proves to be the case.
Thus it appears that the motion of the car-
riage produces this eflfect, corresponding to
the delusion consequent upon the motion of
the earth, which motion causes the stars to
appear crowded towards the zenith. The dif-
ference in angular variation produced upon
the fixed stars and planets, although full
worthy of notice, does not, of course, affect
this principle, and, consequently, need not
here be noticed. To render the explanation
more perfect, I remark that the rays proceed-
ing from the lamps before they reach the
place where the lines join, do not illustrate
those coming from the stars, except as ex-
periencing, or being experienced, in connec-
tion with the motion of the carriage ; when
the lamps approach the junction of the lines,
the rays coming from them represent those
of a star falling upon the eye.

A little consideration wiU make it obvious
that this phenomenon does not alter the con-
dition of the solar and lunar shadows, by
which the distances of these bodies may be
ascertained; yet it may be observed that
the shadows always imply a lower angle than
the bodies appear to make with the horizon,
demonstrating the truth of the astronomical
fact which I have here endeavoured to ilhxs-
trate by a similar, and, as regards its nature,
more intelligible, terrestrial phenomenon.

Beading. J. A. Dayies,

EBCEEATIVE SCIENCE.

123

WAYSIDE WEEDS AND THEIR TEACHINGS.

IN SIX HANDFULS. — HANDFUL II.

" The tribes of early flow'rets,

Like holy thoughts enshrined,
An altar to the unseen God,
They raise in every mind.
The hills and everlasting skies
In grandeur have their birth,
But the early flow'rets only
His image bring to earth."

Banks.

stamens : d,

What have we got P Bright yeUow blossoms
of broom (Eig. 23), the bonny golden broom,
which every one
knows, or ought to
know ; and equally
bright and golden
are those of the
gorse or furze, or,
as it is called in
Scotland, the whin,
which will make
themselves seen on
every common and
roadside. Take
these, and add to
them the first of the
pea or vetch tribe
(Fig. 24) you meet with, throwing in a few
heads of clover to make up a family party, of
which the members, you quickly discover, all
carry the same family face. Go on with your
collecting; gather hawthorn in its season,
and a crab- apple blossom or two ; wild
roses (Figs. 25, 26, 27) and meadow-sweet
in theirs; with the flowers of the straw-
berry (Fig. 28) and bramble (Fig. 29). You
have in your hand another family as distinct
as the first. Go and secure some of those
plants which you have been in the habit of
calling hemlock, though ten to one if they
are real hemlock; but let that pass 9,t
present — we want the kind of plant for
our present purpose (Fig. 30), and, if

Fig. 23. — Blossom of Com-
mon Broom, aa, petals ;
6, calyx ;
pistil.

you have no other chance, go into the
kitchen-garden, and pluck a flowering sprig
of celery, parsley, or carrot, or fennel, calling
in, if necessary, the aid of the gardener or
cook. You have now got a type of family
No. 3. Lastly, the white meadow saxifrage
and the willow herbs are so common that
many of our readers may be able to add them
to the company.

FiGf. 24.— Blossoms of Common Yellow Vetchling.
a a, petals ; bb, calyx ; c c, pedicels ; d, peduncle. The
flowers are papilionaceous, or butterfly-like.

The vetch tribes, represented by the
broom, gorse, vetch, and clover (Figs. 28,
29), are very distinct from the rose family,
to which the hawthorn, apple, strawberry
(Fig. 28), and rose itself (Fig. 25) belong.
Equally diverse are our hemlock friends
(Fig. 30), and not less so the saxifrage and

124

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

the willow herb. Yet, pull tliem to pieces,
tliey are all many-petaled, polypetalous
(Fig. 31). Thus far they resemble the plants
of Handful No. I., and, for aught you see

Fi". 23..

-Blossom of Dog-rose,
mens ; c, pistils,

a, petals; b, sta-

at present, might be grouped with them ;
but we must look further. Different as the
groups of Handful II. may seem from each
other, they have one common point of resem-

Fio. 26.— Back View of Blossom of Trailing Dog-rose.
a, petals ; b, urn-shaped tube of calyx, forming the
seed-cup ; e, upper divisions of calyx ; d, peduncle.

blance in which they differ from Handful I.,
and that is in the mode in which their sta-
mens and petals e>,re eittached to the other

parts of the flower. Call to mind that in
the many-petaled blossoms of Handful I,
the petals and the stamens were invariably
attached (Figs. 4 and 6) to the part called the

Fig. 27. — Section of Blossom of Trailing Dog-rose, a,
petals ; b, calyx, adhering to or forming the ovary
or seed-vessel c ; d, stamens ; e, pistils.

receptacle, which formed the support of the
pistil J you could detach the calyx, or, as in

7— ,W

Fig. 28.--Back View of Strawberry Blossom, a,
petals of corolla ; b, sepals of calyx; c, peduncle;
d, bract.

the poppy and in some of the ranunculus
genus, it could detach itself, without inter-
fering with the other parts of the blossom.

EECllEATIVE SCIENCE.

125

A very few trials with tlie plants we have
now put into your hand will show that with
them this cannot be done. If you take
calyx, you take likewise stamens and petals,
for to it they are attached, and not to the
receptacle. All the examples you have will

k

Fro. 29. — Collection of Blossoms of Common Bram-
ble, arranged in a corymb, a, petals ; b, calyx sepals ;
c, stamens ; d, pistils ; e, pedicels ; /, bracts ;
g, setse or bristles ; h, compound leaf

not show this equally well ; but in some
such as the strawberry
(Fig. 28) and others it is
very well marked. Per-
haps this little difference
in the attachment of the
I)arts appears to a begin-
ner a very little difference
to say so much about ;
and yet, slight as seems
tho line of demarcation, it severs groups
of plants by a strictly natural distinc-

Fio. 29a.— Section of
blossom of Common
Bramble.

tion, which differ widely, not only in their
outward appearance, but in their medi-
cinal and economical properties. We dwell
upon it, therefore, because it teaches one of
the most useful and well-marked lessons in
botanical distinction which we can lay before

Fio. 80. — Umbels of Common Beaked Parsley, ar-
ranged in compound umbels, a, central point of
primary umbel ; h, bracts, or inrolucel, at central
point of umbellule.

a beginner, and because it is one which he
can so easily verify for himself by means of
the commonest wayside weeds or flowers.
Here, then, we have the grand distinction
between Handful I. and Handful II., both
made up of many-petaled plants ; but in the
former the petals and stamens are attached
to the receptacle underneath the pistil, in
the latter to the calyx.

Spencer Thomson, M.P.
lie

126

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

A GEOLOGICAL SCENE IN THE ISLE OF WIGHT.

ALUM BAY AND THE NEEDLES.

EVEETBODY wllO lias 1)6611 to the Isle of
Wigkt exclaims in enraptured terms of the
beautiful scenery of Alum Bay, and in curi-
ous wonderment of those natural curiosities
the "Needles." The former derives its
charms from the marvellously diversified and
brilliant tints of its beds of tertiary sand,
rivalling tlie bright hues of the tulip, or the

Fio. 1. — Arch of Chalk and worn-down " Needle," in
Durdle Bay.

radiant colours of striped silk ; the latter are
tall pinnacles of white chalk, projecting from
the sea like monumental pillars, as, indeed,
they are, of the waste and long-continued
ravages of the sea and air.

Notorious as is the scenery throughout
the island for romantic beauty. Alum Bay is

admittedly superior to any other portion, for
where the coloured sands end the chalk
cliffs rise towering with unbroken face,
their pearly hue contrasted now and then
with tenderest stains of ochreous yellow and
greenish vegetation, to four hundred feet in
height, and terminating by a thin projection
of bold and broken outline in the far-famed
wedge-shape "Needles," standing out in un-
sullied whiteness from the blue waves.

The magical repose of one side of the bay
contrasts forcibly with the rugged outline
and vivid colouring of the cliffs on the other,
and when, after summer rain, the sun lights
up the stripes of "purplish-red and dusky
blue, bright ochreous yellow, gray nearly
approaching to white, and positive black," it
gives an almost unearthly resplendence to
the scene, which no one who has seen it ever
forgets.

Such are the attractions which Alum Bay
presents to the mere sight-seer ; to the eye
of the geologist it presents still something
more. He sees all the beauty of its
aspects, all the wonderful contrasts and assi-
milations of its variegated colours ; but he
sees also that which to the untutored gazer
is unthought of, or a mystery; he reads in
those vertical strata the ancient history of
those brilliant sands, the ancient conditions of
those tall white cliffs ; he knows the story of
those pointed pinnacles, and lie revels in the
rock-voiced legendary lore of the uncounted
ages of the past. He, in his mental vision,
sees those old chalk lands silently and so-
lemnly rising from a former sea, bearing on
their giant shoulders the thick masses of
sands and muddy sediments that gather on
•their shores ; he digs into those sands and
clays which the other merely gazes at, and

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

127

exhumes tlie shells, and hones, and leaves, and
stems of a hy-gone creation, and by his
labours and his reasonings raises up strange
forms to our wondering sight. Not, however,
from those " coloured sands " themselves does
he bring us aught — the gaudy peacock is
songless, the radiant humming-bird is mute,
and those gay strata are fossilless. Notliing
is preserved in them, so far as we yet know
— and sharp eyes have looked them sharply
over — of the spoils of the sea that spread
them out, or of the relics of the land of
which they formed the vivid fringe. But
the clays on the right and on the left of
them abound in fossils, and contain the
bones of snakes — great coiling snakes, rival-
ling in strength and size the great con-
stricting boa. Still higher (to the left), in
the " Headon" beds, which, overlooking the
Barton and Bracklesham clays, cap the hill
on the north, some few remains of the tapir-

FiG. 2. — 1, Bembridge limestone; 2, Osborne beds;
3, 4, 5, Headon beds ; 5, Headon sands ; 6, Middle
Bagshot sands ; 7, Lower Bagshot sands (coloured
sands') ; 8, London clay ; 9, Woolwich beds ; c,
chalk.

like animals which have made the quarries
of Montmartre so renowned may be found.
Embedded in the solid masonry of the great
Pyramids of Egypt, men long since noticed
coin-like objects, which tliey ignorantly
thought to be the lentils the ancient work-
men cast aside at their meals, and which in
lapse of time had been petrified in the rock.
These philosophers have fancifully named
"money-stones," or nummulites. In truth,
they are the petrified remains of pore-
shelled animals of very simple grade, as low
in organization as the sponges ; and the
"nummulite" is one of the species of a
widely-spread and long-continued class, the
foraminifera. In the early part of that
tertiary age, in which these coloured sands

and plastic clays of Alum. Bay were formed
into rock-beds, they swarmed in every sea,
and myriads may be picked but of the
"Bracklesham" and " Barton " clays imme-
diately above our "ruddy sands" (indicated
by Nos. 6 and 7 in our section, Fig. 2).*

With these last fossilless sands are com-
mingled seams of white pipe-clay, one of
which, six feet in thickness, is a natural
herbarium, for, between its thin stratula*
brown, dead leaves of ancient forest trees
are spread by thousands, looking now, wheu
the clay is split or cloven, like sepia drawings
on white card-board. In the upper clays and
sands at the foot of Headon Hill, and to the
north of the " coloured sands," and in the
same beds at Horditell, on the opposite coast
of Hampshire, crocodilian and mammalian
remains have been also found ; and the
" London clay," under (south of) the same
" coloured sands," may also be rich in fossil
turtles, crocodiles, sharks, and sea-shells.
The " Woolwich beds," formerly called by
the unfitting term of "plastic clay" (for
there are many ot}iev plastic clays), may also
contain the relics of one or two species of
mammals, with its innumerable fresh-water
shells.

From exhumations of extinct beings, and
romantic visions of ancient by-gone scenes —
from such glimpses of the age of life that
was before our own, the geologist reverts to
those uptiirned beds of sands and rock, and,
not content with wondering how they got so,
he guages the dip, or inclination, and observes
the bending of the beds in the regions around.
Even within the limits of the island itself,
he finds them curving less and less, and at
last reposing nearly horizontally in their
own proper places in its northern portion.

* At Alum Bay, the fossiliferous clay associated
with the sands is immediately above them. At White-
cliff Bay, it is in them, just below their top. In the
latter case it is the equivalent of the Bracklesham
clay ; in the former, of the Barton clay. The Herd-
well clays are still higher than the Barton and e^uiva*
lent to the Headon sands.

128

RECREATIVE SCIENCE.

What, then, has cast them up thus in Alum
BayP

Some time since, I was engaged in map-
ping out the fissures in the British Channel —
for that narrow sea is but the result of frac-
ture, from an upburst which rent a valley
through the white chalk -beds that form the
lofty cliffs on either side. By marking the
lines of greatest sea-depth in fathoms, the lines
of fracturage became easily perceptible until
we got opposite to the Isle of Wight. There
depths, equal to any we had found in the pro-
per lines of cracks, seemed disposed in aU
sorts of ways, or, rather, one might say not
disposed at all. By dint of perseverance,
however, something of a star-like figure was
made o\it, marking, to the eye of a geologist,
a point of uplift or centre of disturbance.
On pointing this out to a friend, I was
told that a boss of granite existed in the sub-
marine depths there; and in this, at once,
we seemed to have the cause and explanation
of the stratal phenomena of Alum and Fresh-
water Bays — the source and origin of the
force or power which had cast on end the
sea-girt cliffs of lovely Vectis long before
the legions of imperial Home had seen or
named the pretty isle.

A few words now about the " Needles."
Nature is a curious carver, and models
strange things. The sea also does many
remarkable things in its multiform toil ; the
air, with its indefatigable assistants, wind,
rain, frost, and snow, produces great results
by scarcely perceptible means.

Those curious pinnacles, like as the moth
endured a chrysalis condition ere it assumed
its winged state, have been something else
before they were "Needles." What they
were we see evidence of in the neighbouring
coves and bays j we see also on the other
side of the "narrow straits" at Etretat,
Fecamp, and Dieppe.

First the sea slightly undermines the
chalk-beds of the cliffs its ravages have
worked into steep and narrow promontories,

and then tide after tide moistens it high up
with its spray.* When winter frosts set in,
the icy cold seizes vitally, as one might say,
on the damp rock, and with its ex ansive

Fig. 3.— Ideal Section of Promontory of Chalk, in the
first stage of waste, showing a block broken out by
frost, -which, on falling, will form a step or under-
cut.*

power splits off some fragments, which, when
the thaw releases them, fall down and goon
become the prey of boisterous waves, or yield

l^iQ. 4_ — Ideal Section of Chalk Promontory, sliowing
a series of blocks broken out by the frost.*

up their substance in tiny particles to sum-
mer's dancing ripples.

For century after century, the frost con-
tinues its periodic exerci3e,hurling down, year

* The boring molluscs, such as the Saxicave, may
also assist in working out the first steps in the face
of the chalk-cliifs ; but the frost is the great and con-
tinuous agent.

I^ECHEATIVE SCIENCE.

129

after year, some few fresh, blocks. Slowly
as this is done, the principle of action re-
mains the same, and while, year after year,
portions of the first shallow roof fall in, the un-
dermining sea is working out a second step
or undercut of the chalk, and a second set
of fragments falls from the powerful grasp of
the frost continuously with the first ; a third,
fourth, fifth result, and so on by slow degrees
a cave is formed, with its base the deepest
indented into the side of the promontory.
In the continued process of this action the
cave is eaten quite through the wall of chalk,
and an " arch" results, the crown of which in

Fig. 5. — Ideal Section of Chalk Promontory, showing
the crown of the arch broken through by the con-
tinued action of the frost. The faint portions indi-
cate the parts afterwards worn away by the continu-
ance of the same agency, until a "needle " and cliff
result, as shown by the dai-ker portions of the en-
graving.

like manner gradually peels away, until a
vertical gap is made in the narrow headland,
and a square buttress remains standing out
alone from the sea. This the rain, weather,
and frost sharpen by a similar, but dimi-
nished action, of peeling ofi" the apex into a
"Needle."

While this has heen performing, the sea
Las been indenting the deep bays between
the promontories of chalk, and cutting out
fresh steps, or undercuts, in their steep walls ;

the frost has been breaking out a fresh cave
further inland of the old, and in the lapse of
time a second arch and a second "Needle" are
produced. So on a third, a fourth, and as
the like operations endure, the outermost, or
first-formed "Needles" are diminished by
waste to sunken rocks, become the prey of
the Pholas, and are ground down by the surf
into an undistinguishable portion of the great
sea-bottom. So painsfuUy, so slowly, then,
does Nature model out one, even, of her
curiosities. S. J. Mackte.

THE ETEUSCAN VASE.

Time is not supreme as a destroyer. He may
deface, but not wholly obliterate the name of
a people ; nor, when he has crumbled their
works to dust, can he finally annihilate the
last faint record which shall serve as a key
by which future generations shall obtain en-
trance to their buried archives. How many
have pondered over the Etruscan vase, and
how many hard-thinking and deeply-read
philosophers have turned aside at last from
the mystical word " Etruria," knowing not
whether to declare it the name of a people,
a country, an era, or a myth. But the spell
is broken, and, as in the case of Egyptian
and Babylonian inscriptions, an ffidipus has
arisen in the person of Johann Gustav
Stickel, and the Etruscan riddle has been
solved. By means of the Hebrew, Tuscan
relics have become intelligible, and new chap-
ters are added to history and ethnology.
Two centuries after the foundation of Eome,
a colony from Judea settled in Tuscany,
tilled the soil, built towns, and raised altars
to other gods than the Oif e Jehovah ! These
idolaters were the fathers of the modern Tus-
cans ; the Tuscans, in fact, have descended
from the Jews ! Such is the conclusion of Dr.
Stickel, ably set forth in his work, "Dag
Etruskische," lately published at Leipsie.

H.

130

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

METEOES, OE FALLING STAES.

»^{jb«r*-»—

Anothee recurring period of meteors, or
falling stars, is now approacliing, let us there-
fore examine in wliat way tlie amateur ob-
server may really make himself useful, in this
particular branch of science, and to do which
we must give some account of the subject.
So much interest is attached to these singu-
lar phenomena, and so little is as yet known
concerning them, that a wide field of inves-
tigation is open before us. We are in the
habit of occasionally seeing one or more of
these bodies, mostly small in size, sometimes
large, varying from a mere speck to above
twice the size and brightness of the moon.
What, then, are the kind of observations re-
quisite, in order to make a record of those
seen valuable P

The following brief summary will give, in
a few words, such information that, if care-
fully followed and extensively persevered in,
will tend much to throw the requisite light
upon the subject. In the first place, the
locality of observation should be recorded ;
and, in the second, the time as accurately as
possible. It is then necessary to note the
apparent size, shape, brightness, and colour
of the object, and whether the meteor be ac-
companied by a train of separate sparks, a
continuous streak of light, or destitute of
such appendage; and if a streak, whether it
lingers after the meteor itself has vanished.
In addition to this, an estimate of the velocity
and duration, direction of movement and
altitude, or, what is still better, the path
amongst the stars; and lastly, general re-
marks as to the peculiarity of appearance.
The necessity of aU this becomes apparent
when we consider how varied are the difierent
features. Meteors sometimes appear and
vanish instantaneously, yet they have been
known to remain visible above an hour.

They are of every colour, and sometimes
changeable, whilst others will give out sparks
of a totally different colour to themselves.
They move over a large or brief space in the
sky, or sometimes do not move amongst the
stars, and are, in fact, to aU appearance sta-
tionary. They are circular, oval, pear-shaped,
as a flame, a spark, a wisp of straw, or even
quite grotesque in form. They increase in
size or they become less, sometimes increas-
ing and decreasing alternately; occasionally
they appear, disappear, and reappear several
times. Again, they are accompanied by a
shower of stars, well-defined balls, a luminous
streak, or by wavy liues. They are to be
seen in every direction, and seemingly move
in every direction, yet the greater number
have a common origin. They explode with a
noise, or no sound is audible. They occur
by hundreds on some occasions, whilst at
others very few, if any, are to be seen during
a night's careful watch. Some on exploding
hurl meteoric stones to the earth.

On certain particular days of the year
meteors are more numerous than at other
times, and of these the 9th and 10th of Au-
gust and the 12th and 13th of November
have long been noted as famous for their
showers of falling stars. Another period,
from the 16th to the 18th of October, is also
rich in meteors.

The following periods, taken from the
"British Association Eecords," show when
meteors were more than usually abun-
dant :*

January 26, 1844; 10 to 15, 1847 ; 2 and
3, 1848 ; 2, 1857.

* It must be recollected that unfavourable weather
frequently prevents these epochs being recorded, and
especially as the number of meteoric observersis very
limited.

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

131

I

March 11 and 12, 1847 j 24 and 25, 1847 ;

27 to 29, 1848.

April 19 and 20, 1847 ; 20 and 23, 1848 ;
27, 1848; 19 and 20, 851.

June 17 to 22, 1847 ; 21, 1848; 16, 1850.

July 25 to 30, 1846 ; 4 and 5, 1847 ; 22
and 23, 1847 ; 6, 1848 ; 22 to 24, 1848 ; 29,
1848 ; 20 to 23, 1849 ; 26 and 27, 1849 ; 16
and 17, 1851 ; 30, 1851 ; 28 to 31, 1856.

August 23 and 24, 1847 ; 21, 28, and 29,
1848.

September 15, 1846 ; 4, 1848 ; 30, 1848 ;
2 and 30, 1850; 9 to 12, 1852; 17 and 18,
1852 ; 6 and 10, 1853.

October 16, 1843; 18, 1844; 28, 30, and
31, 1845 ; 10, 1847 ; 20 to 23, 1848 ; 5 and
9, 1850 ; 16 and 17, 1851 ; 3, 5, and 25, 1853 ;

28 to 31, 1856.

November IS, 1843; 1, 1847; 5, 1848;
29, 1850 ; 3, 1852.

December 21, 1846 ; 9 and 10, 1846 ; 12,
1847; 11, 14, and 15, 1848.

Tlie August and Novemher periods {i.e.,
9tli and lOtli of August and 12th to 14tli of
November) are omitted in the above list as
thoroughly established periods. Unfortu-
nately a prevalence of cloud, a paucity of
observers, and, lastly, the bulk of observers
extending their enthusiasm only to the Au-
gust and November epochs, tend much to
keep other periods in the background.

We have not as yet had the good fortune
to witness the sky completely covered with
these fiery bodies for several hours together,
yet such instances have occurred. From four
to six a.m., on the 13th of November, 1833, in
the United States, they fell at the rate of more
than a thousand per minute, and all of them
diverged from a point situated in the constel-
lation Leo, near Eegulus. This display was
visible from longitude 61" in the Atlantic
Ocean, to 100" in Mexico, and from the "West
Indies to the North American Lakes. Similar
appearances took place in Cumana on the
12th of November, 1779 ; at Mocha on the
13th of November, 1832; on the 12th of

November, 1799, at Cape Florida, Cumana,
Peru, and Greenland ; on the 13th of Novem-
ber, 1831, in Spain and on the Ohio ; and
vast numbers of meteors were seen on the
13th of November, 1834, 1835, 1836, and
1837, both in Europe and America.

It is supposed that certain opaque bodies
are revolving through space within the
limits of the solar system ; some of which
fall to the earth as meteoric stones. The
volume of several are large, having been esti-
mated at 75 miles in diameter, and one to
have weighed 600,000 tons, and to have
moved at a velocity of 72,000 miles an hour.
The greatmeteor of the 11th of February, 1850

1 W^^\\\\\\\

,o..o:

O

Fig. 1.

(see Fig. 1, as seen at Oxford by Mrs. Baden
Powell), Mr. Glaisher calculated had a velo-
city of above 100,000 miles an hour. Some
astronomers conceive that meteors are solid
bodies, and become ignited on coming within
the earth's atmosphere, owing to the great
velocity with which they travel. Arago
looked upon them as nebulous matter, similar
to the tail of comets, and circxdating round
the sun in a zone that crosses the earth's
orbit about the 12th of November, and that
they took fire on entering the atmosphere
owing to their great speed. Sir John Lub-
bock, on the contrary, considers them
opaque bodies, which shine by the light of
the sun, and are only visible whilst they pass
through sunlight. In noticing the great
meteor of the 19th of December, 1855 (see
Figs. 2, 3, and 4, as seen at Highfield House),
it appeared to me that, instead of becoming
ignited, they caused, by their prodigious
speed, a peculiar phosphorescent sometldng

132

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

to ignite in tlie upper regions of the air, at
the instant of ignition being intensely bright,
and then subsiding into a phosphorescent
flame, which streak or flame was very slowly
wafted about or carried along by currents.
In the case of this meteor, it moved over
18^' in space in less than a second of time ; it
cannot, therefore, be supposed that the meteor
itself could be within 5' of this path ten
minutes afterwards, although the phospho-
rescent light was there. Now if we sup-
pose that the meteor burst at this point (which
seems improbable), it must have burst in a
medium where light could shine, and if so,
it is as easy to suppose that some substance
should be ignited by it, as that the meteor
itself should blaze. The intense brightness
was too great for reflected light. This meteor
was first seen in the N.N.W., and moved to-
wards the W., from near H 17 Camelopardali
downwards to midway between Capella and
ju Persei. The time was 6h. 13m. a.m., and
the size about that of the apparent diameter
of the moon ; the light for the instant re-
sembling a brilliant flash of lightning, and
equalling that of day. After the meteor itself
had vanished, a light similar to that of a
comet's tail was visible along the whole path
of the meteor; this gradually became less
bright, and bent itself towards the E. Fig.
2 shows the appearance it assumed immedi-

Fia. 2. ' Fig. 3. Fig. 4.

ately after the meteor had vanished, and
later (6h. 18m.) that of Fig. 3 ; and finally
(6h. 23m.) that of Fig. 4. It was visible
fully ten minutes. Somewhat analogous
changes were observed in the singular meteor
pf September 30th, 1850, which was visible

from the Cambridge Observatory, United
States, and was first seen by Madame Jenny
Lind, who happened to be at the Observatory
at the time. Professor Bond sketched the
appearance at difierent intervals of time. It

was visible an hour. Figs. 5, 6, 7, and 8
show the successive changes that it under-

FiG. 6.

Fig, 8.

went. The height (according to the Hon.
W. Mitchell) above the earth was 50 miles,
and its distance from Cambridge 100 miles.
(Fig. 5, at 8h. 54m. p.m. ; Fig. 6, 8h. 57m. ;
Fig. 7, 9h. 3m. ; and Fig. 8, 9h. 7m.)

The meteor of August 8th, 1849 (Fig. 9),

Fio. 9.

seen by myself at lOh. 16m. p.m., at the
Highfield House Observatory, was kite-
shaped, and left mimerous separate stars in
its track. The singular feature in this meteor
was its disappearance andreappearance again,
li^ further on, after the lapse of a second

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

133

of time. Its point of disappearance was
r below Arcturus. On its re-appearance it
had become less in size, apparently moving
directly away from us. Figs. 10 and 11 are

Ml/

^l\^

Fio. 10.

Fm. 11.
other instances of disappearing and reap-
pearing again ; the former seen at Shardlow,
by Mr. W. H. Leeson, on August 15th, 1850
(9h. 35m. p.m.) ; the latter at Nottingham,
by the late Mr. F. E. Swann, on the 14th of
October, 1855 (8h. 27m. p.m.)

A remarkable meteor, A, Fig. 12, was seen
by myself at Highfield House, on November
5th, 1849 (6h. 20m. p.m.) It left a thin
pencil of red light in the sky throughout the
whole length of its path (which was 50" in
length). This pencil of light was visible five
minutes, remaining as a straight line for
two minutes and a half, and then changing
to a wavy line, b, and in another minute

B

AAAAAAAA

0

Fig. 12.

widening, as m c. The line was only as
thick as a star of the first magnitude when
first seen ; but at last, from the apex of one
wave to that of the opposite one, it was larger
than the apparent diameter of the sun. It
commenced disappearing from each end, the
middle portion remaining visible the longest.
Mr. Glaisher considers it to have been ver-
tical over a spot fifteen miles N.E. of Mont-

gomery, and its distance from the earth
about eighty miles.

The meteor of 1851, July 4th (llh. 16m.
p.m.), seen by myself at Highfield House
(Fig. 13), was about twice the size of Jupiter,

00 o

°oVoV^

Fig. 13.

red in colour and circular in form, and was
accompanied by a number of blue balls, which
kept vanishing rapidly. It moved slowly,
and remained visible for three seconds.

The meteor of 1851, December 1st (8h.
23m. 45s. p.m.), also seen at the Beeston
Observatory, was twice the apparent size of
Saturn, moved slowly, and was visible four
seconds. It appeared first as a spark, then

^^^jx'/

m

Fig. 14.

Kf;j'i>

as a small number of sparks, increasing as it
progressed to a great number (Fig. 14).

Fig. 15 is an instance of Aurora borealis
changing the direction of a meteor. It was
seen by the Eev. J. Slatter, from Eose Hill,
Oxford, on the 20th of April, 1852 (llh. 25m.
p.m.) On several occasions, meteors have
been seen to increase in brilliancy on passing
through Aurora borealis.

!

Fig. 15.

o

Fig. 10.

Fig. 16 is an instance of an assemblage of
separate bodies besoming larger and brighter,
and disappearing at the maximum brightness.

184

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

Tliis was seen from the Beeston Observatory,
on the 23rd of August, 1853 (9h. 40m. p.m.)
Fig. 17 appeared at first as large as a
star of the first magnitude, shot some dis-
tance, and increased much in size j shot a

.Q-

•o-

Fia, 17.

second time, and again increased ; then di-
vided into three separate portions. It was
seen at St. Ives, by J. E. Watts, Esq., 25th
of September, 1852 (8h. 35m. p.m.)

Fig. 18 had a beaded train, red in colour.
M. F. V. Fasel witnessed this at the Stone

Fig. 18.

Observatory, on the 6th of September, 1852
(9h. 18m. 30s. p.m.)

Fig. 19, at first only equal to a star of
the fifth magnitude (orange-scarlet), increased
as separate fragments until it became at least
three times the size of Saturn. Duration,
two seconds. (August 29th, 1850, lOh. 3m.
p.m., Highfield House.)

-•— "S:

Pig. 19.

/

Fig. 20.

On the 29th of August, 1850, at lOh. 7m.
p.m., I saw, at the Highfield House Obser-
vatory, a meteor which suddenly and abruptly
changed its path (Fig. 20). Another, with a
curious path, was seen from the same place
on the 15th of October, 1850, at llh. 5m.
p.m. (Fig. 21).

Lieut. Hardy, of Bath, observed a me-
teor (Fig. 22) on the 20th of June, 1851 (llh.
30m. p.m.)

^iG- 21. Fig. 22.

Mr. H. K, Watts witnessed from St. Ives
a curious meteor (Fig. 23), August 25th, 1856
(lOh. 46m. p.m.) It was large, red, and had a

Fio. 23,

long whitish-red line running from it, emit-
ting sparks. The same observer, on August
30th, 1854 (lOh. 20m.), witnessed Fig. 24,

Fig. 24.

which was large, red, and had a long train
of brilliant sparks.

Mr. G. F. AnseU observed near Hitchin
a large fire-ball, intensely bright, which, at

Fig. 25.

the moment of explosion, resembled Fig. 26.
(October 22nd, 1854, 7h. 45m. p.m.)

It is impossible to give any idea of these
appearances, except by pictorial illustration ;

EECEEATITE SCIENCE.

135

a few of the more remarkable have, there-
fore, been selected, in order to illustrate this
paper.

One point requires especial notice ; it is
this — if the paths of a number of meteors be
produced backwards, nearly all of them will
meet at a certain point in the heavens, and
this point, on the 10th of August of the present
year, was situated midway between a and P
Persei. Prom 11 p.m. till 3 a.m. on this
night, the number of meteors seen steadily
increased up to 3 a.m. ; watching a fourth
of the heavens gave 70 per hour, or 280 for
the whole sky. Those near the above-named
point had mostly very short paths, and the
further they were removed from this point
the longer were their paths. At Ih. 32m. it
was my good fortune to see a meteor ex-
actly on this point; it appeared as a mere
speck, increased to that of a star of the first
magnitude, and again decreased, and vanished,
without moving in the slightest degree.

Two meteors seen at the Beeston Obser-
^ atory deserve notice ; the one (Fig. 26) seen

' 7/1 , vNc^

/ I i I t ■%. ^

Fig. 26.

September 29th, 1857 (lOh. 14m. 30s. p.m.),
became very bright, and rapidly increased
in size ; the preceding edge was circular and
well defined ; but in every other direction it
terminated in long streaks of light, not un-
like streams of Aurora borealis. The other,
seen on September 30th, 1858 (7h. 51m. p.m.),
fell 1° W. along the taU of Donati's comet.
It appeared, disappeared, and reappeared a
score times, giving the impression of moving
each time behind an opaque body.

The point from whi eh the meteors diverge

appears to be situated in Cygnus in July,
whilst in August it is never far removed
from Cassiopeia, and in November it is in Xico.
The point of divergence seems to be the
result of perspective, and that really the
greater number of these bodies move in lines
parallel to each other ; for those in the S. and
S.E. generally move to S. and S.W., whilst
those to the W. and N.W. move towards
W. and W.S.W. It is a singular feature
that when two meteors foUow each other on
the same track, they invariably move at the
same speed, and generally are very difierent
in size. It might be supposed that the
smaller one was an attendant or satellite of
the larger one, and this very materially
strengthens the opinion of their being mate-
rial bodies. On the other hand, there are
large meteors which move in paths dis-
cordant to the direction of meteors generally,
and they alter both their shape and colour.
These maybe a perfectly distinct class, owing
their origin to electricity, as their prevalence
about the time of thunder-storms is a well-
known fact.

Mr. Hind, who has observed a meteor
pass slowly across the field of a large tele-
scope, describes it as appearing better defined
than a star, which it in some degree resem-
bled ; but the time was too short to allow of
a planetary disc being seen. The fragments
appeared like phosphoric lights.

M. Bompas has deduced the following
theory, founded on observations, regarding
the regular increase of the number of meteors
through the successive hours from 6 p.m. to
6 a.m. The number which appears in the
E. is above double that appearing in the
W., those in N. and S. being about equal ;
therefore nearly two-thirds of the meteors
originate in the eastern hemisphere. The
greatest number is encountered when the
olserver's meridian is in the direction of the
earth's motion, which is at 6 a.m., and then
decreases to 6 p.m., when he looks in the
opposite dii'ection. The earth moving with

186

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

a velocity half that of the average velocity of
meteors, it encounters nearly two-tliirds of
the number on the side totoards which it is
moving.

From M. G-. von Boguslowski's observa-
tions,* it appears that the average velocity of
meteors is about double that of the earth in
its orbit.

Professor J. L. Smith shows the fallacy
of concluding the apparent diameter of a
highly luminous or incandescent body seen

at a distance. For example, the body of
electric light of carbon points, which really
measured 0"3 inch in diameter, at a hundred
yards' distance appeared half the diameter of
the moon, at a quarter of a mile three times
the moon's diameter, and at half a mile three
and a half times the moon's diameter.

M. Pettit, of Toulouse, states that he has
identified a meteor which is 3000 miles dis-
tant from the earth, and which revolves
around our globe in 3h. 20m.

LIST OP EEMAEKABLE METEOES.

1830, Feb. 15
„ June 25

1832, June 23

1833, Nov. 25
1837, Sept. 21
1839, Nov. 8

1841, Nov. 9
„ Dec. 21

1842, Oct. 4

1843, Feb. 5

1845, April 24
„ June 18
„ Sept. 7
„ Dec. 3

1846, Mar. 21
„ Mar. 22
„ June 3
„ June 20
„ June 29
„ July 14
„ July 23
„ July 25
„ Sept. 10
„ Sept. 25
„ Oct. 9
„ Nov. 9
., Dec. 21

1847, June 21
„ Sept. 7
„ Nov. 19

1848, Feb. 2
„ Feb. 20
„ Sept. 4
„ Mar. 8
„ July 13
„ Sept. 4
„ Nov. 9
„ Nov. 15

Birmingham

Gloucester

Delhi

Presburg

Paris

Edinburgh

Hereford

Glasgow

Cambridge

Notts

Highfield House

Ainab

London

Highfield House

Toulouse

Bagneres

Moreton Bay

Marieux

Parma

Braunau

Toulouse

Gloucester

HighfieldHouse

Highfield House

Paris

Dijon

Parma

HighfieldHouse

Bombay

Oxford

Wrenbury

HighfieldHouse

Ventnor

Slough

Stone Eaaton

HighfieldHouse

HighfieldHouse

Aix-la-Chapelle

Dr. Hoptins
Brit. Asso. Cat.
Brit. Asso. Cat.
W. W. Smyth
D. P. Thomson
D. Eankine
Brit. Asso. Cat.
D. P. Thomson
John Glaisher

D. P. Thomson

E. J. Lowe
Brit. Asso. Cat.
J. E. Hind

E. J. Lowe
M. Pettit
M. Pettit
D. C. M'Connell

D. P. Thomson
M. Colla

W. W. Smyth
M. Pettit
Brit. Asso. Cat.

E. J. Lowe
E. J. Lowe
M. Cadart
M. Melline
M. Colla
E. J. Lowe
Brit. Asso. Cat.
— Symonds

D. P. Thomson

E. J. Lowe
Mrs. Dixon
Mrs. Atkin
Henry Lawson
E. J. Lowe

! E. J. Lowe
M. E. Heis

As large as the moon.
Very large.
Three united in one.

Br illiau t, explo de d, three me tcoric s tones found.
Cast a shadow.
Twice the size of the moon.
Very large.

Twice the size of the moon.
Remarkable.

Blood-red mass.- Velocity 55 miles per minute.
Large as moon. Height 90 miles.
Two connected, each five times size of moon ;
Large. Changed colour. [visible one hour.
' Increased in brightness when crossing Aurora.
I Large. Inferred to be a satellite to the earth.
I Set fire to a building.
1 Like the moon. Exploded as a cannon.
Gave off five balls, each quarter size of original.
Large.

Violent explosions. Meteorite fell.
Large. Inferred to be satellite to the earth.
Large.

Increased in brightness crossing Aurora.
Large.
Large.

Two. Large.

Remarkable bolide. Day-time.
Increased in brightness when crossing Aurora.
Large. Blue, and on bursting red.
Large. Twice stationary for seven minutes.
Large. Green with crimson border.
Increased in brilliancy when crossing Aurora.
Large as moon.

Larger than moon. Kite-shaped.
Large. Cream colour, sparks red and green.
Large. Straw colour, changing to purple.
Large.
Large as moon.

* " Jlecherches sur les Etoiles Filantes."

RECEEATIVB SCIENCE,

137

848, Nov. 21

1849, Mar. 6
„ Mar. 19
„ Mar. 26
„ April30
,. July 12
„ Aug. 8
„ April 13
„ Nov. 2
„ Nov. 5
„ Nov. 7
„ Nov. 9
„ Nov. 17
„ Dec. 4
„ Dec. 19
„ Dec. 30

1850, Feb. 5
„ Feb. 7
„ Feb. 11
„ Feb. 20
„ June 6
„ July 4
„ July 5
„ July 14
„ Aug. 10
„ Aug. 12
„ Aug. 14
„ Aug. 15
„ Sept. 30
„ Oct. 9
„ Nov. 6
„ Nov. 28
„ Nov. 29

1851, Jan. 8
„ April 27
„ May 22
„ June 1
„ June 20
„ June 22
„ Sept. 2
„ Sept. 19
„ Sept. 20
„ Sept. 25
„ Oct. 17
„ Nov. 3
„ Nov. 4
„ Nov. 11
„ Nov. 16
„ Dec. 1

1852, AprU20
„ July 3
„ July 12
„ July 13
„ Aug. 22
„ Sept. 24
„ Sept. 25

Oxford

London

Bombay

Cochin

London

HighfieldHouse

Highfield House

Poona

Highfield House

Highfield House

Mazagon

Asseerghur

Swansea

HighfieldHouse

Edinburgh

Hartwell

Sandwich

At sea

PenzancetoDur-

London [ham

Havre

Beeston

Grantham

G-rantham

Tipperary

Penzance

Beeston

Shardlow

Leven

Hereford

Bombay

Highfield House

London

Beerbhom

Durham

Ennore

Calcutta

Bath

Belfast

Huggate

Calcutta

HighfieldHouse

Bombay

Stone

Highfield House

Bramcote

Cast. Donington

Highfield House

Obs., Beeston

Oxford

Dreux

Dunse

London

St. Ives

Stone

St. Ivea

J. Slatter
W. H. Black
Brit. Asso. Cat.
Brit. Asso. Cat.
F. Barnard
E. J. Lowe
E. J. Lowe
Brit. Asso. Cat.
E. J. Lowe

E. J. Jjowe
Brit. Asso. Cat.
Brit. Asso. Cat.
— Hill

F. E. Swann
J. D. Forbes
C. Lowndes
W. H. Weekes
Brit. Asso. Cat.
John Glaisher
J. Wallis
Brit. Asso. Cat.
E. J. Lowe

J. W. Jeans
J. W. Jeans
Brit. Asso. Cat.
11. Edmonds
R. Enfield
W. H. Leeson
W. Swan
C. Lingen
Dr. Buist
A. S. H. Lowe
J. E. Hind
Dr. Buist
Prof Chevallier
Dr. Buist
Dr. Buist
Lieut. Hardy
J. Cameron
T. Eankin
Dr. Buist
A. S. H. Lowe
Dr. Buist
M. F. V. Easel
E. J. LoMe
R. Enfield
W. H. Leeson
E. J. Lowe
E. J. Lowe
J. Slatter
M. J. E.Durand
W. Stevenson
J. C. Moore
J. K. Watts
M. F.'V. Fasel
J. K. Watts

Four fell into an Aurora, and disappeared.

Large. White, afterwards greenish-red.

Large. Green, red sparks.

Large. Green, red tail.

Divided into two. Daylight.

Quarter the size of moon. Blue, red sparks.

Kite-shaped. Disappeared and reappeared.

Large.

Large. Orange-red.

Leaving a wavy streak. Height 80 miles.

Large.

Bright as moon. Loud explosion.

Large.

Large. Orange-red.

Large.

Large.

Stationary If min., exploded, and moved on.

Large as moon.

Large as moon. (See account.)

Very large.

Large as moon.

Large.

Large. Exploded over Boston.

Large.

Large as moon. Ked, then blue.

Bright as moon.

Large.

Large. Disappeared and reappeared.

Pear-shaped. Large.

Large.

Streak visible 20 minutes.

Stationary for a time.
Sunshine.

Large.

Large.

Large.

Large.

Large.

Large. Purple and green.

Large.

Large.

Nearly as large as moon.

Large.

Large.

Large.

Large. During a storm.

A meteor parted into two.

Large. Orange, then blue ; stationary at first.

Large. Prismatic.

Curious.

Curious.

Curious.

Curious.

Large.

Nearly as large as moon.

Large. Changed colour.

Very large.

Large. A splash of flame.

Large and curious.

Repulsed by Aurora.

138

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

1852, Dec. 17

1853, Aug. 7
„ Aug. 9
„ Aug. 23
„ Sept. 25
„ Sept. 30
„ Oct. 28

1854, Feb. 25
„ April 1
„ Aug. 30
„ Oct. 7
„ Oct. 22

1855, July 13
„ Aug. 3
„ Aug. 10
„ Oct. 14
„ Dec. 11
„ Dec. 19

1856, Jan. 7
„ Feb. 3
„ Aug. 25
„ Aug. 31
„ Oct. 27
„ Dec. 13

1857, Jan. 9
„ Apr. 16
„ Sept. 29

1858, Sept. 30

1859, Aug. 10

Dover

Glasgow

London

Higbfield House

Stone

Leven

Obs., Beeston

Obs., Beeston

Obs., Beeston

St. Ives

Nottingham

Hitchin

Beeston

Beeston

Beeston

Nottingbam

Edinburgh

Highfield House

EosehUl

Obs., Beeston

St. Ives

Highfield House

St. Ives

HighfieldHousc

Ashford

HighfieldHousc

Highfield House

Obs., Beeston

Obs., Beeston

F. Higginson

D. Eankine
W. K. Birt

E. J. Lowe

M. F. V. Fasel
W. Swan
Mrs. E. J. Lowe

E. J. Lowe
S. Watson
J. K. Watts

F. E. Swan

G. F. AnseU
E. J. Lowe
E. J. Lowe

E. J. Lowe

F. E. Swan
0. P. Smyth
E. J. Lowe
M. Carrington
E. J. Lowe

J. K. Watts
E. J. Lowe
J. K. Watts

E. J. Lowe

F. Wakefield
A. S. H. Lowe
E. J. Lowe

E. J. Lowe
E. J. Lowe

A lengthened description of the whole of
the above meteors is included in the Hev.
Professor Baden Powell's Eeports on " Lu-
minous Meteors," published in the " British
Association Transactions," 1848 — 1859.

One other phenomenon deserves notice. In
1845 M. de Gasperis and Sig. Capocci, on the
11th of May, witnessed a great number of
black bodies cross the sun's disc. In 1849
Mr. Brown, of Deal, on the 5th of February,
saw two. Other observers have witnessed
the same phenomenon, and Messier,* in 1777,
saw 200 dark bodies cross the solar disc. Mr.
Dawes conceives the appearance to be due to
seeds floating in the atmosj)here, whilst the
Eev. W. Eeed disputes Mr. Dawes's notion.
To say the least, the subject is worth a few
years' careful attention. It must, however,

* " Obsei-vation singulier d'une prodigieuse quan-
tite de petites globules qui ont passe au devant du
disque du soleil." — Mem. Acad. Paris, 1 777, p. 4G1.

Half size of moon, hissing, fell in sea, causing

Large. ^ [spray.

Separated into two.

Curious.

Curious wavy train.

Large. Pear-shaped.

Half the size of sun. Day-time.

Disappeared on reaching zodiacal light.

Very large.

Large and curious.

Large.

Large.

Large.

Large.

Curious.

Large. A break in the tail.

Large.

Large as moon. Visible ten minutes.

Nearly as large as moon. [red.

Half size of moon. Green, then orange, then

Curious.

Curious.

Curious.

Large and curious.

Large.

Large.

Large and curious.

Curious.

Curious.

be borne in mind that, in all probability, they
are within a few thousand, perhaps hundreds,
of miles' distance ; therefore a telescope wiU
require focussing expressly for this purpose,
as the focus of the sun, for instance, would
perhaps allow the bodies to pass across the
disc without being seen. Professor Erman*
has stated that the cold days of the 5th to the
7th of February, and the 11th to the 13th of
May, were owing to the passage of falling
stars between us and the sun.

E. J. Lowe.
Highfield Souse Ohseroatory.

A WILD PEIMEOSE
Was seen in bloom, October 10th, on
Lesser Cumbrae, Firth of Clyde, lat. 551° N.,
where the gulf-stream promotes a very equ-
able temperature.

* " Astronomisclie Nachrichten," No. 385.

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

139

THE EXPECTED GREAT COMET.

Of tlio many grand comets tliat have been
seen, and of which, any account has been
handed down to us, few or none have sur-
passed in interest the great comet of 1264,
the one which astronomers (and not them
only) are now so eagerly expecting. AU the
writers of the time alluded to it as the most
magnificent that had ever been seen by any
person then living ; and we are informed
that on the day on which it was discovered
Pope Urban IV. fell sick, and that he died on
the night on which it was last seen, October 2,
his illness and subsequent death being almost
universally ascribed to the comet's pernicious
influence. It seems to have been first noticed
about the middle of July, although it did not
attain its greatest brilliancy until the follow-
ing month, when it was seen also early in the
morning before sunrise. We are told that
from the head, which presented a very nebu-
lous appearance, an immense tail issued, which
was not less than 100° in length. , • -

Early in March, 1556, a comet became
visible, which, although not so large or im-
posing as the one just mentioned, is stiU
described as " a great and brUliant star." It
remained visible for about one month, and
then disappeared. The Chinese annals, how-
ever, make the duration of its visibility to
extend to nearly two months. The comet was
carefully observed at Vienna by Paul Fabri-
cius, and a rude map of its apparent course
amongst the stars drawn by him has materially
assisted in determining its approximate ele-
ments. The first set were calculated by Hall ey.
Some fifty years afterwards, Mr. Dunthorne
was induced to try and determine, if possible,
the elements of the comet of 1264 from two
observations said to have been made at Cam-
bridge by Friar Giles, together with such in-
formation as was to be found in the'writings
of old chroniclers. His results proved so

similar to those obtained by HaUey for the
comet of 1556, that he was immediately led
to suspect the identity of the two bodies ;
and as the period seemed to be about 292
years, he concluded that the comet would
again return about the year 1848. About
twenty years after Dunthorne had published
his memoir on the subject, that is to say,
about the year 1760, the well-known French
cometographer, Pingre, turned his attention
to the question, and after examining a large
number of observations and statements not
made use of by Dunthorne, he came to the
same conclusion, namely, that the comet
might be expected again about the year 1848.
The subject then remained in statu quo until
about twelve years ago, when Mr. J. R. Hind
investigated again the question of identity,
by collecting all the most trustworthy records
of the comet of 1556, and deducing an orbit
therefrom. The result was, that the orbit
obtained by him agreed so nearly with that
given by Fabricius in his chart, as to leave
no doubt that it was a very close approxima-
tion to the truth.

The identity of the two bodies having
been satisfactorily proved, M. Bomme, of
Middleburg, Holland, at a vast expense of
time and labour, calculated the effect that
might be produced on the comet's period by
the combined attraction of the planets.
Taking Hind's elements as his basis, Bomme
found that the comet's period in 1264 was
302*922 years, and that planetary attraction
would hasten its return by 4077 days. In
1556 the mean period was 308*169 years, and
planetary attraction would accelerate its next
return by 3828 days ; so that the comet might
be again in perihelion on August 2, 1858.
With Halley's elements Bomme found that
the comet's perihelion passage would take
place on August 22, 1860. There is there-

140

BECREATIVE SCIENCE.

fore an uncertainty of about two years in tlie
comet's next appearance, according as to
which set of elements is adopted. One and
a quarter of two years having passed away
without anything having been heard of the
comet, we may reasonably expect it in the
course of the next few months.

It is worthy of note that brilliant comets
appeared in the years 975, 683, and 104, aU

of which present some indications of identity
with the one we have now been considering ;
" but the accounts we possess are too vague
to admit of anything more than conjecture."
M. Hock, of Leyden, has made some inves-
tigation relative to the first of the above
three, but his results throw much doubt on
the identity of that with the one of 1556.

Geo. W. F. Chambees.
JEasthourne.

LEA.F GEOMETRY.

A HI3T0ET of discoveries would, at any rate,
prove one very remarkable fact, viz., that
occurrences the most familiar to us, and
things apparently worthless, are pregnant,
nevertheless, with truths which acute ob-
servers discover as it were by accident, and,
thenceforth, the meanest understanding can
acquire a knowledge of phenomena which
had been for ages staring clever men in the
face, and had yet remained undiscovered,
though all-important to the general welfare
of mankind.

I wish, in this paper, to point out some
very simple and interesting, if not useful,
phenomena in that very common thing — a
leaf. Look at that oak-tree. The branches,
as they move gently in the wind, seem to
break out from the trunk without any regu-
larity ; and the leaves, it would be impossible
indeed, at first sight, to see any order or
arrangement in their position on the branch.
But go up closer, and break off" a little sprig,
like that in Fig. A. Fix on one leaf, cut half of
it off, and then trace up the stem with your
finger till you come to the next leaf imme-
diately above it. Now tie a thread to the
upper one on the stalk as close as possible
to the stem, and draw it down, twisting it
round the stalk of each leaf, till you come
to the leaf which you had already marked.
You will find that you have to pass four
leaves before you come to the marked one,

and that you have drawn the thread twice
round the stem, thus completing the cycle.
Now, if you go on downwards on the branch,
you will find precisely the same thing ; at tlie
fifth leaf below, you wUl be again exactly
under the cut one. So you see that the ap-
parent confusion of the leaves upon yon
waving oak is in reality an exact order,
which would be at all times perfect, but for
the various accidents to which the tree is
liable from its exposure to weather and de-
structive insects.

It has been discovered that the leaves o
all plants and trees are arranged in regular
order upon their branches, and botanists
mark this arrangement, or " phyUotaxis," as
they call it, by a fraction, the numerator of
which consists of the number of turns round
the stem, and the denominator the number
of leaves in the cycle. This oak, therefore, is
marked by the fraction |. But there is a
great variety of different arrangements of
leaves in the common trees and plants which
surround us, and it is interesting to find them
out. Thus the hoUy will be found to be f,
the yucca of our gardens i\, and the lime-
tree, the yew, and the bean \. This fraction
shows also the distance between the leaves,
expressed in parts of the circumference of the
circle. This may be seen at once by referring
to Figs. B and C, which represent stems with
numbers where the leaves are supposed to

RECREATIVE SCIENCE.

141

grow. In Fig. B, if we begin with No. 1, we
have to go three times round the stem before
we come to No. 8, which is exactly above it.
This arrangement of leaf, therefore, would be
marked by the fraction f ; if you look at the
circle on the top of the stem, you will seo at
once that Nos. 1 and 2, which represent the
position of the first two leaves, are fths of a
circle apart. In Fig. C, where we have only
to go once round the stem before coming to

age are expressed by the following fractions :
h i. h i A. 2^>. ih H, etc. It will be seen
that these numbers bear a singular relation
to each other, for the numerator of each
fraction is the sum of the two preceding, and
the denominator, in the same way, is the sum
of the two preceding denominators ; besides
this, you will find that the denominator of
one is the numerator of the next but one
after it. This shows a very curious mathe-

Fio. B.

Fig. a.

Fig. C.

the leaf exactly above No. 1, the fraction is 1 ,
and at the top it is manifest that Nos. 1 and
2 are ^th of a circle apart. Although the
phyllotaxis is invariably the same in the same
species, it is sometimes different in different
species of the same genus ; thus in the Euro-
pean larch it is i-^, while in the American
larch it is |. Botanists have discovered, too,
that the most common arrangements of leaf-

matical order, where we should least expect
to find it, in the myriads of leaves which are
tossed about in wild confusion by the summer
breeze.

But a discovery, almost more wonderful
than this, has been made by Mr. M'Cosh, for
he has found out that " the leaf is a typical
plant or branch, and that every tree or
branch is a typical leaf." This resemblance,

N

14,2

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

however, between the leaf and the whole
tree can only be traced in leaves whose veins
and stem are fully developed. In such, a
close analogy has been found between the
distribution of the branches on the trunk and
the position of the small vein upon the midrib.
It will be found in most cases, if not in all,
that the angle which the vein makes with
the midrib is the same as that between the
branch of the tree and the trunk. Mr.
M'Cosh has measured the angle of ramifica-
tion and the angle of venation in an immense
number of different trees and plants, and has
found the measurement to coincide.

Those trees, which send out branches
from the root, or near the root, such as the
box, privet, holly, and oak, have leaves in the
same way without any, or with a very short,
footstalk ; whereas the leaves of those trees
which have a long unbranched trunk, like the
pear, cherry, sycamore, and chestnut, have,
generally, also a long footstalk. Hollyhocks,
rhubarb, mallow, and other low-branching
herbaceous plants, generally send out a group
of stems from the root, and, on examination,
you wiU. find that several midribs start from
the base of the leaf, and cause the leaf to
assume a rounded shape. In some trees, like
the beech and elm, the branches are almost
equally distributed throughout the trunk,
and in the same way the small veins are
usually distributed on the middle rib. Other
trees, like the sycamore and laburnum, send
off groups of branches at particular heights,
and the venation of the leaves follows the
same arrangement. The laburnum has trip-
let leaves, and a glance wUl show that the main
trunk is divided into three main branches.

Thus an interesting subject of inquiry

opens out before any of my readers who live

in the country, and to such I hope that

leaves, in future, will not be regarded merely

as the summer ornaments of our woods and

lanes, but that they wiU find, with Goethe,

" All shapes are similar, yet all unlike,
I The chorus thus a hidden law reveals."

GEEASE IN THE CABINET.

Geease is a terrible destroyer of specimens
in the cabinet of an entomologist. Where
does it come from ? It is a kind of greasy
fluid, which exudes from the bodies of many
of our moths, especially of the Bombycidaj,
thence spreading over the wings, and event-
ually spoiling the specimen. Even keeping
the drawer continually stocked with camphor
will not prevent its appearance ; and I do
not know what will, but I know how to cure
it when it is there.

The plan of operations may be described
as follows : — Eirst procure a bottle of benzole,
which may be got at any chemist's, and which
must be kept well stoppered when not used.
When about to operate, obtain a deep saucer,
or, better, an evaporating dish, in which place
your insect, then pour in carefully the ben-
zole till the specimen is entirely immersed ;
you need not be frightened at wetting it.

It should be left thus for about five
minutes, the dish being kept covered up to
prevent waste by evaporation. At the end
of this time your insect may be taken out and
left till all the benzole has evaporated from
it, which will not take very long, when it wiU
be found to be in as perfect a condition as when
first set out ; with one advantage, that of not
being likely again to become greasy.

This is not the only means of curing
grease, but I find that it far supersedes any
other, no especial process being afterwards
used to dry the specimen, which is so liable
to be detrimental to it; on the contrary, as
we have seen, it improves it rather than
causing any damage.

The reason of this cure is, that benzole is
a solvent of grease ; thus, by leaving the in-
sect in it for a few minutes, the grease is
entirely dissolved out of it, in this way pre-
venting its future appearance.

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

143

METEOEOLOG-Y OF NOVEMBEE.

FROM OBSERVATIONS AT HIGHFIELD HOUSE OBSERVATORY.

Year.

1842 ,

1843 ,
1844
1845

1846 .

1847 ,

1848 ,
1849
1850
1851 ,
1853 ,

1853 ,

1854 ,

1855 ,

1856 ,

1857 .

1858 .
The greatest heat in shade reached 620' in 1842,

and only 52-5° in 1851, giving a range of 9'5° in greatest
heat for November during the past seventeen years.

The greatest cold was as low as 13'2'' in 1858, and
never below 30*P in 1844, giving a range of IG'd" in
greatest cold for November during seventeen years.

Only three-quarters of an inch of rain fell in No-
vember, 1846, 1848, and 1858, whilst the very large
amount of seven inches fell in November, 1852.

Generally a few very sharp frosts occur. The mean
amount of rain for the month, 1'9 inches, as the un-
usually great amount which fell in November, 1852,
has raised the average a quarter of an inch.

E. J. Lowe.

Greatest

Heat.
Degrees,

Greatest

Cold.
Degrees,

Amount of

Ram,

Inches.

. 62-0 ..

.. 27-0 ..

•—

. 68-5 ,.

. . 25-5 . .

.. 2-2

56-5 ..

.. 30-1 ..

.. 3-4

60-0 ..

.. 29'0 ..

.. 1-6

. 58-0 ,.

.. 28-0 ..

.. 0-7

. 61-0 ..

.. 30-0 ,.

,. 2-0

54-8 ..

. . 22-7 . .

.. 0-7

. 58-5 ..

. . 17-5 . ,

,. 14

. 61-2 ..

. . 22-0 . .

.. 2-9

. 52-5 ..

., 19-2 ..

.. 1-4

. 60-0 ..

. . 250 , .

.. 7-0

. 57-2 ..

.. 17-5 ,.

.. 2-6

. 57-2 ,.

.. 18-7 ..

,. 1-8

, 54-6 ..

.. 231 ..

., 10

. 55-0 ,.

. . 18-2 . .

., 1-9

. 60-5 ..

. . 245 . .

.. 1-2

57-2 ,.

.. 13-2 ..

,. 0'7

ASTEONOMICAL OBSEEVATIONS
FOE NOVEMBEE, 1859.

The sun is in the constellation Scorpio till tne even-
ing of the 22nd, when he passes into Sagittarius. In
London he rises on the 1st at Oh. 55m., on the 15th at
7h. 20m., and on the 30th at 7h. 44m. Pie sets, at the
same place, on the 1st at 4h. 32m., on the 10th at 4h.
9m., and on the 30th at 3h; 53m. On the 4th, at
Edinburgh, he rises 17 ininutes later than in London,
and on the 18th 21 minutes later. On the 14th, he
rises at Dublin 9 minutes later than in London, and on
the 28th 11 minutes later.

Twilight ends on the 3rd at 6h. 25m. ; and day
breaks on the 8th, at 5h. 10m., and on the 26th at 5h.
35m. Length of day on the 10th, 9h. 6m. ; length of day
has decreased on 10th, 7h. 28m., and on 21st, 8h. 2m,

Full moon on the 10th, at 2h. 5m. p.m.

New moon on the 24th, at Ih. 43m, p.m.

The moon is at her greatest distance from the
earth on the 3rd, and at lier least distance on the 16th.
She is near Jupiter on the 15th, Saturn on the 17th,
Mars 21st, Yenus 25th, and Mercury on the 26th.

Mercury is an evening star, in the constellation
Libra, till the middle of the month, and after which in
Sagittarius. He is becoming larger and more fa-
vourably situated for observation, reaching his greatest
easterly elongation on the 26th. On the 27th, he sets
at 4h. 66m. p.m. He is seen as a crescent.

Venus is an evening star, but being so far from the
earth, and situated so low in the heavens, she will be
unfavourable for observation. Venus is now almost
circular, and her disc only 10" in diameter of arc, in
the constellation Ophiuchus, except for a few days at
commencement of month, when she is in Libra.

Mars is a morning star, and still very unfavourable
for observation, his disc being only 4" in diameter.
Every day he will become a better object, although
slowly. In the constellation Virgo.

Jupiter is in the constellation Cancer, and very
favourably situated for telescopic observation. On the
7th, he rises at 8h. 41m. p.m., and on the 27th, at 7h.
20m. p.m.

Saturn is in Leo for the whole of the month, and a
good telescopic object; his rings, however, are not so
widely open as they were several years ago. On the
17th he rises 10h.51m. p.m., on 27th at lOh. 13m. p.m.

Uranus is very favourably situated for observation.
He is in Taurus, and j'«s< visible to the naked eye; he
is situated within the triangle formed by the Pleiades,
Aldebaran, and t Tauri, about two-thirds of the dis-
tance between Aldebaran and t, and to the east of
the latter star.

Eclipses of Jupiter's Satellites: — The first moon
disappears on the 6th, at 9h. 58m.9s. p.m.; disappears
on the 13th, at llh. 51m. 20s. p.m. ; on the 21st, dis-
appears at Ih. 44m. 33s. a.m. ; on the 29th, disappears
at lOh. 6m. 13s. p.m. The second moon disappears on
the 22nd, at lOh. 8m. S7s. p.m., and disappears on the
30th, at Oh. 45m. 5s. a.m. The third moon disappears
on the 24th, at 9h. 4m. Is. p.m., and reappears on the
25th, at Oh. 15m. 7s. a.m.

The sun reaches the meridian on the 2nd, at 1 Ih;
43m. 42s. a^m., and on the 27th, at llh. 47m. 43s. a.m.
Equation of time on the 2nd, 16m. 18s., and on the
27th, 12m. 17s.
Declination, i. e., variation of the com-
pass for London ,. .. =21' 30' W.
Inclination, or dip of the needle . . = 68' 20' N.
Total force (in units) . . . . = 10-30.

E. J. Lowe.

Highfield Observatory, Nottingham,

THINaS OF THE SEASON— NOVEMBEE.

for various localities of great BRITAIN.

Birds Arriving.— Gadwell, Silktail, Widgeon,
Golden Plover, Golden-eyed Pocher, Red-headed
Pocher, Stock-dove, Hawfinch, Redwing, Fieldfare,
flights of Crested Wren occasionally from Norway.

Birds Departing. — Snipe, Water Wagtail occa-
sionally migrates to south of England.

Wild Plants. — Arbutus unedo in flower, Nidula-
ria campanulata, various Agarics, and Lichens.

144

RECREATIVE SCIENCE.

JVlTjsTolewortliy'sCr^

orner.

New Pj:,anet. — We have the pleasure to announce
that Dr. E. Luther, of Bilk, discovered another new
planet (one of the asteroid gi-oup) on the 22nd of Sep-
tember. This is No. 67 of the asteroids, and the 8th
which Dr. Luther has had the good fortune to dis-
cover. Our solar system now numbers 65. The new
planet appears as a star of the tenth magnitude. It is
not yet named.

Undergeound Tempehature. — Professor W.
Thompson has reduced Professor Forbes's observa-
tion of the temperature of thermometers sunk to
diflferent depths in the ground, from which we learn
that at three feet deep the greatest cold of winter does
not occur till February, at six feet not till March, at
twelve feet in April, and at tWenty-four feet in July.
So that at the latter depth summer becomes winter. Let
us take a practical hint from this, and make ourselves
some cool places, into which we may retire in hot
vreather.

Flint Implements in the Drift. — Sir Charles
Lyell's version of this subject, before the British Asso-
ciation, points to the conclusion that there is no neces-
sary chronological connection between the works of
man, and even the remains of man, and the strata in
which both may be found. Dr. Anderson, in his paper,
more decisively stated that flint weapons, skulls, and
elephant remains were sometimes quickly petrified,
buried in ancient strata by subsidence, or by tlie fall-
ing in of the roofs of caverns, in which men had taken
up their abode. " He saw no evidence, deducible from
the superficial drifts, to waiTant a departure from the
usually accepted data of man's very recent introduction
upon the earth."

Purification of Water. — Professor Faraday has
been making inquiries, at the instance of the Trinity
House, into the character of the water obtained for
domestic purposes by the residents in lighthouses. It
is, he says, invariably impregnated with lead, and
hence injurious to health. But the purification of
Buch poisonous water is most easily accomplished. " I
ascertained that if a little whiting or pulverized chalk
were added to such water, and the whole stirred toge-
ther, the lead immediately assumed the insoluble form,
80 that when the water was either filtered, or left to
settle, the clear fluid was obtained in a perfectly pure
and salubrious condition." Mr. D. J. Heath, in a letter
to the Times, advises the use of Perkins's small con-
denser, applied to the waste-pipe of an ordinaiy kitchen
boiler, as an inexpensive mode of obtaining distilled
water where it is impregnated with lead or chalk.
The return is from six to eight gallons per day.

Bio Ships. — A very instructive diagram of the
relative dimensions of big ships may be drawn with
the help of a scale rule, and would be of value in
schools, and a subject of interesting reference to all
who give attention to such matters. The following

figures furnish the details for a diagram of fifteen of
the largest vessels ever built, and it will be seen that
their united lengths amount to a mile : — Great Eastern,
580 feet, 19,000 tons; Adriatic, 390 feet, about 3600
tons ; Niagara, 375 feet, 4580 tons ; Himalaya, 360
feet, 5000 tons ; Duke" of Wellington, 240 feet, 2400
tons; General Admii-al, 325 feet, 6000 tons; Orlando
(recently launohed for the British Navy), 337 feet,
3727 tons ; Atrato, 336 feet, 3476 tons ; Royal Charter
(running " inside 60 days" from Liverpool to Mel-
bourne), 306 feet, 2720 tons ; Great Republic, 302 feet,
3356 tons; Pennsylvania, 300 feet, 3241 tons; Arabia,
300 feet, 2402 tons ; Great Britain, 274 feet, 3500 tons ;
Asia, 280 feet, 2226 tons; total, 5181 feet, 68,428 tons.

Toads in the Heart of Trees, etc. — The won-
derful stories about toads being discovered in the
hearts of trees, in the centre of large massive stones,
and in solid rocks, wherein it is said they have been
embedded for many years, are now nearly silenced.
The late Dr. Buckland considered, from observation,
that toads catmot live a year, if totally excluded from
atmospheric air ; and even if an occasional supply of
air were given them, he regarded it as impossible
that they could exist two years if kept entii-ely with-
out food. A supply of oxygen is necessary for the
performance of the functions of cold-blooded animals,
although the demand for it is much less than in waim-
blooded ones. The quantity necessary for the pur-
pose increases with an increase of muscular exertion,
and the oxygen which is consumed is replaced by car-
bonic acid gas which must be removed. It causes
the death of animals which inhale it even in small
quantities. Reptiles, and most invertebrata that inhabit
the land, became apparently inanimate when the tem-
perature is lowered beyond a certain point. In this
state their circulation and respiration appear to cease
entirely, and the animals may be prevented from re-
viving for a while, without their vitality being per-
manently destroyed, if they be surrounded by an
atmosphere sufiiciently cold. Frogs and serpents have
been kept in an ice-house for three years, and at the
end of that period have been completely revived.

The Moon's Motion. — It is shown that Mr. Adams
and M. Delaunay have an-ived at the same result by
two different methods of reasoning, and they prove
that the acceleration is not nearly as much as before
anticipated, and this value is far too small to satisfy
the ancient eclipses ; and, therefore, some other causes
(such as a resisting medium), totally diiferent from
the disturbing influences of the sun and planets, must
be resorted to, or, as Mr. Main remarks, "we must
hope, from a hint dropped by M. Delaunay, that he
has some means, at present kept out of sight, for
laying the ghost which he has helped to raise."

The Banana at Kew is the most extraordinary
plant in the whole of that extensive collection. It
was introduced to Europe by Mr. Plowden, and has
attained, during five years' occupancy of the palm-stove,
a height of more than 30 feet, and the stem is 7^ feet
in circumference.

HECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

145

TYPICiVL FORMS OF EHIZOPODA.

Amahiila. — Fig. 1, Amceba diffluens, contracted. Tigs. 3, 3, 4, the same, with the pseudopodia, more or less

extended.
Gromiada.—Y\Q. 5, Gromia oviformis, with the pseiidopodia protruded.
Foraminifera. — Fig. 6, Jliliola, and Fig. 7, Eotalia Beccarii, with pseudopodia protruded.

MICEOSCOPIC GEOLOGY.

I. — EOCK-FOEMINO MICEOZOA — THE FOBAMINFEEA.

Alt. around us is an invisible world, unseen
by our natural senses. Microscopic living
creatures and vegetable organisms swarm in
eartb, water, and sky ; but tbe eyes of the
many never behold tbem. Nothing is free
from them. We find them in the clearest
water, and in the strongest acids ; in the in-
ternal moisture of living plants, and in the
fluids of animal bodies. They are carried
about by the storms and winds; they fall
like powder on the decks of ships thousands
of miles away from land, and Ehrenberg has
found them even in meteoric dust. By their
immense numbers they colour large tracts of
water with remarkable hues. That beautifid
phenomenon, phosphoresence of the sea, is
due to the accumulation of myriads of mi-
nute jelly-globes ; while a cubic inch of
mouldering earth may contain upwards of
forty thousand tiny scavengers.
Vol, I.— No. 5.

No one can think of them without rais-
ing his eyes ia adoration to their Maker;
and no one can see them and study them
without feeling how exquisite is the handi-
work of the Infinite Designer in these his
minutest creations, even as it is grand and
overwhelming in the vastness of the systems
of worlds rolling on in the boundless realms
of star-lit space.

As it is now, so it has been, one might almost
say, from the beginning. At any rate, some
of the oldest strata of the paleozoic age —
the sUurian — present us with marine species
closely like the living forms of the same class
still swarming on our shores and in our seas.
The waters of the Niagara, for ten thousand
years, have plunged over a ledge of steep
clifi", even as they do now. In the superfi-
cial alluvial soil they have left the marks of
their headlong rushing as plainly as they
10 o

14G

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

have inscribed their records on the stony
cliff-walls of the gorge through which their
eddying waters foam onwards to the sea.
How many ages older than that wonderful
cataract those alluvial gravels are no mau
can teU; but older, indeed, they must be,
referring as they do to former geological and
physical changes and conditions of the land.
And yet, whUe on a vertical scale of the
rock-strata, where an inch would represent
a thousand feet, the whole era of the full
deposit of those alluvial beds, in all their
thickness, would not be equal to a pen-line,
the level of these first-known traces of
marine Poraminifers would be some six or
S3ven feet down.

During all those vast intermediate ages,
such tiny living things have swarmed in
ocean, lake, and river, in earth and air. "We
cannot break down any friable freestone,
such as oolite or Bathstone, any sandstone,
limestone, or clay, without finding abundant
specimens of ancient Microzoa in the dried
and sifted dust. In those rocks, too compact
to be reduced mechanically to powder with-
out crushing, such as the limestone from
Dudley, the marble from Matlock or West-
moreland, very thin polished sections will
reveal, under the magnifying power of the
microscope, some of their beautiful and pecu-
liar forms. Some rock -masses, indeed, such
as chalk and various tertiary marls, are wholly
composed of the perfect and well-preserved
shells and cases of ancient minute organisms.

Amongst these microscopic fossils, how-
ever, are two classes, which beyond all others
have played, as they still continue to do, a
most important part in the accumulation of
massive sedimentary strata. Over how many
thousands of square miles in Europe alone
does the chalk, that in the lofty cliffs of
Dover ?ind of France presents us with a
thickness of a thousand feet, extend ? And
yet, in every cubic inch, a million perfect
individuals may be counted, besides the
broken shells and fragment- dust with which

they are cemented together. So minute,
sometimes, are these rock-forming Microzoa,
that in the polishing slate of Bilin, for ex-
ample, forty-one thousand billions are esti-
mated within the same limit of a cubic inch.
In the former, the chalk, the organisms are,
however, much larger and marine ; still they
require a magnifying power of at least 250
linear, or 62,500 times, to render them intel-
ligibly, and a far higher power than this
for the examination of their intimate struc-
ture. In the latter, the Bilin slate, the
organisms are, for the most part, the silicious
lorica of vegetable diatoms, such as Mr.
Tuffen West has already described in a re-
cent state in his papers in this work.

For the past seventy years, microscopic
objects, whether vegetable or animal, have,
for the most part, been commonly described
and spoken of as Infusoria, a name they first
derived from the almost universal presence of
animated atoms in water in which flower-
stalks had been steeped, and in other vege-
table infusions. The severer scientific scru-
tiny to which this, like every other depart-
ment of natural history has of late years
been subject, has shown that many very-
different classes, both of animals and vege-
tables, have been improperly included and
grouped under this now restricted title.

Of the two classes of minute animals
which we have alluded to as principal con-
stituents of some rock-masses, neither is
infusorial. One of these, the Foraminifera,
belongs to the lowest grade of animal life —
the Protozoa, or globular animals ; the other,
the Entomostraca — however at first sight
it may seem to diverge from the familiar
crab or lobster type — belongs to the Crus-
tacea, or crust-sJielled animals, one of the
principal sub-divisions of the Articulate or
ring-formed group. Of each of these kinds
innumerable hosts are living at the present
hour, and they are as easily obtained in their
living as in their fossil state.

It will be well, however, in this paper.

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

147

lest we should become too discursive, to con-
fine ourselves to one class, and, from their
great antiquity, the Foraminifera hold the
first claim to our attention.

All are familiar with the household
sponge, and it is now very generally known
that sponge, with its curious tissue of inter-
lacing fibre, is but the horny skeleton of a
marine animal of the lowest condition of
life ; the like horny skeletons of small British

9

Hyaline-shelled Foraminifera (Globular arrange-
ment, running into Nautiloid).
Fig. 8, Orbulina universa, D'Orbigny. 9, Globigerina
buUoi'des, D'Orb. 10, Rotalina Partschiana, D'Orb.
] 1, Polystomella Fichtelliana, D'Orb. 12, P. Eegina,
D'Orb.

sponges are commonly cast by the waves on
our beaches. But still few know the animal
itself of the sponge, or would recognize what
it was if they saw it. The investing animal
substance of these homy skeletons was a
soft thin jelly, called by naturalists " sar-
code." It possessed no visible muscular
structure, and yet it had some slight power
of contraction and expansion, some slight
capacity of voluntary movements. Through
the smaller pore-like cavities with which the
skeleton of the sponge is seen to be per-
forated, the ocean-water was inhaled in a
current produced by the paddle-action of the
numerous minute cilia (or thread-like disten-
sions of sarcode) with which the internal
surfaces of those channels were lined, while
the water thus inhaled was expelled by the
fewer and larger tubular orifices denomi-
nated oscula. The sponge itself was rooted

to one spot from the period of its first settle-
ment— for while young as a gemmule it swam
freely about — to the end of its life, and the
sponge of commerce is no more, as we haye
said, than the mere framework of the crea-
ture, which, dredged from its native depths,
has been kicked and trodden and blown
about, on the sands of the Mediterranean,
until every particle of its animal substance
has been wasted and destroyed ; and the
dust, so fuU of exquisite microscf<pic objects,
which we shake out from the fibrous net-
work, is nothing more than the sand of those
sea-shores, and not particles of food, as has
been sometimes ignorantly supposed. Dr.
Bowerbank has observed that the jelly-like
sarcode of the sponge can form itself into
temporary stomachs, into which the food
brought in by the inhalent currents of water
is received, digested, and assimilated, after
which the sarcode resumes its smooth, jelly-
like appearance, — so simple is the organiza-
tion of the sponge-animal !

The fibrous structure of fossil sponges of
a high class, the ventricalities, is beautifully
preserved in the flint nodules of the chalk,
and exhibits under the microscope wonderful
and remarkable designs, as has been admi-
rably elucidated by Mr. Toulmin Smith.

The jelly-flesh condition is not confined
to the sponge; other animals having free
locomotion are formed of it. That micro-
scopic " proteus " the Amoeba is nothing
more than an atom of such sarcode. It has
no cilia, no power of swimming ; but if we
watch it, bud-like knobs are seen to be slowly
protruded from its body and gradually ex-
tended into pseudopodia, or false feet, more
than equal to the diameter of the body (see
woodcut, p. 145, Pig. 1). The ends of these
artificial limbs attach themselves sucker-like
to the surface over which the creature is
travelling, contract, and thus gradually drag
up the body (see woodcut, p. 145, Fig. 2).
Again, elongating knobs are protruded into
feeler-like limbs, which again, contracting like

148

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

elastic ropes, haultlie body along. Tkus
the Amoeba, ever changeful in its form (as its
name implies), travels along, investing in its
jelly-flesh as it progresses atoms of food,
which thus entangled and enveloped by its
pulpy flesh are so digested.

Besides the naked Amcebas there is the
similar group of Gromias, in which the sar-
code is inclosed and protected by a bag-like
cuticle, from the aperture of which alone are
the pseudopodia extruded (see woodcut, p.
145, fig. 3.)

Another class of jeUy-flesh animals is pos-
sessed of shelly coverings — these are the Fora-
minifera, to which we have already alluded.
These sometimes consist of a single glo-
bule of sarcode coated with a calcareous skin

19 20 21 22

Hyaline-shelled Foraminifera (Bead-like arrange-
ment, running into Nautiloid).
Fig. 13, Lagena (Oolina, D'Orbigny) clavata. Genus,
NoDosARiNA. 14, Dentalina elegans, D'Orb. 15,
Nodosaria nigosa, D'Orb. 16, N. hispida, D'Orb.
17, N. spinicosta, D'Orb. 18, N. bacillum, D'Orb.

19, Frondicularia annularis, D'Orb. {Chevron-style).

20, Flabellina rugosa, D'Orb. {Spiral and chevron).

21, Cristellaria laneeolata, D'Orb. 22, Cristellaria
Josepbina {Nautiloid),

or shell; sometimes a second globule — for
the Foraminifera grow by gemmation, a com-
mon method of increase amongst the lower
grades and microscopic forms both of animal
and vegetable life — is formed upon and over-
laps the first. Often the adult Foraminifer
is constituted of a succession of such unsepa-
rated globules of lime-coated sarcode, deve-

loped in linear order on a straight or on a
curved line, or in a spiral arrangement, or
alternated in twists and braids, or in disc-like

23 24 25 26 27

Hyaline-shelled Foraminifera (Braid-like arrange-
ment).
Genus, Polymorphina. I'ig. 23, Polymorphina lactea,
var. horrida (Globigerina tubulosa, D'Orb.) 24,
Polymorphina complanata, D'Orb. 25, Uvigerina
pygmea, D'Orb. 26, Textularia Mariije, l3'0rb,
27, Textularia deperdita, D'Orb.

or shell-like types, the latter often putting
on a nautiloid appearance. In the early days
of Natural History science this has caused
such Nautdus-resembling Foraminifera to
have been figured and described, by even
some eminent naturalists of the old school,
amongst them by Linnaeus himself, as the
minute young, or as particular species of
that genus of cephalopods ; they overlooking
in those statements the fact that the walls of
the chambers of the Nautilus are incurved to
admit the inhabitation of the outermost cell
by the animal, whUe the separating perfo-
rated walls of the Foraminifera — for the shelly
coverings of most of these little living jeUy-
lumps are perforated like sieves, with orifices
for the protrusion of their pseudopodia—
always retain the globular shape of the jelly-
globules they cover and inclose.

28 ■ 30

Opaque-shelled Foraminifera (Circular and other
arrangements).
Fig. 28, Peneroplis (Spirolina, D'Orb.) Austriaca.
29, Pavonina (Cuneolina, D'Orb.) triangularis. 30,
Cyclolina cretacea, D'Orb.

Wonderful indeed in these Foraminifera
are the beautiful, elegant, and varied forms
produced by the difierent arrangements of

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

149

the divided, but imseparated, incrusted sar-
code-globules. One of tlie most common
Foraminifera is the Miliola — so called from

31 33 33

Opaciue-shelled Foraminifera (Arrangement alter-
nately lateral).
Fig. 31, Spiroloculina canaliculata, D'Orbigny. 32,
Triloculina pulchella, D'Orb. 33, Haaerina com-
pressa, D'Orb. (putting on spiral).

its resemblance to a millet-seed — found abun-
dantly in the heaps and ridges of sea-weed
left by the receding tides upon the sands.
Like the G-romia these have only a single
aperture for the extension of the pseudo-
podia formed by their extensile flesh, and it is
a curious and interesting sight to watch them
slowly hauling themselves up and along the
transparent sides of a glass tumbler or the
walls of an aquarium.

The Miliola were noticed long ago by na-
turalists, who put them amongst the Serpula,
or encased sea-worms, on account of their
appearing to be folded tubes, in like manner
as the Rotalia and other similar forms were
described in books as minute Nautili; and it
was not until 1835 that Dujardin showed
their true position in the animal scale as
Rhizopods, or root-foot animals.

The Foraminifera are all marine, and
every zone of sea-depth has its peculiar
species or varieties — the deepness or shal-
lowness of the region in which they exist
often causing very considerable differences
in the appearance of the individuals; thus the
JRotalia repanda grows large and thick — so to
speak of a microscopic sheU — in shallow seas,
and becomes flattened when obtained from
deeper water. Another kind, the Glohigerina
hullo'ides, on the contrary, becomes dwarfed
and small in shallow water, but grows large
and abounds in deep-sea regions.

In the abysses of the ocean these micro-

scopic shells constitute almost the only ma-
terial of its oosy bed. In the soundings made
for the Atlantic Telegraph, the lead brought
up, in regions beyond the range of earthy
sediments brought by currents, from depths of
three miles, whitish clayey mud all but wholly
composed of Globigerinse.

In the blackness and stUlness of those
enormous depths, extracting the minutest
particles of lime from the dense waters, these
little beings live in myriad hosts, and, tiny
as they are, accumulate in slowly passing ages
into enormous masses of calcareous strata, con-
vertible, idtimately, into limestone, as Time, in
his endless circles, shall bring round another
change of land and sea, and the bottom of
the deep shall be converted into the mountain
range.

Thus, too, the Foraminifera have played,
in geologic ages, a like important part in the
formation of the rock-beds of the earth's
stony crust. !No organic creature, large or
small, has contributed so much material :
every limestone, every sandstone, every clay,
from the silurian epoch to the present hour,
offer the evidences in their remains. A
certain green sandy clay, of silurian age, in
Russia, is constituted, in great part, of sand,
the particles of which are stony casts or
moulds of the chambers of Foraminifers, like
as the sand dredged to-day in the Gulf of
Mexico consists of silicate of iron modelled
in the cavities of such microscopic shells.
The mountain-limestone— so beautifully stud-
ded with coral-branches, and encrinital stems
— abounds with their tiny carcases. A Rus-
sian limestone of the same age is wholly
composed of Fusilina, and other small forms ;
while similarly constituted rocks occur in
America, and in the Arctic regions.

The oolitic freestones have generally a
Foraminifer in nearly everyone of those sphe-
rical egg-like grains (from which they derive
their geological name), like as is found in the
sand-grains on the shores of modem coral-
reefs. The white chalk is, as we have already

150

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

said, almost wholly composed of their tender
shells.

The " nummulite-limestones" of the Alps,
the Apennines, and the Himalayas are other
instances of rock-formed mausoleums of these
iiny fossils.

Alveolites abound in the " rice-stone" of
Persia, and numerous other instances of
every period could readily be cited, were
they wanted, to show how, throughout aU
time since the creation of life on our globe,
the perished armies of these microscopic
labourers have built up, flake by flake, and
film by film, the solid rock-masses of steep
wave-beaten clifis, of grassy plains, and mist-
clad hills. Small and feeble, and exquisitely
minute, with but few of the gifted powers of
life, how much they have done shows how
truly God's "thoughts are not as our
thoughts," but immeasurably above them,
how the simplest means at his command
produce stupendous results, how every-
thing, even the meanest, is worthy of man's
study and thought. " God," says old E-ay, in
his lovable philosophic spirit, " God is said
to be maximus in, minimis. We men esteem
it a more difficult matter, and of greater art
and curiosity, to frame a small watch than a

large clock; and no man blames him who
spent his whole time in the consideration of
the nature and works of a bee, or thinks his
subject was too narrow. Let us not then
esteem anything contemptible, or inconsider-
able, or below our notice-taking, for this is
to derogate from the wisdom and art of the
Creator, and to confess ourselves unworthy
of those endowments of knowledge and under-
standing which He hath bestowed upon us.
Do we praise Daedalus, and Archytas, and
Hero, and Callicrates, and Albertus Magnus,
and many others which I might mention, for
their cunning in inventing, and dexterity in
framing and composing a few dead engines
or movements, and shall we not admire and
magnify the Great Arif^Lovpyos Koenov, Former
of the World, who hath made so many, yea,
I say innumerable, rare pieces, and those,
too, not dead ones, such as cease presently to
move so soon as the spring is down; but all
living, and themselves performing their own
motions, and those so intricate and various,
ar-d requiring such multitude of parts and
subordinate machines, that it is incompre-
hensible what art, and skUl, and industry,
must be employed in framing one of them."
S. J. Mackie.

A CALENDAR OF NATFEE.

OxE branch of scientific inquiry, which the
amateur observer is likely to take an interest
in, is that of recording a Calendar of Nature.
We mean, keeping a record of the arrival
and departure of migratory birds, the dates of
trees coming into and losing their leaves, the
blooming of plants, the ripening of fruit and
seeds, the building of birds' nests, the first
appearance of different insects, diseases
amongst animals and plants, the failure or
prolific harvest of corn, fruit, etc. ; in short, a
correct statement of the appearance of every-
tiiing in Nature which is seen around us.

There are many of these calendars kept,
yet scarcely one can be made available to
science, and this owing to the want of proper
precautions. It is evident that if it were
known what kind of observations would be
reaUy useful, that many would lend a helping
hand, who now stand aloof simply because it
is not seen how such labour can benefit
science.

The effects of the weather on the vegetable
kingdom is strikingly shown, when a careful
series of observations has been made year
after year. In illustration, we need only refer

RECREATIVE SCIENCE.

151

to the spring of 1859. For many weeks
vegetation was a month in advance of ordi-
nary seasons, yet one week's cold, at the com-
mencement of May, was sufficient to cause
the growth of plants to be checked to an ex-
tent so great, that the month previously
gained was lost in a few days.

Observations, to be comparable with each
other, require recording year after year, in
the same place, and on the same individual
plants. It is by no means an uncommon oc-
currence to find two trees of the same species
(whose boughs actually cross each other) vary
as much as a fortnight in their time of leafing
or flowering. It would be useless to say, the
elm lost its leaves on a certain day, without
particvdarizing the particular kind of elm
meant ; thus, the broad-leaf elm is the first
tree to become leafless, which it frequently
does in September, whilst the Siberian elm,
on the contrary, will retain its leaves after
all others have been denuded of them ; some-
times this plant is in leaf as late as December.
The age of a tree or plant will cause some
difference.

Migratory birds will arrive at one fipot
much earlier than they wiU at another, even
when so contiguous that a single minute on
the wing would enable a bird to reach the
other spot; however, this they never attempt
untn the proper time has arrived. Swallows
and martins are seen near the Trent for days
before they are found on the hiUs only a mile
from this river.

Different kinds of lilacs and laburnums
will have a range of some days in their period
of coming into bloom.

Amongst herbaceous plants, those which
have been transplanted during the year
should either be avoided, or a special record
made regarding them. Annuals are only
worthy of secondary note, as the time of
sowing must be taken into account, unless the
seed is self-sown. Again, amongst such ob-
servations as the ripening of fruit, the dif-
ferent kinds require specification. As an

instance, the strawberry known as Black
Prince will ripen before Kean's Seedling,
Kean's Seedling before British Queen, and
British Queen before the Elton Pine ; and
again, one-year-old plants of Black Prince
will ripen sooner than those on two or three-
year-old plants.

In recording the flowering of plants, it is
advisable to give the dates when the first
blooms are expanded, as weU. as those when
in full glory of bloom, and when the bloom-
ing is over. Wheat and other grasses should
have the dates when the ears are first visible,
when the flower-spikes are above the leaves
(in full ear), and when in flower.

As the objects are so multifarious, it is
requisite to pay especial attention to a certain
list (which has been compiled with much
care), in order to insure a comparison between
two or more observers. The nature of the
soil, the geological formation, and the geogra-
phical position of the place of observation are
also essential in these investigations.

Such a series of observations as the above,
carried on for a course of years, and more
especially by meteorologists (who have the
additional opportunity of comparing them
with the weather records), cannot fail to be
productive of much good to science, as,
when brought together, they would form a
valuable collection of facts for the naturalist
and meteorologist to generalize upon.

OBJECTS WOETHY OF ESPECIAL NOTICE.
1. — Leafing of Teees.

Narrow-leaved elm (Ulmus

campestris).
Elder (Sambucus nigra).
Sycamore (Acer pseudo-

platanus).
Crab (Pyrus malus).
Mountain ash. (Pyrus au-

cuparia).
Hawthorn (Cratsegus oxy-

cantha).
Aspen (Populus tremula).
White poplar (Populus

alba).
Hazel-nut (Corylus avel-

lana).

Birch (Betula alba).

Elm (Ulmus glabra).

Elm (Ulmus montana).

Pear (Pyrus communis).

Plane (Platanus occiden-
talis).

Plane (Platanus orien^
talis).

Tulip-tree (Liriodendron
tulip ifera).

Lime (Tilia Europaja).

Apricot (Armeniaca vul-
garis).

Ash (Fraxinus excelsior).

Oak (Quercus robur.

152

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

Larch (Pinus larix).
Currant (Ribes nigrum).
Walnut (Juglans regia).
Maiden-hair tree (Salis-
buriaadiantifolia). ^

Spanish chestnut (Casta-

nea vesca).
Beech (Fagus sylvatica).
Willow CSalix helix).
Mulberry (Morus alba).
Mulberry (Morus nigra).

2. — EiPENiNG or Fextit.

Gooseberry. — Eibes grossularia; varieties, Eum-
bullion, Champagne, Rough Red, Wonderful.

Cherry Laurel (Common Laurel). — Cerasus lauro-
cerasus.

Filbert. — Corylus aveUana.

Hazel-nut. — Corylus columa.

Currant. — Ribes nigrum ; varieties. Black Naples,
Eed Dutch, White Dutch, Goliath, and Salmon.

Pear. — Pyrus communis ; variety, Jargonelle.

Apricot. — Armeniaca vulgaris; variety, Moor-
park.

Peach. — Persica vulgaris ; varieties, Royal George
and Noblesse.

Nectarine. — Persica lavis; varieties, Elruge and
Violet Hative.

Plum. — Prunus domestica; varieties. Greengage,
Magnum-bonum, Damson, Golden Drop, and Wine
Sour.

Cherry. — Cerasus duracina ; varieties, Early Duke
and Morello.

Strawberry. — Fragaria vesca ; varieties, Black
Prince, Kean's Seedling, British Queen, and Elton.

Raspberry. — Rubus Idasus ; variety, Antwerp.

Apple. — Pyrus malus ; varieties, Juneaton, Kes-
wick codling, Eve Apple, Normanton Wonder, and
Besspool.

3. — FLOWEBiNa OF Plants.

Primula auricula (Auri-
cula).
Avena sativa (Oat).
Aster belliJiilorus.

„ ericoides.
Azalea calendulacea.

„ nudiflora.

„ pontica,

„ speciosa.

„ viscosa.
Hordeum vulgare (Barley) .
Faba vulgaris (Bean).
Ligustrum vulgare (Pri

vet).
Veronica chamsedrys

(Wild Germander).
Crocus vemus (Purple

Crocus).

„ aureus (Golden

Crocus).
Iris pseudacorus (Yellow

AVater Iris).
Eriophorum angustifo-

lium (common Cotton

Grass),

Galium verum (Yellow
Bed Straw).

Myosotis palustris (Great
Water Forget-me-not).

Myosotis intermedia.
„ azorica.

Primiila vulgaris (Prim-
rose).

Primula veris (Cowslip).
,, farinosa (Moun-
tain Auricula).

Lysimachia nemorum
(Yellow Pimpernel).

Lonicera Periclymenum
(Woodbine).

Viola odorata (Violet).

Gentiana acaulis(Gentian)
,, verna.

Ribes atrosanguineum.
„ rubrum.
„ nigrum (Currant).

Saponaria ocymoides.

Cytisus alpinus (Scotch
Laburnum).

Cytisus laburnum.

PjTUS aucuparia (Moun-
tain Ash).

Pyrus communis (Pear).

Narcissus Jonquilla (Jon-
quil).

Narcissus pceticus.
„ minor.

Nepeta teucriifolia.

„ gleehoma (Ground
Ivy).

Spiraea arifefolia.

Helianthus annuus.
" multiflorus plenus.

Syringa Persica (Persian
Lilac).

Syringa vulgaris.
„ „ alba.

Tritoma uvaria.

Ulex Europsea flore-pleno
(Gorse).

Valeriana officinalis (Va-
lerian).

Ribes grossularia (Goose-
berry).

Gordonia lasianthus.

Campanula rotundifolia
^Harebell).

Hepatica Americana (Hc-
patica).

„ „ alba.

,, „ rubra.

Hyacinthus orientalis
(Hyacinth).

,, „ albus.

Iberis sempervirens (Can-
dytuft).

Iris graminea.
,, pumila,

Hippeastrum formosissi-
mum.

Ijiriodendron tulipifera
(Tulip-tree).

Lonicera pubescens.

Lupinus polyphyllus.

Plum (prunus domestica).

Damson Plum.

Plumbago Larpentse.

Polygonatum vulgare (So-
lomon's Seal).

Polygonum Sieboldtii.

Rhododendron caucasi-
cum.

„ ferrugineum.
„ ponticum.

Veronica alpina.

Saxifraga oppositifolia.

Scilla amoena.
„ bifolia.
„ Sibirica.

Medicago arborea.

(Enothera fruticosa.
„ macrocarpa.

Pseonia moutan (Tree
Pseony).

„ albiflora Pottsii.
,, officinalis rubra.

Papaver alpinum.
,, orientale.

Veratrum nigrum, ,' •

Vinca major.

Weigela rosea.

Yucca gloriosa.
,, filamentosa.'

Zauschneria Californica.

Geum coccineum.

Gladiolus communis.

Wistaria sinensis.
„ alba.

Jasminum officinale (Jas-
mine).

„ nudiflornm,

Kalmia latifolia.

Phaseolus vulgaris (Kid-
ney Bean).

Viburnum tinus (Laures-
tine).

Cerasus lusitnnica (Por-
tugal Laurel).

Lavandula spiea.

Ledum latifolium.

Leucojum jestivum ( Sum-
mer Snowflake).

Lilium lancifolium.
,, aurantium.
„ candidum.
„ Martagon.
„ tigrinuin.

Magnolia grandiflora.

Viburnum opulus(Guelder
Rose).

Sambucus nigra (Elder).

Berberis vulgaris (Bar-
berry).

Galanthus nivalis (Snow-
drop).

Narcissus pseudo-narcis-
sus (Daffodil).

Hyacinthus non-scriptus
(Wild Hyacinth).

Convallaria mnjalis (Lily
of the Valley) .

Saxifraga granulata (Saxi-
frage).

Dianthus caryophyllus
(Clove Pink).

Dianthus deltoides (Maid-
en Pink).

Silene inflata (Bladder
Campion).

Oxalis acetosella (Wood
Sorrel).

Sedum telephium (Or-
pine).

Sedum acre (WaU Pepper) .

RECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

153

Spiroea ulmaria (Meadow
Sweet).

Rosa spinosissima (Rose).
„ tomentosa.
„ canina.
„ arvensis.

Rose Brennus.
„ Geant lies Battailes.
„ Mrs. Bosanquet
,, AVilliam Jesse.
„ Coupe d'Hebe.
„ Cramoisesuperieure.

Trollius Europfeus (Globe
Flower).

Caltlia palustris (Marsh
Marygold).

Anemone nemorosa (Wood
Anemone).

Ranunculus acris (Crow-
foot).

„ ficaria (Les-

ser Celandine).

Lamium vulgatum (Dead
Nettle).

Hamulus lupulus (Hop).

Taxus baccata (Yew).

Linaria vulgaris.

Digitalis purpurea (Fox-
glove).

Cheiranthus cheiri (Wall-
flower).

Geranium pratense (Blue
Crane's-bill).

Polygala vulgaris (Milk-
wort).

Ulex Europseus (Gorse).

Cytisus scoparius(Broom) .

Ononis arvensis (Rest
Harrow).

Corylus avellana (Hazel-
nut).

Carduus alpestris.

Ceanothus dentatus.

Cerasus lauro-cerasua
(Laurel).

Helleborus niger.

Chrysanthemum AchUlese.
„ siuense.

Clematis coerulea.

Daphne Mezereum.
„ cneorum.
„ pontica.

Ornithogalum umbella-
tum (Star of Beth-
lehem).

Fritillaria Meleagris (Fri-
tillary).

Erica tetralix (Heath),
„ Mediterranea.

Calluna vulgaris (Ling).

Butomus umbellatns
(Flowering Rush).

Arbutus unedo (Arbutus).

Agrostemma Githago
(Com Cockle).

Lychnis flos-cuculi (Rag-
ged Robin).

„ vespertina (White
Campion.

Prunus spinosa (Sloe).
„ avium (Wild

Cherry).

,, padus (Bird

Cherry).
CratfEgus oxycantha(Haw-
thorn).

P}TU3 mains (Crab).

Rubus fruticosus (Black-
berry).

Papaver rheeas (Corn
Poppy).

Meeonopsis Cambrica
(Welsh Poppy).

Glauciumluteum (Horned
Poppy).

Chelidonium majus (Ce-
landine).

Helianthemum vulgare
(Rock Rose).

Tilia Europsea (Lime).

Nympheea alba (Water
LUy).

Nuphar lutea (WaterLily).

Allium pulchrum (Yellow
Onionwort) .

Alyssum saxatUe.
„ tortuosum.

Andromeda floribunda.

Anemone japonica.

Antirrhinum majus.

Lotus corniculatus (Bird's-
foot Trefoil).

Vicia cracca (Tufted
Vetch).

Hypochseris radicata(Long
Rooted Cat's-ear).

Leontodon taraxacum
(Dandelion).

Tanacetum vulgare
(Tansy).

Tussilago farfara (Colt's-
foot).

Bellis perennis (Daisy).

Achillea millefolium (Yar-
row).

Orchis maculata.

Carex praecox.

Delphinium Chinense.
„ grandiflorum.

„ formosum.

Dianthus barbatus (Sweet
William).

Dielytra spectabilis.

Draba aizoides.

Eranthis hyemalis (Win-
ter Aconite).

Faba vulgaris equina.

Matricaria parthenium
flore-pleno (Feverfew).

Omus Europsea (Flower-
ing Ash).
Forsythia viridissima.
Dictamnus fraxinella.
Fuchsia virgata.
Funkia ovata.

4. — Aeeivai, of Migbating Bieds.

Spotted Flycatcher(Musci-

capa grisola).
Cuckoo(Cuculus canorus).
Nightjar (Caprimulgus

Europseus).
Swift (Hirundo apus).
Swallow(Hirundo rustica) .
Martin (Hirundo urbica).
Sand Martin (Hirundo ri-

paria).
Fieldfare (Turdus pilaris).
Redwing (Turdus iliacus).

Reed Warbler (Sylvia arun-

dinacea);
Nightingale (Sylvia las-

cinia).
Blackcap (Sylvia atrica-

pilla).
Whitethroat (Sylvia erne-

rea).
Chiff-chaff fSylvia rufa).
Woodcock (Scolopax rus-

ticola).
Landrail (Crex pratensis).

5. — Building of Nests.

Spotted Flycatcher.

Thrush.

Rook.

Blackbird

Swallow.

Blackcap.

Starling.

Partridge.

Landrail.

M^ild Duck

Hedge-accentor.

Titmouse.

Redbreast.

Lark.

6. — Aeeival of Insects.

Magpie Moth (Abraxas

grossulariata).
American blight (Aphis

lanigera).
Rose Fly (Aphis rosse).
Apple Fly (Aphis pyri-

mali).
Peach Fly (Aphis persicte).
Plum Fly (Aphis pruni).
Bean Fly (Aphis fabse).
Currant Louse (Aphis ri-

bis).
Codlin Moth (Carpocapsa

pomonella).
Earwig (Forficula auri-

cularis).
Lackey Moth (Phalscna

neustria).
Goat Moth (Phalsena Cos-

sus).
Julus terrestris (Milll

pede).

„ pulchellus (do.

„ complanatus (do.
Figure of Eight Moth

(Phaltena cseruleoce-

phala).
Onion Fly (Anthomyia).
Apple Weevil (Anthony-

mus pomorum).

Red Spider (Acarns tel-

larius).
Peacock Butterfly (Papilio

lo).
Father Long-legs (Tipula

oleracea).
Lady-bird (Coccinella

septem-punctata) .
Turnip-flea Beetle (Hal-

tica nemorum).
Apple-bark Beetle (Bos-

trichus dispar).
Typographer Beetle (Bos-

trichus typographus).
Gamma Moth (Noctua

Garden Beetle (Melolon-

tha horticola).
Celery Fly (Tephritis ono-

pordinis.
Cockchafer (Melolontha

vulgaris).
Buff' Tip Moth (Hamma-

tophora bucephala).
Cabbage Moth (Noctua

brassicse).
Hawk Fly (Scseva ribesii\
11 ( !> pyrastri).
Red Admiral Butterfly

(Papilio Atalanta).

154

EECEEATIVE SOIENCE.

Ghost Moth (Phala3iia

humuli).
Great Egger Moth (Pha-

laena Eoboris).
Great Tiger Moth (Pha-

l8Bna Caja).
Dart Moth (Phalana

segetum).
Gyrinus natator.
Dytiscus circumflexus. <

7. — The Expanding ov the piest Peonds
OF Pebns.

Garden White Butterfly
(Papilio Brassicse).

Orange Tip Butterfly (Pa-
pilio Cardamines).

Meadow Brown Butterfly
(Papilio Janira).

Currant Clear - wing
C Sphinx Tipuli-
forme).

Polypodium dryopteris.
Polystichum aculeatum.

„ angulare.

Lastrea dilatata
Athyrium filix foemina.
Lastrea filix mas.
Seolopendrium vulgare.
Cystopteris fragiiis.

Osmunda regalis.
Pteris aquilina.
Struthiopteris Germanica.
Adiantum pedatum.
Onoclea sensibilis.
Polystichum acrosti-

choides.
Cyrtomium falcatum.

8. — The Floweeing- of Geasses.

Gynerium argenteum

(Pampas grass).
Anthoxanthum odoratum.
Alopecurus pratensis.

Aira csespitosa.
Dactylis glomerata.
Cynosurus cristatiis.
Arundo pliragmites.

Spawning of Frogs.
Mushrooms.

Holcus lanatus. Briza maxima.

Arrhenatherum avena- Bromus mollis,

ceum. „ sterilis

Briza media. Stipa pennata.

9. — Miscellaneous.

Swarming of Bees.
Spawning of Fish.
Spawning of Toads. I

The following example, selected from the
climate of Nottingham, will illustrate the
manner of using these observations : —

The Apricot (Armeniaca vulgaris) var.
Moor-park, came into bloom —

1844
1845
1846
1847

Maich 15

„ 28

February 26

March 19

1848
1849
1850
1852

March 27
„ 20

13

The meantime of flowering is March 16, the
range being 31 days. In 1852 the period
was three days earlier than the average.

E. J. Lowe.
Higlifield Souse Observatory.

WONDEES OF A STAGNANT POOL.

Aftee long confinement to the house, whether
from illness or an unusual pressure of en-
gagements, how delightful to turn out for a
stroll in the fresh pure air ! Unheededwhether
it rain or shine, if a naturalist of the true
stamp, all around seems to welcome him, and
care aiid trouble for the time fly far away.
It was early in the morning, recently, that,
in urgent need of a breath of fresh air, we
started for a walk before breakfast ; rain had
fallen heavily during the night, and the air
was still reeking with moisture. One trouble,
and one alone, was ours during the walk —
"What shall we contribute to our readers in
the next Eeceeative Science ? One subject
we had given much time to presented so
many new features requiring careful and
prolonged examination, that it had to be left
for further time and opportunities ; so on in
meditative mood we walked, till our thoughts

turned to the teeming abundance of the lower
classes of vegetable life, and the important
part they play in the grand scheme of life
on our globe.

Coming, then, to a stagnant, foetid ditch,
our attention was caught by the unusual
quantity of a blackish-green slimy-looking
substance, at the bottom, sides, and floating
on the top by means of entangled air. Some
of this was gathered. A similar material by
the side of the road, left by a now dried-up
rain-pool, furnished another gathering, each,
for lack of a better means of conveyance,
being placed in a bit of paper, and trans-
ferred to the waistcoat-pocket. A little
further on the palings, the trees, the very
walls in parts, were covered with a bright
green powdery -looking substance, as if they
might have been recently painted, some of
which was carefully scraped off"; and, lastly.

EECHEATIVE SCIENCE.

155

nearly at our own door, we find on tlie
gravelled path., at tlie base of tlie wall, a
lively crisp-looking little vegetable, some of
which, is secured, and we have material
enougb for some hours' careful examination,
and, if time permitted, montbs,' it may be
years, of study.

Let us take out the microscope ; some
slides and thin glass-covers, and a tumbler
of clean pure water, will be wanted ; and it
may be as well to have a little bottle of
glycerine, and another of asphalte varnish,
for the preservation of tbe subjects of ex-
amination. The magnifying power required
will be tolerably high, say about two hundred
diameters. We will take a little of the ma-
terial obtained from the pool, black from the
close crowding of the little threads composing
it, remove it with the point of a penknife to
a slide, and then put on a cover. In the
meantime, the portion from which it was
taken may be put into a watch-glass, or other
shallow vessel, with a little water. Eaise the
tube of the microscope, lest the object-glass
be injured by touching the slide or the wate •

Fig. 1. — Oscillatoria. a, portion of a mass under a
moderate magnifying power ; b, end of one filament,
with cilia (?) much more highly magnified; c, fila-
ment breaking upj d, sporange (?).

upon it, and carefully lowering it till rightly
focussed, look what we have got. "Why the
whole field is in motion! it looks as if we
had a number of little slender worms, of a
pale copperas, or verdigris-green colour, uni-
form in diameter, and with a sufficient power

and good light, bars or stripes at short
intervals may be seen passing across them.
Here are some that look as if they might
be fastened together like a bundle of fag-
gots, with those on the outside writhing and
twisting as if they would free themselves
from an unwelcome embrace. Some have
succeeded in the attempt, and are passing
across the field with an undulatory motion ;
others are imitating the action of a pendu-
lum, whilst here is one turning what might
be taken for a head, with which it would see
what is going forward behind it. The
peculiar character of these movements has
caused the name of Oscillatoriae to be given
to the tribe (Fig. 1).

How do they moveP is the first question
that suggests itself, and it is not easily to be
answered; for upwards of a century has it
been debated, and it is yet hung round with
doubts. It has been suggested by Dr. Harvey,
that the appearance of wave-like flexure and
oscillation may be due to onward progress
in a spiral direction. This view is enter-
tained by Dr. F. D'Alquen, in a very able
article in the " Quarterly Journal of Micro-
scopical Science" (vol. iv. p. 245), where the
whole subject is treated at length, and a
source of motive power described in one
species, which, if the author be correct, would
be, so far as known, new and unique in the
vegetable kingdom, an irritable contractile
fibre passing down the centre of each fila-
ment. Our own observations lead us to
think that the motion is really in a spiral
direction, but to what it may be due we do
not venture to give a decided opinion. One
observation we made, however, seems very
much to the point : on doubling oiir magni-
fying power in this instance, as represented
at b (Fig. 1), a number of fine threads were
seen projecting all round the end of the fila-
ment, to one of which a minute particle of
dirt adhered ; we could thus see that the fila-
ment was turning rapidly round, and found
it difficult to resist the belief that the lash-

156

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

ing of the water was produced by the ac-
tive movements of cilia, and not merely by
the passage through it of motionless pro-
cesses. Such cilia, if indeed they be so, may
occasionally be seen on other parts of a
filament, and the most rapidly moving speci-
men we ever met with was furnished with
them in unusual profusion. Before finally
putting this down, let us add a drop of chlo-
roform ; the motion is instantly stopped, and
laudanum produces a similar effect.

"What relation is borne by Oscillatoria to
other plants is yet a mystery. If we look at
the dried-up material taken from the gravel
path, it wiU be found to be motionless, in
much shorter pieces, and those contained in
gelatinous tubes ; the same thing evidently,
but in a different state. As it would have
been impossible, before the changes had been
observed, to predicate that from an egg, a
motionless speck, should come an active, vo-
racious caterpUlar, which should turn again
to a quiescent chrysalis, and whence should
emerge at last a graceful volant denizen of
air ; so, till all the changes involved in the
life-history of this simple vegetable are
known, we are unable to say what phase the
motUe stage we have been examining may
represent. Probably, when the pools or
damp places it inhabits are slowly dried, it
assumes the altered form with investing
hyaline tubes ; when quickly dried, each fila-
ment breaks up into its component joints (c),
which are probably analogous to the buds of
higher plants. Sometimes we find a portion
assuming a different appearance, enlarged
and thickened (d), with spaces on each side
of it bare of colouring matter — such may be
a sporange, or reproductive body ; and there
are good grounds for thinking we know but
the caterpillar state, the connection of which
with its perfect condition remains yet to be
traced. To any who have taste for such an
investigation, a rich reward in continually
renewed interest may safely be promised, and
it may be their good fortune to add another

leaf to our yet most scanty knowledge of
the " Book of Nature."

The "greenstuff" from thepaling is a plant
of another kind ; like little beads of a rounded
or oval form, and delicate grassy green colour
(Fig. 2). Generally each little "bead" is

•^ 0 .
0 c,

0 ^ 0 o

0

Fig. 2.
free, sometimes two may be seen united, and
occasionally four or six in short strings. If
this be really a unicellular plant ; if each of
these little "beads," or "cells," as they are
termed in scientific language, be really a
plant in itself,

" Totus, teres, atque rotundus,"

(which may be freely translated for the occa-
sion, "perfect, round, complete in all its
parts"), it surely must, as the late lamented
Professor Henfrey said, be the most numerous
in individuals on the face of our globe. But
it requires to be grown and watched, varying

loOO

^Sbo SSSSSBdo
SS09 00 pQ oa no

QQQO oqOq OQgg

nr»nc\ .,N»~ ^"u ""'

CO 00

Fig. 3. — Ulva crispa. a, portion of frond in its ma-
ture state ; b, e, c, early stages ; d, zoo-spores (?).

external circumstances of temperature, amount
of moisture, exposure, and so on, with a good
deal of ingenuity, before this can be safely
affirmed.

RECREATITE SCIENCE.

157

The little " Ulva crispa," gathered last, is
always a favourite object (Fig. 3) with its
bright green endochrome dotted with a charm-
ingly regular irregularity over the delicately
transparent membrane of the frond. With
the mature plant may often be found narrow
flat threads as at h, which show in an instruc-
tive manner how a broad leaf-like expansion
may be formed by repeated cell-divisions,
now in a longitudinal direction and then in a
transverse direction. Some of the pretty
bright green cell-contents have escaped, and
taken on an active animal-like existence, as
at d. The specimen from which our figure
was taken swarmed with them, and though
we did not actually witness any of them
escaping, such has been seen. Numerous
Euglenae (Fig. 4) occurred with them, of

Fio. 4. — a, motile ; and 6, resting condition of
Euglense.

which all that can be said here is simply to
stimulate inquiry ; though so thoroughly
animal-like in their movements, altering their
shape continually as they move over the
field, vibrating the little whip-like cilium or
two vrith which they are furnished — with
their little red eye-like speck, and at some
stages of their existence a small vesicle dilat-
ing and contracting at intervals heart-like,
yet these are now known to be only motile
spores (the name given to bodies analogous to
seeds produced by non-flowering plants). The
stages of growth of Ulva are not yet fully
known, and it seems possible that the Eu-
glense forms found on this occasion with the
Ulva might be motile spores of the latter.
Having sought to attract to the study of
these humble plants, by showing how elegant
their appearance is under the microscope.

how instructive the little we yet know about
them, and how much of yet greater interest
remains to be learnt of the history of their
life, let us briefly glance at the important
part borne by them in the economy of Na-
ture. In poesy, the intensified and spiri-
tualized reflection of the popular mind, mis-
taking the cause, it is held that they are per-
nicious in their effects.

" Mantled o'er with green,
The stagnant pool,' "

is a familiar representation of all that is foetid
and unwholesome. But is it indeed owing
to this green vegetation that such is the case ?
Nay, on the contrary, the very opposite is
the fact. Is there such a collection of foiil-
ness ? Borne on the four winds of heaven, at
once the Oscillatoria and allied types of vege-
tation appear to commence their mission of
usefulness to man. Look at the portion left
in the watch-glass : the spot where it was
crowded together, a shapeless, unsightly sub-
stance, is now deserted, and instead, it has
wormed its way to the extreme edges of this
miniature collection of water, the ends all
pointing outwards, as they would go further
" 'an if they could." Even to the naked eye, it
is now a pretty spectacle, the threads forming
a delicate green fringe round the margin of
the glass. Thus, in the pools they spread,
increasing with amazing rapidity, feeding on
agencies destructive to our hfe, oxygenating
the water, and through it the air in the
neighbourhood of which they grow. By
their decay a soil is formed for plants of a
higher type and with higher powers of use-
fulness. But let us, especially the dwellers in
great cities, forget not how much we owe to
the unthought of agencies of " that green
stuff;" in revivifying the "used-up" atmo-
sphere we are compelled by the circumstances
of position to breathe, and let us not again
attribute to them, our friends, ill effects
which they are incessantly doing their ut-
most to counteract.

TUFFEN WbST.

158

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

WAYSIDE WEEDS AND THEIR TEACHINGS.

IN SIX HANDFTJLS. — HANDrUL II. CONCLUPED.

Wk now turn our attention literally to
the business, or at least to the flowers, in
hand. We have found that they are many-
petaled, and that petals and stamens by their
attachment to the calyx afford us a character
which is a common bond of union ; but
after this, we must confess, we cannot show
you any great resemblance. Vetch or pea
tribe, rose or apple tribe, and hemlock tribe,
to say nothing of saxifrage and willow herb,
are not very similar.

Fig. 31. — Petals of Common Broom, separak ;il.
a, standard ; b b, wings ; c, keel.

Pull this broom to pieces ; it is an excel-
lent example of its order. Off" come its
petals one by one (Fig. 31), and an irregular
lot they look. In truth, the pea-flowering
tribe, in this country at least, has very ir-
regular flowers, by which we mean that they
can only be divided one way into two equal
halves. You pull off the petals and the

stamens remain (Fig. 32), and there they
will remain, even
long after the
flower has with-
ered and fallen,
as we see in the
example (Fig. 33).

T-. <^.^ r, 1 , ' X- 1 Look closely at

liG. o3. — Calyx and essential •'

organs of Common Broom, the stamens (Fig.

a, calyx; b, stamens; c, 32) after detach-

curved style. ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^^

You will perceive they are all joined together
at the base by their filaments, and surround,

as it were, the
pistil which in
the broom (Fig.
32) has a pecu-
har curve. This
pistil enlarges
into the seed-
pod or legume
(Fig. 33), and
from this form of
seed-vessel the
whole of these
vetch and pea
plants have ta-
ken their family
name of Legu-
FiG.33.— Pod or Legume of Com- minous Plants;
mon Broom, a, legume ; b, albeit they have
persistent calyx ;c, remains of ^^^1^^,. name,
stamens ; a, remains of stigma.

taken from the

fancied resemblance of some of the pea-
blossoms to a butterfly, and hence they are
sometimes called Papilionaceous Plants. The
peculiar form of these butterfly -like petals
has procured for them the names which are
appended to the figure. You can scarcely

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

.159

$ee one of these leguminous plants again
■without knowing its social status in the
botanical world, and recognizing it as a
member of a most important family — quite
one of the most so in Flora's kingdom.
Most important to man, seeing that from it
he draws such a vast number of articles
which are almost necessaries to his comfort-
able existence. Lastly, look at the leaves of
our leguminous friends (Fig. 34); but we
shall speak of them
in a future lesson.
Suffice it to point
out here that they
are what botanists
call compound —
that they are cha-
racteristic as such,
especially with the
superaddition, to
many, of the ten-
drils (Fig. 34).
With distinct pe-
tals, with petals and
stamens attached to
the calyx, the rose
tribes are grouped
with our pod-bear-
ing friends the
Leguminosse ; but
from them, in other
Fig. 34.— Compound Leaf of respects, they differ
Vetch, a, tendrils. widely.

Firstly, the blossoms are regular ; you can
cut a strawberry, a wild-rose, or an apple
blossom through the centre, in any direction,
into two equal halves. Calyx, corolla, sta-
mens, pistil, varying in divisions, number,
etc., are yet all regular. You will have no
difficulty with the first three sets of organs
in any we have made you gather ; but when
you come to put the pistil, or rather pistils,
of the strawberry and bramble, beside those
of the apple or wild-rose, you are probably
quite thrown out. The strawberry and the
bramble (Fig. 29a) bear their pistils relatively

to the other parts of the blossom, in accord-
ance with your previous experience of plant
arrangements ; but the rose and the apple
seem to put their calyx and other parts right
on the top of the pistil, or at least of the
seed-vessel. We are too young in our
lessons to consider this subject here, and
when we come to opefl our fruit-basket it
will be fully gone into ; suffice it that the
difference is more apparent then real.

Fig. 35. — Compound Leaf of Eose.

however, sufficient difference to cause divi-
sions in the great class of the Rosaceous
plants ; some claiming to be the true stock,
or Erosese, whilst others, including our friends
the apples and pears, rank as the Pome tribe,
and a third set takes their places with the
cherries and plums. Nevertheless, divided
or not, the Eosacese are a most excellent
family, and are not one whit behind the pod-
bearers in the amount of good things they
prepare for us. We must not forget that
many of them, such as the rose (Fig. 35),
have compound leaves. Neither must we
forget that with all the good things they give
us, they are also great preparers of prussic
acid, and that bitter almonds, peach kernels*

160

BECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

and even apple pips, contain it in abundance.
True Eosaceans, however, are less given to
tkis manufacture, and offer us astringency
in its place.

Group No. 3, in our hand, greets us with
the very different aspect of the hemlock tribe
(Fig. 30). We find, pn examination, the bond
of union in the attachment of the petals
and stamens, but almost all else is different.
First, there is the great distinctive feature
which gives the family name of umbel-
bearers to this large section of the vegetable
kingdom ; an umbel being that peculiar dis-
position of the flowers which we see in Fig. 30,
and which we find in all plants belonging to
the order. Observe how the flower-stems all
spring from one central point. You will
seldom gather these hemlock-like plants with
flowers otherwise than white, though some
have a pinkish tinge, and one or two are
yellow ; moreover, we have compound leaves
again (Fig 36), but compound after a dif-

Fis. 36. — Compound Leaf of Umbelliferous Plant.
a, sheath for stem.

ferent mode from the leaves of the vetch, oc
of the rose ; the leaf, too, sheaths the stem rib
its base, and the stem is more or less hollovr.
Look to these things, for they are part of
your lesson, and then let us see to the

blossoms themselves. Here, perhaps, you do
not see matters quite so plainly as you did in
the large-blossom plants we have hitherto
examined ; a little more patience is required,
and the magnifying glass will aid you. Do
not forget we are still among the distinct
petal flowers. Five little petals have these
umbellifers, placed on the top of what you
will recognize as the seed — seed-vessel it is
indeed (Fig. 37) — and with a calyx, more or
less minute, adhering closely to the latter. On
the summit of this little double seed, you will
more easily make out the double styles, and
the five stamens will not tax your patience
much. Probably, before your examination
has proceeded thus far, you will have made
the discovery that the petals of this tribe of
plants are by no means equal in size, and, if
you have examined closely, that they have
frequently a peculiar turning in — inflection —

,,<r

Fig. 37. — A, Blossom of Umbelliferous Plant: a, petal,
with inflected point ; 6, stamen ; c, pistil with
double style. B, Fruit of Umbelliferous Plant : a,
styles ; 6, stamen ; c, a fleshy disk ; d, double
fruit. C, Eipe Seeds or Carpels separating from
central axis. D, Section of Seeds : a, ribs ; b, oil-
channels, or vittiB.

at the top (Fig. 37). We could say much
respecting the seeds (Fig. 37) of this exten-
sive plant family, but that we reserve for the
fruit department; only, if you have oppor-
tunity, glance at them now when somewhat

RECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

161

advanced towards ripening. A very cursory-
examination will show you how diflferent the
little, double, ribbed, and often aromatic
seed is from those which have hitherto come
under our notice. The caraway seed is an
excellent specimen. Many drugs and aroma-
tics, and vegetables, such as carrot, parsnip,
celery, parsley, are yielded to us by the
umbel-bearers.

Scarcely would it be possible to place in
your hand representatives of orders of plants
more important or more interesting than the
triad of which we have endeavoured to give
you some idea, and perhaps we could not
well select orders possassing characters more
likely to impress themselves upon the mind
of a beginner in the study of botany.

We mentioned the white meadow saxi-
frage and the willow herb as included in our
present handful of weeds. To such as know
them by their familiar names they will offer
examples of other, but perhaps less strongly
marked, plant families, which still have the
distinct petal character and the calycine at-
tachment of stamen and petal. The white
meadow saxifrage is an elegant plant, often
found very abundantly during May, bearing
its collection of white blossoms on a stem
from four to six inches high, and spring-
ing from a root which seems made up of
a number of bead-like granules, the size
of small peas. It represents well a plant
■ a family, the Saxifrages, which
contains many beautiful mem-
bers, but from which man
draws but little that is useful.
The willow herbs are still more
common than the saxifrages,
and towards the end of June
and in July are to be found by
nearly every hedge-side — at
least the smaller species with
their small pink flowers. A
little later, the great hairy willow herb of our
ditches and ponds offers its handsome, large,
rose-coloured blossoms. If ycu know the

plants, or can find them, you will recognize
the same structural arrangement of petal and
stamen that we have dwelt so much upon,
and when you come to examine the pistil
(Fig. 38) you get another variety of the
organ ; for here the stigma is elegantly cleft
into four divisions. The friliting and seed-
ing of these willow herbs are peculiar ; but
of that hereafter.

The parts of plants to which, in these
our early lessons, we have more especially
directed your attention, are all included in
the term Eeproductive Organs — that is to say,
they are such as conduce to the formation of
the seed upon which the continuation and
reproduction of the plant species depend. The
calyx, the corolla, the stamens, the pistil,
make up what we commonly understand as a
flower, and without a flower there can be no
seed ; but a botanist's flower and a florist's
flower are two very different things. The
florist requires gay colouring and fine petals,
and cares but little for stamen or pistil ; the
botanist looks to the latter only as the esuoi-
tials of his flower — in other words, these
organs are all that are required for the pro-
duction of seed, and are therefore the essential
rejiroductive organs ; indeed, in some plants
we find no flowering beyond the stamen and
pistil development.

" God might have made the earth bring forth
Enough for great and small;
The oak-tree and the cedar-tree,
Without a flower at all.

" He might have made enough, enough,
For every want of ours ;
For medicine, luxury, and toil,
And yet have made no flowers."

And truth it is that we might have had
all essential means of seed production with-
out that beauty which He who made all
things has lavished upon the lilies of the
field. Calyx and corolla are apparently non-
essential to seeding, and yet we cannot but
imagine that they subserve some office of
greater or less importance beyond delighting
the eye.

11

162

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

Fig. 39. — Poppy- bud
drooping before flow-
ering and casting off
two-pieced calyx.

THE CALTX

Of a plant has its first office in the protec-
tion of the flower-bud, covering the tender
organs within, until their time for full expan-
sion has come. Then
it assumes various
modes of procedure.
We have seen, as in
the poppy (Fig. 39),
it may be cast off as
the blossom opens, be-
ing lifted off in one
piece like an extin-
guisher, and allowing
the petals, which seem
to have been crumpled
up within it, to expand
in their full size and beauty. More generally,
however, the calyx remains for a longer or
•shorter time after the flower opens, and in
many plants it is still there after the petals
of thecoroUahave faUen, either protecting the
growing seed-vessel, or forming part of what
people generally call the fruit itself. Such
we find to be the case in the apple, the pear,
the thorn, the fruit of these being partly com-
posed of the enlarged calyx. When a calyx
falls off early, it is called a deciduous calyx ;
when it remains till the fruit has formed, it is
called persistent.

