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Relation ot Plants to Environment

(or Plant Ecology)
Outlines of a Course of Lectures

Delivered in the
Summer School of Cornell
University

1903 and 1904

77

By Geo. EF. Atkinson

Professor of Botany in Cornell University

«@)

Published by the Author \ eS my) Cy, y }

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W.,
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June 1904 ee

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BOOKS BY THE AUTHOR

The Study of the Biology of Ferns, by the Collodion Method.
Large 8vo pp. 1-xm-+1-134. 163 figs. Macmillan & Co.,
New York, 1894. Price $2.00 (Out of print).

Elementary Botany. 2nd Edition, pp. -xxm--1-444. 508 figs.
Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1899. Price $1.25.

Lessons in Botany. pp. r-xv-+1-365. 277 figs. Henry Holt
& Co.. 1900. Price $1.10.

First Studies of Plant Life. pp. -xm+1-276. 308 figs. Ginn
& Co., Boston, 1903. Price 60 cents. 70 cents by mail.

Studies of American Fungi; Mushrooms, Edible, Poisonous, etc.
pp- L-v14-1-322, 86 plates, 8 colored 238 figs. 2nd Edition,
Andrus & Church, Ithaca, 1901. Henry Holt & Co., New
York, 1903. Price $3.00 net. .

Ist Edition. pp. -vi-+1-275, 76 plates, 8 colored, 223 figs.
Andrus & Church, 1900. Price $2.00.

Relation of Plants to Environment, or Plant Ecology, Outlines.
pp. 67,1904. Price 75 cts.

XITE
DEV.
XV.
XVI.
DEV ED.
ZeVELE,
KIX:

XX,
SEX.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

The organization of the plant

Organization of plant tissues

The different types of stems -

Foliage leaves” -

The root -
The flower shoct
Pollination -
Rhe trait... (=

Seed distribution

Factors influencing vegetation types, or

ecological factors

Ecological vegetation types

Laws and limits of plant migration

Plant formations

Forest societies

The prairie and plains societies

Desert plant societies

Arctic and alpine plant societies

Strand formations

Plant societies of rocky areas, meadows,

and marshes

Aquatic plant societies

Suggestions for practical study of plant

formations

Bibliography -

Relation of Plants to Environment
(or Plant Ecology)

I. THE ORGANIZATION OF THE PLANT.

Earliest plants simple in form and structure.
1. Earliest found among lower algae and fungi.
Naked protoplasm, red snow plant, Pleurococcus,
bacteria.
Pandorina, Spirogyra, Oedogonium.
2. Adjustment to environment not difficult.
1. Surrounded by food solutions easily absorbed.
2. No problem of food transportation.
3.- The larger the organism the greater the prob-
. Se lems:
4. Soon differentiation in work of protoplasts—

Absorption.

Conduction.

Light relation.

Reproduction.

5. Gain in splitting body into parts

Ist, Larger surface exposed to environ-
ment.

and, Economy in building material.

6. Two problems—

Ist, Ready display of larger surface for ac-
quiring food and disposition of
waste.

and, Protection of plant from injuries or
austere environment. ,

Variety of conditions developed variety of forms.
Plants no consciousness or choice in general sense.
“Inherent” quality.
“Environment”
“Sexual selection’’, etc.
Examples, cactus, yucca, cucurbits, oak.
Process of organization and change of form a slow one.

5

Members of the plant body.
Simplest forms do not have members.
Members recognized when certain parts perform certain
functions.
Algae, fungi, sea wrack or ulva.

Kond=thallus.
Thallophytes or thallus piants.
Liverworts or mosses.
Duckweeds.
Great variety in form and function of members.
Reducible to three forms—

I. Koot.
2a ovetne
ay leat:
Reduced by some to two—
Te ROOt:
2. , Shoot.

Sie: Stem
Leaf
Plant body

Root
Kinds of shoots. For convenience treat of four kinds.
(1) Fohage shoots.
(2) Shoots without foliage leaves.
(3) Winter conditions of shoots and buds; annual growth.
(4) Flower shoots.

II. ORGANIZATION OF PLANT TISSUES.
A tissue is a group of cells of same kind having a similar posi-
tion and function.

Differentiation of labor.
Mestome, tissues for conduction.
Stereome, tissues for mechanical support. |
So differentiation for absorption, assimilation, perce
reproduction, ete.
Vissue systems, 3—

1. Fundamental System.
Parenchyma.
Collenchyma.
_ Sclerenchyma.

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Cork (phellogen or “cork cambium’’)
Suberin prevents cork from wetting.
Lenticels, at stoma on stem, cork beneath.

2. Fibrovascular System.

Fibrous tissue.
(Some occurs in fundamental system
ex., bundle sheaths, strands in cortex).
Vascular, or tracheary tissue.
Sieve tissue.
Fascicular cambium.

2. Epidermal System:
Epidermis.
Trichomes, etc.

4. Origin of Tissues.

Meristem tissue.

Stem apex

Root apex

Cyinder of cambium, produces secondary tissues.
Origin of stem tissues.

Dermatogen—epidermis.

Plerome—central cylinder or stele.

produce primary tissues.

Periblem—cortex.
Central cylinder or stele.
Pith.
Bundles } a
phioem
Medullary rays.
Pericycle.
Bundles.

| xylem.
Collateral—Dicotyiedons and Conifers,—open { cambium,
| phloem.

5 2 xylem.
‘“Concentric—-Monocotyledons and Ferns,—-closed )
phloem.
Radial—roots.
Origin of root tissues.

Calyptrogen in addition to those in sten.

7

III. THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF STEMS.

Tt. pehfechestemms:
Columnar or cylindrical type.
I. Simple or branched,
Sunflower, muilein, Lombardy poplar, royal palm,
tree ferns, some cedars, arbor vitae.
2. Advantages of the columnar habit.
(1) Mere favorable fight relation.
(2) Maintain same habit when with others as
when alone.
(3) Less competition for existence.
Cone type.
1. Main axis like a tall shaft.
2. Branching of two types-—
(1) False whorls
Pines.
Norway spruce.
Douglas spruce.
White pine.
Growth movements ( Elongation of shoot.
of young stems fe of leaves.
Rate of growth—year marks.
(2) Spiral or distributed.
Hemlock spruce, Larch.
(3) Advantages of the cone type.
1. Less injury during high winds.
2. Admit light to a larger foliage area.
3. Less danger of injury from weight
of snow.
Oval type:
Examples, oak, chestnut, apple.
1. Main axis usually disappears.
2. [Exhibit character of habit best during winter.
3. Not so well adapted to higher altitudes and latitudes.
4. Deciduous habit enables them to withstand winds
better.
Deliquescent type.
Example—elin.
Main axis and branches fork by false dichotomy.

8

Advantages of trees over less lofty vegetation.
I. Outgrow other kinds.
2. Shade the ground and drive out sun loving kinds.
Prostrate type.
I. Strawberry.
Certain roses—Japanese rose (Rosa wichuriana).
Some raspberries.
Cucurbits—squash, melons, pumpkins, etc.
Economy in stem building.
Advantages—
a. Protected from wind and cold.
b. Propagate themseives by rooting here and there.
Decumbent type.
Stenm erect at first, later bending im form of arch. Takes
root where tip touches ground.
Examples,
Some raspberries.
Some blackberries.
Climbing type.
Examples, grapes, clematis, some roses, ivies, trumpet
creeper, climbing bittersweet.
I. Economize in material for stem building.
2. Sometimes develop foliage sufficient to nearly smother
Tolage or laree trees.
Floating stems. Aquatic plants.
I. Stems ascending or horizonal.
2. Not large or strong. Water supports them.
3. Potamogeton. Myriophyllum.
Ae CAE:
(1) Fresh water, Chara, Nitella.
(2) In ocean, Sargassum, Macrocystis.

In these the plant body is a thallus divided
into stem (caulidium) and leaf (phylli-
dium).

Burrowing type or rhizomes.
1. Horizontal, subterranean stems.
Examples, bracken fern, sensitive fern, mandrake,
solomon’s seal, Trillium, Dentaria.
2. In ferns subterranean is only shoot; bears scale leaves

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devoid of chlorophyll, also subterranean; and foliage
leaves, larger and aerial. Flowers not formed.

3. Mandrake, Solomon’s seal, Trillium, have scale leaves
on fleshy underground stem; foliage leaves on
aerial stems, bearing flowers.