As yet, our calyxes have been green or
leaf-like organs, more or less regular, and
easy of recognition ; you must not, however,
expect always to find them bearing this pal-
pable character ; they are often very irregu-
lar in form, sometimes in one piece, some-
times in two, sometimes ia more. Neither is
the calyx always green : of this we have had
some notice in the frequently deep-coloured
calyx of the wallflower, or yellow of the gorse,
though, in these instances, it preserves its
well-marked distiuction from the brighter
corolla. But there are cases where, although
the coroUa exists, it is so insignificant as to
be entirely eclipsed by the more brilliant

calyx — such we find in the hellebores or
Christmas roses of our gardens ; and, lastly,
we find, as in the anemones, the corolla ab-
sent altogether, and its place supplied by a
calyx as beautiful as any corolla. In such
cases the calyx is called petaloid or flower-
liJce. The crocus and the snowdrop likewise
offer us examples of the petaloid calyx, and
in such plants the entire flower, petals and
sepals, are frequently called the perianth.
When the calyx is joined together so as to
constitute a one-pieced or monosepalous calyx,
its composition of several conjoined parts is
usually indicated by toothings, folding or
marking, as we shall see in the primrose.
Lastly, the calyx is frequently irregular in
form ; in this respect generally being coinci-
dent with irregularity of form in the corolla
it incloses. Did space permit, we might
enlarge greatly upon the variety of forms
to be found in calyxes, but now that our
readers can recognize the part for themselves,
it is better that they should seek out their
knowledge by looking at every plant or
weed for that variation — and beautiful varia-
tion too — which they will not fail to find.
One last word over our flower- cups. You
will not have examined plants long before
you meet, every now and then, with a calyx
which looks rather like a collection of the
ordinary leaves of the plant, than like an
orderly, well-conducted calyx; this is espe-
cially remarkable among the roses and the
primrose tribe, and it is, in fact, an effort of
the calyx to metamorphose itself back to
its original leaf-type. This is a subject of
plant lore, however, which, only hinted at
now, must engage our attention at some
future time.

Calyx first, next within comes the corolla,
regular or irregidar in form, in many pieces
or petals, as we have met with hitherto,
or in one piece as we shall come upon
it ere long. Now, before we take the
flower in its full expanse of beauty, let us
give short attention to it whilst yet in its

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

163

baby state, cradled witliin its calyx. Tate
any common flowers or weeds you know, or,
for that matter, tbat you may not know, by
name ; open tbeir buds — tear them open if you
will, but also cut them in various directions
with a sharp knife ; see how beautifully
packed within are these petals which, next
day, or hour even, are to open in all their
expanded pride, without a crease or fold upon
them. These poppy petals that we spoke of
a little above, look really and truly crumpled
up, and yet not a trace remains of such usage.
This bud-packing is known, botanically, as
the cestivation of flowers, and the term is ap-
plicable to calyx as well as corolla, for the ca-
lyx, you will find, has its set forms of budding.
Like the calyx, the corolla, when it is joined
up into one piece, as it is in the primrose,
the harebell or bluebell, or blue veronica, in-
dicates its many-pieced origin by the divisions,
more or less deep, which are marked upon it ;
these divisions bearing the same position,
relatively, to the divisions of the calyx that
distinct petals do — that is to say, the corolla
petals or divisions are placed in alternation
with the calyx sepals, or divisions, not
opposite. Mark the fact, as we shall have to
return to it.

The forms of the corolla are exceedingly
numerous; the crucifer or cross-like, the papi-
lionaceous or butterfly-like, the rosaceous
we have already seen, but to these we must
add the labiated, as we shall see it in the com-
mon white nettle, the bell shape of the blue-
bell, the wheel shape of the forget-me-not,
and the strap-shaped little florets of the
dandelion, or of the white ray of the daisy.
Moreover, as if height, colour, and varied and
lovely form were not enough, you will find
many a blossom ornamented with other ap-
pendages, such as hairs, glands, coronets,
etc., which add to its beauty. Gro and see.

Within the corolla, and, when definite
in number, alternating with its divisions, in
the perfect flower, we have the stamens,
those important organs which, along with

Fio. 40.— Sta-
men, a, anther;
b, filament; o,
pollen.

the pistil, constitute the essential repro-
ductive organs. You have already examined
common plants enough to be aware that the
stamens are not by any means definite in
number, but occur in every proportion, from
the many of the buttercup or rose to the few
of the wallflower or the umbellifer. If, how«
ever, varied in number, they are far from being
so in form ; and their two com-
ponent parts,thefilament(Fig.
40) and the anther, are con-
stant. The filament, or sup-
port of the anther, may be
absent without injury to the
utility of the organ ; in other
words, the anther is the es-
sential part. Examine it at-
tentively, using a lens if
possible. You will quickly
see that all but invariably
this anther is composed of
two valves ; and if you ex-
tend your observations, you
will see that from each of these valves, which
are in reality little pouches, is discharged a
fine yellow dust. Shake your flowers over a
dark surface, and if the anthers be ripe, this
pollen dust will come out in a golden shower.
Dust it looks, but dust it is not ; for if you
get it sufficiently highly magnified, you will
find it to consist of multitudes of minute
bead-like grains, generally round, but some-
times oval or triangular. When ripe, shaken
or not, the anthers discharge their pollen by
a regular mode of opening, or, as it is called,
dehiscence; this opening, in most cases, taking
place along a line of suture, but in some in-
stances by means of pores or valves. The
very abundance of the pollen contents of
these anthers testifies to its importance ;
without it, plant perpetuation does not take
place. But before we get upon that subject,
we must make further acquaintance than wo
have done yet with the other essential organ
of reproduction, and for this we must look to
the centre of the flower.

164

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

THE PISTIL

Is fke central organ of the blossom, the seed-
bearer. You wiU find, indeed you must
have found already, the pistil much more
varied in form than the stamens. In the
buttercup it is made up of many members ;
in the poppy it consists, apparently, of but
one ; in the leguminous plants of one ; in the
umbellifers of two; in the rosaceans appa-
rently of one in some cases, of many ia
others. In short, there is no end to the
varieties of pistil, and such you wiU find the
case as you go on examining blossom after
blossom, as of course you will do. This
seed-bearing, seed-developing pistil is com-
posed of three parts — the ovary
or seed-vessel, the style, and the
stigma. Of these two are essen-
tial, the stigma and the seed-
vessel; but the style, though
usually present, may, apparently,
as in the poppy, where the stigma

lies close upon the top of the p^^ ^^ pj^

ovary, be dispensed with. In- tU of prim-
deed, the style, like the filament ^°^«- «- ^tig-
of the stamen, appears to be
simply a mechanical addition to
essential parts, to fit them for their relative
positions in the blossom. As you will find,
in a future lesson, the entire plant is covered
with a thin skin, or epidermis, as it is called ;
and only at one point is this wanting, that
point being the stigma of the pistil, which, in-
stead of epidermis, is coated with a glutinous
matter, to which adhere the grains of pollen
as they are discharged from the anther. The
adhering grains convey to the ovules within
the seed-vessel the power of becoming per-
fect seeds, for it is a rule, seemingly without
exception, that if there is no poUen, no seeds
are formed. In the majority of plants, the
stamens and the pistils are found combined in
the same blossom ; but in some, such as the
lychnis, which we gathered into Handful No.
I., they are not only in separate blossoms, but

ma ; b, style ;
ovary.

in separate plants, perhaps widely separated.
Is it not a great chance that the pollen of
the one blossom reaches the stigma of the
other? If it depended on chance it would
be ; but He who separated the blossoms has
made also the provision that they do not
bloom in vain. Watch that bee who is
coming away from the stamen -bearing lychnis
flower, and carrying with him a golden em-
broidery of pollen ; why, the very next thing
he does is to fly ofi" to that blossom which is
waiting for it, and rub his spangled jacket
against it. Neither is it bees only which are
the pollen carriers, for other insects, doubt-
less, are equally useful : and there exist well-
authenticated instances of pollen thus being
carried many miles to its destined use.

ce- '^

Fig. 42. — Diagram of a perfect flower, a a, calyelne,
or external whorl, of organs alternating with 6 6,
corolline whorl ; c c, staminal whorl, opposite caly-
cine divisions, alternate with corolline ; d d, pistil-
line whorl, opposite corolline, alternating with sta-
minal and calycine.

Eemember, however, that the pollen of a
rose will not fertilize a wallflower, nor that
of a hemlock a poppy ; like must to like, and
that it will to like makes it needful for the
seed-grower and nurseryman to be very
careful in his way. Allied plants, such as
cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, etc,, do inter-
mingle in their fertilization, and as a conse-
quence a choice variety may be deteriorated
or lost by the flowering of other varieties of
the same family in its immediate neighbour-
hood. However, this is digression. To go
back to the stigma and its varied forms ; we

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

165

have already alluded to the four-cleft organ
of the willow herb, now look at the harebell
or campanula, and it is three-cleft ; find it
out in the grasses, and it is an elegant
feather ; in the primrose, a little knob like a
pin's head.

We have already remarked that the
organs of the flower were essential and non-
essential with reference to the production of
seed, the essential being the stamen and
pistil. Nevertheless, the botanist regards
that blossom only which possesses all those
parts regularly developed as the type of a
perfect flower; a lychnis wanting in one
blossom the pistil, in another the stamens,
or the anemones with a petaloid calyx in-

stead of corolla, are not perfect flowers,
botanically speaking. Be it remarked, too,
that not only must these parts be present,
but they must be developed in a regular
series of circles, or whorls, as they are called,
the organs alternating one with the other;
the coroUa divisions alternating with those
of the calyx, the stamens with the divisions
of the corolla on the one side, and with the
parts of the pistil on the other (Fig. 42)
These relative positions are, of course, altered
by variations in number and development,
but still they afibrd to botanists a standard
by which to judge in the determination of
doubtful parts.

Spenceb Thomson, M.D.

A POETABLE EQUATOEIAL.

We may presume that every person who
can distinguish between the stars Sirius and
Polaris, knows what is meant by an equa-
toreal. However, as it is often well to place
the chief design or principle of a thing pro-
minently before the mind, when reference is
made to the details, we hope to be forgiven
if we begin at the beginning, and describe
the instrument as one by means of which a
telescope can be directed to any point in the
heavens ; and then, by the reading of two
graduated circles connected therewith, the
exact relation of that point in degrees, mi-
nutes, seconds, and fractional parts of seconds
to the pole, the first point of Aries, or to any
other point, can be ascertained with great
precision.

Further, an equatorial of the first class
is so connected with clockwork, that the
telescope can by it be made to foUow a fixed
object above the horizon during the whole of
its apparent diurnal motion.

Imagine a vertical shaft, with a telescope
attached to it, so as to allow the telescope

to move at right angles to the shaft, on a
round axis in the shaft. By turning the
telescope, the complete tour of the horizon
can be made. Imagine a motion at right
angles to the former or parallel to the shaft,
and it is obvious that by these two motions
the telescope can be turned to any point
between the horizon and the zenith, if a
slight projection be made in the part con-
necting the telescope with the shaft, so that
the latter shall not interfere with the former,
when the instrument is nearly vertical.

But this is not an equatorial.

Now tilt the instrument, so that the at
present vertical shaft shall point to the pole,
or, in other words, be parallel to the axis of
the earth. The instrument becomes an equa-
torial. It may be the magnificent instru-
ment at Liverpool, probably, in mechanics,
the chef dJceuvre of the Astronomer Eoyal ;
at all events, tiU the erection of the very
recent one at Greenwich Observatory (see
Athenceum, June 11, 1859, p. 777) ; or it may
be our own plaything, the telescope belonging

i66

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

to which, can he put into the coat-pocket,
and the stand into a small carpet-bag. The
main principle is the same in both.

To describe the latter is the object of
this paper. The design of the former class
of iiistrument is to ascertain, with great pre-
cision, the place of any celestial object, for
purposes which it would not accord with the

ascension of the comet is so many hours, mi-
nutes, and seconds, and the declination north
or south, or the folar distance (which can
be converted into declination, and vice versa),
is so many degrees, minutes, and seconds of
arc. By a simple calculation, with the aid
of the Almanac, the observer knows when
the comet will be on the meridian; and

intention of this paper to explain ; the design
of the latter is simply iofind an object in the
heavens (without having to fish for it), this
being done by the setting of the circles
attached thereto by means of moderately
well-divided graduations.

Suppose a comet to appear. The owner
of such an instrument reads in the public
prints that at such and such a time the right

hence, at any hour before or after that time,
he knows how far in hours, minutes, and
seconds of time, or degrees, minutes, and
seconds of arc, it is from the meridian. The
error of his watch or clock having previously
been ascertained within a fraction of a mi-
nute, a nicety sufficient for the purpose in
view, he proceeds to set the telescope, by
means of the graduated circles, to a given

EECEEATIVE SCIEJ^'CE.

167

time and to the given declination ; and having
verified all the steps of the process, he looks
through the telescope with the certainty that
the object — the comet, star, or planet, etc. — is
in the field of view, whether visible or not.

With a telescope such as the one last re-
ferred to, it is not likely that a comet will be
visible in the day-time ; but Venus, Jupiter,
or stars of the first magnitude, can be seen
in broad day-light, if the sky be clear. They
wUl often appear exceedingly faint ; but there
they are, their apparent places in the heavens
having been found by the circles attached to
the instrument, and not by sweeping the
heavens.

The instrument which it is the special
object of this paper to describe, was con-
structed by the writer for his own amuse-
ment ; and a great number of trials have
proved that its design, that of insuring the
presence of the celestial object somewhere in
the field of view, can always be accomplished.

Let not astronomers smile at the rough-
ness of the instrument, till they are told that
the graduated circles by which the instru-
ment is directed to an object are not so much
as one inch in diameter, and that the divisions
were cut in brass by the hand of an amateur.

The history of the instrument is as fol-
lows : — In the year 1850, a friend of the
writer was amusing himself in constructing
an equatoreal mounting for a two-inch re-
■ fractor, according to a design of his own.
He was a good mechanic ; but having chosen
wood (which he thought would do for this
rough purpose) as the material upon which
to fix his graduated circles, carefully executed
on paper, he met with an unsatisfactory re-
sult, which the writer predicted woiJd be the
case. It occurred to the latter to attempt to
divide the brass circles on a " clip," used for
attaching the telescope to a post, or other-
wise, by means of a screw connected with it,
the " clip " having the two motions already
referred to. The graduation was a work of
considerable laboiir ; but, besides the advan-

tage of making use of an article already pos-
sessed, the plan had several advantages con-
nected with the smallness of the diameter of
the circles, to be set against the disadvan-
tages. The result was very satisfactory. The
graduations were tested by the sextant, and
were found to be sufficiently good.

Amateur astronomers will enter into the
feeling of boyish delight with which the
first fijpding of Yenus in the broad day with
the instrument was associated. The writer
would have been amply rewarded for his
pains, if the pleasure which the exhibition
and explanation of the little instrument has
given him since the time referred to were
his sole reward.

Among those to whom he has shown it,
and who have expressed themselves as highly
pleased with the instrument, the writer is
proud to refer to a lady whose interest in
astronomy, and whose powers of exciting an
interest in the study of this glorious science
in others, have lately been so pleasantly ex-
emplified in the little gem called " Telescope
Teachings."

"William C. Bubdeb.

Observatory, Clifton, Bristol.

STEEEOSCOPIC PHENOMENON.

I WAS amusing myself one evening with a
stereoscope, and, having exhausted my stock
of stereoscopic pictures, I placed in the in-
strument a small photographic portrait, about
three inches by two, and as nearly as pos-
sible in the centre, so that one-half was
visible to one eye, and the other half to the
other eye, and was surprised to find on look-
ing at the picture, with both eyes open, that
that side which could only be seen by the
right eye appeared to be seen by the left, and
that seen by the left eye appeared to be seen
by the right. I submit the case to the con-
sideration of stereoscopists, in the hope of
obtaining an explanation. Stebeo.

168

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

JOHN SMEATON— A LIFE AMONGST THE LIGHTHOUSES.

WHAT BIOGEAPHY SHOtTLD TEACH.

It is the fashion now-a-days, and a good
fashion it is, to explore God's ways in crea-
tion. Especially with the lower forms of Hfe,
has science been explanatory. Within the
limits of the knowable, we all seek to under-
stand everything; we wish to see demon-
strated—

" How every small ephemeris sets forth
Purpose and science, if born but to die."

And it were well if we carried this desire
somewhat further, and extending our in-
quiries, learned that God not only fashions a
diatom, a moth, or a mammoth for a purpose,
but that for His good ends also, He fashions
the muscles of the worker, and moulds, with
Almighty touches, the brain of the thinker.
Yet this is true. The true object of bio-
graphy, in tracing the conduct of an indi-
vidual is, according to Coleridge, to show
clearly what result his active life has pro-
duced on the well-being of his fellow-men,
and also what is his position as one of the
"great landmarks in the map of human
nature." It is yet more : the true biogra-
pher, whether in a sketch or in a volume,
ought to show what inner and higher im-
pulses filled the man — in what he differed
from his fellows in being prominently set
aside for his work ; how the man of science,
no less than the w arrior, the lawgiver, the
poet, or the sage, was expressly singled out
for one purpose, and how that purpose being
fulfilled, he waned and died out. and went to
the grave, where no thought can stir the still
brain, nor work move the stiff sinews of the
dead hand.

Perhaps this overruling purpose is better
and more clearly seen in the lives of men of
science than in any other biography. Davy,
Ferguson, Newton, Stephenson, Smeaton,

each and all had an impulse which no one
could restrain, which adhered to them through
life, and left them only in death. In John
Smeaton's case let us hasten to prove it.

HIS BIETH AND INFANCY.

On a May morning — rather when May
was lapsing into June — and at a little York-
shire village, in 1724, John Smeaton was born.
The family had planted a firm foot in York-
shire ; grandfather had built the house there,
and father was a " respectable attorney :"
so write the biographers, presuming, of
course, that attorneys can be respectable,
upon which Smeaton ever had his doubts,
and the present writer does not offer an opi-
nion. John hated the attorney's desk. En-
grossing was not his pursuit, but, unlike the
clerk in Pope's well-known lines, he did not
pen a stanza, but he drew a plan of some
piece of machinery. He was eminently con-
structive. A little fellow in petticoats even,
he disregarded toys, save as machines. He
coidd set the leg of a Dutch doll, and then he
would away with it ; but he loved to watch the
millwrights, and those who drew water from
the well, or put in action the simple machi-
nery of the pump. He went home after such
an exhibition, and made a working model
out of an old piece of bored pipe. He also,
greatly to the terror of his friends, for he was
then about six years old, made a working
model of a windmill, and mounted the highest
barn his father had, to fix it. At fifteen, he
had constructed an engine to turn rose-work,
and gave his friends boxes in wood and ivory
as specimens. Clearly he was not born to serve
a writ, or to issue a distringas. Good Mr.
Holmes, in 1742, visiting his father, sees this,
and is wonderstruck at the young mecha-
nician. He forged his iron and steel, melted
his metal, fashioned every tool to work with.

BECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

169

Amongst other things, lie turned out a per-
petual screw, then little known, and by inde-
fatigable industry, was so good a mechanic,
" that," says Mr. Holmes, " few men could
work better." But for aU this, he is to be a
lawyer.

SMEATON AT THE DESK.

Not only mechanics, but the works of
that Heavenly Mechanician whom we should
all study, became subjects of this honest
young Englishman. Nevertheless, in 1742, his
father sent him to London to attend the courts,
and to practise the law. For a few terms
he did so, and then, yielding to the bent of
his genius, he memorialized his father. John
Doe and Kichard Eoe were not for him. Law
puzzled him, but he was clear enough upon
mechanics. He told all this in so persuasive,
honest, and truthful a way, that his father
saw the necessity, and agreed to the transfer.
Law lost one honest man; society gained
so much, that to this day we reap the benefits
thereof.

Smeaton continued to live in London.
There he found food for his genius. He com-
menced the business of a mathematical in-
strument-maker in 1750. A year afterwards
he made a machine to measure the ship's way
at sea, also a peculiar compass, and took two
voyages to test these inventions. In two
years from this he was elected Fellow of the
Hoyal Society, and enriched their " Philo-
sophical Transactions" with his papers.

SCIENCE AT LAST.

The little boy who in his pinafore made a
windmill, and invented a pump, still turned
his attention to wind and water. These were
the two great motive powers, for as yet steam
was but infantine, and much unknown and
mistrusted. In 1759, Smeaton was adjudged
the gold medal of the Society, for his inquiry
into the powers of these two forces. He was,
however, soon to experience these two united
against his own work, to find them, not the

friend of man, but his worst foe. " Fire,"
says the old proverb, " is a good servant,
but a bad master." Cruel and wasteful it is,
a tyrant of the worst sort ; but not worse,
nor more destructive to human life, than the
winds and waves, when the one lashes the
other into fury.

In December, 1775, fire had a great mas-
tery over the Eddystone Lighthouse, and it
was burnt down. The Earl of Macclesfield,
who had always been friendly to Smeaton,
recommended him as the best man in England
to build a new one, and he undertook it.
'• You must," said he, " build it entirely of
stone. Eudyerd and Winstanley have failed ;
but what then ? Their houses wanted weight.
Ours must not only be founded on a rock,
but must press and grow upon that rock."
Upon this principle he proceeded. The first
actual work was done in August, 1756 ; new
steps were cut in the rock, massive stones
were dovetailed together, and Smeaton him-
self experimented on cements until he found
one that would resist the action of the water,
and would, under the most adverse circum-
stances, grow consistent with and adhere to
the stone, and form one solid mass. At the
latter end of September he and his men
quitted the rock, and it was not till June in
the following year (1757) that he renewed
his work. The whole story of the building
of this lighthouse is one of difficulty and of
danger, and of these being overcome by de-
termination. The winds and the waves did
their worst; but Smeaton's house was not
only founded on a rock, but had become
amalgamated with the rock itself. Storms
beat angrily against it — storms as great as
that which carried away the hapless Win-
stanley and his workmen, and yet it stood,
and stands. He who would behold Smea-
ton's great monument should journey to the
Eddystone ; others there may be larger and
more recent, but the downright English
principle of Smeaton's work is the foundation
of all enduring works of that kind.

1^

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

SMEATOHr S LOVE OF HIS "WOEK.

When the Eddystone had grown to a
good level, so that the engineer could walk
about, he took such pleasure in his work
that he walked backwards and forwards sur-
veying it, tUl, stepping backwards, he fell
over the rocks, and might have kUled him-
self, but happily escaped with only a broken
thumb. No aid being near, he set it himself;
but the thumb plagued him sorely for a year.
In August, 1758, the fourteenth course of
stones, and what was called the fundamental
solid, was completed; and thenceforward
greater care was necessary, as the centre
stone was omitted, and the hollow pillar for
stairs, weU-hole, and entry-door was com-
menced. Throughout the winter the work
stood solidly, and in another year the twenty-
eighth hollow course, surrounded with iron
chains of great strength lying in grooves cut
in the stone, into which was poured molten
lead, was completed. Then commenced the
buUding of rooms for the keeper and his
assistants. The winter of 1758-9 Smeaton
spent in London, preparing everything for
his work. In March, 1759, there was a great
storm, and much damage was done at Ply-
mouth. To Smeaton's delight the lighthouse
was found unharmed, with the workmen's
tools lying in the same places as they had
left them in the last year.

On Friday, August 17th, 1759, the column
of the lighthouse was completed. It con-
tained forty-six courses of stone, and rose to
the height of seventy feet. The top was
finished with a gilt ball and cupola, and
every precaution was taken that the beds of
the keepers should be free from damp, and
that the spray of the sea should not pene-
trate the frames. Of the lighting of this
house we have nothing to say here ; the pro-
cess deserves a separate notice. The labours
of others have since made perfect the re-
flection from the celebrated building of
Smeaton.

FAME AND FOBTTJNE.

Little more than one hundred years ago,
on the 16th of October, 1759, the lights along
the shore again beamed forth from the Eddy-
stone, a warning and a guide to the toil-worn
mariners. Smeaton's satisfaction at the com-
pletion of the work was intense. The boy
in a pinafore had felt a wondrous triumph in

his miniature water-mill. As fresh and as
beautiful were the feelings of the man of forty
at the completion of his great work. He
slept in the lighthouse, sailed out to sea and
viewed it, gazed at it from a telescope from
the shore. From the garrison of Plymouth
he watched it in a storm, and the sight was
grand. "A combination would happen," he
says, " when an overgrown wave would strike

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

171

the rock and building conjointly, and fly up
in a wliite column enwrapping it like a sheet,
rising at least to double the height of the
house, and totally intercepting it from sight ;
and this appearance being momentary, both
as to rising and falling, one was enabled to
judge of the comparative height, by the spaces
occupied in the field of the telescope by the
column of water and the house." The year
closed with tremendous storms, and the
courage of the light-keepers was tested to
the utmost. For twelve days the sea ran
over them so much that they could not open
the door of the lantern, or any other door.
" The house did shake," said one of the light-
keepers, " as if one had been up a great tree.
The old men were frightened out of their
lives, wishing they had never seen the place.
The fear seized them in the hack, hut ruhhing
them with oil of turpentine gave them relief"*
G-reat as was the fame which this work
gave Smeaton, it did not immediately bring
him constant employment, but that came at
last. In 1764 he became one of the managers
of the Grreenwich Hospital estates, and by his
tact and diligence greatly improved the pro-
perty, so that in ten years afterwards, when
he wished to resign his post, he was induced
by solicitation to retain it, so much were his
services held in esteem; but in ten years,
from the time we have mentioned, Smeaton
was regarded as one of the foremost men of
his day.

WOEKS AND CHAEACTEE.

Close observation of natural laws, of the
place, of the thing to be done, of the very
best practicable manner of doing it, seems
to have been Smeaton's leading character-
istic through life. His chief works were,
in addition to the Eddystone, lighthouses at
Spurnhead, at the mouth of the Humber, a
new bridge over the Tay, at Perth, the laying

* This banishment of fear, a powerful passion,
hy material means is very curious, and deserves
remark.- — H, P.

out of the great canal oonnecting the Forth
and Clyde, the rendering of the Calder navi-
gable, and the propping of the centre arch of
London Bridge, and the pier and harbour
of Eamsgate. He was consulted upon every
difficult engineering point, and the hints and
wise suggestions which he gave were innu-
merable, and he may in some sort be regarded
as father of a long and brilliant line of English
engineers, men whom no difficulty could daunt,
nor any obstacle throw back. The last great
work of Smeaton was the Eamsgate pier and
harbour, which was finished in 1791, thus
providing a harbour of refuge for ships storm-
pressed in the Downs. Then his work was
done. He was very anxious to write an ac-
count of his labours, commenced it indeed, and
has left us a record of Eddystone. On Sep-
tember 10, 1792, he was seized with paralysis,
and within a month and twelve days he died,
aged 69. EaUing into the hands of Death,
Smeaton was resigned, faithful, and brave.
He had been a good man through life. " I
conclude myself," he says, in one of the last
letters he dictated, " nine parts dead, and
the greatest favour, I think, the Almighty
can do is to complete the other part." He
dreaded also senility and a loss of faculty,
"lingering," as he expressed it, "over the
dregs after the spirit had evaporated." As he
lay upon his bed, upon one moonlight night, he
looked up to the purely resplendent orb, and
said, "How often have I looked forward to
the time when I shall see vast and privileged
views of an hereafter, when all shall be com-
prehension and pleasure." Clearly to know,
to understand the works of God was the
highest pleasure of the dying Engineer, as it
had been to the living. Throughout life
he had preserved undeviating probity. His
first aim was to do his best. He rejected
many lucrative appointments, rather than
undertake too much. Even when his health
was failing, he Was so liberal of his time and
advice, that he gave both to many who needed
them. His highest ambition was to serve

172

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

Ilia country. He was not greedy of money.
The Princess Dashkaw, commissioned by the
Empress of Eussia, offered him an unlimited
reward, if he would settle in that empire,
and carry out, originate, and direct the vast
engineering projects, which filled, and stiU
fills, the brains of the Czariate ; his answer
forms an admirable parallel to that of Andrew
Marvel, who, when offered a bribe, showed the
leg of mutton upon which he and his servant
had dined for three days, asking whether one
who enjoyed such humble fare, and was
content, was likely to sell himself. Smeaton
called out to the old woman who took care of
his cljambers in Gray's Inn, saying, " Money,
and position, and grand attendants, are little
to me, when this old servant suffices for all

my wants." The Princess, unaccustomed to
such honesty, said, " Sir, you are a great man,
you may have an equal in abilities, but in
character you stand single. Sir Eobert Wal-
pole was mistaken; my sovereign has the
misfortune to find that there is one man who
has not his price."

It was a grand thing that a simple English
Engineer should, in the eyes of a foreign po-
tentate, redeem the character of his country-
men, so falsely attacked by the prime mi-
nister of their country. The scene is worthy
of a great painter, worthy also to be remem-
bered and to be reproduced whenever English
genius is solicited to desert its country for
foreign gold.

Hain Feiswell.

THE YOUNG PHILOSOPHEE AT HOME— CHEMICAL EXPEEIMENTS.

t-IH^

At this festive season, when red fire and
blue flame add their charm to the panto-
mime— when the young folks are to have
their " party" — when things that charm our
five senses are purposely gathered together
to enthral the mind, and make it love life —
when the eye is gratified with the graceful
forms that fiutter in the ball-room, the per-
sonification of a happy youthful dream — I
when the olfactoey nerve vibrates with a
sweet smell, like a garden at evening's close,
wafted from a mouchoir held with " unaf-
fected grace" — when the ear carries the
sounds of music, and plays upon the heart-
strings a joyful tune — when taste pro-
nounces blanc-mange, custards, cream, and
frangipane-pudding as the acme of "what
is good" — and when toxtch, by the clasping
hands and kissing lips, tells us that they
whom we have expected for " a whole year"
have at length arrived ; — ^when aU these, the
five acts of our Christmas drama, are enacted
in one scene, we, of coiirse, must play our

part. To perform a clever experiment with
dexterity before a " small party" is at once
to become the hero of the evening. If you
cannot sing, you must solve conundrums or
dance a hornpipe ; if neither of these be
" your forte," a good experiment or two will
give equal pleasure to the " bright blue eyes "
peering on you. Eemember that experiments
of this kind are not only amusing, but in-
structive ; they illustrate what at first sight
appear to be " the laws of Nature reversed,"
while, in truth, when we are familiar with
them, they teach the " immutability of Na-
ture's laws." The more experiments a boy
makes, the greater number of rounds will
he ascend up the "ladder of learning;"
and when he is at the top, how bright
is the prospect before him ! All is beau-
tiful, wonderful, and lovely! To please
the philosophic youth during his vaca-
tion, we have selected a few scenes from
our chemical pantomime ; so, " Here we
are !"

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

173

LATENT HEAT SUDDENLY MADE SENSIBLE.

It is a common trick among boys to rub
a brass button rapidly upon a smooth piece
of wood, and tben to apply it to a com-
panion's cheek ; the button being then " too
warm to be pleasant," induces some merri-
ment at the expense of the luckless wight
who is the victim of it. The heat thus pro-
duced is a simple example of frictional heat.
A somewhat similar experiment, illustrating
the latent heat of amorphous antimony, leads
us to a branch of " recreative science."

The slightest friction against a piece of
this antimony makes it instantaneously " too
hot to hold." If a small tube of amorphous
antimony, like a test-tube, be filled with cold
water, and then the tube be abraded with a
file, so much heat will be given out that the
water will boil. Small pieces of amorphous
antimony held between the thumb and finger,
and rubbed on any rough surface— the file
of a pair of nail-scissors will do— becomes so
suddenly hot, that the efi'ect "seems like
magic."

Mr. Gore, of Birmingham, discovered
amorphous antimony. The following is his
process for making it :— " Take two parts of
hydrochloric acid, add as much oxide of an-
timony as it will dissolve with much stirring,
and then add one more part of acid. Now
pass a current of electricity from a small
battery through the solution by means of an
anode of antimony and a cathode of sheet
copper ; continue the action for two or three
days, until the antimony is deposited upon
the copper from one-sixteenth to one-eighth
of an inch thick ; then transfer the copper
cathode to a bowl of cold water, bend it
cautiously, and the amorphous antimony will
drop ofi" in flakes. When dried, it may be
kept in wool any period for future " recrea-
tion."

A BEOWN-PAPEE MAGNET.

A very simple and interesting electrical
experiment may be made with a sheet of

brown paper, illustratmg, in a remarkable
manner, how the most astonishing effects
may be produced by the simplest means.
Take a sheet of coarse brown paper, and
after holding it before the fire till it is per-
fectly dry, fold it up into a long strip of
about two inches wide ; the magnet is now
complete. To exhibit its attractive power,
cut some strips of writing-paper about three
inches long, and as wide as the space be-
tween these lines; place them upon the
table three or four together. Now take the
magnet, and draw it briskly under the arm
two or three times ; its electro-magnetism is
instantly developed, and becomes apparent
when held over the small strips of writing-
paper, for they fly up from the table towards
the paper magnet, veritably "by the wings of
lightning."

EOSIN BUBBLES

The method of making soap bubbles is
sufficiently familiar not to need description.
Eosin bubbles are made in a similar manner.
A tobacco-pipe is to be dipped into melted
rosin not hotter than just to liquefy it ; when
the pipe is blown through, bubbles will be
formed of various sizes, from that of an egg
down to a bead; and from their metallic
lustre and reflection of the different rays of
light, showing the prismatic colours, they
have a very pleasing appearance. They gene-
rally assume the form of a string of beads,
many of them perfectly regular, connected
by a gossamer fibre of rosin. Unlike soap
bubbles, those made in this way have suffi-
cient permanence to bear touching with a
gentle hand, and with care will remain per-
fect from Christmas-eve to Twelfthtide.

TO LIGHT A CANDLE WITHOUT TOUCHING
THE WICK.

Let a tallow candle burn until it has a
good long snuff, then blow it out ; with a
sudden puff a bright wreath of white smoke

174

BECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

will curl up from tke hot wick ; now if a
flame be applied to this smoke, even at a
distance of two or three inches from the
candle, the flame will run down the smoke
and rekindle the wick in a very fantastic
fashion. To perform this experiment nicely
there must be no draught or " banging" doors
while the mystic spell is rising.

THE MAGIC EGG.

Take a pint of water, and dissolve in it as
much common salt as it will take up ; with
this brine half fill a tall glass, then fill up
the remaining space with plain water, pouring
it in very carefully down the side of the
glass, or into a spoon, to break its fall. The
pure water will then float upon the brine, and
in appearance the two liquors will seem but
as one. Now take another glass, and fiU it
with common water. If an egg be put into
this, it will instantly sink to the bottom ; but
if, on the contrary, the egg is put into the
glass containing the brine, it will sink through
the plain water only, and float upon that
portion which is saturated with salt, appearing
to be suspended in a very remarkable and
curious manner.

CHAMELEON FLUID.

Make an infusion of logwood in the same
manner that tea is made ; the only precau-
tion is, not to make it in a metallic vessel.
Now pour out some of the logwood-tea into
four wine-glasses ; to one of the glasses add
a few drops of vinegar, to another put in a
few grains of alum, and into the third glass
a few grains of green copperas (sulphate of
iron) ; in the fourth glass the liquid may be
left of its natural colour, while the three
former will be changed respectively into red,
blue, and black. An infusion of red cabbage
will change in the same manner, and becomes
green by the addition of a few drops of
hartshorn, i.e., ammonia.

COLOTJEED FLAMES.

Few experiments are more interesting to

the young philosopher than the production
of different flames. The best material for
burning to exhibit these effects is spirits of
M'ine, the substances to produce the colours
being previously dissolved in it. Thus, to
produce a greenish-blue flame, put into a
vial a table-spoonful of spirit, and then shake
in two or three pinches of sulphate, nitrate,
or chloride of copper ; twist a piece of lamp-
cotton round the end of a wire, and dip it
into the mixture ; then set it on fire, and the
beautiful colour is at once produced. For a
pale-yellow flame, put into the vial of spirit a
tea-spoonful of common table-salt. The flame
produced by spirit containing salt has a very
singular effect upon colours, especially red,
which, if there be no other light in the room
while this mystic flame is burning, appears
of a blue-black. All other colours, such as
the various tints of ladies' dresses, undergo a
chameleon change. " Rosy cheeks" and
" coral lips" are metamorphosed to a ghastly
slate colour, creating much merriment. Bed
or scarlet flame is produced by dissolving in
the spirit a small portion of nitrate of stron-
tian or chloride of calcium. All these sub-
stances may be procured from any operative
chemist. The strontian comes from Argyle-
shire, in Scotland, and takes its name from
Strontian, the town in the neighbourhood of
which it is found. There are many other
substances which colour flame in a like
manner, such as boracic acid, chlorate of
potash, etc. ; but those previously named
produce the most striking effect, the colours
being modified by mixing the chemicals.

INSTANTANEOUS CEYSTALLIZATION.

All experiments for the production of
crystals are both interesting and beautiful ;
they show that all matter wiU assume, under
favourable circumstances, a definite and regu-
lar form or shape. Crystallization is a species
of vitality belonging to, and inherent in, what
are generally called unorganized earthy sub-
stances, perfectly analogous to the regular

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

175

form assumed by plants and animals. A cer-
tain crystal will produce crystals of a like
kind, but not of anotlier, just as the seed of
one plant produces its kind, but no other ;
thus : — Dissolve three ounces of sulphate of
soda (Glauber salts) and two ounces of nitrate
of potash (saltpetre) in five ounces of boiling-
hot water ; divide the solution into two
bottles ; in one place a small crystal 'of salt-
petre, and in the other a crystal of Glauber
salts ; allow them to cool slowly, when it will
be found that saltpetre only will crystallize in
one bottle and Glauber salts in the other,
growing up from the crystal seed that was
put in. Crystallization is the first link of the
chain that unites man with the " dust of the
earth." The slower crystals are formed, the
more beautiful and regular they appear ; but
as it is interesting to see them form quickly,
though not of good shape, we give the follow-

ing experiment, by which a liquid is made to
become almost solid in an instant. Take half
a pound of Glauber salt, crush it to powder,
and pour upon it half a pint of boiling water.
As soon as the salt is dissolved, pour ofi" the
clear hot liquor into a warm glass-tumbler,
and set it in an undisturbed place. 'Now, as
quickly as you can, put a table-spoonful of
sweet oil on the surface of the solution,
and let it stand till quite cold. In this
state it will remain liquid, but if touched
with a piece of wood, or if anything
be dropped into the glass, the whole will
instantaneously crystallize. If a bottle
be quite filled with the hot solution,
and corked up while hot, it will remain
liquid when it becomes cold, but when the
cork is drawn, crystals will be rapidly
formed.

Septimxts Piesse.

CLOCK- WOEK CHEOMATYPES.

I HAVE invented an instrument analogous
to the Colour-Top, giving steady revolu-
tion, easily commanded, efiecting a perfect
blending of the coloured radials, and, at the
sametime, affording a proper focus, or point
of view, from which rightly to discern the
curious and pleasing effects of the groups of
tints.

There is no particular rate of speed neces-
sary for the elimination of all effects, for they
become apparent as soon as the colours are
made to revolve; some are produced by slow
motion, while others require rapid revolution
to discover their beauties. It will, therefore,
be quickly perceived that the top which can
only be used at a high rate of speed is limited
in its application, and, by its rapidity, over-
shoots many combinations, which are thus en-
tirely lost. It has also the quality of being
erratic : it may, unless carefully watched,

find its way to the floor, rotating upon your
best corn en route, or it may pirouette amongst
the gentle shepherds and shepherdesses we
so carefully preserve under French-shades,
to their disadvantage ; and for evening use
it is not very applicable.

My simple little machine entirely reme-
dies these — various rates of speed are obtain-
able at wUl, the string " winding-up act " is
obviated, many original and beautiful effects
are produced, while a proper light may be
chosen ; and, as it may be used by artificial
light, our friends have the opportunity of
viewing the beautiful effects during the long
evenings.

Upon a polished oak stand I have
mounted a few wheels of an aged brass time-
piece, the arrangement of which will be rea-
dily understood from the diagrams (Figs. 1
and 2).

176

BECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

To tlie topmost wheel I have fitted a
piece of oak, and upon this glued a circular
piece of stiff cardboard ; this forms my disc-

Fia. 1.

table to receive the coloured papers. Ver-
tically to this I have adapted a boxwood
spindle, with a screw formed at the bottom

Fig, 2.— a, Stand ; B, Key ; C, Disc-table ; D, Black
pattern.

end, and shouldered at the top to receive
patterns. The screw enters the oak through
the cardboard, and fixes the coloured papers

while revolving. To the spindle of the lower-
most wheel I have fitted a pipe key, similar
to those used for French clocks.

It must be borne in mind that one whole
turn of this key will produce upwards of 650
revolutions of the disc-table. Here we have,
then, very great power and mechanical lever-
age, and one also by which the speed can
easily be computed, a thousand revolutions
and upwards being obtainable per minute,
when required, or a very slow speed may be
maintained by the gentlest pressure of the
key, evolving effects hitherto unattainable ;
so that experiments may be tried, and their
formulae speed be described to friends at a
distance with a certainty of success, if re-
peated. The speed being continuous, a
coloured plane being fixed, the variation of
the colours may be observed, and disc after
disc tried, shifted, and others substituted, each
one being made to revolve at varying speeds,
producing many effects, as almost all my pat-
terns do; and the instrument being fixed in
one place, the eye may be brought to bear
upon it in its proper focal position.

There is one other disadvantage I have
overcome — it is this : When a black disc is

Fig. 3.

revolving, the play of light upon it produces
a certain aberration, a hazy indistinctness.

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

177

certainly not advantageous. I obviate this by
an invention I call achromascopeCFig.d). This
is a hollow cone, twelve incbes long, five in
diameter at the base, and one inch in diameter

watched with great interest and mmuteness,
and the colours shine out and sparkle with
great brilliancy. I have made patterns which
from their effect we call the "Meteor," the

Fig. i.—A Beautiful Plaid,
at the apex, painted black inside. The effe ct
of this apparatus is truly surprising when
held vertically about half an inch over the

Fig. 5.-^Constellation.

Fig. G. — Comet.
"Constellation," the "Comet," etc., and
which can only be viewed, with proper
effect, with the chromascope.

black disc, and the eye applied to the smaller

end. All that was misty before is now clear ^^^.^, - ^^.^^ — — i- -

enough ; the changes and alternations may be i may be divided into classes. It may be stated

19 Q

Fig. 7.— Open Pattern "Work.

Having thus briefly described the instru-
ments, I append a few experiments, which

178

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

that I simply give one experiment of eacL,
class : —

1. From simple colours to produce a com-
pound colour. — Take a disc coloured equally
red, blue, and yellow, and placing your finger
upon the red, have the blue upon your left
hand, and the yellow on the right; rotate
this very gently, so that blue passes the eye
before the yellow ; by turning the key away
from you, you have a blue. Let this cease, and
then very gently reverse the key ; by turning it
towards you, awAKM gkeen will be produced.
The singularity of this I will not now discuss.

2. Have a disc coloured in concentric
bands like a target, say blue centre, then
crimson, orange, yellow, and purple; j'^ou
wUl look for a rainbow-like blending — try.

3. Wliat white is composed of. — Divide a
disc, violet 80", indigo 40", Prussian blue 60',
green 60", yellow 48°, orange 27°, red 45° ;
rotate with speed.

4. Screw on a disc, half blue half white,
rotate and mount the pattern, say Fig. 4, on
to the spindle. The black wUl gradually dis-
appear and become blue, while all the perfora-
tions are white.

6. Put down a multi-coloured disc and
pattern. Pig. 5 will produce a jewel-like con-
stellation ; Pig. 6 will give long rays of colour
darting like a meteor or comet's tail, etc.

6. This is a different class of experiment.
Put down a multi-coloured disc, and imme-
diately upon it place a rather open pattern,
as Pig. 7 (looping up the string), screw these
down together and rotate — this wiU show a
beautiful graduation of tints ; then mount a
pattern over all and apply the chromascope.
A magnificent double and treble network or
engine-turning wiU appear to view, varied
according to the speed of rotation, as also by
changing the upper pattern.

These experiments may be varied ad in-
finitum, and many others will suggest them-
selves to the manipulatingreaders of this work,
from which, I have no doubt, very interest-
ing and important results wiU be obtained.

All the experiments may be tried by
candle-light. The yellows only becoming dull,
a few self-evident arrangements wiU have to
be made. The light must be placed nearly
level with the black discs, so as not to throw
a shadow upon the disc-table, and then the
colours appear exceedingly brilliant through
the chromascope.

Thus I wlU now leave the matter ; but as
every few days suggest to me some improve-
ment and new use for this curious instrument,
I may be able, at a future time, when I have
matured my experiments, to interest others
in them through the medium of this work.
Guildford. Thos. GtOODCHILD.

THE APTERYX at DINNEE.

On a worm being presented to an Apteryx, it
seized it between the tips of its mandibles,
and a sleight was then performed which it
perfectly baffled the eye to follow. AH that
was seen was a sudden jerk of the head
upwards, and an opening of the bill equally
sudden and simultaneous ; the worm mean-
time disappearing with the quickness of a
flash of lightning. The mode by which it
was swallowed appeared to be this: — The
worm being taken between the tips of the
mandibles, a very rapid retrograde move-
ment of the head and neck gave it an im-
petus in the direction of the throat. It
was held fast just time enough to give
this impetus, and the biU being opened at
that moment and the worm released, it was
carried by the force into the throat, and
swallowed by the ordinary muscular action
of the oesophagus. Toads, chameleons, wood-
peckers, and many other creatures, take their
prey with an imperceptible motion of the
tongue ; but in this case it had to traverse
the entire length of a long bill.

0. S. EouNi).

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

179

METEOEOLOGY OF DECEMBEE.

FEOM OBSERVATIONS AT HIGHFIELD HOUSE OBSERVATORY.

Year.

1841 .,

1842 . ,

1843 .

1844 .
184r> .

1846 .,

1847 .,

1848 .

1849 .

1850 .

1851 .
■ 1852 ..

1853 .

1854 .

1855 .

1856 .

1857 .

1858 .

The greatest heat in shade reached 620° in 1856,
and only 43'0'' in 1844, giving a range of 17-3° in greatest
beat for December during the past seventeen years.

The greatest cold was as low as 12'0° in 1855, and
never below SO-O" in 1857, giving a range of 18'0'' in
greatest cold for December, during the past eighteen
years.

Only 0-4 inch of rain fell in 1844 and 1857, whilst
4 inches fell in 1845, giving a range of 3"6 inches for
December, during the past sixteen years. The mean
amount of rain for this month is 1'9 inches,

December is a very variable month, depending much
on the general du'ection of the wind for its character ;
it is, however, usually mUd, with the wind blowing be-
tween W. and SW. E. J. Lowe.

Greatest

Heat.
Degrees,

Greatest

Cold,
Degrees.

Amount of

Kain.

Inches.

— .,

.. 210 ..

.. —

57-5 ,.

, , 27-5 . ,

—

57-0 ,.

.. 29-0 ..

.. 1-6

43-0 ..

.. 19-5 .,

.. 0-4

53-0 ,.

. . 2G0 , .

,. 4-0

47-5 ..

.. 15-7 ,.

.. 1-3

56-0 .,

. . 29-0 . .

.. 3-4

58-1 ..

. , 26-2 , .

.. 2-4

530 .,

.. 20-5 ..

.. 3-9

55-0 ,.

, . 23-5 . ,

.. 1-7

56-3 ..

, . 20-3 , .

.. 1-6

56-5 ..

, , 24-8 , ,

,. 20

510 ..

,. 13-8 ,,

.. 0-6

56-6 ..

, . 24-0 . .

.. 2-4

50-8 ..

. . 120 . .

.. 0-8

60-2 ,.

. . 12-5 . .

., 1'8

56-8 .,

.. 30-0 ..

,. 0-4

54-0 ..

.. 24-8 ..

.. 1-9

ASTEONOMICAI; OBSEEVATIOI^S
EOE DECEMBEE, 1859.

The sun is in the constellation Sagittarius till the
morning of the 22nd, when he passes into Capricomus.
In London he rises on the 1st at 7h. 45m., on the 15th
at 8h. 2m., and on the 31st at 8h. 9m. He sets on the
1st at 3h. 53m., on the 15th at 3h. 49m., and on the
61st at 3h; 58m. In Dublin he rises 10 minutes
later, and sets 10 minutes earlier. In Edinburgh, at
the commencement of the month, he rises 26 minutes
later, and sets 26 minutes earlier, and at the end rises
27 min. later, and sets 27 min. earlier than in London,

The sun reaches the meridian on the 1st at llh.
49m. 7s. a.m., on the 15th at llh. 55m. 138. a.m., and
on the 31st at 12h. 3m. 8s. p.m.

Equation of time on the 1st, 10m. 53s. ; on the
15th, 4m. 47s. ; and on the 31st, 3m. 8s. Up to
Christmas-day clock after sun ; after which before sun.

Day breaks on the 1st at 5h. 41m., and on the

29th at 6h. 2m., and twilight ends on the 1st at 5h.
56m., and on the 30th at 6h. Om. Length of day on
the 3rd, 8h. 3m., and on the 23rd 7h. 44m. The
length of day has decreased on the I2th 8h. 44m.

Full moon on the 10th at 3h. 13m, a.m.

New moon on the 24th at 5h. 47m. a.m.

The moon is at her greatest distance from the
earth on the 29th, and at her least distance on the
13th, She is near Jupiter on the 12th, Saturn o» the
14th, Mars on the 19th, and Venus on the 26th,

Mercury is an evening star till the 13th, and then
a morning star. He is situated very low, and is, coi>
sequently, imfavourable for observation. He is in
Sagittarius, passing into Ophinchus at the end of the
month. He rises on the 1st at 9h. 38m., and on the
26th at 6h. 15m, He sets on the 1st at 4h, 56m,
p.m., and on the 28th at 2h. 48m. p.m.

Venus is unfavourably situated for observation,
being low, near the sun, and also at a great distance
from the earth. She is an evening star, and is in
Ophinchus, passing into Sagittarius in the middle of
the month, and into Capricomus at the close. She is
nearly circular in form, and rises between 9 and 10
a.m., and sets on the 26th at 5h, 37m.

Mars is unfavourably situated for observation, its
disc being less than 6" of arc. He is a morning star,
and in Virgo tiU the end of the month, when he passes
into Libra. He rises at about a quarter past three,
a.m., and sets on the 26th at Ih. Im. p.m.

Jupiter is a fine telescopic object, his apparent dia-
meter on the 31st being 44", having increased from 30"
since June. He is in Gemini, except for the first few
days, whenhe is inCancer. He is an evening star, rising
on the 1st at 7h. 2m. p.m., and on the 26th at 5h.
20m. p.m., and being on the meridian on the 1st at
3h. 9m. a.m., and on the 26th at Ih. 21m. a.m.

Saturn is an evening star, and a good telescopic
object. He is in Leo throughout the month. His
motion is direct until the 8th, when he is stationary,
and after which retrograde. He rises on the 1st ^t
9h.56m. p.m., and on the 26th at 8h. 16m. p.m.

Uranus is favourably situated for observation, being
in the constellation Taurus throughout the month.
He is on the meridian on the 1st at llh. 84m, p.m.,
and on the 26th at 9h. 51m. p.m.

There will be six occultations of stars by the
moon on December 8th, viz.: — Electra, 4th magni-
tude, disappears 3h. 36m. p.m. ; and reappears 4h.
25m, p.m. Celoeno, 5 Jth magnitude, disappears 4h. Om.
p.m., and reappears 4h. 9m p.m. Merope, 5th magni-
tude, disappears 4h. 6m. p.m., and reappears 4h, 49m.
p.m. Alcyone, 3rd magnitude, disappears 4h. 32m. p.m . ,
and reappears 5h. 24ra. p.m. Pleione, 5ith magni-
tude, disappears 5h. 18m. p.m., and reappears 5h,
59m, p.m. Atlas, 4th magnitude, disappears 5h. 32m..
p.m., and reappears 5h. 38m. p.m.

The following eclipses of Jupiter's satellites are
visible : — On the 2nd, at Ih. 2m, 19s. a.m., 3rd mooil
disappears. On the 2nd, at 4h. 14m. lis. a.m., 3rd
moon reappears. On the 6th, at llh. 59m. 37s. p.m.,
1st moon disappears. On the 14th, at Ih. 53m. 8s»
a.m., 1st moon disappears. On the 15th, at 8h. 21ia.

180

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

80s. p.m., 1st moon disappears. On the 16th, at Ih.
38m. 17s. a.m., the 4th moon disappears. On the 16th,
at 5h. Om. 16s. a.m., 4th moon reappears. On the
17th, at 7h. 15m. 53s. p.m., 2nd moon disappears.
On the 22nd, at lOh. 15m. 10s. p.m., 1st moon disap-
pears. On the 24th, at 9h. 52m. 26s. p.m., 2nd moon
disappears. On the 30th, at Oh. 8m. 57s. a.m., 1st
moon disappears. On the 31st, at 6h. 37m. 26s. p.m.,
1st moon disappears. On the 31st, atl2h. 28m. 593.
a.m., 2nd moon disappears.

Meantime of the transit of the first point of Aries : —
On the 1st at 7h. 19m. 32s.; on the 15th, 6h. 24m. 29s. ;
and on the 31st, 5h. 21m. 358.

E. J. Lowe.

Highfield House Observatory, Nottingham.

THINGS OF THE SEASON— DECEMBEK.

FOR VARIOUS LOCALITIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.

Birds Arriving. — Pintail, Scaup, Black Velvet
and Eider Ducks, Brent and Laughing Geese, Wild
Swan, Gray-headed and Orange-headed Gossanders,
Black-throated and Red-throated Divers, Grossbeak,
Sno-wflake, White Nun, Long-tailed and Tufted
Pochers, occasional flights of Eedpoles, Starlings, and
Skylarks from the Continent. Woodcocks continue
to arrive.

Birds Departing. — Gray Plover.

Wild Plants. — ^Verrucaria, Endive-leaved Ceno-
myce, Fringed Bornera, Thelotrema, Spiloma, Tar-
gionia, Graphis stricta, Glaucous Riccia, Christmas
Rose. Furze and Hepatica bloom in sheltered places.
Mistletoe berries ripen.

Mt Noteworthy's Corner.

Duration of Life. — Dr. Guy says that among lite-
rary men poets live the shortest lives of any. Taking
Tibullus, Persius, Lucilius, Catullus, Virgil, Horace,
Ovid, and Martial, as the leading Roman poets, the
average duration of life was 48^ years. Against these
he places for contrast, Kirke Wliite, Collins, Parnell,
Bums, Goldsmith, Thomson, Cowley, Shakspeare,
and Pope, and the average is 43 years. Married lite-
rary men live longer than the single. Of 188 men of
science, the lowest age at death was 22, and the highest
92 : the last was a naturalist. Scientific men have an
advantage over artists and literary men, but the pur-
suit of literature is pronounced by Dr. Guy favourable
to longevity, but destructive to life at early periods.
A comparison of 8449 facts gives as one result that
the duration of life of married men is greater than
that of the unmarried by as much as 5f years.

Portable Furnace. — At a soiree, lately held at the
London University, Mr. Grifiin exliibited a portable
furnace of novel construction, adapted for laboratory
uses and for amateurs in metal-work. It can be placed

on a table or bench, and, by means of a gas-flame, fed
by a flexible tube, produces a heat sufficiently intense
to melt any of the metals ordinarily used in the arts.
The expense of melting Sf lbs. of copper in ten mi-
nutes is three farthings. The caloric is economized,
and confined to a small area, by means of earthenware
discs ; and when the crucible containing the metal is
at a white heat, the hand may be placed on any part
of the apparatus externally without being burned.

Earlt Frosts. — During twenty years past, there
have been four hard frosts in September, on one occa-
sion as early as the 7th. In fourteen years out of
twenty, sharp frosts have occurred between the 20th
and 30th of October. The earliest frosts during the
past twenty years occurred : — September 7, 1855 ; ther-
mometer, 28° ; duration of frost, one day. September
17, 1840; thermometer, 29°; duration, one day. Sep-
tember 20, 1856; thermometer, 29°; duration, one
day. September 27, 1847 ; thermometer, 28° ; duration,
one day. During the whole period, the frost of 1859 was
most severe, the thermometer was at 17° on the 23rd,
and the frost lasted eight days. The frost next in
severity to the one of the present year occurred on
the 21st of October, 1842, thermometer, 20°. These
registrations are from observations made at Chiswick,
of which Mr. Thompson has prepared a table, which
appeared in the Gardener's Chronicle on the 5tlx of last
month.

The October Gales. — Admiral Fitzroy has proved,
by statistical data, that most of the painful disasters
resulting from the late gales might have been obviated
had the plain teachings of science been heeded by the
brave mariners whose bones have strewed our shores.
The barometer and thermometer distinctly foretold
that storms were coming. Science gave warning of
what Nature was about to do, and few of the many
who perislied but liad time to prepare against the
worst. The low state of the barometer, and the move-
ments of the thermometer, plainly indicated, first, a
storm from the north, and next a storm from the
south, as eventually happened. Nor was the warning
a short one ; it gave time for vessels far at sea to
prepare to ride it out, and for those near shore to seek
a proper refuge, and this the "Royal Charter" might
have done, and witli aU her living freight have come
safely into port at last. Mr. Noteworthy rejoices to
know that the life-boat and coast-guard stations are to
be provided with good barometers, and he hopes no
pride of personal daring will stand in tlie way of a
careful study of the indications of the valuable instru-
ment. Mr. Noteworthy learns from his friend, Mr. W.
C. Burder, through the columns of tlie Times, that
the storm of the 25th and the 26th was, probably, a
revolving one, but that the radius was so large, that
in the part of its course near Bristol, the tangent and
the arc may be considered parallel. With all the dis-
may and sorrow that come with the warring of the ele-
ments, the pliilosopher will mingle thankfulness that
man is not left utterly in the dark, but may, if he
chooses, see the cloud no bigger than a man's hand,
and shield his head against its bursting.

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

191

" His nest is near the garden-door,
But who hath eyes to find it ? "

OUE PEIEND THE EOBIN.

If we held tlie Pytliagorean notion of the
transmigration of souls, we might indulge in
very pretty speculations as to the antecedents
of the spirit of our familiar friend, the Eobin
Eedbreast, His dashing carriage, audacious
strut, self-possession, and adventurous cou-
rage seem so many indications that his soul
is human; for is he not a mixture of the
hero, the minstrel, and the coxcomb? In
the light of tradition he is not a bird, but a
person, and one almost elevated into the
ranks of a petty deity. It is hard to say
whether the moral story of his life, as we
make acquaintance with it by experience, or
the mysterious influence of traditionary pres-
tige, is to be regarded as the source of that
homage we pay to his name and nature, by
■which he becomes of right the most sacred

Vol.. I.— No. 6.

of our lares. Our hearts leap out to the
robin as he leaps in at the garden-door ; and
if we cannot in the body, at least in the
spirit we shake hands with him as the dearest
friend of our childhood, and one whom we
are prepared to cherish and defend at all
hazards. The robin and the sparrow vie
with each other in courting the friendship of
man. But the robin not only courts, but
compels — not only sues, but demands — and
so he gains a march on the sparrow, and will
be spared by the prosiest blockhead, who
would shoot and poison every other bird
within his reach. The affection for the robin
is shared by all of us alike— it may differ in
degree, but not in kind ; and even the heart-
less bird-catcher handles him with more
tenderness than any other bird, and some-

1&2

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

times has the humane courage to let him go
for his beauty's sake. But the robin has
character as well as beauty ; his bold outline,
broad chest, and twinkling eyes give him the
attitude of a chieftain ; and his breast wears
the robe of royalty, by which we know him
best.

The unmatched sweetness and wildness
of his song — the personal dash of his bearing,
his fearless familiarity, his solitariness as he
stands all alone on the top of a gate-post,
defying the blasts of Boreas and the snow-
shrouds and sleety arrows of Death, which
have conquered all but him — the brightness
of his scarlet breast, and the web of romance
that centuries have woven in his honour ; —
these are sufficient reasons why the robin
should enjoy the highest fame among the
birds of Britain. Therefore is he ouvfiiend
the robin, whom we never see and never
hear but we feel a thrill of homeliness
that springs from the very seat of our best
affections ; for, after all, he is a helpless
creature, and our human sympathies warm
up with most force and spontaniety for all
who tenderly manifest their dependence upon
us. If the excellence of love is to be mea-
sured by comparisons, the mother loves no
chUd so fervently as the one she has to
nurse, and soothe, and nestle to her bosom ;
and as if he knew that human love must ex-
press itself in kindness, he comes without
fear to the threshold, and even takes his place
at the table to share with us the best we
have, and so wins our whole heart by his
confidence.

What an uninteresting bird is the robin
apart from these poetical features of his
history ! He takes a wife in direct opposition
to the precepts of Malthus, renounces the
idea of prudence and provision beforehand
for a family, but simply yields to impulse,
and " takes no thought for the morrow."
The nest is often built while snow lies thick
on the ground, most frequently at the bottom
of an old hedge, sometimes in a hole in an

old wall, or in a boss of ivy, and most rarely
of all on the summit of a thick bush. With
an instinctive veneration for the past, the
robin avoids all new places, and gives the
preference to a hedge that has not been
clipped for years, in which the stems of the
quicks are matted a foot deep in dead leaves
and wisps of moist hay ; or on a wall that is
in ruins, and which the ivy will some day,
not far distant, bring to the ground. A
hollow in a root, an old pile of mossy faggots,
a neglected corner of a woodyard — these are
the places in which you may look out for
the robin, if you want to study his domestic
life. Turner, who wrote on the "Eobinet"
— he was so called by Drayton and others of
the old writers — three centuries ago, set afloat
a whole chapter of inaccuracies, which have
been copied by almost every writer since,
including even WHloughby, Buffon, and
Bewick. Turner says, he "nestleth as far as
possible from towns and cities, in the thickest
copses and orchards ;" whereas, in truth, the
robin loves the neighbourhood of man all
the year round, though his peculiar fami-
liarity is manifested only in autumn and
winter ; and in every one of the suburbs of
London, where there is any touch of rurality,
the robin regularly builds, and rears its
young. At Stoke Newington, there are as
many robins' nests every spring as there are
of blackbirds and thrushes ; and he is only
beaten in this respect by the sparrow, which
is a social bird, whereas the robin is a hermit,
and an association of hermits would be para-
doxical. Turner says, "she coverethher nest
with archwork, leaving only one way for
entrance, for which purpose she builds with
leaves a long porch before the doorway ; all
which, before going out to feed, she covereth
with leaves." This is another mistake, which
nearly all the writers on birds have copied ;
but there is just a grain of truth in it, be-
cause the nest is usually in the midst of a
collection of drifted rubbish and dead leaves,
and is therefore not easy to find; but a

RECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

183

"porch." and a " coTering" are inventions of
the fancy. The best figure of a robin's nest
I have met with is that in the second volume
of the Eev. E. O. Morris's " Nests and Eggs
of British Birds." It is a moderately neat
nest, not particularly finished or artistic, but

about London ; for, as a genuine rustic, the
robin is not over particular, except as to
strength and safety. People who collect eggs
are a good while obtaining experience in dis-
tinguishing those of the robin, for they vary
in colour considerably. They are usually

" Art tbou the bird whom man loves best,
The pious bird with the scarlet breast,

Our litde English Eobin ?"

W0BDS\T0RTH.

compact, roomy, and always warm. The
mass of the structure consists of moss, dried
leaves, and bents ; and the lining is usually
of linen and wool. I have seen bits of cloth,
paper, and Berlin wool worked into nests

freckled with yellow and brown on a white
ground, but are sometimes gray, with ferru-
ginous spots, and occasionally of the purest
white.

The building of the nest is usually a slow

184

RECKEATIVE SCIENCE.

aflfair : tliere is a great deal of fidgeting and
caprice ; the newly -married pair seem to have
no settled views of life, and often lay the
foundations of many nests before they finally
work in earnest to complete one. A pair that
built in my garden last summer, and brought
out a strong brood, made choice, I think, of
not less than half a dozen places along the
length of the privet-hedge, and at last settled
within ten yards of the drawing-room win-
dows, whence we could watch my lord and my
lady making their excursions, and knew when
eggs had been laid by missing my lady alto-
gether. But my lord was so pompous, rest-
less, serious, and busy, that he filled the
scene with his own consequential presence,
and the square* rod of turf which fronted his
domain was none too large for him to give it
all the life it needed. Eennie tells of a
pair building in a greenhouse at Christmas,
and bringing out their young, in due course,
with perfect safety. The Eev. F. O. Morris
gives the following dates at which nests con-
taining eggs were found: — November, 1851,
at Gribton, Dumfriesshire; January, 1848,
at Moreton, and near York ; first week of
February, 1844, near York ; 20th of Febru-
ary, near Belfast. From the end of April to
the beginning of June are the periods when
the first broods usually come out — earlier or
later, according to the season and the locality.
No one unaccustomed to young birds would
suppose the little puffy gray things to be
robins. They soon, however, acquire the
first instalment of their future russet in nu-
merous rust-coloured spots, and these gradu-
ally disappear ; towards August the " scarlet"
of the breast begins to show itself distinctly.
Then old and young alike acquire their pro-
per winter plumage, and towards the middle
of September robins appear to be suddenly
plentiful, as if they were birds of passage
and had just arrived, whereas with little song
and very sober coats, the old birds have been
close to us all summer, and their numbers
are now increased by the young of the year.

Long before the young birds have ac-
quired their russet garb, they demonstrate
themselves to be robins by their pugnacity.
Before they have full strength to leave the
nest and shift for themselves, they fight
amongst each other, and no sooner is it
plainly evident that if kicked out they need
not perish, than they are kicked out. The
father knows them no longer, except as ene-
mies against whom he rejoices to show the
strength of his beak and claws. From this
time tUl the season of nidification again re-
turns, robins prove their royalty by their
love of combat. Old birds and young birds,
cock birds and hen birds, all fight, and prefer
to fight each other rather than any meaner
foes. At pairing time the pugnacious pas-
sion is at its height among the males ; every
attitude, every movement, every song, have
all one meaning— ;^^^^. When the robin's
song is at its best, at the end of September,
and again just after the turn of the year, take
note of the way in which he performs his min-
strelsy. He comes with a flirt over the fence
and alights on the ground, his beautiful
breast burning with martial hues, and his
heart beating with martial passions. He
does not hop like a common bird, but shuffles,
three hops at a time, with a small flutter at
the end, then shuffles again, and presently
flirts on to the rail, post, or branch which
gives him the best view of your face, and
there, eying you with dignified confidence,
he trills out his short, plaintive, and melli-
fluous song. Now listen ! That same song,
note for note, is immediately repeated from a
neighbouring tree or fence, and see ! he has
been listening for it with all his feathers
ruffled, knowing that if there be one of his
race within hearing, his defiant piping will
be answered in the same strain of wildness
and of war. Yes, it means war, sweet as
it is ; and rarely does the robin sing except as
a challenge which the next within hearing ia
always bold enough to answer. You may
hear fifty robins in the course of a short

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

185

walk, and every one will be found to sing,
pause for reply, and sing again, and every
separate song is an invitation to mortal com-
bat. When they fight, as they do fre-
quently, it is without quarter on both sides
— one of them is almost sure to perish.
Many a robin have I found and buried with
martial honours, pronouncing him a "little
fool," when his mite of a body, all ruffled
and blood-stained, has been in my hand ; but
the battles take place usually at day-break,
and none but early risers have a chance of
witnessing this trait of the robin's character.
Rennie once saw an instance at Compton
Bassett, in Wiltshire, " in which a redbreast
made a daily visit in summer within a cottage-
door." Wonderful sight to see ! how many
hundreds of such " instances" have country
people, who are not naturalists, seen ? Why,
there is hardly a countryman in the three
kingdoms but, at some time or other, has
seen a robin go within the cottage-door ; and
any man with a goodnatured face may scrape
acquaintance with the robin without ceremony
of introduction, for his motto is veni, vidi,
vici — it is not for you to seek him, he makes
the direct appeal by placing himself in your
power, and, unless you are a downright brute,
you are beaten by his confidence. He is the
friend of man, and is determined that man
shall be his friend. When caged, and so de-
spoiled of that joyous liberty he loves so much,
to sing and slaughter at his own free-will, he
still is the most impudent of all birds. I
never keep but one caged robin, and that is
only during the winter months. I let him
free in March, as they are easily caught,
and easily kept, but are apt to die in sum-
mer. This is the way to indulge your own
desire without doing grievous wrong — nay,
robins often perish of cold and want in winter,
for they are not so hardy as they look, and
by keeping a robin over winter only, one
may console one's self by the belief that the
bird has been rescued from possible misery.
My present " Bobby" came home three miles

screwed up in a paper bag inside my hat.
In three days he was at home in his cage,
in a week he was as tame as an old canary.
The secret is to give insect food in plenty ;
quietly drop in the cage one meal-worm, or
one spider, or a small earth-worm. Presently
you hear a tapping, and the prey is swallowed.
Give another, and another, till Bobby has
made away with half a dozen. Leave him
alone for an hour, then fill his food-vessel
with a paste made thus : grated carrot as
much as will fill a table-spoon, a quarter of
a French roll steeped for a minute in boiling
water, squeezed dry, and then slightly wetted
with boiling milk, a table-spoonful of hemp-
seed scalded with boUing water and drained
quite dry ; mix all together, and let him have
a little at a time ; it will keep two days in a
cool place, and in cold weather need only be
made twice a week — of course if it gets sour
it should be thrown away. With this and
daily supplies of animal food, whether insects
or minced beef, robins always do well, and
there is no occasion for German paste, or
any other mysteries. When once he takes
fairly to the food, place a meal-worm on the
open palm of your hand and let his door be
opened. If he does not sweep over your hand
and carry away the meal-worm on his way
to alight on a cornice or a curtain-pole, tlien
you are not clever in managing birds, and
must hope for better luck in future.

I never would keep a robin except as a
member of the family, with liberty to go in.
and out of his cage as he pleased, and with &
special welcome to hop about the table at
meal times, and help himself from every- dish.
To make sure of success, you must get a
strong bird that has been caged when " gray."
To catch one at this season is to sacrifice it,
for it will sigh itself away and break its heart
at the loss of freedom. With a good gray
the case is difierent. He loves his cage as
much as you love your home, and if you open
the cage-door when all is quiet, he will at
once explore the room, and be as thoroughly

180

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

at home as any of your children. Throw a
meal-worm on the floor, his quick eye will
detect it, and he will, by his look, ask you
for another. Gratify his whim, and pre-
sently present one in the palm of your open
hand, and, by a graceful sweep on the wing,
it will be taken ; and from that moment you
and he are the best of friends.

Now you may enjoy a hearty laugh at
his erpense. Set on the table an earthen
pan, filled to within an inch of the rim with
water, on which float a good-sized bung, or
a flat piece of wood measuring say three
inches each way ; your friend will alight on
the edge instanter, then take to the raft, and
there splash and dip till drenched to the
skin. His efforts to balance himself as the
frail support tilts over with him, will prove the
best fun you have had this season ; and it
will be better fun still when the " drowned
rat" betakes himself to the front of the fire,
to shake himself dry in the enjoyment of the
warmth. Don't be in haste to pronounce
this cruel, for the robin is as fond of water
as a No-vfoundland dog.

The personal bravery of this bonny bii'd
is all in keeping with his place in history and
tradition. Is there a national folk-lore of
any kind that lacks a legend of the robin ?
Didn't we all make acquaintance with "Cock
E^bin" in nursery rhymes that will never
die out of our memories? Haven't we all
wept, and are ready to weep again, at the
dear old story of the " Babes in the Wood,"
whose little lifeless forms were buried de-
cently with the perfumed strewings of the
autumn, in the lonely land of blackberries ?
Cannot we trace to that legend very much of
the sanctity with which the robin is invested
as the bird of privilege, to be protected and
cherished in the enjoyment of his native
wildness ? All the robin legends have the
same tendency to endear him to us. In Brit-
tany there is a legend that when the Saviour
was bearing his cross, a redbreast plucked a
thorn from hia crown, which, piercing its

breast, dyed it with the stain that has ever
since sufficed to link it with our sympathies.
In poetry he bears a variety of designa-
tions. Shakspere makes a comparison of his
"love song," and Ophelia, in her madness,
sings of him as "all her joy." Carrington
calls him " the bird of autumn," and " sweet
household bird." Dr. Jenner describes him
as "the sweetest of the feathered throng,"
and thinks of him as the "helpless bird."
Wordsworth as the " pious bird," and Gra-
hame, in plain English, calls him "the friend
of man." He is too thoroughly English to
possess classical distinctions. The Greek
poets wanton with swans, and nightingales,
and swallows, that " bring the message of
the gods ;" and the Soman poets gave their
hearts to bees and roses, all-forgetful of the
homely redbreast. Even Keats was too
much flushed with the wine of an old vin-
tage, too much dazed by god Bacchus, and
lulled by the fragrance from pagan altars, to
befriend the robin with a word of praise. Is it
not the robin that Tennyson alludes to as the

" Wild bird whose warbled liquid sweet
Eings Eden tlirougli the budded quicks? "

Strange omission if the wondrous dirge,
" In Memoriam," has no place in it for the
very type of tenderness for the "sacred
dust." He must be there, though I have
failed to find him. One more of these cita-
tions must suffice to bring the story of the
robin to an end. Grahame has a passage
descriptive of the robin's visit to a smithy,
which Sydney Yendys may have read ere he
penned that famous line, " blows the rough
iron of his heart red-hot"—

" Fearless of the clang and furnace glare,
Looks round, arresting the uplifted arm,
WhUe on the anvil rests the glowing bar."

Here, then, we bid him farewell, and
when his loud canticle — best of Christmas
carols — breaks the silence of the wintry air,
we will delight to hail him as Oue Eeiend
the eobin.

Shieley Hibbeed.

BECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

18t

THE ANECDOTE HISTOEY OF PHOTOGRAPHY.

COLLECTION I.

It would be superfluous to enter into any-
lengthened or learned dissertation on tlie
origin of the term Photography, suffice it to
say that it is derived from the Greek words
phos (photos) and ffrapho, which in English
signify to draw or paint hy the agency
of light. The art has also been called
Heliography, a term compounded of two
Greek words, meaning to paint or draw by
the agency of sunlight ; and indeed this lat-
ter appellation better illustrates our topic
when we speak of the science of the sun-
beam— the sunbeam or pencil of light that
portrays, on any properly prepared surface,
and through the medium of the delineat-
ing lens, either portraits, pictures, or land-
scapes.

Photography, or the science of the sun-
beam, has thus become essentially one of the
most beautiful and graphic arts of the day,
and has proved itself an invaluable auxiliary to
the progress and promotion of almost every
art and science, while its general difiusion
throughout England, the Continent, and the
world, is no small proof of its universality
and value. We have now a central society
in London — the Photographic Society and
Exhibition — numbering between 400 and
500 of the most eminent practical photogra-
phers ; another in France, and others in the
principal continental cities. There are nu-
merous artists of emiaence in London who
practice photography as a profession, while
the total number of those who devote them-
selves to it in the metropolis and provinces
may be estimated by hundreds. Then there
are amateurs without number, a multitude of
professed photographic material dealers and
practical apparatus makers, while the money
expended in the art amounts to many thou-
sands a year. Most of our large English

cities have their photographic societies and
exhibitions, and one has been recently estab-
lished in India. In addition to this, it has
given great impetus in a new direction to the
glass and chemical trades, to the frame manu
facturer, to the miniature painter, the opti-
cian, the paper-maker, and the picture- seller.
No fewer than thirty different processes have
been invented for taking photographs on
paper, though these, since the introduction of
the collodion and albumen processes on glass,
have been comparatively abandoned.

Unlike steam, telegraphs, and railways,
the origin of photography is not involved in
obscurity. It is, in fact, one of the brilliant
discoveries of our own day and generation,
and dates from the beginning of the present
century. Its foreshadowing is by some very
imaginative people traced to those lines in
Milton, where he is supposed to hint at some
magic process of after-time, in which,

" With one touch virtuous
The arch-chemic sun, so far from us remote,
Produces."

Others, speculating on its origin, allege
that photography, in some rude form, was
known to the Indian jugglers. Suppositions
of an equally interesting and ingenious cha-
racter assert that our great mother Nature
was the authoress of all photography ; that
she it was who first placed it in the cradle of
discovery, where it was nursed by light,
and nourished on sunbeams. These and
other interesting photographic facts will be
illustrated more in detail by the anecdotes
that follow.

There is a story that the first principles
of a peculiar photographic process were dis-
covered fifteen years ago by M. Bayard, on
the amber and purple surface of a peach.
Proud of his peaches, M. Bayard, it is said.

188

EECREATIA^E SCIENCE.

was accustomed to mark them with his
initials. To effect this he was in the habit
of gumming on to the surface his initials cut
in small paper characters, and which, under
the action of the autumn sun, left their im-
pression on the ripening fruit.

Photogeaphic Effects of Lightning.
—The first authentic mention of this sin-
gular natural phenomenon was made by
Pranklin in 1796, who states that a man who
was standing opposite a tree that had just
been struck by a thunderbolt, had on his
breast an exact representation of the tree.
On August 26, 1823, a little girl was standing
at a window, before which was a young
maple-tree. After a brilliant flash of light-
ning, a complete image of the tree was found
imprinted on her body. M. Easpail records
that in 1855 a boy climbed a tree to rob a
bird's-nest. The tree was struck, and the
boy thrown to the ground, and on his breast
the image of the tree, with the bird and nest
on one of its branches, appeared very plainly.
Signor Orioli brought before the scientific
congress at Naples the following cases of
impressions made by lightning : — In Sep-
tember, 1825, the lightning struck the fore-
mast of the brigantine, St. Buon Servo, when
a sailor under the mast-head was struck dead,
and an impression of a horse-shoe, like that
fixed at the mast-head, was found upon his
back. On another occasion a sailor standing
in a similar position had on his breast the
impression 44, with a dot between the two
figures, corresponding with the figure 44 at
the mast-head. On October 9, 1856, a young
man was found struck by lightning. He
had on a girdle with some gold coins in it,
and they were imprinted on his skin in the
same manner as they were placed in the gir-
dle. In 1836 an Italian lady of Lugano was
at a window in a thunder-storm, and a flower
that happened to be in the path of the elec-
tric current was perfectly reproduced on her
leg, and there remained permanently. On
July 24, 1852, a poplar-tree in a coffee planta-

tion was struck by lightning, and on one of the
large dry leaves was found an exact repre-
sentation of some pine-trees that lay at a
distance of 367 yards.

The above cases, were they not clearly ex-
plainable on scientific grounds, would almost
appear to be incredible; but they are not
one-half so difficult of belief as that alleged
marvellous discovery by Dr. Conyers, who,
it is said, on anatomizing a gentleman who
died for love, found an impression of the
lady's face upon his heart.

Theoretical Explanation of Light-
ning Impeessions. — M. Poey, director of
the Observatory at Havana, is of opinion
that these impressions are produced in the
same manner as the curious electric images
obtained by Karslen, Grove, and Fox Tal-
bot, either by statical or dynamic electricity,
of different degrees of intensity. The fact
that impressions are made through garments,
is accounted for when we remember that their
rough texture does not prevent the lightning
passing through them with the impression it
has received.

Oil - painted Photogeaphs. — Photo-
graphs have been produced by Mr. Parris,
the artist, painted in oil, so as to have aU the
effect of the most finished miniatures. The
oil process removes those over-strong mark-
ings which photography, at its best, produces
in portraits.

CuEioTJS Halo Light bound Poe-
teaits and Piotukes. — This curious ap-
pearance is found to arise from the reflected
light in and from the lens. The positive pic-
ture is found to have a sort of halo of light
about the centre of the picture, and the same
appears in the negative, but reversed, i.e.,
black.

Photogeaphic Effects of one Leaf
ON Anothee. — Mr. Piesse has called atten-
tion to the delicate shading or finishing of
leaves produced by the photographic touch
of the sun, in the case of geranium and
other leaves, where one leaf produced a shade

BECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

189

upon the other, the tinder leaf presenting a
beautiful photograph of the upper one, its
serrated edge and form being perfectly de-
fined. Wherever the shade was cast, that
part of the leaf was of a deep green, while
the unshaded parts were of a pale sea-tint.

FiBST Peinciples or Photogeapht
Enown to the Alchemists. — The action
exercised by light upon fused chloride of
silver, horn-silver, is alleged by Dr. HaUeur,
of Berlin, to have been known to the alche-
mists as early as the 16th century, who noted
that light imparted a black tint to the ori-
ginally white salt of silver. The chloride
of silver suffers under the influence of the
prismatic rays.

The Phenomena Noticed by Subse-
quent ExpEEiMENTEES. — Petit published
his observations upon the influence of light
on the crystallization of various salts in 1722,
and Chaplot and Dieze in 1788 and 1789 ;
and Scheele, in 1777, published his observa-
tions on the nigrescence of chloride of silver
under the influence of light, and on the
alterations.

Silhouette Piguees Taken by the
Action of Solae Light. — One of the ear-
lier chemists, M. Charles, is recorded, about
this period, to have exhibited, in his lectures
at the Louvre, a paper capable of taking sil-
houette figures by the action of solar light,
but no account has come down of his process.

Wedgewood, the Pibst Photogba-
phee. — The honour of being the first practi-
cal photographer is generally conferred upon
Wedgewood, who, in 1803, contributed a
paper to the Journal of the Royal Institution,
accompanied by observations from Sir Hum-
phry Davy, entitled '* An Account of a
Method of Copying Paintings upon Glass,
and of Making Profiles by the Agency of
Light upon Nitrate of Silver." White paper,
or white leather, saturated with a solution of
nitrate of silver, served as the impressionable
surface. Wedgewood's description of his
discovery is tPQ yemarkabje i^ot to he re-

corded. He says : — " The alteration of the
colours commences the more speedily in pro-
portion to the degree of the intensity of the
light. In bright sunshine, from two to three
minutes sufiice to produce the full effect;
whereas, in the shade, several hours are re-
quired to arrive at the same effect. Through
differently coloured glasses the light acts with
different degrees of intensity. When the
shadow of a figure is thrown upon the pre-
pared surface, the parts covered by the sha-
dow remain white, whilst the other parts
speedily turn black. To copy paintings on
glass, the negative images should be taken
on leather, because the action is more rapid
with this material than if paper were used.
When the colour is once fixed on leather or
paper, it proves fast to a degree ; water, and
even soap and water, failing to remove it.
Besides the method of copying just given,
there are several others. It will be useful to
make copies of all such objects as are partly
transparent and partly opaque. The woody
fibre of the leaves of plants and the wings of
insects may be very accurately copied in this
manner. All that is needed to this end is, to
transmit the direct light through the object
to be portrayed, and to receive the shadow
on prepared paper or prepared leather."

EXPEEIMENTS BY SlE HuMPHEY DaVY.

— Sir H. Davy, in commenting on Wedge-
wood's discovery, says : — " It has been ob-
served that the image of the camera obscura
is too feeble to make an impression upon the
nitrate of silver within a reasonable space of
time. To copy these images was Wedge-
wood's chief object. I followed up his expe-
riments, and found that the images of small
objects produced by the solar microscope may
be copied without difficulty on prepared paper.
A comparison of the effects produced by the
action of light upon chloride of silver, with
those produced on nitrate of silver, fully and
clearly showed that the chloride is the more
sensitive compound of the two. All that is
required now to render these experiments as

190

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

useful as they are interesting, is to find a way
of preventing the subsequent colouring of the
white parts upon exposure to daylight."

Cattses of Wedgewood's and Davy's
FAiiitTBB. — After these results by Wedge-
wood and Davy, no experiments were made
for many years ; their failure owing solely to
the fact that the agents now used with such
success to fix the image by acting on the
nitrate of silver, were then unknown. Hypo-
sulphate of soda, discovered by Sir John
Herschel in 1819, and iodine, discovered in
1812, were then unknown, and without the
discovery of these or similar agents, photo-
graphy would probably never have reached
its present point of perfection.

The DAGiTEEEEOTTrE. — So named after
Daguerre, who commenced his experiments
jn 1824, and having become acquainted with
Niepce in 1826, they pursued their experi-
ments together. In 1829, they employed
" iodine," from sea-weed, to blacken the plate
which held the heliographic impression, which
they applied with the greatest success to that
purpose. It took about twenty minutes to
obtain an impression. The picture is taken
on a copper-plate with a silver surface, now
under the operation of M. Claudet, who
adopts the Daguerreotype, and whose system
is said to be followed by all the so-called
American inventions.

The Discoveeies oe Niepcb and
Dagueeee. — In 1814, Niepce, after a series
of experiments, succeeded in fixing the images
of the camera obscura, having discovered the
peculiar property of the solar rays to alter
the solubility of resinous substances. He
spread a thin layer of asphalte on a glass or
metal plate in the camera obscura, and, after
waiting from five to six hours, he found on
the plate a latent image, which became vi-
sible on treating the surface of the plate with
a solvent. In 1827, he made experiments at
Kew, and some of the pictures are said to be
preserved there.

Invention op the Collodion Peo-
cess. — A friend of the late Mr. Scott Archer,
the inventor of the collodion process, says
that on September 19, 1850, Mr. Archer
communicated to him his discovery, and they
made the first coUodion picture together. He
had previously imparted the secret to one or
two friends, who assumed to themselves more
or less of the credit of the discovery. The
collodion process undoubtedly ranks above
all others, both as a sensitive medium,
and for the exactness and beauty of the
images it develops. It is so instantaneous
in its action that clouds, waves, ships, aud
figures in motion, may be taken by a siogle
lens.

Chaeles Maybuey Abciiee.

SPOETIYE EXEECISES UPON MUSICAL NOTATIOjS".

IN TWO PAETS. — PAET I.

The present paper is* intended to serve the
laudable purpose of impressing upon the
mind the names, relative value, and use of
the ordinary musical signs. It does not pre-
tend to contain aU, or even the half, of what
might be done in the same way ; but may
prove useful, as well as amusing, upon the
principle of verbum sapienti. Every one is

presumed to have learned a little of musin ;
not every one can read a page of musii al
notes. The Sportive Exercises, by presenting,
in the form of problems, the simplest rules
and terms of musical notation, may afford, in
the hands of a teacher, armed with chalk and
black board, an hour's profitable recreation
to a class, and at the same time give the soli-

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

191

tary musical tyro a little help towards the
remoTal of a very common difficulty.

SECTION I.— DEFINITIONS,

All musical sounds are expressed by certain
characters called notes, which are named
from the first seven letters of the alphabet —
A, B, C, D, E, F, G.

These notes are written upon a Staff,

, which is a figure formed of five

^ lines and four spaces. The lowest

line is called the first.

The Staff used for the notes of tbe right
hand, in playing upon the pianoforte, is called
the Teeble Staff ; that used for the left
hand is called the Bass Staff.

The names of the lines and spaces of the
Teeble Staff are as follow :—

t:

*-E-

'JEl

^_4

3

2

i

The names of the lines and spaces of the
Bass Staff are as follow :—

:si:4

-a-

Peoblems ttpon Section I.

Write upon the Teeble Staff, in notes of
this character J, the words — 1. Ace ; 2.
A&ED ; 3. Cage ; 4. Deaf ; 5. Ceded ; 6.
Bee ; 7. Bede ; 8. Baggage ; 9. Cabbage ;
10. Dace; 11. Paded; 12. Egg.

Solutions.

1.

3^=

g:

8.'

^=:t-

c
10.

0

It— -

11.

^=^^

12.

"Write the foregoing twelve words upon
the Bass Staff.

Solutions.

EE

— •-

EE

i92

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

5.

::p:

E

qii=rp:

'X=r-t=:

1.'

8.

3=i

BAGGAGE

1 III

t*

J 1 ^

* « J J r

« • • — i •' U -

11,

1 A

=3-

r — =^

lU.

-•-
D

h w

A C

-F-

E

r-

=3 3" P=

— 1

-• •

, L-

19 ~

* t-

A D E
■ P p_

ll« „

E^— t— 1=

3

SECTION II.— CLEFS AND LEGER LINES.

The Treble and Bass Staves are distin-
guished from eacli other by means of -^

certain marks called Clefs. These "^ "

are for the former a mark like Sf, thus : *^
For the latter a C, thus : gi : The Clefs

determine the names and spaces of

the notes placed upon the lines and spaces.
But the ordinary staves, Treble and Bass, not
being of sufficient extent to contain all the
notes that can be sung or played, certain
additional lines above and below the Staflf are
added. These are called Legek Lines.

The Legee Lines of the Treble Staff
are— above the Staff, A, C, E, etc. ; below
it, C, A, F, etc.

A__C=: ^ =

The Spaces above the Staff are, G, B, D,
etc. ; below, D, B, Gr, etc.

The Legee Lines of the Bass Staff are —
above the Staff, C, E, G, etc. j below it,
E, C, A, etc.

^ A

The Spaces above the Staff are, B, D, F,
etc. ; below it, F, D, B, etc.

Peobiems upon Section II.

"Write upon the Treble Staff, using
Legee Lines and Spaces above or below
when necessary, the following words in this
character, J. First upon the lines only: —
1. Baggage ; 2. Cab ; 3. Fee ; 4. Caged j
5. Fed ; 6. Face.

Solutions.

3=^:

baggage.

P^i

3=i

3.?K=E^3=3Eor *eE:

3f=£Eyt

'■t

i-^^^^t

:-^z=E=rz

FACE.

EEOEEATIVE SCIENCE.

193

Next, using the Spaces only :—
Solutions.

'■^^m^

CAGED.

FACE.

Write tlie same words upon the Bass
Staff, with its Legee Lines above ol* below,
at first using only the lines as before :—

Solutions.

1. 95=3=^=3=3=1

3EE

BAGGAGE.

2.a^=i=3=

CAB.

3.ei

=r— -F^-z:

e?EEE:

FEE.

3=3:

CAGED.

g.Bi^

^=

FED.

6.

et

:?^EEEEEEEEE

FACE.

1.3

Write the same, usrog only the Spaces : —
Solutions.

^t:^=^-

:!::

-A--

BAGGAGE.

W=^Z

ilzii^t::

CAB.

ai:

:t:=t::

FEE.

^■^=i=3=E^

t=^:

:t=1:

CAGED.

FED.

■A-

SECTION III.— INTEEVALS.
The distance between one note and
another upon the Staff, or the difference
between two sounds in point of gbatity otr
acuteness, i.e., in depth or shrillness, is
called an Inteeval. The least of our Inter-
vals is called a semi-tone, or half-tone. The
greatest may be several octaves.

Examples of Intervals.
Ascending.

5 6 7
Descending.

12345678
Starting from any one note of the scale, the
note next contiguous to it is called a second ;
the next is a thied ; the next, a foueth ; the
next, a fifth ; the next, a sixth ; the next,
a seventh ; the next is an eighth, or octave ;
the next is a ninth ; and so on.

13

194

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

Taking the above Ascending Treble Staff
for a basis ; calling a second two, a third three,
and treating the other Intervals in a similar
manner ; and letting the E upon the first line
^tand for the figure one, enforce your ac-
quaintance with these Intervals by means of
the following—

Peoblems upon Section III.

Write the numbers— 1. 1847;* 2. 23578;
3. 421345; 4. 235218; 5. 1478642; 6.
2468643; 7. 1358978.

Solutions.

The foregoing are exercises upon the
Ascending Staff. It is equally necessary to
practice downwards. The same numbers may
next be used in connection with the Descend-
ing Staff above printed ; the E in the fourth
space standing for the figure one, and the E
upon the first line for eight.

• i.e., Write the first note, then the eighth, then the
fourth (from E, 1), then the seventh.

Solutions.

These are given as a means of habituating
the young student to measure distances or
Inteevals in ascending and descending ; to
be able to do which readily will be of incal-
culable advantage to him.

W. Newman.

EEFLECTION EEOM POLISHED
SUEFACES.

EvEEY one sees that when light, homogeneous
or mingled, falls upon any rough surface, it
is differently acted upon than would be the
case were that surface either artificially or
naturally polished. In the former case, cer-
tain rays are supposed to be absorbed, and
others, producing its colour, reflected. As
regards polished surfaces, we find that the
light falling upon them, whether homogeneous
or mixed, is reflected in a different manner.
If white light falls upon a surface of polished
brass, it is found that the objects in front of

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

195

it are reflected, which reflection varies in
intensity with the colour of the reflecting
surface. The reflection from white surfaces
is the brightest, because here the greatest
number of rays is reflected, and its inten-
sity diminishes as the proportion of those
absorbed increases.

The reflection of non-luminous bodies,
which characterizes polished surfaces, may,
perhaps, be explained, when we consider that
the asperities of such are far more reduced
than those of rough objects. When light
falls upon rough or unpolished surfaces, as a
piece of slate, it is easy to conceive that the
rays, before quitting them, are many times
reflected, which, of course, renders them
feeble, and thus unable to return the impres-

sions of objects in front. Consequently, if
this explanation is accepted as true, the dif-
ference of reflection from polished and rough
surfaces is merely one of degree, although ap-
parently of kind. The reflection of light from
unpolished surfaces only suffices to produce
blank colour, showing nothing beyond. I
consider this hypothesis strengthened by the
fact, that unpolished surfaces will, although
not very distinctly, reflect luminous bodies ;
a wall will reflect the image of a candle if
placed pretty close to it, from which it ap-
pears probable that the strength of the rays
overcomes the many reflections, and thus, for
the time, causes a rough surface to act as a
polished one.

J. A. Davies.

A CATALOGUE OF ALL THE COMETS WHOSE CEBITS HAVE HITHEETO

BEEN COMPUTED.

A NEW comet having been discovered, the
tirst thing an astronomer does, is to obtain
three observations of it, whereby he may
compute the elements of the orbit. He then
examines a catalogue of comets, to see if he
can identify the newly-found stranger with
any that have been before observed. The
value of a complete catalogue is therefore
obvious, and as nothing of the kind has, as far
as the writer is aware, been published for
some years, he has been led to compile a
new one.

In the preparation of the following, care
has been taken that only the most reliable
orbits that were to be obtained should be in-
serted, the general rule being to prefer the one
which was derived from the longest arc, other
things being satisfactory. Among the autho-
rities consulted may be mentioned Pingre,
Hussey, Olbers, Cooper, Hind, Arago, and
others.

From the Journals of the Eoyal Astro-

nomical Society of London, the Academy
of Sciences of Paris, the Astronomischo
Nachrichten, etc., much valuable informa-
tion has also been obtained.

PP denotes the time of perihelion pas-
sage expressed in Grreenwich mean time, N.S.,
since 1582.

TT denotes the longitude of the perihelion.

U denotes the longitude of the ascending
node.

I denotes the inclination of the orbit to
the plane of the ecliptic.

q denotes the perihelion distance ex-
pressed in semi-diameter of the earth's orbit.

6 denotes the eccentricity (of an elliptic
orbit).

M denotes the direction of motion, -f-
direct, — retrograde.

The periods assigned in the column of
" duration of visibility" are subject to much
uncertainty in the case of the ancient
comets.

196

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

No.

Year.

1

370B.C.

2

136

3

63

4

11

(4)

66 A.J).

(4)

141

5

240

(4)

451

6

539

7

565

8

563

9

574

(4)

760

10

770

11

337 i.

12

961

(4)

989 iii.

(4)

1066

IH

1093

14

1097

15

1231

16

1264

17

1299

18

1301 i.

(4)

1301 ii.

19

1337 i.

20

1351

21

1362 i.

22

1366

(4)

1378

23

1385

24

1433

(4)

1456

25

1457

26

1468 ii.

27

1472 i.

28

1400

29

1506

(4)

1531

30

1532

30

1532

PP.

d.h.
Winter
April 29
July
Oct. 8, 19

Jan. 14, 4
March 29, 2
Nov. 9, 23
July 3, 13
Oct. 20, 14
July 11, 18
August 29, 7
April 7, 6
June 11
June 6, 14
Feb. 23, 23
Dec. 30, 3
Sept. 11, 23
April 1, 0
Feb. 15, 0
Sept. 21, 21
Jan. 30, 7
July 15, 23
March 31, 7
September
Oct. 23, 23
Jan. 15, 1
Nov. 25, 23
March 11,4
October 13
Nov. 8, 18
Oct. 16, 6
Nov. 5, 4
June 8, 23
Sept. 3, 16
Oct. 7, 9
Feb. 28, 5
Dec. 24, 11
Sept. 3, 15
Aug. 24, 21
Oct. 19, 14
Oct. 19, 22

32S
251
71

313

84

318

143

150—210
230

300—330
330

270—330 above 30

220
150—180
28

32 40
12 60
189 0

58 or 238
158 45
294 15
128 17

357

7

90

59

389

3

206

33

263

3

380

35

261

0

84

0

264

55

25

50

156

20

125

40

332

30

207

30

134

43

13

30

272

30

175

30

3

20

107

8

180

60

312

0

133

0

2

20

93

1

69

0

219

0

249

0

66

0

212

fl

299

31

47

17

101

47

263

31

262

1

110

9

301

0

43

30

93

48

256

6

356

3

61

15

43

3

207

32

58

40

288

45

250

37

132

50

301

39

49

25

135

44

119

fl

HI

7

80

27

20
70
10 +,

40 3

17

44

10 0

60 30

4 8

46 31

61 49
10 or 12
79 33

very sm.
101
0-80
0-58

0-445
0-720
0-372

0-341
0-775
0-907
0-963

0-642

0-580

0-552

0-568

0-720

0-928

0-738

0-943

0-430

0-318

0-333

0-640

0-828

1-0

0-456

0-958

0-583

0-774

0-329

0-586

2-103

0-853

0-539

0-738

0-386

0-5670

0-6125

0-5091

Calculator.

PiffgrS
Peirce
Peirce
Hind

Hind

Hind

Burekhardt

Laugier

Burekhardt

Burekhardt

Laugier

Hind

Laugier

Laugier

Pingre

Hind

— iBurckhardt
—I Hind

+ Hind
+'Burckhardt
4- Pingr6
-j- Pingro

— Pingre

+ iBurckhardt

— ,Laugier

— iLaugier

+ Burekhardt
Burekhardt
Peirce
Laugier
Hind
Hind
Pingre
Hind
Laugier
Laugier
Hind
Laugier
HaUey
M^chain ")
Halley j

Date of
Discovery.

68, July 23
11, Aug. 26

66, Jan. 31
141, Mar. 27
240, Nov. 10
451, May 17
539, Nov. 17
565, Aug. 4
568, Sept. 3
574, May 2
760, May 16
770, May 26
837, Mar. 22
962, Jan. 28
989, Aug. 5
1066, April 2
1092, Jan. 8
1097, Sept. 30
1231, Feb. 6
1261, July 14
1299, Jan. 24
1301,

1301, Sept. 16
1337, May
1351, Nov. 24
1362, Mar. 5
1366, Aug. 26
1378, Sept. 26
1385, Oct. 23
1433, Oct. 12

1456, May 29

1457, June
1463, Sept.
1471, Dec.
1491, Jan.
1506, July 31

1531, July 13

1532, Sept. 22

Discoverer,

Greek obs.

Chinese obs.

Ditto

Ditto

Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
China & Europe
Chinese

(?)

China & Europe

Ditto

Chinese

Ditto

Ditto

Ditto

Ditto

Ditto

Europe & China

European obs.

Ditto

Kegiomontanus

Chinese obs.

Ditto

P. Apian

P. Apian

Duration
of Visibility,

5 weeks.
5 weeks.*
9 weeks.*

4 weeks.*
6 weeks.*

13 weeks.'

9 weeks.'
15 weeks. ^
10 weeks.'"
13weeks(?).ii

8 weeks. '^

10 weeks.'*

5 weeks.'-*
5 weeks.

5 weeks.'*

6 weeks or +.'*
17 weeks."

4 weeks.'"

4 weeks.

3 months. '9

11 weeks.2»

{?).2'
6 weeks.'-'
3 or 4 months.*'

1 week.2*

5 weeks."
Several days.*'

6 weeks.*'

(?).28

2 months (?).

1 month.23

3 months.30

2 or 3 months."

3 months.32

(?).33

2 weeks. 5*
5 weeks.**

10 weeks.**

' Is said to have separated into two parts,

* It had a short, but brilliant tail.

* An apparition of Salley's comet (?), mentioned by Dion.
Cassius as having been suspended over Bome, previous to the
death of Agrippa.

* An apparition of Halley' s comet (J). It had a tail 8="
lone,

* An apparition of Halley' s comet.

« Elements somewhat doubtful. It had a tail 30^ long,

' Undoubtedly an apparition of Salley's comet,

» It had a tail 10 feel long.

' A mean orbit. It had a tail 10° long,

1" Elements very reliable. On September 8tb it had a tail
40^ long.

" Elements uncertain.

'* An apparition of Halley' t comet.

1* It had a tail about 30^ long.

'• Tolerably trustworthy. The maximum length of the tail
was 80'', but it dwindled down to 3^ in a fortnight.

'* Probably an apparition of Halley'a comet. Mentioned
by several Saxon writers.

'8 Possibly an apparition of Halley'i comet. This is the
famous object which created such universal dread throughout
Europe in 1066. la England it was looked upon as a presage
of the success of the Norman invasion.

" Elements satisfactory.

" A tail 50^ long. Was seen in China, and much bifur-
cated.

1" One of the grandest comets on record. Its tail is said
(o have been 100' long.

*" Elements very doubtful.

*' Very uncertain.

*2 Probably an apparition of Halley' s comet.

** A fine comet. The elements assigned by Halley, Pingrft,
and Hind differ somewhat from those here given.

** Very uncertain. No latitudes given.

** Uncertain. The tail was 20 feet long, and the head was
the size of a wine-glass !

26 "Very uncertain.

*' An apparition of Halley's comet.

*8 Tolerably certain. The tail was 10' long.

*9 An apparition of Halley's comet. It had a splendid tail,
60' long.

*" Only approximate,

*' Uncertain.

** A celebrated comet. When at its least distance from
the sun (3,300,000 miles) on January 21, it was quite visible in
full daylight. It had a fine tail, which the Chinese say was as
long as a street !

J3 Uncertain.

3* Elements uncertain. It was as large as a ball/ and had a
tail from 3' to 5' long,

3* An apparition of Halley's comet.

3" It had a tail several degrees long. Gibers has computed
an orbit which agrees well with Halley's, but Mdchain'a is con-
sidered the best.

(To he continued.)

Geo. W, F. Chambees.

HECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

197

ELEMENTAEY METEOEOLOGY.

The industry of the thinking portion of
mankind, as a matter of course, will cause
the different branches of science to advance
towards perfection. Already some sciences
liave become perfect to a degree that even
philosophers themselves are astonished at
the result of their own labours; and yet
were we allowed to see the progress of
another century, our present astonishment
would be as nothing in comparison with the
fresh truths that another generation must
undoubtedly unfold. If Ave look back upon

Beeston Observatorj'.

Astronomy, we are amazed that om* fore-
fathers should have considered our earth
as the central orb, around which the sun
and all the heavenly host revolved. In the
progress of time Astronomy advanced, and
the sun became the central body ; yet how
vague and imperfect were the guesses and
surmises of astronomical truths until the
immortal Newton, by his discovery of the
laws of gravitation, connected all the hea-
venly bodies together. By a knowledge of

^ I

these laws, distant planets have been weighed
and measured; by a knowledge that each
material body is influenced by, and influences
every other material body, new planets have
been discovered, and truths unfolded so vast
that but few are able to understand them.

Photography has made rapid strides,
owing to the advanced state of the science of
Chemistry ; it was but yesterday that the sun
was first made to paint portraits and take
sketches from Nature. Daguerre discovered
that he could render a polished silver plate
so sensitive to light, that it would take a
picture of anything which was brought to a
focus upon it. Then it was ascertained that
even a thin film of collodion, spread upon
glass, coidd be made as sensitive as a silver
plate, if immersed in a bath containing a
sohition of nitrate of silver ; and that such
pictures could be copied indefinitely upon
paper. And lastly, M. Niepce announced
that he could bottle sunbeams, keep them
corked up for months, and then take a
picture without any light save that of the
bottled sunbeams ; that even a common print
placed in the sun imbibed sunbeams suffi-
cient to allow it to print a copy of itself in
the dark. Then sun pictures could be taken
so small that a lengthy document might be
contained on a piece of glass no larger than
a pin's head. Meteorology, of which we
have more especially to treat, has not at
present made such vast progress, although it
has received the attention of many careful
observers ; it must still be looked upon as a
new science — a science in the condition of
Astronomy before the law of gravitation had
been discovered — an advancing science, which
ere long must become as important a branch
of study as astronomy, geology, or natural
history.

It is astonishing that so important a

198

EECREATIYE SCIENCE.

science sliould liave so long received so small
a portion of our attention. When we con-
sider tliat our health, and even life, depend
upon the weather, that storms arise and
wreck our vessels, that heavy rains inundate
our lands and damage or destroy our crops,
that in an island depending so much on
foreign countries for its supplies, inhabited
by an industrious people striving to make the
most of the soil, and vying with the world in
its manufactories, and in a population far
advanced in scientific knowledge in all its
branches, and studying the best means of
preserving life and health, and of attaining
domestic comforts, it is not to be wondered
at that meteorology is now becoming an im-
portant subject of investigation. Probably
the reason this study has been hitherto much
neglected is owing to the fact, that weather
changes being variable and unaccountable,
we are apt to think it impossible to find out
the laws which govern them, and perhaps
even to doubt the existence of such laws.
That laws exist, as powerful as those which
connect our earth with the sun, there cannot
be a shadow of a doubt. Were there no laws,
we should be parched with thirst, and anon
deluged with rain — scorched by an over-
powering heat of the sun, or frozen to death
by excessive frost. Storms of wind would
tear up our largest trees and hurl down our
noblest buildings ; or the air would remain
immovable and stagnant, ceasing to carry off
the poisonous exhalations from our towns.
As it is, however, we have a certain range of
temperature and pressure ; rain wiU always
fall to a known extent, yet never exceed a
certain limit ; the air can never be very
long at rest, and the velocity cannot extend
beyond an ascertainable pressure. Even the
clouds, of which nothing can be said to be
more changeable, obey a wise law of Provi-
dence, by which the earth is shielded in a
greater or less degree from our winter's cold
and summer's heat. Thus, in summer, the
greatest amount of cloud occurs in the after-

noon, and the least at night ; whilst in winter,
the reverse takes place. Our first salutation
is in allusion to the weather, and, indeed, the
subject is so fascinating, that it is remarkable
we find so few practical meteorologists. Time
will more rapidly increase the number of
observers, for with regard to those who have
once commenced in earnest, they rarely re-
linquish this pursuit.

Government, seeing the importance of
such observations, has now its department
of meteorology, and each country is adding
its quota of observatories and observers.
France, Russia, Austria, Holland, Spain, and
America are making rapid advances ; records
are being abundantly made both by sea and
land, so that in course of time we may expect
to unfold some of those beautiful laws of
nature which govern the changes of the
weather. There yet requires the discovery
of a law which shall bind together all our
atmospheric elements, as the law of gravita-
tion binds the heavenly bodies together.
Nothing would be more calciilated to bring
important laws speedily to light than the
free use of the electric telegraph to the
observers, connecting the more important
stations together ; and in seed-time and
harvest an extensive series of telegraphic
meteorological stations, from which farmers
might readily learn the probable state of the
weather for a few hours, or perhaps days,
would really be invaluable to our agri-
culturists.

In studying the laws of meteorology, or
rather, in endeavouring to find out laws, it
must be borne in mind that important facts
have already been revealed, many phenomena
have shown themselves ; and, knowing these
things, we are enabled to, at all events, place
limits to meteorological laws. In the first
place, the changes in the barometer are duo
to lateral displacements of our atmosphere.
The air which surrounds the earth is always
weighing the same pressure, when weighed
as a whole ; yet how very different does the

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE,

199

ease become if we confine our remarks to any
particular locality, for we shall there find con-
stant changes within certain limits. The pres-
sure may be as light as 28 inches, or as heavy
as 31 inches, at the sea-leyel ; but it cannot be,
for example, as little as 26 inches, or as great
as 32 inches. Here, then, we have certain
limits for the pressure of the atmosphere ;
and if the barometer rises in one locality, it
must necessarily fall in another, as the pres-
«ure from one spot must be added to another-
With regard to temperature, a certain degree
of heat is given to our globe from the sun,
always the same under similar circumstances,
but very different in difierent localities, and
varying in a remarkable degree, in the same
spot, from time to time. As an instance, the
temperature in the shade, in winter, in Great
Britain, has been known to be 60° lower in
one year than at the same period in another.
One great cause in the alteration of tempera-
ture depends on the position of the sun with
regard to a particular country ; the more
vertical the sun becomes, the higher the tem-
perature rises, whilst the nearer the sun ap-
proaches the horizon, the less heat does that
particular locality receive ; hence arises our
summer's heat and our winter's cold. Know-
ing this fact, it becomes evident that whilst
it is winter in the one hemisphere, it must
necessarily be summer in the other. But
the winters are not always alike. We have
cold winters, and we have those that are
warm ; nevertheless, the same temperature is
received from the sun every winter in each
hemisphere. It is simply colder in one portion
of that hemisphere than in another j and if
heat is robbed from one particular spot, it
must become accumiJated at another. Thus,
we find that last winter was excessively severe
in North America, whilst England experi-
enced mild weather. It seems as if the great
cold of the polar regions became master of
the feeble heat of the winter's sun; and,
under these circumstances, we are at the
mercy of the winds which bring the cold from

the icy sunless districts; they may either
carry this icy influence over us, or avert it
in another direction.

The same law which governs planetary
movements seems to hold good with regard
to wind, namely, the^r*^ impulse which pro-
pelled a planet in a straight line directly
away from the sun, and the power of gra-
vitation, which exerts an influence in the
opposite direction ; the two forces combined
producing nearly circular motion. Asillus-

Fi(j. \.

tration, see Pig. 1, where i j, k l, M N, o P,
represent the first impulse, and J i, l K, N m,
p o, the power of gravitation, these two in-
fluences moving a body in the direction A B,
B c, o D, along the arc e r g h.

The polar currents set in straight linea
toward the equator, they meet the resist-
ance of the earth rotating on its axis and
become bent, whilst the equatorial currents
set in straight lines towards the poles, and
are also bent by the earth's rotation, the
former creeping along the ground, and rising
higher as they approach the equator, and the
latter moving at a great height, yet becoming
lower as they approach the poles, the two
currents mingling together in the regions of
variable winds. The same current, from the

200

EECREATIYE SCIENCE.

same place, does not always pass over tlie
same spot ; local circumstances, of wticL. we
cannot at present form any correct ideas,
operate in causing a variation in the direction
of the currents in the variable wind districts.
The polar and equatorial currents combine,
and, as the one or the other prevails, we have
a northerly or a southerly wind. That the
wind must always blow in circles is evident
from the variability of the wind itself. In
England, at the 'same moment, we can have
the wind blowing from every point of the
compass. These circles will vary very much
in diameter. There are many influences
exerted to alter the direction of the wind,
and the temperature of the mass of air borne
along by it. Hills and mountains can change
the direction of a current, whilst a mass of
air, of a certain heat, will become altered in
its temperature by simply passing over a
cold or a warm district.

Moisture is another element which is
always present in the air ; at one time pass-
ing over us as invisible vapour, at another
visible as a cloud, and at a third discharging
rain, or, if at a low temperature, frozen into
hail or snow. In studying the clouds atten-
tively, we learn many curious facts with re-
gard to their forms and positions. Clouds
chiefly move in circles, and this is seen from
the tendency they have to form in straight
lines, i. e., converging to a point in the far
distance, and the reason they are seen as
straight lines is owing to these circles having
a diameter, too large to be seen, curved in
our limited view of them. Lines of cirri, con-
verging to the north near Nottingham, have
been observed at the same time converging to
the north-west at Manchester. Clouds have
been said to owe their form to currrents of air,
and, in some degree, perhaps, this is true, as is
shown by the clouds presenting their pointed
ends to the wind ; yet there is another more
powerful force exerted, a power inter se,
which, in rare instances, has been well shown
from this observatory. Clouds have been

seen to be moved in one direction by the
wind, and, at the
same time, currents
(within the cloud
itself) moving the
mass of the cloud
in an opposite di-
rection. See Fig. 2,
where c is a cloud
moving in the di-
rection of the ar-
rows, A A, having
a spiral progressive
motion in the di-
rection of the ar-
rows, B B. "Whilst
writing this article,
a very singular ex-
ample was noticed.
A cumulus (Fig. 3)
floated in the direction a a, having two
motions within it at its two extremes, the
one in the one direction, b b, and the other in

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

the opposite direction, d d. This is also shown
in thunder-storms, when the whole cloud can
be well observed ; instead of the cloud dis-
charging rain from all portions, it will be
discharged only from a particular part (see
Fig. 4). It is also shown by the same cloud
discharging rain from one portion and hail
from another. In most storms there is a
belt of frozen rain (or hail), and this is, at
the first portion of the storm, probably owing
to the colder heavier air rushing to the

EECREATIYE SCIENCE.

201

front. It might be tliought, therefore, that
hail should fall before any rain, and this
would be the case were it not that the first
edge of the cloud had to meet a warmer cur-

Jiorizon.

Jlaiif

Fig. 4.— Thunder-cloud.

rent, causing the hail to melt. If a thunder-
storm (where the zone of hail passes ver-
tically over a place) be attentively watched,
it will be seen that rain falls first, followed
by half-melted hail, after which the hail-

stones become larger and harder until a
maximum is reached, after which they as
rapidly decrease in size and hardness, and at
last are succeeded by rain. The hail-storm
is a compact mass at the front of the cloud ;
it cannot be a circular belt around it, other-
wise, before the termination of the storm,
another hail-shower would occur; and this
seems never to be the case.

However, we have said enough, intro-
ductorily, to convince all thinking men that
a wide field of investigation is open before
them, which, by careful culture, is capable of
yielding a plentiful rich harvest of truth.
We, therefore, propose to take up each
branch of the subject, and describe how ob-
servations may be best made, which instru-
ments it is most desirable to use, and what
precautions are necessary, in order to render
the records useful to science and mankind.

E, J. Lowe.
Heeston Observatory,

A PLAYTHING OF THE TIDES.

A PLiYTHiNa of the tides— a plaything of
the waters ! Truly so. A tennis-ball of
flint, which the never-sleeping waves have
bandied to and fro for many a long series of
years. But, seriously, what is it ? We have
already said that it is a ball of flint ; but, to
speak more correctly, a ball it was before
chance threw it into our hands, by the agency
of which its exterior integrity became sadly,
yet happily damaged.

Forgetting its antecedent condition as a
plaything, driven onwards and backwards,
and rolled round and round by many a flow
and many an ebb, let us place it before
our readers. We can only do so by de-
lineation.

Who, then, we would ask, looking with a
hasty glance at our "facsimile,'^ and for the

moment forgetting all about its silicious com-
position, but would say — " This is a petrified
fruit, surely ? Why, there are the plain indi-
cations of a fruit- stalk, from which elevated
fibres extend over its rotund surface. But
what a strange fruit, or perhaps kernel ; how
reticulately rugose its surface ; and what are
we to say to its apple-like investment, and
the cavity within which the kernel is lodged,
adherent by the fruit-stalk only ? "

Now, to speak the truth, some such mo-
mentary ideaflitted across our own mind as the
kernel was revealed by a smart blow, striking
ofi" a portion of the thick investment. It was
but momentary, and we smiled at our want
of reflection ; yet there was some excuse for
our precipitancy.

One summer's day, we were sauntering

202

EECEEATH^E SCIEIS^CE,

along the margin of the sea, below tile cliffs
at Margate, on which the Infirmary stands,
and from which cliffs we had, some months
ago, extricated a portion of the chalk impress
of a gigaiitic and beautifully -marked ammo-
nite. There, as we have said, were we saun-
tering, now and then stopping to look at a
crowd of sandhoppers {Talitrus), as our feet
disturbed them from their shelter under a
mass of dried sea-weed ; now, perchance, lin-
gering to watch a group of little wandering
crabs hurrying to the nearest pool, or a her-
mit-crab in that little sheet of water prowling
about intent on prey ; and then, arresting our
steps to listen to the hoarse grinding music
of the inflowing tide, and follow the advance
of the unnumbered pebbles, as the waves idly
played with them, rolling the lighter frag-
ments over and over, as they have done for
ages, wearing down (flints as they are) the
angularities which they originally presented ;
for when the chalk-slip in which they were
embedded fell, its lighter particles became by
degrees washed away, and these rigid flints
remained to undergo the ceaseless action of
the alternate tides.

Thus, in careless mood, such as follows
long sickness, and thus pleasing our fancj^,
did we see the orbicular pebble in question
gently roll up the shingly beach to our very
feet. We stooped, and took it up. " Ball
of ocean, with which the wild waves are
playing," for so we mused, "how long is it
that thou hast thus served for their sport ? —
how long is it since, a sUicious jelly, thou
becamest hardened in a deep cretaceous bed,
and what have the waves done with thee
since they undermined thy native cliff?"
Ask of the mummy the history of the Pha-
raohs of old. Why, the very stones of their
buildings discover, to the test of the micro-
scope, organic forms ; nay, the sands of the
surrounding deserts are replete with fossil
infusoria. That mummy walked upon the
relics of a world gone by. Vague is the
word " antiquity ;" it applies only to man.

Would we learn, we must ask of the great
globe itself. Is it silent? No; it teaches
by Nature's own lithoglyphs, which speak —
oh ! how truthfully and how impressively —
preaching to us our own nothingness, and the
mystery of time.

Well, we held the pebble in our. hand. It
is difficult to say by what impulse we were
induced to split it. Long sickness makes
the mind languid, and we had no hammer
with us, but strike we must. We looked out
for a large block imbedded in the sand ; we
soon picked up a fragment of flint which
seemed serviceable, and placing the pebble
on the block, struck smartly. The flint ham-

mer, although it broke, did its work well. It
laid open a kernel, in a neat and definite
little chamber, hollowed out in the imprison-
ing wall of silex. The fissured portion
showed a white and glossy surface — a sort of
opaque porcelain — dotted with blue (the re-
sult, perhaps, of some metallic oxide), and
its thickness proved how good a preservative
it had been for the delicate granular kernel,
with its superficial threadlets diverging from
the apparent fruit-stalk.

A fruit — a kernel ? No ! Yet a kernel,
and that kernel a sponge.

Yes, this kernel is evidently one of the
sponges of the flint. Of many of these the

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

203

beautiful tracery is easily revealed on thin
laminae, by the aid of a moderate glass. But
these sponges permeate the very flint itself,
are preserved in flint, and only manifest
themselves under peculiar circumstances.
But here we have a nodule of flint, with an
internal chamber, the nidus of a delicate
fruit-like body, which we regard as a fossil
sponge. It is in what is termed the upper
chalk deposit that flints abound. Oftentimes
we see them laid in courses at regular inter-
vals, as if the skilful hand of the mason had
arranged them. Examples of this kind occur
in the Isle of Wight.* Such, however, is
not the case as regards the chalk-cliffs on
the Kentish side of the sea, along or below
the estuary of the Thames. In these clifis
we find delicate shells and echinoderms (some
filled with chalk, others a solid mass of flint),
irregularly scattered, with occasional ammo-
nites ; while in the chalk pits near Graves-
end, we have, in addition, silicified sharks'
teeth and various other relics, including the
spines of echinoderms, and corals in abun-
dance.

Let us then suppose our flint nodule to
have proceeded from this upper chalk depo-
sit, and then comes a question — Where was
it, and from what did it hang, when the fluid
or semifluid silex enveloped itP Was it a
tenant of some rift in the chalk-rock itself?
Are the silicified sponges in their primitive
seat ? It cannot be. There has been destruc-
tion, there has been a turmoil and melee;
then a quiet subsidence, a gradual deposit of
chalk through a series of ages, an infiltration
of fluid silex — there filling up echinoderms,
there inclosing sponges, there impregnating
the teeth of sharks and other fishes, and
there simply consolidating into masses which
give no trace of organic existence.

We need not say that the great deposit of
chalk took place by degrees at the bottom of
a deep sea, nor shall we here analyze the

* The arched rock in Scratchell's Bay.

chalk itself; far too wide would the field be
for our prescribed limits j we pass the sxib-
ject by.

To revert to our specimen : How happens
it that the flint has not tightly embraced the
kernel-sponge, but has left, as far as we can
probe, an interval, so as to form a chamber,
in which, except at the stalk, it seems to
remain free P Did the living gelatinous in-
vestment of the sponge once fill up the
vacuum, and then perishing, waste to a mere
nothing P Conjecture fails us.

We have not broken the kernel, the gray*
tinted, granular superficies of which, with
the diverging fibrous lines, our sketch accu«
rately depicts, and therefore cannot positively
assert that its interior is purely silicious ; wo
presume, however, that such is the case, and
should be sorry to see it tested by experi-
ment.

W. C. L. Martin.

MOSSES IN FEEN-CASES AND
AQUAEIA.

Mosses, properly selected, would form most
valuable, as well as attractive objects in the
fern-case and aquarium. In the former,
especially, Bryum pyreforme would thrive
most luxuriantly, and is valuable to use as a
surfacing to plants in pots, or even among
ferns in the open air, as it prevents the sur-
face of the mould from drying, and its root
are not strong enough to rob the plant.

In the aquarium many would flourish, as
Fontinalis antipyretica, Cinclidotas fontin-
aloides, Hypnum ruscifolium, filicinum,
fluitans, riparium, and Bryum punctatum ;
and the following most lovely species are
worth a trial : Hypnum alopecurum and den-
droides, Bryum hornum, roseum, and ligula^
turn ; the latter will most decidedly retain
their beauty for some time if they do not
vegetate. P. Y. B.

204

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

COINS OF THE SELEUCID^, KINGS OP SYRIA.

A COMPLETE cabinet of ancient coins com-
prises so vast an aggregation of specimens,
that its formation is far beyond tlie means of
the great majority of those who have collected
or hoarded a few of these interesting monu-
ments. It is in national museums or libra-
ries alone that duly classified series of ancient
coins of every class can be attempted. Some
few private collections, as the Hunterian, the
Pembroke, and the celebrated Thomas cabi-
net, were indeed wonderfully rich in many
very distinct branches ; and yet, as embracing
examples illustrating the whole of this most
important and interesting branch of archae-
ology, they were necessarily inferior to many
of the poorest public collections. It is there-
fore evident that any attempt to form a
general cabinet with anything like tolerable
completeness, would involve an outlay both
of time and money far beyond the conveni-
ence of any collector. Hence it may be
suggested that some special department
should be selected by the young numis-
matist, to which he should confine his chief
attention. By this means, and by beginning
early and seizing the happy opportunities
that never fail to occur from time to time,
8ome single branch of the subject may be so
completely illustrated as to form a very in-
teresting, if not important cabinet, illustra-
tive of a special period or dynasty.

As an instance, I may allude to the cabinet
of Roman " Large Brass," formed by Captain
W. H. Smyth. This fine collection (the de-
scriptive catalogue of which, by its possessor,
is one of the most interesting and instructive
numismatic works in the English language)
consists only of specimens of the Roman
copper coins of the larger class, from the
reign of Augustus, B.C. 42,* to that of Salo-

• The date of the battle of Philippi.

ninus, who was assassinated in the year
259 A.D.

In the Roman series a collection of the
denarii, or standard silver coinage, might be
made of the same period, at but little more
cost. Some of the types are very interest-
ing, and it would have the advantage of en-
abling the collector to continue his series
down to the time of Constantine and his
family, or even to a period later than that,
at which the larger class of brass money
dwindled, and gradually disappeared with the
decline of the empire.

The old French numismatist, Le VaiUant,
made a special collection of the coins of the
Macedonian kings of Syria, and our own
antiquary. Cough, has principally restricted
himself, in the numismatic department of his
archaeological researches, to the same subject,
his volume on the coins of the Seleucidse
being one of the finest works of its class.

From that series of coins, indeed, a most
compact and complete cabinet may be formed,
and its being limited would enable almost
any enthusiastic collector, who had patience
to see Ms cabinet increase slowly year by
year, to get together, in a comparatively
short space of time, a very respectable cabi-
net, illustrative of the establishment, the
flourishing period, the decline, and extinction
of this important dynasty. Another feature
in favour of this subject (and some others
of a similar class to be afterwards alluded
to) is, that the whole period embraced belongs
to the finest era of monetary art, nearly
the whole of the coins of every reign, except
a few of the last, being of fine execution, and
some of them remarkably splendid works
of art, especially those of the reign of Anti-
ochus the Great. The silver tetradrachms, or
pieces of four drachmae, are the finest coins of
the series ; but a collector wishing to get his

EECREATIYE SCIENCE.

205

illustrative series together economically, may-
avoid these, when rare, and consequently ex-
pensive, and put up with a silver coin of
smaller dimensions, or even with a copper
one— copper coins of some of the reigns
being plentiful, and of good execution. The
following is a brief outline of the origin of
the dynasty, and of the general character of
the coins of each reign.

The death of Alexander the Great took
place in 323 B.C., soon after his total sub-
jection of the whole of Western and Central
Asia. The vast empire had been divided
by the conqueror (after the oriental manner)
into satrapies, over which those Macedonian
commanders who had most distinguished
themselves in the conquest, were appointed
the respective governors. The death of
Alexander was no sooner known in the
different provinces of the vast empire, than,
as if by a given signal, there began a general
struggle for the supreme power. Philip Arrhi-
dseus, Alexander's half-brother, who was ap-
pointed regent during the minority of Alex-
ander's infant son by the celebrated Eoxana,
was utterly unequal to the diiEculties of the
position, and a general war ensued, in which
much of the best blood of Greece and Mace-
donia was spilt. The subjection of the Asiatic
races was, however, so complete, that no at-
tempt to resume their independence was at-
tempted ; so that, eventually, the empire was
divided (for a time) mainly between four of
the most successful of the combatants —
Lysimachus obtaining a large region, em-
bracing Thrace and the adjoining provinces,
Cassandra Macedonia, Ptolemy the noble
province of Egypt, and Seleucus the whole
of Central Asia, including Babylonia Proper,
Assyria, Bactria, to the confines of India,
and westward, the whole of Syria to the
coasts of the Mediterranean and the frontiers
of Egypt. Two only of the chiefs who thus
succeeded in conquering a throne became the
founders of permanent dynasties — Ptolemy
in Egypt, and Seleucus iu S^ria. §eleu-

cus I., surnamed Nicanor (the victorious),
no sooner felt himself firmly established,
than he founded several cities, to form the
principal centres of his far-extending do-
minions. Of these Antiochia (Antioch) was
intended to be the metropolitan, as being near
to the Mediterranean, and therefore in a posi-
tion to command ready communication with
Europe and with Egypt, Babylon being
deserted as too remote for the seat of a
dominant power whose main support and
prestige was drawn from Europe. It was as
the ruler of the ancient kingdom and capital
of Babylonia, however, that Seleucus founded
his claims as ruler of the vast regions of the
East, for the possession of Babylon gave to
his power an air of stability among his Asiatic
subjects. It was, doubtless, to aid this feeling
that he caused coins to be struck, on which
the chief characteristics of the great symbolic
winged bulls of the ancient palaces of the
kings of Babylon (still perfect in the time of
Seleucus) were introduced. This, probably,
took place when he formally assumed the
regal title — about the year 312 B.C. On
these coins, which are very rare, only four
or five specimens being known, the new king
of the East is represented wearing a helmet,
on which the horns and wings of the Baby-
lonian bulls form the chief ornament. The
human-headed bull, as a symbol of Babylonian
sovereignty, is thus symbolized in the device
of the obverse of the coin engraved below,
the head being, in all probability, an idealized
portrait of Seleucus. It was at this period,
as is well known, that princes first ventured
to place their portraits on the public coinage
of the state, only the images of the gods or
the device of the national signet — generally
consisting of some object sacred to the gods
— having up to that period been used upon
national money. Alexander was the first
who, in the character of " Hercules " — from
whom he claimed descent — caused his own
features to be imitated in the representation
of this mythological deity j but did not at-

206

EECREATIVE SCIENCE,

tempt to place his own portrait, in his simple
character as sovereign, on the coinage. Lysi-
machus followed out the hint, when he estab-
lished his kingdom of Thrace, by causing his
features to be introduced as those of the
horned Bacchus on the coins which he issued.
The coin of Seleucus Nicanor, engraved as one
of our illustrations, may be taken as another
example of the transition from the images
of the gods to those of princes on the national
money.