4. Grasses.

5. Advantages of subterranean habit:

Cr) * Protection trom, cold:

(2) Protection from wind.

(3) Protection from injury by certain animals.
(4) Local migration:

(5) Food storage in many forms.

(6) Propagation.

Specialized Shoots for Storage of food.
Bulbs.
ie Waderorounde
Pe Net ale
Examples, Easter lily, Chinese lilies, onion, tulip.
Corms.
Examples, Jack-in-the-pulpit (Arisaema)
Tubers.
Example, potato (Irish, not sweet).
“Eyes” are buds on stem from which aerial shoots arise.
Use—contains food for young sprouts.
Undifferentiated stems.
Examples, duckweed, Lemna, Wolffia. -

IV.—FOLIAGE LEAVES

Influence of foliage leaves on the form of the stem.

Exercises great influence on form of stem.

Without foliage leaves stems of green plants would develop
different habits. Development would take place in three
directions under influence of light—

1. Profuse branching—Asparagus.

2. Fewer branches and flattened.

3. Massive trunks with few or no branches.
Relation of foliage leaves to the stem.

Phyllotaxy or arrangement of leaves.

1. Note scars on winter shoots of woody plants.

10

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2. Large: number arranged alternately—eim.

3. Angles (of divergence.

4. Adaptation in leaf arrangement. Influenced by
environment.

Two modes of distribution—
1. Phyllotaxy, distribution along individual stem.
2. Distribution with reference to plant as a whole.
(1) Primarily a light relation.
(2) Comparison of different trees, elm, Nor-
Way) imaples sieatr snaple, Led maple,
silver maple, locust.
Color of foliage leaves.
Majority green; due to chlorophyll.
Light necessay for production of chlorophyll. _
Other colors; red (Rosa rubrifolia), purple (purple bar-
berry, hazel, beech, birch), yellow (golden oak, elder).
All possess chlorophyll in addition.
Autumn colors.
1. More marked in some trees than in others.

2. Red, in red maple, red and scarlet oak, sourwood.

3. Yellow in sugar maples, poplars, hickories.

4. Sweet gum.

5. Red and purple suffused in cell sap as in cells of red
beet. |

6. Yellow due to disappearance and degeneration of
chlorophyll.

7. Yellowing of crops.
8. Blanching grass. Celery.
g. Theories concerning autumn coloring.
Ist, attributed to
of JETRO.
2. Action of more oblique rays of sun.
3. Diminishing water supply.
2nd, question obscure one.
Low temperature.
Declining actvities of leaf.
Different soil.
Different climate.
3rd, North American forests.

0.

Variety of species.
Number of species.
4th, red color as a means of increasing temperature?
red color as a screen to protect from light?
Function of foliage leaves,—five-fold,—
1. Carbon-dioxide assimilation, or photosynthesis.
2) lranspination:
3. Synthesis of other organic compounds.
4. Respiration.
5. Assimilation.
Parts of the leaf.
1. Blade or lamina.
2.) Stalk or petiole:
3. Stipules, elm, magnolia, etc.
4. Sometimes hairs, scales, etc.
Note sessile leaves.
Simple leaves.
1. Form of leaf usually constant for given species.

2. Outline of leaf, ovate, oval, elliptical, lanceolate, linear,
needle-like, etc. fie 7
Advantage of simple leaf—amount of surface to light.

4. Disadvantage of simple leaf when large.
(i), Casts deeper shade.
(2) Does not admit as free circulation of air.
(3) More apt to become injured.
Venation of leaves,—two types,—
I. Parallel veined, usually mionocotyledonous plants. -
Corn, Smilacina, Solomon’s seal.
2. Netted veined, usually dicotyledonous plants.
Elm, rose,maple, hawthorn, oak.
Gu) ealntatics
(2). Pinnate.
Cut or lobed leaves, some maples, oaks, birches, poison ivy,
thistles, dandelion.
Divided or compound leaves, rose, sumac, e-der, hickory, wal-
nut, locust, pea, clover, American creeper.
Significance of forms.
1. Reduction of surface allows
(1) Freer movement of air.

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(2) Greater protection from wind.

2. Mid vein in hickory, walnut, locust, and primary lateral
veins in Kentucky coffee tree, serve in’ place of ter-
minal branches of stem. Compare hickory, horse-
chestnut, ailanthus, walnut and butternut, sumach.

Advantages of compound leaves.

Be leicht relation:
General structure of leaf.
1. Upper and lower surface cel’s devoid of chlorophyll.
2. Mesophyll layer of palisade cells beneath epidermis.
Loose parenchyma with intercellular spaces.
3. Veins contain conduits for water, salts and food stuffs.
4. Stomata protected by guard cells.
Protection of leaves.
I. Protective modifications.

I. Structural adaptations.
(a) Palisade layer of cells acts as light
screen, aids in lessening loss of
water. Change in palisade layer
aS a protection against intense
light. Compass plant.
(b) Stomata close to prevent loss of too
-much water.

2 SETOCECHIiVel COvering.

(Ci) orderanis, anda cuttele:
Thickening of walls.
Protection against too great loss of
water.
Protection against too much water,
cabbage, carnation.
(2) Covers of hairs or scales.
Lessen loss of water vapor.
Spines protection against animals.
2, SRedtiction of suriace.
(1) Reduction of surface with reduction
of mass: ve \) rer
(2) Reduction of surface inversely as the
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13

‘a. Dissected leaves of aquatic
\) | plants.
b. Lobed and aerial leaves.
c. Needle leaves of conifers.
‘Examples, leaves of Juni-
per, Arbor vitae, Cy-
ys press, yucca, Cassiope,
| Pyxidanthera, Live-for-
ever.
4. Elimination of the leaf.
Cacti, Phylloclades.
Stem contains the chlorophyll, provides
water storage.

II. Protective positions.

(1) Leaves arranged in relation to ground, each
other, or to give protection tremmugea
great radiation.

Cassiope, Pyxidanthera, juniper, arc-
tic plants.

(2) Position affected by light stimulus, day and
night positions, Leguminosae, Mimosa,
compass plant.

_ Relation of leaves to light, Heliotropism.
Day and night positions contrasted.
Profile—a protective position.
1. Those with pulvinus, clovers, peas, beans, oxalis,
telegraph plant.
2. Those without pulvinus due to epinastic growth or
caused by light.
T.eaves which rotate with the sun.
Sunflower, young seediings, Cassia marilandica, cotton
plant.
Fixed position of old leaves.
Position on horizontal stems.
Relation of stem, petiole and blade.
Position of leaflets on divided leaves.
Compare entire leaf, compound leaf, dissected leaves, mill-
foil, aquatic plants.

14

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Leaf Patterns.

Mosaics, or close patterns, Fittonia.
_ Advantage of mosaic arrangement.
Leaves do not shade each other.
Permit circulation of air.
me ueR@sette) pattern, Gloxinia:
2. Vines and climbers, ivies, Pellonia, trailing ribbon
grass.
Branch patterns, maple, pattern made during growth of leaves,
Tree pattern, weeping elm, conifers.
Imbricate pattern of short stems.
Compare with rosette pattern, begonias.
Spiral patterns, sunflower, mullein, chrysanthemum, Easter
lily.
Radiate pattern, grasses, dragon tree.
Plants with narrow leaves and short stems.
Cycads, palms, many ferns.
Compass plants, vertical leaf arrangement.
Open patterns.
Presented by divided or branched leaves.
Leaves next ground often entire or less divided.

V. THE ROOT.
Functions of the root.
I. Anchorage and partial support.
2. Absorption of liquid nutriment from the soil.
Problems for solution by the plant.
I. Permeation of the soil or substratum.

2. Grappling the substratum.

3. A congenial moisture or water relation. ?

4. Distribution of roots for the purpose of reaching food
laden soil.

5. Exposure of surface for absorption.

6. The renewal of the delicate structures for absorption.

7. Aid in preparation of food from raw material.

8. The maintenance of the required balance between the

environment as a whole and the increasing or
changing requirements of the plant.
Correlation between root system of a plant and the form of the
stem system and position of the leaves., as in,

Its)

I. Radiate type of leaf system of dandelion, beet, etc.
2. Imbricate type as in broad leaved trees, and in the
overlapping branch system of many pines, etc.
This generalization is not necessarily correct, for as in the
latter class, |
1. Root and leaf distribution are governed by other
and more important laws. |
2. In hght rains the leaf surface holds back prac-
tically all the water.
3. In heavy and long continued rains the water
breaks through the leaf system.
4. Habit of plants to grow in dense societies.
Kinds of roots.
I. Fibrous root system.
2 ap Toot system
3. Aerial roots, for purposes of
(1) Absorption of moisture from the air
(Q)ySupport:
Bracing or prop roots.
Buttresses.
Fleshy roots, or root tubers.
Water roots and roots of water plants.
Holdfasts.
Haustoria or suckers.
10. Rootlets or rhizoids.