Suidas, a Byzantine author, writing in the
9th century, tells us that the horn of a bull,
etc., found on the coins of Seleucus Nicanor,
was used in allusion to the recapture of a bull
which had escaped duringa sacrifice which was
being performed by Alexander. This, how-
ever, as a statement made above a thousand

cus, even to the last of the dynasty. The
device of the reverse of the coin Fig. 1 is,
however, formed of a figure of Victory crown-
ing a trophy, in allusion, no doubt, to the
great victory over Antigonus and Demetrius,
at Gaza, which completely cemented his
power in the West, and reopened his inter-
rupted communications with Babylonia. It
is this epoch, in fact, which forms what chro-
nologers term the Seleucidsean epoch, their
dynastic dates being calculated from that
period ; and nearly all the coins bear dates
which mark the number of years from that
time to the epoch at which the coins of sub-
sequent eras respectively were struck. The
inscription on this coin is simply BASlAEnS
2EAETK0T (of the King Seleucus). The small
Greek numerals, ahd a single letter, have re-

FlG. 1.

years after the reign of Seleucus, is nob
to be much depended upon, and is less in
accordance with the spirit of the time than
the supposition which I have adopted in pre-
ference. The reverses of many of the coins
of the Seleucidge have for type a very ele-
gantly-designed figure of Apollo, adopted as
a family device by the Seleucidse, in allusion
to a dream of the mother of the first Seleucus,
who, in the vision, was informed that her
child was the oifspring of that deity. A
ring is described as having been found
in her bed bearing the device of an
anchor, and the child was, it was said,
marked on the thigh with the same figure,
which continued (as Justin relates) to be
found on all the true descendants of Seleu-

ference to a date, and to the name of the city
at which the coin was struck, or to the name
of the magistrate having charge of the mint.
The coins of Seleucus Nicanor which are
most usually found, and with which most
collectors must rest contented as a momunent
of his reign, are those struck by him before
he assumed the title of king, and on which
he used the types of the coinage of Alex-
ander, the head of Hercules clothed with the
lion's skin, but with the addition of wings
behind the ears. Of this type some have
only the simple name of Seleucus on the
reverse, while others, those struck at a later
period, have the title of king. Some of
them, especially the copper, have a bull on
the device of the reverse j and there are

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

207

other varieties, some having a head of Ju-
piter for obverse, like those of Philip II. of
Macedon. The coin engraved (Fig. 1) is a
silver tetradrachm, or piece of four drachmae.
Seleucus Nicanor was assassinated, after a
long reign, by his brother-in-law Ceraunius,
in 282 B.C.

His successor, Antiochus I., was surnamed
Soter, or Saviour, in consequence of his vic-
tory over several hordes of Celts, who threat-
ened to overrun the whole of Asia Minor.
This prince was the first of this dynasty who
caused his own portrait to be placed, unideal-
ized and unaccompanied by any sacred sym-
bols, on the public coinage of the newly-
established empire. On the reverse the de-
vice is generally the figure of Apollo, as on
the coins of Antiochus the Great, engraved

tions as those of his father ; but may be dis-
tinguished by the youthful character of the
portrait, as he was assassinated at the early
age of 20.

Antiochus III., surnamed the Great, was
the brother of the preceding, and reigned
from 223 to 187, B.C. The coins of this
prince, the antagonist of the Romans in the
East, and the protector of Hannibal, who took
refuge at his court, are perhaps more nume-
rous than those of any of his predecessors or
successors. A very interesting collection
might indeed be formed of the coins of his
reign alone. The series exhibits the features
of the prince, from early youth to advanced
age, in a fine series of portraits, which are
remarkable as mere works of art ; while
the series of the reverses are very various.

hero (Fig. 2). The legend is
ANTiOKOoT. He died in 261 b.c.

Antiochus II. was surnamed Theos (the
god), on account of his delivering the Mile-
sians from their tyrant Timarchus. He died
by poison in 247 B.C. His coins were distin-
guished from the preceding by the device
of the reverse, which is generally a finely-
executed figure of Hercules, seated, and lean-
ing on his club. These coins are very fine.

Seleucus II. reigned from 247 to 227 s.c.
His coins have a portrait on the obverse, and
a fine figure of Apollo leaning on a tripod on
the reverse, with the inscription BASIAEXIS
SEAEYKoT.

Seleucus III. reigned from 227 to 223 B.C.
His coins have the same devices and inscrip-

that engraved above being the most common.
It represents Antiochus in the early years
of his reign, and is a silver tetradrachm.
The gold coins of this reign are large and
fine, but it is on the copper and small silver
that are exhibited the greatest number of
devices.

Seleucus IV. reigned from 187 to 176 B.C.
There are no good coins of this reign. The
small copper have the prow of a vessel for
reverse, with the name and title as usual.

Antiochus TV. (from 176 to 164 B.C.)
The coins of this prince are remarkable as
being the first which bear the surnames of
the prince. They run as follows : — BASIAEnS
ANTIOKOT 0EOT Eni*ANOT5, " The king An-
tiochus, the god, the illustrious." Some of

208

EECREATIYE SCIENCE.

tlie copper have a fine head on the obverse,
and a well executed eagle grasping a thunder-
bolt on the reverse. The small copper have
the portrait with the radiated crown — the
first time it appears on this series.

Antiochus V. (from 162 to 150 B.C.) His
coins may be distinguished by his surname
ETHATOP (Eupator).

In the space of this article it will only be
possible to give the names and surnames of the
remaining members of this dynasty. Deme-
trius I. (Soter) reigned over a portion of the
empire, from 162 to 150 B.C. ; Alexander Bala,
from 150 to 147 B.C. ; the reigns of Deme-
trius II. (Nicator), Antiochus VI. (Diony-
sius Epiphanes), Diodotus, Triphon, and
Antiochus VII. (Sidetes), occupy together,
in a time of general disturbance, from 147
to 125 B.C. Alexander Zebina reigned from
125 to 124 B.C. ; his portrait has sometimes a
crown of rays, but sometimes a simple fillet.
Seleucus IV., who reigned for a short time,
124 B.C., has left no coins ; Antiochus VIII.
(Grypus) reigned from 124 to 76 B.C., over
a portion of the kingdom ; Antiochus IX.
(Cyzicenus), from about 111 to 91 B.C.,
reigned in some of the provinces. Then
foUows Seleucus VI. (Epiphanes Nicator),
from 96 to 94 B.C. Antiochus X. (Eusebes,
and on his coins Philopater), Antiochus XI.,
Antiochus XII., and Demetrius III., reigned
alternately or simidtaneously from 96 to 83
B.C. Most of the coins of these last princes
and pretenders have for reverse a sitting
figure of Jupiter, similar to that on the
tetradrachms of Alexander the Great, but
poorly executed, and are of base metal.
Tigranes the Armenian reigned over great
part of the Syrian dominions, from 83
to 69 B.C. ; and his coins with the portrait,
wearing the curious Armenian cap or crown,
are very remarkable. Antiochus XIII., from
69 to 65 B.C., about which period the whole
of the remaining Asiatic dominions of the
kings of Syria were declared a Eoman pro-
vince by Pompey. Most of the coins of this

series may be easily recognized by a young
numismatist after a little experience. The
dates of the Seleucidsean dynasty on many of
them at once settle the difficulty ; and in the
earlier part of the series the surnames are
also distinguishing features. But it is only
the complimentary surnames that are found
on the coinage, many of those by which they
are historically known being popular appel-
lations, not officially acknowledged. The
monographic names of cities are another
means of identification ; and after a time a
collector will get to know the portraits,
which are all evidently careful likenesses.

Since the foregoing was written, the trea-
sures of the celebrated numismatic cabinet
of the late Lord Northwick have been dis-
persed, and among them some noble gold
coins of the regal series of Syria. A very
rare one of Antiochus V. (Eupator), weigh-
ing 255f^ grains, brought £18 10*. It
was formerly in the Thomas collection, at
the dispersion of which it was sold for £10,
proving that really rare coins, in fine condi-
tion, are rapidly increasing in value. A gold
coin of Demetrius II., bearing the date 5nP
(186), sold, with some others, for £21 ; the
date being interesting as that of the year of
his assassination at Tyre. In the confusion
of successions, the same date occurs on money
struck by his wife Cleopatra, and on the
coins of his son, Antiochus VIII., and Alex-
ander II. But the great gem of the Syrian
series in this collection was the splendid gold
tetradrachm (weight 257 grains), struck by
Cleopatra, the mother of Antiochus VIII.,
during her regency. This coin was described
in the catalogue as " rare to excess." Mion-
net, in his fifth supplement, cites the North-
wick cabinet as containing this rare coin, of
which he only knew one other example.
After considerable competition, the numis-
matic prize was purchased for the British
Museum for the sum of £240 !

H. NOEI. HUMPHBEYS.

RECREATIVE SCIENCE.

109

HERBAEIUM OF MOSSES.

APPAEATTTS.

In tlie midst of wintry desolation, liow tlie
eye is cliarmed by the vivid freshness of tlie
tufts of emerald moss that beautify the clefts
of the rocks, the decayed hollows of old stone-
walls, and the buttresses of gray ruins. The
study of mosses is attractive beyond the
unique beauty of the plants, for every inves-
tigation of their structure reveals a wonder-
ful system of vegetable mechanism, which
under the microscope assumes the most
varied and artistic forms, often as geometri-
cal as snow-crystals, and very frequently
being striking resemblances to familiar works
of art. A simple Coddington lens is suffi-
cient to determine most of the species, and
we are invited to search them out by the
romantic situations in which they are usually
found ; nay, they make dreary places roman-
tic for a time, and carpet the earth with ver-
dure when most other forms of vegetation
have yielded to the rigours of winter. But
the mosses are not exclusively winter plants ;
every month in the year presents us with
species in growth and fruit, and there is
always some such to be sought by the collec-
tor. They are, nevertheless, in their highest
perfection in the midst of frost and snow,
and at this season of the year the beginner
need not search far to discover an abun-
dance of the most interesting and beautiful
species.

For collecting mosses, the following appa-
ratus wiU be required: — 1st. A water-proof
bag, of oilskin, gutta-percha, or some such
material, for aquatic species. 2nd. A small-
sized dinner-knife, which should be provided
with a leather sheath as used for scissors.
This, from its long, thin, and flexible blade,
is far preferable to a pocket-knife, to peal
mosses off trees, palings, walls, etc. 3rd. A

Fig. 1.— The Hoe-blade.

small hoe-shaped blade, fitted to a short tube,
like an elongated thim-
ble, with a bayonet-
joint. Any clever work-
man would suggest the
mode of constructing
this instrument, which
should be made to fit
a walking-stick or um-
brella, or it may have
a handle made on pur-
pose (Fig. 1). 4th. A
few unglazed holland
bags, say six, the largest
six inches long, and four wide, the smallest
three inches long and three inches wide.
These may be fastened with strings, but I
prefer two buttons, as
shown in the engraving
(Fig. 2).

5th. The Drying
Press. — This is formed
of thin strips of wood,
so arranged as to allow
a free current of air to
circulate between the
layers of specimens and
the papers placed be-
tween them, to facili-
tate the escape of mois-
ture. The outside
frames should be made
with two stout cross-

FiG. 2.— The Bags.

bars ; the two outer strips one inch wide, the
inner strips half an inch wide ; the spaces
between one-quarter of an inch ; the inner
frames to be composed of two layers of
strips all half an inch wide, with quarter-inch
spaces; with three cross-bars between, to
which botli layers of strips are fastened by a
screw passing through the whole ; the end

210

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

cross-bars one incli wide, tlie centre half an
inch. Two light straps to pass over the cross-
bars, to fasten them, will keep the whole toge-
ther compactly when filled with specimens in
process of drying (Fig. 3).

nnnninnni

keep the specimens clean and in good order,
and, when the day's collecting is completed,
can be rolled up, and carried home. I can say
nothing in praise of vascnlums, as experience
has taught me to avoid, when engaged in

Hoann

Fig 3— The Press.

6th. An apron should be provided, made
of oil or American cloth, twelve inches wide
and twenty inches long, divided into parii-

FiG. 4. — The Apron.

tions like a lady's needle-huswife, as repre-
sented (Fig. 4). This being water-proof will

Collecting, whatever is weighty or cumber-
some ; and if once the species get mixed, the
loose dirt spoils their beauty, and they can
never be examined with that comfort, or pre-
served with that delicacy and beauty, which
are so characteristic of this order. In fact, as a
rule, vascnlums are well calculated to damage,
not preserve our most delicate plants.

7th. A pair of surgeon's dissecting forceps
(Fig. 5), for examining minute specimens.

FxG. 5.

and removing them from foreign objects, or
the water in which they are immersed before
drying.

HOW TO COLLECT THEM.

A final preparation before starting, is to
be well protected about the feet and legs,
for to get mosses you must not mind an occa-
sional plunge into a bog. Choose a damp
day, or, better, a clear day soon after a
heavy rain, for it must be remembered that
in dry weather many mosses, as Poly-

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

211

triclium undulatura, Pterogonium SmitMi,
and many of tlie Bryums, shrivel and be-
come unsightly and much altered in ap-
pearance ; but dry weather should not be
considered as altogether unfit for collect-
ing, for such as Pterogonium Smithii I con-
eider improved by its curly appearance. In
exploring for mosses, you will find Hypnum
riparium abundant on the wooden gates of
locks, miU-dams, hatches, etc.; Fontinalis
antipyrelica, growing in waving or feathery
plumes from the bottom and sides of tole-
rably deep streams ; the Polytrichums, abun-
dant on heaths and sandy banks ; the Ortho-
trichums, on stones and trunks of trees ; the
Phascums, forming patches of reddish-brown,
or green, with yellow dots like seed, on the sur-
face of the earth ; Weissia ealcarea, forming a
blackish-brown stain on the surface of chalk
in pits and railway-cuttings, and so minute
as to compel the collector to chip ofi* the sur-
face of the chalk to get the specimens. The
Dicranums and Hypnums may be found
everywhere, from the sides of our wells to the
walls of the house, the tops of trees, and on
lofty mountains. Bryum argentium, I am
told, is found all over the world. It is abun-
dant on Westminster Bridge, and on waste
grounds where houses are building, or have
lately been built, between the stones in un-
frequented squares, and on many walls in and
near London.

While collecting, the hoe-shaped blade,
attached to the stick or umbrella (Figs. 6 and
7), will be found especially useful for loosen-
ing Orthotrichums, and others that grow on
trees above your reach. The specimens may
generally be caught in the hand as they fall.
It will also be useful for pealing them off the
sides of walls, banks, etc. ; and even on the
ground it will often save stooping or kneeling
where the soil is damp. Many may be reached
and removed from under water, and from wet
banks and the sides of deep ditches, with a
piece of stout iron wire, crooked to form a
hook, and tied on to the stick.

AEEANaiNa THE SPECIES.

The species should be kept separate as far
as is possible, and should be stored in the
apron or the bags, accordiug to their relative
sizes and delicacy of structure. On return-
ing home, the first task should be to endea-
vour to name them ; if, however, we intend

Fig. 6.— Blade on
Stick.

Fig. 7.— Blade on
Umbrella.

leaving the naming to some friend after the
specimens are dried, we mu^t put the date of
collecting and district with each, and if we
have more than we can readily dry, expose
the others to the air of a warm room, thinly
spread on blotting-paper, and when dry may
be placed away and pressed at any future
period, as will be explained presently.

212

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

DETING IN THE PEESS.

Having picked the specimens over loosely,
take a large sheet of stout brown paper, turn
out the mosses upon it, and carefully remove
from them any dead leaves and other rubbish
that may be mixed with them, throw them
into a basin of boiling water, and, with your
drying paper and press beside you, remove
each specimen with a pair of surgeon's dis-
secting forceps, and place it on the paper with
all the water it has absorbed. It requires the
greatest care to prevent them shrivelling,
even when pressed, especially if they are
changed in a warm room. The press is a
compact little apparatus, and very light,
should be made of mahogany or cedar, nine
inches long and five and a half wide, fastened
by two light straps, as seen in the illustration
(Fig. 3) ; it may stand on a footstool in front
of the fire, or in any warm corner near the
fire-place.

The specimens should first be changed in
about twelve hours after having been put in,
and again every second day until dry, and
take especial care not to press too tight, or
the beauty of many will be destroyed.

MOTJNTINa POE THE HEEBAEIUM.

"When dry, the duplicates may be kept
between folded sheets of waste paper, the
name of each (or w^hat information may be
deemed proper) written at the left-hand bot-
tom corner ; when mounted it should be on
the stoutest note paper, largest size, and
named as the duplicates.

Very little expense or skill is required in
forming a moss herbarium ; the plants being
so small, little trouble is involved in mounting
them, nor is it absolutely necessary to poison
them, as there is little for insects to feed
upon.

At present I have been addressing the
amateur botanist, whose chief aim is to have
a well-named collection. There may be others,
however, whose chief delight is collecting, in-
tending, as I before mentioned, to get some

botanist to name them, or who intend to use
them to form devices, or in the manufacture
of fancy articles, for which they are most ap-
propriate from the many delicate forms in
which Nature has fashioned them. Besides
this, the species most suitable for ornamental
uses are abundant, and may be easily dyed
in a great variety of colours. To use mosses
for such purposes proceed as follows : —

COLLECTING FOE FANCY VTOEK.

Have a large unglazed holland bag, choose
the driest weather, collect as many as you
require (or as many as you can find) of every
species you meet with, put all together into
the bag carelessly, rolling up in scraps of
paper the Phascums and such as are removed
with the dirt. On reaching home, if any are in
the slightest degree damp, let them be dried
thoroughly before a fire, or by exposure in a
warm room. The collections of a day, week,
month, or year, may be all packed together
in a bag or box provided with partitions to
separate certain districts or periods of collect-
ing ; they may be so kept for years if neces-
sary, and the whole or any portion may be
properly dried at any time that may be con-
venient. By maceration in boiling water,
and pressing in the ordinary way, many will
come out of the water in all the freshness and
beauty of form they possessed when growing,
years after collecting.

This is a most valuable and important
fact for the tourist, as, while travelling, many
of the most handsome and delicate species,
which are only found in certain localities,
may be collected in abundance, which other-
wise must be neglected altogether, and a skil-
ful botanist would at all times be able to
separate a majority of such species. I could
in a brief space of time separate 100 British
species, allowing any one previously to use
their skill in mixing and confusing them.
Eeedeeick Y. Beocas.

EECREATIYE SCIENCE.

213

now TO USE THE TELESCOPE.

" Telescope Teachings :" A Familiar Slcetcli
of Astronomical Discovery. By the Hon.
Mrs. Ward.

A RTJDiMENTAEY book on th.e practical study
of astronomy, and as such, it would be impos-
sible to find one more attractive to the novice.
Indeed, the work is well calculated to make as-
tronomers of those who have not studied the
subject. Mrs. Ward shows, in a clear man-
ner, how very much can be done at a small
cost, both in labour and money. Many of
the plates (of which the work is profusely
illxistrated) are admirable pictures, faithfully
executed. Donati's Comet and the Eclipse
of 1858 may more especially be noted; in
fact, those who desire (and who does not ?) to
have the splendid comet of that year brought
truthfully before them, should by aU means
possess this book. G-reat credit is due to the
authoress, to the artist, and to the publisher ;
each have done their part well, so that the
work must have, as it really deserves, a great
circulation.

We extract, as an example of the author's
method, the following directions for the ob-
servation of the spots on the sun by means
of the telescope : —

" We must place a piece of dark-coloured
glass before the eye-piece of the telescope, as
the sun is far too bright to be looked at
without this protection. There are two other
little precautions which we would recommend
to the observer : firstly, to point the teles-
cope by observing its shadow on a piece of
paper, held to receive it ; when this shadow
is perfectly round, it will be found that the
instrument is exactly pointing to the sun ;
secondly, prepare a flat piece of pasteboard,
with a hole cut through it of the diameter of
the telescope, and when the instrument is

properly adjusted, slip on the pasteboard to
screen the unemployed eye and the head and
face from the heat of the sun. The first
precaution is recommended to save the ob-
server from being dazzled in vain endeavours
to ' hit the sun' in the ordinary way, and
both are more easily and quickly done iu
practice than in description.

"Looking now through the telescope,
should the dark glass used be of a reddish
shade, we shall see a round orange-coloured
disc in a black sky. On this disc there are
generally a few black spots, somewhat re-
sembling small blots or splashes of ink. When
examined with care the larger spots prove to
be not uniformly black, and not circular in
shape, but of two dark shades, and of irre-
gular outline.

" It is sometimes practicable to look at
the sun through a fog or thin cloud without
using the coloured glass. Its disc then
appears white, and the spots are of two shades
of brown.

" The opinion generally held by astrono-
mers concerning these spots is, that they are
the comparatively darh solid hodyoftJie sun,
laid bare to our view by immense fluctua-
tions in its luminous atmosphere ; that the
sun has at least two atmospheres, upper and
lower, and that the darker ^^sxt of the spots is
where the sun is seen through a rent in hoth
layers of atmosphere ; the lighter, where
one layer still covers it. Hecent observations
have indicated that there are three grada-
tions of shade, in some spots at least, the
centre being the darkest.

" The solar spots are not permanent.
When watched from day to day, they are
observed to enlarge or contract, to change
their forms, and at length to disappear alto-
gether; and new ones appear where pre-

14

214

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

viously there were none. These changes can
be detected with a very small telescope.
Another phenomenon on the sun's disc is
the occasional appearance of certain branch-
ing streaks of lights on its luminous surface,
curved in shape, and distinguished by their
superior brightness. These are caHedfaculce,
and are often observed in the neighbourhood
of great spots, or on parts of the solar disc,
where spots shortly afterwards break out.
These have been supposed to be ridges of
immense waves in the luminous regions of
the sun's atmosphere, indicative of violent
agitation in their vicinity.

"With powerful instruments the whole
surface of the sun may be seen to be finely
mottled with minute dark dots or pores, which
fluctuate in their appearance like the rest of
the markings.

" The solar disc can be exhibited in a very
agreeable manner by holding a screen or
sheet of paper at a proper distance from the
eye-piece of the telescope, and slightly alter-
ing the focus of the instrument, when the
bright image of the sun will be shown, with
all the spots distinctly appearing. The effect
will be heightened by darkening the room,
as, for instance, by having a hole made in the
window-shutter for the telescope, and closing
every other aperture. The faculce show par-
ticidarly well in this way, and their presence
may often be thus detected when the fatigued
eye has failed to observe them by a direct
scrutiny. With this contrivance, however,
the spots will be reversed, as in a camera
obscura; but they may be noted down on
paper, and afterwards traced on the other
side, when thev will appear in their true
positions.

"A persevering observer in Germany
(Schwabe) examined the sun's disc for twenty-
four years. He found a great variety, in dif-
ferent years, in the number of days in which
the spots were to be seen. There were'but
two days in 1850 that he failed to see them
out of three hundred and eight days in

which he looked at the sun ; in 1843 there
were one hundred and forty-nine days with-
out them, out of three hundred and twelve.
He did not think that the spots have (as has
often been imagined) any influence on the
temperature of the year.

" The changes in these spots are truly
surprising when we consider the size of the
sun; and its size is known with consider-
able exactness, having been calculated by
comparing its apparent diameter with its
known distance."

METEOEOLOGY OE JANUAEY.

FKOM OBSERVATIONS AT HIGHFIELD HOUSE OBSEKVATOEY.

Greatest

Greatest Amount of

Year.

Heat.

Cold.

Bain.

Degrees.

Degrees.

Inches.

1842 . .

— ..

.. 12-5 .. ,

__

18i3 . .

.. 55-0 ..

.. 16-5 .. .

1-6

18-M ..

.. 50-0 ..

.. 23-0 .. .

1-5

1845 . .

.. 53-0 ..

.. lT-0 .. .

1-3

184G . .

.. 55'5 ..

.. 20-5 .. .

20

1817 . .

.. 40-5 .,

.. 24-5 .. .

21

1848 . .

.. 54-5 ..

.. ]60 .. .

0-9

18-19 . .

.. 55-0 ..

.. 20-5 .. .

2-6

1850 ..

.. 480 ..

.. 20-0 .. .

1-6

1851 . .

.. 55-3 ..

.. 25-9 ,. .

2-3

1852 . .

.. 53-0 ..

.. 23-0 .. .

3-5

1853 . .

.. 53-2 ..

.. 29-5 .. .

8-0

1854 ,,

.. 55-2 ..

.. — 4-0 .. .

2-9

1855 ..

.. 53-7 ..

.. 21-6 .. .

0-5

1856 . ,

.. 51-0 ..

.. 18-5 .. .

2-9

1857 ..

.. 53-5 ..

.. 175 .. .

3-2

1858 ..

.. 54-0 ..

.. 22-8 .. .

02

1859 . .

.. 54-5 ..

.. 27-0 .. .

0-6

The greatest heat in shade reached 560° in 1844,
and only 46-5° in 1847, giving a range of 9'5° in greatest
heat for December during the past seventeen years.
In fourteen years the temperature reached 53°.

The greatest cold was as low as 4° below zero in
1854, and never below 29'5° in 1846, giving a range of
33'5'' in greatest cold for January during the past
eighteen years. The coldest years being 1842, 1843,

1845, 1848, 1854, 1856, and 1857; and the warmest,

1846, 1847, 1851, 1853, and 1859. In 1854 the tempe-
rature fell 16"5° below any other year.

Only 0-2 inch of rain fell in January, 1858, and as
much as 3'5 inches in 1852, giving a range of three and
a quarter inches forJanuary, during the past seventeen
years.

During this month the lowest temperature of the
year is usually attained.

E. J. Lowe.

EECEEATIYB SCIEIS'CE.

215

ASTEONOMICAL OBSEEVATIONS
EOE JANUAEY, 1860.

The sun is in the constellation Capricornus until the
20th, when he passes into Aquarius. He is at his
nearest distance to the earth on the evening of the 2nd..
He rises in London on the 1st at 8h. 8m., on the 15th
at 8h. 2m., and on the 31st at 7h.43m. ; and sets on the
1st at 3h. 59m., on the 15th at 4h. 17m., and on the
81st at 4h. 44m.

The sun reaches the meridian on the 1st at 12h.
3m. 37s. ; on the 15th at 12h. 9m. 32s., and on the 31st
atl2h. 13m. 41s.

Equation of time on the 1st, 3m. 37s. ; on the
,15th, 9m. 32s.; and on the 31st, 13m. 41s.; the
clock being before the sun, i. e., the equation of time
being addative.

Day breaks on the 4th at 6h. 3m., on the 12th
at Gb. 2m., and on the 26th at 5h. 50m. ; twilight ends
on the 10th at 6h. 18m., and on the 27th at 6h. 37m.
Length of night on the 17th, 15h. 39m.

Full moon on the 8th at 3h. 23m. p.m.

New moon on the 22nd at 12h. I7m. a.m.

The moon is at her nearest distance to the earth
on the 10th, and most distantly removed on the 25th.
She is near Jupiter on the Btli, and near Saturn on
the 11th.

Mercury is not favourably situated for observation.
He is a morning star, and situated in Ophiuchus at
the beginning of the month, passing into Sagittarius,
and into Capricornus on the 3lst. He reaches his
greatest western elongation on the 4th, and is farthest
removed from the sun on the 26th. He rises on the
1st at 6h. 15m. a.m., and on the 31st at 7h. 20m. a.m. ;
and sets on the 1st at 2h. 35m. p.m., and on the 31st
at 3h. 23m. p.m.

Venus is unfavourably situated for observation ; she
is in Capricornus in the beginning and in Aquarius at
the end of the month. She is nearly circular, and rises
on the 1st at 9h. 34m. a.m., and on the 31st at 8h. 53m.
a.m. ; and sets on the Ist at 5h. 54m. p.m., and on the
31st at 7h. 32m. p.m.

Mars is also unfavourably situated for observation.
He is a morning star, in the constellation Libra, until
the end of the montli, wlien he passes into Scorpio. He
rises on the 1st at 3h. 7m. a.m., and on the 31st at 2h.
53m. a.m., setting on the 1st at Oh. 47m. p.m., and on
the 31st at llli. 32m. a.m.

Jupiter is a magnificent object; he is in the con-
stellation Gemini, and is in opposition and at his
greatest brightness on the 11th. He rises on the 1st
at 4h. 43m. p.m., and on the 31st at 2h. 25m. p.m. ;
and sets on the 1st at 8h. 59m. a.m., and on the 31st
at Oil. 49m. a.m.

Saturn is also a fine object ; situated in Leo, and is
visible tlu-ougliout the night, rising on the 1st at 7h.
50m. p.m., and on the 31st at 5h. 41m. p.m.; setting
on the 1st at lOh. 31m. a.m., and on the 31st at 8h.
31m. a.m.

Uranus is in Taurus, a little above Hyades, and is
visible throughout the night, rismg on the 1st at Hi.

27m. p.m., and on the 31st at llh. 27m. a.m. ; and set-
ting on the 1st at 5h. 31m. a.m., and on the 31st at
3h. 29m. a.m.

There is an eclipse of the sun on the 22nd, invisible
in England. It occurs in the Great Southern Ocean,
the central path crossing the South Pole, where it is
annular.

Occultation of stars by the moon on the 5th : —
No. 17, Tauri, 4th magnitude, disappearance 4h. 6m.
a.m., reappearing in 34 minutes. On the 7th, e Gemi-
norum, 3 J magnitude, disappearance llh. 48m. p.m.
On the 9th, S Cancri, 4th magnitude, disappearance
81i. 32m. p.m., reappearance 9h. 29m. p.m.

Eclipses of Jupiter's satellites at Greenwich : —
On the 1st, at 7h. 39m. 10s. p.m., 4th moon disappears.
On the 4th, at 7h. 34m. a.m., 1st moon disappears.
On the 6th, at 2h. 2m. 54s. a.m., 1st moon disap-
pears. On the 6th, at 8h. 54m. 33s. p.m., 3rd moon
disappears. On the 7th, at 8h. 31m. 25s. p.m., 1st
moon disappears. On the 8th, at 8h. 5m. 33s. a.m.,
2nd moon disappears. On the 13th, at 6h. 11m. os.
a.m., 1st moon reappears. On the 14th, at 4h. 10m.
28s. a.m., 8rd moon reappears. On the 15th, at Oh.
39m. 38s. a.m., 1st moon reappears. On the 10th, at
7h. 8m. lis. p.m., 1st moon reappears. On the 18th,
at 5h. 18m. 13s. p.m., 4th moon reappears. On the
18th, at 9h. 44m. 34s. p.m., 2nd moon reappears. On
the 22nd, at 2h. 34m. 2s. a.m., 1st moon reappears.
On the 28rd, at 9h. 2m. 37s. p.m., 1st moon reappears.
On the 26th, at Oh. 21m. 13s. a.m., 2nd moon re-
appears. On the 29th, at4h. 28m. 35s. a.m., Istmoon
reappears. On the 80th, at lOh. 57m, 12s. a.m., 1st
moon reappears.

Duration of twilight after sunset, on the 1st, 2h,
Om., and on the 16th, 2h. Im.

The Pleiades are on the meridian on the 2nd, at
8h. 58m. 21 s. p.m. Eigel on the 3rd, at lOh. 16m. 47s.
p.m. a Persei on the 5th, at 8h. 15m. 46s. p.m. Aide-
baran on the 7th, at 9h. 21m. 15s. p.m. Capella on
the 19th, at 9h. 12m. 20s. p.m. Sirius on the 23rd,
at lOh. 29m. 5s. p.m., and Eigel on the 26th, at 8h.
46m. 21s. p.m.

E. J. Lowe.

THINGS OF THE SEASON— JANUARY.

FOR VABIOUS LOCALITIES OF GEE.4.T EEITAIN.

BiEDS Aeeiving. — Occasional flights of Grosbeaks,
Silktails, Norway Spinks, and Hen Chaffinches.

BiEDS Depaeting. — Snowflake, Orange-breasted
and Gray Goosander, Long-tailed and Tufted Pocher,
Grosbeak.

Insects. — Carabus catenulatus and cancellatus,
Helobiabrevicollis, Calathus cisteloides, 7-spotted and
2-spotted CoccineUa, Acheta domestica, Cheimatobia
vulgaris and rupicapraria, Peronea spadiceana. In ponds
various Colymbetes, Dyticus, and Hydrous piceus.

Wild Plants. — Nailwort, Aconite fl., Poa trivialis,
Winter Furze, White and Eed Dead-nettie, Mosses and
Lichens in fine condition.

216

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

JVIt JVToleworthy's Ch

orner.

The Atmospherio Clock.— «-Mr. Noteworthy has
been much amused by the performance of an atmos-
pheric clock, which he regards as a valuable appli-
cation to a purpose of utility of the simplest of all
natural laws. This clock possesses no mechanism,
but indicates the hour by the regular descent of a
column of merou'Tr, and might, therefore, with equal
propriety, be called the gravitating clock. In the left-

X

XI

XII

hand cut the clock is represented in its complete form,
with the mercury in the inner tube falling till it reaches
the bottom. The clock has then to be reversed, and
the mercury will traverse the tube again in the con-
trary direction, for all it has to do is to obey the
law of gravitation. Mr. Noteworthy's young friends
have asked him to explain the reason why the mer-
cury falls so slowly and regularly as to serve for
a time-divider, and he has made the right-hand dia-
gi-am to explain the details. There are two glass
tubes, ,one within the other. The inner tube con-
tains the mercury, and also atmospheric air. At
each end this inner tube communicates by a small
orifice with the outer tube, and, consequently, the mer-
cury, in its descent, has to force the air out of the
inner tube to the outer, and thus its rate of descent is
regulated. In the cut the arrows show the course of
the inclosed air. The descending arrow in the inner
tube is the air forced downwards by the weight of the
mercury. This air escapes by the small orifice at the
end of the tube, passes into the outer tube, and ascends
in it, as shown by the two lowermost of the arrows.

When it reaches the top of the outer tube, it enters
the small end of the inner tube, and thus, as fast as
tlie air is forced out below, it enters above, as shown
by the descending arrow above the mercury. This
clock is in no way influenced, or certainly not to any
appreciable extent, by the external air, as the outer
tube is hermetically sealed. ^The gravitation of the
mercury and the resistance of the air in passing
through the orifice determine the rate of motion, and
the division of the scale of hours is, of course, in
accordance with it. It is not only an instructive toy,
but a really useful invention.

BiEDS IN WiNTEE^A Query. — Many of the finches,
and other small birds that traverse the fields in
" flights" during autumn and winter, are, as regards
the sexes, separated into distinct bodies, one " flight"
will consist of males only, and another of females. In
the case of the robin, which never becomes gregarious,
all the birds now seen near the habitations of man are
males. What becomes of the females ? Do they haunt
deep woods and solitary places ? And how is it that all
the robins met with in gardens and orchards, and
in other places near towns and villages, are males, and
mostly birds of the same season?

Efflorescence. — Mr. Noteworthy does not believe
all he hears, else he would tell of an old porcelain
dinner-plate, which by a natural process has become
covered with a forest of trees, shrubs, and flowers,
while standing on a shelf in a common cupboard.
Attracted by a handbill announcing the " startling
fact ," Mr. Noteworthy wended his way to No. 2, Wil-
liam Street, Shoreditch, and, on payment of sixpence,
had a sight of the " Forest of Crystal Shrubs." It is
simply a case of efflorescence, and the crystals, formed
by some slow decomposition taking place in the clay,
force themselves through the enamel, and, in some
instances, rise to a height of half an inch in tufts and
bundles. In several places portions of the enamel are
lifted up by the crystalline growth, and appear like
lozenges laid on the flat surface. It is the most curious
example of efflorescence Mr. Noteworthy has yet seen,
but evidently of the same nature as that which some-
times takes place on the face of a newly-built brick
wall, when muriate or nitrate of lime oozes out in the
form of a chalky powder. This dinner-plate has
turned an honest tradesman into a sbo-\vman, and it
would perhaps have been better for him had Dame
Nature left his cupboard alone.

Celts in the Drift.' — Mr. Edwards, an inge-
nious glass-maker of Birmingham, suggests, in the
columns of the Times, tliat the so-called celts may be
natural productions. He says, when glass cools too
quickly, fragments fly off" from the bulk of a shape
and size closely resembling celts, and if masses of
flint were at one time heated by subterranean fires,
and then cast forth into the air, the rapid cooling
of their outer surfaces would cause them to fracture,
and so form natural resemblances to works of art.
Mr. Noteworthy believes the celts to be celts, never-
theless ; that is not an open question.

BECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

217

THE COMMON HOUSE-SPIDEE.

{Tegenaria domestica.)

" What can there be interesting in tkat com-
monplace, repulsive, little creature, which
infests our houses, annoys us by its presence,
and shocks our sense of decency with its

Fig. 1. — The Female House-Spider (Tegenaria domes-
tica), as seen with a Stanhope lens, a a, eyes;
b h, mandibles ; c c, maxillary palpi.

filthy webs ? — in that cruel little monster,
whose whole life is employed in weaving
snares to entrap unwary flies, lying in wait
for them in dark, damp corners of crevices,
murdering them remorselessly when they are
caught in its toils, and then sucking their
life's-blood? The house-spider, indeed ! Why,
we sweep it from the very face of Nature
wherever we find it, together with its cham-
ber of horrors ; and it must indeed be some
strong temptation that would induce one to
defile one's hands by contact with a creature
the very idea of which suffices to inspire
terror and disgust."

Thanks, reader, for your concise preface,
and for such an accurate popular estimate
of one of the most wonderful of God's crea-
tures, formed for the attainment of wise and
Voi, I.— No. 7,

useful ends, and perfectly adapted to the
office it is destined to fulfil. Endeavour to
overcome your repugnance for a while, and
let us introduce you to this little creature
that inspires you with such disagreeable sen-
sations ; accompany us, first, in a brief exami-
nation of its remarkable structure, and then
you may, if you think proper, continue your
reflections undisturbed by any of our obser-
vations.

But you may, perhaps, not possess a Stan-
hope lens ; we must therefore provide you
with one, as well as with the living object to
be considered. And see ! here we are already
face to face with our terrible spider! (Fig. 1.)
You see it can return your wondering gazo
fourfold, for it possesses eight eyes (Fig. 1,
a a) ; simple indeed in their structure, and
incapable of motion, but disposed in two rows
on the top of its head, and so directed
and arranged that they enable the creature
to espy its prey from whatever quarter
it may approach the web (Fig. 2). And

Fio. 2. — Enlarged View of Anterior Portion of Cephalo-
thorax, bearing the eight eyes, and hairs, a, one of-
the hairs magnified.

woe to the poor victim when once en-
snared in the toils ; for the terrible spider
immediately rushes on its prey, and brings
sitch an array of weapons to Dear against its
unprotected body, as to render escape next to
impossible. There is, perhaps, not another
living creature so fearfully armed as the

218

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

spider. Below the eyes (Fig. 1, h h), you
will perceive the large basal joints of the jaws,
or mandibles, as they are technically denomi-
nated, wherewith it butchers its prey. And
what terrible instruments of slaughter are
these ! Picture to yourself a pair of huge
clasp-knives, with extremely broad handles
(Fig. 5, a), the blades being so opposed to
one another, that when they are forcibly
driven into an object their pointed extremi-
ties encounter each other in the centre. Then
conceive these knives to have the edges of
their blades serrated with a row of fine teeth,
commencing near the haft (Fig. 3, a) ; and
on the handle itself (Fig. 3, b) five large
pointed teeth, shaped like the head of a lance,
and upon which the saw-like blade can be

Fio. 3. — Termination of the Jaw, or Mandible, a, row
of teeth on the claw ; h, basal joint of mandible,
showing the five large teeth ; c, commencement of
poison-sac ; d, course of the poison-duct. The last
two are only visible when the mandible has been
carefully bleached with chlorine.

brought to work to and fro. Lastly, you
must imagine these terrible instruments to be
poisoned, for within what we have called the
handles of these knives (the basal joints of
the mandibles) there is a receptacle (Fig. 3,
c) containing a subtle venom, which is con-

ducted through a tube (Fig. 3, d) to the
pointed extremity of the blade. The moment
this pierces the body of the prey the poison
is emitted, and entering the wound renders it
fatal, probably at the same time benimabing
the sensibility of the victim.

Did ever hired assassin of romance invent
or employ a more fatal and diabolical weapon
than this combination of poisoned dirks and
saws ? And yet this is but one portion of the

Fia. 4.— Edge of Maxilla, greatly enlarged, showing
teeth and hairs.

spider's apparatus for despatching its prey ;
for, besides these mandibles, it possesses a
smaller pair of jaws (the "maxillae"), whose
finely-toothed edges are comparable to a
couple of deep rasps (Fig. 4), that most proba-
bly operate one against the other in a similar
manner to the two limbs of the large jaws,
serving to enlarge the wound from which the
little monster sucks the life's-blood of the
wretched fly !

But now let us turn our little spider upon
its back, and, regardless of its puny strug-
gles, investigate the under surface of its body.
We shall then have an opportunity of seeing
how admirably its eight long slender legs—
(for you are, doubtless, aware that the Arach-
nidce, or spider tribes, are furnished with

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

219

that ntimber, in contradistinction to the insect
races, which possess only six) — how admi-
rably, we say, its eight legs are disposed, for
the purpose of enabling it to grasp the poor
fly in its terrible embrace. These legs, which
have seven joints, or articulations, are, as you
perceive (Fig. 5, h), placed in an oval upon the

Fxo. 5. — View of Uiiilcr Surface of Male Spider, ivith
the first joints of the legs, a a, mandibles ; h b, legs ;
c 0, maxillary palpi; d d, spinnarets,

under side of what is termed the cephalo-
thorax,* and the object of their being of such
great length and tenuity is not only that
they may grasp the victim more firmly than
if they were shorter, but also that, when
stretched out (as we see them whilst the
creature is at rest watching for prey), they
may cause the weight of the body to be
distributed over a large surface of the
fragile web.

JSTor are these members of locomotion
wanting in features of interest, for they are
all furnished at their extreniities with a bean-

* The " head-chest." The body of the Arach-
nidffi is divided into two sections, the cephalothorax
(or head and chest fused together) and abdomen. In
the insect races these three sections are distinct, and
united by slender filaments.

tiful apparatus resembling a comb, termi-
nated by a pointed hook (Fig. 6). These
instruments are precisely of the most suit-
able construc-
tion to enable
their possessor to
grasp, card, dis-
entangle, or wind
its threads with
the utmost faci-
lity, and if you
were to examine them with a microscope,
and compare them with the mechanical
contrivances employed in our factories for a
similar purpose, you would be compelled to

Fig. 6. — Terminal Point of t]ie
Spider's Foot, showing the
hooked comb.

Fig. 7. — One of the Combs, highly magnified.

admit, perfect as you may consider the latter,
that they are but awkward imitations of the
efficient tools formed by the hand of the
great Artificer (Fig. 7).

And now, if you will for an instant
compare Figs. 1 and 5, j^ou will notice on
either side of the head, what might be mis-
taken for a fifth pair of legs, of shorter
dimensions than the rest. These are the
maxillary palpi, which probably correspond
to the feelers of insects' in their functions
(although some naturalists believe the large
mandibles already described to be metamor-
phosed feelers, or antennae, as they are techni-
cally called), and you will perhaps be surprised
to notice a difierence in shape between these
members in the two illustrations (Figs. 1,
c e, and 5, cc). This is owing to the fact that
the one represents the female and the other
the male. The club-shaped palpi of the male
(Figs. 5, c c, and 8) are said to serve a most
remarkable end in connection with the gene-

220

EEOEEATIVE SCIENCE.

rative process ; but a consideration of this por-
tion of the subject would be too great a
trespass upon the domains of physiological
science for such a popular article as the pre-
sent, and we must, therefore, confine our-
selves to pointing out the circumstance that
the form of the palpi presents a distinction
whereby the sex of the spider may at once
be recognized, those of the male being, as
just observed, club-shaped, fur-
nished with several hooks, and a
species of cup (Fig. 8), whilst those
of the female ta-
per to a point (Fig.
1, c), and are armed
at the extremity
with a toothed Fig. 8. — Last Joint of one of
comb, resembling the maxillary palpi of male

those at the end of

the feet, as well as with several long sword-
shaped hairs (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9. — The Same in the Female.

Having frequently had occasion to refer
to the web employed by the spider to entrap

animal, is the contrivance whereby it is
enabled to construct this web. If you move
your lens to the termination of the abdomi-
nal segment of the body (Fig. 5, d), you will
perceive two little protuberances, in which
you cannot fail to recognize the spinnarets.
This is the longest and most prominent of
three pairs (Fig. 10)— the remaining two pre-
senting the appearance of circlets (Fig. 10, a)
— with which the spider is endowed for the
object referred to, and they are all studded
over with rows of little microscopic tubes
(Fig. 10, h h h), from which there exudes a glu-
tinous substance that solidifies into a filament
as soon as it becomes exposed to the at-
mosphere.

It is the combination of all these micro-
scopic filaments that forms the silken thread
with which the wily assassin weaves its toils,
for the microscope has revealed that every
one of those almost invisible fibres which we
see floating in the air, is composed of hun-
dreds of finer ones, just as a ship's cable is
formed by the union of numerous lengths of
hempen yarn.

But mark the dificrence in the two opera-
tions ! In the fabrication of a rope, the twist-
ing process is supplementary to much human

-6*

Fig. 10, — Posterior Portion of Spider's Body, showing the six spinnarets. a, Shorter spinnarets, with circlets
of tubes ; a*, the same magnified ; hb h, spinning tubes on long spinnarets ; 6*, single tube magnified.

its prey, we must now mention that the most I labour employed in the cultivation of the
noteworthy feature in the structure of the \ liemp, its preparation for spinning, and its

EECEEATIVE SCIEN'CE.

221

manufacture into yarn ; whereas, our won-
derful little spider produces from certain
glands within its body the substance of which
the invisible silken yarn is constituted, and
forms it into a cord much more rapidly than
the eye can follow the process.

Is not this an admirable example of the
superiority and simplicity of Nature's opera-
tions, as compared with the industrial pro-
cesses of the human race P

With wonderful rapidity and instinct the
spider employs these threads to weave its
web, or wanders from place to place, often
constructing a perfect net, to entrap its prey
(upon accurate geometrical principles*), in
less than an hour, and, what is most re-
markable of all, performing this task in what
to us would be total darkness !

There are many other curious and myste-
rious circumstances connected with these
webs. The garden-spider {E;peira diadema),
for instance, covers all the concentric fila-
ments of its net, at regular intervals, with
glutinous or adhesive globules, presenting
tmder the microscope the appearance of pearls
strung upon a thread, and destined to facili-
tate the capture of its prey. But our restricted
space will not allow us to dwell upon these
interesting details, and for all that concerns
the habits of the spider, as well as its inter-
nal physiology, which is as interesting as its
external structure, we must refer you to some
of the books that have been published on the
subject ;t or, if you wish to render yourself
useful to science, we recommend you to open
the book of JN'ature itself, and there to study
the life-history of a creature whose habits
have unfortunately prevented it from re-
ceiving its due share of the naturalist's
attention.

It is certainly an annoyance to us in our

* This refers more particularly to the garden-
spider {Epeira diadema).

+ Kirby and Spence's " Entomology," concerning
the habits ; Carpenter, or Newport, and Vogt and Trevi-
ranns (German) as regards Anatomy, etc.

houses, and toarns ns of the necessity for
cleanliness ; but were it not for the presence of
the spider, the flies and other insects with
which our dwellings swarm in summer, would
be intolerable, and it is therefore a wise pro-
vision of Nature to reduce the number of these
prolific insects. A little reflection, too, will
show you that its life-history and habits pre-
sent only a repetition of those of most other
animals of prey, of which many, although
possessing no such features of interest as
our little spinner, are regarded with much
less horror and repugnance.

Nay, if we are to believe what one of our
poets tells us, the little arachnidan is not
half so cruel and predatory as man himself.
He says :—

" Ingenious insect, but of ruthless mould.
Whose savage craft as nature taught, designs
A mazy web of death — the filmy lines
That form thy circling labyrinth, enfold
Each thoughtless fly that wanders near thy hold,
Sad victim of thy guile ; nor aught avail
His silken wings, nor coat of glossy mail,
Nor varying lines of azure, jet, or gold :
Yet though thus ill the fluttering captive fares,
Whom heedless of the fraud thy toils trepan ;
Thy tyrant fang that slays the stranger, spares
The bloody brothers of thy cruel clan ;
While man against his fellows spreads his snares,
Then most delighted when his prey is man."

Very poetical, indeed ! and unfortunately
too true, so far as the human race is con-
cerned, but not so with regard to the spider,
for it is one of those few creatures whose
ferocious disposition prompts them to prey
upon their own species ; nay, even the gentle
ties of marital affection do not serve to re-
strain its thirst for blood, and it is not at all
an unusual circumstance (and one that we
have ourselves frequently witnessed), for the
female to destroy her mate.

But if there have been minds that have
dwelt upon such terrible and repulsive fea-
tures as these, in the history of the arach-
nidan species, there are also others in whom
the theme has been productive of those gentle
and sublime thoughts that suggest themselves
sooner or later to every right-thinking man

222

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

who directs his reverent attention to God's
glorious works ; and we shall now conclude
these few observations on the humble house-
spider, by quoting the lines of one* whom the
consideration of its habits inspired with a sen-
timent of religious awe and veneration : —

" See how threads with threads entwine ;
If the evening wind alone
Breathe upon it, all is gone.
Thus within the darkest place
Creative wisdom thou may'st trace ;

Feeble though the insect be,

Still He speaks through that to thee.

" As within the moonbeam I,
God in glory sits on high,
Sits where countless planets roll.
And from thence controls the whole.
There, with threads of thousand dyes,
Life's bewildering web he plies,
And the Hand that holds them all
Let's not even the feeblest fall."

Liverpool,

James Samuelsojt.

THE CONJUNCTION OF THE PLANETS JUPITEE AND VENUS, ON THE
MOENINC OF JULY 21st, 1859.

The year 1859 was, on the whole, poor in
astronomical occurrences. In this respect it
offered a' strong contrast to its immediate
predecessor ; for, in • 1858, astronomers were
gratified by the discovery of four new aste-

Telescopic Viev>- > : t Approximation.

roids, the return of two known comets, and
the unexpected appearance of four unknown,
one of which was the ever memorable " Do-
nati," as well as by the occurrence of a lunar
and solar eclipse, visible from this country.
* Oehlenschlager.

In 1860, whatever chance visitors may come,
we have again a lunar and solar eclipse to
expect, both visible from England, and the
latter total in Spain and Africa. But last
year (1859) only one comet and one asteroid
rewarded the explorers of the heavens ; and
though four solar eclipses occurred, none
were total, and all were invisible in England,
being displayed only to that select assemblage
of observers likely to view them in the far
Southern Ocean, or from Siberia, the northern
part of North America, and Greenland ; and
the two lunar eclipses were announced to be
visible from Australia and Asia.

The occultation of Saturn by the Moon,
on May 8th, was the occurrence most nearly
resembling an eclipse, visible from this coun-
try, and carefully it was observed when the
day came. But there was one more pheno-
menon to be seen in the year 1859, and that
one of rare occurrence, namely, the unusually
near approach (in apparent position) of the
planets Jupiter and Venus, at about a quarter
to four o'clock, on the morning of July 21st.
This was foretold in the " Nautical Almanac"
of the year, in the following not very exciting
terms : —

"July 20, 14" 45'" ? d 2^ .... 90° I'S."
The attractive " Illustrated London Alma-

RECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

223

nac," however, gave a more lengtliened ac-
count of the promised phenomenon, illus-
trated by a woodcut sure to catch the eye,
though the reader could at first hardly believe
it was intended to represent an expected ap-
pearance, so singularly near were the planets
placed to each other.

A few words may here be added with ad-
vantage on the subject of planetary conjunc-
tions. The planets — that is, the principal
planets, not including the asteroids — run in
tracks very similar to each other, as viewed
from the earth ; but as they all appear to
travel with very different degrees of speed,
they frequently overtake each other. The
annexed illustration is intended to show how

« CasvOJ*

* Pollux

Portions of the Orbits of Jupiter and Venus.
the path of Jupiter runs part of its way north
of that of Venus, and part of its way south ;
also how Venus, from moving actually quicker
than Jupiter, and also from its being much
nearer than Jupiter to us who view it, will
traverse a portion of the celestial vault in
twenty days, which will occupy Jupiter nearly
four months. Whenever it overtakes Jupiter
a " conjunction" occurs ; but the curious
thing in the present instance was, that it
outran Jupiter this time, so close to the point
where its orbit crosses that of Jupiter, that
the two planets appeared to the naked eye
as one star. Such an occurrence was already
on record ; for Kepler states that, on the 9th
of January, 1591, he and Mcestlin witnessed
an occultation of Jupiter by Mars, and that
the red colour of the latter on that occasion

clearly indicated that Jupiter was the further
of the two planets. He also mentions that,
on the 3rd of October, 1590, Mcestlin wit-
nessed an occultation of Mars by Venus.
On this subject, however. Professor Grant
remarks — " It is to be borne in mind that
these observations were made before the in-
vention of the telescope, so that it is doubtful
whether, in either of these cases, the one
planet was actually superposed above the
other." He adds that phenomena of a si-
milar nature have occurred in more recent
times. They are, however, extremely un-
usual, and this conjunction was alluded to
early in the year by Professor Wolfers, of
Berlin, as a " rare phenomenon."

The writer was fortunate enough to see it
under circumstances more favourable than
those enjoyed by the illustrious Kepler, hav-
ing been one of a party of nine persons who
assembled in the chilly morning twilight of
July 21st, shortly after three o'clock a.m.,
for the purpose of viewing the conjunction
through an old three-inch Dollond telescope.
The upper part of the sky was pretty
clear, and though the rapidly -increasing day-
light allowed but few stars to be seen, the
moon was bright ; but the whole eastern
horizon, to the height of several degrees wag
obscured by a reddish fog, shaded off into
indistinct filmy clouds. At first sight, we
despaired of seeing anything ; but while we
looked, one small star shone out in an inter-
stice between the clouds. It was no other
than our much desired planets, for this time
appearing as a double star of unusual compo-
sition. The astronomical eye-pieces of the
old telescope had been for some reason dis- -
carded by us, in an observation of the moon
on the preceding evening, and the terrestrial
eye-piece was now employed. The planets
were stiU half concealed by fog. Venus ap-
peared through the telescope of a deep yellow
colour, Jupiter a dull grayish white, and at
about this distance from each other : ^ ^,,
Sunrise rapidly approached ; Venus

CI

224

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE,

tecame paler, and Jupiter more and more
indistinct from its gray colour, tkougli its
outline was defined with some sharpness.
The planets, as long as visible, neared each
other, and, though occasionally concealed by
clouds, had risen to a somewhat clearer at-
mosphere as they gained their nearest position,
represented in the first illustration. Almost
immediately afterwards, a larger drift than
usual closed the observation by completely

concealing the planets. But the sight re-
mained vividly impressed on the mind's eye,
with that peculiar clearness which seems to
belong to the remembrance of celestial ob-
jects ; and the writer is glad to give that
remembrance a tangible form, by transferring
a record of it to the pages of Keceeative
Science.

Maky Waed.

Trimleston Souse, near Dublin.

NOTES ON THE ELAND.

The permanent addition to our meadows of
an entirely new and distinct species of cattle,
furnishing a wholesome meat of a novel kind to
our tables, to vary the eternal round of beef,
mutton, and pork, is an event of very general
interest. Even as regards its influence upon

the aspects of the landscape scenery of our
agricultural homesteads, there is much in-
terest in the novel feature, as producing a new
series of impressions of beauty, and present-
ing fresh objects which will be eventually
blended by a rising race of artists with the
home associations of older standing; for

groups of Elands will at no very distan
epoch often form ordinary features in the
ever-attractive pictures furnished by our rich
meadow scenery.

The addition, however, of a new and very
delicious meat, of succulent and wholesome
character, to the very restricted list of our
larder stores, is of far more material im-
portance. It is well known that too much
sameness of food is not conducive to health-
For instance, it has been found upon exp eri
mcnt that troops fed upon the very finest
mutton continuously, even when varied by
every culinary device to procure variety of
flavour, have soon lost their usual health ;
which has been restored on recurring to the
ordinary alternating series of mutton, beef,
and pork. It is certain that if fish food were
made to alternate more frequently with our
more solid meats, that beneficial effects would
result ; for it has been observed by medical
practitioners, in Catholic countries, that
where on one day in the week fish alone is
eaten, those disorders immediately arising
from indigestion are far less frequent than
with us. In many inland and remotely
situated localities it is, however, very incon-
venient to procure fish, even in these days
of railways, and therefore tlie occurrence of
some other means of varying our routine of

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

225

ordinary food is to be alltlie more tliankfuUy
accepted. Being, too, of tliat lighter kind of
meat wliicli comes under the head of " game,"
which is found to be of easier digestion
than the flesh of sheep or oxen, the new meat
is the more acceptable. It resembles venison
in many of its characteristics, but is more
succulent, and possesses a flavour of its own
which many will greatly prefer.

The Elands, from which we are now led
to expect an abundant supply of this new
meat, are natives of South Africa. They
are the largest of the antelope tribe, to which
they belong, and appear therefore better
suited than any of their congeners for the pur-
poses of forming a domestic breed, furnishing
a new kind of meat ; though, since their first
introduction with that view. Dr. Livingstone
has described many other species of the ante-
lope tribe, which are likely to be imported
with a view to acclimation for similar pur-
poses at future periods. Several very in-
teresting experiments in the acclimation of
exotic animals, likely to prove of value for
domestic uses, are at the present time being
made in Paris, where a company was recently
formed (the Societe Imperiale d' Acclimation)
for that express purpose. It was as manager
of that company, in so far as regarded the
scientific arrangements for rendering the
change from tropical regions less trying to ani-
mals accustomed to a temperature averaging
above a third higher than that of Europe, that
Mr. David Mitchell, the energetic and talented
secretary of the Zoological G-ardens, had been
requested to take up his abode at Neuilly for a
time ; and it was while there that the singxilar
andmysterious accident occurred which caused
his premature and lamented death.

It is to be regretted that we have no
establishment of the kind in England, to
which the talents of Mr. Mitchell might have
been devoted at home. The only approach
to such an undertaking was that established
by the late Earl of Derby at Xnowsley,
occupying above a hundred acres, where,

among a magnificent collection of animals,
the first Elands ever brought alive to this
country were comfortably located in No-
vember, 1842. This small herd consisted of
two male Elands and a female. A fresh sup-
ply arrived at Knowsley in 1852, but the
noble owner was not destined to witness the
success of this last importation. He died
soon after their arrival, bequeathing them to
the Zoological Society in the Eegent's Park,
where, under the able management of Mr.
Mitchell, the original herd of five increased
so rapidly as to render their dispersion neces-
sary. Several pairs were sold ; and they have
since increased and multiplied in a satisfactory
manner, in open parks and meadows, so that
their acclimation may be said to be complete.
On their first introduction, it was said that
even in their wild state they had so great an
aptitude to fatten, that a full-grown bull in
good condition was often found to weigh
2000 lbs. If this statement co\ild be realized,
they would be in this respect very little in-
ferior to our own celebrated short-horns ; but
experience has not as yet fully borne out this
statement. This may be owing to the in-
ferior nutritive powers of our grasses to
those they feed on in their native wilds ; and
if so, the introduction of some of the coarse
African grasses as pasture for these animals,
will, perhaps, enable the breeders of herds
of Elands to realize in weight and condition
surpassing even that which was at first ex-
pected. It was stated also, in the first enthu-
siasm of the novelty, that the attainment of
their full growth was extremely rapid. This
also has been found a somewhat delusive
hope, inasmuch as it is now affirmed that from
six to seven years is the earliest period at
which the animal, as at present acclimated,
yields what may be termed good " butcher's
meat," being nearly double the age at which
mutton of the highest quality becomes fully
mature ; and almost the same may be said of
most of the finest beef, which is certainly
produced at a much earlier age of the animaJ,

15

226

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

than that at which the Eland vension seems
likely to he obtained.

This drawback, though considered a very-
serious one by experienced breeders of cattle,
is in some degree compensated for by the
fact that the animal acquires "condition"
much more naturally, and without the exces-
sively rich stimulants used in the stall-feeding,
by which our finest beef is prepared for the
market. The gain in this respect may more
than compensate for the comparative slowness
at which maturity is acquired in our climate.
At all events, the herds are increasing in
number, and also in the somewhat more rapid
progress to full development ; and there
appears no doubt but that at no distant
period a regular supply of the delicious meat
which they furnish will be found in our
markets ; though, perhaps, at first, the price
may be somewhat above that of other meat.

The first Eland bred in England for the
table was killed on the 7th of January, 1859,
at Hawkestone Park, the seat of Lord HiU,

and the result was, after all drawbacks, suffi-
ciently favourable to prove the entire success
of the experiment, and the certainty that it
will not bo abandoned. The animal killed,
though not more than six years old, weighed
1176 lbs., and with much less proportion of
bone than in the best-bred " short-horn,"
while the texture of the lean was found to
be as fine and as richly flavoured, and the
fat firm and delicate. In aU the joints great
juiciness was remarked, and, in addition to
its value as meat, it appears to display won-
derful qualities for the formation of a re-
markably rich soup.

On another occasion I may give some
account of other kinds of foreign deer that
are in progress of acclimation in this country,
some of which promise to equal, if not sur-
pass, the Eland, as furnishing additional and
highly desirable food for the table.

The engraving is after a photograph taken
in the Zoological Gardens, E-egent's Park.

H. NOEI, HUMPHEETS.

THE BALANCE OE LIFE AND DEATH— A TEACHING OE THE AQUAEIUM.

In the vast procession of beings which
passes before the eyes of God as a pano-
rama, and of which man catches but imper-
fect glimpses here and there, the many which
drop out of the ranks into the jaws of death
form the tesselated pavement on which the
successive races tread, secure in their per-
petuity. Life stands in fear of death, though
death is but its servant — a faithful servant —
appointed by the Author of life to gather
life's tangled threads into an order of suc-
cessive developments. The dying Christian
may fear death, though assured of immor-
tality ; and the unthinking worm writhes in
its expiring agonies, as if it would by a last
efibrt struggle into strength once more.
Deeply hid in the core of the organic uni-
verse is the secret of Death, " who keeps the

keys of all the creeds ;" yet man is permitted
to read a part of the mystery in the expe-
riences of his kind, and in the records of
past ages. He doubts the fact of death,
whUe openly admitting it ; for his fear dic-
tates a thought directly opposed to reason, to
observation, and to the knowledge that has
been revealed—

" He thinks he was not bom to die,
And Thou hast made him, Thou art just."

Yet when man looks upon Nature, he sees
everywhere the records of death's work among
the representatives of creative energy. The
stratified rocks are but the tombstones in the
great graveyard of the world ; they cover the
bones of a million generations, and their in-
scription is, " The dust we tread upon was
once alive." If the infusion of life into

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

227

countless forms, each in itself perfect, needed
notliing less than Almighty power, it needed
Almighty power too to complete the scheme
in the institution of dissolution ; and the grim
king of terrors, before whom the bee and the
sparrow tremble, perhaps, not less than man,
became co-worker with God by a wise and
beneficent appointment : and so the orders of
being began, and have to this hour continued,
as a series of dissolving views, in which there
is no hiatus, but only change; no shifting
of the focus or the screen, no aberration or
intermission of the source of light, but an
unending variety in the pictures. We know
not how other worlds may fare, but this we
know, that here death supplies from every
extinguished picture the colours with which
the next are painted, and we live — man and
brute — on the debris of the past.

I see all this and more in the a<xiiarium j
it teaches me lessons in physics, and, I trust,
also teaches me that the moral and spiritual
truths of the universe may be illustrated,
sometimes explained, by a patient study of
the commonest things. The aquarium is a
world in little ; it sustains itself. For the
moment, I put aside the law of gravity as
a universal law, and the presence of the
atmosphere as a universal thing, and I call it
a world, needing no aid for its continuance
and the perfect adjustment of its balance of
power from external things. I take a vessel
of glass, a few pebbles, a few pieces of sand-
stone rock, and a sufficiency of water, and to
that I commit my fishes and insects, and say,
" There is your world ; the order of nature
is such, that you may henceforth live and die
without human interference." I say nothing
here of the details of management ; I am
looking for instruction in the laws of life
and death.

The two requisites of animal life, food and
air, must be generated in this world, or it
ceases to instruct me ; yet the water contains
but little of each, and whence is its supply
to come ? Grod has ordained such a wealth

of organic forms, that wherever the con-
ditions of life are found, life takes possession
of the spot, whether it be the bottom of the
ocean, the dripping roof of a cave, the ex-
panse of the viewless air, or the mimic lake
I call an aquarium. Forthwith the dead
stones become alive with greenness, the glass
walls assume the semblance of a meadow, the
milky hue of the water disappears as the
earthy particles it held in solution subside,
and the light that streams through it takes a
tint of greenness. There is an order of vege-
tation appointed to occupy such sites, and
almost every non-metallic, and some metallic
substances too, become speedily coated with
confervas, when their surfaces are kept moist
a sufficient length of time. Were it not so,
the inhabitants of my world must perish;
and to prove the fact I try an experiment.
I place some fishes in a clean vessel of water,
without pebbles and without rock ; the mo-
ment the first dim bronzy speck appears, I
rub it ofi" the glass, and so thwart the course
of Nature. The fishes soon exhaust the water
of its oxygen, and though the water attempts
to renew its supplies by absorption from the
atmosphere, the compensation is too slow,
the fishes come gasping to the surface, and
in a short while perish.

Even then I learn something from their
death if I leave the vessel in the hands of
Nature. Death has no sooner spread his
black banner over my household gods than
life of another kind arises to confound him,
and the microscope reveals to me myriads of
animals and plants, and organisms that seem-
ingly occupy an intermediate place between
the two great kingdoms, rioting upon the
wreck that death has made. My half-dozen
dead fishes have given birth to existences nu-
merous as the stars in heaven, or as the sand
upon the sea-shore, innumerable. While
these devour the banquet death has spread
for them, while forests of confervoid threads
rise in silken tufts like microscopic savannahs,
Nature is passing portions of the ichthyic

228

EECEEATIVB SCIENCE.

debri3 tlirougla her laboratory, and the very
Bonrce of life for which they pined and
perished — oxygen — is poured in in large
measure, and the corruption is quickly
changed to sweetness. Of the once sportive
fishes some portions have become air, other
portions have become water, but the chief of
their bulk lives already in the vegetation
which hides their grave, and the moving
throng with which that vegetation is peopled.
God's purpose in the working of the laws in
obedience to which these changes have taken
place, is manifestly to keep ever true that
balance of life and death of which He holds
the beam in His own hands.

But my aquarium which has not thus
been interfered with, presents already a simi-
lar scene of life and bustle. When first sup-
plied, the milky -looking water was abundantly
full of gaseous matters, and every part of the
rough rockwork was, for a time, studded
with silvery globules. The fishes consumed
all that in the process of breathing. As the
water passed through their gills the oxygen
was absorbed ; that oxygen, by a process of re-
fined chemistry, and perhaps by the help of
iron also, gave their gills a bright red colour,
gave their blood its red colour too, and by
other processes not less refined, sustained the
"balance of life's functions within them, for
without it they must perish. We believe
that not the airiest particle of earth, atmos-
phere, or water, nor the most minute globule
of condensed moisture, or the most infinite-
simal point of meteoric dust, can ever be lost,
at least during Time, from the fabric of the
universe. My fishes tell me that the oxygen
they absorb from the water, they again return
to it, but in another form. They inspire
oxygen and ex'pire carbonic acid, just as a
man does, and every other living creature
that moveth upon the face of all the earth.
Is it within the reach of human power, even
when reason, imagination, and fancy combine
together as a bold triad to look direct upon
a fact, to appreciate that principle of terres-

trial life by which animal and vegetable or*
ganisms reciprocally labour to maintain the
balance of atmospheric purity ? The carbonic
acid given ofi" by the animal is poison to it,
if it accumulate while the supply of oxygen
is cut short. It was carbonic acid as much
as absefice of oxygen that killed our fishes
just now, for though inhabitants of water
they were not the less suffocated. Therefore
I see will/, in the tank that has been left alone,
plants have cast anchor on the glass walls,
the brown pebbles, and the gray blocks of
sandstone rock. My fishes breathe and
breathe. If their numbers are properly pro-
portioned to the area tliey occupy, they will
never exhaust the water of oxygen, never
render it foetid with carbonic acid, so long
as one necessity of vegetable life — light — is
allowed to use its active influence to paint
the plants green, even as oxygen gives a san-
guine hue to the gills or lungs of the fishes.
To those plants the carbonic acid which the
fishes expire day and night, is as essential as
oxygen is to the animal economy, and thus,
without introducing a single scrap of any
living plant, the balance is sustained, and
death seems to be kept at a distance. If at
first I threw in a tuft of callitriche or anacha-
ris, or any other true aquatic vegetable, oxy-
gen would be supplied abundantly ; and in
practice it might be well to begin so, because
some little time elapses ere the seeds of the
microscopic forest, the tops of whose trees pre-
sent to the eye but a felt-like coating of super-
ficial greenness, are developed into true plants;
though with a fair amount of indirect day-
light, and at certain seasons of the year, a few
hours suffice to set the vegetative process,
with all its proper consequences, in full ac-
tion. Many of the readers of this paper wiU
call to mind the aquarium that stands in my
entrance hall. It contains twenty fishes,
large and small, and not a single scrap of
vegetation except what has been developed
in siitt by spontaneous generation. It is
three years since that was fitted and stocked,

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

229^

and committed to tlie management of Nature,
witli the sole exception of the external aid
afforded by regular supplies of food for its
inmates, which need not be taken account of,
now that we are considering it as a world in
which the balance of life and death is sus-
tained by the operation of principles ordained
by the Creator.

It is when we leave the principles and
attempt to classify the details of the scheme
that we become bewildered. The smooth
revolution of the flywheel and the noiseless
oscillation of the piston, convince the impro-
fessional observer of a great engine, that
mechanical motions are possessed of poetry ;
but if he would analyze the relations of the
cog-wheels, the indications of the " gover-
nor," the "guage,"and the pressure-valve,
he must descend to hard facts, and forget for
a while the sublime suggestions of a system of
mechanism that throbs like a living creature.
Admit a full glare of summer sun to the
aquarium, and forthwith the water loses its
pellucid fluidity, and becomes deeply tinged
throughout of a dull green, as if some pig-
ment had been dissolved in it. Instead of
plants attached to stones and glass only, and
animals that float unseen, the whole of the
water is occupied by visible masses of animal
and vegetable life ; and if the fishes suffer it
will be from undue heat, not from the
addition to the element in which they live of
this new mass of being. Shut out the sun-
shine, let the fresh air play over the surface
of the water, let moderate daylight stream
through it as before, and speedily the green
fog clears away, the water again becomes
transparent, and the balance is restored.
Monas, euglena, uvella, cryptomonas,
goniura, and other wondrous infusoria, may
be detected as constituents of the cloudy
mass -v^'hile it lasts, called into being be-
cause the conditions of the tank were such
as they required, as if life in embryo ■yvas
everywhere locked up until the moment
came for its liberation, and some particular

circumstance was the talisman to set it free ;
or if we consider created forms to be mar-
shalled in grand procession, may we not ex-
pect that every tribe will hurry to its
appointed place the instant that a door is
opened ?

Microscopists have long been at war, but
without bloodshed, as to the place to be
assigned to certain organic forms which are
hidden from our common eyesight. While
the war goes on as to whether desmidiacse
and diatomacese be animal or vegetable, or
both, let facts suffice us here in the study of
the aquarium. Does an animal exhale car-
bonic acid ? Yes. Well, here are plants or
animals, concerned in keeping up the balance,
which exhale oxygen, and their name is
legion. Volvox globator and the bacillarife
labour as hard to supply the fishes with the
life-sustaining gas as do the silken threads
of verdure that line the glass like a carpet.
Is the possession of starch a distinctive
feature of the vegetable ? Perhaps so.
Truly here are desmidiacaj that contain
starch, and if I make the possession of cilia
the test for assigning certain forms to the
animal kingdom, I find in the aquarium
spores of algae furnished with them. Motion
I know to be no test, because alga; spores
dance through the water gaily till they find
a resting-place, and when the aquarium was
first filled, it was by dancing they at last
found where to pitch their tents, and cease
their nomad wanderings. But they all work
together to sustain the balance, and the law
of "give and take" prevails amongst them —
the stentor devoiu-s the oscillatoria;, rotatoria,
and monads, and the hydras swallow all ;
every darting speck is a tomb wherein some
smaller speck of life is to be buried, and life
thus prospers on the decay it is itself under-
going.

But all this whUe a fine deposit slowly
settles among the pebbles, which form the
lower stratum of this watery world. Be-
tween the stones a fine alluvial silt coUects

230

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

and thickens. The first frost, sufficiently-
severe to touch, the tank, causes the whole
green coating to peel oflf from the glass and
rock, and while this subsides, to add to the
thickness of the alluvium — ^how slightly, and
yet how sufficiently for an example of Nature's
working ! — a new growth commences, and that
balance is restored. Do you not see that
the chief teaching of geology — the piling of
stratum \ipon stratum, the conversion of dis-
rupted rock and decayed plant and animal
into rock again — is here exemplified in the
history of a domestic toy, which contains
already one example of stratification in the
silence of watery submergence? A tank
which has been fitted with loam, pebbles,
and plants of the brook and river, will, if
left undisturbed for three years, be in this
state. Those plants will all have decayed, but
there will be an abundant spontaneous vege-
tation. The accumulations of that short
period will have settled into a close mass,
almost as hard as stone ; and if fishes have
died in the meantime, and have not been
removed, their bones will be found overlaid
with hardened mud, just as we find them in
the old red sandstone, or the chalk, or the car-
boniferous rocks, and shall we not call them
OUT own fossils ? See again in this case in
which death has been very busy (for plants
of large growth soon perish in the absence
of sunshine, and occasional attendant acci-
dents will carry ofi" some of the finny pets),
how life has been equally active on the other
side, for such an aquarium will be a hundred
times richer in those spontaneous growths
we have already spoken of, and visible forms
of infusoria and true zoophytes will abound,
and every class will be more fully repre-
sented, down even to the twilight monad.

Though this paper must have an end,
there is no end to the teaching of the aqua-
rium. It is a watery microcosm of living
and dead wonders, and we need not marvel
that the balance of life and death may be
observed in its succession of changes, because

all the physical forces of the universe are
locked up within a single bead of dew, and
all the functions of organic creation are com-
prised in the economy of a monas termo. If
God so ordains that life shall be constantly
soaring from the tomb, if the story of the
Phoenix ceases to be a fable, need man, the
victim of doubts and fears, ever fail in his
trust of that blessed promise, that " this
mortal shall put on immortality, and this
corruptible shall put on in corruption."
Science may fix his mind on the appreciation
of God's wisdom and power as he reads the
handwriting of the Almighty in Nature, but
through faith in another revelation must we
hope to exclaim, triumphantly, " O death,
where is thy stiug P O grave, where is thy
victory ?" Or to pass from divine to human
consolations, we may take up the apostrophe
of the great Raleigh, and say, " O eloquent,
just, and mighty death! what none have
dared, thou hast done ; what none have at-
tempted, thou hast accomplished ; thou hast
gathered all the might, majesty, and meanness
of mankind, and hast covered them with these
two words, "hie jacet." Nature's children
have a dread of death, but Nature herself
is in friendly compact with the master of
silence. If the types which are the ideas of
God, have survived from the oldest rocks to
this present hour, will not the spirit which
lives on ideas, and evolves them as the
aquarium evolves its throng of animalcules,
live for ever ? It is not hard to believe with
Tennyson :—

" That nothing walks with aimless feet,
That not one life shall he destroyed,
Or cast as rubhish to the void,
"When God hath made the pile complete."

"The pile" will be complete when God's pur-
pose is fulfilled in man, to whom it is given
to hope after eternal life, and with eyes of
faith to pierce through the veil, and behold
the wondrous things of eternity.

SniELEY HiBBEED,

EECREATIVE SCIEIS'CE.

2.S1

THE ANECDOTE HISTORY OF PHOTOGEAPHY.

. i COIiLECTION II. - ,.- ,

Heliogeapht. — To the discoypry made by
the persevering Niepce, he gave the name
of Heliography, or sun-painting. He died
soon after, in. 1833.

Acknowledgment oe the Discoveey
BY THE Eeench Goveenment. — In conside-
ration of this interesting and remarkable dis-
covery, the French Chamber of Deputies
voted an annual pension of 6000 franca to
Daguerre, and of 4000 francs to Isidore
Niepce, son of the late photographer, as pur-
chase-money for the secret of the Daguerreo-
type ; and for " the honour of having pre-
sented the scientific and artistic -world with
one of the most surprising discoveries that
adorns their country." "France," said Arago,
on that occasion, "has adopted this dis-
covery, and is proud to present it as a gift
to the whole world."

The Talbottpe. — In January, 1839, the
Honourable Fox Talbot discovered and de-
clared the method he had perfected for pre-
paring paper used in the photographic process.
One was to cover it with a thin layer of chlo-
ride of silver, made sensitive for placing in
the camera by repeated washings. To fix the
images, he placed the paper in a brine bath,
or common salt (chloride of sodium), but at
first it was found that the light parts turned
bluish on being exposed to daylight. This
difficulty was soon surmounted. Mr. Talbot
called his process the Calotype, and he brought
it to such perfection, that an image might be
taken in the camera in less than a minute.
Early in 1830, Mr. Talbot sent the result of
his experiments, in the shape of photographs
on paper, to the various scientific circles in
London and Paris ; and they were admitted
to be a vast advance upon all previous acconi-
plishments. As Mr. Talbot protected his
process by patent, very little was done in the

way of its public dissemination for years,
until he generously gave it to the country as
a free gift. Among the specimens so sent
were copies of a Hebrew psalm, of a Persian
gazette, and of an old Latin chart of 1279,
all wonderfully true to the originals. There
were also white porcelam vases, shells and
tapers, and a stand with white hyacinths, to-
gether with a picture by Corregio, all in well-
disposed light and shade.

PosTUEE FOE Taking Poetbaits. — Sonie
good rules for posture in taking portraits
have been laid down by M. Schubert, painter,
of Berlin. He suggests that the posture
should be easy and unconstrained, the feet
and hands neither projecting too much, nor
drawn too far back ; the eyes directed a
little sideways above the camera, and fixed
on some object there, but never (as is too
frequently the case) on the apparatus, since
this would tend to impart to the face a dolo-
rous and dissatisfied look. Long arms and
legs should be drawn back.

Attitude foe Stout and Thin Pee-
SONS. — Stout persons, says M. Schubert,
should be placed at a certain distance from
the apparatus, turning towards it a little
sideways ; while people of slender proportions
should be made to sit full in front, and nearer
the apparatus.

Position of the Hands. — The hands
should rest easily on the lap, neither too high
nor too low, or one hand should be placed on
the table, the other holding a book, or some
other object. A thick hand should show the
thumb in the foreground, with the fingers
bent a little inwards. A long hand had better
show the back. A hand of handsome shape,
neither too loiig, nor too short, should show
full two-thirds, with the fingers easily and
gracefully hanging down.

232

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

Pull and other Faces. — A full round
face, with, large mouth, small eyes and nose,
should be taken in half profile, so as to. show
one side of the face in full, with very little of
the other side. A moderately full face, with
aquiline nose and handsome mouth and eyes,
should be taken in three-quarter profile. A
countenance with strongly -marked features,
full in front.

POE TWIK PoETEAITS AKD PaMILY

GrEOXJPS. — When two persons are to be por-
trayed together, one should lean lightly on
the chair of the other, and the faces of both
be turned partly to each other, as in con-
versation. Or they may be placed at a table
opposite each other, in the same attitiide of
conversation. In arranging family groups,
care should be taken to place the several per-
sons constituting the group at the same focal
distance.

Attitxjde and Deess op the Ladies.
— In the case of taking the portraits of ladies,
the addition of a shawl or boa, thrown lightly
over the shoulders so as to hide defects (if
any) and distribute light and shadow, are
recommended as tending to produce a plea-
sant impression. Yellow and red in dress
should be avoided, plain coloured dresses,
neither too light nor too dark, furnishing the
most pleasing pictures.

POETEAITS IN THEIE 1«[aTUEAL CoLOUES.

— The desideratum of obtaining portraits and
pictures in all their natural colours has long
been sought for, as the one thing only wanting
to give to photography that perfection to
which other arts and processes have attained.
Many experiments, but hitherto with unsuc-
cessful results, have been made to fix and
transfer to the photographic plate or paper,
not alone the lineaments, but the latent
colour of the eye, and of the complexion, and
the dress. Mr. HUl, an American, is re-
ported, however, to have discovered a pro-
cess which developed certain phenomena, im-
pressing him with the conviction that the
thing was possible. Mr. Hill, who has given

to his process the title of the *' HiUotype,"
states that in the course of his experiments
one colour, the " red," in the figure of a vest-
ment, developed itself brightly. He found,
further, that the vapour arising from metals,
such as arsenic, cadmium, zinc, selenium, bis-
muth, potassium, and sodium, possessed the
power of developing latent images with their
lights and shades. The same result was
obtained with different gases. On one occa-
sion he obtained "a perfect impression in
colours, and in January, 1851, forty-five
designs, with all the different colours in per-
fect gradations. Mr. Hill's process, how-
ever, has not been brought into practice,
and hence it must be viewed as rather pro-
blematical or mythical as a matter of actual
accomplishment.

The United States Senate and Mb.
Hill's Discoveey. — A report on Mr. Hill's
process was presented to the senate of the
United States by the Committee of Patents,
who stated that they had had explained to
them the history and principle of the inven-
tion, of which numerous specimens had been
laid before them, and they were of opinion
that the inventor had solved the problem of
photographic colourations. Mr. Hill had
arrived at this discovery, by which the works
of Nature might be copied in their original
hues, through three years of persevering
toil, though the discovery had yet to be per-
fected in its practical details. They recom-
mend that the maker be placed on the
records of the senate, and consider the dis-
covery as one of great prospective utility
and importance as aifecting portraits, land-
scapes, botany, morbid anatomy, mineralogy,
conchology, aboriginal history, and paintings.
A claim to the discovery has since been set
up in Prance.

PiXINa AND CoLOtTEINQ- PoETEAITS AND

PiCTtJEEs. — It is very well known that some
of the best and most beautiful portraits and
pictures are found to fade, and consequently
a large amount of attention has been given

EECREATIYE SCIENCE.

233

to the best means for rendering them lasting.
This has been found to be more particularly
the case with photographs on paper, a want
of visibility and a yellow tint in time spread-
ing over the pictures. This matter is consi-
dered to be of so much importance, that the
Council of the Photographic Society ap-
pointed a oommittee to inquire into the cause
of failure, and to discover the best remedy.
Light and moisture are looked on as among
the causes contributive to failure; but the
committee, after a long investigation, report
that the most common cause of fading had
been the presence of hyposulphite of soda,
left on the paper from imperfect washing after
fixing. The action of sulphuretted hydrogen
gas in the London atmosphere is another
cause ; and they find that there is no known
method of producing pictures which will re-
main unaltered under the continued action of
moisture and atmosphere in London. The
committee recommend that trials be made of
substances likely to protect the prints from
air and moisture, such as caoutchouc, gutta-
percha, wax, and the various varnishes.

Experiments ox Colour by Hekschel,
HtrNT,BiOT,ANDBECQUEREL. — SirJohuHer-
Schel s tates that, in 18 40, he got some specimens
of paper long kept, which gave a representa-
tion of the spectrum in its natural colours,
giving light on a dark ground ; but he was
not prepared to say that they would prove an
available process for coloured photographs.

though it brought the hope nearer. Mr.
Hunt informs us that he has obtained coloured
pictures of the prismatic spectrum dark upon
a light ground, and also on Daguerreotype
tablets when iodized. In 1854, he obtained,
on some paper prepared with the bichromate
of potash and a weak solution of nitrate of
silver, exposed behind four coloured glasses,
blue, green, red, and yellow tints. M. Biot
is of opinion that there are difficulties inherent
in photographic pictures, which render the
object iUusire. M. Becquerel, on the other
hand, reports that he has obtained bright im-
pressions of the spectrum, and highly-coloured
drawings, on metallic plates, prepared with
chlorine.

CoLOUEINa POETEAITS AND PlCTUEES.^

This is done upon the same system as minia-
ture painting, but the colours are used in a
dry powder.

How Long oxraHT the Pictttee to bb
isr THE Camkea? — This is a point deter-
minable by practice, but in a good picture we
should see first the whites of the dress, then
the forehead of the sitter, and finally the
whole of the face and dress. The time of
exposure depends on the intensity of the light
and focal length of the lens in sunshine.

Takin& Likenesses afteb Death. — An
American photographic firm announce that
they not only take portraits of the living, but
are prepared to take portraits after death.
Chaeles Matbtjet Aechee.

THE GEOLOGY OF THE EIEESIDE— COAL.

With shutters closed and curtains drawn
against the blasts of the winter's wind, we sit in
cheerful company around the homely hearth,
enjoying merry gossip, as the sea-coal fire
sends forth its cheerful blaze that makes our
faces ruddy.

What stranger product of all the trea-
sures of our mother-earth than coal ? What

countless years of manipulation has it under-
gone in the mysterious laboratory of Nature !
What centuries of timber-growth, what ages
of forests have been exhausted in the accu-
mulation of its material ! How far back in
time did God's providence foresee the destiny
of man, and lay up almost inexhaustible stores
of fuel for his use P What would man be

234

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

without fire ? "With forests gone, and no
knowledge of tlie mineral wealth, that supplies
their place, what would man have been, —
what would he have accomplished? By fire he
cooks his food, and becomes universal in the
geographical distribution of his race. By
fire he travels with almost lightning speed
from realm to realm ; by fire he raises into
action gigantic machinery, and the most
powerful of engines. And for the supply

glistening gneissic lands that first presented
their rounded crests above the wide expanse
of sea, had been covered over by tens of
thousands of feet of Silurian sediments, the
slow elaborate results of ages upon ages ;
hundreds of feet thick in the slow rolling
on of time were the great Devonian conglo-
merates— mighty beaches of that primeval
age — accumulated ; the trilobites and gro-
velling shrimps and shell-fish of the lower

Scenic Illustration of an Ancient Coal-furest.

and maintenance of this fire he looks to coal,
— to coal, the chemical and age-elaborated
product of decayed and perished ferns, club-
mosses, equisetacea and dicotyledonous trees
(pines). How historic time seems dwarfed
almost to nothingness, as we compare the
length of our own age — the human — with the
remoteness of that of the floral era of the
coal fonnation. And yet time, measurable
time, was long, long indeed before then. The

rocks, the uncouth fish, and stranger huge
crustaceans of the old red sandstone era had
withered out as races in the long ceaseless
stream of physical changes and events ; three
phases of terrestrial conditions had passed
for ever clean away ere we come to, and ten
phases of terrestrial conditions at least have
been obliterated since, that period of luxu-
riant vegetation. But let us go back to the
days of which we speak.

EECREATIYE SCIENCE.

235

Around the
old Devonian
uplands, covered
with pines of
Bombre green,
and feathery
araucarige, and
studded with
luxuriant groves
of tree-ferns, the
dark soil brought
down by the
great sludge-
laden rivers,
then draining a
vast continent
(lying to thewest
of our present
island), of which
we now know
but fragmentary
portions of its
outlines, was
daily spreading
further and fur-
ther, daily in-
creasing the
broad low shores
rank with dense
masses of vegeta-
tion that formed
numberless te-
pid, humid jun-
gles, dark and
dismal. Amidst
the dull lurid
foliage, unenli-
vened by flow-
ers, noisome in-
sects bred, and
through the
mouldering pu-
trescent swamps
teeming with
fungi sprouting
from the rotten

\ft. in.

> 4i 0 Coalandblackshale.

■ 7 0 Indurated clay.

0 7 Whinstone.

■ 4 0 Indurated clay.

3 0 Coal, shale, and
sandstone.

3 0 Coal, shale, and
sandstone.

0 9 Sandstone.

3 0 Inflammable shale.

4 0 Indurated clay.

0 5 Inflammable shale.

9 0 Indurated clay.

4 8 Indurated clay.

4 0 Indurated clay and
sand.

V 4 0 Sand-rock.

I 2 6 Sand-rock.

1 2 0 Sand-rock.

■ 5 7 Indurated clay.

0 9 Whinstone.

3 0 Indurated clay.

4 0 Coal.
0 6 Black clay.

h

^==^ ;. 4 8 Indurated clay.
I
J

6 9 Sandstone.

Lign. 1. — Example of Coal-mea-
sures and Intermediate Strata.

wood, sluggish-moving reptiles and great
newt-like beasts crawled with hideous slimy
limbs along, while in the black pools and
lakes innumerable, the swarming shoals of
harmless mud-fish raised swelling domes of
inky water, as, flurried by the great megal-
ichthys, or chased by other wolfish antagonists,
they rushed for safety to take refuge amongst
the dense tangles of matted trailing roots.

Prom the ruins of Nimroud some one
brought away a brick, on which, beside the.
initial letter inscribed upon it, were the im-
printed footsteps of a little weasel which
had run over it before it was dried, and thus,
though difierently, the little animal and the
mighty Assyrian king stamped the signs of
their existence on the same common bit of
clay. So some of the reptiles that lived in
the rank groves and muddy lagoons of the
carboniferous shores, but of which not a bone
has yet been found, nor any other remains
discovered, are known to us still by the track-
marks of their ancient walks, preserved in
the carboniferous shales amidst the wreck
of sculptured lepidodendrons and pillar-like
sigillariaj.

Now the descending land was won over
by the tide and the rotting jungles buried
under shelly sand, heaped up by ocean
waves. Banks of encrinites and shells spread
far inland over the estuary silts and peat-
bogs, to be again covered with dense vege-
tation, and again submerged. Again and
again, by such alternations, was the carbon-
iferous region made the platform of many
successive stages of coal-material.

In the open sea the coral polypes were at
their wondrous labours, and in its depths
cephalopods crawled amongst densely-studded
groups of spirifers, and other shells, while
the degraded and decomposed debris of those
lime-secreting creatures was gradually massed
into bank upon bank of calcareous rock,
examples of which are presented to us in the
beautiful black and gray marbles of Ireland
of Derbyshire, and of Belgium.

236

HECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

Similar "banks of corals, stells, and encri-
nltes stxetclied far away from Europe into
India, and were widely extended in North
and South. America, as well as in the Arctic
regions ; and throughout all this wide range
the coal-plants grew, and alternated with the
sea, and marsh-formed beds.

Although we have given, in this brief
sketch, an outline of the origin of coal, we
may still ask what is coal? When the
jD;rowth of centuries had formed forest masses.

exerted, and the quantity of foreign matter
present, the bituminous particles partook
more or less of a regular symmetrical semi-
cylindrical form, like so many squeezed and
out-drawn pasty pellets. In the course of
time, when the carbonaceous matter took on
a stony consistency, these compressed atoms,
thus arranged side by side, gave that law of
breakage of the coal-mass which is exhibited
in the four planes of easy fracture presented
to us in every block, and which we so com-

Lign. 2.-

-Coal-plants ia " Stony Bind," from the Ashby Coal-fiekl. 1. Volckmannta dislicTia; 2. (Middle
specimen) Ncuropleris gigantea ; 3. Asterophylliles longifolia.

and the decayed trees, closely heaped in the
great shallow bays, were floored in by the
mud-floods of the rivers, or the silt of the sea,
the heat of decomposition and the pressure
of the sediment piled above, produced che-
mical changes which resulted in the bitumi-
nous matter of the rotting wood being sepa-
rated or distilled as pure bitumen in innu-
merable minute globules, interspersed with
vegetable fibre, and sometimes with mud.
According to the intensity of the pressure

monly notice in the easy cleaving of well-
warmed coals when we break up or stir a
fire. In the fracture of coals, two planes of
easiest cleavage are in a longitudinal direction
parallel to the bedding of the coal, and two
others are at right angles to these, and con-
sequently across the smallest diameter of the
particles.

When the coal is very muddy, or much
vegetable fibre retained, the particles of crys-
tallized bitumen preserve their spherical

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

237

shape, and no such, special directions of
cleavage are exhibited, the lumps breaking
like any homogeneous stone with an earthy-
fracture. We have now then simply explained
the condition of coal, as well as why the hot
coals flake in our grates.

But to return to our story. We have
pictured the forest growth of coal-material ;
we have told how the sluggish rivers wan-
dered down from the hills and plains, laden
with sludge, depositing heaps of branches,
stems, leaves, and trunks of pines and tree-
ferns amongst the rotting jungles of cala-
mites, lepidodendrons, and sigillarise over the
root-matted clay bottoms of sheltered marshes,
cut off from the wide and open sea by shingle
barriers and mud-banks ; how these condi-
tions alternated with influxes and over-cover-
ings of the sinking land by the salt sea, and
hence the alternations of the sandstones and
limestones with the seams of coal. But then
came a time when those regions were con-
vulsed and shattered by tremendous earth-
quakes and violent volcanic outbreaks. The
once continuous strata were dislocated, torn,
broken up, and faulted by the uplift or down-

Example of " Upthrow"-fault, Ashby Coal-field. 1, 3, 3,
4, 5, 6, Seams of coal ;ab,cd, lines of fault ; b e, rock-
mass upthrown ; e f, present surface of country.

throw of the vast disrupted rock-masses, or
squeezed, contorted, and thrown into anti-
clinals, and synclinals, into troughs, basins,
or those smaller curvatures known amongst

miners as "horses."* Porphyry, basalt, and
other molten rocks were forced up into the

Example of a smaU Coal-basin in the Ashby Coal-field.
1,2,3, curved seams of coal forming the basin; «/,■
present surface of country.

fissures, forming dykes, or were exuded as
lava-currents over the surface, or poured otit
on the sea-bottom, to be covered up by the
Permian conglomerates and sandstones, by
which the carboniferous deposits were suc-
ceeded, and which spread widely over the
coal-measures, when the latter, broken and
disrupted, had sunk beneath the waves. Thus
was the once luxuriant scene obliterated, and
the teeming soil made desolate and destroyed.
Yet in all this seeming disorder and violence
was the benevolence of the great Designer
made manifest : by this temporary destruction,
so to call it, of the carboniferous land, the
coal-stores have been preserved j by these
faults and dislocations the coal-measurea
have been made accessible over almost every
region to man, and by these dykes and fissure-
walls of molten matter the distinct and sepa-
rate areas of coal-tracts have been made
water-tight, and saved from inundation.

So marked, so marvellous, are the inci-
dents in the formation, preservation, and the
accessible presentation of the numerous com-
partments of the great storehouses of fossil-
fuel, that we can hardly bring the mind
to think they have been efiected by the
natural operation of natural physical forces ;
but we seem almost to be compelled to rest
on an instinctive belief of a special ruling, or

* These latter in some cases only. Usually these
minor subterranean ridges were formed during the
coal period by the pressure of forests or other heavy
weights causing a ridge on either side, equal to the force
of the pressure ; just as railway embankments, carried
over oozy tracts, will cause a " rising" on either side
of the line.

238

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

particular intervention, of the Higher Power,
Xrith a view to the future, — then how vastly
future, — development of man. No bird, nor
beast, nor living thing wants Fibe, but Man ;
no other creature can make it, or use it, and
f we admit design at all in the case of coal-
formation, that design, that forethought must
be solely for the human race, or there is no
design at all.

As questions are commonly asked, and
not always lucidly answered, as to the cha-
racteristic differences between the various
kinds of coal, and other bituminous sub-
stances, we may briefly remark in this place,
that cannel coal is a muddy coal, formed, pro-
bably, of a thin muddy wash of peaty mat-
ter ; while common coal is chiefly composed of

sigillarise, and other ordinary carboniferous
plants and trees, flattened and compressed
together, and subjected to the bituminous dis-
tillation-process we have above described.
Anthracite is coal divested of its hydrogen,
which by some means, or by various pro-
cesses, has been driven off.

Brown coal is a tertiary, and not a paleo-
zoic deposit, and is in condition somewhat in-
termediate, perhaps, between peat and coal ;
as it retains very commonly so much of the
woody structure and fibre as to be used, in
Switzerland and other places on the Conti-
nent where it occurs, for beams, rafters, and
other building-purposes, it might be concisely
designated as bituminized wood.

S. J. Mackie.

STUDIES OF COLOUE.

In that suggestive fancy about putting the
violet into a crucible, we read the apt expres-
sion of a poetic and naturally religious mind,
and perceive its repugnance to anything like
analysis of those matters which are supposed
to lie within the province of " the beautiful."
The poet's impatience of dogma was a part of
that instinct which impelled him to declare
that the ethereal graces of Nature are not fit
subjects for the apparatus of the chemist.
Investigation is, nevertheless, our sole way of
fipproaching the knowledge of any kind of
truth whatever; and though we may wisely be
assured that there are mysteries lying deeper
than the nerves and filaments, and ducts and
valves, which form the mechanism of a smile
or a tear — ^mysteries of sorrow and of joy
which wholly elude the dissecting-knife of
the anatomist — our reverential regard of the
hidden cause need not interfere with the most
scrutinizing and exact study of material
agencies. Distinct and yet dependent phases
of human thought are involved in the con-
sideration of all obj ects . There are the j oists

and beams of the temple ; there is the har
monious proportion of the Builder's design ;
there is the faith which these things all sub-
serve in their degree, and which bids us enter
and adore.

In times when the division of employ-
ments had not been recognized as a principle,
still less constructed into a system, art en-
gaged the studious attention alike of the
priest and the philosopher. Science and re-
ligion entered into the artist-life of those
days. Questions which are now left to the
arbitration of indefinite taste were formerly
resolved by undeviating law. Such a ques-
tion, for instance, as the arrangement of
colours in a picture, or in an ornamental
design, would have been referred to a
standard from the decision of which there
could be no appeal. The artisan — a term, by
the by, which could never have been origi-
nated except in such days as we speak of—
the artisan had constantly in view a surer
guide than the few traditionary rules which
are observed by modern workmen. Efforts

RECEEA.TIVE SCIENCE,

239

have of late been made to revive tlie true
artistic spirit. Decorative artists, like Digby
Wyatt, like Owen Jones, like Chevreul, bave
risen among us to protest against a condi-
tion of art no more reasonable than would
appear in tbe practice, not bitberto ventured
upon by musicians, of composing airs and '
harmonies without tbe slightest regard to tbe
laws of thorough bass.

The name of Chevreul, mentioned by us
in conjunction with the names of two emi-
nent Englishmen, in each of whom the theory
and practice of their art have met to ad-
mirably good purpose, may not be known to
many readers of these pages. M. Chevreul
is a French philosopher, who has devoted a
great part of his life to the practical study of
the numerous and intricate phenomena of
colour. His book is an authority on tbe sub-
ject, and we are mainly indebted to it for the
basis of all the statements contained in the
present paper.*

M. Chevreul had attained a considerable
reputation in his native country by his re-
searches in organic chemistry, when, being
appointed director of the dye-works of the
Gobelins, he began to restrict his laborious
investigations, which he now turned into a
new and separate channel. A rigid inquiry
into the optical as well as the chemical branch
of the process under his superintendence was
first suggested to him as an immediate ne-
cessity, by certain complaints of a want of
strength in the black dyes employed, espe-
cially for the shadows of blue and violet
draperies. He took great pains, first, to
ascertain whether or not the dyes in use
at tbe Grobelins were inferior to the dyes in
use at the most celebrated works in France
and other countries. His comparative expe-
riments were sufficient to satisfy him that no
inherent lack of vigour characterized the
Gobelins' dyes. He was then led to suppose

* " The Laws of Colour, and their Application to
the Arts." By M. E. Chevreul. Translated by John
Spanton. Third Edition. Koutledge and Co.

that the real fault belonged to colours which,
were brought into juxtaposition with the
vilified black dyes, and that, in short, the
whole question turned upon those phenomena
which pertain to the contrast of colours. For
ten years did M. Chevreul piirsue an unre-
mitting course of inquiry, the fruits of which
will be found in the book we have mentioned.
Observations on the aspect of coloured sur-
faces, verified by persons much practised in
the judgment of colours, were collected by
him as a basis of fact. In considering the
relations of the various ascertained pheno-
mena, and in seeking the principle in which
they are founded, M. Chevreul appears to
have made the discovery of what he terms
the "law of simultaneous contrast of colours."
This law, once demonstrated, becomes a
means of assorting coloured objects, so as to
obtain their best possible efiect ; it becomes
a means also of estimating how far the eye
is well organized for seeing and judging of
colours, and whether painters have copied
exactly the colours of natural objects. M.
Chevreui's book has been justly called " an
excellent example of the Baconian method of
investigation." But tbe author does not, as
Bacon did, claim for his system the merit of
equalizing all students, and making each tyro
a Titian. The extravagance ridiculed by
Lord Macaulay, as being akin to the assump-
tion that Lindley Murray, in his Grammar,
sliows bow all men may write as well as
Dry den, or that Wbately's Logic and Rhe-
toric impart tbe secrets of arguing like
Chillingwortb, or speaking like Bui'ke, finds
no place in M. Chevreui's recouimenda-
tion of his own inductive method He is,
nevertheless, entitled to the honour of havmg
given the world a perfect grammar of the
prismatic spectrum, and of having fully,
clearly, and consecutively defined those prin-
ciples by which the art-student, who cannot
boast the highly organized natural instinct
of a Titian, can alone approach to excellence
in colour. Beyond the important service to

240

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

pictorial art, we have to consider the value
of lessons to all classes of students ; for M.
Chevreul pursues the subject through the
several ramifications of painting, staining,
dyeing, printing, the disposition of draperies
and furniture, and the arrangement of na-
tural objects, as in landscape and flower
gardening.

Those who desire to compass the scien-
tific principles of harmony and contrast, will
do well to read with close attention the in-
troductory chapters of M. Chevreul's book.
We can but give a general idea of its utility.
The law of simultaneous contrast is shown
by a variety of experimental demonstrations,
all of which are readily intelligible, and are
of so pleasing a kind that the most casual
student soon finds himself studying with an
interest which expands and deepens at every
fresh example. A ray of solar light is com-
posed, as most people know, primarily of
three rays — ^blue, red, and yellow — and inde-
terminately of various coloured rays, which,
being distributed in groups, are termed red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet
rays. "When light falling on a body is com-
pletely absorbed by that body, as in falling
into a deep cavity, then the body appears to
us black, and it becomes visible to us only
because of its contiguity with surfaces which
reflect or transmit light. ISTo bodies are
known to be perfectly black ; that is to say,
no bodies exist which absorb light entirely ;
and it is just by their reflecting a little white
light that we are enabled to discern their form
in relief, like other material objects. When
solar light is reflected by an opaque coloured
body, there is a reflection of white light, and
also a reflection of coloured light ; the latter
being accounted for by the fact, that the body
absorbs or extinguishes within itself some of
the coloured rays wliile reflecting the others.
A moment's thought will bring us to the con-
clusion that, as the absorbed rays and the
reflected rays must be of different colours, so
their renunion produces white light again.

In brief, it may be said, with regard to the
physical composition of solar light, that if the
whole of the coloured light absorbed by a
coloured body were reunited with the whole of
the coloured light which it reflects, white light
would be the result. The phrase, " comple-
mentary colours," is used to express this
property of two oppositely-coloured lights.
Thus, we call red the complementary of green,
because green, being combined blue and yel-
low, makes with red the complement of the
prism. In the same manner blue is the com-
plementary of orange (yellow and red) ; and
yellow is the complementary of dark violet or
purple (red and blue). With secondary and
tertiary, as well as with primary tints, the
same rule holds good ; greenish yellow being
the complementary of violet, and orange-
yellow of indigo. Such are the leading facts,
which, roughly laid down, will prepare the
student for the consideration of many inte-
resting phenomena, and for the pursuit of
many instriictive experiments.

The simultaneous contrast of colours may
be shown in several ways. If two stripes of
the same colour, but of unequal tints, be
placed together, so that the edges meet, we
shall detect, if the stripes be not too broad,
certain modifications, firstly affecting the in-
tensity of the tints, and, secondly, the optical
composition of the colours. To these modi-
fications, inasmuch as they cause the colours
to appear, when looked at together, more dif-
ferent than ihey really are, is applied this
designation, " the simultaneous contrast of
colours." The contrast of tone may be treated
as a separate phenomenon, and we may gain
some idea of this separate phenomenon by
means of a simple, but very curious, series of
experiments. Two square pieces of unglazed
paper of a large size {a a), being coloured a
clear gray, by a mixture of chalk and any
black pigment, are to be affixed, at a space of
rather more than half the width of either,
on a piece of unbleached linen. Then two
squares of paper of the same size (b b),

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

>41

coloured, of a darker gray, are to be placed
one with its edge against the edge of one of
the pale gray squares, and the other at a dis-
tance corresponding with the space between
the pale gray squares ; so that a row of four

slightly in pencil on a slip of paper, each
stripe a quarter of an inch in width. Have
ready in a saucer an evenly -mixed wash of
any tint, with which lightly cover the whole
of this series of stripes. When all the

2 b

squares will be formed, the two middle squares
abutting, and the two outer squares, one
dark, the other pale, having spaces betweBn
them and the inner ones. When all this has
been properly done, the light gray abutting
on the dark gray will appear lighter than its
isolated fellow, and vice versa.

The next step will be to demonstrate that
the modification is not equal over the entire
surfaces. By means of a card so cut as to
divide each of the middle squares into three

parts, it will be found that the receding tints
are again modified by distance. As a result
of these two experiments, a third serves to
demonstrate the extent of contrast of tone ;

and this it does in a very remarkable man-
ner. Ten stripes are to be indicated very

stripes are dry, a second wash is to be placed
on all save the first stripe ; then a third wash
on all save the first and second ; then a
fourth wash on all the stripes but the first
three ; then a fifth wash, omitting the first
four, and so on to the end, when the tenth
stripe will be of a depth of ten washes, or
shades, and all the remaining stripes down
to the first will exhibit a gradual diminution
of intensity. The scale being completed, a
strange efiect wiU be at once apparent. In-
stead of a series oi flat tints, we have, as it
seems, a channelled or fluted band ; the edge
of each stripe being lighter against the next
dark edge, and darker against the next light
edge. The natural deduction of the facts
disclosed by these experiments will be that,
as the contrast of colour is an infinitely more
complex affair than the contrast of tone, so
the calculations required in the arrangement
or grouping of several hues must form a con-
siderable part of the artist's duty. Intricate
problems have to be solved before a pattern,
consisting of colours unequally distributed,
can be pronounced faultless. By reciprocal
modifications, each affording material for
study, it will be seen how, and in what degree,
red inclines to violet, yellow, and orange ;
yellow inclines to green, red, and orange ;
blue inclines to indigo, violet, and green, and
so on to the end of the seemingly endless
chapter. The knowledge of all these modi-
fications is as requisite to insure harmony in

16

242

BECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

the placing of colours, as the knowledge of
thorough-bass is requisite to insure harmony
in the score of a musical composition.

There is the harmony of analogy as well
as the harmony of contrast. The distinction
is best illustrated by reference to the dark
and fair types of the human complexion. In
the fair type we have the harmony of analogy,
the colour of the skin being, although of a
lower tone than the hair, analogous to it.
The only actual contrast of colour in the fair
type is afforded by blue eyes. Blondes ought,
therefore, in the disposition of their toilettes,
to carry out the principle dictated by the na-
ture of tJieir attractions. M. Chevreul recom-
mends sky-blue as the colour that approaches
nearest to the complementary of orange,
which is the basis of the governing tint in
the complexion of blondes. On the other
hand, the black-haired type shows the har-
mony of contrast predominating over the
harmony of analogy. Contrast being, in this
case, the ruling principle, M. Chevreul points
out that yellow and orange-red harmonize

with the complexion of the brunette, while
the complementaries violet and blue-green
may be employed to assist the good effect.
It is worthy a passing remark that the ex-
fashionable colour, which is called " mauve,"
and which might just as well have been
called by its English name, " mallow," inas-
much as it is the hue of the maUow-flower,
is unsuitable alike to all complexions. It is a
pretty colour of itself, but only in daylight.
Neither by similitude nor by contrast will it
harmonize with any tint in the human hair or
skin.

The education of the eye need not be con-
fined to plans and diagrams, however correct.
It-will be as safely, and with more likeliliood
of profit, carried on in the school of Nature.
But, however carried on, an indispensable
condition is, that natural laws shall be kept in
sight; that "taste" shall not be allowed to
override any of these laws ; but shall acknow-
ledge among them, and submit to be regu-
lated by, the Laws of Colour.

GODFEBT TxJfiNEB.

EAPHIDES, OE MICROSCOPIC PLANT-CEYSTALS.

When the microscope came to be directed
to the structure of plants, some minute
crystals were occasionally found, that have
since become objects of considerable interest.
On the authority of Dr. Lindley, the first to
have the pleasure of finding them was named
Eafn, and the first plant in which they were
met with Calla Ethiopica, the beautiful
arum now so great a favourite as a window
ornament and as a subject with designers.
As to the right of priority, however, there
seems some little doubt, our own adopted
countryman Malpighi having observed crys-
tals in the Indian fig {Cactus opuntia) at
about the same time. They were long con-
sidered rare and curious objects j the latter

they still, and always will remain, but it is
interesting to observe how—

" From small beginnings great events arise."

From being considered rare, the progress of
research has shown that it would be more
difficult to name plants in which they are not
met with than the contrary. As an example
of what may still be considered the typical
form, those met with in the hyacinth may be
named. If a portion of the flower-stem of
this plant be cut or bruised over a glass slide,
the exuding fluid will be found to contain
many minute, delicate, transparent crystals,
looking like so many fine needles sharply
pointed at both ends (Fig. 1, a).

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

243

Tliis resemblance at once suggested the
name, from tlie Greek word raphis, a needle ;

Fio. 1.— Acicular Eaphides. A, from hyacinth ; B,
in tissue of squill bulb ; C, one of the longest from
squUl ; D, from orris-root.

it is now applied, with an extended meaning,
to all crystalline concretions found in plants.
As the hyacinth is not to be procured during
a considerable portion of the year, the bulb
of the medicinal squUl {Scilla maritima),
which can at any time be purchased, may
be had recourse to. A moderately thin layer
should be sliced off with a razor, parallel to
the surface; with a few minutes' immersion
in water the cells become so transparent as
almost to lose their contours, and then the
raphides may be distinctly seen in groups,
looking like packets of fine needles, assorted
in sizes Fig. 1, b). Round each packet may
generally be observed its wrapper, which
might be compared to a very delicate bladder
— in technical langxiage, a wall of protoplastic
material. When thus seen lying together, the
difference in their size is one of the first points
to catch the eye. To express in a familiar
manner their relative length, it may be said
that, of the smallest, if set end to end, a
thousand would be required to bridge over
the space of an inch, whilst of the largest
about twenty-two only would be needed to
cover the same.

The situation of raphides has formed a

long-standing subject of controversy, some
asserting that they were always situated in
cells, whilst others maintained that they
occurred in the intercellular passages. The
latter are spaces left between the rounded
cells of lax tissue. A good example of them
is found in the
carrot-root, by
making a very
thin section af-
ter it has become
somewhat dry
through beiag
left about for a
few days (Fig.
2). The rea-
soning that the
raphides were
longer than, and
therefore could
not be contained
in, the cells of
hyacinth, is very
loose, and as it
happens incor-
rect, since the
cells in which
they are found
are much larger
than ordinary.
But it is always desirable, when we can do
it, to look at things as they grow, without
any possibility of disturbance from cutting
or tearing. In the walls of the anther of
hyacinth they may be seen in situ, but they
are most readily observed in the petals of
Oenothera, Clarkia, or epilobium. Take
one of these, gently lay it on a slide with
water and a covering glass ; it is very deli-
cate, rapidly becomes exceedingly hyaline,
and then, standing sharply out from the rest
of the structures, will be seen long, thick-
walled cells, containing, though seldom filled
with raphides. Large cells of a similar kind
are found finely developed in the leaves of
the banana, Musa sjp. If thin sections of

Fig. 2. — Intercellular Passages
in Tissue of Eoot of Carrot ;
some are black from con-
tained air.

244i

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

the Aroidece, of wLich the common Lords
and Ladies, Arum maculatum, is a character-
istic example, be examined in water, a curi-
ous sight will be presented ; of the raphid-
bearing cells one after another will be seen
exploding and scattering its sharp-pointed
missiles, as if engaged in deadly combat with
an imaginary enemy. (A clever idea here for
our brave volunteers !) The rupture of these
cells is due to rapid imbibition of water
by the mucilaginous matter they contain,
along with the crystals.

In most of the lily tribe fine acicular crys-
tals are formed. The root of the Florentine
iris (orris-root) presents large stout ones
(Fig. 1, d) ; in the vine, no part appears to
be free, even the spiral vessels having been
found invaded by them ; in the testa of the
seeds of garden balsam groups of them occur.

Crystals of a shorter form, united in bun-
dles, abound in many plants ; in all parts of
rhubarb — root, stem, and leaves — they may
be readily seen, and the acidity which is so
highly prized in the spring-grown shoots for
our pies and puddings, is due to the abun-
dance of oxalic acid, mostly in crystalline
form at that time. Conglomerate raphides
of this kind are abundant in some of the

/5*':- ^K. <t^-

Fig. 3. — ^A, Cuticle of Indian Fig, with Stellate Ra-
phides ; B, some larger ones, from pulpy tissue
of the fruit.

cacti. Every cell of the cuticle of Opuntia
(Fig. 3, a) may be seen to possess, and be in

great part filled, with its bundles of crystals ;
in the more pulpy portions of the fruit,
where freer room for their development is
afforded, they occur not only larger in size,
but with much finer and sharper crystals
(Fig. 3, b). As some of our friends have
been unable to obtain "Eaphides from a
Pear," although slides so labelled are to be
purchased, we take this opportunity of in-
forming any who may not yet have learnt
the secret that such are from this source, the
Indian-fig cactus, or " prickly pear," as it is
sometimes called. In Cactus cochinelUfer the
crystals are remarkable for their length and
slenderness ; in C. euneagonus they are un-
usually large, and look more like flat plates
grouped round a central nucleus.

The two forms of raphides, acicular and
conglomerate, seldom occur together ; the
flower-stalk of Potlios coriacea, however, pre-
sents both in large numbers. In the bark
and leaves of species of Tolygonum, Cheno-
podium, Atriplex, etc., the conglomerate form
is found in quantity.

Single, solitary crystals are much less
commonly met with than either the grouped
aciculi or conglomerate bundles ; they occur,
however, in bulbs of the onion and shallot, in
the bark of the lime-tree, in that of the apple-
tree, marked with lines apparently indicating
stages of increase, in the testa of seed of the
elm, and in that of the seed of black briony
{Tamus communis).

Professor Quekett noticed, that after dis-
solving away the earthy salts from the
raphides of a cactus, by acid, a cast, as it
might be called, was still left in vegetable
material, and surprise was expressed at the
circumstance. The experiment is a pretty
one, and easUy repeated. The bark of the
common orache {Atriplex) abounds with
them, and from it a few of the crystals may
be obtained by tearing up a portion with
needles, on a slide. This is to be placed,
having added water and a cover, on the stage
of the microscope ; with the attention fixed

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

245

on some two or three in particular, a small
portion of muriatic acid is to be added by
means of a glass rod. The raphides will be
seen to lose their sharpness of outline, to be-
come evidently altered, and in place of the
bristling mass of crystals, a little lump of
soft, structureless, vegetable material is left,
proving the simultaneous deposition, atom
for atom, of the organic and inorganic con-
stituents. On this interesting fact, Mr.
E-ainey's recent researches* have thrown
quite a new light. In a beautiful section of
rliubarb-root, made by our friend, Mr. H. B.
Brady, of Newcastle, the deposition of crys-
tals in organic matter contained in the cells
is very evident.

Another modification of raphides is met
with in hemp, and many other plants of the
nettle tribe {UrticacecB), the mulberries, the
India-rubber tree {Fictis elastica), and some
others. These are called Cystolithes. "When
viewed as opaque they are very beautiful,
and are not uncommon in cabinets of micro-
scopic objects. No idea, however, can be
formed of their true nature when seen in this
condition. To understand how and where
they are formed, let us take a leaf of pellitory
of the wall {Farietaria officinalis), and make
a vertical section (Fig. 4) ; we shall then find,

Fig. 4. — Vertical Seotion of Leaf of Pellitory, show-
ing Cystolithe in situ.

amongst the ordinary tissue of the upper
surface of the leaf, large cells, each of which
contains a rounded, crystalline mass, de-

* " On the Formation of Bone, Shell, etc." 8vo.
Churchill.

pendent by a slender thread, of mucous ma-
terial, from the \ipper wall of the cell. In
the hemp, such occur on both sides of the
leaf.

As to form, it may be briefly said that
they are mostly four-sided prisms, terminated
by pyramids, the section square or lozenge-
shaped ; octohedra sometimes occur, as may
be seen in the pulpy portion of an orange.
In their composition, lime is the chief base,
united with oxalic, phosphoric, malic, citric,
or tartaric acids. " The watery fluids tra-
versing the tissues of growing plants, in con-
sequence of evaporation from the leaves, and
the continual absorption by the roots, neces-
sarily contain various inorganic salts dis-
solved in them. Moreover, certain organic
acids, such as malic, tartaric, etc., are always
formed in the processes of vegetable diges-
tion. All these substances and their com-
pounds arc, for the most part," dissolved in
the cell-sap,"* but by miitual reaction thej'
become precipitated in the crystalline form.
For purposes of isolation, it may be, a deli-
cate layer of protoplastic substance is then
thrown round them. They are most abundant
in the autumn. The vital powers, through
the heats of summer, have kept the materials
composing them in a state of solution ; but
these receive a check, the delicate balance is
upset, and chemical affinities now assert their
supremacy by the formation of myriads of
crystals. This view is confirmed by some
very interesting experiments, made a few
years ago by Mr. Edwin Quekett, to show
the possibility of their formation by artificial
means. He saturated rice-paper with lime
by repeated soakings in lime-water, and then
placed portions in weak solutions of oxalic
and phosphoric acids. From the former,
masses of conglomerate raphides, precisely
like those of rhubarb, were procured. In
the cells of the latter were a few rhomboidal
crystals. The conditions regulating develop-

* Henfrey, " Elementary Course of Botany."

246

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

ment in tlie acicular form were not success-
fully imitated.

Their uses are unknown. In tlie economy
of tlie plants possessing them, they serve no
apparent purpose, and may even be regarded
rather as noxious products. It may be sug-
gested that in some plants, at least, they
serve the after-purpose of rendering the
tissues brittle, and so facilitate decomposi-
tion. Their numbers are occasionally enor-
mous— in rhubarb-root, out of every 100
grains of the best Turkey, 35 are these
useless crystals, in East Indian 25, in Eng-
lish, such as is sold in the streets by men
dressed up like Turks, 10 — buyers of this
drug judge of its quality by its grittiness.
This has been considered a puzzle, but the
explanation is simple : the same ardent suns
that increase the quantity and power of the
resinous purgative, pari passu, increase the
amount of saline ingredients. A lime-tree
having decayed, was cut down, the bark
came off in large pieces, and as it fell,
showers of dust came away, composed of
the long, flattened prisms peculiar to it.
Some of the cacti seem to become almost
wholly composed of raphides. The two re-
markable specimens of Cereus senilis, sent a
few years ago from South America to Kew,
will be in the recollection of all ; these were
supposed to be about one thousand years old,
were so brittle as to fracture with a touch,
and required packing in cotton wool, with
all the care of the finest jewellery. A lively
description, with sketches, was given in the
Illustrated London News of the day.

Besides the higher plants, some of the
ferns and mosses are stated to possess ra-
phides, together with plants even lower in
the scale. By favour of Mr. Shirley Hib-
berd, the opportunity has been afforded of
examining a confervoid growth, detached by
the action of frost from an aquarium. It
was composed, iirincipally, of the mucous
investment- of oscillatoria, with numerous
compound crystals (Fig. 5) that dissolved

rapidly in dilute muriatic acid, with much
effervescence, leaving an organic residue.

Mr. F. Currey has lately met with acicular
raphides in one of the lower fungi {Phlebia
mesenterica), and has ascertained that crys-
tals were formed rapidly and in immense
numbers in a myriophillum, as the plant
decayed. These were of the stellate form,
and occurred in the intercellular passages. A
good figure and description of them are given
in the Phytologist for April, 1859.

Most raphides may be well preserved in

Fig. 5. — Crj-stalline Masses from Mucous Stratum of
Oscillatoria. G, gelatinous substance left after
dissolution of one by acid.

glycerine or Canada balsam, if it be not an
object to show the tissues in which they
have their seat. When mounted on a dead
black ground, as opaque objects, dry, the
stellate forms are especially beautiful. To
obtain them clean for this purpose, the en-
veloping tissues must be entirely destroyed
by maceration, the crystals repeatedly
washed, and afterwards dried.

Some crystalline masses have been de-
scribed as occurring in the stem of a fossil
palm, which appeared to be raphides turned
to stone !

Polarized light may be used with advan-
tage in the examination of raphides. The
play of the prismatic colours thus developed,
is often, very beautiful.

Tttfpen West.

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

247

A CATALOGUE OF ALL THE COMETS WHOSE ORBITS HAVE HITHEETO

BEEN COMPUTED.

(^Continued from page 196.)

No.

Tear.

PP.

TT.

ft.

c.

q-

e.

^•

Calculator.

Date of
Discovery.

Discoverer.

Duration
of Visibility.

d.h.

0 1

0 .

0 t

31

15.33

June 14, 21
June 16, 19

217 40
104 12

299 19
125 44

28 14
35 49

0-3269
0-2028

+

Olbers \
Douwes S

1533, June

P. Apian

2^ months.'

(16)

1556

April 22, 0

274 14

175 25

30 12

0-5049

+

Hind

1666, Feb. 28

P. Fabricius

10 weeks.*

32

1553

Aug 10,12

329 49

332 36

73 29

0-5773

Olbers

1558, July 14

Landgrave Hesse

6 weeks.

33

1577

Oct. 26, 22

129 42

25 20

75 9

0-1775

—

Woldstedt

1577, Nov. 1

In Peru

12 weeks.*

34

1580

Nov. 23, 13

109 12

19 8

64 520-5955

+

Pingre

1580, Oct. 2

Moestlin

10 weeks.*

35

1582ii.

May 6, 16

245 23

231 7

61 28 0-2257

Ditto

1582, May 13

Tyeho Brahe

2 weeks.*

36

1585

Oct. 8, 0

9 8

37 44

6 51-0948

+

Peters

1535, Oct. 19

Do. & Rothmann

4 weeks.*

37

1590

Feb. 8, 0

217 57

165 36

29 29 0 5677

Hind

1590, Feb. 23

Tycho Brahe

3 weeks.^

33

1593

July 18, 13

176 19

164 15

87 63 0-1891

+

La Caille

1693, July 20

De Risseu

6 weeks.*

39

1596

July 25, 5

270 54

330 20

51 53 0-6671

Hind

1596, July 11

Moestlin

5 weeks.9

(4)

1607

Oct. 27, 0

300 46

43 14

17 6 0-6841

0-96708

—

Lehman

1607, Sept. 11

Kepler

9 weeks. '0

40

1613 i.

Aug. 17, 3

318 20

293 25

21 28 0-5129

+

Pingri5

1618, Aug. 25

At Caschau

4week3."

41

— ii.

Nov. 8, 8

3 5

75 41

37 110-3895

...

+

Bessel

— Nov. 10

Harriott, etc.

3 week8.i2

42

1652

Nov. 12, 15

28 13

88 10

79 28 0-8475

+

Halley

1652, Dec. 20

Hevelius

3 weeks. '3

(30?)

1661

Jan. 26, 21

115 16

81 64

33 0 0-4427

>.•

+

M^ohain

1661, Feb. 3

Ditto

6 weeks.'*

43

1664

Dec. 4, 11

130 41

81 14

21 181-0258

...

Halley

1664, Nov. 17

la Spain

17 weeks. '^

44

1665

April 21, 5

71 54

228 2

76 6;0-1064

—

Ditto

1665, Mar. 27

At All

iweeks."*

45

1668

Feb. 24, 18
Feb. 28, 19

40 9
277 2

193 26
357 17

27 7,0-2511
35 58 0-0047

+

Henderson )
Ditto J

1663, Mar. 5

Gottignies, etc.

Sweeks.i'

46

1672

March 1, 8

46 59

297 30

83 22:0-6974

+

Halley

1672, Mar. 2

Hevelius

7weeks.>8

47

1677

May 6, 0

137 37

236 49

79 30-2805

Ditto

1677, April 27

Ditto

12 days. '9

48

1678

Aug. 13, 7

322 47

163 20

2 52 1-1453

0-62697

4-

Le Verrier

1678, Sept. 11

La Hire

4 weeks. 20

49

1680

Dec. 17, 23

262 49

272 9

60 40 0-0062!0-99998

Encke

1680, Nov. 14

Kirch

18weeks.2'

(4)

1682

Sept. 14, 19
July 12, 17

301 55

51 11

17 440-5829|0-96792

Rosenberger

1682, Aug. 15

Flamsteed

6 weeks.-*

50

1683

86 31

173 17

83 47 0-5533

0-98324

+

Clausen

1683, July 23

Ditto

6 weeks.23

51

1684

June 8, lu

233 52

268 15

65 43 0-9601

HaUey

1631, July 1

Bianchini

2 weeks.

62

1686

Sept. 16, 14

77 0

350 34

31 21 0-3250

+

Ditto

1686, Aug.

In India

1 month.**

53

1689

Nov. 29, 4

269 41

90 25

59 4I0-1893

Vogel

1689, Dec. 10

Richaud

2 weeks.**

64

1695

Nov. 9, 16

60 0

216 0

22 0|0-8435

+

Burckhardt

1695, Oct. 23

Jacob

3 weeks.28

65

1698

Oct. 18, 16

270 51

267 44

11 460-6912

Halley

1693, Sept. 2
1699, Feb. 17

La Hire

4 weeks.*'

56

1699 i.

Jan. 13, 8

212 31

321 45

69 200-7440

—

La CaiUe

Foutenay

2 weeks.

67

1701

Oct. 17, 9

133 41

298 41

41 39 0-5926

Burckhardt

1701, Oct. 23

Pallu

1 week.28

58

1702 ii.

Mar. 13, 14

138 46

138 69

4 24'0-6468

+

Ditto

1702, April 20
1706, MTar. 18

Bianchini

2 week3.*9

59

1706

Jan. 30, 4

72 29

13 11

55 140-4253

+

La Caille

Cassini

4 weeks.

60

1707

Dec. 11, 23

79 64

62 46

38 36 0-8597

+

Ditto

1707, Nov. 25

Manfredi

8 weeks.30

61

1718

Jan. 14, 21

121 39

127 65

31 810254

Argelander

1718, Jan. 18

Kircli

3 weeks.

* According to Olbers, both these orbits will satisfy the
observations, and it is as yet impossible to decide between
them. It had a tail 15'^ long.

* Avery fine comet, expected to return in 1860.

* It htid a tail 22^ long. This comet formed the subject
of the observations of Tycho Brahe for the detection of
parallax.

* Elements approximate. Observed also by Tycho Brahe.
s Very uncertain. It had a faint tail 3" long.

* This orbit was computed about 15 years ago, to
Bee whether the comet of 1344 (ii) was identical with this
one.

1 It had a tall T long.

8 It had a tail 44^^ long.

9 Discovered also by Tycho Brahe.

'" An apparition of Halley' s comet. It had a tail 7^
long.

'• Somewhat uncertain. Seen at Lintz, August 27, and
by Kepler, September 1.

1* A splendid comet ; it had a tail, according to Lon-
comontanus, 104^ long, and of a reddish hue. Said to have
been visible in the daytime.

•3 Elements only approximate.

'* By some supposed to be identical with the comet of
1532 ; it was not reobserved, however, as was anticipated,
about 1791.

«5 It had a tail from 6^ to lO' long.

i« It had a tail 25° long.

1' Seen chiefly in the southern hemisphere ; both orbiti
satisfy the observation, and it is impossible to say which ;3
the correct one.

•8 It had a tail about 1° long.

'" It had a tail about 6*^ long.

*" Elements only approximate.

*i A splendid comet, whose tail nltimately reached a
length of trom 70° to 90°. Halley conjectured that this was
a return of the comet of 1106, 531—42 B.C., but this has
since been shown to be unlikely. The orbit here given
supposes a period of 8814 years ; this, however, is subject
to much uncertainty, inasmuch as the observation might
possibly be satisfied by an 805 years' ellipse, or even by an
hyi)erboIic orbit.

22 An apparition of Halley' s comet. It had a tail from
12^ to 16= long.

23 It had a tail varying from 2° to 4''. An elliptic orbit ;
period assigned, 190 years.

^^ Its nucleus was as bright as a first magnitude star,
and had a tail 18^ long.

25 Observed very roughly in the East Indies. It had a
tail 60° long. Pingre makes the ft = 323° 45'.

28 Observed still more imperfectly than the last in the
southern hemisphere. It had a tail 18° long.

2' Uncertain.

2* Observed also by Thomas at Pekin.

29 Very roughly observed ; visible to the naked eye.

30 Discovered by Cassini, November 29,

248

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

No.

Year.

62

1723

63

1729

64

1737

65

— i.

66

1739

67

1742

63

1743 i.

69

— 11.

70

1744

(15?)

1746

71

1747

72

1748 i.

73

— 11.

74

1757

75

1758

(4)
76

1759 i.
— ii.

77

— m.

78

1762

79

1763

80

1764

81

1766 i.

82

— u.

83

1769

84

17701.

85

— 11.

86

1771

87

1772

88

1773

89

1774

90

1779

91

1780 i.

92

— 11.

93

1781 i.

94

— 11.

95

1783

96

1784 i.

97

— 11.

98

1785 i.

1)9

— 11.

100

1786 i.

101

— 11.

102

1787

103

1788 i.

pr.

d.h.
Sept. 27, 15
June 13, 6
Jan. 30, 8
June 8, 7
June 17, 10,
Feb. 8, 4
Jan. 8, 4
Sept. 20, 21
March 1, 8
Feb. 15,0
March 3, 7
April 28, 18
June 18,21
Oct. 21, 7
June 11,3
Mar. 12,43
Nov. 27, 2
Dec. 16, 21
May 28, 8
Xov. 1, 20
Feb. 12,13
Feb. 17, 8
April 26, 23
Oct. 7, 14
Aug. 14, 0
Nov. 22, 5
April 19, 5
Feb. 8,0
Sept. 5, 14
Aug. 15, 19
Jan. 4, 2
Sept. 30, 22
Nov. 28, 20
July 7, 4
Nov. 20, 12
Nov. 19, 13
Jan. 21, 4
March 10, 0
Jan. 27. 7
April 8, 8
Jan. 30, 20
July 7, 21
May 10, 19
Nov. 10, 7

«.

11 14 50 0

310
226
123
207
185

0-9987

4-0135

0-2228

0-S670

0-6735

0-7656

0-8615

0-5229

0-2220

0-95

2-1985

0-8404

O-t.253

0-3375

i)-2153

0 5845

0-7885

0-9659

1-0090

0-4882

0-555;

0-5053

0-3989

0-1-227

0-6743

0-5282

0-9031

0-9118

1-126S

1-4328

0-7131

00963

0-5152

0-7758

0-9610

1-4953

0-7078

0-637

1-1434

0

6
28

3

50
19
36
59
51
38
31
53
50

1
45
34
2
15
39
14
20
30
23

3
43
13
43

b

14

31 0-4273
36 0-3348
54 0-4101
15 0-3489
27 1-0630

1-00503

0-72130

0-9676S

0-8640
0-9992
0-78683

1-00936
0-67692

1-02829

0-99994

0-6784

Calculator.

Sporer

Burckhardt

Bradley

Daupsy

La Caille

Ditto

Clausen

D'Arrest

Betts

Hind

La Caille

Le Munnier

Bessel

Bradley

Pi'igre

Rosenbergei

La Caille

Ditto

Burckhardt

Ditto

Pingrd

Ditto

Burckhardt

Bessel

Le Verrier

Pingr6

Kncke

Gauss

Burckhardt

Ditto

Ziich

Cliiver

Olbers

Mt'chain

Ditto

Burckhardt

Mechaia

Burckhardt

M(5chain

Ditto

Encke

M<!chain

Saron

M^cbain

Date of
Discovery.

1723,
1729,
1737,

1739,
1742,
1743,

1746,
1748,

1757,

1758,

1760,

1762,
1763,
1764,
1766,

1769,
1770,
1771,

1772,
1773,
1774,
1779,
1780,

1781,

1783,

1784,
1785,

1786,

1787,
1788,

Oct. 12
July 31
Feb. 6
Peb.
May 28
Feb. 5
Peb. 10
Aug. 18
Dec. 9
Peb. 2
Aug. 13
April 26
May 19
Sept. 13
M;iy 26
Dec. 25
Jan. 25
Jan. 7
May 17
Sept. 28
Jan. 3
Mar. 8
April 1
Aug. 8
June 14
Jan. 10
April 1
Mar. 8
Oct. 12
Aug. 11
Jan. 6
Oct. 26
Oct. 18
June 28
Oct. 9
Nov. 19
Dec. 15
April 10
Jan. 7
Mar. 11
Jan. 17
Aug. 1
April 10
Nov. 25

Discoverer.

At Bombay

Sarabat

lu Jamaica

At Pekin

Ziinotti

Cape of Q. Hope

Grischau

Klinkenberg

Ditto

Kindermans

Chesaux

At Pekin

Klinkenberg

Bradley

La Nux

Palitzch

Messier

At Lisbon

Klinkenberg

Messier

Ditto

Ditto

Helfenzrieda

Messier

Ditto

La Nux

Messier

Montiigne

Messier

Montague

Bode

Messier

Montagnc

Mdcbam

Ditto

Pigott

La Nux

D'Angos

Messier

Mechain

Ditto

Miss Herschel

Mechain

Messier

Duration
of Visibility.

9 weeks. 31
25 weeks .'^

4weeks.

(?).■"

11 weeks.

13 weeks.'"*

2 weeks.-''*
4 weeks. ^i*

4 months (P)^'

4 weeks. 38

15 weeks. 2s
9 weeks.''*
4days.*i

5 weeks.*^
5 months.

5 months. ^'J
8 weeks.'*

14 weeks.-"*

6 weeks.-""

8 weeks. ^'

6 weeks.'*

9 weeks.
Oweeks.-is

16 weeks.'o

15 weeks.*!
11 days.*2
15 weeks.*3

3 weeks.*'
27 weeks.-'**
11 weeks.*^
19 weeks.*'

5 wceks.*8
3days.*9

3 weeks.

11 weeks.''*

4 weeks "'
23 weeks. 62

5 days.w
5 weeks.

5 weeks."!
3 days."*

12 weeks.

7 weeks.

5 weeks.""

" Afterwards seen in Europe, with a faint tail 1^ long.

" Scarcely perceptible to the naked eye. The orbit is
a hj'perbolic one, and remarkable for its enormous perihelion
distance, the greatest known.

33 Elements only approximate.

3-1 Visible to the naked eye, with a tail 6'' or 8° long.

3* Very imperfectly observed. An elliptic orbit j period
assigned, 5-436 years.

38 Very uncertain. Visible to the naked eye.

'' The finest comet of the eighteenth century. On
February 15 it had a bifld tail, the eastern portion being
7' long, and the western 24'=. Visible in a telescope in the
daytime. Euler has calculated an elliptic orbit, to which he
assigns a period of 122,683 years ! ! ! The statement of this
comet having had six tails is believed to be a fabrication.

*' Klements uncertain, but they strongly resemble those
of the comet of 1231. It passed very near the earth.

'9 Observed only during 1746

*" Discovered by Maraldi, April 30. Visible to the
naked eye, with a tail 20' long.

^' Very uncertain.

<2 Elements tolerably reliable. It had a small tail.

<3 The first /ircdieierf apparition o£ Mallet/' s comet. On
May 5, its tail was 47° long.

** Visible to the naked eye, with a tail 5" long.

<* This comet came near the earth, and moved -with
great rapidity ; it bad a tail 4° long.

'» It had a small tail

" An elliptic orbit. Period assigned, 7334 years, lexell
makes it 1137 years.

<' Visible to the naked eye, with a tail 2^'' long.

*8 Discovered by Messier, April 8. An elliptic orbit.
Period assigned, 5-025 years. Visible to the naked eye,
with a tail 3° or 4' long.

** Visible to the naked eye, with a tail from 60° to 80'
long. Bessel assigns 2090 years as the most likely period of
revolution. He has shown that an error of 5" either may
increase the period to 2673 years, or diminish it to 1692
years.

*i The celebrated Lexell's comet. The diameter of the
head, July 1, was 2J'. It had also a small taU, and ap-
proached within 1,400,000 miles of the earth.

•'•■' It had a faint tail, 5' long.

*3 The orbit of this comet is undoubtedly hyperbolic.
It had a.tail about 2' long.

** The first recorded apparition of JSiela's comet.

** Just perceptible to the naked eye.

*" A hyperbolic orbit.

*' Discovered by Messier, January IS.

*' An elliptic orbit. Period assigned, 75,314 years.

*3 Discovered by Olbers on the same day.

"* Visible to the naked eye, November 9, with a tail 3'
long. It came very near the earth.

"1 An elliptic orbit. Period assigned, 5-613 years.

"2 Visible to the naked eye, with a tail 2° long.

"3 Not only are the elements uncertain, but it is doubt-
ful whether the comet ever existed.

"* Visible to the naked eye, with a tail 9^ long.

"* The first recorded apparition of Eneke's comet,

*" Visible to the naked eye, with a taU 2^" long.

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

249

No.

104

105
106
107
108
109
110

in

(100)
112
113
111
115
116
(56)
117
118
119
(100)
(87)
120
121
123
123
124
125
123
127
128
129
130
131
(87)
132
133
(100)
134
135
130

Year,

1788 ii,
1790 i,

1792 1.

— ii.

1793 i

— ii.
1795
1796
1797

1798 i.

— ii.

1799 i.

— ii.
1801
1802
1804
1805
1806 i.

— ii.
1807
1808 i.

— ii.
1810
1811 i.

— ii.
1812
1813 i.

— ii.
1815
1816

1818 i.

— ii,

— iii

1819 i.

— ii.

— iii.

— iv.

PP.

d.h.
Nov. 20, 7
Jan. 15, 5
Jan. 2S, 7
May 21, 5
Jan. 13,13
Dec. 27, 6
Nov. 4, 20
Nov. 28, 5
Deo. 21, 10
April 2, 19
July 9, 2
AprU 4, 11
Dec. 31,13
Sept. 7, 5
Dec. 25, 21
Aug. 8, 13
Sept, 9, 21
Feb. 13, 15
Nov. 21, 12
Jan. 1, 23
Dec. 28, 22
Sept. 18, 17
May 12, 22
July 12, 4
Oct. 5, 19
Sept. 12, 0
Nov. 10, 23
Sept. 15, 7
Mar. 4, 12
May 19, 10
April 25, 23
May 1, 8
Feb. 7, 9
Feb. 25, 23
Dec. 4, 22
Jan. 27, 6
June 27, 17
July 18, 21
Nov. 20, 5

n.

7573
7581
0632
■7979
■2930
9662
■4034
■4951
■3344
■5781
■5266
■484
■7795
8399
6258
•2617
0941
0772
3404
9068
0815
■6461
3898
6079
9691
0351
5821
7771
6991
2161
2128
0485
7332
1977
8550
3352
3410
7736
8925

0-97342

0-84888

0-81617
0-74578

0*99548

0-99509
0-98271
095454

0-93121

0-81858

0-75519
0-68674

/li-

Calculator,

Date of
Discovery,

+

M^ hain

1788, Dec. 21

Saron

1790, Jan. 7

+

M^chain

— Jan. 9

Ditto

— April 18

—

Ditto

1791, Dec. 15

—

Prosperin

1793, Jan. 8

—

Saron

— Sept. 27

+

D' Arrest

— Sept. 24

+

Encke

1795, Nov. 7

Olbers

1796, Mar. 31

Ditto

1797, Aug. 14

+

Burckhardt

1798, April 12

Ditto

— Dec. 6

Ditto

1799, Aug. 7

—

M6chain

— Dec. 26

—

Burckhardt

1801, June 30

+

Olbers

1802, Aug. 26

+

Bouvard

1804, Mar. 7

+

Encke

1805, Oct. 19

+

Gambart

- Nov. 10

Burckhardt

1806, Nov. 10

+

Bessel

1807, Sept. 9

Encke

1808, Mar. 25

—

Bessel

— June 24

+

Ditto

1810, Auff. 22

Argelander

1811, Mar. 26

+

Nicolai

— Nov. 16

+

Encke

1812, July 20

NieoUet

1813, Feb. 4

—

Encke

— Mar. 21

+

Bessel

1815, Mar. 6

+

Burckhardt

1816, Jan. 22

+

Pogson

1818, Feb. 23

+

Encke

1817, Dec. 26

Eosenberger

1818, Nov. 28

+

Encke

— Nov. 26

+

Bouvard

1819, July 1

+

Encke

— June 12

+

Encke

— Nov. 23

Discoverer.

Miss Hcrsehel

Diito

Moehain

Miss Herschel

Ditto

Gregory

Messier

Perny

Miss Herschel

Olbera

Bouvard

Messier

Bouvard

M(5chain

Ditto

Beissig

Pons

Ditto

Thulis

Pons

Ditto

Parisi

Pons

Ditto

Ditto

Flaugergues

Pons

Ditto

Ditto

Ditto

Olbers

Pons

Ditto

Ditto

Ditto

Ditto

Tralles

Pons

Blanpaia

Duration
of Visibility.

4 weeks.

2 weeks.*'

3 weeks.
10 weeks.**

6 weeks.
6 weeks.*'

15 weeks.
10 weeks.'*

3 weeks.''

2 weeks. '2

3 weeka.'-J
6 weeks.

1 week.'-*
3 weeks.''
10 .days.'*
3 weeks."
6 weeks.'*
3 weeks."

3 weeks. 8*

4 weeks.*!
14 weeks.
28 weeks S2

1 week '3
10 days.8*
6 wei-ks.

17 months."
13 weeks. 8*

10 weeks."'

5 weeks.

6 weeks."
25 weeks."''

11 days.s">

4 days." I

18 weeks.

9 weeks.s*

7 weeks. M

16 weeks."

5 weeks.**

8 weeks.**

*' Imperfectly observed on four occasions. Elements
but approximate.

*' Visible to the naked eye, with a tail 4" long.

*' Discovered by M^chain and Piazzi, January 10. There
was a trace of a tail to be seen.

'* Discovered by Miss Herschel, October 7. An elliptic
orbit. Period assigned, 422 years.

'1 An apparition of Encke' s comet. It was just visible to
the naked eye.

'2 Very faint.

'■> Discovered Viy Miss Herschel, and Lee on the same
evenin<r; by Kudiger, August 15, andbyKecht, August 16.

'■• Discovered by Olbers, December 28, Elements only
approximate,

'5 Discovered by Olbers, August 26. At first faint, but
afterwards visible to the naked eye, with a tail 1° long;.

'* Probably a return of the comet of 1699. Visible to
the naked eye, with a tail from 1° to 3='.

"'Discovered at Paris, July 12, The observations were
very rough.

'* D.scovered by M^chain, August 28, and by Olbers,
Sei)tember 2.

'9 Discovered by Bouvard, May 10, and by Olbers,
May 12.

*"• A\i apparition of Encke't comet. Discovered by Pons
and Bouvard, October 20, and by Huth some days after-
wards. Visible to the naked eye, with a tail 3^ long.

*i An apparition of Biela's comet. Discovered by Bou-
vard, November 16, and by Huth, November 22. Visible to
the naked eye.

*•* Discovered by Pons, September 20, It was visible
to the naked eye, with a tail 5° long, an elliptic orbit.

Period assigned, 1714 years, which may, however, be exr
tended to 2157 years, or reduced to 1404 years,

*•* Discovered by Wisniewski, March 29.

*• Elements only approximate.

** A very celebrated comet, conspicuously visible in the
autumnal evenings of 1811. It had a tail 25" long, and 6''
broad. The most reliable computations assign a periodic
term of 3065 years, subject to an uncertainty of not more
than 43 years. The orbit of this comet is liable to much
planetary perturbation.

** An elliptic orbit. Period assigned, 875 years. Visible
to the naked eye.

*' An elliptic orbit. Period assigned, 70-68 years. Visible
to the naked eye, with a tail 2^ long.

*" Discovered also by Harding. Visible to the naked eye.

** An elliptic orbit. Period assigned, 70-049 years.
Bessel anticipates that planetary perturbation will bring
it back to perihelion, 1887, February 9, It had a short
tail.

** Elements only approximate.

*i An apparition of Biela's comet. The observations
were few and indifi'erent.

*^ Discovered by Bessel, December 23. It moved very
rapidly. Eosenberger has computed a hyperbolic orbit.

"^ An apparition of Encke't comet, whose periodicity
was now discovered.

** A very brilliant comet, with a tail 7" long,

** An elliptic orbit. Period assigned 5-618 years. Con-
sidered by Clausen as a return of the comet of 1766 (ii).

** Discovered by Pons, Dec. 4. An elliptic orbit ; period
assigned, 4-810 years. Clausen thought this comet might be
identical with that of 1743 (i).

{To he continued.)

Geo, F. Chambees.

Y

250

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

METEOROLOGY OF FEBRUARY.

FROM OBSKBVATIONS AT HIGHFIELD HOUSE OBSKRVATOEY.

Year.

1842
IH43
1814

1840
1846
1847
1848
1849
1850
1851
1852
1853
1854
1855
1856
1857
1858
1859

Greatest

Heat.
Degrees.

50-0 ..

48-0 ..

48-5 ..

47-5 ..

58-0 ..
, 54-0 ..

56-5 ..

57-5 ..
, 570 ..
, 61-0 ..
, 55-5 .,

42-5 ..
, 66-0 ..
, S9-7 ..
, 67-8 ..
, 57-5 ..
, 61-0 ..

57-2 ..

Greatest
Cold.

Degrees.

. 26-U .

. 15-7 ,

. 17-0

, 20 0

. 280 ,

, 20-0

. 23-2

. 230 ,

. 26-0

. 23-5

. 22-5

. 18-8 ,

. 24-8

. 61

. 21-9

. 19-5

. 20-5

. 27-4

Amount of

Bain.

Inches.

.*.' 2-3

.. 2-2

.. 0-7

.. 0-8

.. 1-4

.. 3-6

.. 0-9

.. 1-3

.. 0-5

.. 1-8

.. 11

.. 0-8

.. 1-5

.. 1-9

.. 0-7

.. 0-3

.. 1-2

The greatest heat in shade reached 6]'0' in 1851,
and only 39-7° in 1855, giving a range of 21-3'' in greatest
heat for Febrnary during the past eighteen years.

The greatest cold was as low as 6"1'' (i,r 25'9^ of
frost) in 1855, and never below 28-0'' in 1846, giving a
range of 21-9° for February during the past eighteen
years. The coldest years were 1843, 1844, 1845, 1847,
1863, 1855, and 1857 ; and the warmest, 1842, 1846,
1850, and 1859. In 1855 the temperature fell 9-6''
lower than in any other year.

Only 0 3 inch of rain fell in February, 1858, and as
much as 3-6 inches in 1848, giving a range of 3-3 inches
for February, during the past seventeen years. The
mean fall of rain for February is I 4 inches. In seven
years the fall was less than one inch, and in three years
it exceeded two inches. E. J. Lowe.

ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS
FOR FEBRUARY, 1860.

The sun is in Aquarius until the 19th, when he passes
into Pisces. He rises in London on the 1st at 7h. 42m.,
on the 10th at 7h. 27m., on the 20th at 7h. 8m., and on
the 29th at 6h. 49m. He sets in London on the 1st at
4h. 46m., on the 10th at 5h. 3m., on the 20th at
."•h. 21m., and on the 29th at 5h. 37m.

The sun reaches the meridian on the 1st at 12h.
I3m. 49s. ; on the 15th at 12h. 14m. 25s., and on the
29th at 12h. 12m. 42s.

The equation of time on the 1st, 13m. 49s. ; on
the 15th, 14m. 25s. ; and on the 29th, 12m. 42s. ;
the clock being these amounts before the sun, i. e., the
equation of time addative.

At Edinburgh and Glasgow the sun rises on the 1st
17 minutes later, and on the 15th 12 minutes later
than in London, and sets on the 1st 17 minutes earlier,
and on the 15th 12 minutes earlier. At Dublin and

Liverpool he rises 7 minutes later, and sets 7 minutes
earlier than in London, and on the I5th, 5 minutes ;
whilst at Exeter and Portsmouth he rises on the 1st,
3 minutes earlier, and sets 3 minutes later than in
London, and on the 15th 2 minutes.

Day breaks on the 3rd at 5h. 42m., on the 28th
at 4h. 57m. Twilight ends on the 13th at 6h. 49m.

The moon is full on the 7th at 2h. 35m. a.m.

New moon on the 21st at 7h. 39m. p.m.

The moon is nearest to the earth on the 7th, and
most distant on the 21st. Near Jupiter on the 5th.

There will be a lunar eclipse on the 7th, and nt
the time of greatest phase (2h. 29m. a.m.) four-fifths
of the moon's diameter will be obscured, t. e., 0'809
(moon's diameter =1 ■000). It begins at Ih. 2m. a.m..

Eclipse of the Moon, at Greenwich, Feb. 7th, 2h. 29m. a.m.

and ends at 3h. 56m. a.m. First contact with the
shadow 79° from the northernmost point of moon's
limb towards the east, and last contact 32° towards
the west. (For direct image.)

Mercury is in Capricornus, passing into Aquarius
at the end of the month ; he is unfavourably situated
for observation.

Venus is in Aquarius at the beginning, and in
Pisces at the end of the month. She is still unfavour-
ably situated for observation. She sets on the 10th at
8h. 4m. p.m., and on the 20th at 8h. 35m. p.m.

Mars is very badly situated for observation. He is
in Scorpio at the beginning, and in Ophiuchus at the
end of the month, rising on the 10th at 2h. 48m. a.m.

Jupiter is a fine telescopic object; he is in Gemini,
rising on the 10th at 6h. 6m., and on the 20th at 5h.
24m. p.m., being on the meridian on the 10th at 9h.
51m. p.m., and on the 20th at 9h. 9m. p.m.

Saturn is also favourably situated for observation,
especially on the 11th. He is in Leo, rising on the
10th at 4h. 68m. p.m.

Uranus is in a favourable situation for observation,
a little above the Hyades in Taurus.

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

251

There are no occultations of stars by the moon of
a greater magnitude than the 6th : —

Eclipses of Jupiter's satellites at Greenwich : —
On the 2nd, at 2h. 57ru. 49s. a.m., 2nd moon reappears.
On the 7th, at Ih. 51m. 57s. a.m., 1st moon reap-
pears. On the 8th, at 7h. 20m. 42s. p.m., 1st moon
reappears. On the 11th, atSh. 9m. 54s. p.m., 3rd moon
reappears. On the I2th, at 6h. 52m. 24s. p.m., 2nd
moon reappears. On the 14th, at 2h. 46m. 49s. a.m.,
1st moon reappears. On the 15th, at 9h. 15m. STs.
p.m., 1st moon reappears. On the 18th, at 8h. 50m.
23s. p.m., 3rd moon disappears. On the 19th, at
12h. 10m. 8s. a.m., 3rd moon reappears. On the 19th,
at 9h. 28m. 53s. p.m., 2nd moon reappears. On the
21st, at Ih. 45m. 40s. a.m., 4th moon disappears. On
the 22nd, at llh. 10m. 393. p.m., 1st moon re-
appears. On the 26th, at 12h. 50m. 5s a.m., 3rd moon
disappears. On the 27th, at 12h. 6m. 17s. a.m., 2nd
moon reappears.

At 11 p.m., meantime, on the 14thand 21st, the first
satellite is on the disc of Jupiter, and on the 17th, at
the same hour, the second satellite is on the disc.

E. J, Lowe.

THINaS OF THE SEASON— FEBEUAET.

FOB VAEIOUS LOCALITIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.

Birds Arriving. — Occasional flights of Hooper
Swans, and other water-fowl, but no distinct arrivals
of migratory birds.

Birds Departing. — Gray Lagg, Bemacle, Laugh-
ing, and Brent Geese ; Goosander ; Pin-tailed, Scaup,
Velvet, Black, and Eider Ducks; Gadwell, Black- throated
and Red-throated Divers ; Wild Swan ; Common, Bar-
tailed, and Green-shanked Godwits; Sea Curlew,
White-headed Smew, Silktail, Sanderling, Golden
Plover, Golden-eyed Pocher, Stock Dove, Dartford
Warbler, Mountain Finch, Siskin, Lesser Guillemot,
Knot, Purre.

Insects. — Hydrophilus caraboides, Berosus luri-
dus, Dermestes lardarius, 7-spotted Ladybird, Meal-
worm Beetle, Orange Upper Wing, February Carpet.

Wild Plants in Flower. — Snowdrop, Stinking
Bear's-foot, Great Henbit, Whitlow Grass, Groundsel,
Common Furze, Colt's-foot, Dandelion, Hepatica,
Mezereon, Primrose, Creeping Crowfoot, Butcher's-
broom.

jMTjsToteworthy'sCM

orner.

Opticvi. Phenomenon. — There is "a somewhat
curious optical phenomenon to be seen in the chapel
attached to the cemetery at Tottenham, and probably
in other buildings, whose windows are similarly con-
structed, which has not, that we are aware of, been
hitherto described or explained. In the middle of the
windows there is a lozenge-shaped casement opening.

through which, when open, the sky, trees, clouds, and
houses appear of a bluish tint. This appearance
may be explained in the following manner : — It is
well known that every colour has what is called its acci-
dental, or complementary colour, or that colour which,
together with a given colour, vrould form white light.
Thus, if the eye looks steadily at a red wafer on a
sheet of white paper, it will, when turned away from
the wafer, see the image of a green wafer. If the
wafer were blue, it would afterwards see the image of
an orange wafer. If it were orange-coloured, it would
afterwards see the image of a blue one, and so on.
Now the glass of the chapel-windows is of an orange-
yellow tint, hence the general light inside the chapel
is of an orange-yellow colour, and, therefore, the eye
through the uncoloured opening sees the landscape
outside tinted with the accidental or complementary
colour of orange-yellow, which is blue. If the glass
were green, the landscape would appear of a reddish
tint, and so on. It is also a curious fact, that whea
the sun shines through the opening, it gives the dif-
ferent objects on which it shines a blue tint, which is
to be explained in the same way. Perhaps the above
phenomenon might suggest the idea of forming a
philosophical toy, for explaining and showing some of
the properties of light, by fixing coloured glasses,
with a small hole in the middle, at the end of a tube.

Hunt's Cinephantic Colour-Top. — Mr. Note-
worthy has read with much interest a paper on this
invention read by Mr. Edmund Hunt before the Phi
losophical Society of Glasgow on the 16th of Novem-
ber last, and which is printed in the society's pro-
ceedings. This colour- top is distinct from Mr. Gor-
ham's, and, according to Mr. Hunt's view of its action,
Mr. Gorham is wrong in the explanation he gives of
the rationale of the phenomena produced by the
Kaleidoscopic Top. It is impossible to condense the
substance of Mr. Hunt's paper into a paragraph, and
Mr. Noteworthy recommends all who take a practicfil
interest in the subject to obtain the full text of Mr.
Hunt's essay. He thinks well of Mr. Goodchild's
clockwork, to which, nevertheless, he would make
additions, so as to produce the same efi'ect as those
which result from the so-called " rapid and regular
jerks," by " applying a perfectly continuous motion
to the loose disc." He thinks Mr. Goodchild's Top
should be made with frictional wheels instead sf
toothed wheels, and that " the best application of
wlieelwork would be to reproduce the experiments
on a large scale, and with the discs vertical, so as to
be seen by a large audience. The experiments might
also be exhibited by the magic lantern."

The New Intrx-Mercurial Planet. — Much in-
terest is now being felt, in the astronomical world, on
account of the supposed discoverj"^ of a new inferior
planet revolving round the sun, within the orbit of
Mercury. Public attention was first drawn to the sub-
ject by a communication forwarded to the Academy of
Sciences at Paris, in September last, by M. Le Verrier,
in which he announced that a certain error in the peri-
helion element of Mercury's orbit could only be ex-

252

KECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

plained on the supposition of the existence of another
and interior perturbing planet. The suspected planet
has heen found ; it was discovered transiting the sun's
disc on March 26, 1859, by M. Lescarbault, at Orgeres,
in the department of Eure-et-Loire, France. Sus-
picious-looking objects were seen on the sun's disc on
January 6, 1818, by Mr. Lloft, and in the summer of
1847, by Mr. B. Scott, the Chamberlain of the City of
London, but neither of these observations can refer to
the new planet, though it is by no means improbable
that it is identical with the object seen by Cassini in
1672 and 1686, by Short in 1740, and by Montague in
1761, and by them considered to he a satellite of Venus.
M. Le Verrier has computed an approximate set of
elements, from which it appears that another passage
over the sun's disc will take place sometime during
the fifteen days included between March 25 and April
10, and September 28 and October 13, 1860, and also
that the period of the planet's revolution round the
sun is about twenty days. Further information is
anxiously looked for.

Stereoscopic Phenomena. — A Youthful Stereoseopist
offers Mr. Noteworthy the following remarks :■ — " I have
seen some lenses in the shape of the annexed diagram :
a a, lenses of the stereoscope ; bb, raj's from lenses on
the photograph. I think, from the shape of the lenses,

/

/

that their rays would cross each other before con.ing
in contact with the picture. Therefore, if a small
photograph were placed in the stereoscope, the right-
hand lens would cast its ray on the left side of the
picture, and the left lens on the right side, and the
right side of the photograph would appear to be seen
by the left eye, and the left by the right eye." — Another
friend explains to Mr. Noteworthy, that " if a person
looks long and steadily at a small photographic
portrait through a stereoscope, so as to see one-half
only with each ej-e, the two halves will unite cor-
rectly, except that the half segu hy the left eye is

(tome, at least) a little higher than the other. This
united picture, which is not clear, especially on
one side, requires to attain it a fatiguing effort (like
that which many persons experience on first looldng
through a stereoscope before they attain the stereo-
scopic effect), but afterwards is at once perceived. The
apparent interchange which Stekeo saw is perceived
only at first."

A Cheap Telescope. — A really useful telescope
may be made by obtaining a single convex lens of four,

o five, or six feet focus, which lens can be had
of an optician for half-a-crown. The tube
may be made of paper, of the required length,
to suit the focus of the object-glass. Make
also two more tubes of tin for an eye-piece,
one to slide within the other, the larger one
to slide in the tube of the telescope. The
annexed diagram will explain what we mean :
D is the body ; a is the object-glass ; b c is the
ej'epiece. This is somewhat the same tele-
scope as described in a fonner paper, but with
this material difference, a compound eye-piece
is used in this one, whilst in the former only
a single eye-glass is used, b is a concave lens,
and c is plano-convex. By placing b before c,
it doubles the power of the eye-piece, and gets
rid almost entirely of the prismatic colours,
whilst its definition approaches that of an
achromatic. This eye-piece can be used as a
pancratic. If you pull c out, you must push
B nearer to the object-glass. But two or three
trials will be the best teacher of what we in-
tend to prove. This telescope will show the
satellites of Jupiter, and also the dark belt
across the body of the planet*, (b, 4 inches, c,
4 inches.)

English Copper Coinage. — A correspon-
dent asks Mr. Noteworthy about the value of
■^ some coins, to which he has thought it best to
reply in a note which may interest all readers. The first
copper coinage issued in bulk by British sovereigns was
thatof Charles II., in 1665. It consisted of halfpence and
farthings. The farthings had on the reverse the figure
of Britannia, with the motto, " Quatuor Maria vindico."
On the obverse they had the head of the king, with
" Carolus a Carolo." On the edge, done by a newly-
invented milling machine, was the motto, " Nummorum
famulus," meaning (it is conjectured) the servant of
7noncy, as being the lowest kind of English money. A
farthing of this issue, if as perfect as whgu first struck,
that is, " a flew de coin" as they say, may he worth a few
shillings ; if at all rubbed, it is only wortli a few pence ;
and if much rubbed, it is only worth its weight in
copper ; those of the same pattern, issued in 1672
(the same devices, except in the motto of Britannia on
the reverse), are much more common, and, therefore,
worth less. The threepenny, foui-penny, and sixpenny
silver pieces of Queen Elizabeth are almost all com-
mon, and worth but a trifle more than their intrinsic
value in silver. There are a few rarities in the series,
but not likely to be picked up in a chance way.

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

253

" Sicilian Etna's blood-red flame was seen
Fitfully flickering."

PHYSICAL EVIDENCES OF THE INTEENAL HEAT OF THE EARTH.

PAST I. — VOLCANOES AND EAETHQIJAKKS.

The ancients believed in tlie existence, below
the surface of the earth, of vast fiery fur-
naces, the abode of volcanic agencies, and the
place of destination for lost souls. Though
the Greeks, in their fables of Typhajus, Tar-
tarus, Pluto, and Vulcan, were indebted to
more ancient and more noble philosophies
than their own for ideas higher than the
Hellenic standard, and though they reduced
the cosmogonies of India and Egypt to the
low level of their own familiar gods, enough
may be seen reflected in their fanciful mytho-
logy to show the prevalence, in times of re-

VoL.I, — Kg, ,

mote antiquity, of a vague notion that the
terrestrial globe is the depository of exhaust-
less fires. This idea is illustrated and
established by the latest and most searching
investigations of a purely physical kind, and
is an addition to the list of in8tance3 wherein
science has contributed to the confirmation
of poetical old-world notions. Perhaps there
is no instance so happUy illustrative of the
close connection between Poetry and Science
as this, for assuredly nothing is more boldly
poetic than the idea that the solid earth we
tread is merely the cool outer slioH of a ball

254

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

of fluid fire, nor is there any better example of
the capabilities of purely inductive philosophy
than this inquiry affords ua.

When Dr. James Hutton exploded the
Werneriau doctrines, he proceeded, by a
purely inductive process, not to explain the
origin of things, but to elucidate their exist-
ing state by the agency of known causes. In
addition to the proposition that the stratified
rocks are formed of the debris of more ancient
structures, he set forth the doctrine that sub-
terranean heat had caused the elevation of
continents and mountain- chains, and that the
mechanical derangements of the sedimentary
strata, as well as the occurrence in them of
trap-rocks and metalliferous veins, were due
to the same cause, which had been chiefly
characterized by wonderful energy and ra-
pidity of action. Wherever granite peaks
pierce the heaven with their pinnacles of snow,
or wherever sections of the earth's crust are
made so as to expose the arrangement of the
various layers of which it is composed, we
meet with the first links in the chain of evi-
dence that fire was the first agent employed
in the structure of the globe. In the first
case, we see protruded enormous masses of
rock exhibiting no traces of stratification,
but many of a former state of fusion. The
structure is crystalline and granular; the
masses are never arranged in beds, but occur
in enormous blocks and irregular masses, and
broken by irregular fissures in different di-
rections. Hard as adamant, with no regular
cleavage, and so chemically constituted as to
set aside all notion of an aqueous origin, these
rocks appear before us as " the children of
the fire;" the consolidated remains of a past
state of incandescent fluidity.

E-eferring to the arrangements seen in
stratified rocks, we always find, when we
penetrate deep enough, that these are built
on a foundation of granite, while beneath the
granite itself, whether it forms the mountain
top or bleak escarpment, or underlies many
thousand feet of sedimentary strata, no ves-

tige of a stratified rock is ever found. Thus
granite, and its associate forms of porphyry
and basalt, are reasonably regarded as the
most ancient of all formations, the founda-
tions of the world, from the disintegrated
elements of which, by the ceaseless action of
hurricane and wave and fire, through a suc-
cession of illimitable ages, the superincumbent
rocks have been formed.

Though every geologist of note now ad-
mits that the granitic and trappean masses
are the results of simple fusion, and that fire
has been the chief agent in their production,
some great differences of opinion exist as to
whether similar forces are at present in ac-
tion, whether, indeed, the cyclopean forge
still roars and blazes below, or has long since
become exhausted, and, by this time, utterly
extinguished. Though admitted on all hands
that fire has played an important part in the
past history of our globe, yet more than one
eminent geologist has adopted the opinion
that whatever heat may have been embow-
elled in the earth has long since died out,
and that the outbursts of volcanoes, in com-
mon with hot springs and earthquakes, are to
be attributed not to general but to partial
causes, of which chemical affinities are the
chief. Let the inductive process guide us
where it may in this inquiry, let facts teach
us their several lessons, and let our con-
clusions be based on the evidence which
Nature sets before us.

The phenomena which most directly bear
on this question are volcanic eruptions, earth-
quakes, thermal springs, and the peculiar
figure of the earth. Each of these offers its
own suggestions, and all are equally open to
observation, and afford legitimate materials
for logical deductions.

Volcanoes are pretty generally distri-
buted over the whole of the world, even more
plentifully than is generally supposed. On
the continents of the old and new worlds
there are about a hundred and ten, while on
islands in various oceans there are no less

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

265

than two hundred, a hundred aud forty being
found in the islands of Asia and Oceania
alone. In the local sites of these, the first
fact which strikes us is their constant proxi-
mity to water; those on islands being of
course surrounded by the sea, while those on
continents are invariably situated on the
coasts. Referring to those most generally
known, we find Vesuvius adorning the Bay
of Naples, Etna presenting its symmetrical
cone to the bright waters of Syracuse, Hecla
frowning down on rocky bays and regions of
"thick-ribbed ice," Stromboli throwing its
bright flame day and night over the waves of
the Mediterranean, while Cotopaxi and the
other Andean craters are on an extensive
sea-board.

But volcanoes, though sprinkled difiusely
about the world, are nevertheless easily
arranged into groups of connection, and of
these groups there are three of special note.
The first of these is an extensive belt of
active and extinct craters stretching from
Terra del Fuego, the land of fire, along the
western coast of South America as far north-
ward as the tropic of Cancer. This belt com-
prehends the granitic cones of the Chilian
ranges, with the ever-burning Villarica in the
midst, the three volcanoes of Pasto, the three
of Papayan, and the twenty active craters of
G-uatemala and Nicaragua. Then, turning
aside, it embraces Mexico, California, and
the West Indies, having here a visible
breadth of at least 60°; while, in all pro-
bability, it stretches away under the waters
of the Pacific as far as 150" of east longi-
tude. Here is an immense series of volcanic
vents, extending over a space, from north to
south, of more than six thousand miles, and
which, running along the western coast of
America, turns aside in a serpentine line, and
dips under the Pacific westward, and mea-
aures again, from east to west, nearly nine
thousand miles. This is also a region noted
for earthquake violence, for submarine com-
motions, and for the most tremendous evi-

dences of a great upheaving force. Here, in
the chain of the Andes, we find the great
Cotopaxi, a perfect cone capped with snow,
and of enormous altitude. Etna has a height
of 10,873 feet, and Vesuvius 3,932, yet if
Vesuvius were piled on Etna there would be
wanting 4,073 feet to equal the enormous
measurement of this magnificent volcano.

Another definite line of volcanic craters
may be traced from Alaska, on the western

'KO'W

The American Group of Volcanic Craters and Eegions
of Earthquake.

coastof North America, in lat. 55% across the
opening of KingWilliam Sound to the coastof
Kamtschatka, a distance of ten hundred geo-
graphical miles. Along this line earthquakes
are frequent, and both sea and land are
continually agitated by violent commotions.

25(5

11EC:&EATIVE SCIENCE.

which sometimes traverse the whole line in
a series of awful vibrations. At the eastern
end of this chord are sixteen volcanoes, many
of them still active, which keep Cape Lopatka
and the Kurile Islands in a state of con-
stant disturbance. The line then trends
southwards, and involves the islands of the
Japanese group in its convulsive throes of
earthquake, and dipping downwards into the
fifteenth degree of south latitude embraces

The North-polar Group of Volcanic Craters.

Sumatra, Java, Sumbawa, Papua, the Friendly
Islands, and terminates in Tongarira, and
the other craters in the northern portion of
New Zealand. This extensive chain is repre-
sented in the maps in two divisions, because
the Aleoutian group has some very distinctive
features.

The third belt traverses the south of
Europe from the fortieth degree of north
latitude to the northern kingdoms of Africa,
while, from east to west, it extends from the
Caspian to the Azores. Within this region
are the classic peaks of Etna, Vesuvius, and
Stromboli, each of which still maintains its
activity, seemmgly exhaustless. Vesuvius
and Etna have both recently exhibited proofs
that their energies are not yet dead, while

the ever-burning Stromboli is a fire-beacon
to the Mediterranean Sea.

Let us now connect these volcanic groups
into one geographical system, and it will be
seen that the earth is belted round with a
fiery girdle, the main course of which is from
east to west, but which lets fall at least two

New Zealand.

The Chaih connecting the North-polar Group with the
Indian Archipelago and New Zealand.

great ribbons of convulsive power southward.
Let it be further noted that the great belt
and its related lines all traverse either the sea
itself, or coast-lines in proximity to water ; for,
even where it crosses the old continent, it takes
its way by the Caspian, the Black Sea, and

RECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

257

the Mediterranean, and in its course from
Japan to the Caspian, through the heart of
Southern Asia, there are fewer signs of acti-
vity than in any other part of its course. The
towering Himalayas serve to connect Pon-
dicherry, which raged violently in 1757, and
the " Terribles," where there are two craters
together in the Bay of Bengal, with the hills of
Thian-Shan, ^A'here the last great earthquake
occurred in 1832, and the line then passes direct
to the southern shore of the Caspian, where

The European Group, from the Caspian to the Azores.

Demavend rejoices in a local fiery renown.
Thus the two great opposing forces. Fire and
Water, have intimate neighbourship in the
superficial projection of the globe, and, as we
shall see hereafter, they work together in
modelling its hills and valleys, determining the
contour of its coast-lines, the dotting of its
seas with islands, and the building up of ram-
parts for the defence of continental lines. If
the sea silently, but surely sunders the old
landmarks, the fire compensates in an hour
for the spoliation of centuries, and thus, ac-
cording to God's great purposes, the propor-
tions of land and water are maintained in the

face of forces which, separately considered,
appear sufficient for supreme domination.

Supposing that the combinations of cer-
tain chemical ingredients originated these
extensive exhibitions of volcanic force, we
might reasonably expect to find in the pro-
ducts of combustion a clue to the processes
by which they are produced. If the chemist
mingles pounded sugar, chlorate of potash,
and alchohol, and applies a single drop of
sulphuric acid, the compound will imme-
diately take fire. Every tyro can
perform similar experiments. But
the accomplished chemist can do
something more than the tyro in
this case ; he can take the products
of the combustion, and, by an ex-
amination of these, determine out
of what materials the ashes were
produced. The conclusion then is
forced upon us, that if volcanic ope-
rations were brought about by the
meeting together of materials cal-
culated to give rise to combustion,
the theory of such explosions would
long since have been built upon a
firm chemical basis. Such has not
been done, for the simple reason that
the scoriae and lava ejected from
active volcanoes afford the chemist
no evidence of such a special cause.
A notable fact is the force exerted
in volcanic action. Cotopaxi, in 1738, threw
its fiery rockets 3000 feet above its crater,
while in 1744 the blazing mass, struggling for
an outlet, roared like a furnace, so that its
awful voice was heard at a distance of more
than six hundred miles. In 1797 the crater
of Tunguragua, one of the great peaks of the
Andes, flung out torrents of miid, which
dammed up rivers, opened new lakes, and in
valleys of a thousand feet wide made deposits
six hundred feet deep. The stream from
Vesuvius, which, in 1737, passed through
Torre del Greco, contained 33,600,000 cubiq

feet of solid matter; and, in 1794, when Torre

258

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

del Greco was destroyed a second time, the
mass of lava amounted to 45,000,000 cubic
feet. In 1669 Etna poured forth a flood
which covered eighty-four square miles of
surface, and measured, nearly 100,000,000
cubic feet. On this occasion the sand and
ecorise formed the Monte Rossi, near Nicolosi,
a cone two miles in circumference, and 450
feet high. The stream thrown out by Etna
in 1819 was in motion, at the rate of a yard
per day, for nine months after the eruption;
and it is on record that the lavas of the same

Vesuvius has thrown its ashes as far as Con-
stantinople, Syria, and Egypt ; it hurled
stones, eight pounds in weight, to Pompeii, a
distance of six mUes ; while similar masses
were tossed up 2000 feet above its summit.
Cotopaxi has projected a block 109 cubic
yards in volume a distance of nine mUes
while Sumbawa, in 1815, during the most
terrible eruption on record, sent its ashes as
far as Java, a distance of 300 miles, while the
area affected by the convulsion comprised
more than 2000 English square miles of sur-

M E H r c a/ ^^,„'.^^'^^Z°°ty"'", ..

■E q ITA T O at

The Principal Lines of Volcanic and Earthquake Phenomena on the Globe.

mountain, after a terrible eruption, were not
thoroughly cooled and consolidated ten years
after the event. In the eruption of Vesuvius,
A.D. 79, the scoriae and ashes vomited forth
far exceeded the entire bulk of the mountain,
while in 1660 Etna disgorged more than
twenty times its own mass. For such enor-
mous effects correspondingly enormous causes
must exist, for which we look in vain to the
ashes themselves, or to the construction of
the craters from which they are thrown.

face ; and out of a population of 12,000 souls
only twenty-six escaped.

In viewing these evidences of enormous
power, we are forcibly struck with the simi-
larity of action with which they have been
associated ; and, carrying our investigation a
step further, the same similarity of the pro-
ducing power is hinted at in the identity of
the materials ejected. Thus, if we classify
the characteristics of all recorded erup-
tions, we shall find that the phenomena are

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

259

all reducible to upheavals of the earth, rum-
blings and explosions, ejections of carbonic
acid, fiery torrents of lava, cinders, and mud,
with accompanying thunder and lightning.
The last-named phenomena are extrajudicial
in character ; they are merely the result of
the atmospheric disturbance consequent on
the escape of great heat from the earth, just
as the burning of an American forest causes
thunder and rain. The connection that ap-
parently exists, too, between neighbouring
craters is strongly confirmed by the fact
that in every distinct volcanic locus but one
crater is usually active at a time. Since
Vesuvius has resumed his activity, the nume-
rous volcanic vents on the other side of the
bay have sunk into comparative inactivity ;
for ancient writers, who are silent respecting
the former, speak of the mephitic vapours of
the Lake Avernus as destructive to animal ex-
istence, and in earlier days than these Homer
pictures the Phlegrean Fields as the entrance
to the infernal regions, placed at the limits
of the habitable world, unenlightened by risr
ing or setting sun, and enveloped in eternal
gloom.

If this connection be admitted, as we
think it must, from the geographical distri-
bution of the Plutonic loci, the parallel dis-
position of all the great granitic groups, the
association of volcanic vents in distinct clus-
ters, and the pyrogenous nature of the soil
surrounding them, we have to ask what indi-
cations do the products of upheaval afibrd in
confirmation of a chemical agency P There is
nothing in the felspar, mica, and quartz of the
old granite, or in the tuff, puzzola, or pumice of
modern volcanoes, to indicate local chemical
action, or to show that the combustion of
certain materials inter se gave rise to the con-
vulsions that ejected them. And yet, when
such enormous masses are ejected, sufiicient
in some places to construct great island-
peaks and chains of hills in the sea, and in
others to form enormous cones of granite,
pumice, and modern lavas, we may reason-

ably expect to find in the abundance of
material some of the traces of their origm.

Various chemical explanations of volcanic
energies have been hazarded, and numerous
natural affinities of bodies suggested as causes
sufficient to produce the effects ; but if such
wonderful outbreaks of fire and mechanical
force are owing to the flowing of water over
beds of potassium, or the rapid absorption of
oxygen by vast bodies of metals, where are
the resultant oxides of these inflammable
bases P Where, indeed, the products of any
purely inflammatory action brought about by
chemical means? Such questions may be
asked, and the only answer to be given is, that
such resultant products are not to be found.
Here, then, we have assigned us a cause
which produces no visible effect, for it must
be acknowledged, by the warmest defender of
the chemical theory, that the sulphur and
sulphates, the borax and iron, occasionally
found in volcanic disjecta, are so trivial in
quantity, compared with the other masses, as
to be worthless in support of an hypothesis ;
nor is it possible to escape the conclusion,
that if such products were formed they must
come within our occasional observation, either
from being cast forth in connected masses, or
brought away by the huge torrents of molten
rock with which we are so familiar.

The conclusion is therefore inevitable,
that to account for the general distribution
all over the earth of volcanic vents — to account
also for their similarity of action and pro-
ducts— their enormous power and seeming in-
exhaustibility— their extensiveness of action in
their respective sites — the continuance of their
energies during countless years, and the in-
cessant burning day and night, from year to
year, of such craters as Stromboli; and lastly,
though not leastly, the apparent inefficiency
of external circumstances in controlling their
operations, eruptions happening beneath the
sea as beneath the land, in the frigid as in the
torrid zone — to account for these and many
less striking phenomena, we must seek for

260

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

some great and general cause, sucli only as
the hypothesis of the central heat of the
earth affords us. That hypothesis supposes
the earth to contain within it a mass of heated
material ; nay, it supposes the earth to be a
heated and incandescent body, habitable only
because surrounded with a cool crust — the
crust being to it a mere shell, within which
the vast central fires are securely inclosed.
And yet not securely, perhaps, unless such
vents existed as those to which we apply the
term volcano ; and, according to the hypothe-
sis of the central heat of the earth, every
volcano is a safety-valve, ready to relieve the
pressure from within when that pressure rises
to a certain degree of intensity, or perma-
nently serving for the escape of conflagra-
tions, which, if not so provided with escape,
might rend the habitable crust to pieces.

Passing to earthquakes, the fact which
first strikes us is their intimate connection
with volcanoes. Shocks of earthquake usually
accompany volcanic fires, and emissions of
sulphureous fumes, watery vapour, and even
mud, sometimes accompany the occurrence of
these convulsions. This was the case in
the great earthquake which happened in
SicUy, in October, 1835, and which travelled
100 miles in the space of half an hour. In
the destruction of Cartago, in Central Ame-
rica, in January, 1842, the centre of the
shock was in the midst of a region fruitful in
volcanic phenomena, and only three leagues
from a constantly active crater. The whole
of the West Indian islands are composed of
volcanic soil, and constitute a portion of a
great volcanic series, and these islands are
constantly agitated by the throes of earth-
quake. The earthquake of Lisbon was one
of a series of shocks which disturbed the
wliole extent of the volcanic region of the
south of Europe, and reached even to Africa,
every portion of the region affected having
its own volcanic centre, active or extinct.
Surely chemical causes will not be sought to
produce concussions which extend over hun-

dreds of square miles of surface, the extreme
points of which are agitated so nearly at the
same moment! If electrical agencies were
referred to, no doubt many of the conditions
required would be fulfilled ; but if the inte-
rior of the globe is a molten mass of fiery
fluid, which occasionally breaks forth and
manifests itself at the surface, electrical and
magnetic disturbances are to be expected as
concomitant phenomena ; and these, when
once roused into action, as indeed they must
be by such extensive and sudden convulsions,
would have power to direct, control, and
even to impress some of their own charac-
teristics on the general aspect of the convul-
sion. That they have done so there can be
no doubt. For four years preceding the ter-
rible outbreak at Lisbon, the electrical dis-
turbances were marked and frequent; tre-
mors agitated the earth, and many geological
changes took place in the arrangements of
the strata through the excessive drought,
which reduced the conducting power of the
soil. Indeed, on the theory of central heat,
drought alone, if sufficiently intense, would
produce earthquakes when the rains occurred
again ; for, as the strata differ as to their
capacity for water, some would have their
conducting power renewed before others, and
thus become a sort of insulated conductors.
If the electric fluid accumulated in the air
sufiiciently to discharge itself abundantly to
the earth, a succession of shocks would occur.
These shocks would reopen the cracks in the
earth's crust in a region where many such
cracks must abound, water would trickle
through from the prevalence of heavy rain ;
this reaching the incandescent mass below,
would generate steam ; and then, after the
preliminary rumblings caused by the electric
fluid, would come the great and terrible ex-
plosion, crushing in a few moments the monu-
ments of a thousand years of human toil and
enterprise and suffering, and changing cities,
hamlets, and fertile fields into frightful de-
serts, more rapidly than the light of the suij

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

261

is obscured by tlie passing of a cloud or an
eclipse.

Here, then, we liave an index to the con-
nection between the sea and the volcano, be-
tween the occurrence of active volcanic centres
and areas of earthquake in the open ocean, or
on a general sea-board. The inland volcanoes
become extinct simultaneously with the re-
tirement of the sea from their flanks, but the
maritime craters are constantly subject to the
action of water, which rushes in huge volumes
through the fissures below, or creates fissures
for itself, and thence giving rise to those ex-
plosions, of which mud, water, and steam are
the chief products, and to extensive shocks of
earthquake in their immediate vicinity.

In aU their leading features, earthquakes
are identical with volcanic eruptions. The
chief distinctions are, that in the latter the
action is confined to one fixed spot, while the
other travels over vast areas ; and while the
second are accompanied with the ejection of
scoriae, lava, steam, water, and mud, the

first seldom ejects anything but steam, me-
phitic vapours, and mud, and is rather a vio-
lent displacement of certain portions of the
earth's surface, than a fiery eruption of fused
materials. Still, if we conceive earthquakes
to arise from the falling in of portions of the
earth's crust in places where cracks and
fissures occur, or the splitting of portions
into fissures, while volcanoes are direct open-
ings from the atmosphere to the internal fires,
we shall at once perceive how such phenomena
might be expected to occur in the same locali-
ties, and how, while produced by the same
general cause, would differ in detail in ac-
coMance with the difference of circumstances.
The moment that we admit earthquakes to be
owing to expansions, contractions, crackings,
and upheavals of the crust, consequent on
the action of air and water above, ' and fire
below, we have an explanation which removes
the difficulty, and places the phenomenon
within the pale of inductive reasoning.

Shieley Hibbeed.

AUDUBOIS", THE OENITHOLOGIST.

-ijt-

Above the mantel- shelf of a friend I find a
rare feather, straight like that of an eagle's
wing, and so fall of beautiful cloudings and
of glorious mixtures of colour, that no eye
can dwell upon it without pleasure. The
general tone is of a deep Vandyke brown,
but in the midst of this beautifully even
colour are little round circles of light blue,
scattered over as thickly as are the spots on
the wftigs of a Guinea-fowl. These spots are
surrounded with small rings of a dusky white,
laid on that delicate pencilling which the
finger of God alone can lay upon flower or
feather ; the brown running towards the quill
melts into a deeper and more richly red
colour, which again gently fades and assimi-
lates into an indigo blue. Examine this
feather in any way, the wonderfully light,

beautiful material, the elasticity of the fibre,

the strength of the quill, the painting of the

small plumes, the rich combination of colours,

the sweet harmony which it presents to the

eye, and no one but could be struck with its

beauty. If you take a microscope, you simply

reveal new wonders at every step you go.

Should you subject it to any test, you would

find that a prescient Mind had been before

you, had weighed each chance, provided for

every accident, and had, with an almighty

wisdom, thought out the purpose of the

feather, and exactly fitted it to its end.

Waive but this feather, and the dreams of the

Atheist disappear — the possibility that the

" Fantastic dance
Of atoms mixed together in a chance,"

should make such wiU appear a small one

262

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

indeed; but that the same " chance" should
60 beautifully ornament the feather, so that
it should so delight the eye which looks upon
it, besides having an artistic power which
a long education alone can teach us to ap-
preciate, is manifestly absurd. Chance might
have made it brown, black, or green, of some
dun-coloured mixture; without chance it is
so beautiful that the most deeply-learned,
thoughtful, and skilful artist could not rival
it. Observe it even, and it will teach us
more. Whatever is wise and good in the
writings of M. de Chevreuil, or our own
Kuskin, upon the contrast and combination
of colour, may be proved by this feather,
nay, by a thousand others ; it comes from
the New World, and the first to reveal its
wondrous beauties to Europe was John James
Audubon.

When the celebrated Buffon had finished
the ornithological portion of his history, it
was not unnatural that he should look at it
with pride. He believed that he had accu-
rately described every known species of bird.
" He announced," says an American writer,
"with unhesitating assurance, that he had
finished the history of the bird." Twenty
centuries had given to the ever-seeking know-
ledge of man only eight hundred difierent
specimens, but there was one yet to come
who would add to the list of the wonderful
works of Grod in this kind nearly half as
many more.

Audubon was that man, and his intense
devotion to the portion of science which he
had determined to explore is so vivid, that it
yet throws its light upon the young when
daunted by danger, or deterred by difficulty.
He was born in Louisiana, in the year 1780,
and he died, after a long and useful life, in
1851. He was of French extraction, some
say the son of a French admiral, and his
parents were Protestant. In his earliest
youth he showed an extraordinary passion
for natural history. He was always observing
some animal, or attending some bird; he

could scarcely control it, but in obedience to
his father's wish he went to Paris to finish
his education, and whilst there studied draw-
ing and painting under the well-known David.
After three years he returned to America,
and again experienced an ardent desire to
devote himself to ornithology.

This passion his father sought to cure in,
perhaps, the most efiectual way one could
imagiae. He made his son a present of a
magnificent estate in Pennsylvania, and he
urged him to marry. Audubon was already
in love, and he took the advice ; but, says he,
naively, "The cares of my household, the
tender affection I felt for my wife, and the
birth of two children, did not by any means
diminish my passion for ornithology. I
longed to be wandering in the primaeval
forests of the American continent ; an invin-
cible attraction drew me towards them."

The attraction loas invincible, and Audu-
bon yielded to it ; he left his home and his
wife, his children and his estate, and set
forth on long and perilous journeys. These
he accomplished absolutely alone. Clothed
in the leathern dress of the hunter, shod
with the moccasin of the Indian, depending
upon a few strips of dried venison, or the
chance meal which his rifle should bring him,
the bold naturalist wandered away from
friends and relations ; far away from the
haunts of man ; far and deep into the vast
and pathless forests of America ; far from the
track of the hunter, or the sound of the
axe-stroke of the first pioneer ; far away
into solitudes, where the bear hunted un-
harmed, or the beaver built his dam across
the silvery stream ; far away into such deeps
that the sun scarce warmed the rich and
virgin earth, and the light of the moon
scarcely penetrated the black solitudes at
night.

Years rolled by, he tells us, whilst he was
away upon this passionate study of God's
works. The summers came and went, and
his wife saw him not. Deep in the woods

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

263

was he, afar from noise and turmoil, whilst
in the busy cities came rumours of wars ;
whilst armies engaged, and cannon thun-
dered, and the dead lay on God's earth, their
faces to his sky ; whilst nation rose or fell,
and statesman tricked or minister deceived :
of these Audubon knew nothing; silently
he followed the narrow path of science ; step
by step he went on, hunting and tracking,
collecting and drawing, and at each step
adding another marvel to man's knowledge
of that storehouse of all wondrous things,
the works of the Creator.

These wanderings commenced in 1810,
and continued for fifteen years. Friends,
who saw his wonderful collection of draw-
ings, told him of the fame which he would
gain when the world saw what he had done,
and urged him to publish. But he answered
nobly — " It was not a desire of fame or of
glory which urged me forward in my long
exile ; I wished only to enjoy the works of
JSTature."

He however exhibited many of his draw-
ings to his friends, and to gratify his orni-
thological devotion, he moved his house-
hold to the village of Henderson, on the
banks of the Ohio. Called to Philadelphia
by the voice of several savans who knew his
worth, he took with him two hundred of his
drawings, representing about a thousand dif-
ferent varieties of birds. Obliged to leave
town for some purpose, he deposited these
precious drawings, the results of so much toil
and labour, with a friend, and was absent for
about two months. When he came back, he
found that the worst fortune which could
happen to him had befallen. Eats had eaten
their way through the box in which he kept
his paintings, and had destroyed or eaten
nearly the whole of them.

" Picture to yourself," cries he, " the pain
I felt on seeing this ! A sharp and sudden
flame seemed to traverse my brain, and I feU
into a fever which lasted several weeks. At
last moral and physical force seemed to re-

turn to me. I again took my gun, my game-
bag, my album, and my pencils, and re-
plunged into the depths of the forests. It
took me three years of hard work to repair
the damage those rats had done me."

There is a parallel to this in the story of
Sir Isaac Newton and his dog Diamond. It
was a little spaniel of the King Charles
breed, and used to play with its master.
Newton was very fond of it, and continually
caressed it, stroking its smooth head as he
sat, with his mind occupied with study.
One night he left his library, and in it the
luckless Diamond, who, jumping on the
table, overturned the candle, and set fire to
papers upon which were calculations which
had cost Newton years. The flame destroyed
them all, and the philosopher, on his return
to the room, found but ashes. No discovery
he ever made renders him greater than the
mastery he then showed over himself. ' ' Ah, ' '
said he, looking sorrowfully at the dog,
" Ah, Diamond, Diamond, little thou know-
est the mischief thou hast done."

Audubon was less of a philosopher, but
he was every inch a naturalist. The three
years thus spent, he says, were " three years
of happiness. Each day I went further from
the dwellings of man." It took eighteen
months more to complete his work, and then^
no longer hesitating about publishing, he de-
termined to sail to Europe with his precious
drawings. He ha4_ met in April, 1824, at
Philadelphia, the Prince of Canino, Charles
Lucien Bonaparte, who had urged him to
publish his works ; but America, at that
time, could not ofier him a sufl&ciently pro-
minent pubhshing firm, and hence, after
taking leave of his family, he took his pas-
sage for England, where he arrived in 1826.

His reception in England was most grati-
fying. All the savans welcomed him. He
brought with him four hundred drawings,
and these were the theme of general praise.
They were shown at Manchester, Liverpool,
and Edinburgh, and excited the admiration

264

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

of all who saw them, by their evident fidelity
and excellent execution. He was received
with open arms by all men of letter3. Pro-
fessor Wilson, then editor of " Blackwood,"
brought him forward as prominently as he
could, and thus describes him : " The hearts
of all warmed towards Audubon, who were
capable of conceiving the difficulties, dangers,
and sacrifices that must have been encoun-
tered, endured, and overcome, before genius
could have embodied these (drawings), the

glory of its innumerable triumphs

The man himself is just what you would ex-
pect from his productions —full of fine enthu-
siasm and intelligence, most interesting in
his looks and manners, a perfect gentleman,
and esteemed by all who know him for the
simplicity and frankness of his nature. He
is the greatest artist in his own walk that
ever lived." Ciivier also said that his works
" were the most splendid monuments which
art had erected in honour of ornithology."

Audubon then set about getting his works
into the hands of the engravers. To produce
them he found that at least ten or a dozen
years were necessary ; but neither time nor
expense deterred him. He had not one sub-
scriber at first, but his friends of the great
Sepublic of Letters came forward, and in
Paris, Cuvier and Humboldt rendered him
every assistance. "My heart," he writes,
" was nerved, and my energies braced by the
reliance on that Power upon whom all must
depend." He was not deceived. The Kings
of England and France enrolled their names
as the first on his list. All the learned So-
cieties took copies, and the great naturalists
of each country, especially Humboldt, Cuvier,
Swainson, and Wilson, besides Herschel and
Scott, were the warmest in the praise of
his work.

In 1828 Audubon again went to America,
again to explore the vast forests. Not only
in the day did he watch, but in the nights
also. " Often," says he, speaking of the
giant night-owl of America, "when snugly

settled under the boughs of my temporary
encampment, and preparing to roast a venison
steak, or the body of a squirrel, on a wooden
spit, have I been disturbed by the exulting
bursts of this nightly disturber of the peace
that, had it not been for him, would have
prevailed round my lonely retreat. He would
expose his whole body to the glare of my
fire, within a few yards of me. The liveli-
ness of his motions, joined to their oddness,
often made me desire to ask him to supper,
and made me think his society would be at
least as agreeable as that of many of the
buffoons we meet with in the world." He
also exposes Buffon's mistake as to the dull-
ness of owls, and the "misery" of wood-
peckers in the same passage, and says of cer-
tain ornithologists, " that to one who has
lived long in the woods, they might have
seemed to have lived only in their libraries."

In 1830 Audubon came again to England,
and towards the end of that year his first
volume of the "Birds of America" appeared.
It would be useless here to follow the order
of publication of his works. Suffice it, there-
fore, to indicate them. His great work was
completed in eighty-seven parts, elephant
folio, containing 448 plates of birds of the
natural size, beautifully coloured. It was
published at the price of £182 14*. In Ame-
rica it cost one thousand dollars. It em-
braced five folio volumes of plates, and five
of letterpress, entitled " The American Or-
nithological Biography." There have been
also various new and revised editions of this
work.

Audubon also prepared an edition of
" The Quadrupeds of North America," 3 vols,
double medium folio, 150 plates, and 3 vols.
8vo letterpress. In this latter he was as-
sisted by his sons, Victor Gifibrd, and John
Woodhouse. His style is picturesque,
bold, and free; in fact, he tells what he
knows, and what he has gained, from study-
ing Nature, and tells it well. His works were
chiefly published at Edinburgh.

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

265

The great naturalist worked ou till he
died. • After exhausting, as we may say, the
birds of America, he, in 1839, turned his at-
tention to the animals ; with what result we
have shown. He traversed almost every foot
of ground in the North American continent.
He wrought in his age with the ardour of
youth. The publication of the second vo-
lume of this valuable addition to natural
history, was issued at IS'ew York in 1850,
less than a month before his death.

His work was done, his long wanderings
had ceased, and the time had come when he
should be called to his final home. He him-
self was aware of this. In the almost last
letter which he wrote are these words : —
" Once more surrounded by all the members
of my dear family, enjoying the countenance
of numerous friends who have never deserted
me, and possessing a competent share of all
that can render life agreeable, I look up with
gratitude to the Supreme Being, and feel that
I am happy."

This was written at the end of 1850 — on
the 27th of January, 1851, Audubon had
ceased to live. Hain Feiswell.

DETEEMINATIOJN" OP LATITUDE.

It is well known that our earth has a motion
from west to east, caused both by its diurnal
rotation and annual revolution. It is evident
that were the earth a homogeneous sphere,
and at rest, the pendulum would describe
that line which, if continued, would pass
through its centre ; in other words, it would
faU vertically. But as the earth is neither
homogeneous in figure or structure, nor at
rest, it is reasonable to suppose that the pen-
dulum does not fall vertically. Its want of
uniformity in structure and figure must in-
fluence this, while its motion must incline
the pendulum in the said direction. It is
well known that all bodies have an impulse
m the direction of any motion to which they
are subjected, whence it follows that the

pendulum must not only have this tendency,
but have its position altered in consequence.
Other bodies may have this influence with-
out their position being afiected by it. The
luggage in a train, for example, has a ten-
dency to move in the direction of the motion,
and would be shot forward with no small
force were it suddenly to cease. Priction,
or direct prevention, which may perhaps be
termed statical pressure, may prevent motion ;
neither of which, however, materially affect
the motion of the pendulum ; the friction of
the cord and the barrier of the atmosphere,
supposing the pendulum not hanging in vacuo,
are not obstacles affecting the present con-
sideration. It is remarked by Hunt (" Ele-
mentary Physics "), that a falling body has a
tendency towards the east, which fact is
known to all philosophers ; and, although I
have never met with the statement, seems
impossible not to apply to the pendulum. If
this is the case, it is evident that the leaning
will increase with the motion, and conse-
quently reach the maximum at the equator. If,
therefore, a pendulum were caused to register
its position, magnified by accurate and suscep-
tible leverage, it could always be known in
what latitude the observer stood, as soon as
a scale had been properly graduated, and
marked according to observations. The in-
strument would not be complicated, although
great niceness, especially as regards the
contraction and expansion of its parts,
would be necessary to render it completely
effectual. The pendulum, the leverage con-
nected with it, and the scale, are of course
its only essential parts. The leverage, if
not always necessary, is of course so when
the alteration of terrestrial position would
be small, in order that the change in the
position of the pendulum should by suffi-
cient enlargement be distinctly perceived.
It need not be said that an index, or pointer,
should be connected with the leverage, and
pass over the scale.

J. A. Davies.

266

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

WAYSIDE WEEDS AND THEIR TEACHINGS.

IN SIX HANDFTILS. — HANDFUL III.

" Their heads
Flowers raise, to greet the sun ; and man, too, lifts
His thankful soul to God for all these summer gifts."

Caxder Campbell.

The Plants of the Handful — Honeysuckle and Blue-
bell, Daisy, Thistles, Wild Chamomile, Eagwort,
and Colt's-foot — Elder Flower — The Bedstraws —
The one-pieced Corolla — Honeysuckle and Com-
posite Blossoms — The Composite Family — Inflo-
rescence— The Scape and Rachis — The Capitu-
lum — The Spike — Axillary Flowers — The Raceme
—The Umbel — The Panicle— The Catkin— The
Whorl — Glomerulus, Spathe, and Cyme — Bracts.

Fio. 4.^.— Blossom of Common Wild Chamomile.
a, disk ; b, ray ; c, peduncle. The leaves are di-
vided into capillary or hair-like segments. Inflo-
rescence definite.

What liave we P HoneysucHe, certainly, by
the scent before we see it, and the " bonny

bluebell," and the " wee, modest, crimson-
tipped" daisy, that Burns wrote of, and that
Chaucer well-nigh worshipped as well as
wrote of. These are almost enough to inake

Fig. ii. — Blossoms of Common Ragwort. The in-
florescence is definite, and arranged in a corymb.

a handful of themselves. But mind your
fingers, for there should be prickly thistles

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

267

amid our gathering this time, and the great
ox-eye, or, as it is called in some places,
horse-daisy, and one of those plants which

Fio. 45. — Leaves of Common Woodruff, an'anged in
a Whorl.

children call wild chamomile (Fig. 43), and
the yeUow ragwort (Fig. 44), with early spring

Fig. 46. — Blossom of Common Honeysuckle, in one
piece, or monopetalous. a, corolla ; b, calyx ; c,
stamens ; d, pistil.

dolt's-foot, dandelion, and a bunch of elder
flowers. We will not pay our readers the
had compliment to suppose they do not know

every plant we have just named ; probably,
too, they can tell the bed straws and the
woodruff, with their leaves placed round their
stems in what is called a whorl, as shown in
Fig. 45. These last do not add much to the
appearance of our Handful ; but should you
chance to cast your plants aside for a few
days, you will find that the woodruff has, in
withering, developed its sweet, new-mown hay

Fig. iY. — ^5SIossoms of Common Bluebell, or Harebell.
The inflorescence is arranged in a panicle, a a,
leaves of plant; i 6, bracts.

odoiir, and still more so if you are pressing
it in paper, whilst the other flowers have
lost their scent.

You look at the blossoms of the honey*
suckle (Fig. 46), the bluebell (Fig. 47), the
elder, and, if you have a good magnifier, at
those of the bedstraws and woodruff, and
you quickly discover that we have left the
domain of the many-petaled flowers, and

268

BECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

leaclied that section where the corolla is all
in one piece. (See Fig. 46.) If you attempt
to remove it, it must either come away alto-
gether, or it must tear; only you cannot
understand why the daisy, the thistle, the
ragwort (Fig. 44), and such like plants, find
their place here, for truly they seem made

tacle. Moreover, the plants we are now ex-
amining have their corolla and stamens (Figs.
46 and 47) fixed, as it were, on the top of the
ovary, as in the case of the true roses and
the pome tribe, and also the umbellifers in
many-petaled calyciflorse ; this being due in
all these cases to the calyx growing up as it

Fio. 48. — Fruit of Common Elder, arranged in a cyme.

np of pieces enough. We will get to them
presently.

Now these plants in our hand have one
bond of connection with those we gathered
into Handful II. They belong to what
is called the " Calycifloral " section ; in
other words, their stamens and corolla are
inserted upon the calyx, and not, like the
flowers in Handful I., upon the reccp-

were around, and thus inclosing the ovary ;
to speak bolanically, being "adnate" to it.
The corolla and stamens, however, are just
as much inserted into the calyx in these
cases as they are in the strawberry and the
bramble (Fig. 29a). Thus, then, we have
our present section of plants marked off from
all others ; they are distinct from the many-
j petaled, and they are no less distinct from

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

269

tlieir monopetaled brethren, which, have co-
rolla and stamens inserted into the receptacle
beneath the pistil, pistils, or ovary, like the
buttercups and poppies.

Not much is it our honeysuckles do for
us in the way of the " utile," but in the
" dulce " they are pre-eminent ; for what
would English hedgerows be in June with-
out their twining woodbines, and what would
Scottish braes be in July without their own
bluebells, that every summer-straying bairn
fills her hand with P How very different from
the honeysuckle are the latter (Fig. 47), but
yet how akin the parts of likeness for which
we have taken them together. Look at one
of the flowers from the bunch of elder blos-
soms, which is so like your old friends of the
hemlock or umbellifer tribe ; its one-pieced
corolla springs from the top of the seed-
vessel, which seed-vessel (Fig. 48) albeit will
be a black elderberry in September, and its
juice, mayhap, form one drop in the cup of
hot spiced wine that good housewives delight
in. Now, we give you credit for under-
standing the preceding explanations, but we
can see that ever and anon you are puzzling
to know what thistles, and daisies, and colt's-
foot do here, reminded, perhaps, every now
and then, by the prickly remembrances of
the former as you grasp your flowers.

Take any one of these last-named plants
you like, say the colt's-foot, which will pro-
bably greet us first in early spring with its
yellow-rayed blossom, and let out farming
secrets. However, pull the flower's head to
pieces, and what do you find ? Not a number
of distinct petals, but a numerous company
of little flowers, or rather florets (Fig., 49),
each with its one little ovary or seed, and
the little feathery surroundings which repre-
sent the calyx, for bear in mind that the
green covering which incloses the buds (Fig.
49, a) and holds the expanded flower is not a
calyx ; but of that more hereafter. Look at
your dissected colt's-foot blossom again with
your magnifying-lens, or, faUing the blossom,

at the figure. The first thing that wiU strike
you is, that the little florets in the middle
are very different from those at the circum-
ference (Fig. 49, a, c). The little central
flower is as perfect, ay, and as beautiful, a
little flower as can be, except that its calyx
is not quite after the usual . fashion. Its
pistil extrudes from its centre (Fig. 49, e), and

Fig. 49. — Greatly-magnified View of three Florets of
Common Colt's-foot. a, tubular floret of disk, with
both stamens and pistil, e ; b, bud ; c, strap-shaped
floret of ray, without stamens, but with pistil,/,
d, bracts of involucre; g, seed or achene, sur
rounded by the feathery calyx or pappus, h ; \
common receptacle ; i, scaly bract.

the little stamens form a tube round it. Bo-
tanically, these little central florets are called
the florets of the disk, in contradistinction to
those at the circumference, which are called
the florets of the ray (Fig. 49, c). These
last, as you at once see, are not regular, sym-
metrical flowers like those of the disk, but
are long and "strap-shaped." Moreover,
they have a pistil of their own (Fig. 49,/),
ovary, and feathery calyx or "pappus," but
no stamens, their florets depending for thei]?

A A

270

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

fertilization upon the stamens of the disk, as
Trell they may.

UTow, this colt's-foot blossom is a most
excellent example of this tribe of plants, the
Composites, which for all their appearance be-
lied them. Here you see one-pieced blossoms
after all, only the blossoms are collected into
a close bead or capitulum, instead of being
spread over a stem or peduncle. The part
on which the florets are placed (Figs. 49, h,
and 50, h), and which represents the peduncle,
is called in these plants the receptacle ; and
the green envelope which represents the
leaves of the peduncle, or hracts, is called
the involucre (Figs. 49, h, and 51, h).

You must not run away with the idea,
however, that all our composite heads of
flowers are exactly similar to the colt's-foot.
In the daisy, in the ragwort (Fig. 44), in
the wild chamomile (Fig. 43), you will find

Fiff. 50. — Section of Head, or Capitnlum, of Common
Thistle, a, florets; 6, common receptacle; c, bracts,
or involucre.

them similar ; but not so in the hawkweed
(Fig. 51) or in the dandelion, which should
not have waited our special mention until
now. In the latter, the florets are all strap-
shaped, like those of the colt's-foot ray ; whilst
m the thistle (Fig. 50), and other allied com-
posites, they are all tubular, like those of the
colt's-foot disk.

It will be an excellent lesson and exercise
for you to gather these composite blossoms
and examine them. You must expect, in
doing so, .to find considerable variation in
the distribution of the stamens and pistils in
the tiny florets. The composites form such
an extensive family, that botanists are fain
to divide them, according to these floret disr
tinctions, into tribes, whereof the lettuces,
dandelion, hawkweed, etc., belong to one,
the thistles and burdocks to another, the
daisy, ragwort, colt's-foot, and many another
to the third.

Fig. 61. — Back View of Blossom of Common Hawk-
weed. a, strap-shaped florets of ray ; 6, bracts,
constituting the common involucre ; c, peduncle ;

d, scale.

We have already alluded to the peculiar
form which the calyx — not the involucre,
remember — assumes in the composite family ;
feathery in a greater or less degree, as fami-
liar to us all in thistle-down, and in the dan-
delion parachute, and botanically called the
pappus. It remains after the floret has
withered and fallen ofi", and untU the ripened
seed calls for its aid to transport it far from
the parent plant. Something more of this
aerial seed-sowing shall we learn when we
come to examine our fruit-basket. It is not
all composites, however, which have these

BECEEATIVE SCIEK'CE.

271

feathery wings ; the daisy, the chamomile,
the chrysanthemum, and others, have none,
or at best a few tiny scales, to show where
they should be.

Both in the way of food and medicine, the
composites, of which we have examined these
few representatives, yield largely to man.
The prevailing principle is a bitter, some-
times, as in the wormwood, aromatic, or, as
in the lettuce, narcotic to an extent which
makes itself known even in the cultivated
vegetables, and is strong in some of the un-
cultivated species. Dahlias, aster, cinerarias,
purple groundsel, the everlastings, are a few
of the many brilliant flowers this great
family offers to us.

The elder, which we lately mentioned,
belongs to the same tribe as the honeysuckle,
whilst the woodruff and bedstraws represent

to us the madders, their most remarkable
features being the " whorled " disposition of
the leaves around the stem (Fig. 45). The
bedstraws have some of them white, others
have yellow flowers ; the flowers of the
woodruff are small, but brilliant white, and
those of the little field-madder are pink.
Tiny corollas are they all, but elegantly cru-
ciform in shape. If you have the patience
to dissect them, under your lens you will find
the stamens fixed to the corolla, and the
corolla to the calyx. No lens do you need,
however, to look at the bluebells, the repre-
sentatives of the campanula tribe, and you
easily make out that the same floral struc-
ture which has grouped our Handful prevails
with them ; the stamens, however, are not
attached to the corolla, and the stigma is
lobed. Spencer Thomson, M.D.

(To he continued.)

THE AIS-ATOMY OF A CUBE.

If a solid block of wood, of the form repre-
sented in Fig. 1, were given to any person

Fig. 1.

not accustomed to look a little below the
surface of those things which present them-
selves to the eye ; and he were asked to dis-
sect it, to describe its anatomy, its structure,
its most interesting relations to other forms,
to show the facility with which more compli-
cated figures, such as Figs. 2 and 3, could be

cut out of it, and to point out the extreme
value of such knowledge to all who are en-

Fia. 2.

Fig. 3.

gaged in pursuits dealing with solid mate-
rials ; he would perhaps smile incredulously,
and tell you that it was simply a block of
wood, square every way, and that he did not
see anything more in it, or that anything
more could be said about it.

Let me, to use the exquisite simile of one
of our greatest poetjS, endeavour " to strip
the veU of familiarity from his eyes, and lay

272

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

bare those hidden and concealed heauties
which are the spirits of its form."

To follow with advantage the description
of the anatomy of the cube, it will be neces-
sary for the reader to provide himself with
the means of reproducing the forms de-
scribed. Fortunately the modes of illustra-
tion are equally accessible and economical.

A bar of hard, firm soap cut into equal-
sided blocks ; or, failing these, a few cubes
cut out of some good-sized turnips, or even
potatoes (although the latter are rather small
for our purpose) ; several pieces of thin
straight wire — slender knitting-needles an-
swer very well — and some pieces of card, or
pasteboard, furnish all the requisites.

Before proceeding any further, let the
reader draw, upon a sheet of cardboard, six
squares, arranged as in the annexed figure
(Fig. 4), but much larger in size. Let him

Fig. 4.

now, with a sharp-pointed knife, cut quite
through the dark external lines, and half
through the light ones, when the cardboard
can be readily folded up into the form of a
cube, of which it is in fact the envelope.

Availing ourselves of any one of these
cubes, let us proceed to examine its external
structure before we investigate its internal
anatomy. A cube is not, as it is often igno-
rantly termed, a square, but f^ eolid figure

bounded by sia; equal square faces, and hence
often termed by geometers the hexahedron.
Each face has four right angles, consequently
there are twenty-four such angles in the
whole. It has twelve edges or boundary
lines of equal length, each one formed by
the meeting of two faces. It possesses
eight corners, or, as they are more correctly
termed, solid angles, each formed by the
meeting of three faces.

The cube is, in fact, one of those remark-
able solid forms (of which only five exist) in
which all the parts are equal. Its faces, its
angles, its edges, its solid angles, are uni-
form. Hence "it is said to be one of the five
regular solids ; or, as they were termed by
the ancients, the Platonic bodies — which were
believed by them to possess mysterious
properties on which the explanation of the
most secret phenomena of Nature depended.

Let us now consider what are the longest
straight or right lines that we can draw upon
the faces of the cube. It is evident, upon the
first trial, that such lines are those which run
through the opposite angles of eachface; hence
they are termed diagonals, from 5ja through,
and ycena an angle. If we draw all the dia-
gonals on the faces of the cube, as repre-
sented by Fig. 5, it will be seen that they

Fig. 5.

cross or intersect one another at the centre
of each face. Let us now imagine lines pass-
ing from the centre of each face to the centre
of the opposite face ; it is obvious that these
lines will pass through the centre of the solid ;

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

273

that there will be three of them ; that they
will be of equal length ; and that each one
will be at right angles to the other two. To
render all this perfectly evident, let a cube of
soap or turnip be taken, the diagonals drawn
on its faces, and the wires inserted through
it to show the position of these internal lines,
or axes, as they are usually termed.

Suppose the query to be asked, What is the
longest line that can be placed within a cube ?
Take the hollow envelope, and opening one
face as a sort of lid, make the experiment with
a wire ; it will be found that the longest line
which can be placed within a cube, is that pass-
ing from one solid angle to the 'opposite solid
angle. Furthermore, that there are .four such
longest lines, and that they cross or intersect
each other at the centre (see Fig. 6) ; hence
c B

Fig. 0.

they also constitute a second series of axes.
And lastly, a third series of axes may exist,
passing from the centre of edge to the centre
of opposite edge, as shown in Fig. 7. Of

Fig. 7.

these there are necessarily six, being half the
number of edges.

Before going any further with the study
of this solid, it will be desirable that the
student should possess the power of deline-
ating it with its axes, and sections, and
also the other solids which may be contained
within it, as shown in Fig. 8. For this pur-

D^."-^ i /fl\ A

^^-^

^^

\

7

,,--- 'G ^

j^^^^p

Fig. 8.

pose draw a square of the size required
(Fig. 1, D, A, E, h) ; from d draw the line to
c, at an angle of thirty degrees with the line
D, A ; then from the angles a, b, and H, draw
other lines perfectly parallel to d, c. Make
each of them half the length of the sides
of the square, and then join c and B,
B and F, F and g, g and c, and the figure is
completed. To draw the three regular axes,
the diagonals of the faces should be drawn
and the axes made to connect their inter-
sections (see Fig. 5). It is highly desirable
that these isometrical drawings of the cube
be made ; they tend greatly to render the
forms familiar to the student, and if the axes
and lines of construction are put in in dif-
ferent colours from those which represent the
edges of the solid, the figures become more
distinct, and may be made to form very
pleasing, because symmetrical, drawings.

Suppose a cubical block of stone be given
to a workman, out of which he is desired
to cut the largest slab that he possibly can.
It is obvious that he must cut it diagonally
across two faces, and through two edges ; as,
for example, through the lines d b, b f, r h,
and H D (Fig. 5). In this way he would get
a plane section, the form of which would be

IS

274

BECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

an oblong or right-angled parallelogram.
Let us consider how many such sections can
be made in a cube. A little consideration
will show that such a section can be made in
six different ways. If this be not quite clear,
let the student have recourse to the hollow
cube, formed of the folded envelope, and
place a piece of cardboard, cut to the proper
size and shape, in the position of each section
successively.

Let the diagonals of these parallelo-
grams be drawn on the piece of card-
board J when, if again placed in the hollow
cube, it will be seen that these diagonals of
the section are the longest lines that can be
drawn within the cube, and that they corre-
spond to the second series of axes (Fig^ 6).

As there are six diagonal sections of the
cube, and two diagonal lines to each section,
it would appear that there should be twelve
such lines ; -whereas, by referring to Fig. 6,
it is obvious that there can be but four — an
apparent deception, which depends on each
line being common to three of the sections.
Possibly my readers are beginning to see
that there is more in a cube than a mere
square block.

Having spoken of the sections of the
cube made by cutting through two of its
faces and two edges, let us now proceed to
consider the sections that would be obtained
by cutting through three faces, or, in plain
terms, by cutting off a solid angle. The
simplest experiment with a cube of soap will
at once prove the section to be a triangle,
and that it may be so varied by cutting
through the three faces equally, or unequally,
as either to have its three sides equal, two
only equal, or all three unequal, and thus to
produce an equilateral, isosceles, or scalene
triangle. The largest section of this kind
that can be obtained is formed by cutting
through the diagonals of the three adjacent
faces, as from D to B, B to c, E to d (Fig. 5).

The sections obtained by cutting through
four faces of the cube are very various. If

the section is made parallel to any of the
faces, it is a square equal to the faces. A
very interesting section is obtained by cutting
from one solid angle to the opposite, as from
B to H. If this is made equally through the
four faces, it cuts the edges a e and c g
across at the middle of each, and the section
is a rhomb, or diamond, the long diagonal of
which corresponds to one of the longest axes
of the cube (Fig. 8), and the shorter to one
of those represented in Fig. 7. Let the
student endeavour to discover how many
such sections can be made in a- cube, and the
number will probably surprise him.

A plane section made through five faces
of the cube, will, of necessity, have five
edges, one corresponding to each face cut
through, and will therefore be a five- sided
plane figure, or pentagon ; but as it is im-
possible to cut equally through five faces,
the regular, or equal-sided, pentagon is
never produced.

If a cube of soap, or other soft solid,
were given to a person, and he were asked
whether, with one straight cut of a knife he
could cut through all the six faces, he would
in all probability state that feat to be impos-

\/.--"

/■^K

\

\

JFiG. 9.

sible ; yet, in reality, nothing is more easy.
To demonstrate this fact, let the student draw
a cube, as Fig. 1, and place a dot at the mid-

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

275

die of each of the following lines, a B, B c,
c a, A E, H G, and H E. If he will then con-
nect these points by lines passing along the
faces of the cube, he will delineate, in per-
spective, a regular hexagon. This he can
show by cutting a cube of soap in a cor-
responding manner. It is most desirable that
the student in geometry, or in isometrical
perspective, as well as the artificer who has
to deal with the conversion of materials,
should have an accurate conception of these
several sections of the cube, and he should,
therefore, adopt every mode of illustrating
them. One of the most desirable plans is to
draw the lines of the sections on the envelope
of a cube, as shown in Fig 9, where the
double lines represent the section through two
faces ; the single diagonal lines show one of
the largest sections through three faces ; the

fine dotted lines the rhombic section through
four faces ; and the coarser dotted lines the
hexagonal section through all the faces. The
student is strongly recommended to draw
these several sections on separate envelopes
of cubes, so that, when each is folded up, tho
position of the sections shall be evident.

Having now gone through a few of tho
properties, and some of the more interesting
sections of the cube, and having exhausted
the space devoted to the subject, we must
necessarily defer the consideration of the
beautiful solid forms which are contained
within it, to our next paper on the subject,
concluding our remarks by strongly recom-
mending our readers to follow the descrip-
tions, by the aid of the simple appliances in-
dicated in this paper.

W. B. TegetMeieb.

THE ELECTEOTYPE.

Unwieldy as is the apparatus used by the
professional electrotypist, and numerous as
are the articles which he has occasionally to
employ, it is nevertheless quite possible to
make many very interesting experiments as
a means of recreation, and to produce objects
of ornament and utility, by the aid of appa-
ratus of the most simple and inexpensive
character.

Knowing, as we do, that many are de-
terred from attempting the practice of this
interesting art, by the idea that its processes
are costly, uncertain, and difficult, it has oc-
curred to us that an accoixnt of some experi-
ments which we have lately had occasion to
make with apparatus of the very simplest
kind, would not be unacceptable to those
who find their recreation in the pursuits of
science. Our special object was to reproduce
fac-similes of a series of coins ; but as the
descriptioa of the process employed upon one

equally serves for all, we will confine our
attention to one coin only, and, for the sake
of our readers, we will speak of a coin acces-
sible to all, rather than some rare one, which
possibly they may have never seen.

Let us suppose, then, that we have before
us a florin — it would be well to select one
that is not too much abraded or worn — and
that we wish to produce a fac-simile of the
side containing the royal profile in copper.
The first thing to be done is to prepare a
mould, that is, a counterpart, in lead,* of the
coin to be copied. To do this, take any small
vessel of earthenware, as a tea-cup, and press
a piece of writing-paper into the bottom, so
as to form a kind of rough lining to the vessel.

* Better than lead would be the metal called
fusible alloy, which may be made by mixing intimately
8 oz. of bismuth, 5 oz. of lead, and 3 oz. of tin. This
alloy melts readily at a temperature rather lower than
that of boiUag water. It may be purchased ready
prepared.

276

RECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

luto the cup, thus prepared, pour a small
quantity of melted lead ; remove the film of
oxide, which immediately forms on its sur-
face, by means of a slip of paper, and, just
before it is cool enough to set, drop upon it
the florin, profile downwards. Owing to the
lesser specific gravity of the silver, it will
float, about half immersed, upon the surface
of the lead. In a minute or two, the contents
of the cup may be turned out, a process greatly
facilitated by the paper lining, as, without
this, the metal might stick to the earthen-
ware, and possibly break it. If, on examina-
tion, the impression is found to be imperfect,
from the presence of air-bubbles, or from the
intrusion of any foreign substance, the metal
must be remelted, and the process repeated.
If, however, it be found perfect, we may
proceed.

Let A A (Fig. 1) represent the mould thus
produced ; the wire (c c) should now be

Fig. 1.

fixed to it, either by means of a drop of solder,
or, if a soldering-bit be not at hand, by means
of sealing-wax. In the latter case, take par-
ticular care to clean the surfaces which come
in contact both of the lead and copper-wire,
by rubbing them with sand-paper. If, how-
ever, the fusible alloy mentioned in the pre-
ceding foot-note be used, a far preferable way
of attaching the wire would be thus : — Clean
the end of the wire with sand-paper, hold it
in the flame of a candle, so as to leave a
quarter of an inch of the end unblackened,
while the portion immersed in the flame be-

comes red hot. Now touch the clean end
with a little powdered rosin, and instantly
apply it to the mould (at c) with a gentle
pressure. The metal will readily yield, and
the wire will become firmly embedded into it
without further trouble.

On account of the facility with which
fusible metal is thus operated upon, and the
low temperature at which it melts, it will
generally be worth the amateur's while to
procure this alloy at starting. Nevertheless,
just for a first trial of one's hand at electro-
typing, lead wiU do very well.

But it is not desirable to deposit the cop-
per upon the entire surface of the mould thus
prepared ; and, in order to confine the depo-
sition to the impression, it becomes necessary
to cover the remaining portion with some
nonconducting material.

For this purpose, tallow or wax may be
used. It should be melted and rubbed over
the mould, so as to cover every portion, ex-
cept the central depression, and a narrow rim
round it, as shown at d d (Fig. 1) ; in doing
which, exercise the utmost care to prevent
the impression from being soiled, or even
touched by the fingers, for on the fulfilment
of this condition will the success of the expe-
riment greatly depend. The mould being
thus prepared, we may turn our attention to
the construction of the voltaic apparatus, and
the cell for deposition.

At the end e of the wire (Fig. 1), a plate
of zinc, about three inches long and an inch
and a half wide, is now to be attached. It
will be sufficient to punch a small hole in one
end of the plate, to clean that end with a
piece of sand-paper, and also the end of the
copper-wire, and then to run the latter through
the hole in the plate, and secure it by tightly
twisting. This process of cleaning should bo
carefully observed, in order to insure a per-
fect contact between the two metals. Now
for the cell.

A stoneware jar, of from a pint to a quart
capacity, will do very well for coins and me-

EECBEATIYE SCIENCE.

277

dallions of moderate size. The form Fiij. 2
is most easily obtained, but the form Fig.
3) is rather more convenient, as the open

Fio. 2.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4,

mouth renders the interior more ready of
access, and offers greater facilities for obser-
vation. Suppose one of the latter obtained,
a piece of wood should now be fixed across it
by simple pressure, as at a (Fig. 4) ; the jar
may then be fiUed
to within an inch of
the top with a satu-
rated solution of
sulphate of copper,
and a few addi-
tional crystals may
then be thrown in,
to keep up the
strength of the li-
quid as copper is
deposited on the mould. Now prepare a
small bladder, or portion of a larger one,
of sufficient size to co-
ver the zinc-plate loose-
ly. Make a mixture of
one part sulphuric acid
and five parts water;
fill the membranous
bag with it, and tie it
over the zinc-plate, giv-
ing the whole of this
part of the apparatus
the form shown in Fig.
5. It may then be
applied to the deposi-
tion cell in such a
way that it shall rest on the beam (a,

Fig. 5.

Fig. 4) by the wire (w. Fig. 5), the coin
hanging on one side, and the covered zinc-
plate on the other. Both ought to be com-
pletely immersed in the solution of sulphate
of copper. If this part of the business is
carefully managed, and the mould is not put
into the solution till all is quite ready, accord-
ing to the instructions above given, the sur-
face will be instantaneously covered with a
thin film of copper, which will gradually in-
crease in thickness and tenacity for some
hours. After about four-and-twenty or thirty
hours, the mould may be removed from the
cell, and the copper from the mould, when all
the lines and impressions of the original
coin will be faithfully reproduced in the
copy.

If, however, the copper has not been de-
posited on the mould, or has only been depo-
sited in part — and it is only fair to admit the
possibility of such a catastrophe at a first
attempt — the error must be sought out and
rectified. If no copper has been deposited, it
may probably be owing to the fact that the
connection between the wire and the zinc,
or between the wire and the mould, was
imperfect ; and the mode of correcting this
error is obvious. If copper is found to cover
a part of the mould, and not other parts, it
is most probably owing to the presence of
dirt or some foreign matter on the surface o f
the mould. In this case the deposited copper
should be removed, and the mould thoroughly
cleaned ; after which the process as above
detailed can be repeated. Should the mould
be found well covered, but copper covering
crumble to pieces on being removed, the acid
was most likely too strong, and must be more
diluted in the next attempt. If the young
experimenter will attend to these details, we
think it is scarcely possible for him to fail at
last. Perseverantia omnia vincit.

It is hardly worth while to attempt an
explanation of these decompositions and de-
positions in a philosophical manner. In truth,
the whole matter is very imperfectly under-

278

EECIiBATIVE SCIENCE.

Bt ood.* Whether electricity is to be regarded
as a material principle, and whether it com-
bines with other elements as the elements do
amongst themselves, has yet to be decided.
It will be sufficient to notice here, that when-
ever two metals are placed in a liquid which
acts unequally upon them chemically, the
electric equilibrium is disturbed. Positive
electricity comes off from the metal acted
upon most vigorously, while the metal itself
becomes negatively electrified. The fluid
then passes to the metal less acted on, and
from that through the connecting wire above,
till it reaches the former metal, and thus the
electric circuit is completed. In such an
arrangement — the chemical liquid containing
a metallic salt — the metal would always be
deposited on the plate which was least acted
upon by the liquid ; but the deposition is
irregular and uncertain. It is much improved
by immersing the negative metal in a diffe-
rent liquid, and separating this liquid from
the solution by means of a membrane, as
described above. This, however, is not a
convenient arrangement where a number of
experiments are to be made in succession,
although it does very well for a solitary
attempt. We will, therefore, conclude this
paper by describing one or tAvo modifications
of this " single-cell " apparatus, as it is called,
which add greatly to its efficiency.

The membranous diaphragm with which
we have supposed the zinc-plate to be
covered is not effective in experiments which
last any time. Porous jars, such as may now
be obtained at any chemist's, are used in-
stead. They are cheap, and can be used re-
peatedly, especially if, when they are done

* To those who are curious on this subject, we
recommend a perusal of a work which has come to
our hand, entitled " Electro-Chemistry, with Positive
Results ; in which it is demonstrated that there is a
latent electricity in bodies as well as a latent heat, and
that those bodies, when deprived of their latent elec-
tricity, indicate a change in their characteristic pro-
perties. By Charles Chalmers. Churchill, Burlington
Street." V^e nay have occasion to refer to this work
again.

with, they are laid for a few hours in clean
water. If, however, a chemist's shop be not
easily accessible, the following way of making
very good porous diaphragms will be found
useful : —

Let a core be turned out of a piece of
hard wood, of the shape a a (Fig. 6). Bind
round this core apiece of smooth
brown paper, B B, in such a way
as to leave a clear space round
the smaller part. The space thus
left is now to be filled with
plaster of Paris, which must be
added tiU it reaches the height c.
The plaster is thus prepared : —
Take it quite fresh, and drop it
piece by piece into a lipped jug
containing water; when it is
dissolved, the superfluous water may be
poured off. Mix the remaining water and
plaster with a clean stick, and pour it into
the mould. When it is firmly set, the paper
may be unwound, and the core withdrawn ;
a porous diaphragm will thus be formed,
which, with proper care, will serve for several
experiments.

A better form of cell, too, might be easily
devised. A wooden box, lined with pitch or
well varnished, and furnished with a shelf to

Fig. 6.

Fig. 7.

hold the crystals of sulphate of copper, the
shelf also having an orifice to receive the
porous diaphragm, would be found more
convenient. Such an apparatus, when at
work, would have the form shown in Fig. 7.

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

279

Attempts have sometimes been made to
join the fac-similes of the two sides of a coin,
so as to give them a solid appearance, like
the original. These attempts have not suc-
ceeded well, and, what is more to the point,
they would not be so useful thus finished as
when mounted in a difFerent manner. For

of which are just large enough to admit a
florin, or its fac-simile, when the card is cut
away for that purpose. Into tliese orifices
insert the fac-similes,. and press the rims
close up to the under side of the card. Then
take another card, and gum it to the under
side of the first, in order to keep the fac-

cabinets, it is better to have the fac-similes
so mounted as tliat both may be seen at a
glance. The superfluous rim, which is given
to the specimens we have described, is of
great service in this respect.

Take a card, and draw upon it two series
of concentric circles (Fig. 8), the inner ones

similes from dropping out of their places.
They are then ready for the cabinet, and
will present an appearance similar to that in
Fig. 8, the concentric circles giving the
mounting a finish which well repays the
trouble bestowed upon them.

E. BiTHELL.

THE LV^A^ IICLIPSE OF FEBEUAliT ?, 186Q.

Although an eclipse of the moon falls far
short of ^r solar eclipse in astronomical im-
portance, i^ y§t possesses an iitterest of its
own, from the varying appearances exhibited
by our eclipsed satellite, and also from the
picturesque effpct prpclucpdj as tl^p writer can
testify after witnessing the phenomenon of
February 7th.

The physical peculiarity which has at-
tracted the attention of astronomers during a
lunar eclipse, is that ruddy hue by means of
which the moon is rendered visible even
when totally immersed in the earth's shadow.
The cause of this phenomenon long remained
unknown ; by some persons it was attributed

to a suppasp^ inherent light i^ i}ie moon's
surface, hx^t it seemed impossible to reconcile
this explanation with the appearance of the
moon in o^her parts of her orbit* The great
Kepler solved the difficulty ; he was the first
to show thf^t this phpno^nenon was pccasioned
by the refraction of the eartKs atmosphere.

Let not- the reader pass lightly over this
sentence, with the remark, " It is caused by
refraction." The subject is curious and in-
teresting, and the words of Kepler were
weighty. He expresses his explanation in
this way: — "The sun's rays are inflected in
their passage through the earth's atmosphere,
and thrown into the cone of shadow." That

280

RECREATIVE SCIENCE.

" cone of slaadow" must engage our tliouglits
for a few minutes — the cone of darkness
(turned exactly away from the sun), which
evermore accompanies the earth, and which
the moon occasionally enters, either com-
pletely or in part, when her varying path
conducts her sufficiently near to being in a
straight line with the earth and sun.

Fio. 1.

Fig. 1 represents the leading circumstances
connected with the shadow; its conical shape
is due to the superior size of the sun as com-
pared with the earth. When a large lumi-
nous body (for instance, the sun) illuminates
a small opaque one (as the earth), the latter
must cast a conical shadow. The round form
of the section of this cone, as viewed when its
rim is projected on the moon during the pro-
gress of an eclipse (see Figs. 2, 3, and 4), is a
visible demonstration of the earth's round
shape. It is a portion of the earth's silhouette.
To return to the figure : E represents the

Fig. 2. — Ih. 5Sin., Green-wicla time.

earth, one side basking in sunshine, the other
casting the usual conical shadow, in which the
moon, M, has entered centrally, thus under-
going total eclipse. The faintly shaded por-
tion, a a, represents the region adjoining the
shadow, from which a portion of the sun's
disc is hidden by the earth's body, thereby

causing a partial shadow, or "penumbra."
The moon always travels a considerable time
through the penumbra before passing into
the true shadow.

So far this explanation corresponds with
that contained in all works on astronomy ;
but we now come to the consideration of some
circumstances due to the presence of the

Fig. 3. — 2h. 20m., Greenwich time.

earth's atmosphere. JSTot the portion of
atmosphere which intervenes between our-
selves and the eclipsed moon, but that por-
tion which surrounds this great earth's outline,
as viewed from the moon. Imagine a special
ray from the sun, d, e, passing through the
atmosphere to the surface of the earth ; the

Fig. 4. — 21i. 50m., Greemvich time.

presence of that atmosphere will alter its
direction — will malce it hend, as you have seen
an oar appear to do when plunged obliquely
in water. On proceeding from e, through
the remainder of the atmosphere, the ray
becomes additionally bent, and in the game
direction; the consequence is, that it will

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

281

enter the cone h h, instead of passing on to
the apex/.

Thus a considerable portion of the cone of
the earth's shadow will receive this refracted
light of the sun ; and this light will have a
reddish tinge, because it does not reach the
moon till after passing through a very great
thickness of the earth's atmosphere ; and
under such circumstances it is found that
the air will stop the blue and violet rays
which enter into the composition of white
light, and wUl transmit the red, an effect
corresponding to the ruddy colour of the sky.
at sunset.

There will, however, remain a smaller cone,
c, of real darkness, which even the refracted
light will not enter ; but the apex of this lat-
ter cone is situated within the moon's shortest
distance from the earth, so that the moon
never gets into the cone of true darkness.
This being the case, the wonder is, not that
the moon should remain visible during a
total eclipse, but that it should ever com-
pletely disappear. It is, however, particu-
larly recorded to have become invisible during
total lunar eclipses in 1601, 1620, 1642, 1761,
and, in more recent times, on the 10th of
June, 1816, when it could not be discovered
even with telescopes ; yet on some of these
occasions, especially in the case of the eclipse
of April 25th, 1642, the air intervening be-
tween the moon and the observer was parti-
cularly pure, and minute stars could be
discerned.

On the other hand, the moon has some-
times shown, during a total eclipse, with an
almost unaccountable distinctness. On De-
cember 22nd, 1703, the moon, when totally
immersed in the earth's shadow, was visible
at Avignon by a ruddy light of such bril-
liancy, that one might have imagined her
body to be transparent, and to be enlight-
ened from behind ; and on March 19th, 1848,
it is stated that so bright was the moon's sur-
face during its total immersion, that many
persons could not be persuaded that it was

eclipsed. Mr. Eorster, of Bruges, states, in
an account of that eclipse, that the light and
dark places on the moon's surface could he
almost as well made out as in an ordinary
dull moonlight night.

Sometimes, in a total lunar eclipse, the
moon will appear quite obscure in some parts
of its surface, and in other parts will exhibit
a high degree of illumination. All these
varying appearances, it is concluded, are to
be referred to the condition of that zone of
the earth's atmosphere through which the
rays pass from the sun into the cone of
shadow. To a certain extent, I witnessed
some of these phenomena during the merely
partial eclipse of February 7th; and though I
cannot find any published account of remark-
able phenomena observable during & partial
eclipse, I maintain that the one I witnessed
deserves to occupy avery high place, if judged
of with regard to its picturesque effect.

I will therefore briefly narrate what I
saw. First, however, let me state that for
the foregoing explanations and descriptions
of phenomena, I am indebted to the valuable
works mentioned below,* and in four or five
sentences I have used their exact words. I
had some idea of borrowing merely the ideas,
and altering any sentence which I did not
indicate with quotation marks. But the
change would have been for the worse, and
the process similar to that indicated by Sir
Fretful Plagiary, whom, by the way, I quote
at second-hand, from a writer who is as much
the antithesis of Sheridan as his work is of
the Critic : — " Steal ! to be sure he may, and
serve your best thoughts as the gipsies do
stolen children — disfigure them to make them
pass for their own."

I prepared, during the afternoon of Fe-
bruary 6th, for witnessing the eclipse, with-
out any distinct expectation of seeing much

* Nichol's " Cyclopoedia of the Physical Sciences;"
Grant's" History of Physical Astronomy;" Humboldt's
" Cosmos ;" Mann's " Guide to the Knowledge of the
Heavens."

282

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

worthy of note. I knew, however, that up-
wards of eight-tenths of the disc would be
covered, and I was anxious to observe with
what degree of distinctness the eclipsed por-
tion could be viewed, partly as an interesting
fact, and partly with a view of verifying or

Lunar Eclipse: 2h. 20m. a.m., Feb. 7th, 1800

discovering the weak points of an engraving
(in which I am concerned) of a lunar eclipse.
After seeing the increasing darkness of
the penumbra softly merging into the true
shadow at the commencement of the eclipse
(about one o'clock, a.m., Grreenwich time), I
proceeded with pencil and paper, dimly lighted
by a distant lamp, to note by name the dif-

ferent lunar mountains and plains (the so-
called seas), over which the shadow passed ;
and also a few other circumstances, such as
the great clearness of the planet Saturn, and
the colours of the halo round the moon, when
light clouds passed across its disc. During
the first hour and ten minutes I had seen
nothing unexpected ; but had much enjoyed
the time when the sensation of quiet and
calm is so soothing, and in itself such matter
for thankfulness ; and when the mind turns
to think on Him " who hath created all these
things," and to feel with especial distinctness
on an occasion like this, when a phenomenon
occurs so truly to its appointed time, "He
is strong in power ; not onefaileth."

I had repeatedly written down my obser-
vations of the remarkable clearness with
which the moon's eclipsed outline could be
seen, both with the naked eye, and with the
telescope ; at Ih. 58m., however, I suddenly
noted the ruddy colour of a portion of the
moon. I may as well give my notes in the
original words, as copied next day in a more
connected form : — " Ih. 58m. ((xreenwich
time). — I am suddenly struck by the fact that
the whole of the western seas of the moon are
showing through the shadow with singular
sharpness, and that the whole region where
they lie has assumed a decidedly reddish
tinge, attaining its greatest brightness at a
sort of temporary polar region, having ' En-
dymion ' about the position of its imaginary
pole. I particularly notice that the Lake of
Sleep has disappeared in this brightness,
instead of standing out in a darker shade ;
and I notice that this so-called ^oZar region is
not parallel with the rim of the shadow, but
rather west of it. 2h. 15m. — Some clouds,
though very thin and transparent, now inter-
vene. 2h. 20m. — The sky is now cleared.
How extraordinary is the appearance of the
moon ! Meddish, is not the word to express
it ; it is red — red-hot ! I endeavour to think
of various red objects with which to compare
it, and nothing seems so like as a red-hoi

EECEEATIVB SCIENCE.

28a

penny — a red-hot penny with, a little white-
Lot piece at its lower edge, standing out
against a dark-blue background ; only it is
evidently not a mere disc, but beautifully
rounded by sbading.

" Such is its appearance with the naked
eye ; with the telescope its surface varies more
in tint than with the naked eye, and is not
of quite so bright a red as when thus viewed.
The redness continues to be most perceptible
at a distance from the shadow's southern
edge, and to be greatest about the region of
Endymion. The Hercynian mountains (north
of Grimaldus) are, however, of rather a bright
red, and Grimaldus shows well. Mare Cri-
sium and the western seas are wonderfully
distinct. Not a trace is to be seen of Aristar-
chus or Plato. 2h. 27m. — It is now nearly
the middle of the eclipse. The red colour is
very brilliant to t&e naked eye ; yet when the
moon is viewed through a pin-hole in paper
the red portion nearly disappears, and the
small bright piece looks wonderfully minute
and sharp. Through the same.pin-hole Jupi-
ter (which is truly splendid to-night) becomes
.no brighter than Castor."

The planets and stars were indeed glori-
ous on that night ; Saturn and Begulus were
east of the Moon, and very near it, while
Jupiter and the conspicuous stars of Gemini
glittered at no great distance in the west.
They were in themselves most beautiful, and
with the red and white moon, and the dark
blue sky — a unique assemblage of the hues
of the tricolor — the efiect was picturesque
in no common degree,* while trees and moun-
tains were not wanting to complete the ter-
restrial landscape.

After this, I noticed a progressive change
of tint in the moon. " 2h. 50m. — The moon
does not seem to the naked eye of so bright a
red as before ; and again I am reminded by

* Any reader of Eeckeative Science, -wlio hap-
pens to be dexterous in the use of colour, may add
much to the effect of the figures by slightly tinting
them from the descriptions given in the text.

its tint of red-hot copper, or rather copper
which has begun to cool. The whole of Gri-
maldus is now uncovered. Through the tele-
scope I notice a decided gray shade at the
lower part of the eclipsed portion, and the
various small craters give it a stippled effect,
like the old aqua- tint engravings. The upper
part is reddish, but two graceful bluish
curves, like horns, mark the form of the Her-
cynian mountains, and the bright region on
the other limb of the moon. These are visible
also to the naked eye."

At 3h. 5m. the redness had almost disap-
peared; a very few minutes afterwards, no
trace of it remained, and ere long clouds
came on. I watched the moon, however,
occasionally gaining a glimpse of its disc, till
a quarter to four o'clock, when, for the last
time on that occasion, I saw it faintly appear-
ing through the clouds, nearly a full moon
again ; and then I took leave of it, feeling
amply repaid for iny vigil by the beautiful
spectacle which I had seen.

Maet Waed.
Trimleston Souse, near Dublin.

THE EIRST BUTTEEFLY.

Will any two naturalists agree as to which
is indubitably the first butterfly — the first to
startle us by its sudden apparition as a dan-
cing dot in the yet inconstant sunbeams?
The Brimstone wiU flitter over a hedgerow
in January, so will the Painted Lady, the
Peacock's-eye, and the small Tortoiseshell ;
but the specimens that first appear are relicts
of the last year's brood, hatched late, huddled
in snug corners, and then wakened by a mo-
mentary burst of unseasonable heat. The
choice of priority lies between the Common
Cabbage and the Small White ; and, if we
were to cast lots, we should decide for the lat-
ter. And a right good and proper harbinger
of summer is it ; skipping, darting, zigzagging
over the garden, like Psyche herself, restless
for the beginning of joys which Jupiter pro-
mised should last for ever. H.

284

RECREATIVE SCIENCE.

A CATALOGUE OF

ALL THE COMETS WHOSE CEBITS
BEEN COMPUTED.

{Continued from page 249.)

HAVE HITHEUTO

No.

Year.

PP.

jr.

«•

I.

q-

e.

^•

Calculator.

Date of
Discovery.

Discoverer.

Duration
of Visibility.

d.h.

c t

o >

o .'

137

1821

Mar. 21, 12

239 29

43 40 73 3

00918

...

—

Rosenberger

1821, Jan. 21

Pons

15 weeks.'

138

1823 i.

May 5, 14

192 43

177 26,53 37

0-5044

—

NicoUet

1822, May 12

Gambart

7 VFceks.'-'

(100)

— ii.

May 23, 23

157 11

334 25 13 20

0-3459

0.84446

+

Encke

— June 2

Eiimker

3 weeks '

139

— iii.

July 16, 12

218 32

97 4038 12

0-8367

Heiligenstein

— May 31

Pons

2 weeks.-*

140

— iv.

Oct. 23, 18

271 40

92 44'52 39

1-1450

0 99630 —

Encke

— July 13

Ditto

17 weeks. 5

141

1823

Dec. 9, 10

274 34

303 3[76 11

0-2265

—

Ditto

1823, Dec. 29

Several observers

13 weeks."

142

1824 i.

July 11, 12

260 16

234 19 54 34

0-5912

—

Riimker

1824, July 15

Riimker

4 weeks.'

14:3

— ii.

Sept. 29, 1

4 31

279 15 54 36

1-0501

1-00017

+ Encke

— July 23

Soheithauer

22 weeks."

(107)

1825 i.

.May 30, 13

273 55

20 6

56 41

0-8891

—

Clausen

1825, May 19

Gambart

8 weeks."

141

— ii.

Aug. 18, 17

10 14

192 56

89 41

0-8834

+

Ditto

— Aug. 9

Pons

3 weeks.'"

(100)

— iii.

Sept. 16, 6

157 14

334 27

13 21

0-3448 0-84488

+

Encke

— July 13

Valz

8 weeks."

145

— iv.

Dec. 10, 16

318 461215 43

33 32

1-2408 0-99536

Hansen

— July 15

Pons

12 months."

(87)

1826 i.

Mar. 18, 9

109 45

251 28

13 33

0-9025 0-74657

+

Santini

1826, Feb. 27

Biela

8 weeks.'-*

146

— ii.

April 21, 23

116 54

197 38

40 2

2-0111 ...

+

Clausen

1825, Nov. 6

Pons

22 week.s.

147

— iii.

April 29, 0

35 48

40 29

5 17

0-1881

Cliiver

1826, Mar. 29

Plaugergues

9 days '<

148

— iv.

Oct. 8, 22

57 48

44 6

25 57

0-8528

+

Argelander

— Aug. 7

Pons'

15 weeks."

149

V.

Nov. 18, 9

315 31

235 7!89 22

0-0268

Cliiver

— Oct. 22

Ditto

11 weeks."*

150

1827 i.

Feb. 4, 22

33 30

184 27 77 35

0-5065

Heiligenstein

— Dec. 26

Ditto

5 weeks.

151

— ii.

June 7, 20

297 31

318 10143 38

0-8081

Ditto

1827, June 20

Ditto

4 week.s.''

152

— iii.

Sept. 11, 16

250 57

149 39'54 4

1-1378

0-99273 —

CliiTer

— Aug 2

Ditto

10 weeks'"

(100)

1829

Jan. 9, 17

157 17

334 29 13 20

0-3455

0-84462 +

Encke

1828, Oct. 13

Striive

15 weeks.'"

153

1830 i.

April 9, 7

212 11

206 21121 16

0-9214:o-99938 -4-

Hadenkamp
and Mayer

1830, Mar. 16

D'Abadie

22 weeks.20

154

— ii.

Dec. 27, 15

310 69

337 53'44 45

0-1258 <.. —

Wcilfers

1831, Jan. 7

Herepath

9 weeks.-'

(100)

1832 i.

May 3, 23

157 21

334 32

13 22

0-3434 0-84541 +

Encke

1832, June 1

Mossotti

(?) •-•■-!

155

— ii.

Sept. 25, 12

227 55

72 26

43 18

1-1836

1 —

E. Bouvard

— July 19

Gambart

4 weeks.'-'S

(87)

— iii.

Nov. 26, 2

110 0'248 15

13 13

0-8790

0-75146,+

Santini

— Aug. 25

Duniouchel

18 weeks. '^*

156

1833

Sept. 10, 4

222 511323 0

7 21

0-4584

+

Peters

1833, Oct. 1

Dunlop

2 weeks.

157

1834

April 2, 15
Mar. 27, 13

276 331226 48

5 56

0-5150

+

Petersen

1834, Mar. 8

Gambart

6 weeks. 2i

158

1835 i.

207 42| 58 19

9 7

2-0413

W. Bessel

1835, April 20

Boguslawski

5 weeks.

(100)

— ii.

Aug. 26, 8

157 23 334 34

13 21

0-3444

0 845031+

Encke

— July 22

Kreil

9 vveeks.2^

(4)

— iii.

Nov. 15, 22

304 31 55 9 17 45

0-5865

0-96739;—

Westphalen

— Aug. 6

Dumouehel

41 weeks.27

(100)

1838

Dec. 19, 0

157 27 334 3613 21

0-3440

0-845171+

Encke

1838, Aug. 14

Boguslawski

16 weeks. 2»

159

1840 i.

Jan. 4, 10

192 ll'll9 5753 5

0-6184

1-00020

+

C Peters & \
1 Striive J

1839, Dec. 3

Galle

10 week8.29

160

— ii.

Mar. 13, 2

80 12 236 50 59 12

1-2204

0-99323

Loomis

1840, Jan. 25

Ditto

9 weeks.'"

(14)

— iii.

April 2, 12

324 10:186 479 51

0-7420

...

+

Petersen

— Mar. 6

Ditto

3 week8.3i

' Discovered by Nicollet on the same day, and by Blain-
pain, January 25. Visible to the naked eye, witb a tail
2^ long.

* Discovered by Pons, May 14, and by Biela, May 17.

^ The first predicted apparition of i^KcAre'* eomrf. Seen
only in New South Wales.

* Its apparent motion was very rapid.

* Discovered by Gambart, July 16. An elliptic orbit ;
period assigned, 5444 years ; visible to the naked eye, with
a tail \^ long.

* Discovered by Pons, December 29, by Koliler, Decem-
ber 30, and by Santini, January 3. This comet had, in addi-
tion to the usual tail turned from the sun, another tnrned
towards it.

' Seen only in the southern hemisphere.

* Discovered by Pons, July 24, and afterwards by Gam-
bart and Harding.

* It had a tail 1^° long. Elements resemble those of
1790 (iii.)

'" Discovered by Harding, August 23. Orbit remark-
able for its great inclination.

1* An apparition of Enche's comet. Discovered by
Plana, August 10, and b^ Pons, August 14.

'* Discovered by Biela, July 19. Very conspicuous
early in October, with a bifid tail 15' long. An elliptic
orbit. Period assigned, 4386 years.

'3 An apparition of Biela' > comet, whose periodicity was
now discovered. Found by Gambart, March 9.

14 Elements ancertaio.

'* The j)ath of this comet crosses the ecliptic near the
Earth's orbit.

'^ Discovered by Clausen, Octobrr 6, nnd by Gambart,
October 28. Visible to the naked eye, with a tail \° long.

'' Discovered also by Gambart.

" At one time supposed to be a return of the comet of
1780 (i.) An elliptic orbit ; period assigned, 2611 years.

'" An apparition oi Encke' s comet, afterwards visible to
the naked eye.

*" Discovered in the southern hemisphere. Visible to
the naked eye, with a tail 8' long.

2' Visible to the naked eye, with a tail 2^° long.

^2 An apparition of JE«cfce'«(?ome<. Discovered by Hen-
derson, June 2. Only one observation was made in Europe.

*^ Discovered by Harding, July 29.

** The first predicted apparition of Biela' a comet.

*^ Discovered by Dunlop, March 16.

** An apparition of JEnefce'* eomei. Discovered by Bogus-
lawski, July 30.

'" The second predicted return of Halley's comet. It
was visible to the naked eye during the whole of October,
with a tail from 20^ to 30" long.

** An apparition of Encke' s comet. Discovered by Galle,
September 16. Perceptible to the naked eye, November 7.

*" Perceptible to the naked eye, January 8.

3" An elliptic orbit; period assigned, 2423 years. Plan-
tamour, however, makes it 13,866 years.

5' Probably a return of the comet of 1097. It had 9,
small tail.

EEOEEATIVE SCIENCE.

2«5

No.

Year.

PP.

T.

ft.

I.

q-

e. 1^

I. Calculator.

Date of
Discovery.

Discoverer.

Duration
of Visibility.

d.h.

O '

■3 1

0 f

161

1840iv.

Kov. 13, 15

22 31

248 56

57 57

1-4308

0-96935 -

h Gotze

1810, Oct. 27

Bremiker

16 wpeks.'2

(100)

1843 i.

April 12, 0

157 29

334 39

13 20

0-3150

0-84179 -

- Encke

1842, Feb. 8

GaUe

15 weeks '^

162

— ii.

Deo. 15, 22

327 17

207 49

73 34

0-5044

- Petersen

— Oct. 28

Laugier

4 weeks. 3*

163

1813 i.

Feb. 27, 9

278 39

1 12

35 41

0-0055

0-99989 -

- Hubbard

1843, Feb. 28

Many observers

7 weeks.''

164

— ii.

May 6, 1

281 29

157 14

52 41

1-6163

1-00017 -

- Gotze

— May 2

Mauvais

21 weeks.

165

— iii.

Oct. 17, 3

49 34

209 29

11 22

1-6925

0-55596 -

- Le Verrier

— Nov. 22

Faye

20 weeks. 38

(48?)

1841 i.

Sept. 2, 11

342 30

63 49

2 54

1-1864

0-61765 -

- Briinnow

1841, Aug. 22

De Vico

19 weeks.s'

166

— ii.

Oct. 17, 8

180 24

31 39

48 36

0-3553

0-99960 -

- Plantamour

— July 7

Mauvais

35 weiks.38

167

— iii.

Dec. 13, 16

296 0

118 23 45 36

0-2512

... H

f-Hind

— Dec. 19

Wilmot

12week3.39

168

18451.

Jan. 8, 3

91 19

336 41 48 50

0-9051

... -

- Gotze

— Dec. 23

D'Arrest

13 weeks.

169

— ii.

April 21, 0

192 33

347 6

56 23

1-2546

... H

hFaye

1845, Feb. 25

De Vico

9 weeks. <»

(39)

— iii.

June 5, 16

262 2

337 48

43 41

0-4016

0-93987 -

- D' Arrest

— June 2

CoUa

4weeks.''l

(100)

— iv.

Aug. 9, 15

157 44

334 19

13 7

0-3331

0-8474:3 H

- Encke

— July 4

De Vico

10 days.«

170

18i6i.

Jan. 23. 2

89 6

111 8

47 26

1-4807

0-99240 -

- Jelinek

1816, Jan. 21

Ditto

14 weeks. *3

(87)

— ii.

Feb. 10, 23

109 2

245 54

12 34

0-8564

0-757U0 -

- Plantamour

1845, Nov. 26

Ditto

21 weeks."

171

— iii.