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VI. THE FLOWER SHOOT.

1, Patts of the Mlowen,
The flower.
Complete flower, buttercup, b!ood root, apple, rose, etc.
Two sets of members, or organs, attached to the recep-
tacle or torus. .
I: Fioral envelope.
2. Essential or necessary members or organs.
Floral envelopes— (homology)
1. Calyx (sepals) chiefly protective.
2. Corolla (petals), two functions
(1). . -Protechon
(2),) Attract) insects:

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Essential organs.
I. Androecium (stamens), homology.
2. Gynoecium (carpels), homology.
Purpose of the flower.
Stamens (=microsporophylls) are organs for production of
pollen, or pollenspores (—microspores. )
Stalk(—filament) not always present.
Anther.
Anther sac, or pollen sac (—microsporangium).
Pistil consists of ovary (contains the ovules), style (not always
present), stigma.
A simple pistil=a carpel—macrosporophyll.
A compound pistil—several carpels joined.
Ovule—macrosporangium.

2.. Kinds of Flowers.
Complete flowers.
Incomplete flowers.
Apetalous flowers.
Naked flowers.
Staminate flowers.
Pistillate flowers.
Sterile flowers.
Perfect flowers (hermaphrodite).
Imperfect or diclinous flowers.
Monoecious flowers.
Dioecious flowers.
Polygamous flowers.
Forms of flowers, regular or irregular.
Forms of corolla,
Rotate (potato, tomato, bittersweet).
Salver-shaped (phlox).
Campanulate (hare-bell or Campanula).
Tubular (trumpet flower or disk florets of com-
posites).
Butterfly or papilionaceous (pea, bean).
Labiate (flowers of mint family).
Personate or masked (toad flax, or snap dragon).
Ligulate, or strap-shaped (dandelion, chicory, or
ray florets of other composites).

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7

When the parts of the flower are separate.
1. Calyx is polysepalous.
2. Corolla is polypetalous.
3. Stamens are distinct.
4. Pistils are simpie.
When parts of the same series are united.
1. The calyx is gamosepalous.
2. The corolla is gamopetalous.
3. The stamens are syngenoesius.
4. The pistil is compound.
Syngenoesious stamens are
1. Monadelphous (hollyhock, cotton, mallow, etc.)
2.) Diadelphous (pea etc.)
3. -Triadelphous (Hypericum).
Compound pistil, the two or more carpels are united.
1. Each cavity is a locule.
2. Sometimes all the wails disappear and there is a com-
mon cavity (purslane, chickweed, pinks, etc.).
3. False partition in few cases (crucifers).
Union of parts of different series=adnation.
Terms hypogwpous, epigynous, perigynous, superior, in-
ferior.

3. Arrangement of Flowers or Mode of Infloresence.
Flowers are solitary or clustered.
Flower clusters.
Solitary flowers are axillary or terminal and separated by
foliage leaves.
There are two modes of infloresence.
1. Corymbose, or indeterminate; axillary flowers.
2. Cymose, or determinate; terminal flowers.
Flower clusters with indeterminate inflorescence.
I. Raceme (choke-cherry, currant, pokeweed etc.).
Compound raceme as in Smilacina racemosa.
2. Panicle, by branching of dJateral flower axesonee
raceme (oat). ;
3. Thyrsus, compact panicle of pyramidal form (lilac,
horsechestnut).
4. Corymb.
Simple corymb.

18

Compound corymb (mountain ash).
Umbel, simple and compound.
Spike (mullein, plantain).
Head, or capitulum.
Spadix, surrounded by a spathe.
© Catkin, or ament.

Gee

Anthesis of corymbose flower cluster is centripetal.
Flower clusters with determinate inflorescence.
ee eyInie,
Simple cymes as in basswood.
Compound cymes as in dogwood, hydrangea, etc.
2. Helicoid cyme, (forget-me-not).
3. scorpioid cyme.
4. Forking cyme (chickweed).
Anthesis of cymose inflorescence is centrifugal.

VII POLLINATION
Self pollination, or close pollination.
Cross pollination.
1. Wind pollination (anemophilous flowers).
2. Pollination by insects.
(Ci iNectan:
(2) Flower colors.
(2), Guides,”
Dichogamous flowers (bluet, primrose).
Proterandry and proterogeny (Campanula, skunk’s cabbage,
ECs): :
Dioecious flowers.
Mechanisms for throwing pollen on insects.

Kalmia.

Cytisus.

Certain orchids (Catasetum saccatum).
Pollinium (disc, pedicel, pollen masses).
“Antennae”

Stigmatic chamber.
Labellum.
Pollination of orchids, Cypripedium, Epipactis, etc.
Pollination of the canna.
Pollination of Yucca by Pronuba.

Ve

VIII THE FRUIT
Fruit consists of ripened ovary in addition to seed, and in many
cases with accessory parts as calyx, receptacie, etc., com-
bined with it.
Pericarp, part of the fruit which envelops seed.
1. Carpels alone, or
2. Carpels and adherent part of receptacle, or calyx.
3. In many fruits pericarp differentiated into layers as in
peach. cherny, vec:
(1) Exocarp (outer), endocarp \(inner),
(2) Sometimes three layers are recognized.
a. Epicarp (skin) More often
b. Mesocarp Gene en as exocarp.
c. Endocarp (inner)
Fruits are “dry” or “fleshy.” Two kinds of dry fruits.
I. Indehiscent, those which do not open at maturity.
2. Dehiscent, those which open at maturity.

Indehiscent Fruits.

The akene (buttercup, composite family, etc.)

The samara, or key fruit (elm, maple, etc.)

The caryopsis, the seed is consolidated with the wall of the
ovary, wheat, corn, and other grasses.

The schizocarp, a dry fruit of several locules separating at
maturity (Umbel and mallow family).

The acorn fruit (oaks), consists of the acorn and “cup” (cup
formed from consolidated involucre).

The hazelnut, chestnut, and beechnut. The invo:ucre forms

a husk or bur which surrounds the nut.

In the beechnut and chestnut the “bur” dehisces.

The hickory nut, walnut and butternut.

Hickory nut, the “shuck”’ consists.partly of ‘calyxvand
partly of involucral bracts consolidated. The shuck
dehisces.

The “huli” of walnut and butternut probably the same
origin as in hickory nut, but it does not dehisce.

Walnut and butternut sometines called “stone fruits” or
“drupes.”

20

2. Dehiscent Fruits.

Dehiscent fruits are sometimes called in general, pods or cap-
sules; pericarp is dry.
If pistil is simpie (gynoecium apocarpous), there is
a single carpel. |
2. If the pistil is compound (gynoecium syncarpous),
several carpels are united.
Syncarpous capsules may dehisce in three ways,
Ist, septicidal dehiscenge (azalea, rhododendron).
2nd, loculicidal dehiscence (iris, lily, etc.)
3rd, poricidal dehiscence (poppy).
Syncarpous capsules with one locule (bouncing Bet).
Apocarpous capsules |
1. The follicle splits along both sutures (pea, bean).
2. The silique (most crucifers), when short it is a silicle
or pouch.
3. The pyxidium, or pyxis, opens with lid, (plantain).
an) Pleshy amd \lutcy Enuits.
wihevarupe, o1 stone fruit (cherry, peach, etc.)
[exocarp becomes fleshy
Pericarp ; endocarp becomes hard and stony and encloses
tL ‘Seed. or “pit.”
The raspberry and blackberry, collective or aggregate fruits.
Each ovary forms a druplet.

1m

In raspberry fruit separates from receptacle.
In blackberry and dewberry fruit remains attached to re-
ceptacle.

Phe berry. In true berry both exocarp and endocarp are

fleshy (cranberries, gooseberries, currants, tomatoes, etc.)
>) 94 Remrorced) on Accessory) F guts:

The torus or receptacle is grown to. the pericarp in fruit.