Feb. 25, 7

116 28

102 37

30 57

0-6500

0-79446 -

- Hind

1816, Feb. 26

Brorsen

8 weeks.-**

172

— iv.

Mar. 5, 12

90 27

77 33

85 6

0-6637

0-96221 -

- Peirco

— Feb. 20

De Vico

10 weeks.**

173

— V.

May 27, 21

82 32

161 18

57 35

1-3762

- Argelander

— July 29

Ditto

11 weeks.*'

174

— vi.

June 1, 5

240 7

260 28

30 24

1-5287

0-72133 -

- Peters

— June 26

Peters

4 weeks.**

175

— vii.

June 5, 12

163 0

261 51

29 18

0-6331

0-98836 -

- Wichmann

— April 30

Brorsen

6 weeks.<8

176

— viii.

Oct. 29, 17

93 35

4 41

49 41

0-8306

... H

- Hind

— Sept. 23

De Vico

3 weeks.

177

1847 i.

March 30, 6

376 2

21 42

48 39

0-0125

... -

- Pogson

1347, Feb. 6

Hind

11 weeks.M

178

— ii.

June 4, 18,

141 34

173 56

79 34

2-1161

- Von Littrow

— May 7

CoUa

30 weeks.

179

— iii.

Aug. 9, 8

21 17

76 43

32 38

1-4847

- Schweitzer

— Aug. 31

Schweitzer

13 weeks.

180

— iv.

Aug. 9, 10

246 41

338 17

83 27

1-7671

- Von Littrow

— July 4

Mauvais

11 weeks.^i

181

— V.

Sept. 9, 13

79 12

309 43

19 8

0-4879

0-97256 -

- D'Arrest

— July 20

Brorsen

8 weeks."

182

— vi.

-N'ov. 14, 9

274 14

190 50

71 53

0-3291

- Ditto

— Oct. 1

Miss Mitchell

13 weeks."

183

1848 i.

Sept. 8, 1

310 34

311 32

81 24

0-3199

- Sonntag

1848, Aug. 7

Petersen

3 weeks.

(100)

— ii.

Nov. 26, 2

157 47

334 22

13 8

0-3370

0-84782 -

- Encke

- Aug. 27

Bond

13 weeks.-'"

184

1849 i.

Jan. 19, 8

63 11

215 10

35 4

0-9599

... -

- Pogson

— Oct. 26

Petersen

20 weeks.35

185

— ii.

May 26, 11

235 43

202 33

67 9

1-1593

... -

- Goujon

1349, April 15

Goujon

24 weeks.**

186

— iii.

June 8, 4

267 3

30 31

66 59

0-8916

0-99783 -

- D'Arrest

— April 11

Schweitzer

20 weeks.*'

187

1850 i.

July 23, 12
Oct. 19, 8

273 24

92 53

68 12

1-0315

- Villarceau

1850, May 1

Petersen

17 weeks.*'

188

— ii.

89 20

206 1

40 6

0-5647

- KesUiiiber

— Aug. 29

G. P. Pond

9 weeks."'-*

(165)

1851 i.

April 3, 11

49 42

1209 30
149 19

a 21

1-6999

0-5o501 -

- Le Verrier

— Nov. 28

Dhallis

14 weeks. <^<>

189

— ii.

July 9, 0

324 10

14 14

1-1847

0-70001 -

-1 D'Arrest

1851, June 27

D'Arrest

14 weeks. ''I

190

— iii.

Aug. 26, 5

310 59

223 41

38 9

0-9843

0-99685 -

- Brorsen

— Aug. 1

Brorsen

8 weeks.*^

191

— iv.

Sept. 30, 19

338 46

44 29

74 0

0-1410

... -

- J. Breen

— Oct. 22

Ditto

5 weeks. o-J

(100)

1852 i.

Mar. 14, 18

157 51

334 23

13 7

0-3374

0-84767 -

- Encke

1852, Jan. 9

Hind

8 weeks.* •

193

— ii.

April 19, 13

280 0

317 8

43 52

0-9050

- Sonntag

— May 15

Chacornac

3 weeks. *s

'2 An elliptic orbit; period assigned, 341 years, sub-
ject to an uncertainty ot about nine years. Possibly a
return of the comet of 1490.

33 An apparition of Encke' s comet.

3* Small and faint.

35 The finest comet of the present century. At one time
it had a tail 60^ long. The orbit is remarkable for its small
perihelion distance. The period assigned is 376 years.
This may be a return of the comet of 1668, but many others
have also been supposed to be identical with it. (See
Cooper's " Cometic Orbits," pp. 162 — 9.)

56 Usually known as Faye's comet. It had a very small
tail. Period, 7-44 years.

3' Visible to the naked eye. An elliptic orbit ; period
assigned, 5-469 years. It has not been observed since.
Possibly identical with the comet of 1678.

38 Discovered by D'Arrest, July 9. Visible to the naked
eye, November 10. Period, 102,050 years. Subject to an
uncertainty of 3090 years.

3' First seen in the southern hemisphere. It had a tail
10' long.

** Discovered by Faye, March 6.

■•1 Discovered by Bichter, June 6. A fine comet. Visible
to the naked eye, with a tail 2^' long. A return of the
comet of 1596; period, 250 years.

••* An apparition of jBKcfce's corned Discovered by Coffin
the same evening.

*3 An elliptic orbit ; period assigned, 2721 years.

** An apparition of Biela's comet. Discovered by GaUe,
November 2S. It was at this return that the comet sepa-
rated into two parts.

■•* An elliptic orbit ; period assigned, 5-58 years.

•>* Discovered by G. P. Bond, February 26.

*' Discovered by Hind two hours later.

*' Discovered by De Vico, July 2. An elliptic orbit ;
period assigned, 12'8 years. Subject to an uncertainty ot
one year.

*8 Discovered by Wichmann, May 1. Visible to the
naked eye, May 14. An elliptic orbit ; period assigned,
400 years.

*<> Visible in the daytime. It had a tail lY' long. The
true elements are probably elliptical.

*i A parabolic orbit best satisfies the observations.

•'■"^ Period assigned, 75 years.

*3 Discovered by Ue Vico, October 3, by Dawes, October
7, and by Madame Riiinker, October 11.

** An apparition of i^Hcie'g come*. Discovered by Hind,
September 13. Perceptible to the naked eye, October 6.
On November 3 it had a tail more than 1' long.

*5 A parabolic orbit satislies the observation, but a
period of 332,801 years has been assigned ! ! 1

** It had a small tail.

*' Discoveredafewhourslaterby Bond, and by Graham,
April 14. Period, 8375 years.

*" Visible to the naked eye, with a tail. Carrington has
assigned a period of about 29,000 years.

** Discovered by Brorsen, Septembers, by Mauvais and
Robertson, September 9, and by Clausen, September 14.

''" The first predicted apparition of Vaye's comet.

*i Period, 6-441 years.

*2 Discovered by Schweitzer, August 21. Period assigned,
5544 years.

*3 It had a tail more than 1° long, and also a shorter one
turned towards the sun.

** An apparition of Sncke's comet.

** Discovered by Petersen, May 17, and by G. P. Bond,
May 19. It was very small and faint. Elements resemble
those of the comet of 1319 (ii.)

{To le continued.) ' Geoege F. Chambers.

B B

286

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

Greatest

Greatest

Amount of

Heat.

Cold.

Rain.

Degrees.

Degrees.

Inches.

57-0 ..

.. 81-0 .,

—

62-0 ..

. . 23-5 . ,

.. 0-6

63-0 ..

.. 21-8 ..

.. 2-4

58-0 ..

.. 130 ..

.. 2-0

55'5 ..

. . 260 . .

.. 1-2

6J-5 ..

. , 230 . .

.. 11

69-8 ..

. . 26-3 . .

.. 3-9

65-0 ..

. . 245 . .

.. 0-5

61-2 ..

.. n-s ..

.. 0-3

57-1 ..

. . 27 5 . .

.. 2-9

71-5 ..

. . 180 . .

.. or,

67-0 ..

. . 18-8 . .

.. 0-7

64-3 ..

. . 23-4 . .

.. 0-5

52-9 ..

. . 20-5 . .

.. 11

59-2 ..

, , 22-7 . .

.. 1-0

65-5 ..

.. 25-0 ..

.. 1-7

69-5 ..

.. 16-5 .

.. 0-8

04-0 ..

. . 25-2 .

.. 1-7

METEOEOLOaY OF MAECH.

FROM OBSERVATIONS AT HIGHFUXD HOUSE OBSERVATORY.

Year.

1842 . ,

1843 .,

1844 .
I84r. .

1846 .

1847 .

1848 .

1849 .

1850 .

1851 .

1852 .

1853 .

1854 .

1855 .

1856 .

1857 .

1858 .

1859 .
The greatest heat in shade reached 7] -5^ in 1852,

and only 52-9" in 1855, giving a range of 18-6'' in greatest
heat for March during the past eighteen years.

The greatest cold was as low as 13" in 1845
(descending 1° below zero on the grass), and never
below 31-0'" in 1842, giving a range of 18-0° for March
during the past eighteen years. The coldest years
were 1845, 1850, 1852, 1853, and 1858; and the warmest,
1842, 1846, 1848, and 1851.

Only 0-3 inch of rain fell in March, 1850, and as
much as 3-9 inches in 1848, giving arange of 30 inches,
or above 3J inches for March during the past seven-
teen years. In eight years the fall did not exceed an
inch, and in four years it was two inches and upwards.
The mean fall of rain for March is r4 inches.

March is a changeable month, the range of tem-
perature being under 30° in 1842, 1846, and 1851, and
being 53" in 1858, and 53'6° in 1852. It is subject to
gales of wind. E. J. Lowe.

ASTEONOMICAL OBSEEVATIONS
FOE MAECH, 1860.

The sun is in Pisces, and south of the equator, until
the 20th, at 9h. 5m. in the morning, when he passes
into Aries, and is north of the equator. He rises in
London on the 1st at 6h. 47m., on the 10th at Oh. 27m.,
on the 20th at 6h. 4m., and on the 30th at 5h. 41m.
He sets in London on the 1st at 5h. 89m., on the 10th
at 5h. 55m., on the 20th at 6h. 12m., and on the 30th
at 6h. 28m.

The sun reaches the meridian in London on the
Ist at 12h. 12m. 30s. ; on the 16th at 12h. 8m. 41s. ;
and on the 31st at 12h. 4m. 8s.

The equation of time on the 1st being 12m. 30s. ;
on the 16th, 8m. 41s.; and on the 31st, 4m. 8s.;
tlie clock being these amounts before the sun.

Length of day on the 3rd, llh. Im., and on the 19th,
12h. 3m.

Day breaks on the 9th at 4h. 36m., and on the 27th
at 8h. 49m.

Twilight ends on the 10th at 7h. 48m., and on the
22ndat8h.llm.

Duration of twilight after sunset on the 1st, lh.51iil.;
on the 16th, Ih. 54m. ; and on the 31st, 2h. Om.
The moon is full on the 7th at 12h. 44m. p.m.
New moon on the 22nd at Ih. 56m. p.m.
The moon is nearest to the earth on the 7th, and
most remote from us on the 20th.

Mercury is an evening star, and is favour-
able for observation in the middle of the month.
He is nearest to the sun on the 10th, and reaches his
greatest eastern elongation on the 16th. He is in Pisces.
Mercury rises on the 12th at Gh. 42m., and on the
17th at 6h. 20m.; souths on the 12th and 17th
at Ih. 12m. p.m. ; and sets on the 12th at 71i. 43m.
p.m., on the 17th at 7h. 57m., and on the 22nd at
7h. 55m. p.m.

Venus is now becoming a fine object, and will
rapidly increase in apparent size for the next three
months. She is an evening star, in Pisces in the be-
ginning of the month, and in Aries and Taurus towards
the end. Venus rises on the 2nd at 7h. 46m. a.m. ; on
the 17th at 7h. 15m., and on the 27th at Oh. 57m. ; and
sets on the 2nd at 9h. 8m. p.m., on the 17th at 9h. 55m.,
and on the 27th at lOh. 25m. p.m.

Mars is unfavourably situated for observation, but
is increasing in size and brightness ; he is in Ophiu-
chus at the beginning, and in Sagittarius at the end
of the month. He is a morning star, rising on the
2nd at 2h. 30m. a.m., and on the 27th at Ih. 58m. a.m.
He is visible in S.E. at 3 a.m.

Jupiter, though not so bright, is stUl afine object in
the constellation Gemini. He rises on the 2nd at
12h. 10m. p.m., and on the 27th at lOh. 34m. a.m. ;
souths on the 2nd at 8h. 23m. p.m., and on the S7th at
6h. 46im. p.m., setting on the 2nd at 4h. 40m. a.m.,
and on the 27th at 3h. 4m. a.m.

Saturn is favourably situated, he is an evening
star, and is still in the constellation of Leo. He rises
on the 1st at 6h. 26m. p.m., on the 21st at 5h. .""im.,
and on the 31st at 4h. 25m. p.m. ; and souths on the
1st at 19h. 5Gm. p.m., and on the 31st at 8h. 52m.

Uranus is still in Taurus, and is visible daring
the evening, rising on the 2nd at 9h. 26m. a.m., and
on the 27th at 7h. 50m. a.m. ; southing on the 2nd at
5h. 25m. p.m., and on the 27th at 3h. 50m. p.m. ; and
setting on the 2nd at Ih. 29m. a.m., and on the 27th
at llh. 50m. p.m.

The new Intra-Mercurial Planet : according to M.
Le Verrier, a transit across the sun's disc will take
jjlace some time between March 25th and April lOtli.

Eclipses of Jupiter's satellites at Greenwich : —
On the 1st, at Ih. 5m. 47s. a.m., 1st moon reappears.
On the 2nd, at 7h. 34m. 33s. p.m., 1st moon reap-
pears. On the 5th, at 2h. 41m. 34s. a.m., 2nd moon
reappears. On the 8th, at 3h. Im. Is. a.m., 1st moon
reappears. On the Sth, at 7h. 48m. 48s. p.m., 4th
moon disappears. On the 8th, at llh. 46m. 15s. p.m.,

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

287

4th moon reappears. On the 9th, at 9h. 29m. 498.
p.m., 1st moon reappears. On the 16th, at llh. 25m.
9s. p.m., 1st moon reappears. On the 22ncl, at 9h.
11m. 52s. p.m., 2nd moon reappears. On the 24th,
at Ih. 20m. 33s. a m., 1st moon reappears. On the
25th, at 7h. 49m. 263. p.m., 1st moon reappears. On
tiie 25th, at 8h. 12m. 54s. p.m., 3rd moon re-
appears. On the 29th, at llh. 47m. 44s. p.m., 2nd
moon reappears.

At 10 p.m., meantime, on the 8th, the 1st moon is
on the body of Jupiter, and %ain on the 31st. On
the 20th, the second moon is on the body, and on the
2 1st, the 3rd moon is on the body, of Jupiter.

Occultations of Stars by the Moon at Greenwich : —
On the 4th, S Cancri (4th magnitude star) disappears
at 7h. 14m. p.m., and reappears at 8h. 15m. p.m. On
the 5th, 18 Leonis (5th magni-
tude star) disappears at 9h. 12m.
p.m., and reappears at lOh. 18m.
p.m. On the 5th, E Leonis (va-
riable star) disappears at lOli.
7m. p.m., and reappears at llh.
I3m. p.m. VENUS.

Illuminated Portion of the Discs of Venus and
Mars on March 15th :— Venus = 0-745 ; Mars = 0884.

E. J. Lowe.

THINGS OF THE SEASON— MARCH.

FOR VAEIOUS LOCALITIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.

Birds Arriving. —Bunting, Eeed Sparrow, Eed-
legged Sea-mew, Stone Curlew, Least Willow Wren,,
Wheatear.

Birds Departing.— Teal, Widgeon, Snipe, Wood-
cock, Solan Goose, Fieldfare, Merlin, Eed-headed
I'ocher, Turnstone, Eedwing, Thrush.

Insects.— Byrrhus pilula, Opilus mollis, Leistus
fulvibarbis, Poecilus cupreus, Stomispumicatus, Whirl-
wig Beetle, Necrophorus vespillo and mortuorum.
Lesser Stag Beetle, 23-spotted Coccinella, Orange Un-
derwing, March Moth, Chrysomela litura, Pedinus
femoralis.

Wild Plants in Flower.— Spring Crocus, Sweet
Violet, Daffodil, Star of Bethlehem, Two-leaved Squill,
Mezereon, Cotton Grass, Blackthorn, Strawberry po-
tentilla, Basque Flower, Lesser Celandine, Mai-sh
Marigold, Colt's-foot, Ground Ivy, Wood Spurge, Alder,
Small-leaved Elm, Butcher's-broom, Poplars.

jM^JSToteworthy'sCfi

orner.

Food fob Tame Fishes.— One of Mr. Noteworthy's
friends feeds his fishes with boiled rice, and they eat
it greedily,and thrive upon it. The rice is boiled in water
till quite soft, then drained nearly dry, and of course
given when cold. Carp of all kinds, minnows, roach,
and other fishes in the aquarium, like it exceedmgly.

Cheap Gas Eequlatoe. — Gas requires a certain
proportion of atmospheric air to be mixed with it, in
order to obtain proper combustion in connection with
the evolution of as large an amount of light as possible.
The reason urged for putting on
great pressure at the works is,
that the gas, being much lighter
than common air, shows decided
disinclination to go . down-hill
itself, beyond the level of its
birth-place, and make its appear-
ance in depressed situations ;
force is therefore found requisite
to make it " move on," and as
this cannot be so nicely adjusted
as to suit all circumstances,
fizzing is the result. To remedy
this various appliances have been
tried, the general object being to
retard the flow of gas near the
point of combustion, by adding
chambers filled with different ma-
terials after the manner of a filter. C!„„i- en -1
rr 3 ^\ J- ■ •. • , Section of Gas-nib,

lo remedy the fizzing, it is only as fill 1

necessary to unscrew the nib, and
partially fill it with a piece of unravelled string,
pressed in more tightly according to the amount of
relief required; screw the nib on again, and the
operation and regulator will be completed. For this
Mr. Noteworthy is indebted to Mr. Thomas Goodchild,
of Reading.

Meteorology of 1859. — In looking over his wea-
ther journal, Mr. Noteworthy finds that the chief
meteorological phenomena of 1859 may be classed
under three heads. First, as to temperature, the
spring and autumn were severely cold, sharp frosts
and snow came at the end of March, continued inter-
mittedly till the end of May, and again in October
frost again occurred, and lasted till nearly the end of
the year. Between these two rigorous seasons occurred
an intensely hot summer, which in the month of July
attained to an oppressive degree of heat. Secondly,
as to the duration of the summer. There was no
frost in the air from April 2.3 to October 22, a period
of twenty-four weeks. There was no frost on grass at
night from May 9 to October 21, a period of twenty-
two weeks. Thus the summer was of the same length
as in 1858. In 1857, the summer lasted only twenty
weeks, and in 1856 oiily fourteen. In atmospheric
phenomena the year was remarkable for numerous
and severe storms. The register at Lloyd's reveals
many a sad story of marine disaster besides that of
the " Eoyal Charter." There were 500 bodies strewed
upon our coasts in one week. On the 2nd of July
occurred a tremendous storm of hail near London,
which in one nursery alone destroyed more than an acre
of glass. That storm was followed by three weeks of
intensely hot weather. The storm was foretold by the
barometer, as was also the circular hurricane later in
the year, by which the great ship was charred into
fragments within a gunshot of her home.

288

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

Other People's Pets. — There is a great gap in
our moral laws, and I do not know but what the cri-
minal law ought to take notice of it, and make the
meddling with other people's pets a penal act. I c.in't
complain of a man who poisons my cat, because if she
goes on his premises she must take her risk of
■what may befal her ; and I know that if my neigh-
bour hangs his canary on his own grape-vine, my
cat is not sufl&ciently neighbourly to respect it. But
why does my friend poke his stick into my squirrel-
cage to make my little " Frisky" show his agility,
that he — the friend of my bosom — may enjoy a silly
laugh? People who would complain loudly if one
were to teach their dogs to snap and their cats
to steal, will go to your parrot, and tempt her with
their meddling fingers, that she may learn to hate
strangers ; they will seize your pet Billy-goat by the
horns to try his strength, and spoil his temper, and as
for your gold-fishes, they wiU throw cakes and scraps
of bread to them, to poison the water and frighten the
pretty things to death. When I visit a friend I make
it a rule never to put my fingers on anything, either in
his house or garden, and when I see a friend taking
the liberty of walking ofi" the path to get at something,
I feel inclined — but no matter, I bear the crushing of
my seedlings, the snapping of my raspberry-stems, and
the disjointing of my cucumbers, with the patience of
Job. Fingers that itch to meddle with other people's
pets deserve to be chopped off, and he who cannot
respect the fruits of another's labour, and the objects
of another's fondness, ought, so Mr. Noteworthy
thinks, to be shut out of society altogether, or taken
in the act, and • !

SuGOESTioN FOR A BiNOSCOPic ToT. — Standing one
summer's day near a garden-hedge, I looked through
it at a man loading a cart with hay in the adjoining
field — the man and cart being at some little distance
from the place where I had stationed myself; when
presently I was surprised at perceiving a second per-
son, as I thought, assisting him. So complete was
the delusion, that I, for some minutes, paused to
consider who this second person could possibly be.
I looked again, and still there were two men, one fol-
lowing the other, and both busily employed in lifting
the hay with forks. Presently, however, it occurred
to me that their movements and dress were exactly
similar, and on closer inspection I found that these
two persons were in reality two images of the same
haymaker, formed with the utmost precision by some
arrangement of the leaves and sprays, between whose
lattice-work the picture found its way to my eyes. I
tried the experiment again and again at different times,
and with dilFerent objects, and I found that by getting
certain leaves or sprays between my eyes, and the
object under observation, it could be doubled very dis-
tinctly and separately, each image being equally clear.
How the intervening leaves and sprays were arranged
I could not quite discover, but I supposed that they
in some way intercepted the rays of light, so as to
cause each eye to see the object in a slightly different
situation. The stereoscope reduces two pictures to

one, and it occurred to me that those better acquainted
with optics than myself might be able to invent some
amusing toy which could thus be made to multiply
one picture into two. — M. G. C.

Lightning -RODS. — The conductor, or lightning-
rod, which has always been regarded as one of the
proudest trophies of science, was known and employed
by people of no more refined cultivation than the wild
peasantry of Lombardy. The Abbe Berthollet, in his
work on electricity, describes a practice used on one of
the bastions of the Castle of Duino, on the shores of
the Adriatic, which has existed from time immemorial,
and which is literally neither more nor less than the
process which enabled Franklin to bring lightning
down from the clouds. An iron staff, it seems, was
erected on the bastion of the castle during the summer,
and it was a part of the duty of the sentinel, whenever
a storm threatened, to raise an iron-pointed halbert
toward this stafi'. If, on the approach of the halbert
sparks were emitted (which, to the scientific mind,
would show that the staff was charged with electricity
from a thunder-cloud), the sentinel was made sure that
a storm impended, and he tolled a bell which sent
forth the tidings to the surromiding country. Notliing
can be more delightfully amiable than the paternal
care of its subjects which this provision of the local
government exemplified. The admonishing sound of
the bell was obeyed like a preternatural signal from
the depth of the firmament. Shepherds were seen
hurrying over the valleys, urging flocks from exposed
fields to places of shelter; the fishing-boats, with
which the coast of the Adriatic was generally studded,
forthwith began to crowd sail, and make for the nearest
port ; whilst many a supplication was put from many a
gentle and devout heart on shore, before some hal-
lowed shrine, for the safety of the little fleet.

Do Dogs Understand Human Speech? — The
replies forwarded to the query of Mr. Westcott would
suffice to fiU a volume, and the purport of them all is —
Yes. "Eecreative Science" is not a mere book of
anecdotes, and therefore we cannot make room for the
many instances of canine sagacity with which corre-
spondents have favoured us. Let one anecdote
suffice, and it is one that Mr. Noteworthy pronounces
to be true. A game-keeper went afield without his
belt. When some miles from home he said to his dog,
" I forgot my belt ; go back and get No. 6." The dog
went home, went to the shed where the belts were hung,
and barked for help. His mistress handed him belt
No. 1— "No." Then No. 2— "No." Then No. 3, and so
on to No. G, which the dog seized with a whine of de-
light and a fearful wagging of his tail, and started away
with it. The dog understood his master's speech ; but
mark, the speech had to do with affairs with which the
dog was familiar, and clviver dogs at once attach to
such words their proper meaning, A discourse on
ethics would not be understood, nor perhaps would
any mere words without accompanying gestures ex-
pressive of their meaning.

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

289

Luganure Lead Mine, County Wicklow, Ireland.

LEAD IN TWO PAETS.

PAET I. — THE MOUTH OF THE MINE.

If we want a substance wliicli shall be suffi- only can be employed.

clently fusible to admit of its being readily
cast into any required form, which shall be
flexible enough to make into long tubes,
tenacious enough to form large sheets, and
possess at the same time the important pro-
perty of resisting aqueous and atmospheric
action, we shall find, on looking over the
twelve or fourteen metals which have been
provided for us, that there are but two
which combine in themselves all these ad-
vantages.

These two metals are tin and lead. Now,
tin is expensive, for it does not occur in large
quantity in nature, so that we are obliged to
fall back upon its more abundant relation.
There are some purposes, moreover, for which
tin would be unfitted, and for which lead
Vol. I.— No. 9.

19

In some of these
cases, the peculiar property which is taken
advantage of is its easy fusibility, rendering
it possible to recast any objects which may be
imperfectly formed. If we had not lead, we
might still, like the Chinese, be printing from
wooden type. In others it is its peculiar
softness which constitutes its superiority for
some given object over any other metal. No
other substance, for example, is so perfectly-
suited for forming projectiles for rifled fire-
arms, as even tin bullets would soon, by
tearing the interior of the bore, impair the
accuracy of the weapon. It is this very
softness, too, which has recently been taken
advantage of in the construction of shells for
the Armstrong gun, the projectiles being
coated with lead, which, by the explosion of

C c

290

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

tlie cliarge, is forced into the grooves of the
bore. In other cases, again, the valuable
property for which lead is chosen is the
readiness with which it enters into union
with other metals to form alloys no less
useful than lead itself. Illustrations of these
are found in ordinary plumber's solder, pew-
ter, and shot-metal. To the manufacturing
chemist lead is invaluable, as it affords him
a means of cheaply constructing apparatus,
which is unacted on by the most powerful
agents with which he has to do.

It is fortunate, then, when all these im-
portant applications of lead are taken into
consideration, that it is abundant. Without
entering into statistical details, it wiU be
sufficient to say that Great Britain and Ire-
land produce about 73,000 tons annnally,
and that Spain and America also supply
it in large quantity. ]N"ot only is lead
plentif\il, but it is easily extracted from its
ores J for although occasionally found in the
metallic state, such an occurrence is very
unusual, and the quantity thus obtained is of
no commercial importance whatever. The
ores of lead are very numerous, consisting
of the sulphide, carbonate, oxide, chloride,
phosphate, sulphate, arseniate, and chromate ;
but as the quantity in which the last seven
occur is exceedingly small, their interest is
chiefly confined to the mineralogist, and the
sulphide is the principal source of the lead
of commerce. The two counties of Durham
and Northumberland produce nearly one-
fourth of the lead ore of the United King-
dom, the rest coming principally from South
Wales. Although Ireland has no very rich
mines of this metal, still those which are in
the hands of the Mining Company are worked
in a very creditable manner, and all the most
recent refinements of science are brought to
bear upon the profitable management of the
ore, and the after treatment of the lead.

Not many months since, during a walking
tour in Wicklow, I made, for the first time,
the acquaintance of Grlendalough, a region

which has ever been sacred to the antiqua-
rian, and beloved by the more refined among
Dublin pleasure-seekers. It was in the twi-
light of an August evening that the cross
and round tower of one of the most conspi-
cuous of the Seven Churches, with its back-
ground of rippled water, seemed suddenly to
emerge from" the embrace of the surrounding
cliffs, and the lights in the white cottages
twinkled with an air of comfort and invitation
which to me, a tired pedestrian, was espe-
cially welcome. Half an hour before I had
passed through a village which presented a
scene of activity, and an appearance of com-
fort which was not only in marked contrast
to all that I had seen in Wicklow, but is
much too unusual altogether in Ireland, On
inquiry, I found that this was Laragh, a
hamlet which has sprung up entirely out of
the exertions of the Mining Company, who
have established schools and built dwellings
for those in their employment. I learned,
also, that at the " Churches " a very exten-
sive lead-mine was in full operation, and I
hailed the fact with delight as an addition to
my share of sight-seeing.

Next morning I started to see the mine,
and again the marked difference to any other
part of the county struck me. Here I met
the miners by dozens, going to their work ;
here their wives and daughters carrying their
breakfasts, and the candles with which they
light the mine ; and every now and then I
passed neat cottages, with patches of flower-
garden in front, a marked improvement, as
the reader who has any experience of Irisli
cottages will readily admit, upon the custo-
mary and time-honoured pool of dirty water.
I notice these circumstances, which might
appear out of place here, as examples of the,
way in which scientific industry affects the
prosperity of a country, and because I know
of no more delightful spectacle than English
habits of comfort engrafted upon Irish warmth
of heart, and their effects made manifest
upon Irish soil.

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

291

The first objects whicli attract attention
at the moutli of our lead-mine, are a very-
large water-wlieel, turned by the mountain
stream, which rushes down the ravine in
front, and several immense heaps of what
appears to be fine white gravel, but which is
really the delris of the mine. Further on,
we come upon several men busily engaged
with hammers upon a huge heap of glisten-
ing stone, which it is not difficult to tell is
the lead ore. But to see everything, and not
bring away merely a confused idea of the
whole, we must begin at the beginning.

A visit to the mine itself, however, would
hardly repay us for the trouble and incon-
venience of getting there ; we should only
see the miners with their pickaxes, cutting
away the lead, containing quartz, from the
solid rock, and selecting such pieces to be
conveyed above ground as are sufiiciently
rich in metal to be worth working. For, by
a very judicious arrangement, the miner is
not remunerated for the time he works, nor
even for a certain quantity of ore brought to
the surface, but the Company purchase from
him the dressed ore, in a condition fit for
smelting, at a price which of course varies
with the market value of lead, debiting him,
meanwhile, with all implements used, and
with the cost of dressing. !N"othing can be
more just or more to the advantage of all
parties than this. The Company are not pay-
ing for unremunerative labour, and the miner
shares equally with the Company in the pro-
fits of the speculation. Of course this prin-
ciple is only carried out when the mine is in
full operation, for the expense of prelimi-
nary operations and the chances of the mine
proving profitable all fall upon the Company.

First of-all, then, the galena, which in this,
as in most other cases, occurs in a quartz
formation, after having been dug out, is
placed in trucks, two of which are attached
to either end of a long chain, which passes
over a pulley. The trucks run upon two
parallel lines of railway down the side of the

hill, in such a manner that the two descend-
ing trucks laden with ore shall draw up to
the entrance, or " level," of the mine, the
two others which had been relieved of their
load. Down they come, with a speed which
every moment increases until the level
ground is reached, and even then they
have sufficient inertia to propel them right
up to the shed in which is situated the
crushing-machine. A terrible engine is this,
unrelenting, remorseless, crushing the tough
galena into fragments, with as little difficulty
as a grocer's mill grinds cofiee-beans. And
now the ore, separated, as completely as is
possible from the quartz which has so long
borne it company, has arrived at an impor-
tant crisis in its history, and we will see how
it fares. The building which contains the
crushing-machine is two-storied, and it is
into the upper story that the ore-laden
trucks are made to pass. We now know
the secret of the water-wheel, for entering
down stairs we see two inflexible iron cylin-
ders moving, by a cunning arrangement of
cogged wheels, in opposite directions.

These cylinders, which are "case har-
dened," or superficially converted into steel,
are so close together, that an ordinary pencil
passed between them would emerge beneath
as a flat band, and this contiguity is kept up
by means of a heavy weight, or "bob,"attached
to the extremity of a lever, which bears upon
one of them. The ore supplied from above,
through a hopper, comes down in a steady,
gradual stream, falling fairly between the
cylinders, and is soon reduced to fragments.
But with such hard work to do, it is not to
be expected that it should be performed very
rapidly. The crushed ore falls into a tubular
sieve, which, being gently inclined, allows
those fragments which do not pass through
its meshes to slide into a bucket placed to
receive them. The finer portions — almost
dust now — pass through, and are swept by
an attendant boy into a wooden gutter or
channel. When the bucket is fuU of the im-

292

EECREATIYE SCIENCE.

perfectly-crushed ore, a signal is given ; it is
hauled up to undergo a repetition of the
process ; and this is continued until the whole
is reduced to an uniform condition of fineness.

Even now, notwithstanding the sorting
process, a very considerable amount of quartz
remains intermixed with the crushed ore, and
as this would very much interfere with the
subsequent smelting, it becomes necessary to
remove it. In order to understand the prin-
ciple upon which the operation next to be
described is based, the reader must remem-
ber that galena is very much heavier than
quartz ; and that, supposing a mixture of two
substances, one heavy and the other light — as
sand and shot, for example — to be thrown
into a running brook, the sand would be
carried to some distance by the water, while
the shot would remain almost at the place
where it was thrown in.

It is by taking advantage of this diffe-
rence in specific gravity, that the separation
of the galena from the " gangue," as it is
called, is effected. After passing from the
sieve, the crushed ore meets in the gutter or
channel with a stream of water, which, hav-
ing already turned the water-wheel, is fur-
ther made to wash the ore, and still come
along pretty rapidly and with some force.
Very soon the effect of its action is made
manifest. At intervals along the water-
course are lateral openings into shallow
tanks, and here are stationed men, armed
with instruments like a rake minus the
teeth, who draw into the reservoirs the ga-
lena which accumulates in the channel. To-
wards the upper extremity of this simple
washing apparatus, are found lumps of ga-
lena ; but as we go lower down, we find that
these diminish in size, until, having degene-
rated into a mere plumbeous sand, the lead
ceases altogether, and in its stead we come
upon nothing but the rejected quartz, the
particles of which, in the same manner, grow
small by degrees, and finally dwindle into
dust. At the upper part, where the galena

lies in small lumps, we find quartz in rather
larger fragments, which have resisted the im-
pulse of the stream, and remain intermixed
with the ore. This portion is reserved for
treatment in a series of oblong boxes, which
have a jerking motion communicated to
them. These boxes are filled with the
mixed ore and qiiartz, and in the same way
as shaking a basket of chips and halfpence
would determine the subsidence of the latter
to the bottom, does the galena separate itself
from the less heavy quartz, which is removed
from time to time to make room for a new
supply. When removed from the washing-
tubs, the galena is placed in heaps, each of
which is the share of a miner. With the
correct weighing and transference of the ore
to long cofiin-shaped boxes, in which, securely
padlocked, it is conveyed to the smelting-
works, the mechanical part of its treatment
ends, and it bids farewell to the mine.
Dublin. Haeey Napibe Deapee.

STAE SCINTILLATIONS.
•«•
We are informed by Humboldt, that in the
tropics the stars shine with a steady lustre,
not twinkling or scintillating as they appear
in our zone. The cause of this appears to me
very simple, and I will proceed to explain it.
Between ourselves and the stars there are
many atmospherical strata of various densi-
ties, which diversity in density of strata
may perhaps extend to the ether beyond the
limits of our atmosphere, if such exists. It
appears that this diversity of density causes
the apparent twinkling of the stars, because
we find the same phenomena in connection
with terrestrial objects. If we look at a gas
jet at a distance, it will appear surrounded
with scintillations, which are not seen if
we are close to it. These are more appa-
rent when the weather is foggy, because
the diversity in the densities of the strata is
then greatest. J. A. Davies,

EECBEATIVE SCIENCE.

293

HISTOEY AND USES OF THE HEMP.

The commoa European, hemp, Cannabis
sativa, is the same plant as the one called
C. Indica. It has been from the remotest
period cultivated and highly esteemed, espe-
cially in Eastern countries, for the narcotic
properties which it possesses, and, in. the more
temperate regions, for the valuable fibre which
is easily separated from its stems. Herodotus
(1. 4, c. 75) informs us that the Scythians
had a custom of burning the seeds of this
plant in religious ceremonies, and that those
who inhaled it became intoxicated with its
fumes. Galen also mentions the intoxicating
properties of hemp, and it is supposed to be
this plant which Homer makes Helen admi-
nister to Telemachus to make him forget his
sorrows. The hemp belongs to the same
natural order of plants as the nettle, which we
have before spoken of (p. 77). It is believed to
be a native of India, and to have been brought
to Europe from Persia, and, like many other
plants, has the wonderful power of adapting
itself to almost any soil and climate. From
this circumstance and its great utility, it is
now cultivated in almost all parts of the
world. Amongst the Eastern nations, it is
chiefly cultivated for the narcotic properties
which it contains j but in the Northern coun-
tries it does not appear to possess the same
quantity of the narcotic principle, and is
there cultivated more especially for the
valuable fibre which is found in the stems.

Throughout the whole of Italy, and in
most of the southern provinces of France, and
in almost every part of G-ermany, the culti-
vator of the soil allots a certain portion of his
land to the growth of the hemp ; and the
industrious women, both young and old, espe-
cially in. the rural districts of Italy, may be
seen, while tending their flocks and herds,
busily engaged spinning it in the ancient
manner, with the distaff (Fig. 1), which is
generally made of a portion of the stem of

the bamboo ; they afterwards wind the thread
upon bobbins, and weave it into various
fabrics for do-
mestic use ; but
it is chiefly in
the northern
parts of Russia,
even as far north
as Archangel,
that the hemp is
grown as an ar-
ticle for expor-
tation, and it is
from that coun-
try that our ma-
nufactories ob-
tain the greater
portion of their
supplies.

The plant
grosvs from six
to twelve feet
high, and is more
or less branched, terminating in a bunch of
greenish flowers. The leaves are large, di-
vided into five to eight narrow lanceolate
serrated segments in a palmated manner ;
and when the plant is grown separated
from others, it has a pretty, graceful appear-
ance (Fig. 2.) When the plants have at-
tained their full growth, they are pulled up,
and the roots chopped off, and then spread
out to dry in the sun ; when they are suffi-
ciently dry they are beaten so as to sepa-
rate from the stem the leaves and smaller
branches ; the stems are then immersed in
pools or streams of water, until they undergo
a species of putrefaction, and when large
quantities are going through this process, the
stench arising from them is extremely offen-
sive. By being thus steeped in water, the glu-
tinous matter of the plant is destroyed, and
the fibre is in a great measure liberated.

294

EECKEATIYE SCIENCE.

TJiey are then taken out of the water, and
spread out to dry and bleach in the sun. The

Fig. a.

whole, except the woody fibre, is now become
very brittle ; it is then beaten and chopped
between stout pieces of wood arranged for
the purpose, and the fibre separated from the
rest of the vegetable matter. It is then
combed, and tied up into convenient-sized
bundles for home use or sale.

The roots of the hemp are very liable to
be attacked by one of the species of that
curious tribe of parasitical plants the Oro-
hanche, and, from its stem being branched, it
is called the O. ramosa (Fig. 3). It grows
from six to twelve inches high, is of a pale-
yellowish brown colour, and bears a few
scattered brown membranous scales in the
place of leaves ; its flowers are numerous, of
a pale purplish colour. An ordinary-sized
plant bears about sixty-six capsules, and in
each there are about 1100 small, but very
beautiful-looking seeds; so that one plant
alone furnishes no less a number than 72,600
seeds ! each of which is capable of producing
a plant, and as the seeds of the Orobanche
are known to remain a considerable time in
the ground without losing their vitality, the
chances of their idtimate development on
the roots of the hemp are increased.

I have observed, in a field where the hemp
has grown, the roots very much infested with
this plant, but
still the plants
of the hemp on
which it grew
were apparently
uninjured by
it. The field
was sown with
wheat, turnips,
and other crops,
on, I believe,
the five suc-
ceeding years ;
but not a plant
of the Oro-
banche was to
be found, but
hemp was again
sown, and then
there sprang up
an abundance of
this pretty parar
sitical plant-
In the sap of
the hemp there
exists a peculiar
resinous sub-
stance, which
possesses nar-
cotic properties.
A hemp - field,

especially in a southern climate, when the hot
rays of the sun are acting upon it, has a pe-
culiar odour, which often produces, in persons
who remain any length of time in it, headache
and giddiness. This probably arises from
the volatile narcotic principle being evaporated
and suspended in the surrounding atmosphere,
and is consequently inhaled, and produces its
specific efiect. The quantity of this nar-
cotic principle, which is of a resinous cha-
racter, is much greater in the plant when
grown in hot countries than it is in colder
regions ; but the fibre is not so good, and is,

Fig. 3. — Orobanche ramosa.

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

295

indeed, considered worthless. The resin, how-
ever, is so abundant as often to exu.de from
the plant, and is gathered for use. The
whole plant abounds in it, and it is used in
various ways, and extracts are made from it,
and names are given to the different prepa-
rations. The resin, which exudes naturally
from the plant, is the most esteemed, and is
called momcea, or cJiurrus. When the whole
plant is collected and dried, it is sold in Cal-
cutta market under the name of gunjaJi. If
the larger leaves and capsules are dried toge-
ther, it is known as hang, suhjea, or sidhce.
When the tender tops and leaves of the plant
are collected, and dried, it is called haschisch,
or by the Egyptians hhasTiee sh, and this
they commonly mix with tobacco, and smoke
it. The dried flowers the Moors caU Jcief,
which they smoke in the same way as tobacco,
but a small pipeful of it is sufficient to pro-
duce intoxication. An extract made by in-
fusing the whole plant in an alcoholic solu-
tion, and then evaporated, is said to be very
active ; but the extract called by the Arabs
dawamese is the form most commonly used.
It is made by boiling the leaves and flowers of
the hemp in water, to which a certain portion
of fresh butter is added, and then evaporated
to the thickness of a syrup ; in this state it
has a very disagreeable taste, and to disguise
it there is generally added some aromatics,
such as camphor, cloves, nutmeg, and thus it
is formed into a kind of electuary. This
composition is said to form the chief ingredient
of the haschisch of many Eastern nations. A
preparation similar to this is called by the
Moors el mogea, and is sold at a very high
price.

" The practice of chewing the leaves of this
plant, to induce intoxication, prevailed or ex-
isted in India in very early ages : hence it
was introduced into Persia, and about six
centuries ago (before the middle of the thir-
teenth century of our era) this pernicious and
degrading custom was adopted in Egypt, but
chiefly by persons of the lower order, though

several men eminent in literature and reli-
gion, and vast numbers of fakeers (or poor
devotees), yielded to its fascinations, and con-
tended that it was lawful to the Moos'lem.
The habit is now very common among the
lower orders in the metropolis, and other
towns of Egypt." The same author says :
" The preparation of hemp used for smoking
generally produces boisterous mirth. Few
inhalations of its smoke, but the last very
copious, are u.sually taken from the gozeh.
After the emission of the last draught from
the mouth and nostrils, commonly a fit of
coughing, and often a spitting of blood ensues,
in consequence of the lungs having been fiUed
with the smoke. Hhashai'sh is to be obtained
not only at some of the coffee-shops j there
are shops of a smaller and more private de-
scription, solely appropriated to the sale of
this and other intoxicating preparations ; they
are called mahh'shesh'ehs. It is sometimes
amusing to observe the ridiculous conduct,
and to listen to the conversation of the per-
sons who frequent these shops. They are
all of the lower order. The term hhash'sha'sh,
which signifies a smoker, or an eater of hemp,
is an appellation of obloquy. ]S"oisy and riot-
ous people are often called hhash'sha'shee'n,
which is the plural of that appellation, and
the origin of our word " assassin" — a name
first applied to Arab warriors in Syria, in
the time of the Crusades, who made use of
intoxicating and soporific drugs, in order to
render their enemies insensible."*

The effect which the administration of the
preparations of hemp produces varies greatly
in different individuals. Its general effect upon
Orientals is that of an agreeable and cheerful
character, some individuals, however, become
quarrelsome and violent. Its action upon
Europeans, at least in Europe, is considerably
less than upon the nations of hotter climates.
The very general use of some form or other
of the hemp in almost aU hot climates woxild
lead us to imply that it has not any injurious

* Lane's " Modern Egyptians," vol. ii., p. 32.

296

EEOEEATIYE SCIENCE.

effects upon the system, but rather that it was
agreeable and soothing ; the abuse of it, how-
ever, is exceedingly debasing, and renders
those habituated to its use unfit for the ordi-
nary affairs of life. I have, however, occa-
sionally met with individuals who, labouring
under some painful chronic disease, were
relieved by its daily administration.

Hemp is used, in some form or other, for
its narcotic properties in all parts of India,
in Persia, the East of Europe, and in all
Mohammedan countries. In northern, cen-
tral, and tropical Africa it is well known as a
powerful medicine and article of indulgence,
and in southern Africa the Hottentots use it
for the purpose of intoxication. In Brazil
even the native Indians are well acquainted
with it, and regale themselves in its use.

From the general use of hemp among the
natives of India, Dr. O'Shaughnessy was in-
duced to attentively examine its medicinal
properties. He states that when cJiurrus, or
natural resine, is administered in moderate
doses, it produces increase of appetite and
great mental cheerfulness, while in excess
it causes a peculiar kind of delirium and
catalepsy. " At two p.m.," says the learned
author, " a grain of the resin of hemp was
given to a rheumatic patient ; at four p.m. he
was very talkative, sang, called loudly for an
extra supply of food, and declared himself in
perfect health. At six p.m. he was asleep j
at eight p.m. he was found insensible, but
breathing with j)erfect regularity. His pulse
and skin were natural, and the pupils freely
contracted on the approach of light. Hap-
pening by chance to lift up the patient's arm,
the professional reader will judge of my
astonishment when I found it remained in
the same posture in which I placed it. It
required but a very brief examination of the
limbs to find that by the influence of this
narcotic the patient had been thrown into
the strangest and most extraordinary of aU
nervous conditions, which so few have seen,
and the existence of which so many still dis-

credit— the genuine catalepsy of the nosolo-
gist. We raised him to a sitting posture,
and placed his arms and limbs in every
imaginable attitude. A waxen figure could
not be more pliant or more stationary in each
position, no matter how contrary to the
natural influence of the gravity on the part !
To all impressions he was almost insensible."

The author afterwards found that this
extraordinary effect of the drug was pro-
duced upon other animals as well as man.
After a time the effect entirely passes away,
and leaves the individual altogether uninjured.

It may be by the use of the hemp that
the " fakeers" perform many of those won-
derful feats, and thus by dishonest means
exercise their influence upon the ignorant
and unsuspecting masses of the people.

Since the publication of Dr. O'Shaugh-
nessy's remarks upon the effects of the pre-
parations of hemp, it has been imported and
used in this country ; and in many cases in
which the preparations of opium disagreed,
this has been substituted, and generally with
great advantage to the patient.

It is needless to enumerate the very many
uses to which the fibre of the hemp is now
applied ; perhaps its most important applica-
tion in this country is in the manufactory of
ropes for ships, etc., and for making the
coarse kinds of cloth. The seeds yield by
pressure a yellowish kind of oil, which is
almost tasteless, but has a disagreeable smell.
It is used for burning in lamps in Russia and
other countries, and also in the manufactory
of soap and some kinds of varnish. Hemp,
rags, and old ropes are used for making paper
of various kinds. These are reduced to pulp
by machinery, the pulp is then spread upon
wire-gauze frames, and dried ; some kinds of
paper thus made are afterwards sized with a
solution of glue and alum, which increases
the strength of the paper, and to give it a
smooth or glossy appearance it is passed
between hot polished steel rollers.

R. Dbakin, M.D.

EECEEATIVB SCIENCE.

297

SPOHTIVE EXEECISES UPON MUSICAL NOTATION.

IN TWO PAETS. — PAET II.

SECTION IV.— THE SCALE.

But tliere is a eegular progression of tlie
notes from E to E (or from any one note
to its eighth, or octave), which is called the
Scale. This scale, which is called the
Natueal or Diatonic Scale, to distinguish
it from another called the Cheomatic, is
formed of certain tones and semitones, fol-
lowing each other in a wonderfully natural
manner.

Beginning at E, the semitones are be-
tween the notes G and A, and D-and E, the
third and fourth, and the seventh and eighth
of the scale, thus : —

EFGABCDE

Tone. Tone.

1 2

Semitone.

3 4

Tone.

6

Semito

7

Let the key-note (the note from which the
scale starts) stand for the figure 1. In the
present instance, and for the purposes of the
next problem, let that note be E ; F will
represent 2; G, 3 ; A, 4 ; B, 5 ; C, 6; D, 7;
and the last, E, 8. Get this well fixed on the
mind, and then resolve the following —

Peoblems upon Section IV.
1. What figures do these notes represent ?

3=

2. What these ?

^=p==^i=r*=zrp=^^=q^— =^

3. These?

EH^33=f=S^1^"3

:3

^3E^EE^

4. These?

L=:i=p — f — rpT=qiz=qz=qz=r=:
^=t=t:=iE:=:zt:=i=i3zzi;i=?zz:tz:
- — ' « —

5. These?

6. These?

1^— ^^ p_

— !!^i5E:-^=^=3Z-3^

:2:

Solutions.
1. 18531; 2. 8798351; 3. 153853251 j
4. 78983451; 5. 181813581; 6. 87654321.

SECTION v.— FIGURE, LENGTH, AND RELA-
TIVE VALUE OF NOTES, WITH THEIR
RESPECTIVE RESTS.

Notes.

=f=iE§=lEEl=§Ei^

Semibreve.

Bests.

Miuiin. Crotchet, Quaver. Semiquaver. DemisemU

quaver.

Semibreve Minim, Crotchet Quaver Semiquaver Demisemi-
rest. rest. re&t. reat. rest. quaver rest.

1 semibreve in length, of time is

equal to

s;^ ^

1 i

2 minims ; which are equal to

P P ^

ft

! 1 1- 1 .

4 crotchets ; or

• •«••«

p jt

. ■?- -^- L.,-«f: L-.J^--

8 quavers ; or

-i5H5-f-^-f-fr^^r-^^fM,r

_p_p_t.j.iij

16 semiquavers ; or

:i=i=cpipp9p:pciiipippij^!cprppcp:pppp:pppp:

-.^— .>^-H> — Uii^: — u^: — ^4.; — k^^. — 'i ; ; i; ; j | ; -i ' ' '

32 demisemiquavers.

-ia--

298

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

A Dot after a note or rest makes the
note or rest half as long again. Example:

— . — is equal to a — ^^^
— ~] — ' and a crotchet ; 1 —

— j_ mmim
— '[: — or to
three crotchets, and so on : T" is equal to T. "1
— i.e., a crotchet and quaver rest, etc.

Peoblems upon Section V.
1. Resolve this semibreve o— half into

crotchets, ,_ one-fourth

into qua-

vers, — ^—

— zr^iz and the other — « —

i^—

— ^z: fourth into semiquavers, ~|^.

2. Eesolve the semibreve half into minims,
and the remaining half into quavers.

3. Condense sixty-four demisemi- — B—
quavers into semibreves, — U^—

4. Condense sixty-four demisemiquavers
into crotchets.

5. Condense sixty-four semiquavers into
half-minims, and half-crotchets.

6. Condense sixty-four quavers half into
crotchets and half into minims.

Solutions.

1

p

p

m ■ ' p ■■■ a

~m

~m

-

— t-
2 ~

— 1=

' P f F

V — ^,
-/ / —

— p— +

J-:

o —

cs

^-^-

-+

4.

=p=

-W~

=P=

=p=i:

zt=E

5. =s^z:s^r
zit-iiij

i:s^-iq=frp=:p=:p-pr

ipirpzpzp-:

=p:z=p=zpz=p=Eiqiz-^z:

z=t:=t:=t:— i:=Ez:lz=i:ld

:p=p=p=p=i

:pzpzp=pit
:ti=t:=trrtnE

1^

^

Ezr-ij:

A Batch of Little Questions upon
Section V.
1. To two semibreves, two minims, and
two crotchets, how many quavers form an
equivalent P

2. While I am singing three semibreves
and six minims, how many crotchets might be
played ?

3. If the length of a psalm-tune be equal
to two hundred and fifty-six quavers, what is
its length in semibreves ?

4. What number of crotchets would repre-
sent the length of the psalm spoken of in the
previous question?

5. If a semibreve represented the value of
a twenty-pound note, what would be the rela-
tive value of a semiquaver ?

6. How many crotchets might inz^
be counted during a semibreve izzz:
rest?

7. What sort of a rest is this, and how
many crotchets are to be counted
while it is observed ?

8. How many quavers might be counted
during a minim rest ?

9. How many demisemiquavers might
be played during a rest equivalent to two
semibreves and one minim P

10. How many semiquavers are equal to
a dotted minim P

11. How many semiquavers are — - — _"
equal in length to a dotted crotchet P — p

12. How many of the same are ____zi
equal to a dotted quaver P —^ ■;

Answees.
1. Twenty-eight ; 2. Twenty-four ; 3.
Thirty -two ; 4. One hundred and twenty-
eight; 5. Twenty-five shillings; 6. Four;
7. A minim— two ; -8. Four ; 9. Eighty ; 10.
Twelve ; 11. Six ; 12. Three.

SECTION VI.— TIME AND ITS DIVISIONS.

The Bae, made thus, iniT^i: divides a
musical composition into T~~" equal por-
tions of time.

Time is divided into two sorts — common
and triple ; each of which is either simple
or COMPOUND ; and the character, or sign
which denotes it, is placed at the beginning
of every composition, after the clef.

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

299

Simple common time, when marked
thus, zzp^nz or thus, — J, — denotes that
each

s=

bar con

tains one se-

mibreve, or its equivalent. Example :

dBl

or,

=qz:qz:

"When marked thus,
contains one minim^ or its
lent. Example :

:zpip:prpzi-pz=ii=Ez:Q:

—^z — ■ the bar
tiscZZl equiva-

^:Jzq=tp-p:

EOUE SOBTS OF CoMPOtJND CoMMOK TiME

Explained,

First Sort, cojitaining Twelve Quavers in a
J3ar, or their Equivalent.

Second Sort, Six Quavers in a Bar, or their

Equivalent.

:fi:-qix:

:pzp=pz::p:

Third Sort, Twelve Crotchets in a Bar, etc.

Fourth Sort, Six Crotchets in a Bar, etc.

iq-zis^^p:

i^z^niijirt:

ip^mp^p:

[The last two sorts are very seldom used
in modern music]

Simple Teiplb Time Explained.
Three Minims in a Bar, etc.

1,

Compound Teiplb Time Explained.
Nine Crotchets in a Bar, etc.

'r^q^prpipipzpipip:

53UI Z

Nine Quavers in a Bar, etc.

pipzp:

[^Compound triple time is seldom used in
modern music]

N.B. — The contents of every bar in com-
mon time, whether simple or compound, may
be divided (by beating or counting) into four,
or into two equal parts ; and in triple time»
whether simple or compound, into three
equal parts.

The figure 3 placed over three crotchets,
quavers, or semiquavers, thus :

:p:Si=i=g — '-jioi-rpi!! ,_gz=iE-r--

(which are called triplets), denotes that the
three notes are to be played, or sung, in the
time of two.

Questions fob Exebcise upon Section VI.

1. How many crotchets, or their equi-
valents, would be found in a piece of twelve
bars marked at its commencement, thus

— ^— or thus ? — ^ — ;

2. A certain psalm-tune was of the length
of sixty-four crotchets, and was divided into
sixteen bars : what was the signature at the
commencement ?

3. A hymn-tune was of the length of
thirty-two crotchets, and was divided into
sixteen bars : what was the signature ?

4. A slow movement M^as of the length of
forty-five minims, and was divided into fifteen
bars. In what time was it written P

5. Another movement measured one hun-
dred and twenty crotchets, and was divided
into forty bars : what signature was found
at its beginning ?

300

EECEEATIYE SCIEISTCE.

6. A dance-tune was of the length of
forty-eight quavers, and was divided into six-
teen bars : what was the signature P

7. If, in the middle of a movement, you
saw a rest of this kind pzii;^'mi occupying a

whole bar, what would E ^j you j udge

the time of the movement to be ?

8. If you saw, under similar circum-

stances, this sign, [: — 1 what would you

— i of the movement

presume the time h —
to be?

9. If, under similar circumstances, you saw
a bar occupied by rests, thus, J^^

what would you judge the time t

of the movement to be ?

10. If, in the middle of a movement, you
met with a bar figured thus :

1— bJ — y«^— h- h-i ■•-

Or thus

what would you conclude the time of the
movement to be P

Solutions of Questions on Section VI.
1. Forty-eight.

2.

7. Common time ; four crotchets in each

bar.

8. Common time ; two crotchets in each
bar.

9. Triple time ; three-eighths, i. e., three
quavers in each bar.

10. Common time ; four crotchets in a bar.

SECTION Vir.— SHARPS, FLATS, AND
NATURALS.

A Sharp ji raises a note half a tone; it
makes it by that much acuter in sound. For

instance, C,

thus simply written, has a

certain sound izj;— (easily ascertainable by
touching that key upon the pianoforte, or pro-
ducing it from a blow-pipe). But if it have
a Sharp | placed against it, either in im-
mediate contact or next to the time-signature
at the commencement of the movement, it
expresses a sound half a tone higher. The
two ways in which C | is recognizable are as
under : — ■

1.

sB?^^

2.Efe-

"When the Sharp is affixed to the Staff in
the first manner, it affects all the C's in the
piece; when it is placed as in the second
instance, it affects that one note only.

A Flat b depresses a note half a tone ; it
makes it by so much a deeper or graver
sound.

A Natural "^ contradicts a | or a b » and
restores a note that had been raised by the |,
or depressed by the b, to its natural tone.

Besides the above marks there are double
tt 's and double b 's.

The double | is thus distinguished, x ; it
raises a note two semitones, i.e., it substitutes
D natural for C natural.

The double b, thus marked bb' lowers a
note two semitones : thus, C natural depressed
by a double flat would be B flat, if sought for
among the keys of a pianoforte.

Eebuses intended to recall to mind the
Forms and Names of Sharps, Flats,
and Naturals.

1. Messrs. Dodson and Fogg were ad-
dicted to I practice.

2. It is a I morning.

3. Hunger is a :jj; thorn.

4. He fell into the company of |ers.

5. This beer has become quite b.

6. Fools love btery.

7. She gave him a b denial.

8. He fell b upon the pavement.

9. Leave off affectation, and be t|.

10. lie was of a t^ly warm disposition.

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

301

11. Its tj colour is red.

12. It was very t| that lie sliould be
offended.

(The above are so very simple, that no
solutions are needed ; but it is recommended
to young students to make, upon the model
of the foregoing, a number of other Habuses,
both for their own improvement, and for the
amusement of those younger and less profi-
cient than themselves.)

zzz\~ S^^ renders the

~i^— (or) ziZ'lZl PLEASUEE ;

"^ — C— cases, the

elusion of apiecc

SECTION VIII.— VARIOUS OTHER MARKS.

The Pause
NOTE longer at
and, in certain
composer expects some embellishments from
the performer ; but the pause on a rest ^
only lengthens at pleasure the silence. T

The Sign or Repeat :s; is a reference to
a passage, or straia, to which the performer is
to return : the Italian words al segno, or
DAL seo-no, denote such a return.

The double bar — !]— marks the end of
a strain ; or the con zzE

The DOTTED bars ziZ|iz~ , ^
denote the repeat of — fH4—
the foregoing and following strain.

When the bars are marked thus,
or iJius, mrnin then the strain only
on the — H^— side of the dots is to be
repeated.

The Brace | ties together the two staves
used by the performer upon
the pianoforte or organ. It
is used to connect all the
vocal parts in a score, but
its chief use is as in the an-
nexed example.

The Turn ~_ is an
embellishment, — * — the nature of which
your preceptor ~~ will explain to you. It
is sufficient bere that you should know its
name and form. i ■

The same remarks apply to the — '
Shake, or Trill. —[■:■--

Dim. {diminuendo) ZI==- indicates that
the sound is to be decreased.

Ores, {crescendo) -=nr, that the sound
is to be increased.

The Tie, or Slue, ^ — --, placed over a
few or many notes, implies that they are to
be slurred over, or sung legato, i.e., con-
nectedly.

P , or PiA., means Piano, and implies
that the passage against which it is placed is
to be played or sung softly, p p {pianissimo),
means very softly, f and f f (forte, fortis-
simo), signify loud and very loud.

Eebuses upon Section VIII.

1. In the midst of Ms harangue he camo
to a'^.

2. "We should always '^ before any great
attempt.

3. There was an awful '^.

4. Why do you ^ ?

5. They did not observe the precon-
certed '%., and we were obliged to K it.

6. These were to be regarded as ^ '-& of
the times.

7. They gave no ^ K of yielding.

8. I was obliged, for my own ^j^
protection, to put up a ~uz:

9. The turnpike wa3 splashed over izzrjzz:
with clay, and reminded one of a zzzai-z;

10. Courage ! let us i ourselves to the
work.

11. You should be happy now that your
new P / has arrived safely.

12. "Oh, she can i>>j and i^, and still
go on." — Shahsjpeare.

13. -^ again Whittington!

14. Young Phipps paid great attention to
the arrangement of his ^ ^ .

15. Their misbehaviour was -- — ^red
over.

16. The finances of Ealkenburg were in
a constant r=- .

17. Henry is a rising man ; bis fortunes
are on the -=■= .

W. Kewman.

302

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

MY BIRD— THE SISKIN.

Othee people are allowed to vaunt the
merits of their favourites, and therefore I
•will take the liberty of saying a word in
favour of mine.

Of all the small cage-birds I have ever
kept, which has proved the most pleasing
and attractive to me and mine ?

Not the canary ; he is too loud and shrill,
and insists on taking the lead in every con-
versation, which is a breach of good manners.
Not the chaffinch ; too wild and monotonous.
Not the bullfinch ; too melancholy, and rather
given to sulking. Not the goldfinch ; pretty,
but egotistical, requiring to be made a spoiled
bird of, to show itself to the best advantage,
and needing severe discipline to urge it to
exert its intellectiial faculties. The linnet,
when really tame, is an engaging and modest
bird — so modest, in fact, as to make you
doubt of its abilities. The pretty little tits
are carnivorous furies, cannibals who will
feast on a fellow-prisoner. The nightingale,
like other great singers, is apt to give himself
airs, and is also troublesomely particular in
respect to his diet. The same remark is
more or less applicable to all the soft-billed
insectivorous songsters. To keep a robin in
a cage permanently is out of the question.
A caged skylark gives me little pleasure.
"With the blackbird and the thrush, both
sweet minstrels of the grove, we have taken
leave of small cage-birds, and are half-way
on the road which leads to large ones. An
ornithological rule-of-three would give, "As
the canary is to the blackbird (in point of
size), so is the thrush to the magpie or the
jay. Size also is an objection to the green-
finch, and to the hawfinch especially ; both
of them caged suggest the idea of small fowl
put up to fatten ; they make us think more
of roast meat than of music. The brambling,
handsome and tameable, is long-legged and

far from eloquent. The buntings are, for the
most part, either stupid like the ortolan, or
savagely wild like the snow-bunting. The
cardinal grossbeak, or Yirginian nightingale,
is shy, vulgar-toned, and loud. Tlie Paddy-
bird, though tame and handsome, is as weari-
some as the chaffinch, with his everlasting
and unvarying chant. Little avidavats, wax-
bills, etc., are simply good to bring sorrow
to their keeper ; they breathe the air of our
northern winter, and they die. But, in ex-
planation, be it understood that the above-
named birds are not meant to be sweepingly
and universally condemned, nor to be ex-
communicated from civilized aviaries. A
kind and attentive master or mistress will
develop their native merits and subdue their
natural defects, to a certain extent, that is
to say, and with individuals superior to the
common run ; for amongst birds, as in the
human race, the capacity and the temper of
individuals vary greatly. Every one to his
taste, therefore. My taste is the siskin, or
aberdevine, the Fringilla spinus of ornitho-
logists (perhaps because its long sharj) beak
resembles a thorn, or spinus), the zeisig of
Grerman fanciers, and the tarin or therin of
the French.

The siskin, while exempt from the faults
of most other cage-birds, unites in itself
many of their merits. Its small size (less
than that of the canary) heightens its prctti-
ness. The character of its plumage may be
briefly expressed by the adjective "neat."
In the male, shades of yellow, greenish-gray,
and black are harmoniously blended and con-
trasted ; the female, w^ho wears the same
hues, is decorated with marked stripes of
black on the lower part of her person. Its
song, instead of a head-splitting din, is a
soft, gentle warble, which may be heard
within-doors without pain. True, the cha-

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

303

racter of the whole strain approaelies to that
of the swallow's subdued twittering on a
summer's morn, and at the close there occurs
a prolonged, note, which critics might call a
little cracked or reedy ; but, to my taste, it
is a defect on the right side. The clear,
bell-like tones of the nightingale and thrush
families, which ring and make their way
through the densest foliage, and the pene-
trating accents of the lark, which reach us
from heights in open space at which the
human voice could scarcely be audible below,
are not agreeable to, nor supportable by,
every ear nor every head in closed apart-
ments. In proof of which, those birds, when
in song, are mostly hung outside the owner's
house or cottage.

When the siskin appears amongst us in
October, it does not obtrude itself on the
notice of the every-day traveller on the high-
way-road, but must be sought for in secluded
gardens and shrubberies, on the skirts of the
wood, and in the alder copse. Far from
towns, it is the forester's bird; he watches
its antics amongst the branches of the fir-
trees, and rejoices that his stacks of fire-wood
are well piled and sheltered from the rain ;
for winter is coming, and with the aid of his
store he will weather its storms as gaily as
the nimble siskin. The arrival of the siskin
fills the imagination with images of Scandi-
navian pine-forests, moss-grown rocks, water-
falls, and thickets of hazel and birch.

It is a satisfaction to find one's prefer-
ences confirmed by a congenial opinion, and
therefore I cite, verbatim and spellatim, from
the " Bird-Pancier's {sic) Recreation," London,
without date, but printed for T. Ward, and
sold at his house at the Bird-cage on Stam-
ford Hill, Tottenham Road, a quite short
account of the aberdevine : —

" This is a verry pretty niery Bird, and is
much the Colour and Bigness of a grey
Canary-Bird, they don't breed in these Parts,
nor can I give you any Account where they
breed, but I believe they come from the

North, being commonly catch'd here in the
Winter ; they frequent here the Alder Trees
by the Eiver side, and are so to be catch'd
as we do Linnets or Goldfinches, they feed
upon the same Seed as the Chafilnches or
Linnets, but they love the white Seed ; they
are a mery Bird, and the Colour of a
Canary-Bird, only the Cock has a black Spot
upon his Head, and a little black under his
throat."

They are a very pretty, merry bird, and
that is the main reason why I patronize them
in these pages, and love them at home. No
bird becomes reconciled to confinement more
cheerfully and contentedly, or in a shorter
time after being caught ; notwithstanding
that, in a wild state, it manifests no great
confidence in man by entering houses, as the
robin does. But siskins are philosophers.
When they find themselves prisoners, with
plenty to eat and drink, instead of moping
and pining, they say to themselves, "What
can't bo cured, must be endured," and make
themselves at once easy and comfortable in
their new house and with their new friends.
From that moment they become as teachable
as any little bird can be ; nay, even jealous
of any other little bird whom you may try to
teach in their presence. Of three hen sis-
kins, wild from the copse only last December,
I gave two away to two of my friends, retain-
the third myself. No. 1 has long since (this
is written February 15th) learnt to draw a
a little cart iip an inclined plane, by means
of a string. No. 2 insists on partaking of
all the family meals, and puts her head
through the wires of her cage, begging to be
let out, as soon as she sees the table-cloth
laid ; she will perch upon her owner's fore-
finger, and take a seed held between his lips.
No. 3, my own, has not received so elabo-
rate an education, for want of leisure on the
part of her instructor j but if I open her
cage-door and call her, she will come flying
to stand on my open hand, and enjoj' a treat
of hemp-seed, which she expects, and almost

804

EECEEATIA^E SCIENCE.

begs to be previousl}' cracked, to aid ber
somewbat feeble beak, and will peck my
fingers for more wben tbe ration is done.
Sbe would instantly drive away any fresb
favourite wbo dared to take tbe same fami-
liarities ; sbe is tberefore obliged to be caged
wbile I carry about tbe room, percbed on an
ear of millet, a male siskin caugbt in Janu-
ary, and now rewarding me witb a song wbUe
I record bis tameness.

Siskins may be taugbt tbeir tricks M'i lb-
out tbe employment of privation or cruelty.

and thumb ; after some besitation and dally-
ing, it will be taken ; repeat tbe lesson till
tbe pupil is perfect. Lesson 2 : Substitute
your lips for your finger and tbumb. Lesson
3 : Eepeat tbe two previous lessons, but in
botb cases bold tbe seed so tigbt tbat tbe
bird has to tug and pull, and exert all its
strength before it can obtain possession of
tbe morsel. Lesson 4 : Open tbe cage-door,
and let tbe bird step out of tbe cage upon
your fingers, to eat crushed hempseed upon
your open palm. If a well-behaved bird, it

The Siskin.

The whole secret lies in their being very
greedy birds, epicures also, above all things
fond of hempseed, and nearly as much so of
the seeds of the alder-tree, likewise enter-
taining a great relish for tbe seeds of the
poppy (the mawseed of the shops), which is
grown on tbe Continent to extract salad-oil
from. Siskins eat more than many of their
larger feathered friends.

To train them to personal intimacy with
yourself, you have only to let your birds
become just a little hungry. Lesson 1 : In
the morning, before they have breakfasted,
offer a single hempseed between your finger

ought to step back into its cage again ; but
if it flies into the open room, by no means
catch it to restore it to its home, but let it
find its way back by itself. People gene-
rally suppose it to be a punishment to a bird
to cage it, and it may be so in many cases ;
but you may punish a siskin that has not
been properly obedient by shutting it out of
its cage — by closing its own wiry door against
it, just as an ill-behaved boy is turned out
into the back -yard to meditate. When hun-
ger and thirst begin to be felt, tbe penitent
siskin will make very amusing efforts to get
in, will try to force a passage, or to discover

BECREATIVE SCIENCE.

805

the secret of the cruel man who made well-
stored bird-cages so hard to enter. If a piece
of string or tape happen to be tied on or near
the door, the persevering little creature will
endeavour to untie it, with the idea that it is
that which prevents its entrance. A siskin
might be more easily taught to break into a
cage, than to break out of it ; because, if its
larder is well supplied within, it has no
motive to the commission of the converse of
burglary. Lesson 5 : Make your hivdifly from
its cage to alight on your hand, wherever you
may be. After this elementary course of in-
struction, your siskin will be ready for what-
ever branches of education you may destine
his future career to embrace.

The dragging of chariots and the drawing
of water, which appear so wonderful, may
also be taught without unkindness. The
feats are nothing more than an easy applica-
tion of the pupil's natural address and clever-
ness. The siskin is born (or hatched) a
mountebank, a posture-master, a fearless
acrobat, a clown full of whim and humour.
Of its own accord it likes to do things in a
way that would be difficult for many other
birds, and impossible for vulgar cocks and
hens. Eor instance, it will drink in a per-
pendicular position, with its head downwards,
and hanging by its legs. It will sleep cling-
ing uncomfortably to the wires, instead of
sitting on a convenient perch. It will run
along the sides and top of its cage, like a fly
upon a wall or a ceiling. Throwing somersets
is with it a favourite amusement. Its feet
are also hands, which it utilizes, if not to the
extent, at least after the manner of parrots.
It eats suspended beneath a branch as easily
as upon the branch. It has no dislike to
swinging itself on an ear of millet at the
end of a string ; if you give it the chance, it
will hold to a perch with one foot, while it
steadies and retains the ear of millet with
the other. Talents such as these only need
a direction to be given to them.

Therefore, mix no hempseed with your

bird's daily food of canaryseed and millet,
but place the cart to be dragged, laden with
hempseed, on &Jiat surface, outside the cage,
where the bird can reach it by putting its
head through a hole in the wirework, such as
is usually left for drinking. When he has
eaten a few grains in this way, put the cart
out of his reach, but with a bit of string
fastened to it, the end of which string is in
the cage. As his appetite for hempseed is
sharpened, he will not be long in finding out
that by pulling the string with his bill, he
can draw the cart to him and enjoy its con-
tents. He may be made to repeat this ma-
noeuvre for a day or two, when the next step
in his training may be taken by placing the
cart on an inclined plane. Blowing from him.
Of course, as fast as he draws the cart
towards him, it will run back again by its
own weight. After a few tantalizing dis-
appointments, he will adopt the expedient of
holding down the string with his foot, while
he either draws the cart still nearer, or regales
himself with the earnings of his ingenuity.
By the same proceeding, he may be taught
to draw water from a reservoir, by means of
a small bucket ; but, to avoid the possibility
of death from thirst through any derange-
ment of the apparatus, it is more humane to
leave the necessaries of life always within
reach, without having to be worked for.

Siskins are fond of splashing themselves
with water, and should be allowed to do so
twice a week at least, in some shallow, open
dish.

As in the linnet the bill assumes a
bluish tinge, so in the siskin it becomes
tipped with deeper black on the upper man-
dible, at the approach of the singing season.
If a pair, male and female, be kept in the
same cage, they should be allowed to select
their own mates, otherwise, the ill-assorted
couple may terminate their union by a deadly

quarrel.

E. S. Dixoif.

D D

ai

806

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

THE BUEYING-BEETLES, OE SEXTONS.

That there are many wonderful things to be
learnt by the careful and persevering study
of the habits, instincts, and metamorphoses of
insects, the untiring watchfulness of a Eeau-
mur, a Bonnet, or a Swammerdam have suffi-
ciently proved (if such proof were needed),
in the curious and interesting records they
have left concerning insect life. But these re-
cords were of necessity not entirely complete,

Necropliorus nispator. 1, Female ; 2, Male.

and the question is, whether, from the valu-
able data furnished by great naturalists,
we have not been induced, in some cases, to
amplify over picturesquely—fiUing up la-
cunce by what appeared to us undeniable
inferences, rather than with weU-ascertained
additional facts. The additional facts still
desirable are, perhaps, very hard to get at ;
but until we get them we must rest satisfied

with an incomplete picture, and, above all, we
must not attempt to finish it from imaginary
references, however plausible.

These remarks have reference more im-
mediately to the habits and instincts of a
group of our native Coleopfera, popularly
known as the burying-beetles, as we find those
insects described in the most modern ento-
mological works, both popular and scientific.
Among the earliest of the writers who describe
the peculiar habits of the burying-beetles
with great minuteness, was M. Gleditsch, in
his "Eecreations of Natural History," pub-
lished at Halle, in 1765. This account has
been recently quoted by Messrs. Kirby and
Spence, in one of the best and most trust-
worthy entomological works in the language,
and also by Mr. Westwood, in his " Modern
Classification of Insects." It is as follows :—
" M. Gleditsch had often remarked that dead
moles, when laid upon the ground, especially
if upon loose earth, were almost sure to dis-
appear in the course of two or three days,
often in twelve hours. To ascertain the
cause, he placed a dead mole upon one of the
beds of his garden. It had vanished by the
third morning : and on digging where it had
been laid, he found it buried to the depth of
three inches, and under it four beetles, which
seemed to have been the agents in this singu-
lar inhumation. Not perceiving anything
particular in the mole, he buried it again,
and on examining it at the end of six days,
he found it swarming with maggots, appa-
rently the issue of the beetles, which M.
Gleditsch now naturally concluded had
buried the carcase for the food of their
future young." This passage has been re-
peated by one entomological writer after
another without further investigation. It is
true that M. Gleditsch further states, that in
order to convince himself of the truth of his

RECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

807

suppositions, lie placed some beetles of this
kind in a glass vessel, in which was a toler-
ably deep layer of earth, and upon the earth
he placed in succession several small dead
animals, all of which were, in due course,
buried. The modus operandi is most gra-
phically and minutely described. Here the
earth appeared to be forced from beneath
the body, forming a cavity into which it
eventually dropped, while the little rampart
of extracted earth was eventually filled in
over the body. The result of this experiment
was, that in fifty days four beetles had
buried, in the very small space of earth
allotted to them, twelve carcases of frogs,
small birds, etc.

This is a very categorical statement, and
as such it has been copied and recopied, pass-
ing from the pages of one entomological
writer to those of another,, over and over
again, without further examination. This is
the great defect of compilations. If well
done, they often convey a great amount of
information in an agreeable form, collected
and methodized from sources difficult of access
to general readers ; but compilers are often
compelled to take such statements upon
trust, after some brief examination of the
apparent trustworthiness of their informant.

It is very difficult to get up a strong feeU
ing of suspicion against such a categorical
statement as that of M. Gleditsch, and diffi-
cult to imagine how he could be deceived.
Still there are some little inaccuracies, which
might lead one to infer that others also might
have crept into his graphic narration. He
states, for instance, that he observed the
mole, after it was buried, to be swarming
with maggots. Now the larva) of this class of
beetles are verydifierent from maggots, being
furnished with distinct, well- developed pec-
toral legs, while " maggots " are entirely
legless. If, therefore, he uses the term ad-
visedly, and they were really maggots that
he observed, they were certainly the off-
spring of certain flies, and not of any kind

of beetles. The larvse in question may have
been, and probably were, the larvse of the
burying-beetles, and not maggots ; but this
proves a certain amount of inaccuracy of
description, which might lead to the suppo-
sition that other inaccuracies or inadverten-
cies may probably occur in other parts of the
description, which would tend to invalidate
the whole of it. The time occupied in the
burying — fifty days — is also strange, as the
operation is generally performed in as many-
hours, and seldom exceeds three or four days,
It must be stated, however, that recent
entomologists have made similar statements
regarding the habits of the burying-beetles,
especially a very eminent one, who writes
under the pseudonym of " Eusticus." This
writer describes the habits of these beetles
'as M. Gleditsch does, but with a graphic
power far surpassing that of his predecessor,
; at the same time giving to his account all
that minuteness of detail which generally
carries with it the appearance of a descrip-
tion made from Nature, and in presence ot
the facts described. Wishing, however, to
witness these interesting facts myself, and
being determined to catch the insect sextons
in the very act of prosecuting their opera-
tions in the way of interments of this kind, I
have on many occasions placed the carcases of
small animals, as mice, frogs, birds, lizards,
etc., in different parts of my garden, but with-
out ever on a single occasion being gratified
by witnessing such results as those described
by M. Gleditsch and several recent writers.
It is true that I almost invariably, at the pro-
per season, found burying-beetles beneath the
remains so placed, portions of which they
appeared to take into the burrows where their
eggs were deposited ; but I could perceive
nothing like the regular process of interment
so minutely described by more fortunate ob-
servers. In short, so far as my own observa-
tions go (but without in any way impugning
the good faith of others), I must acknowledge
that I was forced, at the close of a pretty long

308

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

and careful trial, in wliiclx aU the evidence
was most carefully sifted, to avail myself of a
Scottish form of verdict — " Not proven."

I have since consulted Mr. F. Smith, of
the British Museum, upon this interesting
point of beetle economy. He is one of the most
active and intelligent entomologists of the
day, and gets his facts fresh out of the fields,
instead of extracting them cut and dried from
the book-shelves of his library. He informs
me that his experience accords with my
own ; that he is in the habit, every season, of
collecting this class of beetles (among others),
and that to facilitate the procuring of a plen-
tiful supply of specimens, he " baits " for
them after a regular manner, according to
the species he is seeking. For some he baits
with a dead frog or lizard, for others with
some small animal, as a mouse or mole ; for
others with dead fish, etc. He tells me that
his baits seldom or never fail ; but that in all
his experience among the Necrophora, he never
witnessed a single instance of an evident case
of regular " interment " taking place. They
doubtless burrow for the purpose of depositing
their eggs, and are found beneath the remains
of the kind described, portions of which they
carry off down their subterraneous passages,
to serve for the food of the larvse ; or, in some
cases, the eggs are deposited within the car-
cases themselves, which are rapidly consumed
by the larva). It is thus that they perform
the part of scavengers on land, as the shrimp
and lobster tribe do in the ocean, preserving
the air from the pollution of effluvia emitted
by decayed animal matter.

It is very probable that in cases where the
carcase was small, as in the case of a mouse,
frog, or small bird, that instead of attempting
to carry it piecemeal down the burrow to
the imderground nest, where the eggs had
been deposited, the beetle may have removed
the earth from beneath so as to let the whole
of the body down to the deposit of eggs, and
afterwards covering it up as described. Mr.
Smith, however, informs me that, although

moles are said by many authors to have
been interred in this manner, he has often
"baited" with rats of not greater dimen-
sions than a mole, and yet never found any
attempt at interment. He found beetles
concealed under the body during the day-
time, their principal work being carried on
in the night, when the flesh was evidently
carried off piecemeal down the burrows
formed by these beetles.

It is conceivable that the accounts of
authors previously referred to may have been
founded upon mistakes, occurring in the fol-
lowing manner : — ^A frog or field-mouse may
have crept into some slight hollow to die,
and there have been discovered with the
beetles beneath it. A curious observer may
have noticed the circumstance with some in-
terest ; and visiting the spot some time after-
wards, and finding that the carcase had en-
tirely disappeared, may have come to the
conclusion that, inasmuch as it lay in the
hollow place before, it had since been actually
interred, and that the hollow was but the
commencement of a regular grave, the in-
humation havmg afterwards proceeded to
completion. It is true that M. Gleditsch
asserts that he dug on such a spot to ascer-
tain what had become of the object that had
disappeared, and found it some inches below
the surface ; while others have made searching
observations, the good faith of which one has
no right to doubt. But to solve the question,
let any of our readers try the experiment
for themselves. There is no dearth of the
beetles, for they have a mighty work to per-
form in cleansing the earth of its dead, and
prevent it from becoming a vast charnel-
house ; and where decaying matter is to be
found polluting the sweetness of the air,
there their keen sense of smell will quickly
conduct them, and its rapid removal by the
insatiate mandibles of their larva) will soon
take place. Let, therefore, the experiment be
tried carefully and watchfully by several ob-
servers together, so that each may test the

RECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

309

accuracy of the others method of investi-
gation J and in this way we shall clear up
the question of the burying capacities of this
valuable race of beetles, which for the present
I shall be content to call "scavengers,"
rather than " sextons."

There are several British species, of which
the following lines wLU contain a brief sum-
mary. The species represented at the head
of the article is Necropliorus ruspator, a kind
plentifully distributed. The one with the
expanded wings is a female, the other a male
specimen, in which it may be observed that
(he brushes of the fore legs, which are used in
burrowing for the purpose of forming a pas-
sage to the subterraneous nest or egg deposit,
are stronger and larger than in the female,
which proves that the male does his full
portion of the work of building, or rather
excavating, the nursery for the young.

Necrophorus germanicus is the largest
British species of the burying-beetle tribe ;
it is entirely black, and nearly twice the size
of the species engraved. It is very rare,
being seldom seen except on the coast, the
only specimen recently captured having been
taken near Hastings by Mr. Heales. The
Continental specimens of this species are con-
siderably larger than the British. The next
species, N. Jiumator, is much smaller, but still
entirely black, with the exception of orange
tips to the antennae, and a narrow orange
border to the wing-cases. N. vestigator is
the first species that exhibits the charac-
teristic orange-red bars across the wing-cases,
similar to those delineated in our illustration.
N. vestigator is extremely local, but where
it occurs it is plentiful enough. In Suffolk,
for instance, it is found abundantly, in places
where the most common of all the species is
scarcely ever seen. It may be distinguished
from ruspator by the golden hairs which
fringe the edges of the thorax, and also by
the form of the thorax, which is narrowed
posteriorly. N. interruptus is very like N.
ruspator, but may be distinguished by the

orange fringe of silky hairs on the exposed
joints of the abdomen. This species is very
rare, and at present has only been found at
Southend. Mr. Smith discovered it under a
dead adder, which had been crushed in the
road ; and baiting for it with young adders,
which he procured and killed for the pur-
pose, secured other specimens; but during
these captures he never observed any attempt
to bury the carcases of the adders so placed.
N. ruspator, the species engraved, has these
hairs entirely black. ISf. mortuum is the
smallest of the red-barred species, but varies
very much in size, some being not half an
inch in length and others nearly an inch.
The large specimens resemble ruspator, but
are easUy distinguished from that species by
the absence of the orange tip of the clubs of
the antennae, which in N. mortuum are en-
tirely black. N. vespillo may be distin-
guished from either of these species by the
golden hair of the exposed joints of the ab-
domen, and from N. vestigator (which in this
respect it resembles) by the bowed form of
the middle portion of the hind legs ; and this
last is the typical and most common species.
The genus Necrodes is also composed
of beetles of this tribe of carrion feeders.
Among the species Necrodes littoralis, with
its fluted wing-cases and the greatly-enlarged
thighs of the hind legs of the males is notice-
able. This kind is found in large numbers in
the carcases of drowned animals lying on the
banks of the Thames, of which river it seems
to have established itself in the office of chief
scavenger. The genus SilpJia also comprises
a closely-allied group of beetles; among
these S. thoracica, with its dull black wings,
and thorax of a velvety texture and rich
ruddy brown colour, is at once remarkable.
S. quadripunctata is very distinct in form and
habit, and wUl doubtless be eventually sepa-
rated from the genus to which it is now
assigned ; the wings are polished, and of a
light ochreous tone, with four black spots ;
and it is said to feed upon the living larva)

310

EEOEEATIVE SCIENCE.

of butterflies and moths, seeking tliem espe-
cially among the foliage of the oak, from the
branches of which it is frequently shaken by
collectors.

Some of the exotic species of the burying-
beetles are very much larger than the Eu-
ropean kinds, especially the NecropJiorus
grandis of North America, which is four
times as large as the N. ruspator engraved
above, but so like it in form and markings
that it might be taken for a magnificent
specimen of that species. The Necrodes
giganteus, found near Sarawak, in Borneo, is
very much larger than any of our European
Necrodes, and is very remarkable on account
of the different character of the thorax in
the two sexes, that of the male being light
brown and velvety in texture, while that of

the female is darker brown and brightly
polished.

A peculiarity of this kind of beetle which
I have not referred to, is the squeaking noise
which they are enabled to make by rabbing
the joints of the abdomen against the inside
of the wing-cases. When held in the closed
hand near the ear, this sound appears as loud
as the squeaking of a mouse. They are also
enabled to emit a foetid smell, which serves
them as a defence, and which is very per-
manent on any substance which has been
affected by it.

Several writers have mentioned the im-
mense swarms of beetles belonging to this
class, which are sometimes observed in Eus-
sian graveyards.

H. Noel Htjmphbeys.

MICEOSCOPICAL POND-LOEE.

HuNDEEDS of persons now purchase micro-
scopes from the force of imitation, and a laud-
able desire to obtain an insight into the won-
ders of creative skill, which are, perhaps,
more astounding in the apparently boundless
regions of the minute, than even in the un-
fathomable depths of celestial space; but
they are apt to be discouraged by the tech-
nical difficulties in the way of collecting and
preparing materials for investigation or re-
search.

" The Wonders of a Stagnant Pool," by
Mr. Tuffen West, in a former number, will
lead many to such small patches of tranquil
water, and we now propose to notice a few of
the interesting objects which a beginner can
easUy find. We will take the result of an
actual experiment, made on a rather. cold,
clear, January morning, which had been pre-
teded by one or two days of rather mild wea-
ther for the season, but which had not been
warm enough to call forth the mass of life
hat makes its appearance in early spring.

The pond selected was a small one, at the
back of St. Alban's Villas, Highgate Eise,
and which had proved a good hunting-ground
in the summer of the previous year. It lies
in a high, airy situation, and a pond so
placed is always promising to the microscopic
naturalist.

On reaching its margin, it was plain that
vegetable life was still in abeyance, so far as
related to the principal plants which delight
in such localities ; but there was a green mass
floating in the water, shining in the sunlight,
like entangled skeins of silk. This afforded
a tolerably certain prospect of microsco-
pic game, and accordingly it was hooked
up, and small portions put into two wide-
mouthed, two-drachm bottles, which were
filled up with the pond-water and carried
home.

A word here about bottles. Larger sizes
are absolutely necessary, for many purposes ;
but a great deal is to be done with the small
size specified. They have the advantage of

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

311

occupying little room, and, when made of
moulded glass, of being so strong that a
dozen of them may be carried in the pocket,
and with little chance of breakage.

Returning home, a
very little piece of the
green mass, which con-
sisted of confervoid
plants, was placed in a
cell formed by cement-
ing a glass ring, such
as opticians sell for
mounting specimens,
on an ordinary glass
slide. The ceU was
then filled with the
pond-water, and one
of the pieces of round
thin glass used in co-
vering objects, placed

Vorticella convallaria. A
group of three, with the
spirally deflected pedicle
of a fourth. — Pritchard. •

over it, and pressed down
gently, with a piece of blot-
ting-paper to remove the su-
perfluous moisture. When
a cell is thus closed, the
cover is retained by the
action of capillary force,
and may be turned upside
down without spilling its
contents. Such cells are
very convenient for exa-
mining moderate- si zedwa-
ter creatures, which require
more room than can be
given in the live-box, and
will hold what seems under Vorticella, with pos-
the microscope aUttleforest terior circlet of cilia
„ , • mi ""^ process of sepa-

of vegetation, Ihey are nation, 300 linear.
handy for polyps, young ^Siein.
tadpoles, worms, etc., etc., and a conve-

nient size is made by employing glass rings
of about three-quarters of an inch in dia-
meter, and one-twelfth of
an inch thick. As they
are only intended to hold
water, they may be fastened
to the slide with shellac
dissolved in pyroligneous
ether.

■ To return to our find-
ings, they consisted chiefly
of the Huglena, described
by Mr. Tufi'en West in the
article already alluded to,
but without their tails.
Vorticella microstoma, Their curious roUing way
showing alimentary ... i T

tube.cUiatedmouth, of swimmmg and extraor-
and formation of a dinary changes of shape,
yemma at the base, -^yere enough to bewilder
800 linear, — Stein. , , . , . , ,

anybody anclined to take

them for plants, and at the same time to base
any arguments upon the sort of
motions supposed to be cha-
racteristic of animal life. But
there were also a few of the
common wheel animalcules,
Motifer vulgaris, a few Vorti-
cella, with and without stalks,
a Cyclops, which was acci-
dentally lost, a fine Closte'
rium lunula, and a swarm of
Diatomacea of the boat shape,
whose way of swimming is well
worth notice, as it often pre-
sents puzzling peculiarities,
the cause of which is un-
known. Having taken a gene-
ral view of the various matters

in the cell-slide, with a low _ _^. ,, .

Till Vorticella in prO'
power — two-thirds reduced by cess of self-di.
an erector, to from 20 to 30
linear, and, with the second
eye-piece for objects, near the
surface, brought up to 60 or
80 — aEotifer and some Vorti-
cella) were placed, with a very minute piece

vision. A new
frontal wreath
in formation in
each of the
semi - lunar
spaces.

312

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

of the weed on wliicli they were found m the
live-box. The wheel animalcule was rathe
obstinate, and for some time would not assume

Vorticella microstoma, in process of encystment, 300
linear; in the last the inclosing tunic is plainly de-
veloped.— Slein.

her well-known elongated shape, preferring
to keep herself in a more globular form.
Viewed under a Smith and Beck's two-thirds
object-glass (without the erector), and using
the three eye-pieces and draw-tube, which
afford a range of from 60 to 300 diameters, it
was easy to see the curious stomach in a
state of commotion, and make out portions of
the wonderful mechanism by which the food
is ground up, or, as it may be better de-
scribed, clawed to pieces ; and when the
creature chose to put out its sliding, telescope
tail at one end, and its so-called wheels at the
other, its appearance was so totally unlike
its previous aspect that if the changes had
not occurred under the eye, no one would
have believed it to be the same. The prin-
cipal points to be observed about this Eotifer
are the motion of the cilia, giving the appear-
ance of rotating wheels ; the thrusting in and
out both head and tail ; the use of the latter
for a kind of wooden-legged progression ;
the movements of the muscular stomach, or
gizzard,* which lies a little below the head,
and is conspicuous from its circular form
with what looks like a crop in it ; and the
presence of eggs, which occur lower down
on either side of the intestinal canal.

• This organ has usually been taken for a gizzard,
but Mr. Gosse, in an elaborate paper, read before the
lioyal Society, vindicates its claims to be considered a
mouth.

Many of the Eotifers are much more
beautiful than this, and in some the red eyes
are brilliant objects ; but the Botifer vulgaris
is an excellent representative of the family
to begin with, as it is universally found
in ponds and cisterns. Unlike most of their
fellow-citizens of the so-called infusorial king-
dom, they have been gainers by scientific in-
vestigation ; and while others have often been
degraded in the scale of being, and, in many
instances, reduced in rank from the animal
to the vegetable world, the Eotifers have been
elevated to the Annulata, and established as
first cousins of the worms.

The Eotifers, especially the common sort,
are remarkable for their tenacity of life, and
are said to have been
revived, after having been
dried for years, by simply
moistening them with
water. In considering
the physiological bearings
of this curious property,
the reader should re-
member what Humboldt
tells us in his " Views of
Nature," that "the cro-
codile in the Llanos of
Venezuela, the land and
water tortoises of the
Orinoco, and the colossal

boa, and many of the ^

11 • P , Kotifer vulgaris. — A,

smaUer speciesof serpents, ^^^t^, or gizzard \

lie torpid and motionless B, contractile vesi-
in the hardened ground (^}^- — Micrographic
throughout the hot and N.B.— When the cilia
dry season of the year."* or tail part are re-
in the Eotifers a spe- tracted, and the body
... - ^ shortened, the crea-

ciahzation of organs and ture assumes an ob-
functions marks their tuse oval form.
rank in creation, and the gizzard, before
spoken of, is a most elaborate mechanism,
very difficult to describe; but its main
principle is the action of toothed hammers
worked by powerful muscles, which pre"
* "Views of Nature," Bohn's Edition, p. 243.

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

313

sent some affinities with those of the higher
animals. They exhibit a division of the
sexes, but whether the husbands and wives
cherish sentiments of affection is unknown ;
and, notwithstanding the cleverness of their
motions, and the possession of a nervous
system, their understanding is probably of a
very limited capacity.

The males are much less often found than
the females, from which they differ con-
siderably— facts which may account for their
having been unknown up to a very recent
period. Mr. Gosse, who has devoted great
attention to this subject, speaks of the " ab-
solute and universal atrophy of the digestive
system in male Rotifera." He adds, " the
duration of life in the male is always very
brief. I have never been able to preserve
one alive for twenty-four hours." Their
functions are soon performed ; " hence we
can understand the lack of the nutritive
organism."

A sketch is appended of the mouth or
gizzard of the Notommata clavulata, from a

Jlouth or Gizzai-d (maslax) of Notommata clavulata. —
A, hammers {jnallci), each divided into a handle
(manubrium), and a hook (uncus) ; B, the anvil
(incus), formed of two portions moving laterally,
called branches (rami), and a, fulcrum. — Gosse.

drawing of Mr. Gosse, published in the
" Philosophical Transactions," and which will
serve to explain this curious organ, the pre-
cise structure of which differs in each species,
although the principle is usually the same
— that of teethed hammers tearing up th§
food.

We might fill a volume about the Eotifers,
but the Vorticellse are waiting, and we must
turn our attention to these elegant flower-
like, cup-shaped bodies, with fringes of vi-
brating cilia, and the slender stalks from
which they seem to grow, and which they
contract and dart out with an energetic mo-
tion. The Vorticella family is far below the
Eotifers in natural-history dignity, but they
afford some of the most beautiful objects for
the microscope, and are physiologically re-
markable for the changes
which they undergo. At
a certain stage of their
existence they leave their
stalk, and become " en-
cysted," as it is called—
that is, they envelope
themselves in a bag.
They also appear in what

are called acineta and '^°'^'^^^®^* ™^"'°'*°™"'
. , - the encysted animal

achnophrys lorms, with protruding through
star-like rays projecting a supposed rupture
from their disc. Our of the tunic
bottles contained Vorticellae with and with-
out stalks, some solitary, and others grow-
ing in groups. A fine specimen in the
stalkless state afforded much amusement.
After viewing him with a power of 100 linear,
in the ordinary way, by light transmitted from
the mirror beneath the stage, we moved the
live-box by means of the revolving plate at-
tached to the stage, so as to bring his circle
of cilia on the right hand, and in a vertical
position. Then, throwing a bright light upon
the mirror, and turning it so as to reflect a
very slanting pencil of rays through the body
of the creature, a very charming sight ap-
peared. By this arrangement no light
reached the eye except what had passed
through the Vorticella, which, so lit up, looked
like a luminous cup formed of pearls and co-
loured gems, standing on a black ground.
As each cilium moved, its bright surface
flashed in the light for a fraction of a second,
like a sabre glancing in the sunshine, and

314

EEOEEATIVE SCIENCE.

then vanislied in the gloom ; one after another
the tiny blades caught the gleam, making a
circle of brUliant sparks of variegated light.
A lady who witnessed the performance corn-

Encysted Vorticella, showing the obliteration of spe-
cial organs by the advancement of the process. —
Pritchard,

pared it to that of street jugglers throwing
up and catching a succession of golden balls,
and called the Vorticella a conjuror with co-
loured flames.

Before leaving the Vorticella, we must say
a few words on the motion of cilia. These in-
teresting appendages are very common conco-
mitants of animal life, and give likewise mo-
tion to many vegetable forms. By what power
they move no one knows ; but it is not mus-
cular, or it would not be exhibited by the
vegetable kingdom. It is affirmed not to be
affected by electricity, or by poisons which do
not damage the tissue from which it springs,
and the motion sometimes continues long
afterdeath. The authorsof the "Micrographic
Dictionary " tell us, " cilia are found in all the
vertebrata and the invertebrata, excluding
the Crustacea, arachnida, and insecta." In
man they occur in what is called the ciliated
epithelium, or membrane lining the larynx,
trachea, nose, and other cavities, where their
action takes place without our knowledge or
control. In the vegetable world their move-
ments are of course invohmtary, and pro-
bably they are so in many of the infusoria ;
but they nevertheless are the organs of mo-
tion in creatures sufficiently high in the animal
scale — like the Rotifers, for example — to be
apparently under the control of something
like a will.

The last denizen of our bottles we shall
mention is the Closterium lunula, or beauti-
ful crescent, moon-shnped, transparent cell,

nearly filled with the emerald-green vegetable
substance caUed ChloropJiyll. These exqui-
site objects were at one time supposed to be-
long to the animal kingdom ; but now, with
their fellow Desmids (Desmidice), they are
regarded as among the lower forms of vege-
table life. They move through the water
with a graceful, dignified sort of motion, pro-
duced no one knows how ; for the authors of
the " Micrographic Dictionary," in the new
edition of that work, distinctly deny the
ciliary theory which Mr. Osborne puts forth.
The one before us is a beautiful object,
magnified from 100 to 150 diameters ; but a
higher power (400 or 600) renders conspi-
cuous a fidgetty motion of angular-looking
particles near either extremity of the delicate
crescent.

From the great variety of their forms,
^^^-;^ and the brilliancy of

their colours, the Des-
mids are great favourites
with microscopic observ-
ers ; but their best friends
have not contested — as is
still done with the Dia-
toms— the decision which
Closterium lunula, places them in the vege-
table world, and ranks them among the con-
fervoid Alffce. Like other plants, they evolve
oxygen under the influence of light, and for
the most part prefer clear water in open
situations. Many are found on the surface
of mud, others attached to plants, and they
have some means of moving towards the
light ; which is convenient for finding them
when they have become buried in the dirt.
Although their rank is low, they have an
ancient pedigree, and flints abound in fossil
remains of the spore-vessels {Sporangia) of
Desmids, which lived long, long ago, myriads
of ages nearer than we are to the dawn of

time.

Henet J. Slack.

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE

315

WAYSIDE WEEDS AND THEIE TEACHINGS.

HANDrTTL III. CONCLUDED.

In the lesson whicli we appended to
Handful II., we endeavoured to give you
some idea of the parts of a perfect flower,
their uses and arrangement; we have now
to go a step further, and say somewhat of
the methods according to which flowers are
arranged upon the plants which bear them.
Perhaps it never occurred to any of our no-

the most remote idea. Let us see whether
we cannot make our few wayside weeds give
us a clue to unravel, in some degree at least,
flower arrangements, or, as it is called in
botany,

THE INPIOEESCENCE.

We need scarcely remark that flowers,
and blossoms generally, are supported upon

Fig. 52, — Flower-spikes and Leaves of Common Plantain. The peduncle springing from the root-cro-wn is
caUed a scape. It might also be called a rachis because of running straight to the extremity of the in-
florescence.

viciate readers that flowers are arranged
upon their stems in any definite way. They
know that their mignonette grows in a little
pyramid, their Tom Thumb geraniums and
calceolarias in sorts of bunches, and so on,
and suppose there is some sort of set fashion
for them, but as to what it is, they have not

a stalk or stem of some kind. In certain in-
stances there is but one flower to a stem, as
in the primrose, the snowdrop, etc. ; in others,
the blossoms are crowded on by hundreds
and thousands, and in every variety of form
and arrangement. Now this primary, or
main, flower-stem goes by the general name

316

EECEEATI7E SCIENCE.

of peduncle, and when, as often occurs, other
little stems are given oflf from it, they are
known by the diminutive of pedicels, or
little stems. When the peduncle springs
direct from the root-crown, or root-leaves,
and, unbranched, bears a single blossom, it is
called a scape; but it also bears the name of
scape when, as in the daisy, the dandelion,
the plantain (Fig. 52), the cowslip, or oxlip,
it carries a collection of blossoms. Indeed,
the latter plants, although their flowers
are differently arranged, approach very
near the primrose in their inflorescence,

Fio. 53. — Spray of Common Scarlet Pimpernel, a a,
blossoms, solitary, springing from the axils of the
leaves, which are thence called bracts.

and we have only to imagine the primrose
scapes bound together part way up, to get
the first transition to a compound form of
flowering. Again, let us do away with
the pedicels of the cowslip blossoms, and
mass these together upon the top of the
scape, and we get the head, or capitulum,
such as we see in the daisy and other compo-
sites, or, reversing the process, prolong the
scape, and plant the blossoms closely along
it, still keeping away the pedicels, and we
have the spike such as we see in the com-
mon plantain (Fig. 52), the main stem s|;ill

retaining the name of scape ; in this case it
might also be called the rachis, another term
for a stem, but for one which runs in a straight
line from their base through the centre of
the inflorescence. Of course, however, the
majority of plants, as our readers are well
aware, have not the stems thus rising from
amid their root-leaves, and the umbel, the
spike, or the capitulum, and any other forms
of inflorescence may occur in connection with

rir.54._Fine.]eaved Heath. Blossoms disposed in
a raceme and partly whorled.

other peduncles than scapes ; and, on the
other hand, solitary blossoms do not neces-
sarily claim scapes for their siipports.

Look at Fig. 53, which represents a sprig
of the common scarlet pimpernel, a common
enough weed, though we have not yet placed
it in your hand ; the flowers spring all the
way up the stem, but each is solitary on its
own peduncle, and starts from the junction
of the stem with a leaf, or, as it is called,
from the axilla of the leaf, the blossoms being
described as solitary and axillary. But these
Jcavcs, from the axils of which the flowers

BECBEATIYE SCIMCE.

817

spring, might be greatly diminislied in size
might be dwindled down to little more than,
scales, and the peduncles might be short-
ened; in which case we should have such
a form of flower arrangement as we see at
Fig. 54, forming what is called a raceme.
The raceme is one of those most common
forms of inflorescence, and may be erect (as
in Fig. 54), or drooping, as in the currant
(Fig. 55). Now suppose, instead of these little
pedicels of the raceme blossoms being all the
same length, we have the upper or central
ones short, and the lower or outer ones pro-
longed so as to bring the blossoms nearly to

Fia. 55.— Sprig of Common Currant,
pendent raceme.

Blossoms in a

the same level, we have a corymb, as in
the bramble (see Fig. 29, p. 125) ; but if we
take a corymb, and, as it were, draw it out
from the centre, we again get the raceme — a
change of form of inflorescence which actu-
ally occurs in the floral development of such
plants as the wallflower and other crucifers,
only that in these cases the little scales, or
bracts, necessary to the true raceme, are want-
ing. Once more let us have all our pedicels
springing from one point, and we have the
true umbel (Fig. 30, p. 125), which may be
simple, or, as in the figure, compound, the
secondaryumbelsof the compound form being
named umbellules, or little umbels. As al-

ready alluded to, it is only requisite to con-
centrate the flowers of the umbel to get the
head of the composite. "When a raceme, still
retaining the raceme character, becomes
branched, we get the panicle, which is the
common flowering form of most of the grasses

Fig. 56. — Panicled Inflorescence of Grass.

(Fig. 56), difiering, however, greatly in the
compactness or difi*usenes3 of its arrange-
ment. Many grasses, such as wheat, bar-
ley, darnel-grass, etc., have the true spiked
form of flowering, each spike being made
up of numerous spikelets (locusta?), and
these, as we shall see when we come to

-SIS

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

examine grasses, are made up of a larger or
smaller number of blossoms. The peduncle
of tbe grass is often called the rackis, and the
stem is a culm. When a spike of flowers
droops, as it does in the poplar, hazel, etc., it
is called a catkin, and the fertile flower of
the hop (Fig. 57) gets the same name. When
in our next Handful you make acquaintance

connection, not even a " Scotch cousin," of
its namesake, has its flowers — some of our
readers stare at the idea— in little clusters,
each one of which constitutes a glomeru-
lus. One of the most unique forms of inflo-
rescence, however, is the spathe (Fig. 60),
which is composed of an assemblage of blos-
soms inclosed within a sort of sheath or hood ;

f^

Fio. 67. — ^Fertile Blossoms of Common Hop." a a, scaly flowers arranged in a catkin ; when ripe named a

strobilus.

■with the mint or labiate tribe of plants, to
which the common red or dead nettle (Fig.
58) belongs, you will find a still diflerent
flowering plan ; for the blossoms are collected
closely round the stem, in the leaf axils,
in little bundles properly called vertieil-
lasters, but often described as whorls. The
stinging nettle (Fig. 59), not the slightest

as in the wake-robin — lords and ladies — so
common by English hedge-sides in early
spring, and most English children know it,
and will readily recognize what is meant.
Almost we fear to bewilder you with these
varied names and descriptions, which it
is difficult to make attractive to a beginner,
though it is well to get some knowledge of

EECEEATIYE SCIEISTCE.

31^

them. Only one more, and
we have done. Look at
Fig. 48, which illustrates
the fruit- cluster of the
common elder; it is nei-
ther umbel, corymb, nor
raceme, but seems a mix-
ture of all three, and gets
the name of cyme. It is
most near the corymb,
however, in form, and de-
rives its principal diver-
sity from the order in
which its blossoms become
developed and expanded ;
albeit this brings us to
another subject connected
with inflorescence — the or-
der of expansion of blos-
soms, whether definite or
indefinite, whether tend-
ing towards the centre of
the floral axis or centre, or

Fio. 58. — ^Red Dead Nettle ; the blossoms disposed in whorls or verticillasters.

tending away from it. It is,
perhaps, better, in these our
early days of weed-gathering,
not to puzzle you with this
subject; it is scarcely requi-
site for our first lessons,
which we are bound in good
faith to keep as simple for
you as possible. Look back
to Fig. 53, the sprig of scar-
let pimpernel : the solitary
flowers spring from the axils
of what we called leaves, but
leaves they are not in the
eye of a botanist, for their
proper designation is

BEACTS.

In many instances, as in
the one in question, the
bracts are scarcely, if at all,
distinguishable from the or-
dinary leaves of the plant.
This is more especially the
case with the lower bracts of

Fio. 59. — Common Stinging Nettle. Inflorescence In a glomernlus.

320

BECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

a flower series, for the upper ones become
less leaf-like ; nevcptheless, -whether in every
respect like an ordinary
leaf, or whether not more
than an insignificant scale,
the appendage at the base
of a peduncle or pedicel is
always known as the bract.
Eefer back to the various
figures with which the
present paper and those
preceding are illustrated,
and you will find numerous
instances of bracts. At
times, however, bracts, or
collections of bracts, are
called involucres, when
they envelope such collec-
tions of blossoms as the
heads of the composites,
the umbels, etc. The bract
of the common lime-tree
is such an excellent ex-
ample of bract formation
(Fig. 61), that though the
lime is scarcely a "way-
side weed," we make no
excuse for bringing it
If you really do
not as yet know a lime-
tree, you cannot miss it
henceforth when you
know that you cannot go

Fig. 60. Eeproductive » ,

Organs, or Flower of lOrward
Common " Wake-
robin," inclosed in
a large bract, called a
spathe. a, stamens;
6, pistils.

Via. 61.— Twg of Lime-tree, a, bract; h, leaf; e, fruit

within many yards of it in July without being
attracted by the scent of the blossoms, or by
the hum of the myriads of bees which swarm
around it. Go, pray, for the sake of the
bract, pluck a twig of the first lime you meet
with, only remember it belongs to Handful
No. I., for it is a many-petaled bloomer.
Spekcee Thomson, M.D.

BEUTE MADNESS.

AMONa the singular occurrences met with in
the animal world, I never heard of a more
curious one than that which I am about to
relate : — A lady, resident in the country, was
fond of rearing poultry ; among these was a
young pullet, which successfully brought out a
brood of some ten or twelve chickens. All
went on well for a time ; but the adjoining
farm-yard was infested with rats, and in one
fatal night the whole brood was carried ofi"
— clean gone, and not a vestige remained to
tell the tale. The poor mother was first
disconsolate, and then became positively
frantic, and did all that a dumb creature
could do to show that her brain was com-
pletely turned.

Time, which assuages all woes, seemed
at last to mellow her delirium of grief
into a settled misalectrophy, or advised
hatred of chanticleer and all his race ; and
never from that moment did she produce a
single egg, or bring up another brood. Her
comb became enlarged, spurs sprouted on her
legs ; her tail feathers grew long and drooped,
and her morning crow rivalled that of the
greatest patriarch of the yard ! Strange me-
tamorphosis, and all arising from the shock
to her maternal love; that powerful, all-
engrossing feeling — that (Tr6pm (sforqe), as
the Greeks appropriately called it — which, in
this instance, not only endowed one of the
gentler sex with the intrepidity of the bolder,
but positively invested her with their outward
attributes. O. S. Bound.

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

321

A CATALOGUE OF ALL THE COMETS WHOSE OEBITS HAVE HITHEETO

BEEN COMPUTED.

{Concluded from page 285.)

No.

Year.

PP.

TT.

ft.

t.

q-

e.

M-

Calculator.

Date of
Discovery.

Discoverer.

Duration
of Visibility.

(87)

1852iii.

d.h.
Sept. 28, 16

109 8

245 52

12 33

0-8606

0-75625

+

^antini

1852, Aug. 25

Secchi

5 weeks. 1

193

— iv.

Oct. 12, 15

43 12

346 13

40 58

1'2510

0-92475

+

Marth

— June 27

Westphal

21 weeks.*

194

1853 i.

Feb. 24, 6

153 21

69 49

20 19

1-0938

Von Littrovr

1853, Mar. 6

Secchi

3 weeks.'

195

— ii.

May 10, 8

201 12

41 12

57 53

0-9044

—

Bruhns

-i April 4

Schweitzer

10 weeks.*

196

— iii.

Sept. 1, 17

310 58

140 31

61 30

0-3067

+

D' Arrest

— June 10

Klinkerfess

4 months.*

197

— iv.

Oct. 16, 14

301 7

220 4

61 1

0-1725

Hoffmann

— Sept. 11

Bruhns

11 weeks.'

198

1854 i.

Jan. 9, 6

55 57

227 3

66 7

1-2002

—

Marth

— Nov. 25

Van Arsdale

12 weeks.'

199

— ii.

Mar. 24, 0

213 47

315 26

82 22

0-2770

—

Hornstein

1854, Mar. 23

Many observers
Klinkerfess

4 weeks.*

(12)

— iii.

June 22, 2

272 58

347 48

71 8

0-6475

—

Klinkerfess

— June 4

10 weeks.'

200

— iv.

Oct. 27, 9

94 20

321 31

40 59

0-8001

+

0. Bruhns

— Sept. 11

Ditto

11 weeks. i»

201

— V.

Dec. 16, 1

165 52

238 19

14 10

1-3673

+

Winnecke

— Dec. 24

CoUa

16 weeks.!'

202

1855 i.

Feb. 5, 17

226 33

189 40

51 12

1-2195

Ditto

1855, April 11

Schweitzer

5 weeks.

(21)

— ii.

May 30, 5

237 36

260 1.5

23 7

0-5678

0-99090

—

Donati

— June 3

Donati

2 weeks. i«

(100)

— iii.

July 1, 5

157 53

334 26

13 8

+

Enoke

— July 13

Maclear

5 weeks. 13

203

— iv.

Xov. 25, 15

85 21

52 2

10 16

1-2248

G. Eiimker

— Nov. 12

Bruhns

7 weeks."

204

1857 i.

March 21, 8

74 49

313 12

87 .57

0-7721

+

Papa

1857, Feb. 22

D'Arrest

9 weeks. '*

(170)

— ii.

March 29, 5

115 48

101 53

29 45

0-6202

0-80160

+

Bruhns

— Mar. 18

Bruhns

11 weeks. 1*

205

— iii.

July 17, 23

249 37

23 40

58 59

0-3675

Papa

— June 22

Klinkerfess

3 weeks.

206

— iv.

Aug. 24, 8

23 24

200 19

34 38

0-7427

...

+

Villarceau

— July 25

Peters

5 weeks. 1'

207

— V.

Sept. 30, 19

250 21

14 46

56 18

0-5651

Bruhns

— Aug. 20

Klinkerfess

7 weeks i*

208

— vi.

Nov. 19, 1

44 15

139 18

37 50

1-1009

—

Pape

— Nov. 10

Donati

5 weeks. i»

(189)
(106)

— vii.

Nov. 28, 1

322 55

148 27

13 56

0-66014

+

Lind

— Dec. 10

Maclear

5 weeks.20

1858 i.

Jan. 22, 0

115 29

268 54

54 32

1-0274

0-82961

+

Bruhns

U58, Jan. 4

H. P. Tuttla

9weeks.2i

(135)

— ii.

May 2, 11

275 38

113 32

10 48

0-7689

0-75468

+

Winnecke

— Mar. 8

Winnecke

12 weeks.22

209

— iii.

Miiy 2, 1

195 42

171 3

23 11

1-2090

+

Eall

— May 2

Tuttle

4 weeks.

210

— iv.

June 6, 4

226 6

324 21

80 28

0-6462

Bruhns

— May 21

Bruhns

3 weeks.23

(165)

— v.

Sept. 12, 14

49 49

209 45

11 21

1-6999

0-55502

+

Ditto

— Sept. 8

Ditto

8 weeks.**

211

— vi.

Sept. 29, 23

36 13

165 19

63 1

0-4822

0-99647

Ditto

— June 2

Donati

7^ months.**

212

— vii.

Oct. 12, 19

4 13

159 45

21 16

1-4-^70

—

Weiss

— Sept. 5

H. P. Tuttle

8 weeks.

(100)

— viii.

Oct. 18, 11

157 57

334 28

13 4

0-3407

0-84639

+

Powalki

— Aug. 7

Forater

lOweeks.28

(87)

1859 i.

May 24 0

109 33

245 43

12 23

0-8680

0-75349

+

Hubbard

87

213

— ii.

May 29, 5

75 9

357 7

84 9

0-2020

HaU

1859, April 2 Tempel""

12 weeks.

1 An apparition of JSieZa'g comet. Theoretical elements.

* Discovered also by Peters. Visible to the naked eye
early in October. Period, 70 years.

3 Discovered by Schweitzer and C. W. Tuttle, March 8,
and by Hartwig, March 10. Elements resemble those of
the comet of 1664.

* Visible to the naked eye in the beginning of May,
■w ith a tail 3' long.

^ Visible in the daytime, August 31 to September 4. In
the south of Europe, a tail 15° long was seen.

" Perceptible to the naked eye about the middle of the
month. Elements resemble those of the comet of 1582.

' Discovered by Klinkerfess, December 2.

* First seen in the south of France, when very con-
spicuous, with a tail 4^ loug. Elements resemble those of
the comet of 1799 (ii).

* Discovered also by Van Arsdale. At the time of the
PP. it was visible to the naked eye. The elements strongly
resemble those of the comets of 961 and 1558.

'" Discovered also by several other observers.

'1 Discovered by W^innecke and Dien, January 15, 1855.

'2 Discovered also by Dien and Klinkerfess. Probably
a return of the comet of 1362. Period assigned, 493 years.

'J An apparition of EncJce's comet.

1* Discovered also by Van Arsdale.

1' Discovered also by Van Arsdale. Orbit decidedly
parabolic.

£!astbou7^ne.

1' An apparition of Brorsen's comet, (1846 ii).

1' Discovered by Dien, July 28, and by Habicht, July 30.
Believed to revolve in an elliptic orbit, to which a period of
258 years has been assigned.

's Faintly perceptible to the naked eye, September
20. It had a snort tail. Elements resemble those of the
comets of 1790 (iii) and 1825 (i). An elliptic orbit, to which
a period of 1618 years, has been assigned by Villarceau.

" Discovered a few hours later by Van Arsdale.

*" An apparition of D'^»-resf's comrf. Period, 2331 days.
Element "q" not pullished,

*' Discovered by Bruhns, January 11. Probably a re-
turn of the comet of 1790 (ii). Period assigned, 13*6 years.

** An apparition of Pons' comet of 1819 (iii). Period,
6-549 years.

*■' Elements resemble tho'se of the comet of 1799 (ii).

^* An apparition of Fai/e'n comet.

25 One of the finest comets of the present century. It
became visible to the naked eye early in September, and
was very conspicuously seen in Europe for about six weeks,
when, owing to its rapid passage to the southern hemisphere,
it became lost to view. It was seen at Santiago till March 1,
1859. During the first week in October it had a tail nearly
40' long. An elliptic orbit; period assigned, 2101 years.

28 An apparition of Encke's comet. It was very faint.

*' Theoretical elements of Biela's comet. It was un-
favoiu-ably placed for observation, and escaped detection.

Geo. F. Chambers.

322

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

METEOROLOGY OF APRIL.

FBOM OBSERVATIONS AT HIGHFIELD HOUSE OBSERVATORY.

Greatest

Greatest

Amount of

Range of

Tear.

Heat.

Cold.

Rain.

Tempera-

Degrees.

Degrees.

Inches.

ture.

1843

.. 66-5

. 260

. . 2-5 .

. 40-5

18'U

.. 73-5

. 36-0

. . 0-9 .

. 37-5

1845

.. 70-1

. 33-5

. . 1-3 .

. 36-6

1846

. . 63-5

. 3 ',-0

.. 4-3 .

. 30-5

1847

. . 62-5

. 28-0

.. 1-3 .

, 34-5

1848

. . 75-5

. 27-0

. . 2-2 ,

. 48-5

1849

. . 67-5

. 24-3

. . 20 ,

. 43-2

1850

.. 64'6

. 29-8

. . 2-2 .

. 34-8

1851

. . 70 5

. 27-5

. . 1-5 .

, 43-0

1852

. . 75-5

. 27-8

. . 0-3 .

. 47-7

1853

. . 68-2

. 28-6

.. 1-8 .

. 39-6

1854

. . 74-8

. 29-4

. . 0-5 .

. 45-4

1855

.. 67-8

. 22-6

.. ]-0 .

. 45-2

1866

. . 70-0

. 28-5

. . 2-4 ,

. 41-5

1857

. . 69-0

. 28-2

.. 31 .

, 40-8

1858

. . 79-0

. 23-0

. . 2-3 .

. 560

1859

. . 78-0

. 21-8

. . 2-4 .

. 56-2

The greatest heat in shade reached 790' in 1858,
and only 62-5"' in 1847, giving a range of 16-5° in greatest
heat for April during the past seventeen years. In
1859 the temperatm-e rose to 78", the next hottest years
being 1852, 1848, 1854, and 1844; and the coldest 1847,
1846, and 1850.

The greatest cold was as low as 21'8'' in 1859,
and never below 36-0' in 1844, giving a range of 14-2''
for greatest cold in April for the past seventeen years.
The temperature was very low also in 1858, 1855, and
1849, the warmest years being 1844, 1845, and 1846.

The range of temperature in April was as much as
56-2° in 1859, and 56-0° in 1858, whilst it was only
80'5° in 1816.

Only half an inch of rain fell in 1852 and 1854,
and as much as 4-3 inches in 1846, giving a range of
38 inclies for April during the past seventeen years.
In fourteen years the fall exceeded an inch, and in nine
years it exceeded two inches ; the mean amount of
rain for April being 1'9 inches.

April is a changeable month. E. J. Lowe.

ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS
EOR APRIL, 1860.

The sun is in the constellation of Aries until the 19th,
after which he is in Taurus. He rises on the 1st in
London at 5h. 37m., on the 10th at 5h. 17m., on the
20th at 4h. 55m., and on the 30th at 4h. 35m., being
an hour and two minutes earlier on the last day than
on the first. He sets in London on the 1st at 6h. 32m.,
on the 10th at 6h. 47m., on the 20th at 7h. 3m., and
on the 30th at 7h. 20m., or 52 minutes later than
on the 1st. At Dublin, at the beginning of the
month, he rises three minutes earlier and at the end
eight minutes earlier than in London, and sets at the
beginning two minutes later and at the end eight

minutes later than in London. In the middle of the
month he rises at Edinburgh ten minutes earlier and
sets eleven minutes later than in London.

The sun reaches the meridian on the 1st at 12h.
3m. 50s.; on the 10th at 12h. Im. 13s.; on the 14th
at 12h. Om. lOs., and on the 30th at llh. 57m. 2s.

The equation of time on the 1st is 3m. 50s. ; on
the 10th, Im. 13s. ; and on the 14th, only 10s. ;
tlie clock being these amounts before the sun, i. e., the
equation of time addative. On the 30th it is 2m. 68s.
after the sun, and therefore subtractive.

Day breaks on the 2d at 3h. 34m., and on the 27th
at 2h. 1 7m.

Twilight ends on the 14th at 9h. 4m.

Length of day on the 3rd, 13h. 3m., and on the 21st,
llh. 12m.

Duration of twilight after sunset on the 1st, 2h. Dm.,
and on the 21st, 2h. I6m.

The moon is full on the 5th at lOh. Om. p.m.

New moon on the 21st, at 5h. 45m. a.m.

The moon is nearest to the earth on the 4th, and
furthest removed from us on the 19th.

Mercury becomes a morning star on the 3rd. He is
in Pisces throughout the month, becomes stationary
on the 15th, and reaches his greatest westerly elonga-
tion on the 3()th, when he is favourably situated for
observation. He rises on the lOth at 4h. 50m. a.m. ;
on the 20th at 4h. 24m. ; and on the 30th, at 4h.
4m. am. ; setting on the 1st at 6h. 52m. p.m., and on
the 26th at 4h. 35m. At the end of the month he will
present the form of a slender crescent of Us. or 12s.
in diameter.

Venus is an evening star, and still increasing in
brilliancy. She is in Taurus, and well situated for
observation, and will become brighter every night
throughout the month. She is on the meridian on
the lOlh at 2h. 51m. p.m., and on the 30th at oh. 5m.
p.m., setting on the 1st at llh. 7m.; onthe 20that llh.
30m., and on the 30th at llh. 46m.

Mars is badly situated for observation, yet in-
creasing in brightness ; he is in the constellation of
Sagittarius. He is very low, rising only a few degrees
above the horizon, even when on the meridian. He
rises on the 10th at Ih. 36m. a.m., and on the
30th at 12h. 56m. a.m., reaching the meridian on
the 10th at 5h. 27m. a.m., and on the 30th at 4h.
48m. a.m.

Jupiter is an evening star, and although conspi-
cuous is decreasing in brilliancy. He is in Gemini
throughout the month. He rises on the 10th at lOh.
16m. a.m., and on the 26th at 8h. 51m. a.m.;
reaches the meridian on the 10th at 5h. 56m. p.m.,
and on the 30th at 4h. 47m. p.m., setting on the 1st at
2h. 45m. a.m., and on the 30th at Ih. Om. a.m.

Saturn is a conspicuous object in the constella-
tion of Leo. He rises on the 1st at Ih. 18m. a.m.,
and on the 26th at llh. 38m. a.m.; reaches the meri-
dian on the 10th at 8h. 12m. p.m., and on the 30th
at 6h. 53m. p.m., and sets on the 10th at 3h. 45m.
a.m., and on the 30th at 2h. 26m. a.m.

Uranus is in Taurus, and, setting very early, is
unfavourably situated for observation.

RECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

823

The Intra-Mercurial Planet is expected to transit
the sun as a black spot some time between March 25th
and April 10th.

Occultations of Stars by the Moon at Greenwich : —
There is only one of any size, viz., on the 8th, when
w Scorpii (3rd magnitude) disappears at lOh. 32m.
p.m., and reappears again at llh. 34:m. p.m.

Eclipses of Jupiter's satellites at Greenwich : —
On the 1st, at 8h. 49m. 45s. p.m., 3rd moon disappears.
On the 1st, at 9h. 44m. 54s. p.m., Ist moon reap-
pears. On the 2nd, at 12h. 13m. 8s, a.m., 3rd moon
reappears. On the 8th, at llh. 40m. 22s. p.m., 1st
moon reappears. On the 9th, at 12h. 49m. 47s.
a.m., 3rd moon disappears. On the 17th, at 8h. 4m.
41s. p.m., 1st moon reappears. On the 23rd, at 8h.
52m. 10s. p.m., 2nd moon reappears. On the 24th,
at lOh. Om. lis. p.m., 1st moon reappears. On the
30th, at llh. 27m. 2Cs. p.m., 2nd moon reappears. On
the 16th and 23rd, at 9h. SOm. p.m., 1st moon will be
on the disc of Jupiter, and on the 21st at the same
hour the 2nd moon.

E. J. Lowe.

THINGS OF THE SEASON— APRIL.

FOR VARIOUS LOCALITIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.

Birds Arriving. — Quail, Ring Dottrel, Turtle
Dove, Nightingale, Rlackoap, Cuckoo, White-throat,
Grasshopper Lark, Pettychaps, Wood Wren, Swift,
Swallow, Sand Martin. House Martin, Puffin, Yellow
Wagtail, Water Rail, Pied Flycatcher, Whinchat, Com-
mon and Less Tern, Sandwich Tern, Wryneck, Ring
Ousel, Ruflf, Lapwing, Redshank, Redstart, Sandpiper.
The majority of the arrivals take place between the
10th and 20th.

Birds Departing. — Green and Purple Sandpiper,
Gray and Herring Gull, Crossbill, Shoveller, Short-
eared Owl, Cambridge Godwit.

Insects. — Abax striola, Attagenus pellio, Clivina
fossor, Carabus hortensis, Platynus angusticollis,
Elaphrus riparius, Helophorus aquaticus, Silpha ob-
scura, Onthophagus species, Chrysomela sanguineo-
lenta, Melandrya caraboides, Staphylinus senocephalus,
Opatrum sabalosum, Typhaeus vulgaris. Mole Cricket,
Bloody-nosed Beetle, Early White, Howard's White,
Small White, Speckled Wood White, Common Copper,
Hebrew Character, Emperor, Silver Y, Six-cleft Plume,

Weld Plants in Flower. — ^Vernal Speedwell,
Cotton Grass, Yellow and Blue Scorpion Grass, Cy-
clamen, Oxlip, Cowslip, Dog, Hairy, and Marsh Violet,
Spring Gentian, Fritillary, Wild Tulip, Star of Bethle-
hem, Vernal Squill, Golden, Purple, and White Saxi-
frage, Wood Sorrel, Vernal Cinquefoil, Wood Ane-
mone, White Dead-Nettle, White Cardamine, Hedge
Rocket, Wallflower, Fumitory, Dandelion, Bitter Bur,
Purple and Spider Orchis, Great Carex, Ash, Oak,
Beech, Birch, Willow. In wet places Equisetum
eylvaticum cum aliis, and in brooks Chara flexilis.

JVlTJ\folewortliy'sCf<

orner.

The Rifleman's Ete. — ^Mr. Noteworthy's young
people are ankle-deep, knee-deep, neck-deep, in the
perusal of that elegant" and attractive work, "Many
Happy Returns of the Day," by Mr. and Mrs. Cowden
Clarke ; and Mr. Noteworthy himself, with all his sto-
lidity, can hardly help taking a deep dip now and
then. As for the juveniles, they begin to think that
human life ought to be a series of birthdays, in order
that books full of anecdotes and pictures might come
home diumally. In reading the chapter on outdoor
sports, and believing himself to be a boy again, Mr.
Noteworthy lighted on a narration of the experiments
of Colonel Hamilton Smith, which he here cites as a
lesson in the study of colour. Three targets were
chosen — Red, Green, and Gray. Ten of the best shots
fired at them, two shots a-piece first, in 'this order,
Red, Green, Gray, then Green, Gray, Red, and lastly.
Gray, Red, Green. The result was, that the red tar-
get was shot to splinters before the complement of
sixty balls had been shot at it ; the green was severely
treated, but not destroyed, and the gray was compa-
ratively uninjured. Thus a gray coat is as good as
shot proof armour to a soldier in the field, a green
one dangerous, and a red an open exposure to death.
Our Volunteer Rifles may take a lesson from these
experiments, as may also the student of the laws
of colour.

Coating for Plaster-casts. — Years ago Mr. Note-
worthy used to amuse himself by converting plaster-
casts into imitations of wax and marble by means of
white wax and immersions in oil. Though he so pre-
pared a whole set of the Poniatowski gems, he has
clean forgotten the whole process, and is unable to
satisfy the inquiries of some of his friends, who desire
to become proficient in such manipulations. Will
some of the readers of Recreative Science, who
are adepts at this kind of work, send brief practical
receipts for this Corner, that we may all know how to
give the gloss of marble and the bloom of alabaster
to the cheap works of art that are to be found in
cottage skylights and the mantle-shelves of tasteful
people?

Solvent for Dry Paint. — " Dingler's Polytechnic
Journal " contains a useful recipe by M. C. Brunner,
who states that, having befn often applied to by artists
for a means of removing d^ied oil-colours from paint-
brushes and other substances, he made a series of
experiments, which conducted him to the following
method: — A solution of one part of crystallized carbo-
nate of soda in three parts of water is prepared ; the
brushes to be cleaned are suspended in this fluid, so
that they may remain at about two inches from the
bottom of the vessel in which tliey are placed. The
apparatus is now submitted to a gentle heat from twelve
to twenty-four hours, according as is found necessary.
Ilie heat should not exceed 160" Fahrenheit, as this
is suflicient to soften the colour, and render it re-

324

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

movable in the ordinary way with soap and water;
a greater heat would spoO. the hairs, especially of
hog-tools.

Restoration of Fractured Bells. — Since the
two renowned failures in connection with the great
bell of the Westminster Palace, scientific men have
been engaged in numerous experiments and inquiries,
with a view to reduce to certainty the at present un-
certain details of the composition and mechanism of
bells. In one instance, a result has been arrived at,
which renders it probable that a cracked bell, how-
ever large, may be restored to perfect working order.
At a recent meeting of the Institution of Civil Engi-
neers, Mr. Varley exhibited a cracked bell, which had
been recovered by soldering the crack with tin, so that
it was as sonorous as before. The principle of the
restoration is this : — Tin when heated above the boiling
point to nearly a red heat, dissolves copper, and com-
bines with it to form an aUoy. The bell, being first
soldered with tin, must be kept at a red heat for a
certain length of time, during which the copper in
the bell-metal, in the parts adjoining the crack, min-
gles with the tin with which the crack was soldered,
and thus the soldering becomes homogeneously com-
bined with the mass, as if a part of its original struc-
ture ; and the bell resumes the utterance of its original
tones.

Propagation by Candlr-heat. — Among the curio-
sities of horticulture, is the newly-introduced method
of propagating plants by the heat of a candle-flame,
which is the result of experiments by one of Mr.
Noteworthy's friends. The useful invention known
as the Waltonian case was formerly heated with an oil-
lamp or gas-jet, and the object of obtaining a candle
suited to it was to render it available as a recreation
for the sick-room, where the invalid could watch the
growth of the plants, and by the definite number of hours
which the candles burn, entrust the management of
the heating apparatus to a domestic wholly unskilled
in the operation. Just as the candle or mortar heats
the boiler on which the plants are placed, so it would
prove a cleanly and certain source of heat for many
chemical operations, and for the sick-chamber, and
even for the dinner-table, to keep the venison hot.
The next step in this direction should be to adapt an
efficient heating apparatus to Wardian cases, to enable
amateurs to preserve, during the winter, many of the
choice silver and gold ferns, and other exotic Filices,
that too commonly perish through having to endure
too low a temperature in dwelling-rooms and en-
trance-halls. In the March Number of the Floral
World will be found a description, with figures, of
the Waltonian case as adapted to be heated with the
candles.

EoCKWORK FOR Aquaria. — Several correspondents,
who have inquired of Mr. Noteworthy on this subject,
are informed that the best of all materials for rockwork
in aquaria is mica schist, because on that kind of rock
the confervoid vegetation appears the soonest, and en-
dures longest, so as to provide an abundant supply of
oxygen to the animal inhabitants. Coke washed with

Portland cement and pumicestone ia often used, be-
cause it is lighter than other materials, and the tanks
made on the old plan are unable to bear the pressure
of a large mass of rock, and without rock where is the
nidus for spontaneous vegetation ? Whenever cement
can be dispensed with the better, and it is not a diifi-
cult matter to build up rockwork wholly without it.
The best cement is Portland, which does not crumble
if mixed in small quantities at a time, and used
quickly. As the tanks are now made with Mr. Lloyd's
joints and elastic cement (patented, and kept secret^,
they are capable of bearing without strain as much
rockwork of any kind as can be got into them. Mr.
Noteworthy has recently inspected Mr. Lloyd's new
arrangements at Portland Eoad, Eegent's Park, and
rejoices to be able to bear testimony to the assiduity,
enterprise, and scientific skill of that eminent pur-
veyor of stock to the whole aquarian world.

The Great Tide of the 8th. — To enter fully
into the subject of tidal phenomena would be out of
place here ; but as several of Mr. Noteworthy's friends
ask for a reason in reference to the great tide of the
8th, a few words will sufiice to explain it. The attrac-
tion of the moon heaps up the waters of the earth, and
if the earth and moon were stationary, the waters would
assume the form of an oblong ellipsoid ; but as neither
are so, there is never time for the spheroid to be formed.
The efi'ect of the motion of the attracting power is to
cause a vast flat wave, which follows the apparent mo-
tions of the moon ; when the higher or lower parts of
this wave strike our coasts, we say it is high or low
water. The sun exercises also a great attractive force,
and sometimes the wave formed by the sun is added to
that formed by the moon, when sun and moon act
together in the same direction ; and at other times the
sun-wave is formed transversely to that of the moon,
and the lunar-wave is thus weakened ; hence we have
spring and neap tides. On the 7th of March last the
moon was at the full, hence sun and moon were on
opposite sides of the earth, and a spring-tide would be
the consequence, the waters being equally heaped up
on the two hemispheres. But the moon was also in
perigee — that is, at a point of her orbit nearest the
earth, and the sun being at the same time at the
equator, on his way to inaugurate the northern sum-
mer, the two bodies acted together with more than
usual force, and so equally as to neutralize eac'n others
action the least possible. Thus a well balanced and
augmented attraction on opposite sides of the earth
caused the tide-wave to rise higher than ordinary; and,
as a consequence, there was a considerable amount of
excitement at seaports, and on the banks of navigable
rivers, at the deviation of the waters from their cus-
tomary levels. As the great tide was predicted by
astronomers, much property was saved from destruc-
tion by the precautions taken in anticipation of the
event. In September next, when the sun will be again
on the line to act in conjunction with the moon, the
great September tide will afford a good opportunity to
visitors to the coast to study the subject, as well as to
make good gatherings of manne objects for the
aquarium.

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

325

-^^^^

THEOEETICAL SECTION OF THE EARTH B CRUST.

A, Ancient and modem laras ; B, Basalt; C, Porphyry; D, Greenstone ; E, Granite j F, Crystalline schist;
G, Silurian; H, Carboniferous ; I, Limestone; K, Red sandstone ; L, Lias; M, Chalk; N, Tertiary; 0, Drift;
P, Alluvium; Q, Volcano, communicating with the lowermost Plutonic strata; E, Traps and dykes.

PHYSICAL EVIDENCES OF THE INTEENAL HEAT OE THE EAETH.

PAET II. — GEOLOGICAL AND PLANETAET STEUCXTTBE OF THE EAETH.

HE success which has attended the inves-
tigations of Sir Charles Lyell, and the geo-
logists generally of the modern school, arises
out of the method of reasoning adopted in
tracing effects to proximate causes. By what
we observe in the changes now taking place
on the surface of the earth, we infer the
nature of the changes which formed the sue-
cessional phenomena of ages long since past,
when, truthfully speaking, they were not
phenomena, because there was no human eye
to behold them. The great Humboldt built
up his *' Cosmos" on data collected from the
present aspects of Nature, and by the same
data we must reason respecting the nature of
those fiery forces which have so powerfully
operated in giving the habitable globe its pre-
Vot. I.— No. 10.

«

sent external form and character. That heat
was the agent under which the materials of
the earth's crust were first modified, is the
leading lesson of Geology. If we make a
section of the earth's crust, the order of
superposition is always the same. From the
modern alluvium we proceed downwards to
the tertiary, thence to the chalk, the oolite,
the new red, the carboniferous, the old red,
the Silurian, and at last come upon the sedi-
mentary rocks which have been crystallized
by heat. Beneath these are the foundation
beds of granite, in which there are no traces
of the action of water, but abundant evi-
dences that they have passed into the solid
form, after having been molten for ages. We
may find traps, and dykes, and metalliferous

326

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

veins, but these traps and dykes can be
traced downwards to the igneous series, and
be proved to have been ejected through and
over the sedimentary matter they have dis-
turbed, after that sedimentary matter had
been accumulated in the beds of seas and
lakes, and hardened into rock. Familiar as
this fact is to every student of geology, in-
deed, without a recognition of the chrono-
logical order of the strata of the earth's
crust, there is no science in G-eology at all,
yet it needs here to be enforced as the leading
link in the chain of evidence by which the
theory of the internal heat of the earth is to

Order of Strata, forming the lower portion of the
earth's crust. — 1 , Plutonic focks ; 2, gneiss ; 3, mica-
schist ; 4, clay-slate ; 5, Silurian ; 6, old red sand-
stone.

be established. It matters not under what
form the igneous rocks present themselves,
whether as granite, porphyry, basalt, chlorite,
or serpentine, they aU agree in their general
characteristics as the crystalline products of
simple fusion, and when we arrive in our
upward course upon the gneiss and mica-
schist, we find stratification by the agency of
Water, and crystallization through the de-
posit having been made upon the heated
granite bed. Thus the lowest of the series
of rocks forming the earth's crust, as far as

we are acquainted with them, were originally
in a state of fluidity by heat, and, in cooling,
the constituent materials assumed either the
crystalline confusion observable in granite,
or the columnar form seen in basalt, and
sometimes in porphyry. These lowest beds
also rise to the highest altitudes upon the
earth's surface ; the granite of the Alps only
dips under the tertiary of Vienna, to rise
again on the western end of the Carpathians,
the eastern half of which consists of secondary,
greatly modified by the heat of the granite,
on the shoulders of which it was originally
heaved to the surface. The peaks of the
Caucasus, the Grampians, the hills of
Auvergne, the Pyrenees, the north of Wales,
and the south of Ireland, and the belt of
country from the Ural chain to the western
coast of Scandinavia, claim kindred as to their
origin with the tuff and pumice of Sicily and
Naples, Auvergne and Dresden. Unless the
heat had been sufficient to upheave and break
through the first-formed crust of igneous
matter, and to have continued even till now
to disturb the uppermost layers of water-
formed rock, the earth must have remained
a sightless and unfruitful level plain — a plain
submerged, perhaps, under a thin, continuous
fibn of water. But the struggle of the heat
for escape has caused the protrusion of traps
that have scorched the rocks through w^hich
they passed on their way to the cool surface.
It has converted beds of coal into anthracite,
brought within man's reach veins of useful
metals, beds of useful coal, and, in many
places, exposed to view for his instruction
the order of superposition, and the relative
places in time of the several sedimentary for-
mations. To the earthquake and the volcanic
throe he is indebted for the sparkling stream
that is fed for ever from the mountain snows,
indebted for the rounded hills that feed his
flocks, and the table-lands that wave with corn,
and for the fertile valleys wherein the soaring
bird and the soaring heart sing together to
the praise of God. If we leave Europe, and

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

327

make the tour of tlie world, everywhere we
meet with igneous rocks upon the summits of
the hills, and on the seaboard of the Pacific
active craters accompany the line of the
upheaval to awful altitudes of the rocks
which occupy the lowest place in the geolo-
gical series.

Let us at this point go back to remote
geological antiquity, and picture the earth a
rocky and sterile mass, but just cooled suffi-
ciently to permit the existence on its surface
of water in a liquid form. The soil is yet too
hot for life in any of its forms ; many of the
more volatile elements are still floating in the
atmosphere, still uncondensed and unab-
sorbed. The seas boil furiously, and the
huge bubbles of ebullition keep up a roaring
din, which mingles with the blasts of Vul-
canian forges, and the thunderous rumblings
of earthquakes on the land. Immense volumes
of steam involve the world in terrible dark-
ness, and showers of hot water fall upon
the hotter soil. As the rains fall, the rocks
splinter and sever into zigzag seams, and the
water flowing through, reaches the terribly
heated mass below. Steam is generated in
enormous quantity, every particle of water
expanding into 1700 times its former bulk ; or
the water itself is decomposed into its com-
ponent gases, which occupy many thousand
times the space of the water from which they
are formed, and these, suddenly produced in
confinement and under pressure, will fight
fiercely for escape. Then will commence the
sharp struggle of gas and vapour fighting for
freedom, and in the hour of this terrible
convulsion, the rocky crust will be torn and
shattered, the fiery tide will be protruded,
and the masses ejected will form the granite
peaks which now crown the world, and pierce
the heavens with their grand pinnacles of
snow.

In thermal springs we find a still further
confirmation of the theory. Boiling springs,
like earthquakes, are most frequent near vol-
canoes. The Geysers of Iceland are in close

proximity to Mount Hecla, and doubtless de-
rive their heat from the rocky reservoirs out
of which they flow, the immediate source of
the fountain being a portion of the volcanic
soil which has an immediate connection with

Theoretic Section of a Geyser, showing the cavity in
which the water collects by percolation, and from
whence by the pressure of confined steam it is forced
along the pipe at the time of eruption.

the internal fires. The celebrated springs of
Soltaferra — the steam of which is used to
drive the mills in the adjacent factories — have
more than a chance connection with Vesuvius ;
and, indeed, by some geologists, and particu-
larly by Professors Phillips and Daubeny,
boiling springs are regarded but as a class of
volcanoes, in which the product of eruption is
water in a comparatively pure form.

Pallassou first explained that the tempe-
rature of springs decreases in proportion to
their distance from tha great granite mass,
and that springs having their source in lay-
ers of sedimentary formation much above
the granite, vary in temperature with the
seasons and the weather, while the deep-
seated springs have a constant heat, which is
unafiected by external circumstances. So
definitely is this the case, that it is regarded
as a law of the Artesian and other wells, that
the deeper the source the warmer is the water
that flows from it, and this, too, in an ascer-
tainable ratio. It is also worthy of remark
that thermal springs, though frequent in
volcanic districts, are by no means coufine4

328

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

to sucli, but are found in all kinds of situa-
tions and of very high, temperatures in sites
remote from volcanic influence. Nor do
■we find, as we could not fail to do if they
existed, any traces in these thermal waters of
chemical ingredients, such as would in them-
selves give rise to heat, nor, indeed, of any
that might result from decompositions which
had already given rise to an elevation of tem-
perature. Witness the waters of Naters,
North Wales, which rise at a temperature of
58" Fahrenheit ; those at Leuck at 72^ ; of
Bagnes at Lavey, near Bex, at 65" ; Sante
de Pucelle, at Chamouni, and St. Gervaise,
on Mont Blanc, both registering 52' or 53' ;
Cormayeur and St. Didier, on the southern
declivity of Mont Blanc, at 50" ; and those
at Aix-les-Bains, in Savoy, at 70" to 72". All
these springs are noted for the comparative
purity of their waters, and the steadiness of
their temperature, without regard to the vi-
cissitudes of the seasons, and in each case the
relative temperature is in proportion to the
distance of the fountain from the basal
granite.

At Carlsbad the springs have a tem-
perature of 165" Fahrenheit, or nearly double
the warmth of the human body, and none
of the ingredients which the water yields,
on analysis, account in any way for its
heat. At Aix-la-Chapelle, the waters rise
at 143'; at Bath, at 114"; and in both
instances the sources of the supply are
near, or upon, primitive beds of granite.
Most mineral waters contain lime, common
salt, potash, minute proportions of sulphates
and phosphates, and large quantities of car-
bonic acid ; and of these the lime is the only
one which could give rise to heat. But any
one acquainted with chemistry must see at a
glance that lime is not the cause ; for, if it
were, the waters would rise at boiling heat,
or but a few degrees below it, whereas the
warmest of thermal springs, excepting, of
course, such remarkable examples as the
Geysers, which are true aqueous volcanoes,

do not rise beyond a point at least 50"
under boiling heat.

Wherever we penetrate the crust of the
earth, increase of temperature accompanies
increase of depth. Mining, quarrying, and
boring operations offer the best possible op-
portunities for the determination of this rate
of increase. In the Artesian well at G-ren-
elle, the temperature is equal to 84' Fahren-
heit, at a depth of 1230 feet, and this in win-
ter, when the air at the surface is not higher
than 28' or 30'. Mr. Fox, of the United
Mines, in Cornwall, has furnished some inte-
resting details of the increase of temperature
downwards indicated by the springs of those
mines. The mine of Gwennap, which yields
abundance of copper ore, has a vast number
of warm springs ; one of these, which rises at
a depth of 200 fathoms below the level of the
sea, discharges 94 gallons a minute, at a tem-
perature of 106^" Fahrenheit, while, on the
other side, is a spring which discharges 30
gallons a minute at the temperature of 971"
Fahrenheit. The air near both these springs
was found to be at 104|", and the highest
temperature of the air hitherto experienced
106'. Nor are such thermal fountains scarce.
They abound in every region of the globe,
show everywhere an affinity for granite, and
have a regular increase of temperature propor-
tionate to the increase in the depth of their
source.

But the most specific, because utterly re-
moved from the region of partial influences,
is the argument deduced from cosmical phe-
nomena ; the figure of the earth, the motions
of the moon, the comparative amounts of heat
radiated from the sun, and the observed
temperature of the earth. There is scarcely
any one of the great propositions in Astro-
nomy but may be made directly or indirectly
to illustrate this problem of internal heat.

Had the earth been solid when it first
began to rotate on its axis, it must necessarily
have preserved to the present day its original
figure, notwithstanding its rotary motion.

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

329

But if originally fluid, it must, under the in-
fluence of rotary motion, assume a figure of
equilibrium — a figure expressive of tlie mean
between its tendency to cobere, and the ope-
ration of centrifugal force to destroy its cobe-

Exaggerated Outline of the Earth, to show it as an
oblate spheroid.

rence. Sucb a body, having a capability to yield
in its outline, would, when made to rotate, be-
come depressed to a certain extent in its axis
of rotation, and to the same extent expanded
at the equator. When the equilibrium had
been attained, the mass would remain in the
form of an ellipsoid. Now facts just agree
with theoretical deductions : the earth has a
larger circumference at the equator than at
the poles by at least twenty-six miles ; there-
fore we may fairly assume that the earth was
originally fluid, its fluidity being the result of
an intense heat.*

Let us admit that originally the earth was
in an incandescent state ; that in process of
countless ages the outer surface cooled by
radiation, and so gave rise to the formation of
a solid crust ; that within this crust a heated
mass of fluid material was inclosed, and that
this is not yet sufficiently cooled to assume a
solid form. The consequence of the theory
wiU be, that we shall observe various evi-
dences of the occasional escape of heat from

* Sir John HersoheL

within ; that wherever fissures, cracks, or per-
forations occur in the shell inclosing the hot
material, the escape of fire, the rending of the
crust, and other similar phenomena, will be
manifested. We have only to take the con-
verse view to be assured that boiling springs,
earthquakes, and volcanoes are bat several
evidences of the existence and occasional
escape of internal heat.

We need not rest, however, with the
mere determination of the fact ; we may, with
some accuracy, measure its force, its amount,
and its comparative duration during time, and
even make some sober conjectures aa to its
history in the future.

What is the rate of increase of heat down-
wards ? Kupffer estimated the ratio of in-
crease at Grenelle to be 1^ for every 37 feet ;
the Durham and Northumberland mines give
1° for ever 44 feet ; the lead mines of Saxony
r for every 65 feet ; and the mine of Dol-
bouth, which is 1380 feet in depth, 1° for 75
feet. The best estimates, however, are those
deduced from a comparison of a large number
of results, and these give the rate of increase
as being equal to 1'' of Fahrenheit for every
45 feet of descent. Looking to the result of
such a rate of increase, it is easy to see that
at 7290 feet from the surface, the heat will
reach 212% the boiling point of water. At
25,500 feet it will melt lead ; at 7 miles it
will maintain a glowing red heat, at 21 miles
melt gold, at 74 miles cast iron, at 97 miles
soft iron, and at 100 miles from the surface
aU will be fluid as water, a mass of seething
and boiling rock in a perpetually molten
state, doomed possibly never to be cooled or
crystallized. The heat here will exceed any
with which man is acquainted ; it will exceed
the heat of the electric spark, or the effect of
a continued voltaic current. The heat which
melts platina as if it were wax is as ice to it ;
could we visually observe its efiects, our in-
tellect would afibrd no means of measuring
its intensity. Here is the region of perpetual
fire, the source of earthquake and volcanio

330

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

power, the abode of forces whicb. only liint of
their being by the exhibition of marked phe-
nomena on the surface.

" ^Vhen the Cyclops o'er their anvils sweat,
And their swoln sinews echoing blows repeat,
From the volcano gross eruptions rise,
And curling sheets of smoke obscure the skies."

Yet a thickness of 100 miles in the crust con-
veys bixt little idea of strength to resist pres-
sure from without and within. To a globe of
8000 miles diameter, such a crust will be pro-
portionately much thinner than the rind of
an orange, and hence but a delicate beam
between the opposing forces fighting for a
balance. Its thinness, indeed, renders easy of
explanation the phenomenon of earthquakes,
for all below being in a state of commotion and
ebullition, any change upon the surface of the
earth, acting on a crust so thin and hollow,
would cause rents and fissures, through which
the fire would burst and rage upon the sur-
face until the falling masses closed the chasm
again. What agent is there to produce such
1 change upon the surface? What agent of
sufficient force to splinter a roofing of 100
miles' thickness ? This soft, invisible, yield-
ing, and embracing atmosphere, fanning the
cheek with coolness, kissing the spring daisy
as it dances over emerald meadows, or tearing
up forests by the roots and hurling their tim-
bers to the skies ! This atmosphere is the
essential agent, powerful for all pxirposes of
disturbance, and ever ready to bring its
power into operation. On every square inch
of the earth's surface the atmosphere presses
with a weight of 15 pounds. On every square
foot the pressure amounts to 2160 pounds, or
one ton nearly. Over the whole earth, there-
fore, the pressure of the atmosphere is equal
to 12,043,468,800,000,000,000 pounds. Sup-
pose the barometer to fall two inches over
100 miles of country, that fall represents the
removal of 1,858,560,000 tons of pressure.
The expansion from within continuing the
same, will not the equilibrium between the
heat within and tlie air without be at once

destroyed P Can we wonder that Typha;us,
panting and struggling with the weight of
hills and plains upon his heart, will stir himself
afresh as the weight of his burthen lessens ? —
that, indeed, the internally heated materials,
no longer held down by the full pressure of the
atmosphere, will heave up the crust, and cause
crackings of the surface and earthquake com-
motions ? that in the explosion cities will
fall, hills be swallowed up, and plains elevated P
that sheets of steam, escaping from the newly
opened vents, will roll over the undulating
surface P that convulsions of all kinds will
occur, until, by the return of things to a
balance, tranquillity is restored P One simple
general fact corroborates this hypothetical
view of the production of an earthquake, and
it is this — that &fall of the barometer invari-
ably precedes the convulsions of an earth-
quake.

Many inquirers, who have seen the neces-
sity of admitting the theory of Internal Heat,
have, after conviction, suffered many pangs
in the contemplation of the possible conse-
quences of the theory. If the earth is stea-
dily parting with heat, will it not at last cool
down into a lifeless frozen crystal, the abode
no longer of life and beauty, but of death in
his most hideous form P Let us never fear
consequences, but repose faith in the perfec-
tion of the entire scheme as an evidence of
the constant protection of an universal Father.
The early astronomers feared consequences,
and built up their theory of the destruction
of aU things under the necessities of pertur-
bation ; but in the progress of mathematical
astronomy it has been shown that perturba-
tions are compensatory, and have no influence
on the term of existence allotted to the bodies
experiencing them. How fast, then, does our
earth cool ^ how rapidly does it approach to
the supposed state of a lifeless crystal P

If the earth, in its present condition, were
projected into a medium having a tempera-
ture of 58' below zero of Fahrenheit, it
would not cool more in 2,000,000 years than

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

331

a globe 1000 feet in diameter would in one
second of time ; for how many ages, there-
fore, has the cooling process gone on, to
bring it to its present condition of greenness
and fertility — its once confused and cloudy
vapours condensed into seas and lakes, and
its axes capped with everlasting snows !

It must be confessed that we have no de-
finite data by which to determine how many
eons must elapse for the cooling of the entire
globe to the present general temperature of
the surface, nor can we say at what rate it
parts with heat. The earth may be said to
weigh about three thousand six hundred and
fifty-two millions seven thousand and ninety-
two billions of tons.* How long would a
globe of such a bulk, if heated to the tempe-
rature of melted iron, and exposed in a
medium at 0" of Fahrenheit, require to cool
down to that same point on our thermometric
scale?

The late M. Arago, in one of his brilliant
scientific contributions to the Annuaire, fur-
nishes a proof, deduced from the moon's
motion, that the general temperature of the
mass of the globe has not varied the tenth
part of a degree during the last 2000 years.
Reducing his ample explanations into a
small compass, the argument takes shape as
follows : —

Suppose a heavy mass were adapted to
each radius of a wheel, so that we could slide
the mass from the extreme end of the radius
up to the axle. If the masses are set near
the axle, a certain force would be required to
give the wheel a rotation of (say) one revolu-
tion per second. Move the masses to the
outer extremities of the radii, and though
the total weight of the apparatus wiU not be
changed, yet a greater force will be required
to give, as before, one revolution per second.
It foUows, therefore, that, as to turn a mass

* This is the result of a rough calculation, made
on the hasis of Cavendish's pendulum experiment. I
have lost my original memorandum of the calculation,
•tad have- now grave doubts of its accuracy.

of a given weight with a given velocity, the
force must be increased as the elements of
weight are removed from the axis of rotation ;
so, with a constant force, the rotary velocity
of the mass wiU be retarded in proportion as
its different particles are more distant from
the axis. That which is true of a flat wheel
is, in this case, also true of a spheroid, such
as the earth, which rotates on its axis by
virtue of an original impulse.

The materials of which the earth is com-
posed expand by heat and contract by cold,
and if contraction take place, the rotation on
its axis must of necessity be increased in
velocity. Hence the rate of the earth's rota-
tion is at all times a measure of contraction
or expansion of its bulk. The duration of
the revolution is an unit of time, used by
astronomers in all ages as the basis of the
boldest inquiries and the most sober predic-
tions, and may be used here to determine if
any change has taken place in the heat of the
globe during 2000 years. The ancients knew
nothing of the thermometer, and hence have
bequeathed no data for determining changes
of heat, but they were accurate in their mea-
surements of time.

Amongst the uses made by the ancient
astronomers of the unit of time afforded by
the rotation of the earth, was that of measur-
ing the revolutions of the moon. The school
of Alexandria has left materials by which
to deduce the velocity of the moon in past
times with the greatest exactitude. The
Arabian astronomers have furnished similar
data for the time of the caliphs, and there
not, says Arago, a single catalogue of modern
observations in which the moon's mean mo-
tion during a sidereal day is not given. Now
the arc passed over by the satellite in that
unit of time is found to be precisely the
same, whether deduced from the Grecian,
Arabian, or from recent observations ; the
phenomena of perturbation proper being, of
course, left out of the deduction. Hence the
sidereal day has been precisely the same at all

332

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

three periods — it has for at least 2000 years
designated an equal space of time, and of
course during the same period the velocity of
the earth's rotation has remained constant.

But observe with what precision this fact
may be measured by the true philosopher.
Let us suppose, says Arago, the mean tem-
perature of each radius of the globe to have
increased I'G" Pahr. in 2000 years, and assume
the average dilatation by heat of the substances
composing the mass to be the same as that of
glass, that is, about \omsoo for each degree ;
a diminution of 1° would consequently have
occasioned one in the dimensions of the sphe-
roid of ro5o75o, which, according to dynamical
theory, would produce an acceleration in its
velocity of rotation of so^o, which would
shorten the sidereal day by 1'7". But since
the time of Hipparchus, the sidereal day has
not varied the xh^th of a second, a quantity 170
times less than 1'7". Hence the change of
temperature assumed above is 170 times
greater than the observations on the length
of the sidereal day admit of its having been ;
and we may conclude that the mean tem-
perature of the general mass of the earth has
not varied tfoth of a degree in 2000 years.

If the cooling process takes place so slowly,
how long has it been in action to have pro-
duced its present result P The reason leaves
the conjecturfi to imagination, and imagina-
tion, unequal to the conception of periods for
which ordinary units of years, or even millions
of years, afford the elements, abandons the spe-
culation in despair. If we cannot look back,
dare we look forward for a period when, how-
ever slow the loss of heat, it shall escape at
last, and leave the earth frozen, arid, lifeless P
or, shall we seek for some law of compensa-
tion, such as the astronomer finds in the mo-
tions of the planets, and which shall preserve
the constancy of its perennial warmth and
the continuance of its gay circle of seasonal
changes, and flowery forms, and living and
happy creatures P Will the earth powder
^vray under the pulverizing fingers of Time,

or maintain for ever the glory of its warm
seasons and the freshness of its belt of
flowers P Will the fire expend its force, and
earthquakes cease for ever ? or will the same
round of changes go on eternally, swallowing
cities in the embrace of hills, and swamping
villages in burning seas of lava P The fact is
not isolated but universal. The moon is essen-
tially a volcanic body as regards the con-
figuration of its surface. The lunar craters
are vastly larger than those of the earth.
Tycho, as cited by Mrs. Ward in " Telescope
Teachings," having a diameter of fifty miles,
while others exceed even these great dimen-
sions. Sir John Hersehel and other ob-
servers have noted what appeared to be evi-
dences of existing igneous action; but Mr.
Nasmyth's view is now generally adopted,
that volcanic action has ceased ou the moon
for thousands of years. Suifice it, that the
evidences of fire are there to give it an
immediate physical relation to the earth
we inhabit. The planets are the same,
bvilged at the equator, as though their
inner parts were mobile, and yielded to
the whirling force which spins them round
and round. The heat is there, preserving
summer verdure, and when the sun shines
not, keeping them rotund and fertile ever ;
retarding the tendency of matter to slide
back into a crystalline form, lifeless, shape-
less, and dejected. What power the sun has
in warming the earth's crust ; how the forces
of heat within and sunshine without balance
each other on the surface ; how modern geo-
logical changes, not of a volcanic nature, de-
pend on internal expansions ; how the tempe-
rature of space operates in disturbing or pre-
serving an equilibrium, and a hundred other
speculations, spring out of these conclusions
on the existence of an elevated temperature
in the interior of the globe. As science per-
severes in her daily work of recording and
comparing facts, no doubt many of these pro-
blems will be elucidated, and if material
Nature is constant in its operations during

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

333

time, man, a spiritual spring of knowledge,
attains a kigher and a higher elevation as
increase of wisdom enhances the force of his
mental impulses.

That the earth has cooled since the days
when the igneous rocks first assumed a solid
form is certain, else it could never have been
peopled with its present congress of created
creatures ; but that it should ever cool so far
as to become a frozen mass is matter of con-
jecture. Eespecting the past, we have phy-
sical evidences and written records ; respect-
ing the future, we have only the word of
Revelation, and that is all we need for an
assurance that the earth wiU not pass into
frigidity, but have an end of its present days
through the same physical influences which
have given it its present geographical con-
figuration.

Theology is not the province of this
work, else we would apply this theory of
the internal heat of the earth to the illustra-
tion of those passages in Holy Writ which

proclaim that the earth shall terminate her
history in fire, " in the which the heavens
shall pass away with a great noise, and the
earth also, and the works that are therein
shall be burned up." The source of the
combustion is beneath our feet ; we tread on
the roof of the blast furnace, which is ready
to let loose the devouring flame, when God
wUls the dissolution of the system of being
into which He hath breathed the breath of
life. This is one more " Testimony of the
Eocks " to the truths set forth in revealed
religion. If we do not follow this branch of
the subject into detail, we must nevertheless
accept the lesson drawn from it by the
apostle — " Seeing that all these things shall
be dissolved, what manner of persons ought
ye to be in all holy conversation and godliness ;
looking for and hasting unto the coming of
the day of God, wherein the heavens being
on fire shall be dissolved, and the elements
shall melt with fervent heat."

Shielet Hibbeed.

ROBERT'S TEST-LINES.

"How much does my microscope magnify,
with its various powers?" is a question of in-
terest to all who purchase or use one of these
instruments. The beginner is mostly pleased
with the number of times he can magnify an
object ; those who have become habituated to
the instrument by long practice regard this
as a very small consideration, and look to how
much of structvire can be shown by the least
amount of enlargement. But there are cases
where this latter quality is as such essential ;
forif wehave objects sosmallas torequirehigh
powers to show them as a whole, and these
composed of a great number of still finer parts,
it is obvious that very high powers must be
used for observations on their minute details.
Standards by which to estimate the magnify-
ing powers of glasses by difierent makers have

been found in the scales of moths, amongst
which those of the common clothes-moth,
from their minute size and the regularity of
their markings, have been held in high esti-
mation. As in course of time glasses were
made of greater power, other " test-objects "
were sought for, and the scales of Lepisma,
and afterwards of Podura, came to be used ;
these being replaced by certain of the Diato-
macese, on the discovery of the exquisite
delicacy of the sculpturing on many of their
valves. Many an enthusiastic microscopist
is yet to be found who regards the successful
resolution of the strise on some difficult dia-
tom as a great triumph, worthy the bestowal
of time and patience without end. But a
difficulty occurs with all natural objects, that
no two are alike ; some, of the same kind

334

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

and even from the same source, being marked
with twice or thrice the degree of fineness of
others, to remedy which it was necessary that
some absolute standard should be obtained.
The application of the principle of machine-
ruling led to its solution in the subject of the
present paper.

Slips of glass ruled with lines, 100 and
1000 to the inch, are in common use, and are
invaluable in ascertaining the degree to which
any object is magnified ; without them we
should be unable to estimate the closeness of
the rxiling in M. Nobert's wonderful produc-
tions. M. Froment, of Paris, succeeded in
ruling lines on glass 25,000 to the inch ; in
this path he was followed by M. F. A.
Nobert, of Barth in Pomerania, M'ho sent to
the Great Exhibition, in 1851, some slips ruled
■n ith bands of lines of different degrees of
fineness ; in the first band the lines were
11,000 to an inch, in the last 50,000 in the
same space. The bands in these his first-
exhibited productions, were ten in number,
and having been separately estimated by
several observers of high repute, these num-
bers are generally accepted as correct.

M. Nobert's later productions surpass
even these ; as at present supplied, they con-
sist of a slip of glass (Fig. 1), on which, by

Fig. 1.

careful observation with the naked eye, may
be observed what looks like a single shadowy
line, sparkling in bright light with the play of
prismatic colours. By moderate power (50
diameters), with good glass and careful illu-
mination, twenty distinct bands may be
counted, the finer, however, very shadowy
and evanescent. With 100 diameters, the
four coarsest shoiild be shown in distinct

lines (Fig. 2) ; as the power is increased, more
and more of the bands will be resolved, till

with 500 diameters the separate lines com-
posing all but one or two of the finest of the
bands should be clearly seen: for satisfactory
resolution of the latter a power of 800 dia-
meters, with most skilful management of the
accessories, is required. Fig. 3 may serve to
give some idea of their appearance then,

iniin

Fig. 3.

though it is impossible to imitate closely the
exquisite delicacy of the lines.

The difficulty of viewing, and still greater
of counting, lines so close, is such that ob-
servers are not at present equally agreed in
their measurements of the later series. As
furnished by a friend, in whose accuracy we
place great reliance, from his extensive prac-
tice in such investigations, the range is from
13,000 in band No. 1 to 80,000 in band No. 20.

The extreme delicacy and regularity of
these lines, with their closeness, are calcu-
lated to excite admiration in the highest de-
gree. We run over the numbers glibly, as
we do the " millions of miles" of tlie astro-
nomer, but to form any conception of lines,

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

335

80,000 ia the inch is about equally difficult.
It is interesting to observe here that the best
authorities are agreed in estimating the lines
on the most finely-marked of the Diatomacese
yet resolved, at about the same figure, 80,000
to 85,000 in the English inch ; and although it
may be rash, in view of the strides made during
the last few years, to say it seems as if it
might have been written with regard to these,

" Thus far shalt thou go, and no further,"
yet it does appear as if the probabilities
pointed that way. Eays of light won't go
through everything ; object-glasses have al-
ready been made with angles of aperture that
cannot be exceeded.

As tests of aperture, Nobert's Lines are
the best, but since these lines may be seen
by glasses of large aperture, yet out in the
centring, faulty in the fitting, it is evident

that something more is required than the
showing these well, before an object-glass can
be pronounced " first-rate." And, after all, the
showing the markings on fine-lined objects
is only one of the purposes of a microscope ;
perhaps it is not too much to call it, for real
service, one of the least. If information be
required on structure, on the component tis-
sues of an object under examination, to be
able to look through some depth of substance
is absolutely essential ; and it is satisfactory
to observe that the efforts of makers are now
being directed to the production, at reason-
able prices, of first-rate object-glasses, with
moderate angular aperture, rather than to
such as possess little working value beyond
showing " Noherfs Test-Lines," and other
fine-lined objects.

TiTFFEN Wj2ST, F.L.S.

PRICTICAL PHOTOaRAPHY.

Photogeapht has now fairly taken its place
as one of the useful arts ; the purposes to which
it is applied are almost innumerable, and it
would be difficult to name an art or a science
which is not largely indebted to it. The
chemistry of photography is now so well
understood, that pictures produced by it, if
prepared with proper care, and according to
approved formulae, may be considered as per-
manent as drawings or paintings.

There appears now to be a slight pause in
the progress of photography. Its general
principles are well known. Thousands of able
chemists and enthusiastic photographers have
lent their aid to bring it to its present per-
fection. IN'o great discoveries have been
lately made, and the energies of all are occu-
pied in perfecting and simplifying the pro-
cesses already known. Shall we continue to
wait until some grand discovery so far eclipses
our present performances as to make useless
our present apparatus and materials ? Or shall

we not rather bring into general use photo-
graphy as it now is, and avail ourselves of its
assistance for a variety of purposes ? To the
artist, the geologist, the botanist, the mecha-
nist, etc., how valuable is photography. Who
can copy a landscape with such fidelity, a
building with such fine perspective, a model,
a machine, a fossil, a plant, a map, a drawing,
a manuscript, a coin, with the same accuracy
as the camera? Once obtain a negative, and
it may be reproduced, like an engraving, to
any extent. Every lover of science sliould
understand photography sufficiently to enable
him to use it for these, and a variety of pur-
poses, which are almost of daily occurrence,
and it is for the use of such this sketch is
intended; not to ieSiGlx photographers, but to
endeavour to show that any one with mode-
rate patience, and the use of his fingers, may
be enabled, in a very short time and at a
very small cost, to learn sufficient of the art
I to practise it with success, and to make use

336

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

of it as he would the art of drawing, when-
ever he may have occasion. The writer, for
his own pleasure, and that of his friends, has
made use of photography in many ways be-
sides the ordinary uses of landscape and
portraiture. Amongst them may be men-
tioned copying insects, ferns, mosses, fossils,
shells, ancient deeds, seals, models of portions

profess to be simple, are written by persons
who know little of the subject, or whose object
is to recommend some particular maker of
apparatus and chemicals.

Among the many processes two are most
generally useful, viz., " wet collodion," suitable
for home-work, and " coUodio-albumen," for
use in the fields, or when from home. The

THE OPERATING EOOM.

of the moon's surface, letters, manuscript
music, rare engravings, paintings, scientific
instruments, machinery, etc.

Books on photography generally treat of
all the known processes, and the reader is
bewildered, not knowing which of the number
to choose, and too often the manuals, which

former requires the chemicals and apparatus
at hand ; in the latter, the camera and sen-
sitive plates are alone required for taking the
pictures, the preparation, etc., being per-
formed at homo. The printing process, which
is used for both, and which is very simple,
will be explained afterwards.

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

337

As the collodion process is the basis of the
other, it is necessary to learn it first. The
following will be required :—

A small room, the door of which fits tole-
rably tight, having a small window, if pos-
sible, looking north ; a light deal frame (say
one inch in thickness) should be made to fit
the window, and yellow paper stretched over
it, and pasted to the edge on each side, so
that when dry there will be two sheets of
paper tight on the frame, and a space of an
inch between them. Three or four buttons
will fix this firmly to the window, and it can
at any time be removed in half a minute.
No light must be admitted to the room except
through this yellow screen. Any apertures,
such as the key -hole of the door, admitting
white light, must be carefully covered. Under
the window there must be a sink lined with
lead, a pipe to carry off the water, and a
water-tap above, a shelf or two on each side
of the window, and a bench or table in the
room. In case a water-pipe cannot be con-
veniently brought into the room, a large jar
of water, covered with a lid and a small jug
to lade it out with, wUl answer every pur-
pose. In the arrangement of the operating-
room, any modification maybe made according
to circumstances, the writer only gives his
opinion as to what he considers most simple
and convenient.

The most useful camera for home-work is
one taking pictures 11x9 inches of the ordi-
nary double-body form. When closed, to be 14
inches, and, when fully extended, to be about
26 inches in length, the frame to have
adapting panels for the smaller sizes of plates,
9 X 7, 7 X 51 5 X 4, etc. One of Eosse's
smallest orthographic lenses will answer
almost every purpose that can be required,
even taking good portraits, and will also be
the lens most useful for the collodio-albumen
process, hereafter to be described. A strong
stand for the camera will also be wanted.
There is a very good Prench-made stand,
with arrangements for elevation, depression.

and lateral movement, which is exceedingly
well made, and very reasonable in price.*

For those who do not wish to copy an
object larger than about one-third the natural
size, and who also wish to practise landscape

Kinnear's Camera open.

photography, it would save expense to pro-
cure at once a portable camera instead of the
one recommended, which will answer both
purposes, either on Captain Fowkes's, or Mr.
Kinnear's plan. Eacli of these has its ad-

Kinnear's Camera closed.

vantages, but the latter is the lightest and
least complicated. Captain Fowkes's camera
is to be procured from Ottiwell and Co.,

* The stand mentioned, and porcelain developing
Clip, may be procured at Mr. Pyne's, Piccadilly, Man-
chester.

838

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

London ; the other from Mr. Mudd, of Man-
chester.

The cheapest and best plan for an ama-
teur, who does not wish to make photography
a study, is to go to some respectable dealer
in photographic chemicals, and procure all
the materials required, as nearly as possible,
ready for use. The time was when every
photographer prepared his own chemicals.
Gun-cotton, and even sether, were his own
manufacture (like the artist of the last cen-
tury, who had to make his own colours), but
now they are to be procured good and cheap,
and the time formerly occupied in their ma-
nufacture can be much better employed.

The chemicals required are —
Nitrate of silver solution prepared

for negatives . . . 40 oz.
Nitrate of silver fused . . 1 oz.
Ponting's or Thomas's collodion

(negative)
Protosulphate of iron crystals
Pyrogallic acid
Glacial acetic acid .
Alcohol ....
Bottle of French varnish.
iEther ....
Hyposulphite of soda (in jar)
The apparatus reqiiired are —

Glass bath and dipper for plates, 11 X 9.
Globe plate-holder.
Collodion bottle of 4 oz.

8oz.
4 oz.
1 oz.
4 oz.
4 oz.

4 oz.
lib.

Two porcelain developing cups.

One, two, and ten-ounce glass measures.

Two earthenware or porcelain dishes,

12 X 10 inches-
Scales and weights.
Glass plates and plate-boxes of the sizes

required.

Globe Plate-holder.

India-rubber finger-stalls for thumb and
finger.

Clean the glasses with a little Tripoli
powder and spirits of wine ; wash them well,
and polish with a soft cloth, and stow away
in the plate-boxes till re-
quired. They should be
repolished on the day
they are to be used.
Having procured the ne-
cessary materials and ap-
paratus, fix the camera on
its stand opposite the ob-
ject to be copied, in a
good light, and move it as near as may be
found requisite to take a picture of the size
wanted and focus accurately, so as to get an
image on the ground glass perfectly sharp ;
apiece of black velvet makes „ — ,^,^

a good focussing cloth. In
copying a map or picture,
it is very important that the
plane of the camera should
be exactly parallel to it,
otherwise the image is dis-
torted. This is not an easy
matter to accomplish by the
eye alone ; a long T square,
with the top set against the
face of the picture, will show
at once whether the sides of
the camera are at right
angles to it or not.

All being ready in the operating-room,
the plate must be taken up by the plate-
holder, and its surface dusted with a large
camel's-hair brush, and collodion poured on
its centre, run round gently to each of the
corners, and poured off again into the collar
surrounding the mouth of the collodion
bottle, from which it will flow into the
bottle again; the plate is to be held with
the corner downwards, from which the col-
lodion has been poured, and a slight rock-
ing motion given to it, to prevent the for-
mation of lines in the film. When it has set,

Collodion Bottle.

EECEEATIVE SCIEXCE.

339

wliicli it will do in a few seconds, place
tne plate upon tke dipper, and plunge it into

Focussing with tlie T Square.

the silver bath. ; raise the dipper once or
twice, and then allow it to rest for a minute
or two.

The dark frame should be quite free from
dust, and a strip of clean blotting-paper, half
an inch broad, laid at its lower edge, for the
plate to rest upon ; it is very convenient to
have a string with a number of these strips
attached, hung up ready for use ; they prevent
the frame being spoiled, and also the negative
from staining.

The finger-stalls should now bie placed
on the thumb and first finger of the right
hand, and the plate lifted from the bath ; if
it looks greasy on the surface, it must be
returned again for a short time ; if the
solution flow evenly over, it is ready for re-
moval, Take it from the dipper with the
finger and thumb, and let the lower edge rest
on a sheet of blotting-paper, whilst the su-
perfluous silver is wiped from the back ; then
place it in the dark frame, take it to the
camera, lift the shutter, and remove the cap
from the lens. The length of time for expo-
sure varies with the subject, the light, the
season, time of day, and aperture used, etc. —
80 much, that no rule can be given ; half a

minute may be tried in the first instance, and
more or less exposure given afterwards as
required. The cap must be replaced, the
shutter put down, and the frame again taken
to the operating-room. The following solu-
tion must be prepared beforehand ; it wUl
keep good a few days : —

DEVELOPINa SOLtTTION.

Pyrogallic acid . . 2 grains.

Glacial acetic acid . . 30 minims.
Water . . . . 1 oz.

In very hot weather, this may be mixed with
an equal quantity of water before using.

Kemove the plate from the frame with the
plate-holder, hold it in a horizontal position,
and pour gently on it at one edge from the
developing cup as much of the solution as
well covers it. The image will probably
begin to appear in a few seconds, and con-
tinue gaining intensity for some minutes.
Keep the solution in motion, and when the
negative has gained sufficient intensity, pour
it ofi", and wash well with water ; then place
it in a dish containing —

Hyposulphite of soda . . . . 4 oz.
Water 10 oz.

When all the creamy colour has disap-
peared, wash again well with water, and rear
up the negative to dry, which should be
accomplished rather soon, or it is apt to lose
a little of its intensity. Should the plate
have been under-exposed, the contrasts will
be too strong in the negative, and a want of
half-tone. If over-exposed, the image will
be flat, and wanting in intensity. If the
exposure has been right, and the operation
properly performed, the result will be a nega-
tive capable of producing any number of
prints. When dry, the surface of the picture
must be protected by pouring on it whilst
warm the varnish prepared for the purpose,
and allowing it to harden.

The whole operation is exceedingly simple,
and can be performed in much less time than
is taken in describing it. If good materials

340

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

be used, and proper care taken, success is
almost certain, even on the first trial. Much
depends on order and cleanliness, and most
of the failures are attributable to the neglect
of one or other of these photographic vir-
tues. There is not the slightest occasion to
stain either the dress or the fingers in any of
the operations. Those who do so are gene-
rally unsuccessful.

In this limited spade it would be impos-
sible to enter into the causes of certain kinds
of failure and their remedies. It is best not
to anticipate what may, perhaps, never occur,
but to state with confidence that any one

determined to learn the art of photography
may, in a very short time, become a success-
ful operator. The mode of taking direct
positives, and of developing negatives with
protosulphate of iron, are also omitted. Those
who seek information on these, or any other
processes, will find Hardwick's " Photogra-
phic Chemistry" a clear and safe guide, but
the beginner must not be startled at the size
of the volume, nor think it necessary to study
the whole of it before he can take photogra-
phic pictures.

Joseph Sidebotham.
Manchester.

THE ODOURS OF ELOWEES.

The cultivation of a garden, and especially
that of flowers, is the one certain mark of
civilization, no nation in a state of barbarism
ever attaining to it ; nor is it less universal
than certain, for all civilized nations seek
pleasure from this source, and the love of
flowers appears tp be common to all except
the most degraded. Appealing to the eye by
the beauty of their forms and the splendour
of their hues, and to the sense of smelling by
their varied odours, they afibrd pleasure at
the same time to two of our five senses, and
have thus become the theme of the poet, and
the admiration of all to whom the works of
creation are a source of contemplation and
delight. Even the Saviour himself did not
withhold his testimony to their loveliness,
but declared that Solomon in all his glory
was not arrayed like " one of these."

Our present object, however, is not to call
attention to the beauty of flowers as objects
of sight, but to their odours — to those subtle
emanations which are apparently intangible,
and which yet afiect us so strongly, and in
general with so much pleasure. It is true
there are some individuals in whom the
powerful scent of certain flowers, as of the

hyacinth, causes faintness ; and there are
some flowers the scent of which afiects dif-
ferent persons in a dissimilar manner. Thus
the blossoms of the Portuguese laurel, which
to many are agreeable in the open air, are to
others so much the reverse as to cause a feel-
ing of positive disgust. These difierences
must be attributed to some variety in the
nervous sensibility of difierent individuals
that is not well understood.

Apart from the immediate purpose of
utility, to which each of our several senses is
adapted, they at the same time subserve to
the pleasure of their possessor, and some of
them have for this object alone been con-
siderably increased in delicacy and power by
careful training. This has been more parti-
cularly the case with the eye and the ear, but
there seems no reason why the sense of
smelling should not be subject to the same
process, and thus become able to discrimi-
nate odours as perfectly as the ear judges of
sounds, and the eye of forms and colours.
This may indeed appear almost a necessity in
the present day, when the progress of organic
chemistry already enables the skUfol operator
to produce imitations of several well-known

BECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

341

perfumes, no less than that eompoiind of " vil-
lanous smells" that is the more usual product
of his laboratory.

With merely a passing reference to the
" Odours of Eden," which breathed around
our first parents in their delightful abode, we
may notice that perfumes have been in use
from the earliest ages, not only as a source
of pleasure, but also as a supposed means of
repelling diseases, and as auxiliaries in religi-
ous ceremonies ; for which last purpose in-
cense is still used in Europe, whilst in China
the " joss-stick " is employed in the temples
of their various idols.

It is not possible to convey in words a
description of the various odours which affect
us, either pleasantly or otherwise, and we
can no more imagine a new one than we can
picture to ourselves a new colour. Every
odoriferous flower has its own peculiar scent,
and though the variety is almost endless, it
is probable that (chemically considered) they
are all similarly composed, and that their
ultimate elements are few.

That these odorous emanations are capable
of a very wide diffusion, is evident from the
distance at which they are perceptible. The
fragrance of newly -mown hay is an instance
of this, and a single flower of the Magnolia
glauca, when first expanded, will fill a large
apartment with its odour. Certain trees
also, when under the influence of warmth
and light, diffuse their emanations to an
immense distance ; the coniferse or firs being
amongst the most noticeable in this respect.
Where large forests of these are found, their
exhalations have been perceptible at sea
when the land was far beyond the limits of
sight ; it is even said at the distance of 100
miles. Some flowers only emit their per-
fume at certain hours, and at others appear
almost or quite scentless ; as the night-blowing
stock, which during the day is without odour,
but at sunset emits a delicious fragrance.

The pleasure derived from the fragrance
of flowers has induced the endeavour to

separate the odoriferous principle from them,
so as to have the perfume when the flowers
are unattainable. This odoriferous principle,
or substance in which the odour resides, is
in most cases a volatile oil, to which the
name of otto or attar is given, and this is
usually extracted by distilling the flowers
with water, with the steam of which the-
volatile matter passes over and is condensed.
The extent to which this process is em-
ployed, both in our own and in other
countries, is much more considerable than
is generally supposed ; several large estab-
lishments for the especial purpose existing
in the immediate neighbourhood of London,
in localities where the soil appears most
suited for the growth of the various plants.
It may surprise some of our readers to learn
that in these " flower farms," as they are
sometimes called, may be seen fields of
several acres planted entirely with roses,
and others still larger and more numerous
devoted solely to the growth of lavender
and peppermint — plants which produce in
England, and especially in the counties of
Surrey and Hertford, an oil so much finer
than can be procured from the Continent,
that it is worth eight times the price of the
foreign. About 6000 pounds of oil of laven-
der are annually produced in England from
these farms Violets also, the " coronets
of April," are cidtivated to a large extent,
one grower of these general favourites having
no less than nine acres of ground entirely
covered with them, and others may possibly
have even more than this.

It is, however, in the south of Europe,
and especially in the neighbourhood of Grasse
and of Nice, that the cultivation of flowers
for the sake of their ottos is most extensively
practised, the warmer climate being more
favourable to their growth, and causing them
to yield a larger product of the article sought.
At Cannes are grown roses, tuberoses, jas-
mine, and neroli ; and at Nismes, thyme,
rosemary, and aspic; whilst Sicily yields

G G

342

RECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

lemon, bergamot, and orange. The amount
of essential oil procurable from these dif-
ferent flowers and plants varies considerably,
and it is remarkable that the most fragrant
do not always yield the largest quantity.
Thus, whilst 112 lbs. of lavender flowers
afford about thirty ounces of otto, the same
weight of rose leaves only furnish two drachms,
and of violets not more than half a drachm,
which accounts for the high price of some of
these products. Some idea may be formed
of the quantity of the various perfumes
consumed in this country by the fact of the
duty levied on their importation (including
that on the spirit used in manufacturing them
into essences) amounting annually to £40,000
— a large sum, it has been remarked, to expend
for perfuming Britannia's pocket-handker-
chief. Of this about £8000 is derived from
the favourite Eau de Cologne.

The oil or otto of some of the more deli-
cately-scented flowers is so easily decomposed,
that the process of distillation mentioned
above cannot be employed for procuring
them, the heat of the boiling water destroying
their fragrance. Other methods are there-
fore resorted to, of which one is the infusion
of the flowers in warm alcohol, fresh quan-
tities being repeatedly used till the spirit
acquires a sufficiently powerful scent. Ano-
ther, and still more delicate process, called
" enfleurage," is founded on the facility with
which most oils and fatty substances absorb
the aroma of flowers, and is thus conducted : —
Square frames, about three inches deep and of
considerable size, are provided, each having a
glass bottom. On this is spread a layer of
purified fat, or lard, about a quarter of an
inch in thickness, on which the flowers are
thickly strewn, and the frames being placed
over each other so as to exclude the air, the
whole is left for some days, during which the
fat absorbs the volatile otto. The flowers are
renewed as long as the plants continue to
bloom, or until the pomade is sufficiently
fragrant. It is from these pomades (chiefly

made in France) that some of our most deli-
cate perfumes are obtained. Being first cut
into small pieces, they are infused for some
time in highly rectified spirit, which gra-
dually extracts from them the otto they had
imbibed, and, being then poured off", consti-
tutes the volatile and fragrant liquid known
as an essence of the flower originally used.
The fatty substance, which still retains some
portion of the fragrant matter, is then care-
fully melted, and forms a pomade fit for
applying to the hair.

Although, in general, the odours of which
we have spoken reside in the flowers, yet it
must be observed that in many plants the
leaves are nearly as fragrant, and in some
(the sweet-briar, for instance) even more so ;
whilst in other cases it is the roots, fruit, or
seeds in which the odoriferous principle is
found. In all cases similar means of ex-
traction are employed, varied, of course,
according to the skill of the operator. It is
worthy of remark that the wall-flower, of
which the scent is generally agreeable, has
not yet been (so far as we know) subjected
to any of these processes for the extraction
of its fragrant principle.*

It is a curious fact, that just as the mix-
ture of two colours will produce a new one, so
the combination, in due proportion, of two or
more of these ottos will produce a new odour.
An instance of this effect is found in the pre-
sent well-known perfume called Eondeletia,
which, instead of being derived from the
"West Indian plant of that name, is formed
by a mixture of the ottos of lavender and of
cloves, in which neither of them predominates
so as to be distinguishable. In making this
and other similar mixtures, the relative power
of each otto must be carefully observed, and
by experiments of this kind we find that
patchouli, lavender, neroli, and verbena are the
most potent of vegetable odours, and violet,
tuberose, and jasmine the most delicate.

* A scent called " Wall-flower " is frequently
advertised by perfumers. — Ed.

EECEEATIVE SCIEJSTCE.

Allusion has been made to the imitations
of various natural odours produced in the
laboratory of the modern chemist. These,
differing entirely from the mixtures just men-
tioned, may rank among the most remarkable
results of the progress of organic chemistry,
which, as it advances, may not improbably
succeed in producing still nearer approxima-
tions to the products of vegetation. Already
we have a so-called essence of pine-apple,
prepared from a mixture of sugar, sour milk,
and putrid cheese, with some other mate-
rials, and an» artificial essence of quince,
made by treating the oil of rue with nitric
acid.

There is also an artificial odour of pears,
procured from the foetid oil produced in the
distillation of brandy from potatoes. All
these, which, it will be remarked, are rather
the flavours of fruits than the odours of
flowers, are sometimes used as flavouring
materials in confectionary. Hitherto no
artificial preparations have been discovered
that resemble in fragrance the odours of the
finer and more delicate flowers, as the rose,
violet, mignonette, and others ; nor even in
the cases mentioned is the artificial product
an exact resemblance of the natural, though
very nearly approaching it.

Benjamin Abbott.

COAL AND CONIFEEOUS WOOD UNDEE THE MICEOSCOPE.

The microscope has not only enabled us to
observe the functions and structures of
objects now or recently living, but it also
brings under our view the structures of
objects living long ages ago, and from which
all life has departed. By its aid we can
compare the most modern things with the
most ancient, and can sometimes discover
the counterpart of the life of to-day, in
minute configurations of the dead, dull
matter which had similar life tens of thou-
sands of years since in the remote centuries —
centuries which seem to pass back beyond
all our powers of calculation, and to fade
away into the confusion of primeval ages,
undistinguishable save by the keen eye of
the geologist.

This may be exemplified in two substances
which appear as unlike in their exteriors as
any two substances can appear, viz., a piece
of recent coniferous wood and a lump of
lignite, or brown or other coal. Let us
first notice these substances separately, and
then observe their resemblance, and glance
at the interesting points of inquiry arising
out of this resemblance, as elucidating the

formation of coal. The term coniferce is given
to trees bearing cones containing the seeds,
as the fir and pine — an order of plants of
which we have some specimens growing in
our own country, as the Scotch fir, spruce,
larch, etc., but which is far more largely de-
veloped in other and warmer climates. The
cone is a mysterious symbol in the sculptured
slabs from Nineveh, now in the British
Museum ; and, in one sense, that strange
figure which stretches forth the cone in its
hand in so many of these sculptures might
be called the coniferous Assyrian. In one in-
stance, a four-winged divinity is represented
as presenting the pine-cone to those who
cross the threshold of the chamber near
which it stands.

If we take up a piece of coniferous wood,
and regard it merely as an opaque, massive
object, we shall gain but little knowledge of
its minute structure, whether it be fossil or
recent. But if we can reduce it into ex-
tremely thin slices, and mount one of these
as an object for the microscope, we shall
discern more than we could have expected.
A Scotch lapidary, Mr. Sanderson, seems to

344

EECEEATIVE SCIENCES

have been one of tlie first to prepare fossil
specimens of such wood (and coal) for the
microscope. This task is one of some dif-
ficulty and uncertainty. To succeed in it,
we must first grind a surface flat, and then
with lapidary's cement fix that surface to
a block of wood, by means of which the
fossil can be again ground down until con-
sidered thin enough. But then it is difficult
to detach the fossil from the block, and to
remove the cement without breaking it.
Mr. Nicol, however, adopted an easy and
simple process, which consisted in cement-
ing the flattened surface to a piece of plate-
glass, by means of Canada balsam, and then
grinding it down with emery on a plate of
copper. The glass and cement being both
transparent, the operator could determine
when he had arrived at the proper degree of
thinness ; and when that was attained, nothing
more was requisite than to polish the surface.
For a long time this method was compara-
tively secret, till Mr. Nicol wrote a full
account of all the requisite manipulations, at
Mr. "Witham's request, which was printed at
the end of that gentleman's work, entitled
" Observations on Fossil Vegetables," now
a scarce book. The manipulation, however,
in this kind of work is very delicate, and
demands considerable skill as well as pa-
tience, insomuch that we notice that Mr.
Sanderson's slices are prized to this day as
of great superiority.

In pursuing the same object with re-
ference to coal, various methods of preparing
it may be adopted. Thin sections may be
obtained from those kinds which have suf-
ficient tenacity; but in proportion to the
opacity of the material must be its thin-
ness before it becomes transparent, and
in proportion to its thinness is its friability :
80 that just when we have brought it to the
necessary tenuity, it often crumbles and
disappoints our hopes. Skilful practitioners*

* " Micrographic Dictionary."

have found that if the coal is macerated, or
soaked to decay for about a week in a solu-
tion of carbonate of potass, it is possible at
the end of that time to cut rather thin slices
with a razor. These being placed in a watch-
glass, with strong nitric acid, covered, and
then gently heated, they soon become
brownish and then yellow ; when the process
must be arrested by dropping the whole into
a saucer of cold water, otherwise the coal
will be dissolved. Slices thus treated assume
a darkish amber colour, are very transparent,
and when a conspicuous structure is in the
original lump they exhibit it most clearly.
The specimens are best preserved, in glyce-
rine, in cells ; for the spirit renders them
opaque, and even Canada balsam has the
same effect.

There are instances in which the coal is
so friable, that no sections can be made from
it by either of these methods. In such cases
it may be ground to fine powder, and the
particles, after being mounted in Canada bal-
sam, may be subjected to microscopic exami-
nation. It cannot be supposed that the re-
sult will be very satisfactory, but it may be
of considerable comparative value in relation
to other and more compact varieties. Even
the ash of ordinary coals (obtained by burn-
ing to white ash a specimen of coal previously
boiled in nitric acid, and then carefuUy
mounting the ash in Canada balsam) often
exhibits mineral casts of vegetable cells and
fibres. The ash of the Welsh anthracite is
useful for this purpose. It is necessary to
observe that the great bulk of the coals used
in our households, including all the coking
varieties, the anthracite, and the coals used
for steam-engines, are perfectly opaque, and
can only be viewed by reflected light. On the
other hand, the gas-coals (those employed
in gas-works), such as the Pelton gas-coals,
and those from Nova Scotia, together with
the cann el -coals, brown-coals, jets, and
lignites, can all be rendered more or less
transparent. Hence, however many varieties

EECEEATIVE SOIENCE.

34f5

of coal there are commercially, there are
only two kinds when microscopically re-
garded, viz., the opaque and the partially
transparent. When suitable sections of the
latter varieties of coal are made and reduced
to a uniform thinness, so that if transparent
they may be examined with transmitted light,
by the aid of powers which magnify from
seventy to three hundred diameters, they are
discovered to present certain general and
constant characteristic features connected
with vegetable origin and structure. They
are seen to be composed of three distinct
materials, which differ both in appearance
and in proportion. These are (1.) an opaque
black substance, which corresponds in micro-
scopical appearance and in reaction with
carbon as it exists in various natural sub-
stances. (2.) A yellowish and sometimes
reddish substance, the nature of which is
not easily ascertained. In colour it varies
from a light yellow to a bright red, or amber-
coloured resinous-looking matter. It enters
most abundantly into the composition of gas-
coals, while the black substance seems to
form the chief and almost exclusive con-
stituent of household coals and anthracites.
(3.) An earthy matter, more or less soluble
in water, which it sometimes colours. It
consists principally of umber. The relative
proportions of this matter seem to influence
the various products derived from the coal.

All the varieties of coaly substances may
be classified under three heads, having re-
lation to what we have just stated : —

I. Substances the sections of which are
for the most part opaque, and abound in
pure black matter. These comprehend the
household, coking, steam, and anthracitic
coals.

II. Three varieties of coal, consisting of —
1. Coals more or less transparent, par-
ticularly gas-producing coals, having a clear
and conspicuous lustre, and a brittle, crystal-
line structure, such as the Pelton and Nova
Scotia kinds.

2. Cannel-coals, like those of Wigan, in
Lancashire.

3. Coals variously stratified, having an
earthy and black opaque coaly matter, such
as is known by the local term splint.

III. Brown coals, lignites, Bovey coal,
and jets.

These latter varieties are of far inferior
value as fuel, and therefore commercially
worthless where good bituminous coals are
available. Nevertheless they are most inte-
resting scientifically and under the! micro-
scope ; for we learn from sections of them that
the changes of the vegetable matter, which
have been completed in good Newcastle coal,
have evidently been suspended, or only im-
perfectly carried out, in the German brown
coal and the English Bovey coal. It may
be well, therefore, to explain what these sub-
stances are, and where they are found.

Brown coal is so called from its brownish
colour, and is otherwise named lignite (from
the Latin lignum, wood) on account of its
woody appearance. It is indeed like half-
decayed wood ; though it is more compact in
some places where the vegetable remains
are so well preserved, and their original
structure so distinctly retained that a bo-
tanical indication is presented of the original
plants of which it was composed. These
consist of flattened stems crossing each other
in all directions, and are either of a darker
or lighter colour. They are soft and mel-
low in consistence when the substance is
freshly quarried, but become brittle by ex-
posure, the fracture following the direction
of the fibre of the wood. Of the same cha-
racter is the Bovey coal, so termed from
Bovey Tracy,' a village in Devonshire, where
it is found. It seems to be confined in our
land to that locality, but a very similar sub-
stance is found at Wettenau, in Germany,
and is styled fibrous brown coal. "We havo
in our cabinet a specimen of Bovey coal con-
taining minute seed-vessels of plants.

All those varieties are sometimes called

346

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

the tertiary coals, from their geological posi-
tion in the tertiary series of beds, and thus
they are pointedly distinguished from the
true and pure coals of the carboniferous
series of rocks. There are many kinds of
them in different countries ; some which
merely exhibit occasional indications of vege-
table structure, and generally form through-
out a stratified mass of a dark colour, pos-
sessing an earthy fracture, are hence termed
earthy brown coals. Such is the coal of
Meissner, near Cassel, in Germany. Other
varieties, in which the fracture is shelly (con-
choidal), and the structures more danse, are
called conchoidal brown coals, or pitch coals.
These deposits are frequently found near the
surface, but in other situations at considerable
depths. Tertiary lignite abounds at St. Gall,
in Switzerland, and in a bed of brown coal,
near that place, a singular and new species of
combustible mineral (Scheererhite) has been
found. The tertiary coals in the canton of
Zurich are remarkable for many bones of
mammifers, which are said to have been dis-
covered amongst them, associated with which
are reported bones of the mastodon. All
these circumstances are interesting in con-
nection with the origin and geological posi-

}

ill"

Fig. 1.

tion of the comparatively modem and im-
perfect coals.

Figure 1 displays a transverse section

of the German brown coal, in which the
woody fibres are cut through by the section
transversely to their long axis. In com-

Fia. 2.
parison with this we present (in Fig. 2) a lon-
gitudinal section (parallel to a radius) of
recent coniferous wood of the Pinus strobus.
In Fig. 3 is seen part of a transverse section
of the same wood, the whole section being of
the same character.

Mr. Nicol refers to specimens from the
coals of ]S"ova Scotia, in the collection of
Professor Jameson, " one of which," says
he, " is a fossil conifer, displaying all the
characters of the most perfect recent Ame-
rican pines. In the transverse section, the
annual layers are well defined, the reticulated
(net-like) texture large and perfect, and in
the longitudinal section, parallel to a radius,
discs occur both in single and double rows.
These, as usual, are in some parts very obscure,
but in other parts they are very distinct.
They are circular, and some of them display
at the circumference two concentric rings,
and one ring near the centre. In the double
rows, as in the recent pines, the discs are
placed side by side, and indeed in all its cha-
racters this fossil bears a greater resemblance
to some of the recent pines than anything of
the kind that has hitherto fallen into my
hands." The discs spoken of are also con-
spicuous in the section (Fig. 2), and the struc-

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

347

ture displayed in Fig. 3 is similarly, tliough
variously, marked in several other sections
in the same direction.

A longitudinal concentric section of an
araucaria, from Moreton Bay, New Holland,

Fig. 3.

(a recent wood) is shown in Fig. 4. The
celebrated Craigleith tree, found fossil in the
sandstone quarry at that place (near Edin-
burgh) in October, 1833, is a very fine spe-
cimen of a coniferous petrifaction, and very
much resembles in its general characters the

Fig 4.

araucaria of jVIoreton Bay. In a longitutli-
nal section (parallel to a radius) of this tree,
the vessels in general are very much dis-
torted, and the whole texture greatly ob-
scured ; but when the vessels appear with
any distinctness, they often contain discs in
double, triple, and quadruple rows, though
the discs are always obscurely seen. The
general conclusion arrived at by Mr. Nicol,

after all his examinations, is, that all ihe fossils
retaining the ligneous structure in the coal,
from these formations, are of coniferous origin.
Having already named cannel-coal, we
may explain its character. It burns as clearly
as a candle, when once ignited at a flame,
and hence its name, which is a corruption of
candle-coal. But it flies ofi" (decrepitates) in
small fragments, with a cracking noise, when
flat pieces are placed upon a fire. Its colour
is grayish black or brown, its lustre is resin-
ous, and it is so compact that it can be
worked in blocks and turned in a lathe, and
is susceptible of a good polish. It is, there-
fore, often fashioned into a variety of orna-
ments, and has so much the appearance of
jet as to deceive all but careful observers.
The streak is, however, very difierent from
that of jet. So bituminous is it, that in
making coke or gas it is mixed with the
smallest of the best coal. The collieries of
Wigan, in Lancashire, afford considerable
quantities of cannel-coal, and it is also found
in pits near Coventry, and at Lesmahago,
not far from Glasgow. Mr. Witham found
distinct traces of organization in ' it under
the microscope. From its compact nature

Fig. 5.
sections of it are not difficult to form, and
tliey will reward the observer. Fig. 5 ex-
hibits a section of cannel-coal, wherein the

348

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

transition state, in tlie process of retro-
grade decay of tlie vegetable tissue, is dis-
tinctly traceable, and the preserved or un-
coalified vegetation is seen to pass, by insen-
sible gradations, into tbe structure of cannel-
coal.

We now refer to a mineral fuel, tbe na-
ture of wbich has occasioned more curious
and legal, as well as scientific, controversy
tban any other, and which might, indeed, be
termed " Recreative Science," to the lawyers
on the one hand, and to those who laugh at all
science as unpractical on the other. The fuel
alluded to is known as the Torbanehill mi-
neral, and the legal question arose, whether it
was a mere mineral, or whether it was coal.
Many scientific men, of great reputation, had
spent much time in this inquiry, previously
to the trial (Gillespie versus'Russel). Amongst
these was Professor Bennett, of Edinburgh,
who caused to be prepared, and care-
fully examined, various kinds of household
coal, which might be considered as typical
or standard examples. Next he examiiied
three sections of the Torbanehill mineral,
and was struck with the remarkable dissimi-
larity which existed between them. Nume-
rous sections of cannel-coal were then pre-
pared, and the difference between the ap-
pearances presented by the true coals and
by this mineral having been previously de-
termined, the Professor was readily enabled
to distinguish the difference between them.
Though the various cannel-coals, and one es-
pecially, approached in structural character
to the Torbanehill mineral, yet there was
at least one element which characterized
all the coals, and was absent from this mine-
ral. Several other inquirers contended that
" the Torbanehill mineral is widely different
from every kind of coal." It is also said,
that every kind of coal may be at once
distinguished from the Torbanehill mineral
by the rings contained in a well-made trans-
verse section ; and Professor Bennett main-
tains that such an appearance constitutes.

in the majority of cases, a practical and evi- ■
dent test which is distinctive of genuine
coal ; and that, by means of it, aU kinds
of known coal, whether household or cannel,
can at once be distinguished from the Tor-
banehill mineral. He affirms that every kind
of coal has a distinctly woody basis, which is
easily demonstrated by its longitudinal and
transverse sections ; that the cannel-coals
have, in addition to this woody structure, a
greater or less number of bituminoid marks
imbedded in it ; and that the Torbanehill
mineral has no such woody texture, but is
essentially composed of the bituminoid marks
imbedded in clay.

The theory which this same Professor is
disposed to put forward, as most in harmony
with the various facts and arguments elicited
and stated in this curious inquiry, is briefly
as follows : — 1st. That the various organic
substances found in the sections and ashes
of coal, are explicable on the supposition
that coal is wood chemically altered, and for
the most part, but by no means exclusively,
coniferous wood, or wood allied to it in struc-
ture ; because, from a careful comparison of
recent fir- wood with the various kinds of coal,
he finds the structural appearances of the
cellular tissue, resin-cells, and ducts to bo
very similar. This assumption not only ex-
plains its structure, but accounts for the
large amount of bitumen and resin or inflam-
mable matter it contains, resin being a weU-
known abundant product of the coniferous
tribe of plants. 2ndly. Though the Torbane-
hill mineral is rich in the bituminoid sub-
stance, it presents no essential traces of vege-
table structure. The bituminoid or resinous
matter found in the real coal, which lies in
its neighbourhood, probably flowed out, mixed
itself with, and solidified in the essentially
earthy substance of the TorbanehiU mineral.
This result may have been produced by
enormous pressure, conjoined with chemical
changes and heat.

On the other side, Dr. Kedfern, who made

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

numerous sections, deplares tliat " every par-
ticle of its structure, and the fact that it is
mainly composed of carbon, proves to its
being a mass of vegetable matter." He pro-
nounces it to be a variety of cannel-coal ;
that it resembles other cannel-coals in its
geological position, in the fact that 65| per
cent, of it is carbon, in its burning like a
candle when lighted at a flame (hence the
original term eandle-coal, corrupted to cannel-
coal), and in its containing every chemical
ingredient found in other coals, and none but
such as exist in them. In other respects, as
colour, streak, abundance of gaseous matter,
it differs from other cannel-coal ; but the dif-
ference is in degree, and not in kind. We
have no space to say more on this very inte-
resting mineral, which has been rendered
so famous by the lawsuits it has occa-
sioned, not only in Scotland, but, we believe,
also in Rhenish Prussia ; and by the diffe-
rence of opinion which scientific men held
respecting it, some of whom volunteered their
evidence, while others were paid for it by the
plaintiff and defendant respectively. This

substance is now commonly termed Torbane-
ite, for the sake of convenience.

The wide difference of opinion respecting
it does not reflect any discredit upon ex-
aminations of coal under the microscope, but
rather shows that in this manner alone can
any reliable knowledge of its internal struc-
ture and vegetable origin be arrived at.

Those who desire a very interesting and
highly useful series of microscopic objects,
cannot do better than learn to form good sec-
tions of the different coals. They are easily
procurable from coal-merchants, coal- wharves,
and mineralogists, and sections might be so
arranged, according to their geological ages
and position, as to show that there is a cer-
tain, though not, perhaps, a very definite rela-
tion between the antiquity of each kind of
coal and the amount of its vegetable struc-
ture remaining, as before observed. It is not
at all improbable that a careful observer
would discover several features of importance
for determining the origin and character of
coal, and its various deposits.

J. R. Leifchild, A.m.

LEAD.

PAET II. — IN THE FUENACE.

On presenting our letter of introduction at
Ballycorus, no pains is spared to make us
acquainted with each of the several processes
conducted in the various departments of the
works. First of all we are taken to the " ore
houses," where the galena, as received from
the mine, is stored, until it is required.
Previous to its reception, however, it under-
goes an examination, having especial re-
ference to the following particulars : — Firstly,
the quantity of water which a given weight
contains. This is a very necessary precau-
tion, as the amount of moisture mechanically
retained by the particles of galena is often

very considerable. Secondly, the per centage
of lead. And thirdly, the per centage of silver.
Upon the results of this estimation the value
of the ore will of course depend. All these
operations are conducted in the assay-office,
to which we next pay a visit.

The appearance of this department is not
that of an ordinary chemical laboratory, for
as all the experiments made therein resemble
one another in character, a much more limited
stock of appliances is necessary. The ap-
paratus consists, indeed, besides the balances,
of little more than a couple of furnaces ; one
for cupellation, the other for smelting the

350

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

trial portions of the ore, some- cast-iron
crucibles, and a few test-tubes. Leaving the
assay-office, we find our way into the build-
ing where the principal operation, that of
smelting the ore, is performed. Its central
portion is entirely occupied by a huge re-
verberatory furnace of peculiar construction ;
the chief points of difierence between a lead-
smelting and an ordinary furnace being, that
the hearth or sole, upon which the ore is
placed, inclines gently from all sides towards
the centre like a saucer. Above the farnace
is a hopper, or quadrangular funnel, through
which the ore is introduced ; and separated
from the hearth by a bridge of refractory
brick is the fire, which, all being arranged,
comes' sweeping as a sheet of flame over the
galena. It is very important that a lead
furnace should be provided with a consider-
able extent of horizontal passages or flues,
before terminating in a chimney. Kot only
is this precaution based upon economical
motives, seeing that part of the lead vola-
tilizes in the form of oxide, but the sulphur-
ous acid which is generated is extremely
hurtful to both animal and vegetable life.
In the present instance all the furnaces open
into a flue of a mile in length, which, running
up the side of the hill, terminates eighty feet
above its summit.

In order to understand how it is that by
merely heating galena to dull redness, we can
obtain metallic lead, we must consider, in the
first place, its chemical composition. This
may be thus represented : —

Lead, one combining proportion 104
Sulphur „ „ 16

120

Galena, therefore, is a protosulphide of
lead. Now, when it is heated in contact with
atmosphiric air, it unites with four atoms of
oxygen, and from being a sulphide becomes a
sulphate. We will write the composition of
the sulphate also-

Lead, one combining proportion 104
Oxygen four „ „ 32

Sulphur one „ „ 16

152

Now oxygen enters into several combina-
tions with sulphur in different proportions,
and the result of one union is sulphurous
acid, or

Sulphur, one combining proportion 16
Oxygen two „ „ 16

32'

With these data, it will not be difficult to
understand how it is that when 120 parts of
galena (which may be either grains, pounds,
or tons) are heated with 152 parts of sul-
phate of lead, obtained by roasting another
820 parts of galena in free contact with the
air, the result will be that the 32 parts of
sulphur contained in both compounds will
unite with the 32 parts of oxygen contained
in the sulphate to form sulphurous acid,
while 208 parts of lead wiU be set free in the
melted state.

In practical smelting, the oxidation of one-
half of the galena is very ingeniously brought
about. A charge of ore, usually amounting
to two tons, is introduced into the furnace and
the fire lighted. When the entire mass has
arrived at a dull red heat, it is stirred from
time to time with a long iron rake, through
apertures provided for the purpose at dif-
ferent parts of the furnace. By this means
the surface of the ore is constantly renewed,
and a fresh portion exposed to the action of
the atmospheric oxygen. Upon the proper
management of this stage of the operation
its ultimate success depends, and it is here
that the practical knowledge of the smelter
is most fully shown. After the lapse of a
certain time, which for a charge of two tons
of ore is about eight hours, the whole of
the galena has become reduced to the me-
tallic state. The furnace is then tapped,
and the lead allowed to run ofi* into an iron

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

351

■well or cistern, from which it is ladled into
the oblong moulds which give it the form of
pig-lead.

As the galena, no matter how carefully
washed, invariably contains a certain quantity
of the matrix — generally quartz — with which
it was allied in the natural state, a slag, con-
sisting of this substance in the melted con-
dition, always remains in the furnace, and is
run off by a distinct opening. This slag is
far from being worthless, seeing that it still re-
tains a considerable quantity of lead, in order
to extract which it is mixed with lime and
subjected to the intense heat of a blast
furnace. The lead thus obtained is usu-
ally much inferior to that obtained by the
first operation, and is reserved for making
shot — a purpose for which it is even better
suited than lead which is softer and less
flexile.

Galena also nearly always contains traces
of other metals besides lead, but the only one
of these which it is profitable to extract is
silver. The proportion of this metal which
remains in the lead after smelting, varies in
different places between three and three hun-
dred ounces per ton ; indeed in some cases the
lead is totally neglected for the sake of the
silver. In the ores, however, to which the
present paper relates, the most usual propor-
tion is from five to twelve ounces.

The process by which silver is separated
from lead is one which has, from time imme-
morial, been employed for obtaining the pre-
cious metals free from admixture with those
of less value ; and as we have no evidence
that the process has been improved upon from
the time of Moses up to our own, the belief in
a much more advanced state of chemical
knowledge than is generally supposed to have
existed at so early a period is considerably
strengthened. The separation of silver by
what is termed cupellation, is based upon
the circumstance, that metallic lead enters
into combination with oxygen at a red heat,
and that silver does not. Now, if an alloy

of these two metals be melted in a vessel
made of some porous substance, and a strong
current of air be made to pass over the melted
mass, the lead alone will be oxidized, and
litharge or protoxide of lead will be formed,
which will be absorbed into the porous sub-
stance, and leave the metalhc silver unal-
loyed upon its surface. Now when lead con-
tained only a very small per centage of silver,
a tedious process like this, and one, more-
over, which required a large expenditure of
fuel, would be manifestly unprofitable, were
the litharge wasted. But it is not, for, be-
sides having a market value of itself, the lead
can be recovered from it by smelting with
coal, the carbon of which unites with its
oxygen, and liberates the metal. Even as it
was, the silver obtained from most ores would
not have paid the expense of extraction, and
would have been most likely altogether ne-
glected, were it not that the presence of a very
small per centage of this metal renders lead
hard and brittle, and unfits it for many pur-
poses to which it is applied. Its extraction,
therefore, even when there was but a little
present, was a necessity.

This state of things continued up to the
year 1829, when the late Mr. Hugh Lee Pat-
tison, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, devised the
ingenious process which bears his name.
Mr. Pattison discovered that when a melted
alloy of lead and silver — even though the
latter metal should only be present in the
proportion of a single ounce to the ton, was
allowed to cool slowly, it appeared to separate
into two portions, one of which took the
crystalline form, and fell to the bottom of the
melting pot; while the other remained fluid".
An examination of these two portions showed
him that the portion which solidified was
nearly free from silver, which all remained in
the fluid part. Upon this discovery he based
a method of desilverizing, which annually
adds many thousand ounces to our supply of
this valuable metal, and improves the quality
and lessens the price of lead. In illustration

352

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

of this saving, the following figures may be
given. Let us set out with, lead, containing
10 ounces of silver to the ton. Now, formerly,
30 tons of such lead would have to be cupelled
in order to obtain 300 ounces of silver, while
by Pattison's process the whole 300 ounces
is concentrated in one ton of lead, which
alone undergoes cupellation, and the remain-
ing 29 tons have only to be remelted, and
sent into commerce as pure lead.

To see this wonderful application of scien-
tific knowledge in full operation, we enter a
lofty building, open at either end, in which are
ranged a series of eight cast-iron cauldrons,
set in brick fire-places. Each of these is ca-
pable of containing ten tons of metal, which
is the pig-lead from the smelting furnace.
When the whole mass is melted, the fire is
reduced to a degree, which vrill just keep the
lead a little below the melting point. A very
gradual process of cooling is, therefore, taking
place. It so happens that there is but one
of the pots being worked when we enter, so
that we run no risk of failing to understand
what is going on. First of all, then, there is
the man who keeps incessantly stirring the
molten mass, until he feels, by the resist-
ance to the iron paddle with which he works,
that a quantity of lead crystals have collected
at the bottom of the pot. Then he takes an
immense perforated ladle, and crushing the
blue film upon the surface of the leaden sea,
it sinks slowly into its depths. A chain is
now attached to the handle, and the other
end being made fast to the windlass — the
fulcrum of this long lever being the edge of
the melting pot — a few quick turns bring the
ladle up, almost bending under the weight of
its burden, while through the perforations
the enriched lead falls in, literally, a silvery
shower. But as the lead crystals still retain
melted metal in their interstices, the work-
man again and again shakes the ladle, until
not a drop more will come from it. The
crystals, which are granular and agglome-
rated by fusion, so as to resemble a dull gray

sandstone, are passed into another pot, where
they are, with a new supply, subjected to a
repetition of the operation, while the enriched
lead is further treated in the same manner,
until it contains about 300 ounces of silver in
a ton. Further than this it is not found pro-
fitable to go. This, then, is Pattison's desil-
vering process, founded upon what but for
his genius might have been, if known at all,
merely a scientific abstraction.

The Pattisonized lead, now rich in silver,
is handed over to the refiner. Unfortunately,
we cannot follow it through the very inte-
resting process of cupellation, for this is only
performed at Ballycorus when a sufficient
quantity of the alloy has been accumulated
to yield a cake of silver of some 6000 ounces.
We can, however, inspect the furnace, and
get some idea of how it is performed upon
so large a scale.

The hearth of the furnace is so con-
structed as to admit of the cupel, or " test,' '
being placed upon it. This is a fiat dish,
about two feet long by eighteen inches wide,
and is made by pressing into an iron grating,
which forms at the same time a model and
a support, a quantity of a paste made of
finely ground bone-ashes mixed with water.
Now, not far from the cupel, and com-
municating with it by means of a narrow
channel cut in the setting of the furnace,
is a small melting pot. Matters are so
ordered, that the pot being full of melted
metal, some of it shall run into the cupel.
The fire is now urged to its greatest
intensity, and a strong blast of air being
established, by means of a fan, the lead
becomes rapidly oxidized, and the metal
oxide floating upon its surface is swept off
by the current of air, much as you would
blow the froth from a glass of champagne,
and falls into a pot placed to receive it. And
could we see all this, a still more interesting
sight would await us at the close of the ope-
ration, when the last vestiges of the lead were
passing away. Up to this time the surface of

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

853

the lead appears infinitely brighter than the
surrounding furnace, a result which is due to
the intense heat produced by oxidation. Sud-
denly, as less oxidizable metal remains, the
surface becomes dull, when, with lightning-
like rapidity, there is another change. The
gradually thinning film of oxide presents a
quick succession of prismatic colours, until
presently, as a rainbow fades from a sunlit
lake, it breaks, and the bright sheet of silver
comes into view. Twenty tons of lead are
usually cupelled at one operation, and, con-
sequently, the cake of silver produced weighs
about 6000 ounces.

Before we bid farewell to lead, let us
visit yonder tower upon the hill, and see how
shot are made. But, first of all, there is a
certain furnace at which we must glance. It
is in a building which adjoins the cupelling
hou«e, and close beside it lies a large heap of
a heavy white powder. There are also some
pigs of lead, which are of a darker colour
than any which we have yet seen ; when you
strike them, they make a sharp ringing
sound. These pigs are the lead from the
slag, or scoria, which, as we saw just now, is
reserved for shot-making, seeing that it is
almost worthless for any other purpose. The
white powder is arsenious acid — the white

arsenic of the shops. What is this for ? If
you melt lead, and pour it into water through
a metal sieve, it will form a number of irre-
gularly-shaped masses, not at all globular, or
even ellipsoid. But if you try the sa'tae
experiment with lead to which a little arsenic
has been added, the drops on cooling will be
nearly perfectly spherical. The arsenic is
added to the melted lead in a very small pro-
portion, not more than from seven to ten
parts to one thousand, and its oxygen uniting
with some of the lead,- forms litharge, which
floats at the top, while the liberated arsenic
forms an alloy with the remainder of the
metal. This alloy of lead and arsenic, or,
as it is technically called, " poisoned metal,"
is next taken to the shot-tower, where
it is remelted and poured from the summit
through perforated metal plates, or " cards,"
as they are called. It falls into a vessel
of water placed to receive it, and the sub-
sequent operations which the drops have to
undergo, before they find their way into the
shot-belt of the sportsman, are but few and
simple. They comprise the assortment of
the drops into vaTiou* sizes, the removal
of such as are not perfectly spherical, and
thfe polishing by means of plumbago.

Haeey Napiee Deapee, F.C.S.

A MERIDIAN-LINE.

To possess some independent means of ob-
taining the true time, whereby a person may,
in his own house, ascertain the error of his
clock or watch to within a second or two, is
80 obvious a desideratum, that all readers of
Heceeative Science, who do not at present
possess the means, will, doubtless, be pleased
to have their attention directed to a simple
method by which so desirable a result may
be obtained.

The transit-instrument, the sine qua
non of observatories, is, doubtless, the best
for the purpose. It is, however, rather
an expensive instrument, and for accurate
purposes requires frequent and careful ad-
justment.

The sun-dial is too rough a method. By
it the time can hardly be obtained nearer
than to within a minute of the truth. There
are other methods, many of which are inte*

95ii

EECBEATIYE SCIENCE.

resting to those who have leisure to investigate
them. We propose to confine our attention,
in this article, to a meridian-line ; by which
the time may be obtained to within two or
three seconds, and which may be of very
great use to amateurs in astronomy, etc.

The meridian-line is a very old method of
determining by a fixed mayk, or set of marks,
the time of the sun's passing the meridian of
the place. There ia a description of one in
" Ferguson's Lectures" (1793, 8th edition, p.
375). Probably other works also contain
notices of similar methods. We are not
aware, however, that any one is so useful as
the one proposed to be described, which ap-
pears to us to combine the chief advantages
of all the others with which we are ac-
quainted, while it also has some which are
original.

We preface our description by the remark
that the meridian-line is not self-checking (so
to speak) as the transit-instrument is. Its
position must be checked by other means,
but when once proved, it may then be re-
garded as a fixed line of reference, by which
to ascertain the time of the sun's passing
the meridian.

We will suppose two classes of observes,
who may be interested in pursuing this sub-
ject. The first we will suppose to be able to
calculate the error of the clock or watch by
taking a set, or sets, of altitudes — single or
double' — with the sextant. To do this re-
quires some knowledge of trigonometry, and
the use of logarithms. This class of persons
will, of course, have no difficulty in at once
getting the time approximately, in order to
fix the line nearly in its position ; and after-
wards, by a series of approximations, deter-
mine its final place. The other class we will
suppose to be ignorant of the trigonometrical
modes of obtaining the time. Such persons
may, notwithstanding, be fully competent to
use the meridian-line when once its position
has been carefully determined. The former
class can prove at any time how nearly tho

line is in the plane of the meridian. The
latter class must put faith in some one who
is competent to ascertain the time for them,
and get such an individual to furnish them
with the true time in the first instance. They
may then tliemselves fix their line once for
all, according to the directions liereafter
given ; bearing in mind the fact, that when
once properly fixed, the line may be regarded,
for all rough astronomical purposes, as a final
reference, and an independent means of check-
ing the clock from day to day, or week to
week, etc.

The mode is as follows : —

Get a plate of brass or copper of the size
say 6 inches by 3, and about l-16th of an inch
thick. File a clean hole towards one end of
it, say 1 inch long by l-8th broad ; the metal
to be fixed so that the hole shall have the
long sides vertical. This piece of metal is to
be fixed very securely to the upper stone-
work outside a window having a southerly
aspect — not necessarily opposite the south;
my window, where such a line is fixed, for
instance, faces about S.S.E. Get the local
time approximately, as above referred to, say
to about one minute of the truth, in order to
ascertain about where to fix a piece of wood,
from which a plumb-line is to be suspended,
of moderately thick silk or cotton, waiting,
of course, till the sun is in the meridian, as
nearly as the watch or clock at present can
give it.

Having made a mark on the ceiling, fix a
piece of wood firmly to the joists, and on this
fasten another piece ; mahogany, or other
hardish wood. The latter must be shaped
something like the top of the capital letter T,
to admit of a wire, copper or brass — with a
carefully filed or turned groove in it, to which
the plumb-line is to be fixed — being placed
through the ears of the T, at right angles to
the meridian, and made to move east or west,
and "friction-tight," for adjustment. The
piece of wood fixed to the joists must be at
such a distance from the window as will allow

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

ass

the sun to shine, at his southing, through the
hole outside, on the plumb-line, throughout
the year. Having fixed the plumb-line ap-
proximately, by observing the sun when he
is about south — of course not forgetting the
equation of time — the next thing is to get a
small wooden pillar, the height of the room,
with a vertical slit in it, or a set of holes, to
enable the observer to see a second plumb-
line, also in the plane of the meridian, which
he should attach to the ceiling some feet
further from the window than the principal
one. The object of the^econd plumb-line is
to enable the observer to avoid parallax be-
tween the plumb-line and the slide (referred
to hereafter), by enabling him to keep the
eye in the plane of the meridian when setting
the slide.

During the observation, it must be re-
membered that the observer sits or stands
with his hach to the sun. A little wooden
box must now be used, open on two opposite
sides, to enable it to slide up and down the
pillar, to suit the sun's altitude at the diffe-
rent times of the year. The box should have
a " set-screw" on one side, aad a dovetailed
groove on the south side, in which is to slide
horizontally a piece of wood on which is
pasted white paper to receive the beam of
light coming through the slit, and also for
the graduations by which the central observa-
tion is to be checked.

The pillar must be so placed to the north
of the principal plumb-line — the one close to
the pillar — that the plumb-line may hang
about 1-lOth of an inch to the south of the
outside vertical face of the sliding piece of
wood. Two vertical lines should now be
. drawn on the prepared face of the slide, at
a distance from one end of it say of about
one-third of the length of the slide, which
should be six or eight inches long, the verti-
cal lines to be sufficiently far apart to suit the
average width of the beam of light coming
through the slit in the metal outside, at the
different periods of the year. The space in-

cluded between these two lines should be
bisected by a third line parallel to the others,
the use of the last being for the central ob-
servation of the passage of the beam of light
across the meridian line, or plane.

Other vertical lines may now be drawn on
one side only of the central space, at distances
to suit the observer's convenience, the use of
them being to enable him to get pairs of ob-
servations, composed of those before and
after the sun's passing the centre ; by taking
the means of these, after reversing the slide,
he will be able to check the central one.*

We will now suppose the observer to hava
completed his arrangements for taking tha
observation. Having ascertained the position
which the beam of light will occupy, with the
given declination for the day, he stands or
sits with his back to the sun, having dark-
ened the room if he is desirous of getting a
better defined image of the sun. The slide
being arranged so as to move easily by the
hand, or by means of a screw (which would
be an improvement on the plan we have been
accustomed to adopt), the observer places tha
slide so that one of the vertical lines shall be
in the plane of the meridian, and he now
waits, watch in hand, till the beam of light
gets to the space marked out for it.

The lines should be numbered 1, 2, 3, etc.
The instant when the beam of light occupies
the centre of the space alluded to being
noted, the slide is quickly pushed forward,
from left to right, till the next line is in the
plane of the meridian. So on till the sun ar-
rives at the meridian. The central observa-
tion is then taken. The slide is now reversed,
so that the very same lines are used after noon
as before noon ; and thus no error can arise
from graduation. By this method, which is
original, the near approach towards the truth

* The amplication of the principle of pairs of ob-
servations to tha meridian lino, as well as many other
advantages which the line now described affordSj
should be placed to the credit of Mr. Bunt, the well-
known tide-computer, etc., who suggested many oris
ginal ideas in reference to it.

85^

EECBEATIYE SCIENCE.

which may be obtained, is surprising. I have
made scores of comparisons between the time
so obtained, and that obtained by the transit-
instrument, and the agreement between the

two results is far nearer than would be ex-
pected from apparently so rude a method.
William C. Bxjedee.
Observatory, South Farade, Clifton, Bristol.

THE VEGETATION OE A DECAYED NUT.

A FEW days since, being employed in the
agreeable occupation of eating brazil-nuts, I
found one which, though it afforded no
pabulum for the material appetite, at least
furnished food for the mind. It was a
decked nut, the whole of the kernel being

completely decomposed, and in the place of the
solid, white, oily kernel, proper to the interior
of the shell, a few particles of oily, sugary
matter was found. This led me into a train
of reflection, and the determination succeeded
to submit it to the test of that wonder reveal-
ing instrument, the microscope.

Thinking that it would be necessary to
know the component parts of a healthy nut,
I first procured a portion of the brown scaly
covering with which the nut is invested.
This was, as I expected, an epidermis of

simple membrane, covering the albuminous
matter composing the kernel. When placed
in a drop of water, and viewed with a power
of 500 diameters, it.was seen to be distinctly
cellular in appearance, the cell markings
closely assimilating to those of the flattened

3

scales of the human skin. Hence I concluded
it was made up of flattened cells. Viewed with
oblique light, its markings were distinctly
seen. Fig. 1 gives a good idea of them. I
next made a very thin section of the kernel,
and found it to be cellular in structure, exhi-
biting well defined cell-walls, composed of a
tough, rather , opaque membrane, in shape
somewhat oval (Fig. 2). Here and there were
seen in the field of view globules of oil, with
their well-defined rings (Fig. 2, b), produced
by the unequal refraction of the light.

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

857

Several sections were made horizontal, ver-
tical, and diagonal, with the same result,
each showing cells with thick walls, and in
a few cells a central nucleus (Fig. 2, c).
Viewed with oblique light, the membranous
coating of the cell is beautifully seen. When
compressed between the compressorium, or
two plates of glass, a rupture of the cell- wall
is effected, and a drop of water, or glycerine
(glycerine answers best, from its greater
refractive power), being placed on the slide,
the contents of the cell are floated out, and
appear to be granules variously shaped. I
neglected to test for starch, but doubtless,
from the analogy of the nut, they would be
found to be principally composed of that
substance. Having proceeded thus far in
my researches in the healthy nut, and learned
thus much of its organization, I proceeded to
the examination of the diseased specimen.

The diseased nut was apparently affected
with a malady, which had consumed it, and
it was no longer a very agreeable subject to
investigate, but the student of natural history
must not sicken at an unpleasant smell, or
shrink from an occasional disagreeable sight ;
such will sometimes afford him the best means
of instruction. Reasoningfrom the foetid odour
of the decayed nut, nitrogen entered into its
composition. The appearance of the shell
was as if it had been soaked in oil, doubtless
owing to the oily matter from the cells of the
nut being set at liberty, and decomposition
producing heat, thus rendering the oil more
liquid, and enabling it to permeate through
the walls of the shell. The kernel was
entirely decayed, no trace of cell being visible,
nothing remaining but a soft, oily, sugary
mass, of a dirty yellow colour ; the epidermis
was thinner than in a healthy specimen, but
exhibiting the same markings. My first
care was to remove a small portion of the
dirty yellow matter ; this was placed under
the microscope, with a power of 300 dia-
meters, and there stood revealed a reticulation
of thread-like fibres, beautiful in their con-

fusion ; they were interlaced in every direc-
tion, a mere mass of fungi, the result, pro-
bably, of some errant spore released from
its parent stem, where it had hitherto nestled
under the tropical sun of Brazil, until having
arrived at a period when it became necessary
to procure its own subsistence, it started on
its voyage of life, and wandered along on
the wings of the gentle breeze until at length
it found a resting-place within this yet unripe
nut. Here it grew with its growth and
fattened upon its decay ; not a trace of cell
was visible, nothing but the threads ramifying
in every conceivable direction (Fig. 3). The
specimen was treated with various chemical
reagents, but nothing showed the structure
more distinctly than being merely mounted
dry, and covered with thin glass. When
viewed with oblique light, only a small pencil
of rays being permitted to fall upon the
fibres, they were found to be hollow tubes,
exceedingly delicate in appearance, but in
reality very tough and tenacious. Here and
there were to be seen small globular bodies
of what I conceived to be sporidia ; one par-
ticularly engaged my attention, as it rolled
gently over the field of the microscope, it
was studded with minute points, darker in
colour than the surrounding mass (Fig. 4).
Another specimen was examined, not quite so
much decayed as the first ; the same thread-
like fibres were to be seen, but with a dif-
ferent configuration (Fig. 5, a), and, crossing
the field was a dark brown line of vascular
tissue (Fig. 5, b). Probably owing to its
greater density in structure, it was enabled to
resist the parasitic fungi which had destroyed
so much around it.

Here, then, was a lesson taught and
reflections suggested by a very simple sub-
ject, combined with the power of observation.
How many would have thrown it aside, dis-
gusted with its unpleasant odour, without a
thought that, disagreeable as it was, it yet
contained within it a vast mass of vegetable
life, supported by the same means, and

H H

858

EECEEATIYE SCIENCE.

fashioned by tlie same Almiglity hand that
formed the wonderful complex organs of man
himself. The thought was conceived, M^as
the fungus the cause or the effect of the
disease ? What a wide field for inquiry was
opened by this decayed nut, what happiness
to look, as it were, into some of the mysteries
of God's work, and see and know that nothing
is made in vain ; tha*; the decay of one plant
or animal furnishes food for others, until at
length animal, plant, and parasite yield to the
Almighty fiat, and return to their kindred
dust, and even in their last act affording
means of subsistence to a new race more
highly developed.

W. P. COOPES.

METEOEOLOGY OF MAY.

FROII OBSERVATIONS AT hlGHFIELD HOUSE OBSERVATORY.

Greatest

Greatest

Range of Amount of

Tear.

Heat.

Cold.

Tempera-

Eain.

Degrees.

Deffi-aos.

tare.

luches.

18i2

.. {)70 .

. 3S-0

.. 290

—

1810

.. 07-0 .

. 200

.. 4ro

. 31

18U

.. 74 5 .

. 340

. . 40-5

. 0-5

1815

. . fiOO .

. 370

.. 320

. 33

18A6

.. 81-4 .

. 4'J-O

. . 41-4

. 0-7

1847

.. 84 5 .

. fi5 0

.. 49-5

. 5 0

1848

.. 8;?-o .

, 35-3

.. 47-7

. 14

1849

. . 75-2 .

. 81-8

.. 43-4

. 2-4

1850

. , 79-2 .

. 31-2

. . 48'0

. 1-3

ISOl

.. 77-0 .

. 310

.. 400

. 1-3

1852

.. 70-0 .

. 320

. . 47-0

. 11

1833

. . 82-0 .

. 80-4

.. 51-6

. 1-0

1804

.. 730 .

. 31-4

.. 41-6

. 2-2

1855

.. 81-9 .

. 2&S

.. 55-1

. 1-9

1856

. . 70-8 .

. 30-9

.. 39-9

. 3-8

18-57

.. 72-8 .

. 30-0

.. 42-8

. 10

1858

. . 84-0 .

, 30-9

.. 53-1

. 1-4

1859

.. 78'5 .

I iT-^.i :

. 30-8

^ j.r, » _i, „ .7 .

. . 47-7

l.~ J O I.R

. 0-5

The greatest heat in the sh.aue reached 84-5' in 1847,
and84''ia 1858, and only 67-0^ in 1842 and 1843, giving
a range of 17'5''in greatest heat for May during the
last eighteea years. The temperature rose ahove SO'
in 1816, 1847, 1848, 1853, 1855, and 1858, and did-not
reach 70' in 1842, 1843, and 1845,

The greatest cold was as low as 230'' in 1843,
and 28-8'' in 1855, and never below 49-0' in 1840, giving
a range of 14'0' for greatest cold in May during tlie
last eighteen years. The temperature did not descend
to the freezing point in 1842, 1844, 1845, 1846, 1847,
and 1848, since which year there have been frosts
every May, the coldest years being 18-43, 1853, 1855,
and 1857.

The range of temperature in May was as much as
55-1° in 1855, and as little as 29'0' in 1842.

Only half an inch of rain fell in 1844 and 1859,
and as much as 5 inches in 1847, giving a range of
4-5 inches for May during the past seventeen years.
In fourteen years the fall exceeded an inch, and in six
years it exceeded two inches j the mean amount for
May being 1"8 inches.

E. J. Lowe.

ASTEONOMTCAL OBSEEVATIOIs^S
EOE MAY, 1860.

The Sun remains in the constellation Taurus until the
20tli, when he moves into Gemini. He rises in
Loudon on the 10th at 4h. 18m., on the 20th at 4h.
3m., and on the 31st at 3h. 51m., being forty-three
minutes earlier on the last day th m on the first. He
sets in London on the 10th at 7h. oOm., on the 20th at
7h. 50ra., and on the 31st at 8h. 4m. p.m., or forty-
three minutes later on the last than on the first day. In
the middle of the month, he rises at Dublin nine
minutes earlier than in London. At Edinburgh, in
the middle of the month, he rises twenty-one minutes
earlier, and sets twenty-two minutes later tlian in
London, there being in Edinburgh 13 hours and 19
minutes of sunlight, and in London 15 hours and 37
minutes.

The sun reaches the meridian on the 10th at llh.
50m. lis. ; on the 20th at llh. 50m. 17s. ; and on the
31st at llh. 57m. 25s.

The equation of time on the 10th is 3m. 49s. ; and
on the 31st, 2m. 35s. after the Sun, and consequently
subtractive.

Day brealts on the 11th at Ih. 21m., and on the 21st
at Oh. '28m.

Twilight ends on the 11th at lOh. 31m., and on the
19th at llh. 17m.

Length of day on the 2nd, 14h. 5lm., and on the
10th, 15h. 37m.

On the 3rd, no night at Edinburgh, and on the
23rd no night in London.

The moon is fall on the 5th at 7h. 2m. a.m.

New moon on the 20th, at Oh. 46m. p.m.

The moon is nearest to the earth on the 2nd and
29th, and furthest removed from us on the 14th.

Mercury is a morning star, and favourably situated
for observation. During the mouth he passes from
the constellation Pisces to Aries, and finally into
Taurus, being slightly north of the Hyades at the
close of the month. He rises on the 1st at 4h. Im.
a.m., on the 10th at 3h. 40m. a.m., on the 20th at
3h. 32m., and on the 30th at 3h. 29m. a.m. ; setting
on the 1st at 4b. 39m. p.m., on the 21st at 6h. 4m.,
and on the 31st at 7h. 14m. p.m.

Venus is a splendid object in the western sky
during the evening. On the 11th she will be of the
form of a half-moon, and have a diameter of nearly
24", intensely white in colour, and casting strong
shadows in the absence of the moon. She is in Tau-

EECREATIVE SCIENCE.

359

rus, passing into Gemini, reaching her greatest eastern
elongation on the 9th ; rising on the 1st at 6h. 26m.
a.ra., on the 16th at 6h. 34m., and on the 31st at 6h.
45m. a.m. ; setting on the 1st at llh. 46m. p.m., on the
I6that llh. 48m. p.m., and on the 31st at llh. 27m. p.m.

Mars is unfavourably situated for observation ; he
is in Sagittarius. He rises on the 1st at 12h. 52m.
a.m., on the 16th at 12h. 17m. a.m., an I on the 31st
at llh. 33m. p.m. ; setting on the 1st at 8h. 40m. a.m.,
on the 16th at 8h. Cm. a.m., and on the 31st at 7h.
24m. a.m.

Jupiter is a very fine object, although much less
conspicuous than Venus. He is an evening star. He
is in Gemini until the end of the month, when he
passes into Cancer. He rises on the 1st at 8h. 35m.
a.m., on the 16th at 71i. 48m., and on the 31st at 7h.
2m. a.m. ; setting on the 1st at l"2h. 57m. a.m., on the
16th at 12h. 5m. a.m., and on the 31st at llh. 12m.
p.m. He occults the Moon on the 24th.

Saturn is still an evening star, in the constellation
Leo, rising on the 1st at llh. 19m. a.m., on the
16th at lOh. 23m., and on the 31st at 9h. 2Sm. a.m. ;
setting on the 1st at 2h. 23m. a.m., on the 16th at
Ih. 2om. a.m., and on the 31st at 12h.2Sm. a.m. He
is a conspicuous object, and situated near Regulus.

Uranus is now invisible to the naked eye, being too
near the Sun, in the constellation Taurus ; rising on
the 1st at 51i. 37m. a.m., on the 16th at 4h. 41m. a.m.,
and on the 31st at 3h. 4jm. a.m. ; setting on the 1st
at 9h. 41m. p.m., on the 16th at 8h. 47m. p.m., and on
the 31st at 7h. 53m. p.m.

Vulcan. — ^Ths Intra-Mercurial planet has received
the name of Vulcan.

Occultations of Stars by the Moon : — There are
none larger than the 5.^ magnitude during the month.
Jupiter, however, will pass behind the Moon on the
24th, disappear! og in London at 4h. o4m. p.m. in the
centre of the Moon on its unenlightened side, and
reappearing at 5h. 47m. p.m. near the centre of the
enlightened side.

Eclipses of Jupitei"'s Satellites : — On the 14th, at
8h. 50m. 10s. p.m., 3rd moon will disappear. On the
17th, at lOh. 15m. 27s. p.m., 1st moon will reappear.

E. J. Lowe.

THINGS OP THE SEASON— MAY.

FOa VARIOUS LOCALITIES OK GEE.*.T BBITAIN.

Birds ARRrvi!fa. — Sedge Warbler, Re&d Warbler,
Fern Owl, Field Titlark, Eazor Bill, Dottrell, Hobby,
Red-backed Shrike, Spotted Flycatcher, Land RaiL

Birds Departing. — Bean-goose.

Insects. — Carabus monilis and nltens, May
ChaflFer, Cicindella hybrida, Bombardier, Agonum
marginatum, Colymbetes abbreviatis, Gyrinus bicolor
and villosus, Necrophorus species, Onthophilus
species. Dor Beetle, Scoltus destructor, Donacia
dentipes and simplex, Mordella aculeata, Phyllobius
argentatus, Deporans betulffi. Swallow-tail, Cabbage
Green-veined While, Green chequered Wood White,

Orange-tip White, Chequered, Grizzled, Dingy, and
Large Skipper, Common Blue, Clifden Blue, Pearl
Bordered Likeness, May, Marsh, Pe.arl Bordered, and
Queen of Spain's Fritillary, Bedford Blue, Mazarine
Blue, Unicorn Beetle, Burnet Moth, Eyed Hawk-
moth, Lime Hawk-moth, Bee Hawk-moth, Ghost
Moth, Goat Moth, Puss Moth, Fox-coloured Moth,
Large and Buff-spotted Ermine, Cinnabar Moth,
Button Snout, Spotted Muslin, Cassida nobilis and
splendidula, Staphylinus pubescens.

Wild Plants. — -Germander Speedwell, Sweet-
scented Vernal, Wood Meiic, Common Quaking, ■
Woodruff, Great Plantain, B.irrea Wort, Water Scor-
pion Grass, Alkanet, ComCrey, Yellow Mountain
Violet, Periwinkle, Goosefoot, Wood Sanicle, Snow-
flake, Poet's Narciss, Harebell Squill, Solomon's Seal,
Herb Paris, Alpine Saxifrage, Mossy Saxifrage, Wood
Sorrel, Bladder Campion, Wood Strawberry, Common
Avens, Celandine, Pheasant's Eye, Water Crowfoot,
Globe Flower, Dead Nettle, Toad Flax, Linnsea,
Hedge Mustard, Wild Mustard, Cardamine, Shining
Crane's-bill, Robert Crane's-bill, Jagged-headed
Crane's-bill, Common Mallow, Heath Pea, Bird's-foot
Trefoil, Black Vetch, Grass Vetch, Meadow and
Woodside Orchids, various, Briony, Crowberry, Mistle-
toe, Sweet-gale.

M? JM olewortliy's d

orner.

Naturalist's TELEscoPE.-^In page 36 of Recrea-
TVTE Science, Mr. Noteworthy remarks that a tele-
scope with a short range would be very useful in
observing the habits of birds, etc. I think some of
your readers might find one of a kind I have for some
years used to be very serviceable. It is of about
twelve diameters' magnifying power (nearly 150 area),
with focus from distant range to within two yards of
the observer, covered with black leather, to prevent
the glare of the sun. The one I use was made by Mr.
Bryson, optician. Princes Street, Edinburgh, at a cost
of about thirty shillings. He has them at less, or
greater prices, ranging with the magnifying power.
Many most interesting sights are within the range of
such a glass, which are unseen by an observer without
one whose approach frightens away the animal. Just
tlie other day I found its use ; for, happening to have
it with me, 1* saw the first butterfly I had this year
seen. It was at some distance, and seemed either a
white or sulphur, and disappeared near a tall holly-
tree. Coming to the place, nothing -vVas to be seen to
the unaided eye ; a few stones sent into the tree pro-
duced no efftect If it were a common white I did not
want it, but if a sulphur, I did ; and so I pulled out
my glass, and took a close survey of the tree, branch
by branch. At last I found him clinging to the un-
der side of a branch, where he had hoped to escape
unseen, and would have done, but for this glass. So
having found him, I made out by his angle wings that
it was worth my while to get him, and soon he was

360

EECEEATIVE SCIENCE.

dislodged, and reposing in my chloroform bottle.
Every day I find its use, so think your readers could
not do better than get one. I may say that in manu-
facture and optical exactness they are most satis-
factory instruments. — C. Hope Eobertsox.

OCCULTATIONS- OV JupITEE's SATELLITES. — ^" An

Inquirer" wishes to know how it is that a satellite of
Jupiter is made to reappear on several different dates
without an intermediate disappearance, or vice versa.
After a satellite has disappeared behind the planet, it
must of course emerge again before it can disappear
a second time ; but, unless the reappijarance takes
place whilst Jupiter is visible, it is omitted in the
list of occultations as unnecessary information.

Celestial Objects. — It is worthy of note, that
during March Venus has been seen in the day with
the naked eye as early as half- past four o'clock, and
that on the 23rd, at 6h. 45m. p.m., the young Moon was
visible at Wari-en Point, Ireland, although new Moon
had only occurred at Ih. 56m. p.m. on the 22nd.

Biological Terms. — A learned Tinker asks to
" make a note on what may be called a plauisible mis-
use of the word ' elinrinate,' on page 175, It is tnie it
means, ' to throw out,' and, tlierefore, may be said to
be correctly used to describe colours thus appearing
by rotation, but the real sense of the word is, to cast
out something superfluous or noxious, or not apropos to
what we seek to produce or educe, one of which latter
two words should be used in the passage referred to."

Electric Illumination. — Mr. Faraday, in his lec-
ture on " Light-house Illumination," at the Eoyal
Institution, spoke in the highest terms of praise of
the efficiency of the apparatus in use at the South
Foreland High Light. This was placed in the light-
house by Professor Holmes, to do duty for the sis

winter months. There are two magneto-electric
machines at the South Foreland, each being put in
motion by a two-horse power steam-engine ; and,
excepting wear and tear, the whole consumption of
material to produce the light is the coke and water
required to raise steam for the engines and carbon
points for the lamp in the lantern. The lamp is a
delicate arrangement of machinery, holding the two
carbons between which the electric light exists, and
regulating their adjustment; so that whilst they
gradually consume away, the place of the light shall
not be altered. The electric wires end in the two
bars of a small railway, and upon these the lamp
stands. When the carbons of a lamp are nearly gone,
that lamp is lifted off, and another instantly pushed
into its place. The machines and lamp have done
their duty during the past six months in a real and
practical manner. The light has never gone out
through any deficiency or cause in the engine and
machine-house, and when it has become extinguished
in the lantern, a single touch of the keeper's hand
has set it shining as bright as ever. The light shone
up and down the Channel, and across into France,
with a power far surpassing that of any other fixed
light within sight or anywhere existent. The next
step will be to adopt this light for the illumination of
towns, and in London one such experiment begins to
promise a complete success.

A New Planet, the first of the year 1860, but
the 58th of the series of planetoids, was detected by
M. Luther, at Bilk, near Diisseldorf, on the evening
of Saturday, March 24. The following positions were
obtained by the discoverer the same night : —

B.M.T. E.A. Decl. N.

March 24.. llh. Om. .. 12h. Im. 56s. .. 2° 51'

" 24..12h. 14m. .. 12h. Im. 53s. .. 2° 51-5'

INDEX

Abkbdevine, history and treatment of as a cage bird, 302.

Aberration of light Ulustrated, 122.

Acicular plant crystals, 2tl.

Aeineta forms of vorticella, 313.

Actinophrys forms of vortioeUa, 313.

Adamsonia digitata, 64.

Aerolites, general account of, and theory of their constitu-
tion, 131, 213 ; list of, 136.

Agarics, to gather and preserve, 63.

Agrotis corticea, a nocturnal moth, 27.

Air, iiressure of on the crust of the earth, 320.

Alchemists, knowledge of photography, 189.

Alexandrian consecratio corns, 45, 100.

Alum Bay, Isle of Wight, 126.

Alveolites in rice-stone, 150.

American belt of volcanic craters, 255.

American birds, Audubon's studies,'262.

AmcBba diffluens fig, 145, 147 ; radicans, 110.

Anatomy of cube, 271.

Ancient astronomers correct in measurement of time, 331.

Angles in sections of cube, 272.

Auniilata, rotifers added to, 312.

Antelope tribe, the eland, 225.

Anthracite, the result of igneous action, 326.

Antioohus the Great, coins of, 207.

Aperture of microscope, test for, 335.

Apparatus for drying fungi, 66 ; for mosses, 209.

Apparatus for practical photography, 338.

Apricot, dates when in bloom at Nottingham, 151.

Apteryx Australia described, 42, 178.

Aquabia: studies of sponges, 29, 109 ; tame fishes, 14 ; death
of gold-fish, 51; management of gold-fish, 51; management
of fresh- water, 73 ; tanks for, 74 ; fern-culture in, 75 ;
aquatic architects, 106 ; rock-work, 36, 75, 108, 324 ;
mosses for, 203 ; balance of animal and vegetable life in,
226 ; spontaneous vegetation of, 229 ; food for fishes, 287 ;
microscopical pond-lore, 310.

Aquarium, rationale of management, 228.

Arsenic used in making shot-lead, 353.

Articulate animals, fossU, 146.

Artificial odours, 343.

Artificial raphides, 245.

Asplenium adiantum nigrum, 76.

Assassin, origin of the word, 295.

Asteroids, their character, 4; how some were discovered,
5 ; distances of from the sun, 6; list of, 6.

Astronomical instruments, equatorial, 165 ; amateur's tele-
scope, 120.

AsTEONOMT : history of the planets, 3 ; catalogue of bodies
in the solar system, 6 ; apjjearance of star under tele-
scope, 108; amateur's telescopes, 120, 252; aberration
of light, 122 ; meteors or falling-stars, 130 ; the expected
comet, 139; moon's motion, 144; new planets, 144, 251,
360 ; portable equatorial, 165 ; catalogue of comets, 195,
247, 284, 321; conjunction of planets, Jupiter and Venus
(July 21, 1859), 222; determination of latitude, 265;
lunar eclipse (February 7, 1860), 279; star scintillations,
292 ; great tide of March 8, 1860, 324 ; structure of the
earth and moon considered as bearing on the theory of
central heat, 331 ; meridian-line, 353 ; occultation of
Jupiter's satelUtes, 360 ; day views of Venus and the
Moon, 360 ; observations for the months of August, 1859,
to May, 1860, 35, 71, 107, 143, 179, 215, 250, 286, 322,
358.

Athyrium, or lady-fern, 76.

Atmospheee, its physical constitution, 199 ; observation of
its phenomena, 200 ; purified by unseen agents, 157 ; its
pressure on the surface of the earth and relation to vol-
canic phenomena, 330 ; its entire pressure and influence
on earthquakes and volcanoes. See also Meieobology.

Atmospheric clock, 216.

Audubon, the ornithologist, life of, 261.

Augustus Caesar, deification of, 47.

Aurora borealis, efiiect of on direction of a meteor, 133.

Avestruz petise, 41.

Balance of life and death, 226.

Banana, grovrth of at Kew, 144.

Bark of trees, physiology of, 63.

Barometer an indicator of earthquakes, 330.

Beetles, the burying or sextons, 306.

Benzole, to remove grease from entomological specimens, 142.

Betula alba, 63.

Biddulphia aurita, 88.

BUin, slate fossils of, 146.

Binoscopic toy, suggestion for, 288.

BiOGEAPHT : Humboldt, Part I., 15 ; Part II., 55 ; John
Smeaton, a life among the lighthouses, 168 j Audubon,
the ornithologist, 261.

Biological terms, 360.

Birch-tree, abounds in watery sap, 63.

Bird-fancier's recreation, quoted, 303.

BiED Keeping, key to bird's heart, 32 ; winter manage-
ment, 93 ; necessity of exercise, 94 ; cages for song-birds,
94 ; protection from cold, 94 ; food of, 95 ; medical
treatment, 95 ; tame robins, 181 ; teaching the siskin, 302.

Bird preserving, 117 ; mounting, 119.

Birds in winter, 216.

Birds of America, Audubon's studies of, 263.

Birds, vringless, 41.

Bituminous deposits of the carboniferous era, 236.

Botany, study of, 10 ; its invitations, 10 ; many-petaled
flowers, 11, 52 ; structure of calyx, 52 ; fungi, to collect
and preserve, 65 ; aquatic plants in aquaria, 73 ; ferns for
water-culture, 76 ; the order urtioacese, 77, 293 ; legu-
minous plants, 123, 158; rosaceous plants, 124; umbel-
lated flowers, 125, 160 ; dissection of flowers, 158 ; repro-
ductive organs of plants, 161 ; calyx, 162 ; coroUa, 163 ;
pistil, 164 ; composite flowers, 267 ; oalcyfloral plants,
268 ; one-piece corollas, 269 ; exogens and endogens, 61 ;
leaf geometry, 140 ; banana at Kew, 144 ; herbarium of
mosses, 209 ; plants of the coal strata, 233, 343 ; Msts of
plants to be sought by collectors, 36, 71, 107, 143, 180,
214, 251, 287, 323, 359.

Bottles for pond collecting, 310.

Bracts, forms and uses of in plants, 319.

Brain, abnormal form of in fowl, 104.

Brevipennate birds, 41, 178.

Briony, crystals of, 244.

British Channel, produced by fracture, 123.

Brown-paper magnet, 173.

Brute madness, an instance of, 320.

Bull, human-headed, a symbol on Babylonian coins, 205.

Burying-beetles, their place in the coleoptera, 306 ; general
account of, by Gleditsch, 307 ; mode of interring oodles,
308 ; a new hypothesis of their habits, 308 ; necrophorus
germanicus, vestigator, mortuum, and vespillo, 309;
necrodes littoralis and giganteus, 309, 310; silpha tho-
racica and quadripunctata, 309 ; necrophorus grandis and
ruspator, 310.

I I

362

INDEX.

Buttercup, botanical characteristics of, 53.

Butterfly, the first, 283.

Butterflies, larvae of on nettle, 79 ; metamorphoses of, 80.

CABiifET: of mosses, 210; coins, 45,100; coinfac-similes, 279
collection of dried fungi, 65 ; to remove grease from en
tomological specimens, 142 ; specimens of dried fungi, 65
diatoms dried on talc, and mounted in Canada balsam, 70 _
flints of upper chalk formation, 113 ; dried and mounted
mosses, 209 ; microscopic plant-crystals, 246 ; value of old
English coins, 252 ; specimens of coal in sections for,
344.
Cactus opuntia, crystals of, 243.