The strawberry, the seeds are sunk in fleshy enlarged re-
ceptacle.

ite apple peat, Giimee, eve, (a) pome)).
1. The receptacle is consolidated with the ovary, and the
calyx and stamens on margin of receptacle.

The receptacle and outer part of pericarp becomes

fleshy, while inner portion, of pericarp becomes
papery and forms “core.”

2.

PA

3. The rose fruit is called a “hip.”
The pepo (squash, pumpkin, etc.)
The receptacle is consolidated with the outer part of the
three loculed ovary.

5. Fruits of Gymnosperms.
The cone fruit.
Fleshy fruits of gymnosperms.
1. Cedar berries, fleshy part from outer wall enveries
stony part from inner wall.
2. The yew “berries.”
(1) Stony seed from the single ovule.
(2) Fleshy outer part ftom the “aril; vorsoures
integument.

Zi ela boye Cys ginkgo, a ripened ovule.
(mie Oiiterntayverasout:
(2) etnner aver inanc
(3) The “collar” at the base of the fruit is a rudi-
mentary carpel.
4. Fruit of cycas similar, but no collar at base.

6. Fruit of Ferns, Mosses, Etc.

IX. SEED DISTRIBUTION.
Barbs or grappling devices.
Mechanisms for ejection, or propulsion of seeds.
Provision for floating on water.
Provision for floating in the air.
Seed used as food by animals.
lruits used as food.

X. FACTORS INFLUENCING VEGETATION TYPES;
OR ECOLOGICAL FACTORS.
Life and growth of plant dependent upon favorable conditions
of environment.
Moisture, light, heat, air, ete.
Chemical constituents of the soil.
Different plants thrive under different conditions.
Not only individuals, but societies of plants likewise influ-
enced by their environment.
Ecological factors.
Ist, Physical factors.

a

2nd, Climatic factors.
3rd, Biotic factors.
Fore Ee hiysical “factors.
re, Water.
a. Majority of piants need perceptibly moist soil.
b. Certain plants adapt themselves to dry con-
ditions.
By enlarged root system.
By reduction of leaf surface.

c. Certain adapt themselves to wet conditions.
By reduction of roots and root hairs.
By reduction of leaf surface.

d. Influenced not only by the amount of water in
the soil, but humidity of the air, drying ef-
fect of wind, effect of heat and light, chemi-
cal and physical properties of the soil, beat-
ing of waves en rocks, force of water in
streams, etc.

Rainfall, or Precipitation.

Sometimes injurious.

2. eight.

a. Influence of light in photosynthesis.

b. Influence of light in growth of stem and position.

c. Influence of light in formation of chorophyll.

d. Many plants adapt themselves to certain degrees
of ‘light.

e. Majority of plants require abundance of light,
but the amount must be varied according to
the amount of moisture.

f. Shade plants have thinner and softer leaves than
those receiving direct sunlight.

eee leat
a. Arctic and alpine plants vegetate at low tem-
perature.
Ex., certain algae, fungi, etc.

b. Annuals require longer summer season. than
perennials.

c. Very high temperature injurious. .

ZS

(1) Certain algae and some desert plants
are able to endure a temperature of
70 degrees C. Some algae 80-89
degrees.
(2) Dry seeds and spores are able to resist
a high temperature, which would
kil: some seeds.
d. Cardinal temperature points for different plant
functions.
Acclimatization.
e. Protection from cold. weather.
(1) * Halling of leaves:
(2) Rosette habit of perennials.
(3) Low stature of arctic plants. |
5. Wind. Both injurious and beneficial.
(1) Stunt and deform trees and shrubs.
(2) pb i yanieeibech. aa |
(3) Poljination assisted.
6. Ground covers.
a. Snow cover.
Gr ie @hecks radiation of inear
(2) Sometimes deforms trees and shrubs.
(3) Hinders alternate thawing and freez-
ing in temperate regions, thus pro-
tecting the roots.
(4) Conserves moisture.
(5) Glaciers destroy vegetation, but assist
in soil formation.
b. Leaves and other plant remains.
(1) Protect irom~-cold:
(2) essen radiation:
(3)- Conserve moisture, etc.
c. Living plant covers, protection of shade plants
in forests.
(1) From excessive heat and light.
(2) >" Barona cold
(3) Air more humid, moisture conserved,
‘ CEC.
7. Chemical conditions of the ground or water.

24

a. Derived from soiutions of eroded and dissolved
rock formations.

b. From decaying animal and piant remains.

c. From certain gases in rain water, salts of sea

Wie iene ie

d. Elements necessary for plant growth.

Oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, phos-
phorus, sulphur, iron, potassium, calcium,
magnesium. ,

These are derived from the air, soil, certain
compounds brought into solution by the
plant, etc.

Certain substances found in solution in the
soil which are harmful to the plants.

Modification induced by chemical conditions
of soil.

8. Physical or mechanical conditions of the soil.
Difference of vegetation in rocky places, sandy soil,
soil rich in humus, clay soils, peat moors, etc.
g. Physiography. : :
Mountains, oceans, rivers, etc., present barriers to
migration, difference in altitude and temperature,
exposure to light and sun’s heat, and affect
water content of the soil.
10. Mechanical adaptations in plants for seed distribution,
etc:
2nd, Climatic factors.
ie denyoseilk
2, -demperature
3. Physiography.
ard, Biotic factors.
1. Pollination by insects.
Distribution of seeds by birds and other animals.
Burrowing animals aid in soil culture.
Squirrels distribute nuts.
Man’s agency.
Protection of plants among themselves.
Work of parasites, bacteria, etc.
Power of plant to relate itself to environment.

COON SoS

25

a. Growth and assumption of position by
parts.
Diurnal movement leaves.
b. Movements.
Nocturnal movement leaves.
Epinasty and hyponasty.
Nutation of stems.
g. Active factor in plants.
10. Responsive factor in plants.

XI. ECOLOGICAL VEGETATION TYPES.

Meaning of vegetation type. Contrast with flora.
Responsive type of vegetation.

W arming’s classification.
1. Mesophyte* societies, conditions of environment me-

dium, Ex., North Temperature regions, except
mountain heights, arid regions, sand dune areas,
water, etc.
2. Xerophyte? societies, condition of environment severe.
Air, or soil, or both very dry.
Root absorption difficult.
Loss of water rapid.
Ex., of xerophytic situations,
1. Deserts, sand or gravel hills, rocky places,
steppes and some prairies.
2. Soils or waters with large quantities of acids
or salts.
3. Hydrophyteé societies.
Plants in water or in wet situations, or where air
is very humid.
Water hydrophytes ; aquatic.
Land hydrophytes: semiaquatic.
Hee Italo nytes societies.
Salt marsh plants.
Salt basin plants.

*Mesophyte. wméoos (middle), du7dv (plant)
{Xerophyte. {mpos (dry,) putdy
tHydrophyte. bdwp (water), purdv
@Halophyte. dos (salts), puTdy

26

Schimper’s classification.
1. Hygrophytes” : wet or damp situations=Hydrophytes.
2. Xerophytes.
Conditions favoring loss of water; dry air, rarity of
air, high temperature, light, movement air.
Conditions hindering root absorption; dry soil,
cold soil, excess of salts or acids in soil.
3. Tropophytest=Mesophytes of Warming,—three main
types.
1. Deciduous trees and shrubs.
2. Perennial herbaceous plants.
3. Annuals and bienntals. :
Plant structures adapted to conditions of environment.
A. Normal plant condition.
1. Uniform conditions throughout year or season
favor normal plant.
Damp tropical regions.
Vegetation luxuriant.
Humid areas of temperate regions.
2. Extremes of conditions induce modifications,
or plant succumbs.
B. Xerophytes or xerophytic structures.
1. Physical factors which determine xerophytic
vegetation two kinds.
a. Those which decrease or limit water
supply; relate to condition of soil.
b. Those which accelerate loss of water by
plant; relate to condition of air.
2. Modifications designed for same purpose.
a. To decrease loss of water.
b. To increase absorption by roots.
c. To conserve water for the plant.
3. To decrease loss of water.
: a. Reduction of leaf surface.
b. Protective covering or movements.
c. Action and position of stomata.
d. Total absence of foliage leaves.

tTropophytes. 7pérw (turn), durdv
*Hygrophyte. vypds (moist), gputdv

rAd |

e. Thorns and spines.

f. Water reservoirs.

eg. Increase of root system.