Cage-birds, comparative value of, 302; winter treatment, 93.
Cafamander wood of Ceylon, 63.
Californian trees, 64.
Calendar of Nature, 150.
Cambium, or inner bark of trees, 63.
Camera for photography, 337.
Cancer pagurus, or common crab, 98.
Candle, experiment with, 173.
Candle-heat, propagation by, 324.
Candle, or cannel coal, 347.
Cannabis sativa, history of, 293.
Caoutchouc-tree, 63.
Carboniferous strata, plants of, 234.
Carrot-root, raphides of, 243.

Car, triumphal, represented on ancient coins, 45, 100.
Casuarius Benettu, 41.
Catalepsy produced by resin of hemp, 296.
Catalogue of all the recorded comets, 195, 247, 234, 321.
Caterpillars that feed on the nettle, physiology of, 80.
Catk us, forms of, 318.
Cattle, new, 224.
Celts in the drift, 216.
Chalk-cliffs at Isle of Wight, 126 ; how formed and how

destroyed, 38.
Chalk, flints of upper series, 113 ; fossils of, 148.
ChameMon fluid experiment, 174.
Chemical phenomena of thermal springs, 328.
Chemical theory of volcanoes, 257.
Chemicals required for photography, 338.
Chemistey : Silica and silicates, 29, 109, 113, 201 ; expan-
sion of metal, 103 ; chemical principles of photography,
187, 231, 336 ; experiments in chemical affinity, 172 ;
efflorescence, 216 ; chemistry of the aquarium, 227 ; mi-
croscopic plant crystals, 244 ; practical electrotypy, 275 ;
jwtive properties of hemp, 294; solvent for dry paint,
323 ; combining properties of lead, 350 ; electric illumi-
nation, 360.
Chloroxylon Swietenia, 63.
Chromascope for observing rotary colours, 176.
Chromatypes, clock-work, 175.
Chrysalis, physiology of, 81.
Cidaris clavigera, 117.

Cilia, universaUty of, 314; oscillatoria, 156; vorticella, 311.
Cinephantic colour-top, 251.
Cingulum of diatoms, 88.
Circulatory system of sponges. 111.
Clefs, musicfd, 192.
Clifis undermined by frost, 128.
CUsiocampa neustria, a nocturnal moth, 28.
Clock-work chromotypes, 175.
Closterium lunula, 311, 314.

Coal and coniferous wood under the microscope, 343.
Coal, geology of, 233, 343.
Coating for plaster easts, 323.

Coins : consecratio coins of Eoman emperors and their
famiUes, 45, 100 ; coins of Seleucidae Kings of Syria, 204 ;
Northwick collection of, 208 ; EngUsh copper coinage, 252.
Coleoptera necrophora and necrodes, 308.
Collecting microscopic pond specimens, 310.
Collodion process, 190 ; of photography, 338.
Coi/OTJE, efiects of rotation on, 89 ; studies of by colour-
top, 90; Chevreul's researches, 90; isochronous vibra-
tions, 91 ; harmonies of, 92 ; clock-work chromotypes,
175 ; patterns for, 177 ; analysis of, 178 ; review of
Chevreul's work on, 238 ; optical delusions in, 240, 251 ;
cinephantic colour-top, 251.
Coloured flames, to produce, 174.

CotouE-TOP, Gorham's kaleidoscopic, 89; Groodchild's clock-
work, 175 ; Hunt's cinephantic, 251.

Colours in photography, 232.

Combustion, chemistry of, 257.

Comets : that of 1680 probably figured on a Eoman coin,
48 ; the expected great comet, 139 ; that of 1264, 139 ;
expected in August, 1860, 139 ; catalogue of those whose
orbits have been computed, 195, 247, 284, 321.

Complementary colours, 240.

Concretions, crystalline, in plants, 243.

Conductors, lightning, 288.

Coniferous wood under microscope, 343.

Confervoid growths in aquaria, 227.

Conjunction, planetary, of February 21, 1859, 227.

Consecratio coins of Koman emperors, 45.

Contraction of metal, 104.

Contrasts of colour, 239.

Cooling of the earth ; at what rate does it take place, 330.

Copper coinage, English, 252.

Cornish mines, thermal springs of, 328.

Coscinodiscus, one of the diatomaoeae, 86.

Cosmise pyralina, a nocturnal moth, 27.

Cosmical phenomena, an argument for internal heat of
earth, 328.

Cotopaxi, force of its eruptions, 258.

Cotton-trees of California, 64.

Crabs and lobsters, exuviation of, 97 ; the shell a nidus for
oysters, 99.

Craigleith-tree, texture of, 347.

Cristellaria lanceolata, 148.

Crumb of bread sponge, 110.

Crustacea, oyster-covered, 96 ; exuviation of, 97.

Crustacean fossils, 146.

Crust of earth, thickness of, 330.

Crystalline rocks, the product of igneous action, 254,
326.

Crystallization, instantaneous, 174.

Crystals in plant-cells, 243.

Cube, geometry of, 271.

Cuckoo, how many eggs does it lay, 72.

Cultivation of hemp, 293.

Cupel, use of, in smelting lead, 352.

Cupid and the butterfly, 83.

Cyclolina cretaeea, 148.

Cyclonic storms, 180. _ ,

Cymatopleura solea, 87.

Cystolithes, a form of raphides, 245.

Cystopteris fragiUs, 76.

Dagueeeeottpe, 190.

Daphne, the asteroid, its discovery, 4.

Davy, Sir Humphry, photographic experiments, 189.

Death a teacher and a servant, 230.

Decay, presence of fungus during, 356.

Decompositions in electrotypy, 277.

Dentahna elegans, 148.

Determination of latitude, 265.

Developing a collodion photograph, 339.

Diadema depressa fossil, 116.

Diaphragm for electrotyping, 278.

Diatoms, how to gather them, 7 ; apparatus for, 7 ; the
hunting-ground, 8 ; marine species, 8 ; assortment of
specimens, 9 ; terrestrial examples, 9 ; preparation of for
microscope, 69 ; motions of, 69 ; determination of species,
70 ; mounting of specimens, 70 ; what is a diatom ? 85 ;
structure of physiology, 86 ; multiplication of, 87 ; vulgare
described, 88.

Discs seen in fossil conifers, 346.

Dromaius Austrahs, 41.

Drying fungi, 65 ; ditto mosses, 209.

Dry paint, solvent for, 323.

Duration of human Mfe, 180.

Eagle, use in pagan ceremonies, 102.

Eaeth, motion of, eifect on light of celestial bodies, 122 ;
internal heat of, essay on, 253, 325 ; shadow of, projected
into space, 280 ; structure of crust of, 325.

Earthquakes, geographical distribution of, 255.

Ebony, a coloured wood, 63,

Echinus, fossil in flint, 116.

INDEX.

363

Eclipses, lunar, of August 13, 1859, 35 ; lunar, of February
7, 1860, 250 ; general account of, 279 ; of Jupiter's satel-
lites, 35, 71, 107, 143, 179, 215, 250, 286, 322, 358.

Eddystone lighthouse, erection of, 170.

Efflorescence, curious example in porcelain, 216.

Eggs of butterfles, 82.

Egyptian fables, and their meaning, 82.

Ehrenberg's researches on infusoria, 89.

Eland, notes on, 224.

Electric illumination, 360.

Electrotypy, practice of, 275.

Elephants, represented on ancient coins, 47, 100.

Emeu, a brevipennate bird, 41.

Empresses, commemorated by coins, 100.

Endochrome of diatomacese, 86.

Endogenous plants, 61.

English copper coinage, 252.

Entomological specimens, to remove grease from, 142.

Entomology, night-flying moths, 25 ; preservation of spe-
cimens, 142 ; seasonal observation of, 153 ; history of
house-spider, 217; the first butterfly, 283; burying-
beetles, 306.

Entomostraca, fossil forms of, 146.

Epeira diadema, 221.

Equatorial telescope, uses of, 4.

Eternity, symbols of on coins, 48.

Ethnology of Tuscany, 129 ; flint implements, 144.

Etna, force of its eruptions, 258.

Etruscan vase andEtruria, 129.

Euglenae under microscope, 157 ; mode of swimming, 311.

Eupator, coins of, 208.

European group of volcanoes, 257.

Exogenous plants, 63.

Expansion of metal, 103.

ExPEEiMENTS: preparation of water-glass, 22; illustrations
of centrifugal force, 34 ; in the laws of colour, 89, 175, 240,
241, 251, 288 ; expansion of metal, 104 ; natural magic, 172 ;
in electro-metallurgy, 275 ; in photography, 335.

Explosive raphid-ceUs of arum maculatum, 244.

Extraction of perfumes from flowers, 342.

Exuviation of Crustacea, 97.

Eyes, insertion of in stuffed birds, 120 ; multiple of spider, 217.

Fables of Pluto and Vulcan, 253 ; representative of great
truths, 82.

Failures in photography, causes of, 190.

Falling-stars, periodical in appearance, 99, 130 ; history of,
and examples of their configuration, velocity, and attendant
phenomena, 131 — 133 ; list of remarkable, 136.

Fancy-work in mosses, 212.

Fault, example of in Ashby coal-field, 237.

Faustina, Empress, consecratio coin, 101.

Feathers, to preserve in stuffed birds, 120 ; structure of, a
lesson in natural theology, 261 .

Feeding, mode of in rotifera, 312.

Fern-cases, mosses for, 203. See also Wakdian Cases.

Fekn s, in Wardian eases, 64 ; in aquaria, 73 ; list of aquatic
species, 76; their culture in glass-cases, 64; culture in
aquaria, 75 ; expansion of their fronds a subject for obser-
vation, 154.

Fertility of animals, 108.

Fibre of hemp, how prepared, 293 ; vegetable, how formed,
and its various uses, 61 ; specific gravity of, 63.

Fire, traces of its effects in the geologic series, 254, 328 ; the
age of on the earth, 327.

Firs and pines, 64.

Fireside geology, coal, 233.

Fishes, the art of taming, 14 ; causes of the death of gold-
fish, 51 ; preservation of in aquaria, 73, 228 ; fecundity of,
108 ; feeding in aquaria, 287 ; gold-carp, 51 ; to preserve
in confinement, 74.

Fissures in the bed of the sea, 128.

FlabeUina rugosa, 148.

Flint, an ingredient in water-glass, 21 ; its organic history,
29 ; spicula in sponge, 29 ; implements in the drift, 36 ;
in the cuticle of plants, 61 ; examples in' upper chalk
formation, 113 ; fossils contained in flint petjbles, 113 ;
production of layers in chalk, 114 ; implements in drift, 144.

Florin, to electrotype, 275.

Flower, structural diagram of, 164.

Flower-farms, 341.

Flowers, odours of, 340 ; seasons of their appearing, 151, 152.

Focussing in photography, 339.

Food, a new source oft 224.

Foraminifera, fossil forms of, 145; beds of, 146; hyaline-

sheUed, 148.
Forest of coal-producing plants, 234 ; of odoriferous trees,

341.
Fossil fuel under the microscope, 344.
Fossils of the Isle of Wight, 127 ; of the coal strata, 233.
Foundation rocks of earth's crust, 326.
Fowkes's photographic camera, 337.
Fractured beUs, restoration of, 324.
Fragrance of flowers, variety of, 340.
PringUlse spinus, natural history of, 302.
Frondicularia annularis, 148.

Frost, its action on chalk-cuff's, 128 ; examples of early, 180.
Fruits, seasons of their ripening, 151, 152.
Frustules of diatomaceae, 70.
Fuchs, Dr. Johann, the inventor of water-glass, 20 ; the

story of his life, 21 ; his death, 25.
Fuel, fossil, essay on, 233.
Funereal pyre on consecratio coins, 102.
Fungi, collecting and preserving, 65 ; edible species, 63 ;

dehquescent kinds, 66 ; instance of large production, 108 j

acieular crystals of, 246.
Fungus, growth of in a decayed nut, 356.
Furnace, portable, 180.
Future of the habitable globe, 332.

Galena, how oxydized, 350.

Galena in quartz formation, 291.

Gales of October, 1859, 180.

" Gangue," separation of lead galena from, 292.

Gas regulator, 287.

Gelatinous substance of sponges, 111.

Gems representing Cupid, 84.

Gemmation of foraminifera, 148.

Geographical distribution of volcanoes, 259.

Geologic phenomena illustrated by the aquarium, 229.

Geology : flints in the drift, 36, 144, 216 ; rock strata and
their materials, 37 ; flints of upper chalk formation, 113 ;
geology of Isle of Wight, 126 ; limestone and the fora-
minifera, 145 ; history of a roUed pebble, 201 ; geology
of coal and coniferous wood, 233, 343 ; physical evidences
of the internal he?it of the earth, 253, 325 ; metalliferous
products of quartz, 290, 349.

Geometry of cube, 271.

Geometry of leaves, 140.

Geraniums, British, botany of, 54.

German brown coal under the microscope, 346.

Geysers of New Zealand, 114.

Geysers, theoretic structure of, 327.

Greek personification of the soul, 82.

Gizzard of Notommata clavulata, 313.

Glendalough, lead mines at, 290.

Globe, volcanoes of, how distributed, 258.

Glomerulus, a form of inflorescence, 319.

Gold coins of ancient sovereigns, 46.

Gold-fish, causes of their death, 51.

Gradations of tone in colour, 241.

Graduated lines, a test for the microscope, 334.

Granite the foundation of the world, 244, 325.

Grantia, a marine sponge. 111.

Granules, circulation of in diatoms, 87.

Grasses, examples of eiogens, 63 ; flowering of, 154.

Gravel, fossils of, 116.

Gravitation, its influence on planetary motions, 5.

Grease in the cabinet, 142.

Great tide of March 8, 1860, 324.

Green stuff" under microscope, 156.

Green tree-frog, its history and habits, 49.

Gromia oviformis, 145.

Gyroscope, inviention of, 33 ; description of, 33 ; rotary mo-
tion of, 33 ; experiments with, 33 ; illustration of centri-
fugal force, 34 ; apparent nulhty of the force of gravita-
tion, 34.

Habits of birds, to observe, 36 ; the apteryx cuckoo, 72.
Halo, photographic, 188.

364.

I]S'DEX.

Harmonies of colour, 239 ; of Nature, 77.

Haschisch, a product of hemp, 295.

Hauerina compressa, 149.

Headon Beds, Isle of Wight, 127.

Heat, internal, of earth, essay on, 253, 325 ; its work in past

ages, 327 ; gradation of downwards, 329.
Hebrew a key to Etruscan, 129.
HeUography, 231.

Hemp, history and uses of, 293 ; raphides of, 245.
Herbarium, geological, 127 ; of fungi, 65 ; of mosses, 209.
Hillotype, a process of photography, 232.
House-spider, history and economy of, 217; weapons of

attack, 218; articulations, 219 ; terminal feet-combs, 219;

spinnerets, 220.
Humboldt, his life, 15 ; education, 16; iirst scientific work,

16 ; death of his mother, 17 ; his American travels, 11 ;

his " Cosmos," 18, 57 ; his various works, 19 ; settlement

at Berlin, 55 ; journey to Asia, 56 j to England, 57 ; at

home, 58 ; death, 59 ; burial, 60.
Hutton's system of geology, 254.
Hyacinth, raphides of, 2^.
Hyla arborea, or green tree-frog, 49.
Hypothesis of internal heat of the earth, 260.

Igneous rooks, their character and teachings, 253, 325.
Illumination of moon during ecUpse, 281 ; of vorticella

under microscope, 313.
Implements for taxidermy, 117.
Incandescence of the inner mass of the earth, 329.
Indian Archipelago, volcanoes of, 256.
Inflorescence, various forms of, 315.
Infusoria, fossil forms of, 146; spontaneously produced in

aquaria, 229. See also Miceoscope.
Inhumation performed by beetles, 306.
Inscriptions on consecratio coins, 46, 47.
Insects, arrival of, to note, 153 ; monthly lists, 36, 71, 107,

143, 180, 214, 251, 287, 323, 359.
Instinct and reason in dogs, 121.
Intermediate substance of sponges, 112.
Interment of carcasses by sexton beetles, 307.
Intervals in music, 193.
Intoxication by haschisch, 295.

Jewish settlement in Tuscany, 129.
Journal, naturalist's, to keep, 151.
JuUa Augusta, commemorative coin, 101.
JuUum Sidus of Horace, probably a comet, 48.
Jupiter, planet, occultation of, 222.

Kaieidoscopic colour-top, 89.
Key-note in music, 297.
Kiwi-kiwi described, 42.
Kinnear's photographic camera, 337.

Lagena clavata, 148.

Laminse of coal for the microscope, 343.

Latitude, determination of, 265.

Lava ejected by volcanoes, 257.

Lead, its uses in the arts, 289 ; British and foreign production
of, 290 ; grinding the ore, 291 ; in the furnace, 349 ; mode of
combining with ©xygen, 350; smelting of, 350; separa-
tion from silver, 351 ; improved process of desUvering, 352.

Leaf impressions by natural photography, 188.

Leaf geometry, 140.

Leafing of trees, a subject for observation, 151.

Leaves of plants, 11, 52, 158, 160; forms of, 63, 64;
typical of the plants which produce them, 141. See also
Botany.

Leger lines in music, 193.

Leptura micans, an aquatic architect, 106.

Lessons in bird-taming, 304.

Life, duration of, 180 ; its phases in the aquarium, 226.

Lignite, a variety of coal, 327, 345.

Light reflected from polished surfaces, 194.

Lighthouses, water-supply for, 144 ; life of Smeaton, 168 ;
buflding of Eddystone, 170.

Lightning, photographic efiects of, 188.

Lightning-rods, 288.

Lily-roots, crystals of, 244.

Limestone, formation of, by foraminifera, 149.

Lines ruled for microscopic tests, 334.

Lobster, exuviations of, 97.

Luganure lead-mine, 2S9.

Luminous meteors, history of, 131 ; monograph on, 138.

Lycopodium denticulatum may be used as an aquatic, 76.

Magic egg experiment, 174.

Magnolia glauca, odour of, 341.

Mahogany -tree, 63.

Marcus Aurelius, coin of, 101.

Marks, various, in musical notation, 301.

Maternal instinct, instance of deranged, 320.

Maxentius, coin of, 103.

Medicinal properties of hemp, 296.

Meridian line, to construct, 353.

Metamorphosis of caterpillar, 80.

Metal, expansion of, 103.

Metallurgy, electro, 275.

Meteoric dust, 145.

METEOBOiiOGT, elementary, 197 ; importance of, 198 ; laws
of, 198 ; underground temperatures, 144 ; seasonal phe-
nomena, 153 ; early frosts, 180 ; gales of October, 1859,
180, 287 ; lightning-rods, 288 ; weather- tables, August,
1859, to May, 1860, 36, 71, 107, 143, 179, 214, 250, 286,
322, 358.

Meteors, periodic visits of, 99, 130 ; mode of observing,
130 ; examples of their forms and colours, 131 ; velocity
of, and attendant phenomena, 131 — 133 ; list of remark-
able, 136.

Micrometer, its uses, 3.

Microscope : structure and physiology of sponges, 29, 109 ;
studies of the diatomacese, 7, 69, 85 ; rock-forming mi-
crozoa, 145 ; wonders of a stagnant pool, 154 ; raj^ihides
or microscopic plant crystals, 212 ; minute Ufe in the
aquarium, 226 ; microscopical pond-lore, 310 ; coal and
coniferous wood, 343 ; vegetation of a decayed nut, 356.

Migratory birds, periodic movements of, 151, 153.

MiUola, a form of rhizopoda, 145, 149.

Military costume, proper colour of, 323.

Mimosa, example of coloured wood, 63.

Mineral fuel, legal dispute upon, 348.

MiNERAiOGY : flints and their fossils, 29, 109, 113, 201 ;
studies of coal, lignite, and jet, 233, 343; lead at the mouth
of the mine, 289 ; in the furnace, 349.

Mines, heated springs in, 328.

Mining, visit to a lead-mine, 289, 349.

Minute life in rock masses, 150.

Mixtures of odours, 342.

Mollusca and Crustacea associated, 99.

Molten state of the interior of the earth, 329.

Moon, influence of, on tides, 324.

Moon's motion, a measure of heat and bulk of earth, 332.

Moorak, a brevipeunate bird, 41.

Mosses, culture of in fern-cases, 203 ; herbarium of dried
specimens, 209; in fern-cases, 203; collection of dried,
209; how to collect, 210; to arrange, 211 ; mounting, 212.

Moths, night-flying, 25 ; are they sensible to pain, 26 ;
attracted by candle-light, 26 ; nocturnal species, 26 ; cha-
racteristic flight of nocturnal species, 27 ; swallow pro-
minent, heart and club, lemon-spotted, 27 ; lackey, spraw-
ler, December, 28 ; aurelias of, 28.

Mountain chains of granite, 326.

Mountains of moon, as seen during eclipse, 283.

Mounting botanical specimens, 69 ; stuffed birds, 119.

Mud ejected by volcanoes, 257.

Music, exercises in notation, 297.

Mussels parasitic on the lobster, 99.

Narcotic principle of hemp, 294.

Natuhai History : diatomaceee, 7, 69, 85 ; night-flying
moths, 25; sponges, 29, 109,113, 202; green tree-frog,
49 ; how many eggs does the cuckoo lay ? 72 ; nettle and
wasp, 77 ;' travelling oyster-bed, 96 ; cranial structure of a
breed of domestic fowl, 104 ; toads in the heart of trees,
144; wonders of a stagnant pool, 154; the robin, 181;
birds in winter, a query, 216 ; notes on the eland, 224 ;
balance of life and death in the aquarium, 226 ; raphides
on plant crystals, 242 ; the siskm, 302 ; microscopical
pond-lore, 310. See also Botany, Bird Keeping, etc.

Natural magic, lessons in, 172.

INDEX.

365

Natural or diatonic scale, 297.

Naturalist's telescope, 359.

Nature, calendar of, 150.

Nautilus resembling foraminifera, 148.

Navicul® under the microscope, 69.

Necrodes littoralis, 309 ; grandis, ruspator, giganteus, 310.

Necrophora, do they bury animal bodies, 308.

Necrophorus germanicus, vestigator, mortuum, and vespillo

described, 309.
Needles, Isle of Wight, 126.
Nests, seasons of building, 153.

Nettle, relations of wasp to, 77; caterpillars found on, 79.
New planet, 360.

New Zealand, birds of, 41 ; geysers of, 114.
Nobert's test-lines, 333.
Nodosaria species, 148.
North polar group of volcanic craters, 256.
Northwick collection of coins, 208.
Notation, musical exercises in, 190.
Notommata clavulata, 313.
Notornis, a wingless bird, 42.
NuMisMATT. See Coins.
Nut, history of its decay, 356.

Oak, geometry of its leaves, 14<0.

Observation, astronomical hints on, 354.

Observations of burying-beetles, 307.

Observation of birds and insects by means of telescope, 359.

Observation of Nature : brook and pond gatherings, 7,
69, 310; night-flying moths, 25; naturalist's calendar of
observations, 150 ; balance of life and death in the aqua-
rium, 226. See also Natueal History, METEOEOLoaY,
Microscope, Geology, etc.

Occultations of Jupiter's satellites, 360. See also Astro-
nomy.

Occultation of Saturn, 35 ; various stars by the moon, 35.
See also Astronomical Observations.

Odours of flowers, 340.

Oil-coloured photographs, 188.

Onoclea sensibilis, 76.

Oolitic freestones abound in foraminifera, 149.

Opaque-shelled foraminifera, 148, 149.

Operating-room for photography, 336, 337.

Optical delusions, 288.

Optical Phenomena : apparent reversion of gravity by
gyroscope, 35 ; appearance of star under telescope, 108 ;
observation of light illustrated by railway signals, 122 ;
stereoscopic phenomena, 167, 252 ; reflection from polish-
ed surfaces, 194; vision through coloured^ media, 251;
binoscopic vision, 218 ; star scintillations, 292 ; eff'ects of
differently-coloured targets, 223. See also Colour.

Orobanche ramosa on roots of hemp, 294.

Order of strata forming crust of earth, 323.

Ore, extraction of lead from, 291, 349.

Oriental vice of smoking hemp, 295.

Origin of words, 108.

Ornithology the chosen science of Audubon, 261.

Oseula of sponges. 111.

OscQlatoria in stagnant water, 155.

Osmunda regaMs, 76.

Ostrich of America, 41.

Other people's pets, 288.

Otto of distilled flowers, 341, 342.

Oxygen exhaled by microscopic animals, 229; generation
of in aquaria, 227.

Oysters, parasitic on crab, etc., 96.

Pfficilocampa populi, a nocturnal moth, 28.

Pagan rites and ceremonies, 45, 100; use of hemp in, 293.

Panicles of grasses, 317.

Parasites of roots of hemp, 294.

Parasitical fungi, to preserve, 68 ; in decayed nut, 357.

Pattisonized lead, 352.

Pavonina triangularis, 148.

Peacock in device on ancient coins, 102.

Pedicels of cowslip and other plants, 316.

PeUitory, crystals of, 245.

Pendulum, use of, in determining latitude, 265.

Peueroplis Austriaca, 148.

Performing birds, to train, 304.

Perfumes, how extracted from flowers, 342.

Petasia cassinea, a nocturnal moth, 28.

Pets, other people's, 288.

Pevensey Castle, the site of recent geological changes, 37.

Pheosia dictsea, a nocturnal moth, 27.

Phosphorescence of sea, cause of, 145.

Photography, anecdote history of, 187, 231 ; heliography,
231 ; Talbot}'pe, 231 ; portrait-taking, 231 ; portraits in
natural colours, 232; Hillotype, 232; experiments of Her-
scheU and Biot, 233 ; history and uses of water-glass, 20 ;
Skaife's instantaneous camera, 108 ; practical instructions
in the collodion process, 335 ; chemicals required for, 336 ;
Kmnear's and Fowkes's cameras, 337.

Phrenology in the poultry-yard, 104.

PhyUotaxis, essay on, 140.

Physical evidences of internal heat of the earth, 253, 325.

Pigeons, fecundity of, 108.

Pistil and other sexual organs of plants, 164.

Plane sections of a cube, 274.

Planetary conjunctions, 223.

Planets, new, 144; intra-mercurial, 251 ; new planetoid, 360.

Plant animals, 311.

Plant fossils. Isle of Wight, 127 ; in coal, 233, 343.

Plants for fresh-water aquaria, 76.

Plaster casts, to render like wax, 323.

Plutonic geology, 253, 325.

Poetry and science, relation of, 253.

Polished surfaces, reflection from, 194.

Pollen of flowers, 163.

Polymorphina lactea and complanata, 148.

Polystichium coriaceum, 77.

Pond-lore, microscopic, 310.

Poppy, structure of the flower, 54.

Porifera on sponges, 109.

Portable furnace, 180.

Portraits, taking photographic, 231 ; on ancient coins reli-
able as such, 46, 100 ; on coins of Seleucus, 204.

Poultry, unusual forms of the skulls of some kinds, 105.

Power of microscope, test of, 333.

Practical photography, essay on, 335.

Press for drying mosses, 210.

Primularia carmnalis, 86.

Problems in musical notation, 666.

Processions, ancient, as recorded on coins, 46, 100.

Process of taking collodion photographs, 338.

Propagation of plants by candle-heat, 324.

Psyche and the butterfly, 82.

Pteris serrulata, 77.

Ptolemy, Lagus and Philadelphus, coins of, 45.

Pyraustes of EUan, 83.

Quartz, separation of lead from, 292.
Quercus suDer, or cork-tree, 64.

Eacemes of currant and other plants, 317.

Railway train, a lesson in aberration, 122.

Eaphides, or plant crystals, 242.

Eats, their destruction of Audubon's collection, 263.

Rebuses for students of music, 300.

Recreative Science defined, 1 ; its limits, 2 ; its uses, 2.

Reflection from polished surfaces, 194. "

Refraction astronomically considered, 279 ; a phenomena of

eclipse, 279.
Resinous product of hemp, 294 ; of trees, 63.
Respiration of fishes, 228 ; of insects, 81.
Rests in music, 297.
Eetino-kUbanon, or slide-dryer, 71.
Revealed knowledge, in harmony with the teachings of

science, 333.
Revival of dried rotifers, 312.

Revolution of earth, a measure of its relative bulk, 331.
Revolving storms, 180.
Ehea Darwinii, 41.

Rhizopoda, fossil, 145 ; example of protozoic life, 110.
Rifleman's eye, an anecdote, 323.
Robin redbreast, his character, 181 ; history, 182 ; habits,

183 ; pugnacity, 184 ; fondness for human society, 185 ;

art of taming, 185 ; management in a cage, 185 ; legends

of, 186.
Kock-forming microzoa, 143. *

366

INDEX.

Kock strata, recent formation of at Pevensey Castle, 38.

Rockwork for aquaria and fern-cases, 36, 324.

Koman consecratio coins, 47, 100.

Eoot-foot animals or rhizopods, 149.

Rosin bubbles, 173.

Rotalia Beccarii, 145 ; repanda, 149.

Rotation of earth, constancy of, 328.

Rotifer vidgaris, 311, 312.

Sabina consecration coin, 101.

Sack sponge, 110.

Saline principles in plants, 246.

Sandal-wood, an oil-producing tree, 63.

Sandonicum, or sandal-wood, 63.

Sap, rise and fall of, in trees, 63.

Satin-wood produces a wood-oil, 63.

Saturn occulted by moon, 222.

Scarlet, a dangerous colour for military costume, 323.

Scavenger beetles, 306.

Science, its accomplishments, 1 ; its invitations, 2 ; its
educational attractions, 2 ; an exponent of the Divine
mind in physical phenomena, 2.

S ointiUations of the stars , 292 .

ScUla maritima, crystals of, 243.

Scolopendrium angustifohum, 76.

Sea-shobe studies : flints and sponges, 29 ; pleasures of
the sands, 29 ; what is flint, 29 ; flint under the micro-
scope, 29 ; varieties of fossil forms in flint, 29 ; sponges
in flint, 29 ; artificial formation of flint, 30 ; what is a
sponge, 30, the hermit with a hump, 30 ; skeletons of
sponges, 30 ; cUia in sponges, 30 ; zoophyte life, 30 ; how
to keep Hving sponges, 31 ; shore-hnes and sorting action
of the sea exemplified in the geology of the Sussex coast,
37 ; deposit of spieula of sponges, 109 ; sponges com-
monly distributed, 110 ; selections of marine life for
aquaria, 112; chalk cliffs and flints, 113; formation of
chffs and promontories, 129 ; rock-forming microzoa, 145 ;
account of a roUed pebble inclosing fossil sponge, 201.

Sea, the common locality of volcanic phenomena, 261 ;
ceaseless work of, 37 ; action in sorting drift materials,
38 ; successive inundations of the land,' 126, 235 ; distribu-
tion of volcanic centres on sea-coasts, 254. See also Sea-
shobe Studies.

Seasons, records of, how to keep, 150.

Sections of coal for microscopic uses, 344.

Seleucidse, coins of, 206 ; the dynasty, 208.

Seleucus Nicanor, coins of, 205.

Self-division of vorticeUa, 311.

Semitones in music, 297.

Sexton-beetles, history of, 306.

Shadow in eclipse, 280.

Shaksperian forgeries, alleged, 72.

Shells, colours of, 72.

Ships, loss of large, 144.

Shot, manufacture of, 353.

Shore-lines, action of sea in forming, 38. See Sea-shobb.

SUei. See Silica.

SiiiicA, an ingredient in water-glass, 21 ; in Ramsome's
patent stone, 22 ; combinations with potash, 22 ; a non-
metallic body, 23 ; inflammable in oxygen, 23 ; to obtain
as pure flint, 23 ; its chemical properties, 23 ; as an acid,
23 ; a preservative of stone, 24 ; presence of, in sponges,
30 ; was largely diffused in the ancient seas, 30 ; present
in cuticle of some plants, 61 ; present in diatomaceae, 7. 70,
85, 89; geological history of, 113; produced in boiling
springs, 114; proved to be soluble, 114.

Silpha, a genus of burying-beetles, 309.

Silver, a product of lead ore, 351 ; how separated, 352.

Simultaneous contrasts of colour, 240.

Siphonia elastica, 63.

Siskin, natural history of, 302 ; as a cage-bird, 303.

Sisyrinchium anceps, 77.

Skinning a bird, process described, 118.

SkuU, abnormal, 105.

Smeaton, John, birth and infancy of, 168 ; at the desk, 1G9 ;
pursuit of science, 169 ; his works and character, 171.

Solar spots, seen by telescope, 213.

Solar system, catalogue of, 6.

Soldiers' clothing, proper colour of, 323.

Solids, geometry of cube, 271.

Solvent for woody fibre, 36 ; for dry paint, 323.

Soul, the butterfly a symbol of, 82.

Spathe, a form of inflorescence, 318.

Spermatozoa of sponges, 112.

Spheroidal figure of the earth, 329.

Spider, physiology of, 217.

Spiroloculina canaliculata, 149.

Spiked blossoms of grasses, 317.

SpongiUa in fresh- water, 110.

Spores, rotary, of algse, 229.

Stagnant pool, wonders of, 154.

Staff, musical, 191.

Stanhope lens, view of house-spider, 217.

Stabs, light of, as seen from earth, 122 ; as seen under tele-
scope, 108 ; scintillations, 292 ; faUing, general account
of, 9 ; theories of their constitution, 131 — 133 ; list of re-
markable, 136; distinguished from planets, 4; maps of,
24.

Stellate raphides of Indian fig, 244.

Stereoscopic phenomena, 167, 252.

Sting of nettle and wasp compared, 78.

Stonybind, coal plants of, 236.

Storge, its power over the habits of animals, 320.

Strata, deposit of in aquarium, 230.

Streak, varieties of in coal, 347.

Structure of coal, as seen under the microscope, 345.

Subjects for photography, 335.

Sun, observation of with telescope, 213 ; to determine when
on the meridian, 355.

SurireUa biseriata, 86.

Swietenia mahogani, 63.

Syrian coins, 204—208.

Tanks for aquaria, 74 ; positions and plants proper for, 75.

Target, colour of affects the eye, 323.

Taxidermy, bird-preserving, 117.

Telescope, equatorial, 4, 165 ; for the observation of birds
and insects, 36, 108, 359; for amateurs, 120, 252; obser-
vation of planetary conjunction, July 21, 1859, 222; lunar
eclipse, February 7, 1860, 278 ; how to use, 213.

Telescopes for amateurs, 120, 252 ; for naturalists, 359.

Telescopic appearance of a star, 108.

Temperature under ground, 144.

Tennis-ball of the sea, 201.

Tegenaria domestica, 217.

Terms used in notation, 191.

Tertiary coals of Zurich, 346.

Test-Unes for microscopes, 334.

Tethys, physiological structure of. 111.

Textularia Marise and deperdita, 148.

Thermal springs, phenomena of, 327.

Things oe the Season : August, 1859, to May, 1860, 36, 71,
107, 143, 180, 215, 251, 287, 323, 359.

Tidal phenomena, 324.

Tide of March 8, 1860, 324.

Tides, plaything of, 201.

Timber, growth of, 62.

Time measured by geological changes, 40 ; how noted in
music, 298 ; accurately measured by the ancients, 331 ;
astronomical, to determine, 353.

Toads in the heart of trees, 144.

Toothed hammers of rotifera, 313.

TorbanehOl mineral, the subject of a lawsuit, 348.

Trap-rocks, formation of, 326.

Traffic, British, in odours, 342.

Trees, talk about, 61 ; endogenous, 61 ; exogenous, 63 ;
heights of, 64 ; leaves of, how arranged, 142.

Tricks, teaching the siskin to perform, 303.

Triloculina pulchella, 149.

Triumphs of the photograph, 187.

Truffle, how to gather wr preservation, 65.

Truths of Nature set forth in fable, 83.

Ulta crispa under microscope, 156.

Under-ground temperature, 144.

Urticaceous plants, 77.

Unit of Time derived from rotation of earth, 331.

Vaeietibs of coal, 327, 345.
Vanessa urtica, 79.

INDEX.

367

Vasciilar tissue of plants, 62.

Vegetable kingdom. See Botany and Talk about Trees.

Vegetable kingdom, periodic phenomena of, 150.

Vegetation of a decayed nut, 356 ; of tlie river tank, 22S.

Velocity of a meteor, 131.

Ventrieulite in flint, 116.

Venus, planet, occultation of, 222.

Vespasia, coin in commemoration of, 100.

Vesuvius, force of its eruptions, 257.

Vibratory colours, 92.

Violet, an example of irregular structure, 54.

Vision of colours influenced by motion, 89.

Volcanoes and earthquakes considered as evidences of the

internal heat of the earth, 253, 325.
Volcanoes, geographical distribution of, 255 ; uses of in the

economy of Nature, 326.
Vorticella convaUaria and microstoma, 311.

Waltonian case for plant-growing, 324.
Wardian cases : planting them, 64 ; combining with aqua-
ria, 73 ; rockwork for, 36, 108 ; mosses for, 203, 324.
Wasp, sting of, 78.
Water, purification of, 144.

Watee-Gabdetts, 73, 227; rockwork for, 36, 108, 324;

mosses for, 203 ; general management and planting, 73.
Water-glass, its origin and history, 20; composition of, 21,

22 ; varieties of, 21 ; modes of preparing, 22 ; hydrated,

22 ; applications of to photography, 23 ; other uses, 24 ;

suggestions for experiment, 24 ; renders textures uniu-

flammable.
Wayside Weeds : Handful I., 10, 52; II., 123, 158; III.,

266, 315.
Weather of 1859, 237.
Wedgewood the first photographer, 189.
Weight of the earth, 331.
Whorled flowers, 319.
Wight, Isle of, geology and scenery, 128.
Wingless birds, 41.

Winter management of cage-birds, 93.
Woody fibre, varieties of, 61, 62, 63.
Words, origin of, 108.
World, aquatic, in miniature, 227 ;

Zoological Gardens, elands at, 225.
Zoology. See Natural History.
Zoo -spores of ulva crispa, 156.

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* PAGE

The Ceaseless Wohk of the Sea. — Eock-Strata

AND THEIR MATERIALS. By S. J. MaCKIE ... 37

Wingless Birds. By W. C. L. Martin 41

The "Conseceatio" Coins of the Eoman Em-
perors AND THEIR FAMILIES. In TwO PaRTS,

Part I. By IT. Noel PIttmphreys 45

The Green Tree-Frog. By Shirley Hibberd. 49

Death among the Gold-Fish 51

Wayside Weeps and theib Teachings. By

Spencer Thomson, M.D 52

Humboldt. In Two Parts. Part II. By Hain

Frtswell 55

Talk about Trees. By O. S. Bound 61

PAGB

Wardian Cases ;... 64

Collecting and Preserving Fungi. By Fre-
derick Y. Brocas 65

Diatoms : How to Examine and Prepare fob

the Microscope. By Tuffen West 69

Meteorology of September 71

Astronomical Observations foe September ... 71

Things of the Season — September 71

Me. Noteworthy's Corner 72

Alleged Shaksperian Forgeries 72

How MANY Eggs does the Cuckoo Lay? ... 72

Colours of Shells 72

*.* The Articles in *' Recreative Science " are Copyright, and the Right of Translation is reserved.

Communications for the Editor should be addressed to the Publishers, Messrs. Gboombeidge & Sons,

5, Paternoster Row.

LETTER-BOX. — ^What is a Diatom 1 — In answer to several letters on this subject, the Editor refers to Mr. Tuffen West's
continuation of the subject in the present Number. The organization of Diatoms will be treated next month, and subsequently other
divisions of Infusoria will receive attention. — Silting — The queries of the C — class are answered in Mr. Mackie's paper, " The Ceaseless
Work of the Sea." — Zeta — Thanks for your very practical suggestion. — Expkeimkntal Philosophy — L.M.B.; Curriculum; and

Members of the J CoUeee — A series of papers are in preparation. The subject proposed by Mr. Lawson has been amply treated in

standard works, and it would profit nothing for us to \io over a subject to which nothing can be added. — Postable Chess Board — We
have received from Mr. Beale, 4, Grove Terrace, West Ham, Essex, a paper Chess and Draught-Board, with set of men in a box, which
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and to use Anacharis alsinastriim as the only form of vegetation, except such confervoids as occur spontaneously, and of these destroy as
little as possible. A portion of the glass may be kept clean by means of a sponge attached to a stick, and otherwise the conferva should
be allowed to grow in its own way. — Correspondents not answered here may rest assured that their letters are under consideration, and
that there are proper reasons for not immediately replying to them. — Goruam's Colour-Top in type, and will appear next month.

RECREATIVE SCIENCE:

%

J llctorb Hitir |lcmtmkimar d |ittelkrf«d ©bertatioii

PRICE , EICHTPENCE, ILLUSTRATED.

CONTENTS OF NUMBEE ONE.

The Endeavour.

Science and the Boy.

The Planets. By E. .T.Lowe, of Highfield Observatory, Nottingham.

How to Gather Diatoms. By Tuffen AVest.

Wayside Weeds and their Teachings. By Spencer Thomson, M.D.

Tame Fishes.

Hitmboldt. In Two Parts. Part I. By Hain Priswell.

Water-Glass in Photography. By T. A. Malone.

Night-Flying Moths. By H. Noel Humphreys.

Science on the Sea-Shore. I. FUnts and Sponges. By Shirley Hibberd.

The Key to a Bird's Heart. By William Kidd, of Hammersmith.

The Gyraf cope. By E. G. Wood.
Grand Prize Bird Show at Southampton.
Astronomical Observations for August.
Occultation of Saturn by the Moon, May I
Things of the Season — August.
Meteorology of August.
Mr. Noteworthy' s Corner.

How to Observe the Habits of Birds.

Miniature Rockwork.

Flints in the Drift.

New Solvent and Cement.

LONDON:
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ROSES AND THORNS; or Five T&les of the
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A WORLD OF WONDERS REVEALED
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B. AV. K chardson, Esq.

A large Assortment of Objects of Scientific and General Interest
kept constantly in stock.

Price, £rom Is. 6d.

A carefiil selection of Six Dozen Objects in a neat Mahogany
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Price £4.

This series comprises Illustrations of the following subjects : —
The Structure of Bone, Horn, Hoof, Tendon, Hair, Feathers,
Scales, Skin, etc.

The various parts of Insects, viz. : — Head, Eye, Tongue, Ely-
tron, Wing, Foot, Sting, TrachiB, Spiracles, etc.

Of Vegetables : — Spores, Starch, Sections of Wood, Diatomacece,
recent and fossil.

Also Specimens of Sponge and Gorgonia Spicules, Alga-, Zoo-
phytes, etc., etc.

I

oncL

ACHROMATIC STEREOSCOPES.

(See the "Fliotographie Journal," Jamia/ry 1, 1839.)
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An Illustrated Description forwarded on appUcation.

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Stereoscopic Photographs of the Moon, on Glass, from
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to R.A.S., etc. . . .£i

Glass Transparencies, including Views in Switzerland,
Egypt, the Pyrenees, Heidelberg, Spain, the Tyrol,
the Bhine, and various Continental Towns, each . Q
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GORHAM'S KALEIDOSCOPIC COLOUR-TOP.

(.Siee "Microscopic Journal," No. XXVI.)

In Wood -11

In Papier Mache -15

Extra Set of Rotating Discs, per dozen -05

This Instrument shows the various beautiful effects of the Col
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Catalogues, etc., sent free on AppUcation, Foreign Orders in
accompanied with a Remittance,

THOMAS HAKHIID, rBlJTTtB, SALlbBVBY SdUAEE, FLEKT SIBBET, LOKDOX,

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PAGE

Maxagemenx of Aquaria. Ey Shirley Hib-

BEHD 73

Harmonies of Natube Keelected in Aet. The
Nettle and the Wasp. By Kichaed Deakin,

M.D 17

■What is a Diatom? By Tuffen West 85

The Xat-eidoscopic Coloue-top. Invented by

John GoRHAM, M.K.C.S., of Tunbridge 89

Winteu Makagement op Cage Birds. By

William Kidd , 93

A Travelling Oystek-bed. By W. C. L. Maetin 96

Falling Stars 99

The " Conseceatio " Coins of the Eomau Em-
perors AND theie Families. In Two Parts.

Part II. By II. Noel Humphreys 100

The Expansion of Metal. By William C.

BUEDEB 103

Phrenology in the Poultey-taed. By W. B.

Tegetmeiee ,,

Aquatic Ahohitects ,

Meteorology of October

Astronomical Observations for October

Things of the Season — October

Me. Noteworthy's Coenee

The Affection of Fish

Abundance of Fungi

Naturalist's Telescope

Origin of Words

llocKWORK foe Fern-cases, etc

Appearance of a Star undee the Tele-
scope

Pistol Camera

Nature's Bountiful Peovision

PAGE

104
106
107
107
107
108
108
108
108
108
108

108
108
108

The Azticles in '' Recreative Science " are Copyright, and the Right of Translation is res<^xTed.

Communications for the Editor to be addressed to Messrs. Geoombridge & Sons, 5, Paternoster Eow.

OUR LETTER-BOX.

G. W. — Thanks for your valued suggestions. Our sale, we are
liappy to say, is Tery larjje. Number One has ,been reprinted,
aJthough.the first issue numbered many thousands.

An* Eaunest Siudeitt. — All in good time. Kefer to Dr.
Denkm's paper in the present Number.

J. A. Bavibs. — Our object is to teach Science in a way to win
people. If we were to adhere to dry formula, we should do much to
repel them. Your suj-'gestions are valued by us, and the papers
will have immediate consideration.

X. Y. Z. — The fact you communicate will not be forgotten.

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Tyko. — Stark's " Mosses" will help you much, but the best book is
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printed Seaweeds," and for grasses, the illustrated volume lately
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N. 11. N. — We have fully considered the point you urge, and are
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Explores. — The subject of sponges has not been forgotten. We
have several papers in preparation on their geological and physio-
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John Nuit. — Look about now among the leaves of Tropooolum
canariense, and jou will find plenty of the very fungus you inquire
about. They are beautiful objects under the microscope.

Geologist. — A representative at the Isle of Wight is now
making notes on the subject of your inquiry, which will be embodied
in a paper in our next.

RECREATIVE SCIENCE:

% 1

Ij |lct0i^ aitir licnieintraiitcr nf |ntcilttttial ©berktioii

PRICE EIGHTPESMCE, ILLUSTRATED.

CONTENTS OF NUMBER ONE.

The Endeavour.

Science and the Boy.

The Planets. By E. J. Lowe, of Highfield Observatory, Nottingham.

How to Gather Diatoms, liy Tutten West.

Wayside Weeds and their Teachings. By Spencer Thomson, M.D.

Tame Fishes.

Humboldt. In Two Parts. Part I. By Hain Friswell.

Water-Glass in Photography. By T. A. Malone.

Night-Flying Moths. By 11. Noel Humphreys.

Science on the Sea-Shore. I. Flints and Sponges. By Sliirley Ilibberd.

The Key to a|Bird's Heart. By William Kidd, of Hammersmith.

The Gyrascope. By E. G. Wood.

Grand Prize Bird Show at Southampton.

Astronomical Observations for August.

Occultation cf Saturn by the Moon, May 8.

Things of the Season — August.

Meteorology of August.

Mr. Noteworthy's Corner. How to Observe the Habits of Birds

— Miniature Eockwork— Flints in the Drift— New Solvent and

Cement.

CONTENTS OF

The Ceaseless Work of the Sea.— Eock-Strata and their Materials

By S. J. Mackie.
Win^'lcss Birds. By W. C. L. Martin.

The " Consecratio " Coins. Parti. By H. Noel Humphreys.
The Green Tree-Frog. By Shirley Hibberd.
Death among the Gold-Fjsh.

Wayside Weeds and their Teachings. By Spencer Thomson, M D
Humboldt. In Two Parts. Part II. By Hain Friswell.
Talk about Trees. By O. S. Eouud.

NUMBER TWO.

Wardian Cases.

Collecting and Preserving Fungi. By Frederick Y. Brocas.
Diatoms : How to Prepare for the Microscope. By Tuffen West.
Meteorology of September.
Astronomical Observations for September.
Things of the Season— September.

Mr. Noteworthy's Corner. Alleged Shaksperian Forgeries— How
many Eggs does the Cuckoo lay ?— Colours of Shells.

LONDON: aEOOMBEIDGE & SOKS, 5, P ATEEN O STEE EO W.

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A garden a place of repose

A gardener's pleasures

A hint

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Aloes with soap and soda for

aphidas
"Always be stickingin something' '
Anemone species
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Attacks of aphides
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ribbons
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Ferns in winter
Flowers in succession
Forecourt in the four mile circle
Fraternal feeling among gar-
Fuchsias, diseased [dentrs
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Gardening one of the fine arts
Gidney's Housemaid's barrow

How to enjoy a garden

Horticultural Society, Floral
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IsleofWightHorticultural Society

Inarching passifloras

Margaret Fuller and the flowers

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PHILOSOPHICAL INSTRUMENTS,

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Spectacles, Eye Glasses, Telescopes, Opera and Eaoe Glasses,
Barometers, Stereoscopes and Slides, Magic Lanthorns and
Dissolving Views, Photographic Cameras, Chemicals and Cases,
Electrical Machines, Air Pumps, Gyroscopes.

Merchants and Captains Supplied on Liberal Terms,

SOCIETY OF ARTS' PRIZE ACHROMATIC MICROSCOPE,

Complete at £3 38.

C. BAKER,

Op 213 AND 241, HIGH HOLBOEN,

From the introduction of improved Machinery, is now enabled to
supply the Pattern Microscope so much esteemed by the Society of
Arts, and finished in a superior manner, with ThkeB Acheomatic
PowEKS, and Apparatus, in Mahogany Case, complete, at the very
low price of £3 Ss.

Botanical and Geological Microscopes, complete at 10s. Qd. A
Large Assortment of First-class Microscopes always in stock, at the
lowest jjrice. Catalogues of Objects, and Priced Catalogues of Mi-
croscopes, free by post.

DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND HOUSEHOLD

MATTEXIS.

flOTTAGE COOKERY. The Complete Cottage

\J Cookery, By Esiheb Copi>et, Tenth Edition, 18mo, cloih,
price Is.

ART OF GOOD AND CHEAP COOKEEY

for the Working Classes. Price 3i.

A WORD TO PARENTS, NURSES, AND

CHILDRKN on the Bearing and Management of Children, By
EsxHEE CopLEX. 18mo, cloth, price Is.

LESSONS ON HOUSEWIFERY. For the

use of Industrial Schools and Cotiagers' Families. By John
White, M.E.C.S. lomo, cloth, price <dd.

DOMESTIC HAPPINESS, POLITENESS,

and Good Breeding. By G. E. Sargent. 18mo, clolh, price Is. 6rf.

OUR BOYS: What shall we do with them?

By G. E. Saegent. 18mo, cloth, price Is.

MORALITIES FOR HOME. By G. E.

Sargent. 18mo, cloth, price Is.

GOOD TIMES: The Savings' Bank and the

Fireside. 12mo, price id.

THE ECONOMIC HOUSEKEEPING

BOOK, for Fifty-Two Weeks. Adapted for any year, and for
beginning at any time in the year. Price Is.

THE WORKING MAN'S HOUSEKEEP-

IXG BOOK. On a sunilar plan, but smaller in size. Price M.
London : Geoombeidge & Sons, 5, Paternoster Eow,

BKOWN & POISON'S

PATENT CORN FLOUR.

" This is superior to anything of the kind known.''— Xajicef.

Obtain it from Family Grocers, or Chemists, who do not try to

substitute inferior Articles, Jieeipet on each Favket,

ADVEETISEMENTS.

BUDS AND BLOSSOMS

STORIES FOR SUMIKER DAYS AND
WINTER NIGHTS.

Price Oni P^nny, Tivopence, and Tlireepence Each.

These well-written and beautiful Stories are progressive in design,
adapted to the comprehension of children from the ages of four to
ten or twelve years. They are lively, instructive, and moral ; their
endeavour is to teach; to entertain while they improve — to inform
the mind and educate the heart. Each story is illustrated with
•well-executed Engravings. They are among the best and cheapest
books for young people published.

Stories, Price One Penny each.

Story of a Daisy.
Eoverand his Friends.
Little Frank.
Little FortuneSeekers
Blackberry Gathering
Fir-tree's Story.
Child's Search for

Fairies.
Pisherman's Children.
Little Peepy.
Babbits and Peewits.
Alice and her Bird.
Little Charley.

A Doll's Story.
Faithful Dog.
Spring and Summer.
Hero without Courage
Children's visit to the
Busy Bees. [Sea.

New Ascent of Mont

Blanc.
Much Ado about !No-
Hushabv. [thing.

Twelfth Night.
Donald, the Shetland
Briery Wood. [Pony.

Buttercups & Daisies.
Visit toQueenVictoria
Katey's Voyage.
Ho w toCatch a Butter-
Sandy, the Cat. [fly.
Cousin Johnny.
Happj' Orchard.
Tommy and his Baby

Brother.
The Christmas Party.
Parrots&Nightingales
Light AVing & Bright
Tottie May. [Eye^

Stories, Price Twopence each.

Coral Necklace. } Queen of the May.

Visit to the Waterfowl j The Young Gardener.
The Cherry Orchard. Mary's Visit to the
Midsummer Holidays. I Gold Fields.
The Lost Letter. j Little Black People.

Walter and Mary. j The Young Prince,
Lady Eva. i Penfold Farm.

Cottager's Christmas. I Ernest's Dream. [Hut.
More Haste, Less ' AdventuresintheMoss

Speed. I The Losses of a Day.

Story of a Hyacinth, j The Smoke & the Kite.
Primrose Gathering. Carl Thorn's Kevenge.

Ally's Birth-day.
llight is Eight, Part 1
Right is Eight, Part 2
William Tell.
Wishing & Working.
Elm ViUa.
Lost and Found.
Little Tim.
Peter Lawley.
My Young Masters.
David AUen,

Stories, Price Threepence each.

Sea-Kings.

Madelaine Tube.

Young Emigrants.

Boy and the Book.

Oscar.

Crusaders.

Ship and the Island.

Fairy Craft of Nature

Widow's Son.

Children and the Sage

Halcyon Days.

~" me at the Haven.

Seeker and Finder.
Poacher & his Family
King & the Bondmen
Eising and Thriving. ;
Rewards of Industry. !
Vacant Throne. j

Uncle Tom's Cabin j

for Children.
Story of Wellington. !
Prophet and the Lost !

City. I

The Sisters. |

the

Story of Moffat.
Louis Duval.
Foundling of

AVreck.
In School and Out of

School.
Young Artist.
Alfred the Great.
Anna Webster.
Round the Wor'd.
Irish Emigrants.
Self-helpers.

Any of the Stories may he had separately.

DS AND Blossoms may be had in elegant packets, price 6d. each.

'PHIES FOB Summer Days and Winter Nights, in volumes, price

each ; or, in double volumes elegantly bound, price 2«. each —

'ng very acceptable Presents, Birth-diij', and Christmas Gifts.

The entire Series, comprising One Hundred and One instructive
and entertaining Stories, com-Qri?Qi a, Family I'acket of Books fur
Home, Seaside, and Holiday Heading.

London : Geoojibeidge & Sons, 5, Paternoster Eow.

PHOTOGRAPHIC APPARATUS.

Every Article connected with Photography, of English, French
American, and German manufacture.

SaUIRE AND CO.,

WHOLESALE PIIOTOGRAPIIIC WAREHOUSE, AND PASSE-
PARTOUT AND FRAME FACTORY,
52, KING WILLIAM-STREET, LONDON-BRIDGE,

VIGNETTE PLATES FOR PRODUCING THE VIGNETTE
STYLE OF PRINTING,

%• Their NEAV PRICE LIST, upon a revised and reduced scale,
is now ready. Sent free.

PHOTOGRAPHY.

NEW TOURISTS' STEREOSCOPIC CAMERAS.

BLAND AND CO.'S NEW TOUEISTS' BI-
NOCULAE STEEEOSCOPIC CAMERA. The most portable
Camera yet made, containing 3 Double Backs for 6 prepared Plates ,
for Waxed Paper; size 6 X 5* X Scinches; weight 5 lb. Fitted
with either Single or Compound Achromatic Lenses.

BLAND and CO.'S Improved Portable Latimee Clarkk's form
of Stereoscopic Camera, with newly-invented Dark Box for changing
Plates, and fitted with Single or Compound Achromatic Lenses.

BLAND and CO.'S Newly -invented Dark Box, for changing
Plates in the open air, is the most compact and ellicient apparatus
ever constructed.

BLAND & CO.,

Photographic Instrument Makers to Her Majesty, 153, Fleet Street,
London, E.C.

%• Agents for Thomas's, Ponting's, and Eamsden's Collodions.

MANUALS FOR THE MANY.— Gardening
for the Many ; Threepence. — Allotment Farming for the
Many ; Threepence. — Bee-Keeping for the Many ; Fourpence. —
Greenhouses lor the Many ; Sixpence. — Kitchen Gardening for the
Many ; Fourpence. — Flower Gardening for the Many ; Fourpence.
— Fruit Gardening for the Many ; Fourpence. — Florist's Flowers
for the Many ; Fourpence. — Poultrj' Book for the Many ; Sixpence.
— Window Gardening for the Many ; Ninepence. — Photography for
the Many ; Sixpence.

Any of the above can be had post free for an additional stamp.

Cottage Gardener Office, 162, Fleet-street, London, E.C.

A New Volume coxnmeRces on Tuesday, Oct. 4.

Published Weekly, price 3(7., stamped 4;/., and in Monthly Parts,
Illustrated with numerous highly -lini^hed Engravings,

)lli

M^

COUNTRY GENTLSMAN,
I^OTJXiTS;"^

AND

Conducted by G. W. Johnson, Esq., and Egbert Hogg, Esq.

The Best and Cheapest Weekly Jouxnal on

Gaxdening, Rural and domestic Economy,

Natural History, and Botany.

A. Specimen Numherfree by post for Four Stamps.

Office : 162, FI.£BT STREET, IiONBON, E.C.

To be had of all Booksellers and Newsmen in 'J.'own and Countiy.

FEUIT CULTUEE.
8vo, cloth, price 5s., with numerous illustrations,

THE APPLE AND ITS VARIETIES ; being a His-
tory and Description of the Varieties of Apples cultivated in
the Gardens and Orchards of Great Britain. By EobeiiT Hogg,
Vice-President of the British Pomological Society, etc.

London : Geoombeiege & Sons, 5, Paternoster Kow,

'ADVEETiSEMENTS.

SMITH, BICE, All i:
lllauiifactmm d ©ptkal imb $latljcnuitlcal |ii$t;nnntnts.

COMPOlIiND ACHROMATIC MICROSCOPES.

OF THREE CLASSES.

FIRST CI.ASS.

In ■wliieh the Magnifying Power, the Stand, and the Illumination,
are carried to the greatest possible perfection.

Price, fifom £30 to £84.

"The arrangement of the Illuminating Apparatus in Smith &
Beck's Microscope seems to the author to present some decided
advantages over that adopted by either of the other makers, and in
point of general excellence of worltmanship, this instrument cannot
be surpassed." — Carpenter, on Microscope, First Edition, page 103.

S£CO£?B CLASS.

In which the same Mngnilying Power as the former is combined,
with a less expensive Stand and Apparatus for Illumination.

Price, from £15 to £40.

Tliese Imtrumenis are improvements icpoii that mentioned hy Dr.
Carpenter on Microscope, First lEdition, page 87.

" Of the iJatterns yet devised for a Microscope of simple con-
struction, which shall yet be callable of answering every essential
purpose, whether of display or of investigation, that of Smith &
£204* appears to the author to be (to say the least) among the
best, and he recommends it with the more confidence, since he has
for many years employed one of these Microscopes as his own work-
ing instrument."

THIRD CLASS.

EDUCATIOI^AL.

The capabilities of this Instrument are limited, but they are equal
to the requirements of most observers ; and the cost is considerably
less than in the two other classcp.

Price, £10 or £15.

An Illustrated Descriptive Pamphlet of the Educational Micro-
scope will be forwarded on receipt of six postage stamps. It
includes testimonials from the following eminent Microscopists : —

Wm.B. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S. John Lindley, Ph.D., F.E.S.,
John Goodsir, P.R.S. F. L.S.

John Edward Grav. Geori^e Rainey, Esq.

William GuU, M.D. B. AV. Eichardsou, F.E.C.S.I.

George Jackson, JSI.R.C.S.E. AA'iUiam Smith, F.L.S.
Edwin Lankester, M.D., F.K.S.

MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS.

A large Assortment of Objects of Scientific and Ge-
neral Interest kept constantly in stock.

Price, fzom Is. 6d.

A careful selection of Six Dozen Objects in a neat
Mahogany Case.

Price £4.

This series comprises Illustrations of tlie following subjects :—
The Structure of Bone, Horn, Hoof, Tendon, Hair, Feathers,
Scales, Skin, etc.

The various parts of Insects, viz. : — Head, Eye, Tongue, Ely.
tron, Wing, Foot, Sting, Trachoaa, Spiracles, etc.

Of Vegetables : — Spores, Starch, Sections of Wood, Diatomacetc,
recent and fossil.

Also Specimens of Sponge and Gorgonia Spicules, Algte, Zoo-
phytes, etc., etc.

ACHROMATIC STE EOSCOPES.

" Messrs. Smith & Bkck have not only carried out, they have-
gone beyond our suggestions. The result is a perfection beyond
which it is hardly possible to carry the Stereoscope." — Athencevm
August 28, 1858, page 269.

Achromatic Stereoscope, in Walnut Wood . . jg3 10

Ditto, ditto, in Mahogany . . .33

Handsome Pedestal Stands for the above, forming also

Cases for Views, from . £2 5s. to 4 15

An Illustrated Description forwarded on application.

Stereoscopic Photographs of the Moon, on Glass, from
Negatives taken by Warren Delarue, F.E.S., Sec.
E.A.S., etc. . . . . . £ 0 10

Glass Transparencies, including Views in Svritzerland,
Egypt, the Pyrenees, Heidelberg, Spain, the Tyrol,
the Ehine, and various Continental Towns, each . 0 7
A very choice Assortment of Views on Paper.

GORHAM'S KALEIDOSCOPIC COLOUR-TOP.

(See "Microscopical Journal," iVb. XXVI.)
Price . . .£110

Extra Set of Eotating Discs, per dozen . .050'

i This Instrument shows tlie various beautiful effects of the Com-
I bination of Colours, etc.

6, COLEKAK STREET, LONDON, E.C.

Catalogues, etc., tent free on Application. Foreign Qi'ders to Ic
accompanied with a Bemittance.

IHOJIAS HARRIW), PBINISE, BAUgUVBY SQVAEE, fLEEI SIBEET, lONDOX,

i^&nltnt^.

Science oiT the SEl-SiiORE. By Shibxet Hibbeed 109
Fmnts of the Upper Chai-k Foemation. By

J. E. Leifchild 113

BiED Peeseeting. By 0. S. Bound 117

Telescopes foe Amateues. By Heebeet Hxtest 120
Do Dogs ttndeSstand Hitman Speech? By

MicHASEL Westcott , 121

A Philosopher in a Eailway Teain. By J. A.

Daties 122

Wayside Weeds and theib Teachings. In

Six Handetjls. Handfiti, II. By Spencee

Thomson, M.D 123

A Geological Scene in the Isle of Wight.

Alum Bay and the Needles. By S. J.

Mackie 126

The Eteuscan Vase 129

Meteoes, oe Falling Staes. By E. J. Lowe... 130

PAGE

A Wild Peimeose 138

The Expected Geeat Comet. By Geo. W. F.

Chambees JSO

Leaf Geometry 140

Grease in the Cabinet 142

Meteorology of Notember 143

Astronomical Observations foe November ... 143

Things of the Season — November 143

Me. Noteworthy's Coeneb 144

New Planet 144

Undeeground Tempeeatuee 144

Flint Implements in the Deift 144

Purification of Water 144

Big Ships 144

Toads in the Heart of Trees, etc 144

The Moon's Motion ; 144

The Banana at Kew 144

The Articles in Recreative Science " axe Copyright, and the Right of Translation is reserved.

Commumcations for the Editor to be addressed to Messrs. Groombridge & Sons, 5, Paternoster Eow.

*,* Correspondents are desired in all cases to communicate their real names and addresses, which will, as a rule, be held in confidence.

Letters needing a reply should reach us by the 15th at latest.

QUE LETTEE-BOX.

AsTEOMtrs. — The best small maps of the heavens we know of are
those published in " MUner's Gallery of Nature." They are
adapted to the four quarters of the year, and may be obtained on
application to Messrs. W. and K. Chambers, Paternoster Kow.

Mr. WiLsoir is thanked for copy of Theorem, which is scarcelj' of
the Recreative character suggested by our title.

W. E. NuTVALL. — We carefully considered the point you urge
before we commenced. You must not only consider " number of
pages," but the character of the authors and the profusion of
illustrations.

Charles Mubeat. — The list of Perihelion passages can only be
obtained, as far as we know, from the Nautical Almanac.

J. Gr. W. — Mr. West doubts if your specimen be a Diatom at all,
and if it be, he cannot name it from a rude sketch. He would be

glad to receive the slide, and has an idea that the object is one of
special interest.

W. H. E. wishes for advice on the best mode of cleaning corals
and madrepores that have become soiled by dust. AVe imagine
weak hydrochloric acid to be the best. Perhaps some of our
friends wUl supply information.

WiSBEACH. — The plant came too late for our botanical adviser.
We recommend " Yarrell's Fishes," but there are no coloured
plates.

Books Eeceivi!I).— "Geology in the Garden ; or, The Fossils in

the Flint Pebbles." By Henry Eley, M.A. Bell and Daldy.

" Telescope Teachings : A Familiar Sketch of Astronomical Dis-
covery." By the Hon. Mrs. Ward. AVith 15 Illustrations in
Colours. Groombridge and Sons.

RECREATIVE SCIENCE.

CONTENTS OF NUMBER ONE.

The Endeavour.

Science and the Boy.

The Planets. By B.J.Lowe, of Hlghfield Observatory, Nottingham.

How to Gather Diatoms. By Tuffen Weat.

Wayside Weeds and their Teachings. By Spencer Thomson, M.D.

Tame Fishes.

Humboldt. In Two Parts. Part I. By Hain Friswell.

Water-Glass in Photography. By T. A. Malone.

Night-Flying Moths. By H. Noel Humphreys.

Science on the Sea-Shore. I. Flints and Sponges, By Shirley Hibberd.

The Key to a Bird's Heart. By William Kidd, of Hammersmith.

The Gyrascope. By E. G. Wood.

Grand Prize Bird Show at Southampton.

Astronomical Observations for August.

Occultation of Saturn by the Moon, May 8."

Things of the Season — August.

Meteorology of August.

Mr. Noteworthy's Corner. How to Observe the Habits of Birds

— Miniature Eockwork— Flints in the Drift— New Solvent and

Cement.

CONTENTS OF

The Ceaseless Work of the Sea.— Rock-Strata and their Materials.

By S. J. Mackie.
Wingless Birds. By W. C. L. Martin.

The " Consecratio " Coins. Part I. By H. Noel Humphreys.
The Green Tree-Frog. By Shirley Hibberd.
Death among the Gold-Fish.

Wayside Weeds and their Teachings. By Spencer Thomson, M.D.
Humboldt. In Two Parts. Part II. By Hain Friswell.
Talk about Trees. By O. S. Eound.

NUMBEE TWO.

Wardian Cases.

Collecting and Preserving Fungi. By Frederick Y. Brocas.
Diatoms : How to Prepare for the Microscope. By Tuffen West.
Meteorology of September.
Astronomical Observations for September.
Things of the Season — September.

Mr. Noteworthy's Corner. Alleged Shaksperian Forgeries— How
many Eggs does the Cuckoo lay i*— Colours of Shells.

CONTENTS OF NUMBER THREE.

Management of Aquaria. By Shirley Hibberd.

Harmonies of Nature Eeflected in Art. The Nettle and the Wasp.

By Eicbard Deakin, M.D.
What is a Diatom ? By Tuffen West.

The Kaleidoscopic Colour-top. Invented by John Gorham.M.R.C.S.,
Winter Management of Cage Birds. By William Kidd.
A TraveUing Oyster-bed. By W. C. L. Martin.
FaUing Stars.
"^^S. ".Consecratio" Coins of the Roman Emperors and their

Famihes. In Two Parts. Part II. Bv H. Noel Humnhrfivs.

The Expansion of Metal. By William C. Burder.

Phrenology in the Poultry Yard. By W. B. Tegetmeier.

Aquatic Architects.

Meteorology of October.

Astronomical Observations for October.

Things of the Season — October.

Mr. Noteworthy's Corner. The Affection of Fish. Abundance of
Fungi. Naturalist's Telescope. Origin of Words. Eockvrork
for 1 em-cases, etc. Appearance of a Star under the Telescope.
Pistol f!ftmfirn. ISTatiire's BoniiHfiil Provision.

%'iskxtumtnh.

DISSOLVING VIEWS

AND MAGIC LANTEMS.

The great success attending the exhibition of Negretti and Zambra's Photographic Pictures, through the medium of
the Magic Lantern, at the Manchester Exhibition and elsewhere, has induced them to devote great attention to this
particular branch, and they are now enabled to offer Photographic Views specially prepared, both Plain and Coloured,
which, in point of artistic eifect, faithfulness of detail, combined with their truthfulness, are so infinitely superior to
any fancifully painted pictures, that for educational and scientific purposes need only be seen to be generally adopted.

Messrs. Negretti and Zambra being determined that the price of the Photographic Views should not be a bar to
their universal use, have fixed it at the low rate of 6O3. per dozen, plain ; Coloured 2s. each extra. The subjects are
upwards of Three Hundred in Number, comprising all of Messrs. Negretti and Zambra's Standard Photographic collec-
tions, such as Egypt, Nubia, Holy Land, etc., etc. The collection of gtatuea comprises all the best subjects from the
Crystal Palace.

A Detailed Price List of Magic Lanterns, Dissolving View Apparatus, Slides, etc., etc, to bo had upon application.

H. NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA,

OPTICIANS &IVIETEOROLOCICAL INSTRUMENT MAKERS

TO HER MAJESTY ; TO HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS THE PRINCE CONSORT ;
The Royal Observatory, Greenwich; the Admiralty; Hon. Board of Ordnance; Board of Trade; British Meteoro-
logical Society ; the Observatories at Kew, Toronto, Washington, and Victoria, etc., etc.,

1, HATTON GARDEN, 107, HOLBORN HILL, & 59, CORNHILL, LONDON, E.G.

Dedicated, by permission, to the Earl of Kosse.

Just published, with Illustrations in Colours, and other Engravings, price 7». 6d.,

A EAMILIAK SKETCH OF ASTEONOMICAL DISCOVERY ;

Combining a Special Notice of Objects coming within the range of a Small Telescope, illustrated by the Author's Original Drawings,

with a detail of the most interesting discoveries which have been made with the assistance of powerful Telescopes,

concerning the Phenomena of the Heavenly Bodies, including the recent Comet.

By the Hon. Mes. Waed,

Author of "A World of Wonders Eevealed by the Microscope."
LIST OF PLATES, FKOM THE AUTHOR'S ORIGINAL DRAWINGS.

12. Donati's Comet, on Oct. 11, 14. A Falling or Shooting Star
1858. 15. Fixed Stars.

13. Miniature Chart of the Ap- 16. Clusters and Nebulas,
parent Path of Donati's
Comet.

1. The Sun— Solar Spots.

2. Observations of the Sun.

3. Eclipse of the Moon.

4. Map of the Moon.

5. Portions of the Moon's Sur-

face.

6. Partial Eclipse of the Sun.

7. Mercuiy, Venus, and Mars.

8. Jupiter and its Satellites.

9. Saturn.

10. TheComet of 1854.

11. Donati's Comet.

London : Gboombridge & Sons, 5, Paternoster Row.

NEGRETTI AND ZAMBRA'S NEW DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE OF

OPTICAL, MATHEMATICAL, PHOTOGRAPHIC, & STANDARD METEOROLOGICAL

INSTRUMENTS,

Illijsteated by upwards of 500 Engeavings. Peice, Post-free, 2s. 6d.

NEGRETTI AND ZAMBRA,

OPTICIANS AND INSTRUMENT MAKERS TO HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN, H.R.H. THE PRINCE CONSORT, ETC., ETC.

No. 1, HATTON GAEDEN, 107, HOLBORN HILL, and 59, CORNHILL,

LONDON, E.C.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

E. BURTON'S

CANNOT BE SUEPASSED AT THE PEICES CHARGED.

Applj at the Manufactory, 47, Church Street, Minories, E., for an

Illustrated Catalogue, either personally or by sending

two stamps.

BXPEEIMENTAL WOEK TO OEDEE.

SOCIETY OF ARTS' PRIZE
MICROSCOPES.

CAUTION TO THE PUBLIC.

Thb Society of Arts awarded the Prize Medals for both the Stu-
dents' and School Microscopes to Messrs. E. Field & Son, Bir-
mingham. The Microscopes now made are much superior to the
original, though the price is unaltered. The character they have
gained has induced other makers unwarrantably to apply the
name to instruments which, resembling them generally in form and
in price, are inferior in magnifying power, in number of lenses, and
in many other respects.

The Society of Arts' Prize Microscopes bear the name of
FIELD & SON, BIRMINGHAM,
of whom, or their Agents, Illustrative Catalogues may be obtained,
post free, for Two Penny Stamps.

Fcap. 8vo, cloth, price 2s.,

A NIMAL AND VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES

jCjL used in the Arts and Manufactures. By T. E. Dexibb.

Also, price 2«,,

MINEEAL SUBSTANCES used in the Arts

and Manufactures. By T. E. Dexter.

London : G-koombbidge & Sons, 5, Paternoster Eow.

DEDICATED BY PERMISSION TO H. R. H. THE DUKE OF
CAMBRIDGE,

Eeady this day, Price Five Shillings,

CURIOSITIES OF WAE,

AND MILITAET STUDIES.

BY THOMAS CARTER,

adjutant-gbnebal's orncE.

PEINCIPAL
Battles on Sundays.
Martial Prelates.
Soldiers' Letters.
Weather in Battles.
Perils at Sea.
Military Coincidences.
Woman in Battle.
Disposal of Treasure.
Military Epitaphs.
Courts Martial.
Defence of the Colours. !
Presence of Mind.
Honey Stealing and Pig Killing.
Kemarkable Wounds.
Self-Devotion.

The Pope's Medal to British
Troops

CONTENTS.

Action at Gorde, and the 73rd
Eegiment.

Sugar used for Earthworks.

Nelson and the 69th Eegiment.

Badajoz and the 74th Regiment.

Capture of the Eagle by the 87th.

First Action of the 15th Hussars.

Officers' versus Ladies' Dresses.

Thirty -ninth and Plassey.

Dukeot Wellington and Keturns.

Using up the Enemy's Shot.

Curious Modes of Eeeruiting.

Fifty-second Light Infantry.

Sir Thomas Picton and the Duke
of Marlborough.

Last of the Queues and Ameni-
ties of Warfare.

Napoleon and the 20th Eegiment.

*»* This Soldiers' Book and Military Compendium is fall of the
most interesting Anecdotes and Incidents relating to various Regi-
ments, and contains the origin of every Infantry Corps, together
with names and heroic deeds of the recipients of the Victoria Cross
arranged regimentally.

London ; GBoeMBBEDGE & SoHS, 5, Pa'.emoster Eow.

MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY.— Practical
Instruction is given in these interesting branches of Science
by Mr. TENNANT, Geologist, 149, Strand, W.C. Mr. Trnnant
fcan supply Elementary Collections and Separate Specimens of
Shells, Minerals, Kocks, and Fossils ; also. Geological Maps,
Models, Diagrams, Hammers, Blowpipes, Acid Bottles, Magnifying
Glasses, and all recent Works on Conchology, Chemistry, Mmer-
alogy. Botany, and Geology.

Published this day, post 8vo, cloth, price Six Shillings,

UNDEE BOW BELLS:

^ CitjT §o0k iox gill llcEb^rs.
BY JOHN HOLLINGSHEAD.

Contents :—

The City of Unlimited Paper.
My Lost Home.
Too Weak for the Place.
• AU Night on the Monument.
Bristles and Flint.
The End of Fordyce Brothers.
Passing the Time.
Eailway Nightmares.
How I fell amongst Monsters.
Wanted a Secretary.
My Two Partners.
Poor Tom— A City Weed.
Vestiges of Protection,
Domestic Castle Building.
Debt.

Bankruptcy in Six Easy Lessons.
White Washerton.
Buying in the Cheapest Market.
Twenty Shillings in the Pound.
The Afflicted Duke of Spmdles.
Good-Will.

Debtor and Creditor.
The Innocent Holder Business.
An Executor.
New Puppets for Old Ones.

London : Groombbidge & Sons, Publishers, 5, Paternoster Eow.

ELEGANT GIFT BOOK,

This day, complete in One superb Volume, with Illuminated Title-
page, appropriately bound, price One Guinea, ',

GEMS FEOM THE POETS,

ILLUSTRATED

With TWENTY-EIGHT Plates, on Toned Paper, printed in Colors,
Illustrating the Poems of

MOOKE

Byron

Longfellow

Wilson

KOGEBS

Hemans

Emerson

Cowpee

Woedswoeth

Scott

Buens

Bktant

Gbat

Goldsmith

Campbell

Ceolt

Thompson

Falconeb

Milton

Etc. Etc.

Etc.

London: Gboombbisge & Sons, Publishers, 6, Paternoster Eow.
Second Edition, with 378 Engravings on wood, fcp.Svo, cloth, 12s. 6d.

rPHE MICROSCOPE and its EEVELATIONS.

i By W. B . CAEPENTEE, M.D., F.E. S.

JoHiT ChubchiiiI., New Burlington Street.

4

ADVEETISEMENTS.

Handsomely bound in cloth, gilt, price £1 Is.

rrSE FEEN COLLECTOE'S ALBUM: a

X Descriptive Folio for the Eeception of JSTatiiral Specimens ; con-
taining on the right hand page a description of each Fern printed in
colours ; the opposite page being left blank for the collector to affix
the dried specimen ; forming, when filled, an elegant and complete
collection of this interesting family of Plants.

London : Robert Hakdwicke, 192, Piccadilly.

Price 2s. Hd., profusely illustrated,

HALF-HOUES WITH THE MICEOSCOPE :
a Popular Guide to the Use of the Microscope as a means of
Amusement and Instruction. AVith Drawings of 240 Objects from
Nature by Tuffen West. Also, uniform in size and price, The
Aquavivarium, fresh and marine, by Dr. Lankestee, The British
Ferns (a plain and easy account ofj. Landscape Photography. By
Joachim Otte.

London : Robebt Habdwicke, 192, Piccadilly.
Imperial 16mo, cloth gilt, price 3s. Gd.,

A WORLD OF WONDERS REVEALED
BY THE MICROSCOPE.

A BOOK FOR YOUNG STUDENTS.

By the Hon. Mrs. Ward.

With Coloured Illustrations, delineating 130 Microscopic Objects.

Wings of Insects— Wings and Scales of Moths and Butterflies-
Scales ol Beetles and Fishes— Hairs of Animals— Human Hair-
Down of Birds— Hairs of Insects— Structure of a Feather— Sections
of Limestone— Mineral Productions— Structure of the Crystalline
Lens— Section of the Eye— Kyes of Insects— Feet of Insects— Petal
of Geranium— Pollen of Flowers— Urain— Claws of Spider— Foot of
Butterfly — Seed Vessels of Ferns.

London : Gboombhidge & Sons, 6, Paternoster Eow.

SCZENCi: AND ART,

Just Published, a New Edition of Part I.,

ELECTKOTYPE MANIPULATION

The Art of Depositing Metals from, theix
Solutions.

BY C. V. WALKEE, F.E.S., F.E.A.S., Etc,

Part I contains — Introductory Observations, Pieparation of the
various sorts of Moulds, Improved form of Batteries, Deposition of
Copper, Brass, and other Alloys, Bronzing, etc.

Part II contains — Instruction for Plating and Gilding, or the
Japanning of Gold and Silver, Preparation of the Solutions, Electro
Etching, and. Abstracts from the various Patents.

The two Parts iu one, -». 61^. ; or separately. Is. each.

" AVe have seldom met with a work professing to give instructions
in the manipulation of any art or process of manufacture so practi-
cally useful as this small volume." — Civil Eitgineers' and Archifects'
Journal.

The whole of the Apparatus and Materials required in the prac-
tice of this amusing art may be obtained of the Publishers,

GEORGE KNIGHT & CO.,

2, FOSTER LANE, LONDON.

EE-ISSUE OF MAINZEE'S MUSIC.
QINGING FOE THE MILLION, 90th Thou-

kj sand, U. Ditto, Part 2, 1». Ditto, Parts 1 and 2, cloth, 2s. 6d.
Thirty-six Choruses for Public Worship, Schools, Festivals, and the
Family Circle, 2«. A Portfolio, containing 24 Songs and Miscella-
neous Pieces, 2». A Grammar of Music, Is. Guide for Beginners
in Pianoforte Playing, 2s. 6d.

London : William Wesley, Queen's Head Passage, Paternoster
Eow, E.C., and all Booksellers.

This day is published, price 2s. 6d., Part X. of

THE ENGLISH CTCLOPJIDIA OF AETS AND SCIENCES,

Being the Fourth Division of the ENGLISH CYCLOPEDIA, conducted by CHARLES KNIGHT.

i®=" This Part comprises from the article " COIN " to the commencement of " COTTON MANUFACTURE."

"Vols, I. and II. are now ready, price 12». each. The following Divisions are completed: —

BIOGRAPHY.

Six Volumes, price £3 ; or in Three Volumes, half-bound Morocco, price £3 12».

GEOGRAPHY.

Four Volumes, price £2 2$. ; or in Two Volumes, half-bound Morocco, price £3 10«.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Four Volumes, price £2 2s. ; or in Two Volumes, half-bound Morocco, price £2 10«.
*," Any Number or Part may be had separately.

Bbadbtjbt & Evans, 11, Bouverie Street, E.C.

NATURE-PRINTED FERNS.
This day is published. Vol I. of the 8vo,

The Figures (110 in number) NATURE-PRINTED BY HENRY BRADBURY. The Descriptions by THOMAS MOOBE, F.L.S.
The Work will be completed in 3 Vols., price £3 2s. each.

Also, lately pubh'shed, royal 8vo, price £2 2s., Vol. I, containing 70 Coloured Nature-Prints, of

THE NATURE-PRINTED BRITISH SEA-WEEDS.

With Engraved Magnified Dissections of tlve whole Species described in the Volume.

The Descriptioxs by WILLIAM G. JOHNSTONE and ALEXANDER CllOALL.

NATURE-PRINTED BY HENRY BRADBURY.

The NATURE-PRINTED BRITISH SEA-WEEDS will form four handsome volumes, in royal 8vo, consisting of about 220 plates, with

the necessary letter-press, extending to about 900 pages,

VOL. II, WILL BE PUBLISHED SHORTLY.

_ "To nothing is Nature-Printing more suitable than to the exquisitely graceful race of sea-weeds, which are capable of so completely
gmng up their forms to paper, in all the most minute ramifications, that it requires a very good eye to distinguish the original [from its
impression."— Gardeners' Chronicle.

BfiADBUBY & EvAKS, 11, BouTcrie Street, B. C.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

HmtfacJttrm d ®ptkni mti Patljtiua&al litstantents.

COMPOUND ACHROMATIC MICROSCOPES.

OF THEEE CLASSES.

FI^ST CLASS.

In ■which the Magnifying Power, the Stand, and the Illumination,
are carried to the greatest poasible perfection.

Price, from £30 to £84.

" The arrangement of the Illuminating Apparatus in Smith &
Beck's Microscope seems to the author to present some decided
advantages over that adopted by either of the other makers, and in
point of general eicellenee of workmanship, this instrument cannot
be surpassed." — Carpenter, on Microscope, First Edition, page 103,

\Vm. B.Carpenter.M.D., F.R.S.

John Goodsir, F.E S.

John Edward Gray.

William Gull, M.D.

George Jackson, M.R.C.S.E. .

£d?rin Lankester, M.D., F.B.S.

MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS.

A large Assortment of Objects of Scientific and Ge-
neral Interest kept constantly in stock.

Price, from Is. 6d.

SECOND CLASS.

In which the same Magnifying Power as the former is combined,
with a less expensive Stand and Apparatus for Illumination.

Price, from £13 to £40.

These Instruments are improvements tipon that mentioned hy Dr.
Carpenter on Microscope, First Hdition, page 87.

" Of the patterns yet devised for a Microscope of simple con-
struction, which shall yet be capable of answering every essential
purpose, whether of display or of investigation, that of Smith &
Beck appears to the author to be (to say the least) among the
best, and he recommends it with the more confidence, since he has
for many years employed one of these Microscopes as his own work,
ing instrument."

THIRD CLASS.

EDUCATIONAL,

The oapabilities of this Instrument are limited, but they are equal
o the requirements of most observers j and the cost is considerably
less than in the two other classes.

Price, £10 or £15.

An Illustrated Descriptive Pamphlet of the Educational Micro-
scope will be forwarded on receipt of six postage stamps. It
ncludes testimonials from the following eminent Microscopists ; —

John Lindley, Ph.D., F.K.S.,

F.L.S.
George Rainey, Esq.
B. ^^'. Richardson, P.R.O.S.I.
William Smith, F.L.S.

A careful selection of Six Dozen Objects in a neat
Mahogany Case.

Price £4.

This series comprises Illustrations of the following subjects ;—
The Structure of Bone, Horn, Hoof, Tendon, Hair, Feathers,
Scales, Skin, etc.

The various parts of Insects, viz. : — Head, Eye, Tongue, Ely-
tron, Wing, Foot, Sting, Trachaea, Spiracles, etc.

Of Vegetables : — Spores, Starch, Sections of Wood, Diatomaceee,
recent and fossil, f.

Also SpecimflMof Sponge and Gorgonia Spicules, Algae, Zoo-
phytes, etc., etCi"

ACHROMATIC STEREOSCOPES.

" Messrs. Smith & Bi;ck have not only carried out, they have
gone beyond our suggestions. The result is a perfection beyond
which it is hardly possible to carry the Stereoscope."— ^Mena-ioH,'*
August 28, 1858, page 269. f

Achromatic Stereoscope, in Walnut Wood . . £3 \Q Q

Ditto, ditto, in Mahogany , . .330

Handsome Pedestal Stands for the above, forming also

Cases for Views, from . £2 5s. to 4 15 Q

An Illustrated Description forwarded on application.

Stereoscopic Photographs of the Moon, on Glass, from
Negatives taken by Warren Delarue, F.E.S., Sec.
E.A.S., etc. . . . . • £ 0 10 6

Glass Transparencies, including Views in Switzerland,
Egypt, the Pyrenees, Heidelberg, Spain, the Tyrol,
the Rhine, and various Continental Towns, each .076
A very choice Assortment of Views on Paper.

GORHAM'S KALEIDOSCOPIC COLOUR-TOP.

(See "Microscopical Journal," No. XXVI.)

Prvoe . . . . . .£110

Extra Set of Rotating Discs, per dozen . .050

This Instnimont shows the various beautiful effects of the Com-
))ination of Colours, etc.

6, COLEMAN STREET, LONDON, E.C.

Catiilugves, etc., sent free on Application. Foreign Orders to be\
accompanied nith a Hemittamct,

IHOMAS aARRIt.!), rBIUIER, 8AI.ISBVKY S(JUABB| TLEEI STREKT, tONBOX,

C^ntnds.

PAGE

Micuoscopic Geoiogy. I. — Eock-fobming Mi-
CRozoA — The Foeamisifeea. By S. J.

Mackie 145

A Calendar of Nature. By E. J. Lowe 150

WoiJDEES OF A Stagnant Pool. By Tuffen

West 154.

^yAYSIDE Weeds and their Teachings. In
Six Handftjls. — Handful II. Concluded.

By Spencer Tuojison, M.D 158

A Portable Equatorial. By W. C. Buedee 165

Stereoscopic Phenomenon. By Stereo 167

John bmeaton — A Life amongst the Light-
houses. By Hain Eeiswell , 168

PAGE

The Young Philosopher at Home — Chemical

Experiments. By Septimus Piesse 172

Clock-work Chromatypes. By Thos. Good-
child 175

The Apteryx at Dinner. By O. S. Bound ... 178

Meteorology of December 179

Astronomical Observations foe December ... 179

Things of the Season— Decembee 180

Me. Notewoethy's CoEifEK 180

DuEATioN OF Life 180

Portable Furnace 180

Early Frosts 1 0

The October Gales 180

The Articles ia ' Reczeative Science" aie Copyright, and the Right of Translation is reserved.

Communications for the Editor to be addresser! to Messrs. Groombridge & Sons, 5, Paternoster Eow.

',* Correspondents are desired in all cases to communicate their real names and addresses, which will, as a rule, be held in confidence.

Letters needing a reply should reach us by the lolh at latest.

CUE LETTEE-BOX.

Telescopes boE AmaTeues.— At page 120, read "Tube4J</. per
cot," instead of "4s. 6c/." A "Fellow of Three Learned Societies"
s thanked for calling our attention to the misprint.

An Imtio. — Dr. Thomson's " AVanderinRS among the Wild
riowers" will suit you, or Lee's " Botanical Looker Out."

MicitoscopE. — Vv . N. R. B. — Dr. Carpenter's " Microscope a;id
its llcvelations" (Cliurchill) is the best book for you uow. Thanks
for the communication.

J. Thomas.— Wc have forwarded your letter to a contributor for
special attention.

PniLO-BoTANicus.— We believe "Odell'a Shorthand" to be the
best.

F, J. F. — Parts of insects mounted for the microscope are often

incorrectly named : many of the most skilful mounters have very
wild notions of classiflcaiion and technology. Of course we caimot
say from what insect the sting was taken merely from your con-
jecture. The note is accepted with thanks.

Various. — Wisbech. — Potamogeton pectinatus. D. PhnnsteuJ.
— Kustic baskets are out-of our line, write to editor of "Floral
World." a. £. S. — Any of the philosophical instrument makeis
who advertise in our pages will supply wire for galvanic coils. G.
Bunter. — Eespectfully declined. B. B. — The "Twelve Reasons for
Preserving the Lifeof the Honey Bee" are to be found at page 309
of "Rustic Adornments." To copy them without acknowledge-
ment is piracy.

PUBLISHED EVEEY MONTH WITH THE OTHER MAGAZINES.
PRICE EICHTPENCE, ILLUSTRATED,

RECREATIVE SCIENCE.

NIMBERS 1, 2, 3, 4, AND 5, AllE CONSTANTLY ON SALE.

No. 6

"^STSrill toe 3Pxitolisla.e<aL DEDIESCJIES^S^DBESUL 3Xst}.

LONDON!
GBOOMBillDaE & SONS, 5, PATEENOSTEE EOW.

Dublin: WILLIAM EOBERTSOX, 23, Uppkr Sackville Strekt. Edinburgh: J. MENZIES, 2, IIaxovlh
Street. Glasgow: MUEEAY & SON, 42, Buchaxax Street.

ANi) ALl B00K3ELLEES AXD B-ilLWAY SIAIIONS.

^bhrtis^nunti

This day is published, price 2s. 6d., Part XI. of

THE ENGLISH CYCLOPEDIA OF ARTS AND SCIENCES,

Being the Fourth Division of the ENGLISH CYCLOPEDIA, conducted by CHARLES KNIGHT.
Vo'.s. I. and II. are now ready, price 12s. each. The following Divisions are completed:—

BIOGRAPHY.

Six Volumes, price £3 ; or in Three Volumes, half-bound Morocco, price £3 12».

GEOGRAPHY.

Four Volumes, price £2 2s. ; or in Two Volumes, half-bound Morocco, price £2 10»»

NATX7RAI. HISTORY.

Four Volumes, price £2 2». ; or in Two Volumes, half-bound Morocco, price £2 10»,
',° Any Number or Part may be had separately.
Bbadbuhy & Evans, 11, Bouverie Street, E.C,

This day is published, price Is., Part V. of

O 3Xr O ES .A. -\7^ E! OES

CONTAINING

Bradmere Pool. By Louisa Stewart. Illustrated by H. K. Browne.

The Cook or the Doctor. By Harriet Martineau.

The Swineherd Painter. By E. Acton.

The Last Voyage of Sir John Franklin. By Captain Sherard Osbom,

R.N. Illustrated by W. May.
Coldstream. By Herbert Vaughan. Illustrated by John Leech.
Hands and Machines. By W. Bridges Adams.
Our Tame Hedgehog. By A. J.

The Song of the Survivor. By C. Illustrated by G. H. Bennett.
Crossbone's Father. B/ C.P.William, Illustrated by H.K.Browne.
Young France. By A. D.

Prawn Currj-. By Austral. Illustrated by H. G. Hine.
Black Monday. J3y A. F. Illustrated by John Leech.
The Last Voyage of Sir John Franklin. By Captain Sherard Osbom,

R.N. Illustrated by W. May.
Robert Stephenson. By n. Illustrated by Woods and Soott.

In Memoriam. By G. R. Taylor. I How I become a Hero. By 6. P. IllustratedbyHablotK. Browne.

How I became a Hero. By a. P. Illustrated by Hablot K. Browne, i The Sprig of Lavender. ByMemor. Illustrated by H. K. Browne.

^jVL*' A Number is Published every "Week, price Threepence.

PartVI., completing the First Volume, will be Published December 31st, price Is. 6d.,

and containing Six Numbers.

Bradbury & Evans, 11, Bouverie Street, E.C.

Ana. By E. W.

An American Apple Frolic. By Francis Morton. Illustrated by
H. G. Hine.

Maude Clare. By Christina G. Rossetti. Illustrated by Millais.

The Search for Sir John Franklin. By Captain Sherard Osborn,
R. N. Illustrated by W. May.

Dress and its Victims. By Harriet Martineau.

The Yaks in France. By W. W. M. Illustrated by Wolf.

Six of the One, and Half-a-dozen of the Other. By J. Roy. Illus-
trated by Hablot K. Browne.

A Night with the Boobies. By T. E. Southee. Illustrated by Wolf
and Skill.

The Swimming School for Women at Paris. By V.

Fairy May. By C. W. Goodhart. Illustrated by Miss Coode.

Our Page. By C. P. William. Illustrated by John Leech.

English War Ships and their Uses. By W. B. A.

T. E 0 S S,

(SON AND SUCCESSOR OF THE LATE .Cs^DREW ROSS,)

O I» 07 I O I -A. KT,

2 and 3, FEATHERSTONE BUILDINGS, HIGH HOLBORIT, LONDON, W.C,

ias now in Stock, ready for delivery, a choice Collection of COMPOUND MICROSCOPES, with all the accessory
Apparatus.

The ACHROMATIC OBJECTIVES, ranging from 3 inches to ^ inch, hare great separating power, and give perfect definition. By
improvements recently effected by T. Ross, the higher powers are now constructed to work through '01 glass (yjj of an inch in thickness),

COMPOUND ACHROMATIC MICROSCOPES, with Object-glass, Eye-piece, and Apparatus, from £10.

Microscopic Preparations in great variety.

PHOTOGRAPHIC Portrait, Landscape, Orthographic, and Stereoscopic LENSES, Cameras, and Apparatus. The Lenses have their
chemical and visual foci coincident, and produce pictures intensely sharp, with correct detinition both at the centre and margin of the
field. — See Great Exhibition Jurors' Jteport, -p. 27-i; London Photographic J^o>(rna/, Vol. V., p. 74 ; Times, Jan. 10, 1859; a,ni Afhenceum ,
Jan. 15, 1859.

Naval, Military, and Tourists' Telescopes ; Field, Race, and Opera Glasses; Hand and Pocket Magnifiers; Gold, Silver, and Steel
Spectacles ; Eye-glasses, etc., etc., always in stock, or made to order.

"Mr. THOMAS ROSS has also effected a considerable increase in the apertures of the low powers, having availed himself cf the
advantages to be obtained from the various qualities of glass which can be now procured, together with certain facts developed during his
researches connected with the improved construction of Lenses for Photographic purposes. The aperture of the 1^-inch objective now
extonds to 20°, while the 3-inch, 2-inch, I-inch, and J-ineh, have a corresponding increase, and all bear well the ver^ severe test of an
unusually powerful eye-piece, thus also affording to the Microscopist an additional range in the choice of amount of amplificition." —
Transactions of the Microscopical Society of London, President' s Address. See Quarterly Journal, Vol. V., p. 142.

T. ROSS having had upwards of 27 years experience with his Father in the construction and Practical Manufacture of Optical Intfruments,
is fully prepared to maintain the high reputation of this Establishment.

Country and Foreign Orders promptly executed, and duly forwarded on receipt of a remittance payable in London.

Catalogrues may be had on application.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

I

PHOTOGRAPHY.

BEST AND CHEAPEST HOUSE.

SOLOMON, WHOLESALE OPTICAL

AND PHQTOGliAPHIC WAREHOUSE, 22, Eed Lion
Square, London.

Cmtalogimsfree on Application.

SOCIETY OF ARTS' PRIZE
MICROSCOPES.

CAUTION TO THE PUBLIC.

Thb Society of Arts awarded the Prize Medals for both the Stu-
dents' and School Microscopes to Messrs. R. Field & Son, Bir-
mingham. The Microscopes now made are much superior to the
originiil, though the price is unaltered. The character they have
gained has induced other makers unwarrantably to apply the
name to instruments which, resembling them generally in form and
in price, are inferior in magnifying power, in number of lenses, ami
in many other respects.

The Society of Arts' Prize Microscopes bear the name of

FIELD & SON, birikxxngkam:,

of whom, or their Agents, Illustrative Catalogues may be obtained,
post free, for Two Penny Stamps.

BROOKS,

o IP T I c I -A. n^, E T a .

(20 YEARS WITH DOLLOND.)

Spectacles, Telescopes, Microscopes, Opera, Field, and Race Glasses
in great variety.

Barometers, Thermometers, Nautical and Surveying
Instruments.

Drawing Instruments, Rules, Scales, etc., of every description,
at moderate prices.

41, LUDGATE STREET, ST. PAUL'S.

(ESTABLISHED 1848.)

MAGIC LANTHOENS AND DISSOLVING
VIEWS for Sale or on Hire.

PRICE LISTS ON APPLICATION.
Microscopes, Stereoscopes, Telescopes, Barometers, and every
description of Philosophical Apparatus.

E. 6. WOOD, Optician, etc., 117, Cheapside, London, E.G.

Just Published, price One Shilling,

THE STAES AND THE TELESCOPE.
Being a Concise Description of the Starry Heavens, and the
various Celestial Phenomena revealed by the Telescope. Illustrated
by upwards of Twenty Engravings, forming a Familiar Introduction
to Astronomy. By J. T. Slugo.

The Illustrations comprise a large Map of the Solar System ;
Spots on the Sun, Oct. 30, 1859 ; Occultation of Saturn, May 8th,
1859 ; two Diagrams, explaining the Revolution of Jupiter's Satel-
lites ; Donati's Comet, etc.

London : SiMFKiir, Marshall, & Co. ; W. H. Suith & Soif .

BEOWN & POLSON'S
PATENT CORN FLOUR.

"This if iupgrior to anything of the kind known." — Lancet.

Obtain it from Family Ghrocer», or Chemists, who do not^ try to

sabatitnte inferior ArtielM. Ji«tipt* on eaeh Paciktt.

SECOND YEAR OF PVBI.ICATION.

Published this day, price \s.,

THE GARDEN OEACLE, AND ECONOMIC

± YEAR BOOK FOR 1860. An Almanac for Nurserymen,
Gardeners, Allottees, Housewives, Keepers of Poultry, Bees, and
Pigeons, etc. The publication of the "Garden Oracle" last year
was attended with signal success. Two birge impressions were de-
manded, and it was universally pronounced to be a great improve-
ment on the existing Almanacks devoted to Gardening. The issue
for 1860 will be published on the 1st of November. The improved
arrangements and varied nature of its contents, will, it is confidently
believed, render it the best work of the kind extant. Its publication,
in connection with the " Floral World and Garden Guide," ensures
for it a most extensive publicity, it being issued under the super-
vision of the Editor of that popular periodical.

Thepiincipal contents of the issue for 1860 are as follows: —
Ericas — A list of Ericas in bloom every day throughout the year,
and a Treatise on the Culture of Ericas, by a well-known experienced
hand. Winning Flowers of 1859 — A selection of the varieties which
have been most succrssful at Exhibitions. New Plants, Flowers,
and Fruits — Descriptive notices of all the novelties introduced during
the year. Reminders for 1860 — Cultural Notes, etc., for the guid-
ance of amateurs. Spergula Pilifera — its history, uses, culture, etc.
Illustrated with eugrsivrngs. Lists of all the best Flowers, Vege-
tables, and Fruits adapted to various localities of Britain. Poultry
and Bee Keeping — Practical Netes by a well-known authority. Ori-
ginal Receipts for the House, Garden, and Farm.

London : Gboombrisge & Sons, 5, Paternoster Row.

MINEEALOGY AND GEOLOGY.— Practical
Instruction is given in these interesting branches of Science
by Mr. TENNANT, Geologist, 149, Strand, W.C. Mr. Tknnant
can supply Elementary Collections and Separate Specimens of
Shells, Minerals, Kocks, and Fossils ; also. Geological Maps,
Models, Diagrams, Hammers, Blowpipes, Acid Bottles, Magnifymg
Glasses, Glass-top Boxes, >nd Microscopic Objects ; and all recent
Works on Conchology, Chemistry, Mineralogy Botany, and Geology.

Just Published, fcap. 8vo, with 180 Engravings, cloth boards, 4s.,

A FAMILIAR HISTORY OF THE BRITISH FISHES.

SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE :
— Depositories, 77, Great Queen Street, Lincoln's Inn Fields, W.C. ;
4, Royal Exchange, Cornhill, E.C.; 16, Hanover Street, Regent
Street, W. ; and by the Booksellers.

WORKS ON THE NATURAI. SCIENCES.

One Large Volume, 8vo, 12s. Qd., cloth,

A POPULAE DICTIONAEY OF THE NA-

XX TURAL SCIENCES, with Map, and numerous Illustrations.
By William Baiud, M.D., F.L.S., British Museum.

EECEEATIONS IN ZOOLOGY. By Wil-

LiAM Beodkrip, F.R.S. Third and Cheaper Edition, crown 8vo,
3». 6d., cloth.

AN INTEODUCTOEY MANUAL OF THE

NATURAL SCIENCES, comprising Geology, Mineralogy, Bo-
tany, Zoology, and Physiology. By Professors Schbkdleb and
MBni.ooK. Fourth and Cheaper Edition, crown 8vo, 3>. 6d.,
cloth.
London : Richakd Gbiffik & Co., Stationers' Hall Court, and
Glasgow.

Now publishing in Monthly Parts, price Is. each, containing Three
Coloured Plates, and Wood Engraving;^,

mwm PLANTS

Being a Description of the most Ornamental Foliaged Plants
m Cultivation in this Country.

BY E. J. LOWE, ESQ., F.R.A.S,

ASSISTXD BY

W. HOWARD, F.H.S.
London : Grookbeidgk & Sons, 6, Paternoster Row.

I

ADVERTISElklENTS.

FOR CHRISTMAS TREES, BIRTHDAYS, & REWARDS.

Packets of Books in Ornamental Wrappers, very attractive,
adapted to the comprehension of Children from the ages of Pour to
Ten or Twelve years, known as —

BUDS AND BLOSSOMS, AND STORIES FOR SUMMER
DAYS AND WINTER NIGHTS.

SIX Packets, each Packet contiiinini,' SIX Stories for SIXPENCE,
all Illustrated.

Packet 1 contains The Story of a Daisy— Rover and his Friends
—Little Prank— Little Fortune Seekers— Blackberry Gathering—
The Fir Tree's Story.

Packet 2 contains The Child's Senrch for Fairies — The Fisher-
man's Children— Little Peepy — Rabbits and Peewits — Alice and her
Bird— Little Charley.

Packet 3 contains A Doll's Story— The Faithful Dog— Spring
and Summer— The Hero without Courage— The Children's visit to
the Sea — Busy Bees.

' Packkt i contains The New Ascent of Mont Blanc— Much ado
about Nothing— Husbaby— Twelfth Night— Donald, the Shetland
Pony — Briery Wood.

Packet 5 contains Buttercups and Daisies — A Visit to Queen
Victoriii— Katey's Voyage— How to Catch a Butterfly— Sandy, the
Cat— Cousin Johnny and his Indian Nurse.

Packet 6 contains Tommy and his Baby Brother — The Christmas
Partv— Parrots and Nightiuizales— Light Wing and Bright Eye—
The Happy Orchard— Tottie May.
%* Any Packet may be had separately of any bookseller, 6i. each.

ELEVEN Packets, each Packet containing THREE Stories for
SIXPE-N'CE. The first of this Advanced Series being—

Packet 7 containing The Coral Necklace — Visit to the Water
Fowl — The Lost Letter.

Packet 8 contains Walter and Mary — Lady Eva — The Cottager's
Christmas.

Packet 9 contains More Haste Less Speed— The Story of a
Hyacinth — Primrose Gathering.

Packet 10 contains The Queen of the May — The Cherry Orchard
—Midsummer Holiday s at Beechwood Farm.

Packet U contains The Young Gardener — Mary's Visit to the
Gold Fields— The Little Black People. _

Packet 12 contains The Young Prince— Penfold Farm— Jirnest's
Dream, a Christmas Story.

Packet 13 contains Adventures in the Moss Hut — The Losses of
a Day — The Smoke and the Kite.

Packet 14 contains Carl Thorn's Revenge — Ally's Birth-day —
William Tell.

Packet 15 contains Right is Right, Part I.— Right is Right,
Part II. — Wishing and Working.

Packet 16 contains Elm Villa — Lost and Found — Little Tim
and his Friend the Cobbler.

Packet 17 contains The Story of Peter Lawley — My Young
Masters — David Allen, a Village Tale.

EIGHT PACKETS, each Packet containing FOUR Stories for
ONE SHILLING, known as

STORIES FOR SUMMER DAYS AND WINTER

NIGHTS.

Packet 1 contains The Young Emigrants— The Sea Kings —
Madelaine Tube and her Blind Brother — The Boy and the Book.

Packet 2 contains The Ship and the Island — Oscar, a Tale of
Norway— The Crusaders — The fairy Craft of Nature.

Packet 3 contains The Widow's Son — The Children and the
Sage — Halcyon Days — Louis Duval, a Story of the FrenchRevolution.

Packet 4 contains The Prophet and the Lost City — The Found-
ling of the Wreck — In School and Out of School — The Young Artist.

Packet 5 contains Home at the Haven — The Seeker and the
Finder— The Poacher and his Family — The King and the Bondmen.

Packet 6 contains The Self-Helpers— The Rewards of Industry
—The Vacant Throne and its Claimants — Rising and Thriving.

Packet 7 contains Uncle Tom's Cabin for Children — The Story
of Wellington— The Sisters— The Story of Moffat.

Packet 8 contains The Irish Emigrants — Alfred the Great —
Anna Webster — Round the World.

* * THE ENTIRE SERIES, as detailed above, comprises One
Hundred and One Stories, and may be had of any Bookseller, price
16«. Qd. The separata Stories are One Penny, Twopence, and
Threepence each.

London : Geoombridgh & SoifB, Publi8h«r«, 6, Paternoster Row.

CAKPENTEU & WESTLEY'S

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BY MBANS OF

€mp\xitt ^ Mt&th^'B '^l^mximmnQoxm ^mtttm,

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INCLUDHSTQ

COMIC, LEVER, MOVEABLE RACKWORK, AND PLAIN
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VIEWS IN THE HOLY LAND, ETC.

No. 1 Lantern, with Argand Lamp, in a Box, £2 lit. 6d. ; No. 2
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A PAIR OF DISSOLVING VIEW LANTERNS,

No. 2, with Apparatus, £12 6».

N.B. — The above prices do not include Sliders for the Lanterns,
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LISTS OP SLIDERS AND PRICES FORWARDED UPON
APPLICATION.

CARPENTER AND WESTLEY,
OPTICIANS,

24, Regent Street,"Waterloo Place, London, S.W.

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EXPERIMENTAL WORK TO ORDER.

NEW TOURISTS' STEREOSCOPIC CAMERAS.

BLAND AND CO.'S NEW TOURISTS' BI-
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with either Sin-zle or Compound Achromatic Lenses.

BLAND and CO.'S Improved Portable Latimer Clarke's form
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BLAND and CO.'S Newly-invented Dark Box, for changing
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BI.AND & CO.,

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London, E.C.

*»* Agent for Thomas's, Ponting's, and Ramsden's Collodions.

MICROSCOPES AND TELESCOPES.

NEWTON'S STUDENTS' ACHROMATIC
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Views, Buildings, Natural History, Astronomical, Missionary, and
other subjects.

ILLUSTRATED PRICE-LIST FOR THREE STAMPS.

NEWTON &, CO.,

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•MICROSCOPIC PHOTOGRAPHS NOW READY.

The Houses of Parliament, St. Paul's, Interview of Charles tke Eirst with, his Family in the presence

of Cromwell, etc.

i^io i^ o s o o i=*e: s.

J. AMADIO'S IMPEOVED COMPOUND MICEOSCOPES, £2 2s. ■ Students, £3 12s. eJ.

"Both these are from Amadio, of Throgmorton Street, and are excellent of their kind, the more expensive one especially." — JIouse~
°^ ' ■ °- £^ Iiazge Assortment of Achromatic IMLicroscopes.

J. AMADIO'S BOTANICAL MICEOSCOPE,

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raicroscopic Objects, 6s., I2s., and 18s. per dozen.

GEEAT EASTEEN.— Microscopic Photograph of the Great Ship, sent post free for 32 Stamps.

7, THROGMORTON STREET.

EDUCATIONAL ACHROMATIC MICROSCOPE.

Complete at £3 3s.

n BAKER, of 24.3 & 244, HIGH HOLBORN,

\J» from the introduction of Improved Maohiueiy, is now
enabled to produce the most Supeeioii AcnROMATic Microscope

GLASS E:?, that are capable of showing all the generally known
tests in a way never before attempted with an instrument of that
class. Also

The LARGEST ASSORTMENT IN LONDON of FIRST-
CLASS MICROSCOPES always in Stock, at the lowest possible
price it is possible to produce flrst-class Instruments.

Botanical, Geological, and Entomological Microscopes, at lOs. 6d.
each.

OPPOSITE BAY AND SIARTIN'S.

(ESTABLISHED 1765.)

SCIENCE

FOR

AND ART.-AMUSEiaENT
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rpHE AET of DEPOSITING METALS FROM

X THEIR SOLUTIONS, and producing: in Metal fac-siniiles of
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the Apparatus and Materials required in practice of the Art. And
also, just published, a NEW EDITIO^ of Part I., ELECTRO-
TYPE MANIPULATION. Price Is, By C. V. Walkeb, E.R.S.,
etc.
May be had of Geoege Knight & Sons, 2, Foster Lane, London.

EVENINGS AT HOME. — Dissolving Views,
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Scripture History of the Old and New Testaments. These Slides
are Photographed, in some instances, (rom Natural Objects, and
from Paintmgs by the great Masters, and cannot be surpassed for
correctness of detail and delicacy of delineation.

Chromeidoscopes, Stereoscopes, Microscopes, and other simple
and instructive Scientific Apparatus, manufactured and sold by
Horn E & Thornihwaite, Opticians to Her Majesty, 121, 122, and
123, Newgate Street, London, E.G., from whom Descriptive Cata-
logues may be obtained on application.

ADYEETISEMENTS.

§ou[i$ for litstiits, §irtljbai| iinir Cljrisfmiis 6ifts.

GEMS FROM THE POETS. Illustrated.
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OUT AND ABOUT : A Boy's Adventures.

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ADVERTISEMENTS.

A

:b oJ^o

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JB^ O lE^.

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*X- O XT T? H .

■*- - ■.■<•-, ^---f^

PUBLISHED BY W, KENT & CO., 80, FLEET STREET, AND PATERNOSTER ROW

J. G. EDGAE'S NEW BOOK FOR BOYS.

THE CRUSADES' AND THE CRUSADERS ;

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CAPTAIN MAINE EEIFS NEW BOOK
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THE BOY TAR - or, a Voyage in the Dark.

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OUR UNCLE THE TRAVELLER'S STORIES.

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MR. H. MAYHEW'S BOOKS OE SCIENCE
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THE WONDERS OF SCIENCE ; or, Youn]

J- Humi>hry Davy (the Cornish Apothecary's Boy, who Tau^l
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person of Mr. Ui\}he<tr."-AlheiHi'tiw.

THE STORY OF THE PEASANT-BOl

PHILOSOPHER; or, "A Child Gathering Pebbles on th
Sea-shore." Founded on the Life of Ferguson. (heShcpherd-bo
A.stronomer, and showing how a Poor Lad made himself acquainte
with the principles of Natural Science. By Hi nry Mathew, A<
thor of" London Labour and the London Poor." With 8 lllustri
tions by John Gilbert, and numerous drawings printed m the tex
Third edition, Cs., cloth.
" Told with the grace and feeling of Goldsmith, and by one wl
has that knowledge of science which Goldsmith lacked. It is as

characteristics of our times, and to those who would indulge in it we ' Brewster and poor ' Goldy ' had combined to produce this instru(
can hardly recommend a pleasanter companion than Mr. Grinstead." liyo „nd beautifully told tale."— iira.

, hardly i
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London : W. KEXT & CO. (Late D. BoauE), 80, Fleet Street, and Paternoster Eovv.

I

^ICROOMBRIDCE AND SOMS|
5. PATERNOSTER ROW.

lUOUA'J aA£BII.1}, P£I:M£K, SAUi^BlBT SQVABi:, fLEBX SIBIIZT, LOITSO^.

" Recreative Science," No. 7, will be Published January 31st, 1860.

Of No. 6.

PAGE

OtTE Feiend the EoBiy. By Shikley Hibberd 181
The Anecdote History of Photogeaphy. By

Charles Maybijey Archee 187

Sportive Exercises upon Musical Notation.

Part I. By W. Newman 190

Reflection feoji Polished Sitbfaces. By J.

A. Davies 194

A Catalogue of all the Comets whose Orbits

HAVE hitherto BEEN COMPUTED. By G. W.

Y. Chambers 195

Elementary Meteoeology. By E. J. Lowe... 197
A Plaything of the Tides. By W. C. L. Martin 201
Mosses in Fern-cases and Aquaria. By F. Y. B. 203

Coins of the Seleucid^ Kings of Syria. By

H. Noel Humphreys

Herbarium of Mosses. By Frederick Y. Brocas

How TO USE the Telescope

Meteorology of January

Astronomical Observations for January, 1860

Things of the Season — January ,

Me. Noteworthy's Corner

The Atmospheric Clock

Birds in Winter— A Query

Efflorescence

Celts in the Deift

204
209
213
214
215
215
216
216
216
216
216

The Articles in " Recreative Science " are Copyright, and the Hight of Translation is reserved.

Communications for the Editor to be addressed to Messrs. Groombridge & Sons, 5, Paternoster Eow.

'»* Correspondents are desired in all cases to communicate their real names and addresses, which will, as a rule, be held in confidence.

Letters needing a reply should reach us by the 15ih at latest.

OUR LETTER-BOX.

B. C. CLAroSTOX. — The best cheap work on British Butterflies
and Moths is Mr. Stainton's Manual. The best coloured represen-
tations of the Butterflies are in the Kev. i". O. Morris's octavo
Work. Mr. H. N. Humphrey's "Genera of British Moths and
Butterfles," just published, is beautiful, entertaining, and accurate.
■^■■6 cannot tell you where the portable furnace is to be obtained.

S. J. B. — We must decline to recommend particular tradesmen,
write to any of the opticians who advertise in this work, and you
will have no trouble in getting any and every kind of lens you want.

Subscriber. — The purest water is obtained by distillation, and
by a skilful conduct of the process we believe it may be bad per-
fectly pure, though constantly some impuritie's pass over with it in
almost inappreciable quantity.

O.MicBON.— Mr. Bentall's address is High Street, Stoke Ncwing-
ton, I/ondon.

N. — Thf other subject has been referred to a contributor.

O. B. — The only library we think likely to have the works you
mention is Booth's.

Keceivkd. — " Comparative Value of Certain Salts for Rendering
Fabrics >'on-inflainniablc." By F Versmann, F.C.S., aiid A.
Oppenheim, Ph. D.—" Proceedings of the Philosophical Society
of Glasgow, Fifty-eighth Session."— r. C. 7r'(7/i7o»^"The Phytolo-
gist," December, 18.59, a work to which every botanist should
subscribe. — H. IV. H., Overnontoii.

CHAMBERS'S JOURNAL

POPULAR LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ARTS.

The remarkable popularity of this work, in various forms, during Twenty-eight Years, calls for expressions of
grateful aeknowledgment on the part of the editors. They have now to announce that steps are taken for increasing,
as far as possible, the literary attractions of the work. Amongst other features of interest forthcoming with the
New Year, is>

A TALE OF MODERN ENGLISH LIFE,

WHICH WILL EXTEND THROUGH SEVERAL MONTHS.

As a subordinate, but far from unimportant feature, the -svork will be printed in 18G0 with a new and clear type,
increasing the facilities ot those, in particular, who, while running) would readj namely railway travellers.

Chambers's Journal is piiblishd in Weekly Numbers at Three-halfpence, and in MontUy Paris ut Sevenpence ; and

ii Sold by all Booksellers.

^bhrtisniteitti

NEW BOOK FOR BOYS.

Just published, in elegant binding, for Christmas and New Year's
Gift, price 5s.,

OUT AND ABOUT.

A BOY'S ADVENTURES.
BY HAIN FRISWELL.

WITH SIX ILLUSTRATIONS BY GEORaE CKUIKSHANK

CONTEjrTS.

School — The Doctor's Message— Mrs. Taw's Story— Old Flock's
Philosophy — I grow Melancholy, and Despair — Surprising News
from the Doctor — Old Coacliing Days— The Drive to London —
I arrive in London to find myself Deserted — I meet with a Modern
Professor, who offers me a Home — Whicheoncernsmyveiy strange
Friend— How Time passed with the Professor — How I Ran for my
Life— The Lively Bessy — Northward hoi — The Regions of Ice-
Frozen to Death ! — Alone on the Arctic Sea — Frozen up — The
Esquimaux — The Graveyard in the Snow and Ice — Tiie Bear Hunt
— Lost on the Ice — The Traitor in the Sliip — The Storm and the
Wreck — Again in England — The Ocean of Land — New York —
Slave Sale — The Great Prairie Journey — Sinta Fe — The Rooky
Mijuntains — The Gold Diggers — Fiji and the Fijians^Home again
— I join my Ship — We Sail for Bushire and Land in Persia — The
Pearl-Divers and the Shark — Old Stump — Ned Paget concludes
his Story.

Opinions of the Fbess.

"If the stamina of a nation lie in its youth, the quality of that
youth must depend upon the training of its boys. Air. Friswell's
opening scene is one that will win applause from the Rector of
Eversley, and delight the heart of the author of • Tom Brown's
School Days.'" — Critic.

" The faithful History of Edward Paget, who, losing his
parents when young, had to fight his own way in the world. Ned
goes to London, from thence to the Arctic Seas and the Esqui-
maux ; from the Arctic Regions he goes to America ; from there
to the Prairies, then to the Feejee islands, and from thence to
Persia." — Leader.

" A capital book for boys, abounding in adventure and interest,
smacking strongly of the style of Captain Marryat." — Court
Journal.

" We can honestly recommend this cheerful and wcll-toned
volume, there is good descriptive power revealed in every page."
— Sunday Timen.

CHiriciSMsop "Out aitd knovt"— continued.

'' ' Out and About ' is, as its title declares, written for boys.
It is very well written. When the boy goes to sea and sees the
world, he sees a little of everything pleasantly enough." — Examiner.

" The most charming of these books is ' Out and About,' by
Hain Friswell, illustrated by George Cruikshank. "—JbAre Bull.

" The scenes in Iceland, in America, in the Islands of the South
Sea, and in Persia, display great power of observation." — Daily

" The author has amply succeeded in his object, ' Out and
About' is essentially a ' boy's book,' interesting and amusing, but
withal replete with sound precepts of practical conduct and manly
English feeling. It is just the book which a judicious father would
do well to place in the hands of his son." — Morning Chronicle.
London : Geoombkidge & Sons, 5, Paternoster Row.

NEW GIFT BOOK. BY EMILY TAYLOR.

Imperial 16mo, cloth gilt, price 3s. 6d., illustrated,

CHRONICLES OF AN OlD OAK;

OR, SKETCHES OF ENGLISH LIFE AND HISTORY.

BY EMILY TAYLOR,

Author of "The Boy and the Birds," "Tales of the English,"
etc., etc., etc.

Contents.

The Days of the Confessor.

The Penitent.

The Lion of Justice.

Brother and Sister.

Scholars, Crusaders, and Pilgrims.

Poet and Priest.

Old and New.

The Days of Elizabeth,

Cavalier and Roundhead.

Truths and Fancies.

Queen Anne.

Parting Words.

Opinions of the Peess.

" Discourses pleasantly of times and manners, and their
changes, showing, as every wise old tree should do, a fair amount
of antiquarian knowledge." — AthentBKm.

"Homely Chronicles of England, told in a style likely to be
agreeable to children. It is well written, and agreeably combines
amusement with instruction. — Critic.

" The plan is original and carried out with real ability." — Daily
News.

" The idea of an old talking oak being the medium for conveying
a quantity of historical information to young people is pleasant.
The illustrations are admirable." — Literary Gazette.

London: Groombeidge & Sons, 5, Paternoster Row.

MICROSCOPIC PHOTOGRAPHS NOW READY.

The Houses of Parliament, St. Paul's, Intervievr of Charles the First with his Family in the presence

of Cromwell, etc.

3MC I O lEl. O S CJ O I* 3E3 S.

J. AMADIO'S IMPROVED COMPOUND MICROSCOPES, £2 25. ; Students, £3 12s. Qd.

"Both these are from Amadio, of Throgmorton Street, and are excellent of their kind, the more expensive one especially." — House-

or s, 0.0. ^ Large Assortment of Achromatic Microscopes.

J. AMADIO'S BOTANICAL MICROSCOPE,

Packed in Mahogany Case, with three Powers, Condenser, Pincers, and Two Slides, will show the animalculain water, price 18«. 6(f.
The Field says, " It is marvellously cheap, and will do everything which the lover of nature can wish it to accomplish, either at home
or in the open air." — Jmie 6, 1857.

Microscopic Objects, 6s., 12s., and 18s. per dozen.

GREAT EASTERN.— Microscopic Photograph of the Great Ship, sent post free for 32 Stamps.

7, THROGMORTON STREET.

Just Published, Second Edition, an Illastrated and Descriptive Catalogue, containing the names
of 1,500 Microscopic Objects. Post free for Six Stamps.

ADYEETISEMENTS.

PHOTOGRAPHY.

BEST AND CHEAPEST HOUSE.

T SOLOMON, WHOLESALE OPTICAL

t) , AND PHOTOGRAPHIC WAREHOUSE, 22, Eed Lion

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Catalogues free on Application,

THE STARS AND THE TELESCOPE.

By J. T. SLTJGG.
PRICE ONE SHILLING.

Opinion of the Press :

" This Pocket Astronomy is written in simple language, and ap-
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who would have in small compass a clear epitome of the leading
facts of astronomy and the various celestial phenomena revealed by
the telescope, will find a shilling expended on this little book a very
agreeable and profitable investment."

London : Simpkin, Mahsdall, & Co. ; W. H. Smith & Soir.
Manchester : John Heywood.

1

AGIO LANTHOENS AND DISSOLVING

VIEWS for Sale or on Hire.

PRICE LISTS ON APPLICATION.

Microscopes, Stereoscopes, Telescopes, Barometers, and every
description of Philosophical Apparatus.

E. 6. WOOD, Optician, etc., 117, Cheapside, London, E.C.

SOCIETY OF ARTS' PRIZE
MICROSCOPES.

CAUTION TO THE PUBLIC.

Thb Society of Arts awarded the Prize Medals for both the Stu-
dents' and School Microscopes to Messrs. B. Pikld & Son, Bir-
mingham. The Microscopes now made are much superior to the
original, though the price is unaltered. The character they have
gained has induced other makers unwarrantably to apply the
name to instruments which, resembling them generally in form and
in price, are inferior in magnifying power, in number of lenses, and
in many other respects.

The Society of Arts' Prize Microscopes bear the name of

FIi:i.D & SON, BIRMZNGHAnC,

of whom, or their Agents, Illustrative Catalogues may be obtained
post free, for Two Penny Stamps.

BROWN & POLSON'S
PATENT CORN FLOUR.

♦•This is superior to anything of the kind known."— Xa«ee<.

Obtain it from Family Grocers, or Chemists, who do not try to
substitute inferior Artickla. Jlecipes on each Packet.

SECOND YEAR OF PUBUCATION.

Just Pubhshed, price Is.,

THE GAEDEN OEACLE, AND ECONOMIC

X YEAR BOOK FOR 1860. An Almanac for Nurserymen,
Gardeners, Allottees, Housewives, Keepers of Poultry, Bees, and
Pigeons, etc. The publication of the "Garden Oracle" last year
was attended with signal success. Two hirge impressions were de-
manded, and it was universally pronounced to be a great improve-
ment on the existing Almanacks devoted to Gardening. The issue
for 1860 will be published on the 1st of November. The improved
arrangements and varied nature of its contents, will, it is confidently
believed, render it the best work of the kind extant. Its publication,
in connection with the " Floral World and Garden Guide," ensures
for it a most extensive publicity, it being issued under the super-
vision of the Editor of that popular periodical.

The principal contents of the issue for 1860 are as follows : —
Ericas — A list of Ericas in bloom every day throughout the year,
and a Treatise on the Culture of Ericas, by a well-known experienced
hand. Winning Flowers of 1859 — A selection of the varieties which
have been most successful at Exhibitions. New Plants, Flowers,
and Fruits — Descriptive notices of all the novelties introduced during
the year. Reminders for 1860 — Cultural Notes, etc., for the guid-
ance of amateurs. Spergula Pilifera — its history, uses, culture, etc.
Illustrated with engravings. Lists of all the best Flowers, Vege-
tables, and Fruits adapted to various localities of Britain. Poultry
and Bee Keeping — Practical Notes by a well-known authority. Ori-
ginal Receipts for the House, Garden, and Farm.

London : Gboomebidge & Sons, 5, Paternoster Row.

Valuable Work of Reference for tlie Garden and
Greenhouse.

Elegantly bound, and profusely illustrated,
VOLUMES I. and II., price 6». each,

THE FiOlAL W©Bi.©

AND GARDEN GUIDE

contains

A COMPLETE CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS FOR THB

ENTIRE TEAR.

IS

The "Floral World and Garden Guide
Published Monthly, Price Fourpence.

Twenty -two Numbers are pubhshed, and wUl be sent, post fees, by
the Publishers, upon receipt of 7». 4i.

Contents op No. 22, Peicb Fouhpence.

A tasteful garden

Adiantum cuneatum

Alpinia nutans

Alyssum and aubrietia in beds

Amaryllis not flowering

Architectural adornments

Asparagus culture

Bedding plants

Beds of geraniums and fuchsias

Books and catalogues received

Californian sunflower

Cliinese hollyhocks

Chrysanthemums at shows

Conifers for a winter bed

Cucumbers under vines

Dahlia dressing

Faults of dahlias

Floral designs

Flowers for entrance hall

Fuchsias exhibited in September

Gas tar on apple trees

Heating small greenhouse

Horticultural society meetings

Hyacinths for glosses

Hyacinths in Jardiniere

Ixia and sparaxis

Langport flower show

Loomes's cable edging tile
Magnolia out of doors
Management of Jardinieres
Market produce

McEwen on culture of the peach
Mulberry producing male bios-
Names of ferns ["ow
National show
New Gardens at Kensington
New dahlias
Notes of the month
Passifloras

Pit for bedding plants
Pompones for an eight feet bed
Principles of taste in garden em-
bellishment
Profitable gardening, chap. xiv.
Ransome's imperishable stone
Kenealmia nutans
Roses exhibited in September
Rhubarb culture
Sea Kale, culture of
Stocks of roses
Tuberose culture
Vinery

Vines in a carrion border [plants
Winter protection of bedding

%* Order the "Floral World and Garden Guide," monthly, cf any
Bookseller, who will deliver it on the day of puhlieaiion,

London : GROOMBEiDaB & SoifSi 5, Paternostei: Kow.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

Just published, 8vo, cloth, price 1». Cd.,

ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY

(In which it is demonstrated that there is a Latent Electricity ex-
isting in bodies, as well as a Latent Heat; and that those bodies,
when deprived of their Latent Electricity, indicate a change in their
characteristic properties).

BY CHARLES CHALMERS,

Late of Mcrchiston Academy.

London : JoHif Chuechili,, New Burlington Street ; Maclachlan
& Stewaet, Edinburgh ; and G. & K. King, Aberdeen.

May also be had of the Author, Merchiston Castle Bank, Edinburgh.

Now ready, in wrapper, price 6d.,

ON THE COMPAEATIVE VALUE OE CEE-
TAIN SALTS for Rendering FABRICS NON-INFLAM-
■ MABLE : being the substance read before'the British AssociAiioir,
at Aberdeen. By F. Vebsmann, F.C.S., and A. Oppenheim, Ph.D.

N. Teubnee & Co., 60, Paternoster Eow.

MINERALOGY AND GEOLOG"^.— Practical
Instruction is given in these interesting branches of Science
by Mr. TENNANT .Geologist, 149, Strand, W.C. Mr. Tknnant
can supply Elementary Collections and Separate Specimens of
Shells, Minerals, Rocks, and Fossils ; also. Geological Maps,
Models, Diagrams, Hammers, Blowpipes, Acid Bottles, Magnifying
Glasses, Glass-top Boxes, and Microscopic Objects ; and all recent
Works on Conchology, Chemistry, MineralogyBotany, and Geology.

Price 7s. 6(7. each, £i is. per dozen,

THE STEREOSCOPE,

A Means of Intellectual Amusement. Views in Rome, Italy, and
Switzerland. The magnificent New Series of Views, which excited
BO much interest at the meeting of the Alpine Club, were exhibited
by, and are to be obtained of Messrs. Mueeat & Heath, 43, Picca-
dilly, W., near Sackville Street.

EDUCATIONAL ACHROMATIC MICROSCOPE^

Complete at £3 3s.

n BAKEH, of 243 & 244, HIGH HOLBOUN,

\Jt from the introduction of Improved Machinery, is now
enabled to produce the most Supeeiok Achromatic Miceoscope
for Educational Pueposes ever offered to the Public, at the very
low price of £'d 3s. They are complete for all general purposes, and
have THREE beautifully defining ACHROMATIC OBJECT
GLASSES, that are capable of showing all the generally known
tests in a way never before attempted with an instrument of that
class. Also

The LARGEST ASSORTMENT IN LONDON of FIRST-
CLASS MICROSCOPES always in Stock, at the lowest possible
price it is possible to produce first-class Instruments.

Botanical, Geological, and Entomological Microscopes, at 10». 6i.
each.

OPPOSITE DAY AND MARTIN'S.

(ESTABLISHED 1765.)

CARPENTER & WESTLEY'S

DISSOLVING VIEWS.

AMUSEMENT AND INSTRUCTION

BT MEANS OF
WITH THE

CHEOMATEOPE AND DISSOLVING VIEWS,

AND EVERY POSSIBLE VARIETY OP SLIDERS,

UfCLUDINS

COMIC, LEVER, MOVEABLE HACKWORK, AND PLAIN

ASTRONOMICAL DIAGRAMS,

VIEWS IN THE HOLY LAND, ETC.

No. 1 Lantern, with Argand Lamp, in a Box, £2 12«, 6d. ; No. 2
ditto, of a larger size, £4 14». 6d.

A PAIR OF DISSOLVING VIEW LANTERNS,

No. 2, with Apparatus, £12 6».

N.B. — The above prices do not include Sliders for the Lanterns,
so that when an order is given it wiU be better for the purch.aser to
specify the amount to be expended. A good assortment of Sliders
for Dissolving Views may be obtained for £20 or £30,

LISTS OF SLIDERS AND PRICES FOKW^ARDED UPON
APPLICATION.

CARPENTER AND WESTLEY,
OPTICIANS,

24, Regent Street,Waterloo Place, London, S.W.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

E. BURTON'S

CANNOT BE SURPASSED AT TKE PRICES CHARGED.

Apply at the Manufactory, 47, Church Street, Minories, E., for an

Illustrated Catalogue, either personally or by sending

two (tamps.

EXPERIMENTAL WORK: TO ORDER.

MICEOSCOPES AND TELESCOPES.

NEWTON'S STUDENTS' ACHROMATIC
MICROSCOPE, in Case, with two sets of Achromatics, Con-
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senpe, with Seven Powers, maijnifies 20,000 times, £2 15»., ditto,
10*. Gd., 16*., and 18». &d. each. ACHROMATIC TELES-
COPES, ]0«. to £2. Ditto for India, Deer-stalkin?, etc., of very
great power, to show Jupiter's Moon^, in Black Leather Sling-
cases, £3 3s. each.

MAGIC-LANTERNS AND DISSOLViPJO VIEWS.

NEWTON'S IMPEOVED PHANTASMA-
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a pair of 3.i-inch Lanterns, £.S 8s. MAGIC LANTERNS, with 12
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other subjects.

ILLUSTRATED PRICE-LIST FOR THREE STAMPS.

NEWTON & CO.,

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Imperial 16mo, cloth gilt, price 3«. 6(7.,

A WORLD OF WONDEES REVEALED
BY THE MICROSCOPE.

A BOOK FOR YOUNG STUDENTS.

By the Hon. Mrs, Ward,

With Colflnred Illustrations, delineating 130 Microscopic Objects.

"Wings of Insects— Wings and Scales of Moths and Butterflies-
Scales of Beetles and Fishes — Hairs of Animals — Human Hair —
Down of Birds — Hairs of Insects — Structure of a Feather — Sections
of Limestone— Mineral Productions— Structure of the CrystaUine
Lens— Section of the Eye— Eyes of Insects— Feet of Insects— Petal
of Geranium— Pollen of Flowers— Graiu-Claws of Spider — Foot of
Butterfly— Seed Vessels of Ferns.

London: GEooMBEiDau & Soxs, 5, PaternosferRow.

FOR CHRISTMAS TREES, BIRTHDAYS, & REWARDS.

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BUDS AND BLOSSOMS, AND STORIES FOR SUMMER
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SIX Packets, each Packet containing SIX Stories for SIXPENCE,
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Packet 1 contains The Story of a Daisy— Rover and his Friends
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man's Children— Little Peepy — Rabbits and Peewits — Alice and her
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Cat— Cousin Johnny and his Indian Nurse.

Packet 6 contains Tommy and his Baby Brother — The Christmas
Partv — Parrots and Nightingales— Light AVing and Bright Eye —
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*«* Any Packet may be had separately of any bookseller, 6d. each,

ELEVEN Packets, each Packet containing THREE Stories for
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Packet 7 containing The Coral Necklace — Visit to the Water
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Packet 8 contains Walter and Mary — Lady Eva — The Cottager's
Christmas.

Packet 9 contains More Haste Less Speed — The Story of a
Hyacinth — Primrose Gathering.

Packet 10 contains The Queen of the May — The Cherry Orchard
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Packet 11 contains The Young Gardener — Mary's Visit to the
Gold Fields— The Little Black People.

Packet 12 contains The Young Prince — Penfold Farm — Ernest's
Dream, a Christmas Story.

Packet 13 contains Adventures in the Moss Hut — The Losses of
a Day — The Smoke and the Kite.

Packet U contains Carl Thorn's Revenge — Ally's Birth-day —
William Tell.

Packet 15 contains Eight is Ri'ght, Part I.— Right is Right,
Part II. — AVishing and Woiking.

Packet 16 contains Elm Villa — Lost and Found— Little Tim
and his Frii-nd the Cobbler.

Packet 17 contains The Story of Peter Lawley — My Young
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EIGHT PACKETS, each Packet containing FOUR Stories for
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Packet 3 contains The Widow's Son — The Children and the
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Packet 4 contains The Prophet and the Lost City — The Found-
ling of the Wreck — In School and Out of School — The Young Artist.

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ADVEETISEMEKTS.

§ooIis for

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pEMS FllOM THE POETS. Illustrated.

VX Complete in One Superb Volume, with Twenty-eiglit Plates
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Campbell, Croly, Thomson, Falconer, Milton. With Illuminated
Title. Arabesque Binding. Price One Guinea.

OUT AND ABOUT : A Boy's Adventures.

Written for Adventurous Boys. By Hai.v Fhiswull. Illustrated
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UNDEE BOW BELLS : A City Book for all

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CUEIOSITIES OF WAR, and Military Studies :

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CIIEONICLES OF AN OLD OAK. Sketches

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TELESCOPE TEACHINGS : a Familiar Sketch

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SHIRLEY HIBBERD'S WORXCS:

E

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OME INFLUENCE. A Tale for Mothers and

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THE MOTHEE'S EECOMPENSE. A Sequel

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HOME SCENES AND HEAET STUDIES.

Tales. Fcap. Svo, cloth, Frontispiece, price 6s. 6d.
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THE WOMEN OF ISEAEL. Characters and

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ILLUSTEATIONS OF THE LAW OF KIND-

KESS. By the Eev. G. W. Montgomery. The ±' ourth English
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HAS NOW IX STOCK, EEADT FOR DELIVERY, A CHOICE COILECTIOX OE

• WITH ALL THE ACCESSORY APPARATUS.

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Microscopical Society c.f London, President's Address. See Qmrferly Jota ml, ^ ol, ^ . p. 1 1-

T. ROSS M.I., Ud .p.ards of 2' years cperlence fUJ. M. ^f^^-^^^^.^^^Z::^ "'"'"'"' ''""^"'""
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THOHA" HAi:H.I.l^, rUlMIin, EAI.1SEUKY fUl.'AEB, FIBF.T STREET, LOlTDOIf,

RECREATIVE SCIENCE," No. 8, will be Published February 29th, 1860.

Conttitts

Of No. 7.

PACK

The Common House Spider. By .Tas. Samuelsok 217
The Conjunctiok oe the Planets Jtjpiteb

AND Venus, on the Morning of July 21,

1859. By THE Hon. Mes. Ward 222

Notes on the Eland. By II. Noel HuMniBETS 224
The Balance of Life and Death — A Teachino

of the Aquarium. By Shirley Hibbekd... 22G
The Anecdote History of Photography —

Collection II. By Chas. Maybury Archer 231
The Geology of the Fireside— Coal. By S. J

Mackie 233

Studies of Colour. By Godfrey Turner 238

Eaphides; or, Microscopic Plant Crystals.

By TuFFEN West 242

The Articles in " RecTeative Science " are Copyright, and the Right of Translation is reserved.

Communications for "the Editor to be addressed to tlic Publishers, Messrs. Geoombridge & Sons,

5, Paternoster Eow.

*,* Correspondents are desired in nil cases to communicate their real names and addresses, which will, as a rule, be held in confidence.

LetteriJnoeding a reply should reach us by the 15ih at latest.

OUR LETTER-BOX.

A Catalogue of all the Comets whose orbits

HAVE hitherto BEEN COMPUTED. By GeORGE

F. Chambeus

Meteorology of February. By E. J. Lowe . . .
Astronomical Observations foe February,

18G0. By E. J.Lowe

Things of the Season — February

Mr. Noteworthy's Corner

Optical Phenomenon

Hunt's Cinephantic Colour-top

The New Intra-Meecueial Planet

Stereoscopic Phenomenon

A Cheap Telescope

English Coppee Coinage

217
250

250
251
251
251
251
251
252
252
252

J. W. — Any worker in molals in your own district will make the
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M. G. C. will have immediate attention and a reply through
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THE ENGLISH CYCLOPJiDIA.

(FOURTH DIVISION.)

A'R TS AND SCIEN C E S.

The following list exhibits the leading departments of the CvcLOP^DtA of Arts and Sciences; and the names of
some of the new Contributors are subjoined. This division also includes all branches of miscellaneous information not
included in either of the other three.

Mathematics— Astronomy— Optics— Mathematical, Astronomical, and Optical Instruments-
Acoustics— Dynamics— Electricity— Magnetism— Meteorology.

G. B. Airy, A.M., Trinity Colles^e, Cambridge, Astronomer
Eoyal.— E. W. Bratley, F.R.S.— Robert Gbant, M.A., T.R.A.S.
— A. De MoKGAN, A.M., Trinity College, Cambridge, Professor of
Mathematics at University CoUesre, London. — Kbv. E. Murphy
(the late), Caius College, Cambridge. — A. Eoss. — Eev. E. Sheep-

shanks, A.M. (the late). Trinity College, Cambridge. — Gbobge G.
Stokes, A.M., F.E.S., Lucasian Professor, Cambridge. — Charles
ToMLiifsoN, Lecturer on Science, King's College. — Eobebi Willis,
A.M., F.E.S., Jacksonian Professor, Cambridge.

Chemistry— Materia Medica, Medicine, Surgery.

W. Balet, M.D.— Db. Becker (the late), of Berlin.— R. Dick-
SDK, M.U. — J. Farish, A.m., Trinity College, Cumbridge. — E.
FRANKT.AlfD, Ph. D., F.E.S,, Lecturer ou Chemistry, St. Bartholo-
mew's Hospital. — Dr. Gbekm-hill, Trinity College, Oxford. — C. J.

Johnstone, M.D. (the late) .— E. Lankestkh, M.D. — J. Paget,
St. Biirtholomew's Hospital. — E. Phillips, F.E.S. (the late).— J.
Simon, M.D. — Southwood T. Smith, M.D.— W, Youatt (the late).
Veterinary Surgery.

Fine Arts, Sculpture, Painting, Architecture, etc.— Building and Engineering— Music and

Musical Instruments.

W. Ayrton, F.E.S., F.S.A. (the late).— G. R. Buhnell, C.E.—
Sir C. L. Eastlake, President of the Royal Academy. — W. Hos-
KiNO, Professor of Architecture at King's College. — H. HotvARD,

R.A. (the late). Professor of Painting, Eoyal Academy. — Jamks
Thorne (Pine Arts). — E. Westmacott, EIa. — E. N, Wobncm,
Keeper and Secret.iry of the National Gallery.

Navigation and Military Sciences.

Professor Davies, Woolwich. — Hon. Captain Devereux, I raatics. Royal College, Sandhurst. — Major Proctkb, Royal Mili-
R.N.— Captaix Donnelly, R.N.— J. Narrien, Professor of Mathe- | tary College, Sandhui'st. — S. M. Saxby, E.N.

Rural Economy.

Eev. W. HiCKET.— J. Ciialmkhs Morton.— Eor. W. L. Rham (the late), "Vicar of Winkfield.
Manufactures and Machinery.

T. Bradley, Professor of Geometrical Drawing, Woolwich,
and King's College, London. — G. R. Burnell, C.E. — Edward
CowPKE (the late). Professor of Manufacturing Art and Machinery,

Philology— Mental Philosophy— Government and Political Economy.

King's College, London.— G. Dodd. — E. Nobris, Roval Asiatic
Society.— A. Ross.— J. T. Staxesby.- A. Uee, M.D., F.R.S. (tlie
late) .

W. D. Christie, A.M., Trinity College, Cambridge.— A De
Morgan (Logic). — J. Hoppus, Professor of Mental Philosophy,
University College, London. — T. II. Key, A.M., Trinity College,
Cambridge, and University College, London. — Charles Knight.

— George Long, A.M. — T. K. May, Barrister-at-Law, House of
Commons. — Rev. A.J. W. Morri^ion, A.M., Trinity College, Cam-
bridge.—G. R. Poutbb, F.R.S. (the late), Secretary of the Board
of Trade.

J. T. Abdy, LL.D,, Regius Professor of Civil Law, Cambridge.—
J. H. Burton, Advocate, Edinburgh. — James E. Davis, Barrister-
at-Law. — J. C. F. S. Day, Barrister-at-Law.— T. FALCOifEB, Bar-
rister-at-Law.— James Grant, Barrister-at-Law. — D. Jardinb,
A.M., Barrister-at-Law. — Robert Malcolm Kerr, LL.D., Advo-
cate and Barrister-at-Law. — George I>ong, A.M. — J. J. Lonsdale,

Iiaw and Jurisprudence.

Barrister-at-Law. — D. MacLachlan, Barrister-at-Law. — Mr.
Serjeant Manning. — John A. Eussbll, LL.B., Barrister-at-
Law, Professor of English Law in University College, London. —
Alfred Waddiloye, D.C.L., Advocate, Doctors* Conuuons, and
Barrister-at-Law.

London : Bradbury & Evans, 11, Bouverle Street, E.G.

CHARLES KNIGHT'S ENGLAND.

THE FIVE VOLUMES

POPULAR HISTORY OF ENGLAND,

Which are now completed — having also been issued in Forii/ Monthly Parts — bring down the annals of our country from the Invasion of
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HOUSE OF BEUNSWIOK.

It is the Author's intention to comprise this eventful era in Three Volumes, which will complete the entire Work. The work is issued
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SECOND DIVISION", entirely re-written, containing the Non-Metallic Elements and their Compounds, Air, Water, the Gases, the
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Containing Introductory Facts and Elementary Experiments, with 100 Engravings, price 2«.

London: John J. Griffin, 119, Bunhill Kow ; and R. Griffin & Co., Stationers' Hall Court; and Glasgow.

MICROSCOPIC PHOTOGRAPHS NOW READY.

Tlie Houses of Parliament, St. Paul's, Interview of Charles the First with his Family in the presence

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T7ESX* E3 S O O I»E! T E! -A- O H I IST C3- S ;

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Combining a Special Notice of Objects coming within the range of a Small Telescope, illustrated by the Author's Original Drawings, with
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of the Heavenly Bodies, including the recent Comet.

BY THE HON. MRS. WARD,

Author of "A World of Wonders Eevealed by the Microscope."
LIST OF PLATES,

FROM THE AUTHOB's OKIQIITAL DRAWINGS.

1. The Snn— Solar Spots.

2. Observations of the Sun.

3. Eclipse of the Moon.

4. Map of the Moon.

5. Portions of the Moon's Surface.

6. Partial Eclipse of the Sun.

7. Mercury, Venus, and Mars.

8. Jupiter and its Satellites.

9. Saturn.

10. The Comet of 1854.

11. Donati's Comet.

12. Donati's Comet, on Oct. 11, 1858.

13. Miniature Chart of the Ap-

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14. A Palling or Shooting Star.

15. Fixed Stars.

16. Clusters and Nebulae.

London: Groombridge & Sons, Publishers, 5, Paternoster Row.

Imperial 16mo, cloth gilt, price 3s. 6rf.,

A WORLD OF WONDERS REVEALED BY THE MICROSCOPE.

A BOOK FOR YOUNG STUDENTS.

B"Z" THIS 13: 0 1ST. lyCI^S- ^WJ^.'^jJOi

With Coloured Illustrations, delineating 130 Microscopic Objects.
*"" Wings of Insects— Wings and Scales of Moths and Butterflies— Scales of Beetles and Fishes— Hairs of Animals— Human Hair-
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MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGl.— Practical
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by Mr. TENNANT, Geologist, 149, Strand, "W.C. Mr. Tknnant
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CHILDREN OF OTHER LANDS:

Some Play-time Tales for Children of England.
By SARA WOOD.

CONTES'TS : —

Fridolin and Babeli — A Swiss Talc.
The Box of Bonbons — A French Tale.
The.Forest Festival — A Sketch of German Life.
Meek-Eye — An Arabian Night's Entertainment.
Ivan's Dream — A Tale of Siberia.
The Lost Slipper— A Turkish Tale.

English Children who read these little Tales during their play-
hours, may find it amune them to be told, of the different ways and
doings of children in other countries ; and it m&y interest them to
find how many of their thoughts and feelings are like their own ;
while it may also tench them something to see that every child,
whether dwelling amid mountains and valleys, on desert plain.', or
in crowded cities, is made happy by Love and Goodness, and the
Joys of Home.

Groombkidge & Soys, Publishers, 5, Paternoster Row.

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AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE

APPLIED IN PRACTICE.

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In the press, in small crown 8vo, cloth extra, price 3«. Qd.,

HANDY BOOK OF MEDICAL INFORMATION
AND ADVICE,

Containing a Brief Account of the Nature and Treatment of Com-
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Suggestions as to the Management of the Siok-room, and the Pre-
servation of Health, and an Appindix, in which will be found a List
of the Medicines referred to in the Work, with their Proper Doses
and Modes of Administration,

By A PHYSICIAN,
London: James Hogo & Sohb, 9, St, Bride's Avenue, Fleet St., 'E.C.

ADVEETISEMENTS.

THE

The most Useful, and at the lame time the Cheapest
Periodical devoted to Horticultural Subjects, is

Fi©BAL W0RL©

AND GARDEN GUIDE.

Published Monthly, Price Fourpence.

Subscribers wishing to commence a New Volume, should order
Number 25, pubUshed January 1st, 1860.

Two Volumes are pubUshed, and may be had, elegantly bound,
cloth gilt, price 6«. each.

The following 50 Original Articles contained in recent Numbers
will develop the nature of the Work, which is acknowledged on all
hands to be a Valuable Work of Reference for the Garden and the
Greenhouse.

Titles of Fifty Aeticies coxtainbd iir EecehiT Ncmbebs of

The Flobal Wobld,
Miniature fruit gardens
Wet soils and small seeds
How, when, and where to plant
roses

Jardinieres and stone edgiags
Profitable gardening
Practical rustic work
Cottage architecture and rustic

adornments
A cheap pit for amateurs
Florists' flowers and new plants
Grasses, grass plots, and lawns
Monthly work in garden and

greenhouse
Planting a fern case
Culture and training of the

raspberry
Plan of a town garden [shrubs
Hardy evergreen flowering
Newly invented garden pots
Useful inventions applied to

horticulture [measures

Bedding plants and preserTative
Culture of the potatoe
Hyacinths in pots and glasses
Tank heating and early forcing
Mushroom culture simplified
Culture and training of the

gooseberry
Winter culture of the cucumber

Grape vines in pots

Bulbous flowers and lycopodiuma

AValtonian cases

Stocks and grafts [vases

Evergreen trees and plants for

The chemistry of horticulture

Natural history of the wire-worm.

The verbena and other bedding

plants
Asparagus, sea-kale, and rhubarb
Culture of the peach
Success in cultivating ericas
Treatment of unfruitful trees
Among the ferns to gather know.
Geometrical gardens [ledge

Culture of the cabbage tribe
Plants for various soils
Management of stove plants
Lists of herbaceous plants
The law of garden fixtures
Manures and fertilisers
Trees and shrubs in London
The theory and practice of

pruning
Eockeries and wild flowers
Management of cold frames and

pits
Orchard houses, to build and

manage
Monthly garden calendar

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London : GnooiiBitisfiji k Sox8, 5, Pateraoster Eow.

Almanac for the New Year .—Essential to the Florist, In-
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T

Just Published, price Is.; sent Post Free for 12 stamps,

HE GAKDEN OEACLE, AND ECONOMIC

YEAE BOOK FOR 1860.

The principal contents of the issue for 1860 are as follows : —
Ericas— A list of Ericas in bloom every day throughout the year,
and a Treatise on the Culture of Ericas, by a well-known experienced
hand. Winning Flowers of 1859 — A selection of the varieties which
have been most successful at Exhibitions. New Plants, Flowers,
and Fruits — Descriptive notices of all the novelties introduced during
the year. Reminders for 1860— Cultural Notes, etc., for the guid-
ance of amateurs. Spergula Pilifera — its history, uses, culture, etc.
Illustrated with engravings. Lists of all the best Flowers, Vege-
tables, and Fruits adapted to various localities of Britain. Poultry
and Bee Keeping — Practical Nates by a well-known authority. Ori-
ginal Receipts for the House, Garden, and Farm.

*,* Order the Garden Oracle, price 1*., of any Bookseller, or of
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London : Gioohbbidbi & SoifS, 6, Paternoster Row.

NEW WORK BY DR. BROWN,
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PEDEN THE PROPHET:

A TALE OF THE COVENANTERS. FOUNDED ON FACT.
BY THE REV. A. MORTON BROWN, LL.D,

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tcealth.

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London : John S.now, Paternoster Row.

Second Edition, 12mo, cloth, 2s.,

LESSONS ON THE PHENOMENA OF INDUSTRIAL LIFE

A2fD THE

CONDITIONS OF INDUSTRIAL STJCCESS.

Edited by RICHARD DAWES, Dean op HERBroKD.

Contbnts ;

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Knowledge and Skill.

Economy.

Wealth.

Capital.

Profit.

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Property.

Kent.

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Value.

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Precious Metals.

Credit and Bills.

Banking.

Rates of Exchange.

Paper Money.

Insurance.

Price.

Interest and Annuities.

Industrial Progress,

Emigration.

Base Money.

Restrictions.

Industrial Derangement,

Combinations.

Strikes and Lock Outl.

Taxation.

Property vacant by Death.

London: Gkoombkidgb & Sons, Publishers, 5, Paternoster Row.

BROWN & POLSON'S
PATENT CORN FLOUR*

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Obtain it from Family Grocer*, or Chemists, who do not trj t<J
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ADYEETISEMENTS.

MURRAY AND HEATH,

43, PICCADILLY, LONDON, W.,

TO HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN, THE GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS, AND THE CHIEF

SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

MESSES. MUEEAT AND HExlTH invite all who practise Pbotograplir, as well aa those
who are interested in the Art, to send for their Catalogue, and for their Pamphlet on New Processes and Apparatus,
which, together can be forwarded for Four Postage Stamps.

It is highly gratifying to MURRAY AND HEATH to be enabled to state that the introduction of their Ne-w and Improved Apparatus
hM been attended witti very great success and approbation. They possess, also, the most flatterin? testimoni ils in proof of the care
taken in the selection and complete litness of the materiiils used,* a point which is unquestionably a-s imp irtant as any other in the
manufacture of apparatus. It is a faetof some weight asconflrmatoryof this statement, that thev have been entrusted with the manufacture
of the following special sets, viz. : — For Lord Elgin's Embassy to China, Dr. Livingstone's Exnedition to Africa, Mr. Ellis's Mission to
Madagascar, and the Siamese Embassy. They have likewise just sent off, by command of the Grovemment. a m)st tliorou;;hly complete
and efficient set for the Persian Mission under Sir Henry Rawlinsou. In addition to this, they have furnished comnlete sets to several of
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every distinguished British I'hotographer of eminence — professional and aoiateur.

These evidences of success and approval, MURRAY AND HE.\TH respectfully offer to general notice, trusting thereby to merit the
attention of those who are about to use or send Apparatus to India, the Colonies, etc., as well as that of merchants and siiippers who receive
commissions from abroad.

Recognizing the Drinciple thev have ever kept in view, viz., that the progress of photography is in somf measure dependent upon the
perfection of the Apparatus, MURRAY AND HEATH venture to add that their attention is still devoted to the. production of improved
methods and contrivances, believing tbat true'economr in Apparatus is its excellence and usefulness ; nor are they without confidence —
certain houses having most unfairly imitated and copied Apparatus which is specially their own — that theirs, by reason of its originality
■will retain its admitted excellence.

* See Extracts— Letters from China and Madagascar— page 2 and 3 of Pamphlet.

CAY GARDENS. BEAUTBFUL FLOWERS. HAPPY HOMES.

Second Edition, fcap. 8vo, cloth, price 3s. 6i.,

MANUAL FOR THE MANAG-EMENT OF CITY AND SUBURBAN
Author of " Rustic Adornments for Homes of Taste," " The Book of the Aquarium," etc., etc.

GARDENS.

OONTE
TAKING A HOUSE AND MAKING A GARDEN.
DIGGING, DRAINING, AND MAKING WALKS.
PLANNmG AND LAYING OUT.
AN OliJK^DEN RESTORED.
AN OLD GARDEN EEMODELLED.
PLANS FOR TOWN GARDENS.
PREPARATIONS ESSENTIAL TO SUCCESS.
TREES AND SHRUBS.
ROSES.
HERBACEOUS BORDER FLOWERS.

NTS,

TUBEROUS ROOTED PERENNIALS.

ANNUALS AND BIENNIALS.

GREENHOUSES, PITS, AND FRAMES.

PESTS OF THE GARDEN.

SEASONAL WORK.

IMPLEMENTS AND ORNAMENTS.

SELECTIONS OF TREES AND SHRUBS.

SELECT LISTS OP FLOWERS.

WINDOW PLANTS.

THE GRAPE-VINE IN THE SUBURBS.

London : GBOOMBEiDaE & Soxs, Publishers, 5, Paternoster Row.

ilCE EICKTPENCE.

MONTHLYIRECORD

I

mi

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,u^ "^TlW^gBipMBBHB^ ^„

^^^H^H

i

■--#ja?gs^

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WjA - L o ha D o N hI

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^ .^fcROOMBRiaCE: AND SONS^|
^■5, PATERNOSTER ROW^ ^

H^^i

TUOIIAS HARKItD, PEIMIEK, SAUSUt'liY SQUABE, FLEEI SIBEET, tONDOlf.

"EECREATIVE SCIENCE," No. 9, will be Published March 31st, 1860.

C 0 11 1 nt t s

Of No. 8.

tAGE
PHrSICAL EVIDEKCES OF THE InTEEXAI HEAT OF

THE Eaeth. Paet I. — Volcanoes and

Earthquakes. By Shiriey Hibberd 253

Atjdttbon, the Oenithologist. By Hain Feis-

WEIL 261

Deteemination of Latitude. By A. J. Daties 265
Watside Weeds and theie Teachings. In
Six Handfuls. — Handful III. By Spencer

Thompson, M.D 266

The Anatomy of a Cube.- By W. B. Te&etmeiie 271

The Electrotype. By R. Bithell 275

The Lunar Eclipse of Eebeuaey 7, 1860 By

Mary Ward 279

The First Butterfly 283

fX6

A Catalogue of ali the Comets whose Orbits

HATE HITHEETO BEEN COMPUTED. CON-
CLUDED. By George F. Chambers 28

Meteoeology of Maech. By E. J. Lowe 28

AsTEONOMiCAL Obseevations FOE Maech, 1860... 28

Things of the Season — March 28

Me. Notewoethy's Corner 28

Food for Tame Fishes 28

Cheap Gas Regulator 28

Meteorology of 1859 28

Other People's Pets 28

Suggestion for a Binoscopic Toy 28

Lightning-eods 28

Do Dogs Understand Human Speech? ... 28

The Articles in Recreative Science" are Copyright, and the Right of Translation is reserved.

Communications for the Editor to be addressed to the Publishers, Messrs. Geoombeidge & Sons,

5, Paternoster Row.

*,* Correipondents are desired in all cases to communicate tiieir real names and addresses, wUch will, as a rule, be held in confidenci

Letters needing a reply should reach us by the 15th at latest.

OUR LETTER-BOX.

Uicmttn,—" Many Sappy Returns of the Day," by Charles and
Mary Cowdeii Clarke, illustrated by the Brothers Dalriel i JLock-
■woud and Co. One of the prettiest birthday presents ever pro-
duced.— G. — C. W. S. — Progressionist; Referred for special treat-
ment at an early opportunity.

SxoiiM Glass — The composition used in the storm glass is a
solution of camphor in spirits of wine. Many experienced sea-
captains have great faith in the indications of the instrument, and
many experienced meteorologists say it is of no use whatever,

Diatoms.— S. C— The only authoritative work Is " Smith's Di:
tomacsB," illustrated by Tuffen West, F.L.S.

Makink Animals. — J. B.— The smaller inhabitants of the aquE
rium will be described as opportunities occur.

T. R., LiVEitPOOL. — Black-veined Butterily, Pteris cratasgi <
Curtis. Plentiful and destructive on the continent, qtiite local i
Britain; caterpillar usually found on the whitethorn.

Z. A., Maltbbn. — Any soft insect food will suffice for your pet
earthworms a-re the most easily attainable.

^Hertisniiutti

NEW EDITION, ISmo, CLOTH, PRICE Is. 4d.,

COMMON THINGS MADE PLAIN.

% f esMii-toflli 011 ^ahjuh Jfamilia' to ^trg-ki fife.
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AETICLES OF FOOD.

VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES

ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.

EEUITS.

SPICES.

OILS.

MANUFACTURES.

COLOUES AND DYES.

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JAPANNED GOODS.

TOBACCO AND OPIUM.

POISONOUS SUBSTANCES

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GUMS.

METALS.

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PEECIOUS STONES.

ACIDS.

ALKALIES.

SALTS.

LONDON 1 GROOMBRIDGE AND SONS, PUBLISHERS, 5, PATERNOSTER ROW.

^bkrtistm^nfs. '

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THE ENGLISH CYCLOPJIDIA.

(FOUETH DIVISION.)

A R TS AND SCIEN C E S.

The following list exhibits the leading departments of the Cyclop;edia of Arts and Sciences ; and the names of
some of the new Contributors are subjoined. This division also includes all branches of miscellaneous information not
included in either of the other three.

Mathematics— Astronomy— Optics— Mathematical, Astxonom,ical, and Optical lustmments—
Acoustics— Dynamics— EHectxicity— Magnetism— Meteozology.

SHANKS, A.M. (the late), Trinity College, Cambridge. — Geobgb G,
Stokes, A.M., F.E.S. Lucasian Professor, Cambridge. — Cha.ri.B8
ToMLiNSOK, Lecturer on Science, King's College. — Eobebi Willis,
A.M., F.K.S., Jacksonian Professor, Cambridge.

G. B. AlET, A.M., Trinity College, Cambridge, Astronomer
Royal.— E. W. Bratlby, F.U.S.— Kobkrt Gbant, M.A., F.R.A.S.
—A. De MoBOAif, A.M., Trinity College, Cambridge, Professor of
Mathematics at University College, London. — Rev. R. Murphy
(the late), Caius College, Cambridge. — A. Ross. — Rev. R. Sheep-

"W. Balbt, M.D.— De. Beckek (the late), of Berlin.— R. Dick-
SOlf, M.D.— J. Fabish, A.m., Trinity College, Cambridge.— E.
FKANKr.AND, Ph. D., F.R.S., Lecturer on Chemistry, St. Bartholo-
mew's Hospital.— Dr. GbbejN'hill, Trinity College, Oxford.— C. J.

Chemistry— Materia Medica, Medicine, Surgery <

Johnstone, M.D. (the late).— E. Lawkesteb, M.D. — J. Pagbt,
St. Bartholomew's Hospital. — R. Phillips, E.R.S. (the late).— J.
Simon, M.D.— Southwood T. Smith, M.D.— W. Touatt (the late),
Veterinary Surgery.

Fine Arts, Sculpture, Painting, Architecture, etc.— Building and Engineering— Music and

Musical Instruments.

W. Aybton, F.R.S., F.S.A. (the late) — G. K. Bcrnkll, C.E.—
Sir C. L. Eastlakb, President of the Koyal Academy.— W. Hos-
XiNo, Professor of Architecture at King's College. — H. Howard,

R.A. (the late). Professor of Painting, Royal Academy, — Jaubs
Thorne (Fine Arts). — R. Westmacott, R.'A. — R. N. Wobnuji,
Keeper and Secretary of the National Gallery.

Navigation and Military Sciences.

pHOFBisOB Davies, Woolwich. — Hon. Captain Devereux, I matics. Royal College, Sandhurst. — Major Procteb, Royal Mili-
E.N.— Captaix Donnelly, R.N.— J. Narrien, Professor of Mathe- | tary College, Sandhurst.— S. M. Saxby, R.N.

Rural Economy.

Rot. W. Hicket.— J. Chalmees Morion.— Rev. W. L. Rham (the late), Vicar of Winkfield.
Maniifactures and Machinery.

T. Bkabot, Professor of Geometrical Drawing, Woolwich, I King's College, London.— G. Dodd.— E. Nobris, Royal Asiatic
and King's College, London.— G. R. Burnell, C.E.— Ed-wabd Society.— A. Ross.— J. T. Stanksby.— A. Uee, M.D., F.R.S. (tUo
COwPBB (the late). Professor of Manufacturing Art and Machinery, | late).

Philology— Mental Philosophy— Government and Political Economy.

W. D. Christie, A.M., Trinity College, Cambridge.— A Dk
MoBOAN (Logic).— J. Hoppus, Professor of Mental Philosophy,
University College, London.— T. II. Kky, A.M., Trinity College,
Cambridge, and University College, London.— Charles Knight.

— Geokqe Long, A.M. — T. E. May, Barrister-at-Law, House of
Commons. — Rev. A.J. W. Moreison, A.M., Trinity College, Cam-
bridge.—G. R. PoKTBR, F.R.S. (the late). Secretary of the Board
of Trade,

J. T. Abdt, LL.D., Regius Professor of Civil Law, Cambridge.—
J. H. Bueton, Advocate, Edinburgh. — James E. Davis, Barrister-
at-Law. — J. C. F. 8. Day, Barrister-at-Law.— T. Falconer, Bar-
rister-at-Law.— James Grant, Barrister-at-Law. — D. Jardine,
A.M., Barrister-at-Law.— Robert Malcolm Keee, LL.D., Advo-
cate and Barrister-at-Law.— Gboege Long, A.M.— J. J. Lonsdale,

Iia-nr and Jurisprudence!

Barrister-at-Law. — D. MacLachlan, Barriater-at-Law. — Mr.
Seejkant Manning. — John A. Rdssbll, LL.B., Barrister-at-
Law, Professor of English Law in University College, London. —
Alfred Waddilote, D.C.L., Advocate, Doctors' Commons, and
Barrister-at-Law.

London : Bradbury & Evans, 11, Bouverie Street, E.G.

CHARLES KNIGHT'S ENGLAND.

THE FIVE VOLUMES

POPULAR HISTORY OF ENGLAND,

Which are now completed — having also been issued in Forty Monthly Parts — bring down the annals of our country from the Invasion of
C«3ar to the Death of Queen Anne. The remainder of the Author's undertaking will form the HISTORY OP ENGLAND UNDER THE
HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK.

It is the Author's intention to comprise this eventful era in Three Volumes, which will complete the entire Work. The work is issued
in Monthly Parts, price Is., with Steel and Woodcut Illustrations. Part 48 and Volume VI. will be published in February.

•,* The First Portion of thia important Work, from the Earliest Times to the devolution of 1683, is complete in Four Vclumcs, with a
eopiout Index, price 36»,

" This is the History for English youth."— jTinies, Jan. 12,

London: Bkadbury & Evans, 11, Bouverie Street, E.G.

ADVEETISEMENTS.

T. ROSS,

(Son and Successor of the late Andhew Eoss,)

Respectfully informs the public that Microscopes, Telescopes,
Photogeaphic Lbnsks, etc., etc., of the most perfect description,
may be obtained as heretofore, at the old Establishment,

2 & 3, FEATHERSTONE BUILDINGS, HIGH HOLBORN,

LONDOJf, W.C.
1^^ Catalogues may be had on application.

PHOTOGRAPHY.

BEST AND CHEAPEST HOUSE.

T SOLOMON, WHOLESALE OPTICAL

tl . AND PHOTOaKAPHIC WAREHOUSE, 22, Eed Lion
Square, London.

Catalogues free on Application.

MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGT.— Practical
Instruction is jri^en in these interesting branches of Science
by Mr. TENNaNT, Geologist, 149, Strand, W.C. Mr. Ti nnant
can supply Elementary Collections and Separate Specimens of
ShcUs, Minerals, Kocks, and Fossils ; also, Geological Maps,
Models, Diagrams, Hammers, Blowpipes, Acid Bottles, Magnifying
Glasses, Glass-top Boxes, and Microscopic Objects ; and all recent
Works on Conchology, Chemistry, Mineralogy,Botany, and Geology,

MICROSCOPES AND TELESCOPES.

NEWTON'S STUDENTS' ACHROMATIC
MICROSCOPE, in Case, with two sets of Achromatics, Con-
denser on Stand, maffniftes 65,000 times, £4 4». Oompound Micro-
scope, with Seyen Powers, magnifies 20,000 times, JE2 log., ditto,
10». 6i., 16«., and 18«. U. each. ACHROMATIC TELES-
COPES, 10«. to £2. Ditto for India, Deer-stalk'ing, etc., of very
great power, to show Jupiter's Moons, in Black Leather Sling-
cases, £3 3<. each.

MAGIC-LANTERNS AND DISSOLVING VIEWS.

NEWTON'S IMPROVED PHANTASMA-
GORIA LANTERNS, with Lenses 3J inches diameter, to
show a picture 9 feet in diameter, suitable for Schools and Lec-
tures, £3 3j.. DISSOLVING VIEW Apparatus, consisting of
a pair of 3.i-inch Lanterns, £8 8». MAGIC LANTERNS, with 12
Slides, from 7s. Gd. each. A most extensive assortment of Sliders,
Views, Buildings, Natural History, Astronomical, Missionary, and
other subjects.

ILLUSTRATED PRICE-LIST FOE THREE STAMPS.

NEWTON & CO.,

Manufacturing Opticians, 3, Fleet Street, Temple Bar, London.

SOCIETY OF ARTS' PRIZE
MICROSCOPES.

CAUTION TO THE PUBLIC.

THBSociety of Arts awarded the Prize Medals for both the Stu-
dents' and School Microscopes to Messrs. B. Fik.ld & So»r, Bir-
minsham. The Microscopes now made are much superior to the
original, though the jirice is unaltered. The character they have
gained has induced other makers unwarrantably to apply the name
to instruments which, resembling them generally in form and in
price, are inferior in magnifying power, in number of lenses, and in
many other respects.

The Society of Arts' Prize Microscopes bear the name of

FIELD & SON, BIRMINGHAM,

of whom, or their Agents, lUustratiye Catalogues may be obtained,
post feee, for Two Penny Stamps.

CARPENTER & WESTLEY'S

DISSOLVING VIEWS.

AMUSEMENT AND INSTEUCTION"

BT MEANS OF
WITH THE

CHROMATROPE AND DISSOLVING VIEWS,
AND EVERY POSSIBLE VARIETY OP SLIDERS,

HfCLUDING

COMIC, LEVER, MOVEABLE RACKWORK, AND PLAIN

ASTRONOMICAL DIAGRAMS,

VIEWS IN THE HOLY LAND, ETC.

No. 1 Lantern, with Argand Lamp, in a Box, £2 lis, 6d. j No. 2
ditto, of a larger size, £4 14*. 6d,

A PAIR OF DISSOLVING VIEW LANTERNS,

No. 2, with Apparatus, £12 6*.

N.B. — The above prices do not include Sliders for the Lanterns,
so that when an order is given it will be better for the purchiiser to
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The most TTiefol, and at the same time the Cheapest
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THE Fi®BAi W©lliB

AND GARDEN GUIDE.

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Subscribers wishing to commence a New Volume, should order
Number 25, published January 1st, 1860.

Two Volumes are published, and may be had, elegantly bound,
cloth gilt, price 6s. each.

The following 50 Original Articles contained in recent Numbers
will develop the nature of the Work, which is acknowledged on all
hands to be a Valuable Work of Keference for the Garden and the
Greenhouse.

Titles of Fibtt Aeticlks covtaiwhd ik EECEifT Ntjubees op
The Flobal Wokld.

Miniature fruit gardens
Wet soils and small seeds
How, when, and where to plant

roses
Jardinieres and stone edgings
Profitable gardening
Practical rustic work
Cottage architecture and rustic

adornments
A cheap pit for amateurs
Florists' flowers and new plants
Grasses, grass plots, and lawns
Monthly work in garden and

greenhouse
Planting a fern case
Culture and training of the

raspberry
Plan of a town garden [shrubs
Sardy eyergieen flowering
Newly inyented garden pots
Useful inventions applied to

horticulture [measures

Bedding plants and preseryative
Culture of the potatoe
Hyacinths in pots and glasses
Tank heating and early forcing
Mushroom culture simplified
Culture and training of the

gooseberry
Winter culture of the cucumber

Grape vines in pots

Bulbous flowers and lycopodiums

Waltonian cases

Stocks and grafts [vases

Evergreen trees and plants for

The chemistry of horticulture

Natural history of the wire-worm

The verbena and other bedding

plants
Asparagus, sea-kale, and rhubarb
Culture of the peach
Success in cultivating ericas
Treatment of unfruitful trees
Among the ferns to gather know-
Geometrical gardens [l^dge
Culture of the cabbage tribe
Plants for various soils
Management of stove plants
Lists of herbaceous plants
The law of garden fixtures
Manures and fertilisers
Trees and shrubs in London
The theory and practice of

pruning
Rockeries and wild flowers
Management of cold frames and

pits
Orchard houses, to build and

manage
Monthly garden calendar

%* Order the. "Floral World and Garden Guide," monthly, ^f any
Bookieller, who ivill deliver it on the day of publication.

Lcmdon : Gt-BOOMBBtsGi ft Soirs, 6, Paternoster How.

Almanac for the New Year .—Essential to the Florist, In-
dispensable for the Garden, and Invaluable to the

Household.
Just Published, price Is. j sent Post Free for 12 stamps,

THE GAEDEN OEACLE, AND ECONOMIC
YBAE book for 1860.

The principal contents of the issue for 1860 are as follows : —
Ericas— A list of Ericas in bloom every day throughout the year,
and a Treatise on the Culture of Ericas, by a well-known experienced
hand. Winning Flowers of 18o9 — A selection of the varieties which
have been most successful at Exhibitions. New Plants, Flowers,
and Fruits — Descriptive notices of all the novelties introduced during
the year. Reminders for 1860 — Cultural Notes, etc., for the guid-
ance of amateurs. Spergula Pilifera — its history, uses, culture, etc.
Illustrated with engravings. Lists of all the best Flowers, Vege-
tables, and Fruits adapted to various localities of Britain. Poultry
anA Bee Keeping — Practical Netes by a well-known authority. Ori-
ginal Receipts for the House, Garden, and Farm.

*»• Order the Garden Oracle, price 1*., of any Bookseller, or of
the PubUshers,

London : Gbooubbisqi & Soirs, 6, Paternoster Row.

NEW WORK BY DR. BROWN.
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PEDEN THE PROPHET

A TALE OF THE COVENANTERS, FOUNDED ON FACT.
BY THE REV. A. MORTON BROWN, LL.D.

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book is emphatically one of facts — facts the most astounding in the
annals of Scotland — ^it has all the fascination of fiction." — Qlasgow
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ivealth.

'"Peden the Prophet' possesses the merit of \. earnestness
and style. Written obviously by a man who has studied Macaulay
and other masters, it is a work to be proud of." — Literwry
Oasette.

" The author in endeavouring to familiarise the scenes asso-
ciated with one of the most critical epochs of the Church of
Scotland has adopted a very excellent plan, and worked it out with
considerable sldll." — Daily Telegraph.

"A thrilling story, exceedingly well told," — Boston (U.S.)
JReeorder.

" We are glad to introduce this beautiful volume to our readers,
as a valuable contribution to the cause of historic truth and genuine
piety," — Jewish Herald.

London : Johw Snow, Paternoster Row.

Second Edition, 12mo, cloth, 2s.,

LESSONS ON THE PHENOMENA OF INDUSTRIAL LIFE,

STUD THE

CONDITIONS OF INDUSTRIAL SUCCESS.

Edited by RICHARD DAAV^ES, De&ix of Hereeobd.

COIfTENTS :

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Knowledge and Skill.

Economy,

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Insurance.

Price.

Interest and Annuities.

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Combinations.

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Taxation.

Property vacant by Death.

London: Gsoombbisge & SoifS, Publishers, 5, Paternoster Row,

BEOWN & POISON'S
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ADYERTISEMENTS.

Publislied Monthly, Illustrated,

RECREATIVE SCIENCE:

A RECORD AND REMEMBRANCER OF INTELLECTUAL OBSERVATION,

Eight Numbers are now ready, price Eig^htpence each.

ooi^rTZBisrTS.

Numbeir 1.

The Endeavour.

Science and the Boy.

The Planets. ByE. J.Lowe, of HighfieldOhservatory, Nottingham.

How to Gather Diatoms. By Tuffen West.

Wayside Weeds and their Teachings, in Six Handfuls. By Spencer

Tame Fishes. [Thomson, M.D,

Humboldt. In Two Parts. Part I. By Hain Friswell.

Water-Grlass in Photography. By T. A. Malone.

Night-Flying Moths. By H. Noel Humphreys.

Flints and Sponges. By shirley Hibberd.

The Key to a Bird's Heart. By William Kidd, of Hammersmith.

The Gyroscope. By E. G. Wood.

Astronomical and Meteorological Observations.

Things of the Season : Birds Arriving— Birds Departing — Insects

to be Sought — Wild Plants in Flower.
Mr. Nolewoi'thy's Corner : How to Observe the Habits of Birds —

Miniature lloeli-work— Flints in the Drift— New Solvent and

[Cement.

Niunber 2.

The Ceaseless Work of the Sea. By S. J. Mackie.
Wingless Birds. By W. C. L. Martin.

The Consecratio Coins of the Roman Emperors. Part 1. By H.
The Green Tree Frog. By Shirley Hibberd. [Noel Humphreys.
Death among the Gold Fish.

Wayside Weeds and their Teachings. By Spencer Thomson, M.D.
Humboldt. Part II. By Hain Friswell.
Talk about Trees. By O. S. Round.
Wardian Cases.

Collecting and Preserving Fungi. By F. Y. Brocas.
Diatoms : how to Examine and Prepare for the Microscope. By
Meteorology — Astronomical Observations. [Tuffen West.

Things of the Season.

Mr. Noteworthy's Corner : Alleged Shaksperian Forgeries— Eggs
of the Cuckoo — Colours of Shells,

Nuinbez 3.

Management of Aquaria. By Shirley Hibberd.

The Nettle and the Wasp. By Richard Deakin, M.D.

What is a Diatom ? By Tuffen West.

The Kaleidoscope Colour-top. By John Gorham, M.R.C.S.

Winter Management of Cage Birds. By William Kidd.

A Travelligg Oyster-Bed. By W. C. L. Martin.

FaUing Stars.

The Consecratio Coins. Part II. By H. Noel Humphreys.

The Expansion of Metal. By W. C. Bupder.

Phrenology in the Poultry Yard. By W. B. Tegetmeier,

Aquatic Architects.

Meteorology — Astronomical Observations— Things of the Season.

Mr. Noteworthy's Corner : The Affection of Pish— Abundance of
Fungi— NaturaUst's Telescope— Origin of Words— Rock-work for
Fern Cases— Appearance of a Star under the Telescope— Pistol
Camera— Nature's Bountiful Prov^gion.

Zfumber 4.,

The Physiology of Sponges. By Shirley Hibberd.

Flints of the Upper Chalk Formation. By J, R. Leifchild.

Bird Preserving. By O. S. Round.

Telescopes for Amateurs. By Herbert Hurst.

Do Dogs understand Human Speech ? By Michael Westcott.

A Philosopher in a Railway Train. By J. A. Davies.

Wayside Weeds and their Teachings. By Spencer Thomson, M.D.

A Geological Scene in the Isle of Wight. By S. J. Mackie.

The Etruscan Vase.

Meteors, or Palling Stars. By E, J. Lowe.

A Wild Primrose.

The Expected Great Comet. By G. W. F, Chambers.

Leaf Geometry.

Grease in the Cabinet.

Meteorology— Astronomical Observations— Things of the Season.

Mr. Noteworthy's Corner : New Planet— Underground Tempera-
ture -Fhnt Implements in the Drift — Puritication of Water— Big
Ships— Toads in the Heart of Trees— The Moon's Motion— The
Banana at £cw.

By Hain Fria-

No. 5.

Microscopic Geology. By S. J. Mackie.

A Calendar of Nature. By E. J. Lowe.

The Wonders of a Stagnant Pool. By Tuffen West.

Wayside Weeds. By Spencer Thomson, M.D.

A Portable Equatorial. By W. C. Burder,

Stereoscopic Phenomenon.

John Smeaton, a Life among the Lighthouses.

well.
Chemical Experiments. By Septimus Piesse.
Clockwork Chromatypes. By Thomas Goodchild.
The Apteryx at Dinner. By O. S. Round.

Meteorology— Astronomical Observations— Things of the Season.
Mr. Noteworthy's Corner : — Duration of Life — Portable Furnace —

Early Frosts— The October Gales.

No. 6.

Our Friend the Robin. By Shirley Hibberd.

The Anecdote History of Photography. By C. M. Archer.

Sportive Exercises upon Musical Notation. By W. Newman.

Reflection from Polished Surfaces. By J. A. Davies.

A Catalogue of all the Comets. By G. W. F. Chambers.

Elementary Meteorology. By E. J. Lowe.

A Plaything of the Tides. By W. C. L. Martin.

Mosses in Fern Cases and Aquaria.

Coins of the Seleuoida; Kings of Syria. By H. Noel Hum-
phreys.

Herbarium of Mosses. By F. Y. Brocas.

How to Use the Telescope.

Meteorology — Astronomical Observations — Things of the Season.

Mr. Noteworthy's Corner :— The Atmospheric Clock— Birds in
Winter— Efttoreaence— Celts in the Drift.

Number 7.

The Common House Spider. By James Samuelson.

Conjunction of the Planets Jupiter and Venus. By the Hon. Mrs.

Ward.
Notes on tbe Eland. By H. Noel Humphreys.
The Balance of Life and Death : a Teaching of the Aquarium. By

Shirley Hibberd.
The Anecdote History of Photography. Collection 2. By C. M.

Archer.
The Geology of the Fireside : Conl. By S. J. Mackie.
Studies of Colour. By Godfrey Turner.
Microscopic Plant Crystals. By Tuffen West,
A Catalogue of all the Comets. Continued. By G. F. Chambers.
Meteoiology — Astronomical Observations— Things of the Season.
Mr. Noteworthj''s Corner : Optical Phenomenon — Hunt's Cine-

phantic Colour-Top — The New Intra-Mercurial Planet — Stcreo-

Bcopio Phenomenon — A Cheap Telescope — English Copper

Coinage.

Number 8.

Volcanoes and Earthquakes. By Shirley Hibberd.

Audubon, the Ornithologist. By Hain Friswell.

Determination of Latitude. By J. A. Davies.

Wayside Weeds. By Spencer Thomson, M.D

Tlie Anatomy of a Cube. By W. B. Tegetmeier.

The Electrotype. By Richard Bithell.

The Lunar Eclipse of February 7, 1860. By the Hon. Mrr-.

Ward
The First Butterfly.

A Catalogue of all the Comets. Concluded. By G. F. Chanjiei-s.
Meteorology— Astronomical Observations — Tilings of the Season.
Mr. Noteworthy's Corner : Food for Tame Fishes— Cheap Giis

Regulator— Meteorology of 1859— Other People's Pets— Siig-

gestion for a Biuoscopic Toy— Lightning Rods— Do Do^s

understand Human Speech ?

London : GBOOMBBioaE & SoifS, Publishers, 5, Pateruoster Eow.

XHOilAS nAEEILP, PKIKIJSR. SALISBUKi SQUAEE, ILEEI SlfiliET, LOKDOlf.

"RECREATIVE SCIENCE," No. 10, will be Published SOth April, 1860.

Of No. 9.

Lead ; Part T. — The Mottth op the Mine. By

Haert Napier Draper 289

Stab Sciktiliations. By J. A. Daties 292

History and Uses of the Hemp. By R. Deaein,

M.D 293

Spobtite Exercises tjpon Musical Notation.

Part II. By W. Newman 297

My Bird— The Siskin. By E. S. Dixon 302

The BuEYiNa Beetles, or Sextons. By H.

Noel Humphreys 306

Microscopical Pond Lobe. By Heney J. Slack 310
Wayside Weeds and theie Teachinos. In

Six Handfuls. Handful III. concluded.

By Spenceb Thomson, M.D 315

•Beute INIadness. By O. S. Bound 320

A Catalootte ov ail the Comets whose Orbits

HAVE HITHEKTO BEEN COMPUTED, CONCLUDED.

By Q-eoroe E. Chambers

Meteorology of April

Astronomical Observations for April

Things of the Season — April

Me. Notewoethy's Cobnee

The Eifleman's Eye

Coating fob Plaster-Casts

Solvent for Dry Paint

Eestobation of Eeactubed Bells

Propagation by Candle-Heat

RocKWOBK fob Aquaeia

The Geeat Tide of the 8th

321
322
322
323
323
223
323
323
324
324
324
324

The Articles in "Recreative Science " axe Copyright, and the Right of Translation is reserved.

Communications for the Editor to be addressed to the Publishers, Messrs. Gboombeidge & Sons,

5, Paternoster Eow.

\* Correspondents are desired in all cases to communicate their real names and addresses, which will, as a rule, be held in confidence.

Letters needing a reply should reach us by the 15th at latest.

QUE LETTEE-BOX.

Erkatitm:. — In March No., " Things of the Season," for " Red-
wing, Thrush ;" read " Kedwing-Thrush"' (Turdus Iliacus) .

Taxidermy. — A.S. Hinckley. — Mr. Hall says, " I divide the leg
from the body of the bird, at the top of the femur, learing the
whole of the thigh bone intact ; many birds show the whole of that
bono when alive, hawks in particular.

Infusokia. — R. R. — Mr. Pritchard is preparing a Fourth Edition
of his work, to which i)r. Arlidge, Mr. Ralfs, and Professor
Williamson all contribute. Mr. Tuften West will illustrate the
DiatomaceoB. The price to subscribers will be Thirty Shillings.

M. D. — The substance looks like compressed stercus, and not
like a fungus at all. We cannot make it out.

Received. — "Notice of the occurrence of mammoth and other

animal remains discovered under limestone in a bone cave at Shan-
don, Co. Waterford." By E. Brenan, Esq — W. H. B.— Heferred
for immediate consideration. — M. AV. Wells. — D. B., Glasgow,
referred. — R. G. — It is a great convenience to the reader, and when
properly done unobjectionable.— G. I''. W., Bedford Square.— They
really are too trivial to occupy the place you suggest, but could be
cut out and mounted on a fly leaf.— J. B. Q., Durham. — Accepted.

ELECTBO-METALLuaT. — Zbba. — A gold coiu may be treated the
same as a silver one, and either may be gilt and burnished ; the
length of time the solution lasts depends on the intensity of the
action, and tho amoimt of surface on which the deposit falls.

Portable Fubnace.— J. P. K. — We are not awaie if it has been
manufactured for sale.

MONTHLY STORY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE.

London, 5, Paternoster Row.

Messrs. GEOOMBEIDGt-E & SONS beg to announce an entirely new ssries of Original Stories for Children,

\ratteu by the first authors, entitled

THE MAGNET STORIES

FOE

Sttmmcr gap iiitir Wawki Sigjjli

TO COMMENCE ON THE EIEST OE MAY.

Each Story comijlete in itself— a New Story erery Month. Price Threepence, Illustrated. The First Published ^vill be

BY THE AUTHOE OE "A TEAP TO CATCH A SUNBEAM," ETC.,

And will be succeeded by Original Stories by Mes. Celdaet, Mrs. S. C. Hall, the Attthoe or the " llv.ui oE
Eedcliffb," Mbs. Webb (Author of "Naomi," etc.), and other Eminent Writers;

*^.,* OEDEE THE MAGNET STOEIES, NUMBEE I. PEICE 3d.

LONDON : GEOOMBEIDGE AND SONS, PUBLISHEES, 5, PATEENOSTEE EOW ;

and all booksellees,

%)ikx\umnh

MESSRS. SMITH, ELDER, & Co.'s
NEW PUBLICATIONS.

THE CORNHILL MAGAZINE,

No. 4 (fox April, 1860),

Price One Shilling, ■with two Illustrations, is now ready.

Co.NTElfTS,

1. Lovol the Widower (with an illustration). Chap. IV.— A Black

Sheep.

2. Colour Blindness.

3. Spring. By Thomas Ilood.

4. Inside Canton.

5. William Hogarth : Painter, Engraver, and Philosopher. Essays

on the Man, the Work, and the Time. III. A Long Ladder,
and Hard to Climb.

6. Studies in Animal Life. Chap. IV. — An extinct animal recog-

nized by its tooth : how came this to be possible ? — The ta«k
of classification — Artificial and natural methods— Linn»us
and his baptism of the animal kingdom : his scheme of classi-
fication—What is there underlying aU true classification ? —
The chief groups — What is a species ? — Re-statement of the
question respecting the fixity or variability of species — The
two hypotheses — Illustration drawn from the Romance lan-
guages— Caution to disputants.

7. Strangers Yet ! By R. Monckton Milnes.

8. Framley Parsonage (with an Illustration). Chap. X. — Lucy

Kobarts. XI.— Griselda Grantly. XII. The Little Bill.

9. Ideal Houses,

10. Dante.

11. The Last Sketch— Emma (a fragment of a Story by the late

Charlotte Bronte),

12. Under Chloroform.

13. The How and Why of Long Shots and Straight Shots,

London : Smith, Eldeb, & Co., 65, Cornhill,

Completion of the New and Revised Edition.

THE PAllENTS' CABINET

©f gimustmetit attb IttgtnKtiott for goting ^persons.

With Twelve full-page lUustraiions in Oil colours, and 318 Wood

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cloth, gilt edges.

The Work may be procured in the following different forms : —

FoiTB YoitTMES, each complete in itself, and sold
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Six Volumes, each complete in itself, and sold sepa-
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Twelve Volumes, each complete in itself, and sold
separately, Is. each,

" The'Parents* Cabinet, thoroughly revised, and brought up to the
level of the present day, as to facts and opinions, is in full life again.
The Publishers re-issue it in very pretty Shilling Volumes, each
complete in itself, with a coloured plate and woodcuts, to adorn its
instructive budget of natural history, lore, invention, and adventure.
A single volume is a gift-book to a child, but the whole Series con-
stitutes a first-class Magazine for English nurseries. Nobody who
is Wise wiU deny to his children really wholesome pleasure that is
easily accessible, and the character of this re issue will commend it,
we hope, to the household use of thousands."— ^a;a»ii»er.

" I almost feel afraid of praising it as much as I think it deserves

There is so much variety in the book that it cannot tire. It

alternately excites and relieves attention, and does not lead to the
bad habit of frittering away the mind by requiring no exertion from

the reader Whoever your scientific aBSociate is, he understands

his business and children's capabilities right well Without

lecturing or prosing, you keep the right and the wrong clearly
marked, and hence all the sympat^ of the young people is always
enlisted on the right side." — Miss Edgetcorth.

London : Smith, Eldep, & Co., 65, Cornhill,

T. ROSS,

(Son and Successor of the late Andbbw Boss,)

o:PTiai.A-35r,

Respectfully informs the public that Mickoscopes, Telescopbs,
PnoTOGEAPHic Lbnses, etc., etc, of the most perfect desoription,
may be obtained as heretofore, at the old Establishment,

2 & 3, FEATHERSTONE BUILDINGS, HIGH HOLBORN,

lONDON, W.C.
|^g=* Catalogues may be had on application.

Just published, price One Shilling,

THE TELESCOPE;

Its Construction and Use Explained : containing Dibectio.ns to
MAKB A Tklescopb ; together with information as to the price of
Lenses, Eye-pieces, Telescopes, and Stands ; also containing a List
OF Various Doublb Stabs, NEuct.E, and other Celestial Objects
for Telescopic observation : to which is added "an Address to tha
Public on Cheap Telescopes.

BY J. T. SLUGG.

London : Simpkin, Maeshali, & Co., Stationers' Hall Court,

MICROSCOPES AND TELESCOPES.

NEWTON'S STUDENTS' ACHROMATIC
MICKOSCOPE, in Case, with two sets of Achromatics, Con-
denser on Stand, mai^nifles 65,000 times, £4 4s. Compound Micro,
scope, with Seven Powers, magnifies 20,000 rimes, £2 15*., ditto,
10». 6d., 16»., and 18». 6d. each. ACHROMATIC TELES-
COPES, 10». to £2. Ditto for India, Deer-stalking, etc., of very
great power, to show Jupiter's Moons, in Black Leather Shng-
cases, £3 3«. each,

MA6IC-LANTERNS AND DISSOLVING VIEWS.

NEWTON'S IMPROVED PHANTASMA-
GORIA LANTERNS, with Lenses 2\ inches diameter, to
show a picture 9 feet in diameter, suitable for Schools and Lec-
tures, £3 3».. DISSOLVING VIEW Apparatus, consisting of
a pair of 3.J-inch Lanterns, £3 8s. MAGIC LANTERNS, with 12
Slides, from 7s. 6d. each. A most extensive assortment of Sliders,
Views, Buildings, Natural History, Astronomical, Missionary, and
other subjects.

ILLUSTRATED PRICE-LIST FOE THREE STAMPS.

NEWTON &, CO.,

Manufacturing Opticians, 3, Fleet Street, Temple Bar, London.

MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGl?.— Practical
Instruction is given in these interesting branches of Science
by Mr. TENNANT, Geologist, 149, Strand, W.C. Mr. Tknnant
can supply Elementary Collections and Separate Specimens of
Shells, Minerals, Kocks, and Fossils ; also. Geological Maps,
Models, Diagrams, Hammers, Blowpipes, Acid Bottles, Magnifying
Glasses, Glass-top Boxes, and Microscopic Objects ; and all recent
Works on Conchology, Chemistry, Mineralogy,Botany, and Geology.

ADYEETISEMENTS.

Published Monthly, Illustrated,

RECREATIVE SCIENCE:

A RECORD AND REMEMBRANCER OF INTELLECTUAL OBSERVATION.

Nine Numbers are now ready, price Eightpence each.

Numoex 1;

The Endeavour.

Science and the Boy.

The Planets. By K. J. Lowe, of Hiffhfipld Observatory, Nottingham.

How to Gather Diatoms. By Tuft'en West.

Wayside Weeds and their Teachings, in Sis Handfuls. By Spencer

Tame Fishes. [Thomson, M.D.

Humboldt. In Two Parts. Part I. By Hain Friswell.

Water-Glass in Photography. By T. A, M alone.

Night-Flying Moths. By H. Noel Humphreys,

Flints and Sponges. By >hirley Hibberd.

The Key to a Bird's Heart. Bv William Kidd, of Hammersmith.

The Gyroscope. By E. G. Wood.

Astronomical and Meteorological Observations.

Things of the Season : Birds Arriving— Birds Departing — Insects
to be Sought — Wild Plants in Flower.

Mr. Noteworthy's Corner : How to Observe the Habits of Birds-
Miniature lloek-work— Flints in the Drift — New Solvent and

[Cement.

Number 2.

The Ceaseless Work of the Sea. By S. J. Mackie.
Wingless Birds. By W. C. L. Martin.

The Consecratio Coins of the Roman Emperors. Part 1. By H.
The Green Tree FrAg. By Shirley Hibberd. [Noel Humphreys.
Death among the Gold Fish.

Wayside Weeds and their Teachings. By Spencer Thomson, M.D.
Humboldt. Part II. By Hain Friswell.
Talk about Trees. By O. S. Bound.
Wardian Cases.

Collecting and Preserving Fungi. By F. Y. Brocas.
Diatoms : how to Examine and Prepare for the Microscope. By
Meteorology — Astronomical Observations. [Tuffen West.

Things of the Season.

Mr. Noteworthy's Corner : Alleged Shaksperian Forgeries— Eggs
of the Cuckoo — Colours of Shells,

Number 3.

Management of Aquaria. Bv Shirley Hibberd.

The Nettle and the Wasp. By Richard Deakin, M.D.

What is a Diatom ? By Tuffen Wrst.

The Kaleidoscope Colour-top. By John Gorham, M.K.C.S,

Winter Management of Cage Birds. By William Kidd.

A Travelligg Oyster-Bed. By W. C. L. Martin.

Falling Stars.

The Consecratio Coins. Part II. By H. Noel Humphreys.

The Expansion of Metal. By W. C. Burder.

Phrenology in the Poultry Yard. By W. B. Tegetmeier.

Aquatic Architects.

Meteorology — Astronomical Observations — Things of the Season.

Mr. Noteworthy's Corner : The Affection of Fish— Abundance of
Fungi — Naturalist's Telescope— Origin of Words — Rook-work for
Fern Cases— Appearance of a Star under the Telescope— Pistol
Camera — Nature's Bountiful Provision.

Number 4.,

The Physiology of Sponges. By Shirley Hibberd.

Flints of the Upper Chalk Formation. By.J. R. Lcifchild.

Bird Preserving. By O. S. Round.

Telescopes for Amateurs. By Herbert Hurst.

Do Doas understand Human Speech ? By Michael Westcott.

A Philosopher in a Railway Train. By J. A. Davies.

Wayside Weeds and their Teachings. By Spencer Thomson, M.D.

A Geological Scene in the Isle of Wight. By S. J. Mackie.

The Etruscan Vase.

Meteors, or Falling Stars. By E, J. Lowe.

A Wild Primrose.

The Expected Great Comet. By G. W. F. Chambers.

Leaf Geometry.

Grease in the Cabinet.

Meteorology — Astronomical Ob.?ervations — Things of the Season.

Mr. Noteworthy's Corner : New Planet — Underground Tempera-
ture-Flint Implements in the Drift — Purification of Water— Big
Ships— Toads in the Heart of Trees— The Moon's Motion— The
Banana at Kew.

Number 5.

Microscopic Geology. By S. J. Mackie.

A Calendar of Nature. By E. J. Lowe.

The Wonders of a Stagnant Pool. By TuiTen West.

Wavside Weeds. By Spencer Thomson, M.D.

A Portable Equatorial. By W. C. Burder.

Stereoscopic Phenomenon.

John Smeaton, a Life among the Lighthouses. By Hain Fria-

well.
Chemical Experiments. By Septimus Piesse.
Clockwork Chroniatypes. By Thomas Goodchild.
The Apteryx at Dinner. By O. S. Round.

Aleteorology— Astronomical Observations— Things of the Season.
Mr. Noteworthy's Corner -.—Duration of Life — Portable Furnace —

Early Frosts— The October Gales.

Number 6.

Our Friend the Robin. By Shirley Hibberd.

The Anecdote History of Photography. By C. M. Archer.

Sportive Exercises upon Musical Nutation. By W. Newman.

Reflection from Polished Surfaces. By J. A. Davies.

A Catalogue of all the Comets. By G. W. F. Chambers.

Elementary Meteorology. By E. J. Lowe.

A Plaything of the Tides. By W. C. L. Martin.

Mosses in Fern Cases and Aquaria.

Coins of the Seleucidae Kings of Syria. By H. Noel Hum-
phreys.

Herbarium of Mosses. By P. T. Brocas.

How to Use the Telescope.

Meteorology — Astronomical Observations — Things of the Season,

Mr. Noteworthy's Corner :— The Atmospheric Clock — Birds in
Winter— EfHoresence— Celts in the Drift.

Number 7.

The Common House Spider. By James Samuelson.

Conjunction of the Planets Jupiter and Venus, By the Hon, Mrs.
Ward.

Notes on the Eland. By IT. Noel Humphreys.

The Balance of Life and Death : a Teaching of the Aquarium. By
Shirley Hibberd.

The Anecdote History of Photography. Collection 2. By C. M.
Archer.

The Geology of the Fireside : Conl. By S. J. Mackie.

Studies of Colour. By Godfrey Turner.

Micro.scopic Plant Crystals. By Tuffen West.

A Catalogue of all the Comets. Continued. By G. F. Chambers.

Meteorology — Astronomical Observations — Things of the Season.

Mr. Noteworthy's Corner : Optical Phenomenon — Hunt's Cine-
phantic Colour-Top — The New Intra-Mercurial Planet — Stereo-
scopic Phenomenon — A Cheap Telescope — English Copper
Coinage.

Number 8.

Volcanoes and Earthquakes. By Shirley Hibberd.

Audubon, the Ornithologist. By Hain Friswell.

Determination of Latitude. By J. A. Davies.

Wayside Weeds. By Spencer Thomson, M.D

The Anatomy of a Cube. By W. B. Tegetmeier.

The Electrotype. By Richard Bithell.

The Lunar Eclipse of February 7, I860. By the Hon. Mrs,
Ward

The First Butterfly.

A Catalogue of all the Comets. Concluded. By G. P. Chambers.

Meteorology— Astronomical Observations — Things of the Season.

Mr. Noteworthy's Corner : Food for Tame Fishes — Cheap Gas
Regulator- Meteorology of 1859— Other People's Pets— Sug-
gestion for a Binoscopic Toy— Lightning liods — Do Dogs
understand Hupaan Speech ?

London: Geoombeidgh & Sons, Publishers, 5, Paternoster Eow.

ADVEETISEMENTS.

Just published, post 8vo, cloth boards, 6e.,
A NEW AND HEVISED EDITION OF THE

NATUEAL HISTORY OE SELBORNE.

BY THE REV. GILBERT WHITE, A.M.

Arranged for Young Persons, With numerous engravings drawn
by Woolf.

Society for PROMOiiNa Christian Knowledgii :— Deposi-
tories, 77, Great Queen Street, Lincoln's Inn FieU's ; 4, Royfl
Exchange; 16, Hanover Street, Hanover Square; and by all Book-
sellers.

Now ready, second edition, price 8». 6d.,

THE DICTIONARY OF CHEJillSTRY,

With its applications to Mineralogy, Physiology, and the Arts.

BY ROBERT DUNDAS THOMSON, M.D., P.R.S., L.&E., F.C.S.,

Professor of Chemistry at St. Thomas's Hospital College,
London.

" Its completeness and correctness recommend the Dictionary
of Chemistry." — AtheneBum.

" In a form most useful for reference and suitable for study."—
Literary Gazette.

"A practical publication, in the highest degree valuable."—
Mining Journal.

" The best compendium of Chemistry that we have yet seen.''—
Lancet,

KiCHAED Geiffik & Co., London and Glasgow.

Attached a specimen of non-inflammable Muslin. Price 6d.,

f\N THE COMPAEATIYE VALUE OF CER-

\J TAIN SALTS for rendering FABRICS NON-INFLAM-
MABLE : being the substance of a paper read before the British
Association. By F. Vebsmann, F.C.S., and A. Oppenheim, Ph. D.
N. Teubnee & Co., 60, Paternoster Eow.

MANY HAPPY RETURNS OF THE DAY!

BY CHAELES AND MARY COWDEN CLARKE,

Is the most attractive birthday book ever published. Beautifully
illustrated by the Brothers Dalziel. Price 6«., cloth, gilt edges ;
postage 6d. " Since the renowned volumes of Peter Parley, we
know ot no book more likely to become popular among the yoimg."
— Critic. " It will be as acceptable to the young as ' Sandtbrd and
Mertnn' was wont to be half-a-century since. The authors will
henceforth share the affections of the young with Hans Andersen,
Peter Parley, and the Brothers Gnmm.."—Fli/mouth Journal.
"Sure to be a favourite with boys." — Leader. "The best book
that can be found for a birthday present."— Coi«'^ Journal,
London : Lock-wood & Co., 7, Stationers' Hall Court, E.G.

Fourth Edition, in One Tol., 500 Woodcuts, 8vo (910 pp.), £1 4«
cloth, (Postage Is. Id.)

A MANUAL OF ELECTRICITY.

Including Galvanism, Magnetism, Dia-magnetism, Electro-Dyna-
mics, Magno-Electricity, and the Electric Telegraph.

By HENRY M. NOAD, Pn.D., F.C.S.,
Lecturer on Chemistry at St. George's Hospital.
" On the subject of electricity, it is a service second only to dis-
covery, when one competent for the task undertakes to sift and re-
construct the old materials, and to bring together and incorporate
them with all that is important in the new. Such a service Dr.
Noad has performed in nis ' Manual ol Electricity.' "— Chambers'
Journal.

London : Lockwood & Co., 7, Stationers' Hall Court, B.C.

GOODCHILD'S

T R O C HEjDOS C O P E.

An Optical Instrument upon an entirely novel principle, for exhibit-
ing many beautiful effects of Combinations of Colour, Coloured
Devices, Jewellery, Sutterjlies, Decorations, etc. etc. ; forming an ele-
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for the Drawing-room or the Study of the Optical Investigator ;
invaluable to all interested in harmony of colours, for whatever
purpose, and affording numberless suggestions to designers of
patterns for Fabrics— the results being as numerous and as brilliant
as those obtained from the Kaleidoscope, but of a permanent and
definable character.

" Tinges the perforations with the most elaborate colourings.''
—The Suilder.

" Devices, Fruit, Flowers, Patterns for Dresses, etc., may be
shown by this simijle process, which promises not only to be an
eleg.int appendage to the Drawing-room, but of considerable im-
portance in tlie Fabric Pattern manufacturing world, at the same
time eliminating many valuable facts in optical science.'' — Illus-
trated London News. .

"The marvellous changes of colour the Inventor produces by a
mere touch, partake of the magic in no small degree," — Surrey
Standard.

" Many original and beautiful effects are produced ; and as it
may be used by artificial light, our friends have the opportunity of
viewmg the beautiful effects during the long evenings." — iiecreo-
tive Science.

" Supersedes the Colour-Top, and promises to be as popular as
the Stereoscope." — Practical Mechanic's Journal.

MADK AND SOLD BY

HOENE & THORNTHWAITE,

OPTICIANS,

IpIjHosopIjwal ^ ^I^otograpljk Instrument pakers

TO HER MAJESTY,

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LONDON, E.G.

Price, in neat polished Mahogany Case, with an assort- £ «. d.

ment of Discs, and Book of Instructions 2 2 0

Extra Discs, per dozen 0 7 6

An Illustrated Descriptive Pamphlet forwarded. Post Free, on
receipt of Seven Stamps, either from Messrs. HoBifs & Ihobm>
THWAiTB, or from the Inventor, Guildford,

ADVERTISEMENTS.

MURRAY AND HEATH,

43, PICCADILLY, LONDON, W.,

TO HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN, THE GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS, AND THE CHIEF

SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

In the Course of Preparation, and will be ready for issue in a few days,

MURRAY AND HEATH'S PHOTOGRAPHIC CATALOGUE,

AND THEIR ANNUAL PAMPHLET ON NEW PROCESSES AND APPARATUS.

SMARTT'S PHOTOGRAPHIC TENT.

The most efficient, serviceable, and convenient Tent in use. For description, etc., see page 7 of Pamphlet.

PONTING'S COLLODION.

This Collodion has risen into very high repute, and is used by a vast number of Professional and Amateur Photographers. It is very
sensitive, and this quality it retains a considerable time.

Murray and Heath, 43, Piccadilly, "W.

Ji AMADIO'S STUDENTS' BOX OF MICROSCOPIC PREPARATIONS,

Containing Six Dozen beautiful Specimens in poliphed Mahogany Box, fitted with racks, brass lock and key, etc., produced under
J. AMADIO'S imme(iate superintendence, specially adapted for the Student, price £3 18s. 6d.

MICROSCOPIC PHOTOGRAPHIC NOVELTIES— NOW READY.

Dr. Livingstone, Cardinal Wiseman, Charles Dickens, Albert Smith, Miss Amy Sedgwick, Ecce Homo, Paul preaching at Atheng, St. Paul's
Cathedral, Houses of Parliament, The £5 Bank Note, Smugglers Watching, Windsor Castle, Congratulation, Interior of Highland Home,
View of Dover, Sheep Washing, The Corsairs' Tale, The Death of Annanias, 2s. 6d, each, or post free for 33 stamps.

Great Eastern. — Microscopic Photographs of the Great Eastern, post free on receipt of 32 Stamps.

Microscopes from 10s. 6d. to 120 Guineas.
J. AMADIO'S IMPEOVED COMPOUND MICEOSCOPES, £2 12s. 6d.; Students, £3 13s. 6^.

" Both these are from Amadio, of Throgmorton Street, and are excellent of their kind, the more expensive one especially." — Mouse'
hold Words, No. 345,

J. AMADIO'S BOTANICAL MICEOSCOPE,

Packed in Mahogany Case, with three Powers, Condenser, Pincers, and Two SHdes, will show the animalculain water, price 18». M.
The Field Newspaper, under the gardening department, gives the following valuable testimony : — " It is marvellously cheap, and will
do everything which the lover of nature can vrish it to accomplish, either at home or in the open air." — June 6, 1857.

7, THROGMORTON STREET, I.0ND01T, E.C.

Just Publisbcd, Second Edition, an Illustrated and Descriptive Catalogue, containing the names of 1500 Microscopic

Objects. Post free for Six Stamps.

ME. MACKIE'S NEW GEOLOGICAL WOEK.

This day is published, crovni 8vo, Illustrated, price 5s.,

THE FIEST TEACES OF LIFE ON THE EAKTH;

OB,

THE EOSSILS OF THE BOTTOM EOCKS.

BY S. J. MAOKIE, F.G.S., F.S,A., ETC., ETC.

CONTENTS.

THE NATUEE OF FOSSILS.

VALUE OF FOSSILS.

OEDEK OF THE K0CK8.

WHAT WE KNOW OF THE EAETH'S CEUST.

THE EOCK-STEATA — THEIE TEACHINGS,
EEMNANTS OF THE FIKST LANDS.
THE BOTTOM EOCKS.
FIEST TEACES OF LIFE.

London : Groombkidge & Sons, Publishers, 5, Paternoster Eov.

ADVEETISEMENTS.

The most Useful, and at the same time the Cheapest
Periodical devoted to Horticultural Subjects, is

rHE Fi©liAi W'9Bi©

AND GARDEN GUIDE.

Published Monthly, Price Fourpence.

Subscribers wishing to commence a New Volume, should order
Number 25, published January 1st, 1860.

Two Volumes are published, and may be had, elegantly bound,
cloth gilt, price 6s. each.

The following 50 Original Articles contained in recent Numbers
will develop the nature of the AVork, which is acknowledged on all
hands to be a Valuable Work of Reference for the Garden and the
Greenhouse.

TITLES OP Fifty Aetici,es coNTAiifED in Eecent Numbbes of

The Floeal Woeld.
Miniature fruit gardens
Wet soils and small seeds

How, when, and where to plant

roses
Jardinieres and stone edgings
Profitable gardening
Practical rustic work
Cottage architecture and rustic

adornments
A cheap pit for amateurs
Florists' flowers and new plants
Grasses, grass plots, and lawns
Monthly work in garden and

greenhouse
Planting a fern case
Culture and training of the

raspberry
Plan of a town garden [shrubs

Grape vines in pots

Bulbous flowers aud lycopodinms

Waltonian cases

Stocks and grafts [vases

Evergreen trees and plants for

The chemistry of horticulture

Natural history of the wire-worm

The verbena and other bedding

plants
Asparagus, sea-kale, and rhubarb
Culture of the peach
Success in cultivating ericas
Treatment of unfruitful trees
Among the ferns to gather know-
Geometrical gardens [ledge

Culture of the cabbage tribe
Plants for various soils
Management of stove iilants

Hardy evergreen flowering Lists of herbaceous plants

Newly invented garden pots
Useful inventions applied to

horticulture [measures

Bedding plants and preservative
Culture of the potatoe
Hyacinths in pots and glasses
Tank heating and early forcing
Mushroom culture simplified
Culture and training of the

gooseberry
Winter culture of the cucumber

of

The law of garden fixtures
Manures and fertilisers
Trees and shrubs in London
The theory and practice

pruning
Eockeries and wild flowers
Management of cold frames and

pits
Orchard houses, to build and

manage
Monthly garden calendar
Order thf "Floral World and Garden Oiiide," monthly, of any
Bookseller, ivho will deliver it on the day of publication,

London : Gbooubbidge & Sons, 5, Paternoster Eow,

Almanacfor the New Year .—Essential to the Florist, In-
dispensable for the Garden, and Invaluable to the

Household.
Just Published, price Is.; sent Post Free for 12 stamps,

rpHE GAEDEN OEACLE, AND ECONOMIC

L YEAE BOOK FOE ISGO.

The principal contents of the issue for 1860 are as follows : —
Ericas — A list of Ericas in Idoom every day throughout the year,
and a Treatise on the Culture of Ericas, by a well-known experienced
hand. Winning Flowers of 1839 — A selection of the varieties which
have been most successful at Exhibitions. New Plants, Flowers,
andFruita — Descriptive noticesof all the novelties introduced during
the year. Reminders for 1860 — Cultural Notes, etc., for the guid-
ance of amateurs. Spergula Pilifera — its history, uses, culture, etc.
Illustrated with engravnngs. Lists of all the best Flowers, Vege-
tables, and Fruits adapted to various localities of Britain. Poultry
and lice Keeping — Practical Notes by a well-known authority. Ori-
ginal Eeceipts for the House, Garden, and Farm.

*,* Order the Garden Oracle, price 1*., of any Bookseller, or of
the Publishers,

London : Gboombkidgb & Sons, 5, Paternoster Eow.

DEDICATED, BY PEEMISSION, TO THE EARL OF ROSSE.

Just published, with Illustrations in Colours, and other
Engravings, price 7s. Gd.,

TELESCOPE TEACHINGS;

A FAMILIAR SKETCH OF ASTRONOMICAL DISCOVERY;

Combining a special notice of objects coming within the range of a
small telescope, illustrated by the Author's Original Drawings, with
a detail of the most interesting discoveries which have been made
with the assistance of powerful Telescopes, concerning the Phe-
nomena of the Heavenly Bodies, including the recent Comet.

BY THE HON. MRS. WARD,

Author of "A World of Wonders Revealed by the Microscope."

LIST OF PLATES,

FEOM THE author's OEIGIlfAL DEAWINGS.

1. The Sun— Solar Spots.

2. Observations of tlieSun.

3. Eclipse of the Moon,

4. Map of the Moon.

5. Portions of the Moon's Sur-

face.

6. Partial Eclipse of the Sun.

7. Mercury, Venus, and Mars.

8. Jupiter and its Satellites.

9. Saturn.

10. The Comet of 1854.

11. Donati's Comet.

12. Donati's Comet on Oct. 11,

1858.

13. Miniature Chart of the Ap-

parent Path of Donati's

Comet.
li. A Falling or Shooting Star.
15. Fixed Stars.
15. Clusters and Nebute.

London; GsooMBEiDaB & Sons, Publishers, 5, Paternoster Eow.
Second Edition, 12rao, cloth, 2s.,

LESSONS ON THE PHENOMENA OF INDUSTRIAL LIFE,

AND THE

CONDITIONS OF INDUSTRIAL SUCCESS.

Edited by EICHAED DAWES, Beaix of Hebepoed.

CoifrBiTTS :

Industry.

Knowledge and Skill.

Economy.

Wealth.

Capital.

Profit.

Wages.

Property.

Rent.

Division of Labour.

Value.

Measures and Weights.

Money.

Precious Metals.

Credit and Bills.

Banking.

Rates of Exchange.

Paper Money.

Insurance.

Price.

Interest and Annuities.

Industrial Progress.

Emigration.

Base Money.

Restrictions.

Industrial Derangement.

Combinations.

Strikes and Lock Outs.

Taxation.

Property vacant by Death.

London: Geoombeidge & Sons, Publisher.s, 5, Paternoster Eow.

BEOWN & POISON'S
PATENT CORN FLOUR.

"This is superior to anything of the kind known."— X(7Hce<.

Obtain it from Family Grocers, or Chemists, who do not try to
substitute inferior Articles. Becipes on each Packet,

ADVEETISEMENTS.

^ ill 3 B il I 33 cl I? lfC| 1^ Is i^ I;

|H$tr«i!ients.

COMPOUND AGHROMATiO MICROSCOPES.

OF THREE CLASSES.

FIEST CLASS.

In whicli the Magnifying Power, the Stand, and the Illumination,
are carried to the greatest possible perfection.

Price, from £30 to £84.

" The arrangement of the Illuminating Apparatus in Sjhtii &
Beck's Microscope seems to the autlior to present some decided
advantages over that adopted by either of the other makers, and in
point of general excellence of workmanship, this instrument cannot
be BUTptiiseti."— Carpenter, on Microscope, First Edition, page 103.

SECOND CLASS.

In which the aame Magnifying Power as the former is combined,
wit'i a leas expensive Stand and Apparatus for lUuminfttion.

Price, from £16 to £40.

These Instruments are improvements upon that mentioned ly Dr.
Carpenter on Microscope, First Editimi, page 87.

"Of the patterns yet devised for a Microscope of simple con-
struction, which shall yet be capable of answering every essential
purpose, whether of display or of investigation, that of Smith &
Beck appears to the author to be (to say the least) among the best,
and he recommends it with the more confidence, since he has for
many years employed one of these Microscopes as his own working
instrument."

THIRB CLASS.

EDUCATIONAL.

The capabilities of this Instrument are limited, but they are equal
to the requirements of most observers ; and the cost is considerably
leas than in the two other classes.

Price, £10 or £15.

An Illustrated Descriptive Pamphlet of the Educational Micro-
scope will be forwarded on receipt of six postage stamps. It in-
cjiides testimonials from the following eminent Microscopists : —
Wm.B. Carpenter, M.D.,F.R.S. John Lindley, Ph.D., F.R.S.,
John Goodsir, F.R.S. F.L.S.

John Edward Gray. George Kaincv, Esq^

William Gull, M.D. B. W. llichar'dson, F.E.C.S.I.

George Jackson, M.R.C.S.E. William Smith, F. L. S.

Edwin Lankestor, M.D., F.R.S.

MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS,

A Large Assortment of Objects of Scientific and General
Interest kppt constantly in stock.

Price, from Is, 6d.

A careful selection of Six Dozen ObjCCts in a neat
Mahogany Case.

Price £4,

This series comprises Illustrations of the following subjects : —

The Structure of Bone, Horn, Hoof, Tendon, Hair, Feathers,
Scales, Skin, etc.

The various parts of Injects, viz. : —Head, Eye, Tongue, Elytron,
Wing, Foot, Sting, Tracliaaa, Spiracles, etc.

Of A^egetables : — Spores, Starch, Sectionsof Wood, Diatomacea-,
recent and fossil.

Also Specimens of Sponge and Gorgonia Spicules, Algte, Zoo-
phytes, etc., etc.

ACHROMATIC STEREOSCOPES,

" Messrs. Smith & Beck have not only carried out, they have
gone beyond our sugtrestions. The result is a perfection beyond
which it is hardly posailjle to carry the Stereoscope.'' — Atltencevm,
August 28, 1858, page 269.

AcHiiOMATic Table Steeeoscopi:, in Walnut wood £3 10
Ditto, ditto, ditto, in Mahogany . -33

Handsome Pedestal Stands for the above, forming

also Cases for Views, from . . £2 5s. to 4 15

Patent Mirror Stereoscope, in Walnut wood . 2 0

Ditto ditto Mahogany . . 1 15

Superior Leather Case for the above , . 0 12

0
0

0

o

0
6

" Having used your Patent Achromatic Stereoscope, I consider it
the best lenticular Stereoscope that I have seen, both in its optical
and mechanical arrangements. The illumination of the Binocular
Pictures, both by reflected and direct light, the adjustment of the
Lenses to difl'erent exes, and the mode ot inserting the slides, and
fixing them in their proper place, give it a great supeiiority over
other forms of the instrument." — Sir David Brewster.

IlLTJSTBATED DESCElPIIOJfS FOEWAEDED O.V ApPLigATIOIf .

Stereoscopic Photographs of the Moon, on

Glass, from Negatives taken by \N'arren DcUiruo,

F.R.S., Sec, R A. S., etc. . . ■ £0 10 6

Glass Transparencies, including Views in Switzerland,
Egypt, the Pyrenees, Heidelberg, Spain, the Tyrol,
the lihiue, and various Continental Towns, each .076

A very choice assortment of Views on Paper, per dozen 110

GORHAM'S KALEIDOSCOPIC COLGUR-TQP.

[See " Microscopical Journal," No. XXVI.)

Price . . . • . -£110

Extra Set of Rotating Dines, per dozen . -050

This Instrument shows the various beautiful effects of the Com-
bination of Colours, eto.

6, COLEMAN STREET, LONDON, E.G.

Catalogues, etc., sent free on Application. Forcijn Orders to hs
accompanied icith a liemittance .

THOMAS ItAI.I.ILD, PEIHTCn, SALTSBUEY KQUAKB, FLEBT STRr.KT, I.O>-D0>-.

"RECREATIVE SCIENCE," No. 11, wiU be Published 31st MAY, 1860.

Of No. 10.

PnYSlCAT, EVTDENCEg 01' THE InTEENAL HeAT

OF THE Earth ; Part II. — Geological and
Planetary Strtjcture of the Earth. Bx

Shirley IIibberd 325

Robert's Test-Lines. By Tuffen West 333

Practical PnoToaRAPHY. By Joseph Side-

BOTHAM 335

The Odours of Flowers. By Benjakin Ab-
bott 340

Coal and Coniferous Wood under the Micro-
scope. By J. R, Leifchild 343

Lead ; Part II. — In the Furnace. By Harry
Napier Draper 349

A Meridian-Line. By W. C. Bueder

The VEaETATioN of a Decayed Nut. By W.

F. COOPEE

Meteorology of May

Astronomical Observations foe May

Things of the Season — May

Mr. Noteworthy's Corner

Naturalist's Telescope

Occultations of Jupiter's Satellites ...

Celestial Objects ,

Biological Teems

Electeic Illumination

A New Planet

FAGB

353

356
358
358
359
359
35a
3^

3>
36.

The Articles in " RecireatiTe Science " axe Copyright, and the Right of Translation is reserved.

Communications for the Editor to be addressed to the Publishers, Messrs. G-roombeidge & Sons,

5, Paternoster Eow.

•,* Correspondents are desired in all cases to communicate their real names and addresses, wWct will, as a rule, be held in confidence.

Letters needing a reply should reach us by the 15th at latest.

OUE LETTER-BOX.

Water Glass in Photographt.— C. P., Vauxhall.— We are
not aware if soluble glass is anywhere made lor sale, but application
may be made to any of the undermentioned houses, and we name
several in order to be impartial and suit the convenience of other
readers, who may make choice of those nearest them : — Morson &
Son, Southampton Kow, Holborn ; Hopkins & Williams, Cavendish
Street, Portland Place ; Simpson, Maule, & Co., Kennington ;
Garden & Son, Oxford Street; Polton, Holborn Bars.

Kinnear's Camera.— CosMoroLiiE. — You will see that your re-
quest has been complied with. All similar requests will be complied
with as far as may be consistent with the plan and purpose of the
work, and the probability of meeting the wants of readers generally.

Electeotiping. — Z. — Keep one or two crystals of sulphate of
copper on the shelf of the trough, to maintain the strength of the
solution, and make it last an indelinite time. 'J he sulphuric acid
Bolulion is so cheap that it is advisable to renew it after every eight
or teu depositions. The renewal will not cost a farthing.

Eeceivkd. — "First Traces of Life, or the Geology of the Bottom
Eocks." By S. J. Mackie. Groombridge & Sons. The poetry of
fact and the poetry of diction, ably employed in picturing the first
fruits of creative energy in the earth. — F. W., MS. — Call. Good. —
E. H. S. — Compass. There can be no need to engrave the diagrams.
— J. J., King's Lynn. — There is no such work as the one you
inquire for. The Nautical Almanac is the book you want. — J. A. — '
The subject will shortly have special treatment. — W. Walsh.—
W. N.,Wesleyan College.

MicEoscopic Earths.— F. W., Leickster Sstjahe. — A pinch of
TripoU powder, guano, or any other of the ordinary earths used as
microscopic objects, can be had for pence, or nothing, in any street
in London, at drysalters, oil-shops, etc., etc. Of course, when se-
lected and mounted, they acquire value, and must be had tlirough
the usual channels. If you are handy at nioimtiug, you will have
no difficulty in getting samples. Such things are as plentiful as
bread.

Completion of the Nature-Printed Sea-Weeds, in 4 Vols. Royal 8vo, Price £2 2s. each.

Shortly icill he Published, Vols. Ill, and IV. of the

NATURE-PRINTED BRITISH, SEA-WEEDS.

NATUEE-PEINTED BY HENEY BEADBTJEY.

A HISTORY ACCOMPANIED BY FIGURES AND DISSECTIONS OF

THE ALG^E OF THE BRITISH ISLES,

BY WILLIAM GEOSAET JOHNSTONE AND ALEXANDEE CEOALL.

CONTENTS.

VOLS. I. & II.
RKODOSPERMEJE.-ltED SEA-WEEDS.

Vol. I.— Series I. DEsmosPKRMEiE. 90 Species. 70 Plates.
Vol. II. — Series II. GoNGYLosrERME-n. 88 Species. 63
Plates. With Dissections of all the Species.

VOL III.
MELANOSPERMEJE— OLIVE SEA-WEEDS.

Series III. 95 Species. 52 Plates. With Dissections of all
the Species.

VOL. IV.
CHIiOROSPERMEJE-^GKEEN SEA- WEEDS.

Series IV. 102 Species. 25 Plates. AVith Dissections of all
the Species.

Synoptical Tables of the Orders, Genera, and Species. General
View of the Structure and uses of the Sea-Weed
Family. Sketch of their Classification and Distribu-
tion. Instructions for the Cultivation of the Alga?,
their preservation in the Herbarium, and their pre-
paration as objects for the Microscope.

In a few day* will he published, price £2 2s. fcompleiinq the work in 2 Vols., price £4 is.J, Vol. II. of the

OCTAVO NATUEE-PEINTED BRITISH FERNS.

BEIIN'G FIGURES AKD DESCEIPTIONS OP THE SPECIES AND VAEIETIES OF FERNS FOUND IN THE

UNITED KINGDOM. BY THOMAS MOORE, F.L.S.
NATUKE-PKINTED BY HENEY BHADBURY.

The Work contaias 122 Plates and 500 pages of Letter-press. Eoyal 8vo, uniform with the " Nature-Printed British Sea- Weeds."

J. H. DALLMEYER

(Son-in-Law akd Pupil of the late Andrew Boss),

OPTICIAN,

Respectfully bega to inform the Scientific Public, that in consequence of separating interests with T. Ross, he has
REMOVED the whole of the faculty for the production of the

ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE

(Bequeathed to him by the late A. R.), FROM No. 2, FEATHERSTONE BUILDINGS, TO

No. 19, BLOOMSBURY STREET, OXFORD STREET, W.C,

Where he continues to produce Instruments of the same high character as those supplied during A. R.'s lifetime, which
for upwards of six years have been exclusively made by him in this department, Theory and Practice haying been
successfully united, and hence the great Perfection of this important instrument.

J. 5. D. being also in full possession of A. R.'s £ntib£ exferiekce in regard to the construction and manu-
facture of

33^XOX1.0SOCDX>XO O:eJ£S0a?>-0-Xji..,A.SSE3S,

Inheriting also one-half of the Implements, etc., used for the production of the latter, he is now prepared to supply
Object- Glasses of Improved Construction, the result of protracted analytic dioptric calculations. Particulars on
application.

J. H. D. having also assisted the late A. R. in the constl-uctlon of his

PHOTOGRAPHIC LENSES,

Is intimately acquainted with the manner of their production, and now supplies these as well as all others.'

OPTICAL INSTUHMENTS AND APPARATUS

As manufactured and sold heretofore by his late Pather-in-Law.

CATALOGUES MAY BE HAD ON APPLICATION TO

No. Zd, BLOOMSBURY STREET, NEW OXFORD STREET, LONDON, W.C.

ADVEETISEMENTS

T. ROSS,

(Son and Successor of the late Andeb-w Eoss,)

. O I^* T I O I -A. i<r,

KespectfvJly informs the puhlic that Miceoscopes, Tblbscopks,
Photogeaphic Lenses, etc., etc., of the most perfect description,
may be obtained as heretofore, at the old Establishment,

2 & 3, FEATHERSTONE BUILDINGS, HIGH HOLBORN,

LONDON, W.C.

Catalogues may be had on application.

MICROSCOPES AND TELESCOPES.

NEWTON'S STUDENTS' ACHEOMATIC
MICROSCOPE, in Case, with two sets of Achromatics, Con-
denser on Stand, magnifies 65,000 times, £4 4». Compound Micro-
scope, with ScTen Powers, magnifies 20,000 times, £2 15»., ditto,
lOj. 6d., 16»., and 18». 6i. each. ACHROMATIC TELES-
COPES, 10». to £2. Ditto for India, Deer-stalking, etc., of very
great power, to show Jupiter's Moons, in Black Leather Sling-
casps, £3 3«. each.

MAGIC-LANTERNS AND DISSOLVING VIEWS.

NEWTON'S IMPEOVED PHANTASMA-
GORIA LANTERNS, with Lenses 3^ inches diameter, to
show a picture 9 feet in diameter, suitable for Schools and Lec-
tures, £3 3s. DISSOLVING VIEW Apparatus, consisting of
a pair of 3J-inch Lanterns, £8 89. MA.GIO LANTERNS, with 12
Slides, from Is. M. each. A most extensive assortment of Sliders,
Views, Buildings, Natural History, Astronomical, Missionary, and
other subjects.

ILLUSTRATED PRICE-LIST FOB THREE STAMPS,

NEWTOM & CO.,

Uannfactnring Opticians, 3, Fleet Street, Temple Bar, London.

MINEBALOGY AND GEOLOGY.— Practical
Instruction is given in these interesting branches of Science
by Mr. TENNANT, Geolosrist, 149, Strand, W.C. Mr. Tknnant
can supply Elementary Collections and Separate Specimens of
Shells, Jlinerals, Rocks, and Fossils ; also. Geological Maps,
Models, Diagrams, Hammers, Blowpipes, Acid Bottles, Magnifying
dlasses. Glass-top Boies, and Microscopic Ob.iects ; and all recent
Works on Conchology, Chemistry, Mineralogy,Botany, and Geology.

MR. MACKIE'S NEW GEOXiOGICA]!. WORK.

This day is published, crown 8vo, Illustrated, price 5».,

rPHE FIEST TEACES OF LIFE ON THE

L , EARTH; or. The Fo-ssils of the Bottom Rocks. By S.J.
Mackik, F.G.S., F.S.A., etc., etc.

COMTEITTS.

THE NATURE OF FOSSILS.

VALUE OF FOSSILS.

ORDER OF THE ROCKS.

WHAT WE KNOW OF THE EARTH'S CRUST,

THE ROCK-STRATA —THEIR TEACHINGS.

REMNANTS OF THE FIRST LANDS.

THE BOTTOM ROCKS.

FIRST TRACES OF LIFE.

London: Qboombbidgb & Soirs, S, Paternoster Bow.

FARADAY'S JUVENILE CHRISTMAS LECTURES.

Just Published, Foolscap Svo, price 3», M.,

LECTURES ON THE PHYSICAL FORCES,

Delivered to a Juvenile Auditory at the Royal Institution, by Pro-
fessor FARADAY. Edited by William Ceookbs. With numer-
ous Illustrations.

London and Glasgow : Richabd Gbibfin & Co,

PHOTOGRAPHY,

BEST AND CHEAPEST HOUSE.
T SOLOMON, WHOLESALE OPTICAL

tl • AND PHOTOGRAPHIC WAREHOUSE, 22, Red Lion
Square, London.

Catalogues free on Application.

CURIOSITIES, ANTIQUITIES,

pABINET 8PECI.

\J MENS in Natural His-
tory and Geology, Fossils,
Shells, Models, and almost
every Article of Domestic use
or Ornament.

JACKSON'S CEMENT

It surpasses in Neatness
and in Strength, and in cheap-
ness, and retains its virtues
in all climates.

Sold by Reeves & Sons,
113, Cheapside, London ;
Duncan, Flockhabt, & Co.,
Edinburgh; Jackson, West-
i.AND, & Co., Dublin; and
most Chemists, Funcy Sta-
tioners, etc. ; and Wholesale
by the usual Trade Houses.

A Sample Bottle, per Post

'for broken china?

(^class, earthen ware,>j

/ornaments, toys, &C.

>iN BOTTLES AT 6o.&lt.

^cfoL&^^cryi.'

This Device ,s print, d on the Wrapper Free, for U Stamps from the
ofevcryBottle'oftheGenuineArticle. ^;°XltJr. ^'■^""^^"'^^^^

TO NATURALISTS AND SCIENTIFIC
TOURISTS.

MESSES. GEOEGE KNIGHT & SONS,
2, FOSTER LANE, LONDON, supply Geological and Miner-
alogical Hammers, Pocket Compasses, Magnifying Glasses, Butter-
fly and Dredging Nets, Entomological and Botanical Collecting
Boxes, and every other requisite for collecting and preserving ob-.
jects of Natural History.

Messrs. Knight & Sons also Manufacture and Sell every de-
scription of Photographic Apparatus, including Cameras fitted with
Voigtlander'a New Orthoscopic Lens, especially suited to supply
the wants of the Photographic Tourist.

Geoegb Knight & Sons, 2, Foster Lane, London.

Imperial IGmo, cloth gilt, price Ss. Gd.,

A WORLD OF WONDERS REVEALED
BY THE MICROSCOPE.

A BOOK FOR YOUNG STUDENTS.

By the Hon. Mrs. WARD.

With Coloured Illustrations, delineating 130 Microscopic Objects.

Wings of Insects— Wings and Scales of Moths and Butterflies-
Scales of Beetles and Fishes— Hairs of Animals— Human Hair-
Down of Birds— Hairs of Insects— Structure of a Feather— Sections
of Limestone— Mineral Productions— Structure of the Crystalline
Lens— Section of the Eve— Eyes of Insects— Feet of Insects— Petal
of Geranium— Pollen of Flowers— Grain— Claws of Si^ider— Foot of
Butterfly — Seed Vessels of Ferns,

London ; Geoombeidoe & Sons, 5, Paternoster Row.

ADTEETISEMENTS.

NEW PUBLIC ATIONS-NOW EEADY.
TLLITSTEATIVE GATHERINGS EOE

J. PREACHERS AND TEACHERS. A Manual of Anecdotes,
Facta, Figures, Proverbs, Quotations, etc. Adapted for Christian
Teaching. By Rev. Q-. S. Bowes. Fcap. cloth, 5s.

INTEEPEETATIONS OP PROPHECY :

She^ng Scriptural Reasons for the Study of Prophecy. The He-
settlement of^the Seed of Abraham in Syria and Arabia, Soripturally
explained; with Geographical Proofs and Maps. Year-Pay and
Diy-Day systems of Interpretation, harmonized in a straight line
throughout the Book of Daniel, etc., etc., etc. By Major J. Scon
Phillips. Crown 8vo, cloth, 3». 6d.

THOUGHTS EOR ALL SEASONS, IN

PROSE AND VERSE. By the late John Mason Good, M.D.,
etc., etc. With a Short Biographical Sketch. 18mo, cloth 1». 6i.,
limp. Is.

ISIIAH'S CALL TO ENGLAND: Being an

Exposition of Isaiah xviii. By Rev. Walteb Chambeblain, M.A.,
Author of "Notes on the Restoration and Conversion of Israel."
8vo, cloth, 10s. Qd.

ROME'S ORDERS NOT VALID IN ENG-
LAND'S CHURCH; The Practical Recognition of them shown to
be Unsoriptural, Unreasonable, and Civilly and Ecclesiastically Un-
lawful. By Lbx Anglicana. Cloth, 2«. 6d.

"TIMES OF REFRESHING" TO THE

CHURCH OF CHRIST. (Sketches of Church History.) By Rev.
R. Meek, Rector of Sutton Bonniiiglon. Cloth, 5s.

MEMORIALS OF AN INDIAN MIS.

STONARY ; or, A Memoir of the Rev. Michael Wilkinson,
Missionary C.M.S. Compiled by a Member of his Family, with
Selections from his Published Works, and Letters from Native
Converts. Willi Introduction by Kev. R. "VVhyteheab, M.A.
Fcap., 4s. 6i.

London : Wertheim, Macintosh, & Hunt, 24, Paternoster Row,
and 23, Holies Street, Cayendish Square.

Second Edition, mucli enlarged. Foolscap 8vo, cloth, with Illustra-
tions, price 3». 6d,,

THE TOWN GAEDEN.

gl Pattual for lljc panagtmcnt of Citg # Saburbatt ^arbtns.
BY SHIRLEY HIBBERD,

Author of "Rustic Adornments for Homes of Taste," "The
" Book of the Aquarium," etc.

CONTENTS;—

Herbaceous Border Flowers.

Tuberous Rooted Perennials.

Bulbous-Rooted Flowers.

Annuals and Biennials.

Greenhouses.

Pots and Frames.

Pests of the Garden.

Seasonal Work.

Implements and Ornaments, and
Copious Lists of various
Plants, Flowers, Treet, and
Shrubs.

Taking a House, and Making a
Garden.

Digging, Draining, and Making
, of Walks.

Planning and Laying out.

An Old Garden Restored.

An Old Garden Re-modelled,

Plans for Town Gardens.

Preparations Essential to Suc-
cess.

Trees and Shrubs,

Koses.

London j GhOombeidgb & Sows, 6, PatetBOster Row,

GOOPCHILDS

T R O C HEMDOS O O P E.

An Optical Instrument upon an entirely novel principle, for exhibit-
ing many beautiful effects of Combinations of Colour, Coloured
Devices, Jewellery, Butterflies, Decorations, etc. etc. ; forming an ele-
gant, amusing, and instructive recreative Exhibition, suitable alike
or the Drawing-room or the Study of the Optical Investigator ;
invaluable to r.ll interested in harmony of colours, lor whatever
purpose, and affording numberless sufigestiona to deai^nsrs ' of"
patterns for Fabrics— the results being us numerous and as brilliant
as those obtained fi om the Kaltidoscope, but of a permanent and
definable character.

" Tinges the perforations with the most elaborate colourings."
—The Builder.

" Devices, Fruit, Flowers, Patterns for Dresses, etc., may be
shown by this simple process, which promises not only to be an
elegMUt appendage to the Drawing-room, but of considerable im-
portance in the Pabiic Pattern manufacturing world, at the same
time eliminating many valuable facts in optical iaience.'' illus-
trated London News.

"The marvellous changes of colour the Inventor produces by a.
mere touch, partake of the magic in no small degree," — Surrey
Standard.

" Many original and beautiful effects are produced; and as it
may be used by artiticial light, our friends have the opportunity of ■
viewmg the beautiful effects during the long evenings." — Recrea-
tive Science.

" Supersedes the Colour-Top, and promises to be as popular as
the Stereoscope." — Practical Mechanic's Journal.

made and sold bt

HORNE & THOENTHWAITE,

OPTICIANS,

TO HER MAJESTY,

121, 122, & 123, NEWGATE STREET,

LONDON, E.G.

Price, in neat polished Mahogany Case, with an ^Bsprt- £ $. d.

ment of Discs, and Book ol Instructions 2 2 0

Extra Discs, per dozen , , 0 7 6

An Illustrated Descriptive Pamphlet forwarded,' Post T*ree, on
receipt of Seven Stamps, either from Messrs. Hp^ifx & Thohn-
THWAiTB, or fromi the Inventor, Guildford.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

MONTHLY STORY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE.

KOW READY, WITH FRONTISPIECE AND SIX VIGNETTE ILLUSTRATIONS,

PRICE 3d.,

"WHEN WE WERE YOUNG."

BY THE ArTHOE OF "A TRAP TO CATCH A SUNBEAM," ETC.

BEING THE FIEST OF "THE MAGNET STORIES FOR SUMMER DAYS AND

WINTER NIGHTS."

A NEW STORY EVERY MONTH. EACH STORY COMPLETE IN ITSELF.
PRICE THREEPENCE, ILLUSTRATED.

LONDON: GROOMBRIDGE AND SONS, 5, PATERNOSTER ROW.

THfi LAW OF KINDNESS.

Fifth English Edition, Enlarged by a Memoir of the late Mrs.
Elizabeth Fry, contributed by the lato Joseph John Gurney,

i Price 2». 6i. in cloth,

ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE LAW OF

X KINDNESS. By the Eev, G. W. MoNiQOMEET.

OOHIENTa,

Kindness and Revenge.
The Power of Kindnesa.
Kindness and Crime.
Kindness and Ignorance.
Kindness Admired by AU,
National Kindness.
Kindness and Persecution.

Kindness and Punishment.
Blessings and Duty of Practising

the Law.
Character of Christ.
Memoir of Mrs. Elizabeth Fry.
Chapter on Almsgiving.

London: Gboombeidge & Sons, 5, Paternoster Row.

GROOMBRIDGE'S CABINET CLASSICS.

Illustrated with Vignette EngraTingS,

COWPER'S POETICAL WORKS. Edited
by II. P. Cabey. Pcap. 8to, cloth, 6».

MILTON'S POETICAL WORKS. Edited

by H. P. Caeey. Pcap. 8vo, cloth, 6».

THOMSON'S SEASONS and CASTLE

OF INDOLENCE, Fcap. Svo, cloth, 2*.

GOLDSMITH'S POEMS AND ESSAYS.

Pcap. 8vo, cloth, 2«.

ADVENTURES OF ULYSSES.

Chaelbs Lamb. Pcap. Svo, cloth, 1«. 6d,

By

MARMION. By Sir Waltee Scott. Fcap.

8vo, cloth. Is. 6d.

LADY OF THE LAKE, By Sir Walter

ScOTi. Fcap. 8to, cloth, 1». 6d.

LAY OF THE LAST MINSTREL. By

Sir Walike Scoit. Pc.lp. Svo, cloth, Is. 6d,

ROKEBY. By Sir Walter Scott. Fcap.

8vo, cloth, U. ed. ___

ROMANTIC TALES. By M. G. Lewis.

Pcap. Svo, cloth, 2s.

ELIZABETH, OR THE EXILES OF SI-

BEEIA. Pcap. Svo, cloth, 1». 6d.

PAUL AND VIRGINIA, and THE IN-
DIAN COTTAGE. Fcap. Svo, cloth. Is. Gd.

VICAR OF WAKEFIELD. By Oliver

GoLBSMiTH. Pcap. Svo, 28.

%* It is necessary to order Groomhridge' s ^Editions.

Loudon : O-SdoufiiltsaE & Sons, 6, Paternoster HotTi

ADVEETISEMENTS.

The most Useful, and at the same time the Cheapest
Periodical devoted to Horticultural Subjects, is

AND GARDEN GUIDE.

Published Monthly Price Fourpence,

Subscribers wishing to commence a New Volume, should order
Number 25, published January 1st, 1860.

Two Volumes are published, and may be had, elegantly bound,
cloth gilt, price 6s. each.

The following 50 Original Articles contained in recent Numbers
will develop the nature of the Work, which is acknowledged on all
hands to be a Valuable Work of Keference for the Garden and the
Greenhouse.

TlILIS OF FlTTT AbTICIKS COUTAIITED IK EKCBHT NUMBBBS OF

The Floeai, Woeld.

Miniature fruit gardens
Wet soils and small seeds
How, -when, and where to plant

roses
Jardinieres and stone edgings
Profitable gardening
Practical rustic work
Cottage architecture and rustic

adornments
A cheap pit for amateurs
Florists' flowers and new plants
Grasses, grass plots, and lawns
Mqnthly work in garden and

greenhouse
Planting a fern case
Culture and training of the

raspberry
Plan of a town garden [shrubs
Hardy evergreeD flowering
Newly invented garden pots
Useful inventions applied to

horticulture [measures

Bedding plants and preservative
Culture of the potatoe
Hyacinths in pots and glasses
Tank heating and early forcing
Mushroom culture simplified
Culture and training of the

gooseberry
Winter culture of the cucumber

Grape vines in pots

Bulbous flowers and lycopodiuma

Waltonian cases

Stocks and grafts [vases

Evergreen trees and plants for

The chemistry of horticulture

Natural history of the wire-worm

The verbena and other bedding

plants
Asparagus, sea-kale, and rhubarb
Culture of the peach
Success in cultivating ericas
Treatment of unfruitful trees
Among the ferns to gather know-
Geometrical gardens [l^dge
Culture of the cabbage tribe
Plants for various soils
Management of stove plants
Lists of herbaceous plants
The law of garden fixtures
Manures and fertilisers
Trees and shrubs in London
The theory and practice of

pruning
Rockeries and wild flowers
Management of cold frames and

pits
Orchard houses, to build and

manage
Monthly garden calendar

%* Order the "Floral World and Garden Chiide," monihly, of any
Bookseller, who will deliver it on the day qf publication.

London : Gboombbidgb & Soifs, 5, Paternoster Kow.

Almauacfor the New Year .—Essential to the Florist, In-
dispensable for the Garden, and Invaluable to the

Household.
Just Published, price Is. ; sent Post Free for 12 stamps,

THE GAEDEN ORACLE, AND ECONOMIC
YEAK BOOK FOR 1860.

The principal contents of the issue for 1860 are as follows : —
Ericas — A list of Ericas in bloom every day throughout the year,
and a Treatise on the Culture of Ericas, by a well-known experienced
hand. Winning Flowers of 1859 — A selection of the varieties which
have been most successful at Exhibitiocs. New Plants, Flowers,
and Fruits — Descriptive notices of all the novelties introduced during
the year. Reminders for 1800 — Cultural Notes, etc., for the guid-
ance of amateurs. Spergula PUifera — its history, uses, culture, etc.
Illustrated with eugravmgs. Lists of all the best Flowers, Vege-
tables, and Fruits adapted to various localities of Britain. Poultry
and Bee Keeping — Practical Notes by a weLl-kno^vn authority. Ori-
ginal Receipts for the House, Garden, and Farm.

*,* Order the Garden Oracle, price Is,, of any Bookseller, or of
the PubUshers,

Loudon ; Gbooubbisqb & Soii'S, 5, Paternoster Row.

DEDICATED, BY PERMISSION, TO THE EARL OF ROSSB.

Just published, with Illustrations in Colours, and other
Engravings, price 7«. 6d.,

TELESCOPE TEACHINGS;

A FAMILIAR SKETCH OF ASTRONOMICAL DISCOVERY;

Combining a special notice of objects coming within the range of a
small telescope, illustrated by the Author's Original Drawings, with
a detail of the most interesting discoveries which have been made
with the assistance of powerful Telescopes, concerning the Phe-
nomena of the Heavenly Bodies, including the recent Comet.

BY THE HON. MRS. WARD,

Author of " A World of Wonders Revealed by the Microscope."

LIST OF PLATES,

FEOM THE AUIHOE's OEiailfAL DEAWINOS.

1. The Sun— Solar Spots.

2. Observations of the Sun.

3. Eclipse of the Moon.

4. Map of the Moon.

5. Portions of the Moon's Sur-

face.

6. Partial Eclipse of the Sun.

7. Mercury, Venus, and Mars.

8. Jupiter and its Satellites.

9. Saturn.

10. The Comet of 1854.

11. Donati's Comet.

12. Donati's Comet on Oct. llj

1858.

13. Miniature Chart Of the Ap-

parent Path of Donati's
Comet.

14. A Falling or Shooting Star.

15. Fixed Stars.

16. Clusters and Nebulas.

London: Gboombeidhb & Sons, Publishers, 5, Paternoster Row.
Second Edition, 12mo, cloth, 2s.,

LESSONS ON THE PHENOMENA OF INDUSTRIAL LIFE,
CONDITIONS OF INDUSTRIAL SUCCESS.

Edited by RICHARD DAWES, Deah or Hebbsoed.

COHTENTS !

Industry.

Kiiowledgeand Skill.

Economy,

Wealth.

Capital.

Profit.

Wages.

Property.

Rent.

Division of Labour.

Value.

Measures and Weights.

Money.

Precious Metals.

Credit and Bills.

Banking.

Rates of Exchange.

Paper Money.

Insurance.

Price.

Interest and Annuities.

Industrial Progress.

Emigration.

Base Money.

Restrictions.

Industrial Derangement.

Combinations.

Strikes and Lock Outs.

Taxation.

Property vacant by Death.

London : QEOOiiBaiDaE & Sons, 5, Paternoster Row.

BEOWN & POISON'S
PATENT CORN FLOUR*

"This is superior to anything of the kind incnn."— Lancet.

Obtain it from Family Grocers, or Chemists, who do not try to
substitute inferior Articles. Recipes on each Packet.

ADVEETISEMENTS.

aitufettiirtrs d #|itinil anir Pittljenmticri |n.$tntiiitirti

COMPOUND ACHROMATIC MICROSCOPES.

OF THREE CLASSES.

FIRST CLASS.

In which the Magnifying Power, the Stand, and the Illumination,
are earned to the greatest possible perfection.

Price, from £30 to £84.

" The arrangement of the Illuminating Apparatus in Smith &

Beck's Microscope seems to the author to present some decided

• adyantafjes over that adopted by either of the other makers, and in

point of general excellence of workmanship, this instrument cannot

be surpassed." — Carpenter, on Microscope, First Edition, page 103,

SECOND CLASS.

In which the oame Magnifying Power as the former is combined,
with a less expensive Stand and Apparatus for Illumination.

Price, from £15 to £40.

These InsirumenU are improvements upon thai mentioned hy Dr.
Carpevta- on Microscope, First Edition, page 87.

"Of the patterns yet devised for a Mieroscope of simple con-
struction, which shall yet he capable of answering every essential
purpose, whether of display or of investigation, that of Smith &
Beck appears to the author to he (to say the least) among the best,
and he recommends it with the more confidence, since he has for
many years employed one of ;these Microscopes as his own working
instrument."

THIRD CLASS.

EDUCATIONAL.

The capabilities of this Instrument are limited, but they are equal
to the requirements of most observers j and the cost is oonsideralily
less than in the two other classes.

Price, £10 or £15.

An Illustrated Descriptive Pamphlet of the F,dueational Miero-
pcope will be forwaidtd on receipt of six postage stamps. It in-
cludes testimonials from the following eminent Microscopists :-
"Wm. B. Carpenter, M.D.,r.I{.S.
John Goodsir, F.R.S.
John Edward Gray.

VVilMam Gull, M.U.
George Jackson, M.R.C.S.E.
Edwin Lankester, M.D., F.E.S.

John Lindlov, Ph.D., F.R.S.,
F.L.S.

George Hainev, Esq.

B. W. Kieharclson, F.R.C.S.I.

William Smith, F. L. S.

MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS.

A Large Assortment of Objects of Scientific and General
latorest kept constantly in stock.

Price, from Is, 6d.

A careful selection of Six Dozen Objects in a ne.it
Mahogany Case.

Price £4,

This series comprises Illustrations of the following subjects :—

The Structure of Bone", Horn, Hoof, Tendon, Hair, Feathers,
Sciles, Skin, etc.

The various parts of Insects, viz. ;— Head, Eye, Tongue, Elytron,
Wing, Foot, Sting, Trachsoa, Spiracles, etc.

Of Vegetables : — Spores, Starch, Scctionsof Wood, Diatomacea",
recent and fossil.

Also Specimens of Sponge and Gorgonia Spicules, Alg£e, Zoo-
phytes, etc., etc.

ACHROMATIC STEREOSCOPES,

" Messrs. Smith & Beck have not orily carried oqt, they have
gone beyond our suggestions. The result is a perfection beyond
which it is hardly possible to carry the Stereoscope." — Athencenm,
August 28, 1858, page 269.

AcHEOMATic Table Stebeoscope, in Walnut wood £3 10
Ditto, ditto, ditto, in Mahogany . -33

Handsome Pedestal Stands for the above, fonning

also Cases for Views, from . . £2 5s. tO 4 15

Patent Mirror Stereoscope, in Walnut wood . 2 0

Ditto ditto Mahogany . • 1 15

Superior leather Case for the above . -0 12

0
0

0

o

0
6

" Having used your Patent Achromatic Stereoscope, I consider it
the best Lenticular Stereoscope that I have seen, both in its optical
and mechanical arrangements. The illumination of the Binocular
Pictures, both by reflected and direct light, the iidjustment of the
Lenses to difi'erent eyes, and the mode of inserting the slides, and
fixing them in their proper place, give it a great supeiiority over
other forms of the instrument." — ^tV David Breuster.

IlLUSTBATED DESCBIPTIONS rOBWAEDED ON APPLICATIOir.

stereoscopic Photographs of the Moon, on

Glass, from Negatives taken by Warren Delarue,

F.E.S., Sec. R A.S., etc. . . • £0 10 6

Glass Transparencies, including Views in Switzerland,
Egypt, the Pyrenees, Heidelberg, Spain, the Tyrol,
the Khine, and various Continental Towns, each .076

A very choice assortment of Views on Paper, per doxen ISO

GORHAM'S KALEIDOSCOPIC COLOUR-TOP.

{See " Microsoopiciil Journal," Ko. XXJ'T.)

Price . . • • -£110

Extra Sot of Rotating Diiics, per dozen . -050

This Instrument shows the various beautiful effects of the Com-
bination of Colours, etc.

6, COLEMAN STREET, LONDON, E.

Catalogues, etc., sent f)-cc on AppUcfition. Foreign (h-ders to he
accompanied with a ICemittance.

L

1

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