C. Hydrophytes, or hydrophytic structures.

I. Water plants.

1. Provision for attachment.

2. Provision for floating.

3. Provision for aeration.

4. Provision for distribution of food.

5. Provision for fruiting.

6. Little development of mechanical tissue.

2. Swimming plants.
3. Land hydrophytes.

D. Mesophytes (Tropophytes).

I. Subject to medium conditions of environment.
Extremes of heat in general detrimental to
vegetation when accompanied by dryness.
Compare resistance of seeds, spores ,etc.

2. Tropical region mesophytes. Piant in no dan-
ger from extremes in damp tropics. It
reaches its highest development of foliage.
It is luxuriant and permanent.

3. Temperate region mesophytes, or tropophytes,
Growing season.

cold.

dry.

Variation in conditions.

Provision against injury in fall of leaf.

Perennial herbaceous tropophytes.

Annuals and bienniais.

E. MHalophytes, or halophytic structures.

I. Xerophytic forms.

Salt marsh and sait basin plants. Modifi-
cations similar to those of plants in arid
regions.

2) irue halepiaytes:

Resting season

F. Plant societies based on structural adaptation, as meso-
phytes, hydrophytes, xerophytes and halophytes,
only applicable in extreme cases.

28

XII, LAWS AND LIMITS OF PLANT MIGRATION

Brief discussion of natural laws of movement of plants over
albu

I. “Distribution” generally used to mean area already
occupied by different species. Sometimes also used
to mean migration within own limits, or to dis-
tant regions.

2. Migration (also two-fold significance) in general refers
to,—
1. Movement plants to new territory.
2. Movement plants back and forth in own terri-
tory. 3
I. Relation Plants to Earth’s Surface as a Whole.
Northern hemisphere.
Southern hemisphere.
Land hemisphere (or continental).
Water hemisphere (or oceanic).
Opportunity for migration between continents.
Discontinuity of land sets barrier.
2. Life Regions, Zones and Areas.
Lines of plant migration.
I. Aiong lines of least resistance.

%

2. “A complex problem.

Lines of least resistance.
a. Belts of like temperature.
b. Belts of like moisture content.
c. Belts vary for different plants.
4. Life zones. Belts favorable for growth and reproduc-
tion of plants and animals.
a. In general, transcontinental, not coincide with
lines of latitude.
b. Compare tropics.
Life regions.
I. Physiological constant of a species.
2. More accurate than isothermal.
Isothermal lines.
Regions first established in Northern Hemisphere by Alex.
von Humboldt.
1. Boreal, or Northern.

29

2) NUStrAlM om SOUEmetm:
2.) alsopical:
Regions were separated along 2sotherma/ lines.
Data more or less arbitrary periods, not for growth and.
reproduction period.
Biothermal lines or biotherms more accurate.
lite Zones and “reas:
Lines of stress due to heat Lines of stress due to rain-
fall or drought.
Arctic or Arctic-
Boreal Alpine Zone.
region })Hudsonian Zone.
@anadian Zone.
Alleghenian Area
Arid Transition Area

(
Transition Zone |
Pacific Coast Transition Area
ise
Austral |

arolinian Area

Upper Sonoran Area

( Austroriparian Area

4
Lower Austral Zone 4
L Lower Sonoran Area

J y a
ee pper Austral Zone 4

( Humid tropical
Mroprcal mes Ones. ween cen:
tl Arid tropical
The great lines of stress.
Heat and moisture.
Lesser dines of stress.
I. Small bodies of water.
2, Syoneaas.
3. Variations in physical and chemical conditions.
4. Minor variations in physiography.
Total heat as limiting factor in north and south distribution of
plants and animais.
1. Animals and plants limited in northward distribution
by sum total of effective heat.

30

4
: ” a

Ae
hy Ba)

2. Limited in southward distribution by mean temperature
for hottest part of year.
Note condition on Pacific coast.
a. High sum total effective heat.
b. Low mean temperature in summer.
Limiting factor for east and west distribution in U. S.
I. Mountain ranges.
2. Low precipitation in interior.
3. Methods and Causes of Plant Migration.
Advantages of plant migration.
Increases factor of safety for existence.
1. Larger number of individuals.
2. Safety of some assured in case of disaster in certain
regions.
Structural characters favoring plant migration.
Bes Seeds.
a. Buoyancy.
b. Grappling structures.
c. Food for animals.
d. Floating seeds.
Ze nuit.
a. As food for animals.
b. Exploding fruits.
aa bimbles weeds.
4. Floating of broken branches.
5. Prostrate or creeping plants.
6. Underground creeping stems or roots.
Causes of plant migration,—2 factors.
ia, Biotic factors.
a. Influence of animals.
b. Initiated by plants
Ist, Fertility of species—brings pressure.
2nd, Centrifugal habit of propagation.
3rd, Factor of adaptation, or acclimatiza-
tion.
2. Physcial and climatic factors.
a. «Wind, “water, etc.
b. Tensions in fruits.
c. Climatic pressures, as in glacial epoch.

31

Action of glaciers.
Limits of glaciers.
Effect of cold wave on plant migration.
Forward and backward movement.
Evidences of plant migration in glacial times.
a. Distribution of plants in North America, Europe and
Asia, and relation of flora (trees, algae, fungi, etc.)
b. Extinction of many in Europe and. preservation in
North America.
c. Fossil remains of plants in Arctic regions.
Present climatic pressures.
1) velumd tropics. ) Mertility, of ispecies:
2. te ECC:
North and south movement meet and produce a
lateral pressure.
3. Vicinity of mountains.
4. Vicinity of arid regions.
Fertility of aggressive species everywhere.
Barriers to plant migration.
re inds of climate:
2, Kinds of soil:
3. Discontinuity of land.
4. Mountain chains.
Conflict of species in migration.

XIII. PLANT FORMATIONS

The General Formations.
Dominant vegetation type of a region is a formation.
General formations in 4 divisions.
1. Climatic Formations.
Edaphic Formations.
Aquatic Formations.
Culture Formations.

BEN

1. Climatic Formations,
Plant covering of earth not uniform.
Lack of uniformity of climate, topography and soil.
Moisture

Pwo climatic factors 2) %:
i emperature

32

According to Schimper 4 climatic formations.
Ist, The Arctic-Alpine Formation.
2nd, The Woodland Formation.
3rd, The Grassland Formation.

(Prairie)
( Plains )
4th, The Desert Formation.
2. Edaphic Formations.
Controlling factors.
__ Influence of soil or ground.
Open edaphic formations.
Close edaphic formations.

3. Aquatic Formations.
Fresh water, or limnetic formations.
Marine, or pelagic formations.

4. Culture Formations.

Vegetation of cultivated fields.
Vegetation of waste places.
5. Principal and Individual Formations, etc.
The principal formations.
Plant societies.
The individual formations.
The factors.
1. Physical, which relate to variation.
a. In ground water.
| b. In physical and chemical condition soil.
2. Biological, which relate to struggle between species.
Result is, distinct groups of vegetation elements are formed in
a society (or principal formation).
Such a group a formation.
Compare association, guild.
Pieces of mosaic, or zones. Typha formation (or typhetum),
etc.
Single formations, and mixed formations.
Facies.
Vegetation forms.
Layers.
Zones.

oe

Summary of Formations.

1. Climatic (controlled by climatic factors)
The woods or forest formation.
The prairie formation.
The plains formation.
The desert formation.
The Arctic-Alpine formation.
peoine (controlled by ground factors)
6. Edaphic or soil plant formations.
a. Rocky places.
GENERAL b. Sdnd areas.
FORMATIONS c. Marshes, moors, meadows.
d. Alkaline areas, etc.
3. Aquatic (controded by bodies of water)
7. Uhe aquatic formation:
a. Fresh water formations.
b. Salt water formations.
4. Culture (controlled by man).
8. The culture formation.
a. Cultivated areas.
b. Waste areas.

WR wD

iS

BR

\
Principal Formations (society) (controlled chiefly by distinct
physiographic areas).
In eavenede
2. Zoned.
3. Built up of vegetation forms.

Individual Formations (controlled by physical and biological

factors).
tee lWanvenede
2 Zoned:

(One or several facies make up the formation).
Terminology of plant communities.
Compiex character of plant societies.
XIV. FOREST SOCIETIES.
1. General Character of Morest Socitentes:
1. Extent of forest societies.

2) Complexity of the forest.

34

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Different kinds of forests.
General structure of the forest.

ae Floor
b. Canopy.
Even.

Compound or storied.
c. Interior.
Longevity of the forest.
Longevity of the tree.
2. Boreal Forests.
Forests of the Hudsonian zone.

Mainly spruces, firs and balsams, occasionally aspens
and birches.

Forests of the Canadian zone.

Similar to Hudsonian, but having some species which
do not reach so far north, as some of the pines, hem-
locks and deciduous trees. :

Forests of the Austral zone, greater variations.

Deciduous forests, highest development in Austral
region.

(1) In Alleghenian area, oaks, hickories, chest-
nuts, locusts, ashes, birches, aspens,
spruces, firs, hemlocks, pines and other
conifers.

(2) In Carolinian area, tulip tree or whitewood,
cucumber tree, persimmon, sweet gum,
sourwood, chestnut oak, Spanish oak,
yellow and scrub pine.

(3) Autumn colors.

(A) Bali ofthe leat.

(5) In Austroriparian or Louisianian area.
Upland forest. »

Palustrine forest.

(6) In Pacific Transition area.

Douglas fir, Pacific cedar, western .hem-

‘lock, sitka spruce, western white pine.

redwood, big tree of California.
Lumbering the redwoods.
Preservation of the Big Trees.

35

3. Tropical Woods.
i. Classification according to Schimper,
(1) Evergreen forest.

Hyegrophile, at least 30 metres high.
Lianas, climbing trees and vines.
Woody and herbaceous epiphytes.
(2) Tropophile, less in height.
Woody lanas, herbaceous epiphytes.
Few woody epiphytes.
(3) Savanna and thorn woods.

Grasses and herbs, few undershrubs in sa-
vanna woods.

Few grasses and herbs, many undershrubs in
thorn woods.
2. Evergreen tropical forests.

(1) Evergreen forests remarkable for great numbers
and luxuriance.
Noted for its herbaceous and woody epiphytes.
(2) Climax type of forest formation.
(3) Absence of climatic periodicity causes
Ist, Almost continued growth.
2nd, Absence of bud scales on the buds.
3rd, Absence of uniformity in the time of
defoliation.
4th, Extended flowering and fruiting period.
5th, Very dense forest canopy.
6th, Relatively small amount of humus.
7th, Structures fof protection, .of Mleames
against water.
8th, Protection of leaves against heat and
insulation.
3. Competition in evergreen tropical forests.
Ist, Most dangerous competitors are parasites, ept-
phytes and lianas.
2nd, Epiphytes here reach their climax.
Ascend for light to the forest canopy.
ard, diianas also) clinal to the canopy.

36

a

.

Sa

S)

Great value of tropical forests.
Very little known.
4. General Economics of the Forest.
Relation of forest to rainfall.
(1) Forest dependent on rainfall.
(2) Rainfall influenced by forest not so evident.
(3) Cloud formation.
Importance of the forest in the disposal of rainfall.
(1) Flood period extended. |
(2) Run off increased.
(3) Injury lessened or prevented. )
(4) Serious results of floods in mountainous regions.
Regeneration of forests.
(1) Natural regeneration takes place,
Ist, Through the seed.
2nd, By growth of sprouts from the stump.
(2) Shade endurers have the advantage in natural
regeneration.
Ex., hemlock spruce.
Redwood regenerated by its abundant. coppice.
Big-trees by seedlings.
Broad leaved trees by abundant coppice.
(3) Artificial regeneration of forests.
Silviculture.
Systems of management in cutting and rfe-
generation of forests.
Ist, Whe selection system.
and, The system of clear cutting and re-
generation by planting young
trees or seed, or wind sowing.
3rd, System of gradually thinning
throughout.
4th, Coppice system.
(4) Protection of forests.
By National and State governments for
Ist, Protection of game and other wild
animals.
2nd, Protection of species from destrué-
tion.

37

3rd, Holding in reserve water storage.
4th, Protection of lowlands from floods.
5th, Provision of healthful resorts.
4. Forest planting in unforested areas successfully attempted.
(1) Afford shelter, firewood, building material.
(2) Swamps reclaimed. Aided by eucalyptus.
5. Enemies of the forest.
(Un) elshitess
(2) Carelessness of man.
(2) --Climatic and soil factors!
(4) Biotic factors.
Ist, insects and animals feed upon leaves,
buds, etc.
2nd, parasites and wood destroying fungi.
a. Some seed plants, rusts, mil-
dews, molds, etc.
b. Mushrooms most destructive.
Gain entrance through bruises,
broken branches, careless prun-
ing, etc.
6. Scavenger members of the forest societies.
Mushrooms of incalculable use in the disposal of waste
material and its conversion into food for the living
theese

XV. THE PRAIRIE AND PLAINS SOCIETIES
1. Grassland Formations.

Types of grassland.

I. Savannas. Dry, warm, temperate, or subtrepieal
countries, yet sufficient moisture to permit number
of trees.

2. Prairie (meadows according to Schimper) cold tem-
perate regions. Trees absent.

3. Plains or Steppes, formation more open.
Extent of prairie and plains in the United States.
Prairie——100th meridian east to forests of Ilinois, and
Indiana, including most of Dakotas, Nebraska, lowa,
Southern Minnesota, Wisconsin, and large part of Kan-
sas, Indian Territory, and extends north into Western

38

Manitoba and nearly all of Assiniboia and Saskatche-
wan.

-Plains,—west to'foot of Rocky Mountains and south and
southwest to Sonora-Nevada desert.

2. Prairie Formations.
Tension line between forest and prairie not well marked, com-
pare with skirmish line of armies—outposts.
Climatic factors the dominant ones in limiting forest and
prairie.
I. Subordinate factors.
a. Biotic, grazing of buffalo.
D. ‘Physical, prairie! fires.
2. Evident that climatic the dominant factor.

a. Greater amount of rainfall is in spring and
summer when grass most needs it.

b. This is time when seeds.of trees would germi-
nate and would die out in drought period.

c. Firmness of soil and mat of grass hinder seed-
ling getting a foothold.

d. Heavy and drying winds in dry season and in
winter cause excessive transpiration and scat-
ter litter.

Prevailing grasses in prairie region.
Ist type. “Sod formers,’ long rhizomes, close formations.

Ex. Drop seed (Sporobolus asperifolius).
Koehleria cristata.

Eatonia obtusata.
Panicum scribnerianum.

2nd type. Bunch grasses, tufts, tend to make open forma-
tions.

Ex. Buffalo grass (Bulbi:is dactyloides).

Beard grass or broom sedge (Andropogon
furcatus and scoparius ).
Grama grass (Boutelo& oligostachya), etc.
These two types are more or less mixed, but

A Sod) formers, — iphaiie vtacs) formation:
characteristic of lower prairies.

b. “‘Bunch’’ grasses characteristic of arid regions of

steppes west and southwest.

39

2. The Plains Formatiom.

The Great Plains of the United States.

tooth meridian to foothills and southwest to desert.

Prevailing grasses. Bunch grasses (buffalo, beard and In-
dian grasses). Here open formations.

Other characteristic plants.

Sage brush (Artemgsia tridentata).
Prickly pear cactus (Opuntia).

Semidesert flora of southwest and Mexico tablelands.
Cacti, yucca, succulents. :
Coarse shrubby growths (ex. Mesquit tree).
Sage brush and bunch grasses.

4. Edaphic Formations in Prairie Regions.
Different Areas.
I. Rivers (Forest and true meadows).
2, Sand tuls:
3. Alkali areas and Bad lands.
Forest formations.
Eastern element meets western element along Niobrara river
(Pinus 'scopularum from Rockies).
Meadows, along river courses and around lakes.
Intermediate between forest and prairie.
Elymus canadensis.
Long stemmed “sod formers” Stipa spartea.
Agropyron pseuddrepens, etc.
Subordinate, “Bunch grasses.”
Sand-hilis in Nebraska,
Beard grass (A. scoparius) is dominant species.
Open formation.
Subordinate plants in Sand-hills.
Xerophytic shrubs, herbs and other grasses.
Spring or vernal flora.
Cat’s foot (Antennaria campestris).
Fennel leaved parsley (Peucedanum foeniculaceum).
Prairie clovers, etc. |
Summer autumnal flora.
Golden rods, verbenas, amorpha, etc.
Sand plains, another beard grass (A. furcatus is dominant
and formation closer, though often open).

40

Badiands of Nebraska and South Dakota.
Characters of environment.
fe licallintty otesonl.
. Loose and crumbling soil, “Buttes.”
Bere and crumbling soil, °
Gy Dingait anc intense heat
Characteristic plants
asew : vermi ;
Greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus
White sage (Eurotia lanta).
A .
Bunch grasses and herbs rare or occasional.

Alkaline marshes and salt basins.
Meadows here and there by sod grass (Distichlis

spicata, stricta and Agropyron pseudorepens).
Salty basins (Ruppia occidentalis and glasswort=Sali-
COrmiagherbaced ).
3. Saity soil near ponds.
Sait bush (Atriplex, a chenopod).
ereasewoods, adapt themselves to

ily.

2:

4. These chenopods,
wide range.
XVI. DESERT PLANT SOCIETIES

1. Factors of Environment in the Desert.

The principal factors are:
Ist, the very low rainfall.
and, the great amount of evaporation.
3rd, _ the alternation of rainy and dry seasons.
Some of the minor factors are as follows:
the strong light (solar radiation), due to the absence

LSt,
of clouds which form a blanket over the earth.

and, high winds.
3rd, the physical and chemical character of the soil.

Salty or alkaline condition of the soil.
Calcareous soils.
The loose and crumbling condition of soil.

The topography of the region.

aR io) tor 0

2. Characters of True Desert Plants.
True desert plants, perennials, to preserve root and stem

through dry period.
1. Desert plants have to meet two general conditions.

Ist, dry hot atmosphere; 2nd, dry soil.

41

2 inven mcet, 16 by
A. Reduction of transpiration.
Ist, reduction in size of leaves, surface.
2nd, hairy coverings.
ard, stomates deeply sunk.
Ath, cuticle thickened.
5th, leaves dispensed with.
6th, stems shorter, with thick cuticle and
and often hairy or waxy coverings.
B. Provision for water storage.
Thick, fleshy trunks or leaves, and roots.
C. Increased surface for root absorption.
Great length and branching.
Extend often to great depths.
Thorny or spiny character of desert vegetation.
3. The Sonora-Nevada Desert.
Location, valleys of great basin ranges.
Note Desert Botanical Laboratory.
Types of conditions are 4 in the region.
i @ases:
a. Along streams.
b. By springs.
c. By basins where there is ground water, hydros-
tatic water.
2. Higher altitude on mountain sides, coniferous forest,
heavy snows, water doled out through a long period.
Elevated areas adjoining desert proper.
Receives some moisture from mountains, cactus,
yuccas, greasewoods, etc.
A. Desert areaiproper:
(1) Two distinct floras.
Tst, annual or rainy season flora.
2nd, perennial or true desert fora:
(2) Rainy season depends on storm water, De-
cember-March.
a. Water held in capillarity for several
feet
b. Vegetation begins February and March.
c. Evaporation from soil and transpiration.

ioe)

42

d. "Flora deels it and seeds.
é. Variations in size of plants different
years.
f. Annuals best adapted to desert life. Pass
dry time in seed.

(3). True desert flora, perennial.

a. ome tendency to flower in December
but too cold for many species.

b. Flower and fruit in spring.

c. As hydrostatic water is used they
change, i. e., tropophile habit. Two
types,

(a) shed leaves, or
(b) die down to the ground or

nearly so.
Ga mOharichen ote plants, thes. asitulas,
3—4" feet.

i. Compact, rounded growth.
Zeca entice eiay sleaves:
3. Two types of shrubs.

Larrea tridentata. Numerous
branches from subterran-
ean source.

Peucephyllum Silatninmthee
like, dies.

(4) Few plants with thick roots.
(5) Suffrutescents—large number.
Lower portion shrubby and remains green.
Transpires and extended water system ab-
sorbs enough water.
(6) True desert plants dependent in dry period on
hydrostatic water.
Rains very little, immediately re-evaporated.
(7) Trees (Mesquits) only around basins where
there is ground water.
(8) Cacti, greasewood, chenopods.
4. General Consideration.
Season of maximum rainfail in different deserts.
Vegetation more dependent on ground water than rainfail.

43

Many perennials benefited by spring rains.
Piaces rare where there is absolutely no vegetation in deserts.
Qases populated by rank growth of trees and herbs.
T'‘lants grouped into two ecological categories:
1. Those dependent on nain.
2. Those dependent on ground water.
Kamball imithe Ne Asdesert.
Climate in the N. A. desert.
“Dry lakes”, swamps, soil alkaline.

Devoid of vegetation except around edges,—chenopods,
sedges, grasses, etc., arranged in zones. On sand mes-
quit, chenopods, etc., other zones.

On elevations,—pines and junipers. Shrubs,—sage brush, etc.

XVII. ARCTIC AND ALPINE PLANT SOCIETIES.

tT. Arctic Plant Socteties:

Arctic zone of plant life.
“Cold waste”, sometimes compared with desert.
Ground frozen to great depth.
Character of tree growth, at polar limit.
I. stunted, often table like.
2. Dead tops,—often at quite regular distances.
3. Under deep snow bent and horizontal.
4. Growth in length slow in proportion to growth in
diameter, but here very siow also.
Trees 83 mm. diameter (3 1-3 in.) 544 annual rings.
Polar tundra, related to heath or peat moors.
1. Heaths, saxifrages, dwarf willow, etc.
2, Lichen tundra ( Cladomia, Alectonalsetes):
3. Moss tundra (Polytrichum).
Conditions of environment.
Ist, “Temperature, long cold winter, low summer tempera-
ingie: |
and. Light, long winter mght, continued daylight in sum-
mete
ard, Co'd ground water in summer.
4th. High winds.
sth. Very dry air of long winter.
6th. Lessened precipitation, snow usually not deep.

44

Responsive type of vegetation. Stems always short.
Ist. Radiate dwarf cushion type.
and. Rosette type.
ard. Succulent type (Saxifrages).
Ath. Reduced leaf system (Cassiope).
5th.. Grasses like those of arid region.
Resistance to cold.
Plants have specific power to resist cold.
Flowers. :
Generally brighter in color than temperate or tropical flow-
ers.
Usually larger in proportion to size of stem and leaves.
Warm oases.
1. Protected from wind.
2. Slope toward south.
3. Ground thawed to greater depth.
7 4. Encourages a more luxuriant vegetation.
2) pine Plamt Societies.
Schimper's divisions of mountains.
1. Basal region—analogous in climate to lowlands.
2. Montane region—analogous in climate to high places in
lowlands.
3. Alpine region—no analogy in lowlands.
a. In passing from basal to aipine region note zonal
arrangement.
b. General resemblance to arctic vegetation but
different adaptations.
Salix polaris and Saxifraga oppositifolia.
Aerial parts more weakly developed in
polar lands.
Alpine character due more to physiological
causes than to heredity.
Factors of alpine climate influencing plants.
Ist. Decrease in precipitation.
2nd. Decrease in heat.
3rd. Rarity of atmosphere, favors, (Results in great
4th. Strong solar radiation, and | 1change tempera«
sth. Strong radiation from ground. | | ture night andday.
6th. High winds.

45

7th. Alternation of night and day, not continuous light as
in Arctic. 3
8th. Alternation heat and cold, again different from Arc-
tic.
Characters of Alpine vegetation.
Characteristic vegetation above limit of tree growth:
Vegetation forms similzr to those of polar lands.
Types of alpine plants according to Schimper.
Ist. Elfin tree, short, gnarled, horizontal stems.
2nd. Alpine shrubs, dwarfed, creeping, much branched.
3rd. Cushion type, branching profuse and compact.
4th. Rosette tvpe, short stems and strong roots.
sth. Alpine grasses, shorter leaves than grasses of low-
lands.
Variation of individuals of same species.
Bonnier’s exp. Alpine plants cut in two,
Ys in Alpine climate, lowland soil.
¥ in lowland climate and lowland soil.
In several places some of lowland halves took on char-
acter of lowland species.

XVIII STRAND FORMATION

iy Pes hOmmounatiGle
General types of strand.
1.) NChOplyMe NOK alive srramds
2. Hydrophytic, or moist strand.
3. Many gradations between these two types.
Variations as shown in the distribution of p!ants on the phone of
Lake of the Woods, Minn.
Flora of the strand can only be understood when studied in con-
nection with the physical geography of the region.
Note by MacMillan.
Variations in the shore.
1. Gyradient of the shore.
2. Mechanical condition of the shore material.
2, Percentare ol numus:.
Kinds of strand. |
~' 1. Rocky shores, or Lithophytic.
2. Sandy shores, or Psammophytic.
3. Loamy shores, or Humiphytic.

46

\ if Find
‘3 j .

WS hs gM

1
'
“f F s
a ai
AA y
I .
, '
c
i ie
,
j
‘
, ,
.
. ’ |
‘
Z
ii)
*
i
“
‘
.

Brite aA
sia tami

2. Vegetation of the Bezen or Strand.

Divisions of the strand.
Schimper’s divisions.
I. The fore-shore (“Schorre’’)
2. The mid-shore.
2. Dhe dunes.
MacMillan’s division in strand formations of the Lake of the
Woods. i
1. The front-strand.
2. The mid-strand.
3. The back-strand.
4. Strand-pools.
Fa thes:
The front-strand, or lower beach.
Surf prevents permanency of vegetation.
Lower algae, especially Cyanophyceae.
The mid-strand, or middle beach.

1. Subject to wave action only during high winds, but con-
ditions severe on account of the rapid evaporation of
water and radiation of heat.

2. Xerophytes,—grasses and sand herbs, then other plants.

3. Vegetation varies according to soil and exposure.
Prunus mid-strand. Considerable wind exposure.
Cornus mid-strand. Less wind.and less humus, taller.

- Salix mid-strand. Inundation frequent.
Sea rocket, saltwort, morning glories, etc.
Back strand. :

Higher percentage of humus, less evaporation and radiation.

Vegetation more of a nitrophytic or thermophytic type.

Classification of back strand formation at Lake of the

Woods.
1. Herbaceous back strand.
a. Gramineous back strand.
b. Mixed herbaceous back strand.

2 Shrubby back strand.

a. Coniferous back strand.
b. Populus back strand.
c. Salix back strand.

47

d. )."Cerasus and .Rosa bacle strand:
e. Mixed shrubby back strand.

3. Arboreal back strand.
a. Coniferous back strand.
b: Populus back stran@y)
ce. salix back strand.
Quercus back strand.
Mixed arboreal back strand.
Another classification of strand formations.
Lower beach, near water’s edge. \
Middle beach=mid-strand.
Upper beach=back strand.
Dominant plants of middle beach on Lake Michigan.
American sea rocket.
Bug seed.
Sea-side spurge.
Atlantic and Gulf coast.
Sea rocket and spurge.

Ores

Seaward Zone.
Cakile fusiformis, Seablite (Dondia linearis).
Salsoia kali, Sea purslane (Sesuvium maritimum).
Large burr grass (Cenchrus macrocephalus).
Landward Zone
Same plant and tropical morning glories (Ipomoea pes-
caprae, I. acetosaefolia, trailing wild bean (Stroph-
ostylis helvola).
Dominant plants of upper beach.
Artemgsia caudata.
Artemgsia canadensis.
Cnicus pitcher.
Lathyrus maritimus.
Seaside spurge.
Oenothera biennis.
Agropyron dasystachyum.
Among shrubs, sand cherry and a species of wilow.
Among trees, cottonwood, Populus monolifera and P.
baisamifera.
Plants in similar formations of beach plants.
(Ipomoea pes-caprae and I. acetosaefolia).

48

PU: Vegetation of the Dunes.
How dunes are formed.
Formed about certain grasses, and when large allow the
development of trees and shrubs.
Kinds of dunes.
ieerotationary dunes,
a. Embryonic.
b. Mature.
2. Wandering or active dunes.
Dune formers require certain biological characters.
I. Compact growth to check wind and precipitate sand.
25 Perennial habit.
3. Rhizome propagation.
4. Ability of stems to grow out of’the sand when buried.
-s. Highly developed xerophytic structures.
6. Ability to stand root exposure.
The best dune formers as found in the Lake Michigan region
according to Cowles are as follows:
1. Grasses with rhizome formation
: Ammophila arundinacea. Most abundant.
Agropyron dasystachyum. (northward).
2. Grasses forming clumps.
Elymus canadensis.
Calamagrostis longifolia.
25° olirabs.
Salix adenophylia. Most abundant.
Salix glaucophylla.
Prunus pumila.
Cornus stolonifera (or C. baileyi).
Zee litees.
Populus monolifera.
Populus balsamifera.
Size and age of dunes corresponds with their relation to the
shore line.
Size of the vegetation depends upon the location of the dune.
Grasses, shrubs, open formations.
Grasses, thickets, trees, older shrubs.
Forests cover still older ones, which are continuous with
forests on landward side.

49

Active or wandering dunes.

Easily blown about, because plant life is limited.

Ist.. As dunes grow in height plants further from
ground water.
2nd. Only trees adapted to live there are short lived.

Often very complex.

Often cause great changes in the landward flora, sometimes
causing great damage, which is sometimes successfully
prevented by the planting of various dune formers.

Rejuvenated dunes. ;
Methods for checking movements of dunes.

XIX. PLANT SOCIETIES OF ROCKY AREAS, MEADOWS,
AND MARSHES.

I. Vegetation of Rocky Places, and New Land.
Rocky shores.
Plants often modified by proximity to water (surf, etc.).
Zonal arrangement on sloping shores.
Azonal on irregular surface rock.
Formations usually open.
Lichens as pioneers in soil making.
Succession of plants as soil is formed.
Crevice plants.
Lichens, Cladonia, with several species.
Mosses, Hedwigia, Andraea (also on smooth rock).
Ferns, Polypodium, Dryopteris, Pellaea, Asplenium.
Herbs, harebell (Campanula), bluets (Houstonia),
aium root (Heuchera).<
Grasses, Arenaria stricta,) Agrostis hiemalis,. etc.
Shrubs, Cornus, Spiraea, some cedars. |
Trees, white pine, also P. divaricatus, ash, trembling
poplar, etc.

Transition of open formations into close ones.

1. Treith1888. Volcano krakatau three years after moun-
tain covered with lava.

2. Schimper, Volcano Guntur in West Java mountains,
in 1843 covered with glowing volcanic matter.
Vegetation still quite open.

Epiphytic shrubs and ferns here on ground.

59

Flauhault and Combres, 1894. Sandy and dune low-
lands mouth of Rhine.

1, MacMillan, 1898, Lake of the Woods.

5. Cowles, 1898, Whitford, 1898, Kearney, Ganong, 1903,

Fink, 1903.

(Op)

II. Vegetation of Swamps and Moors.

Mud swamp or reed societies.
Bulrushes, reed grasses, cat-tail flag, arrow-leaf, etc.
Mostly xerophytes, some hydrophytes.
Where water is deeper vegetation is more like that of lit-
toral zone of ponds or lakes.
Meadow swamp societies, progressed stage of mud swamp.
Grasses and sedges. |
Sphagnum moor societies, or peat moor, also called “bog,”
“muskeag,” etc.
Characterized by the presence or absence of lime.
2. Rich in nitrogenous matter, but combined with humus
in form of humified albuminous bodies not available.
Humus acid retards absorption.
Poor in oxygen and bacteria and fungi.
5. Xerophytic vegetation, Cassandra, Andromeda poli-
folia, cranberry, Labrador ‘tea, etc.
6. Insectivorous plants on moors.
7. High moors, work of Sphagnum.
8. Relation of vegetation to arctic in glacial times.
PJant atolls.
Topography of the atoll moor.
A floating inner zone.
Formation of the atolls.
A black spruce moor.
Fall of the trees on the marginal zone.
Dying of the spruce of the central area.
Other morainic moors.
Heaths. Heath plants the dominant vegetation.
a. Huckleberries, bear berries, cranberries.
b. But especially members of the Ericaceae,
wild rosemary (Andromeda), dwarf cassandra or
leather leaf (Chamaedaphne—Cassandra), heather
(Calluna vulgaris).

i GP

op

Spruce and tamarack swamps.

(Cane swamp societies.

Salt marsh societies.

Salt shores where gradient is low and soil nitrophytic.
Water brackish.

Plants xerophytic.

Structural adaptations in salt marsh plants.

a. Abundance of air spaces. This is ‘corselated
with ability of piant to bear long inundation
at high tide.

b. Ability of root hairs to resist plasmolysis in
highly concentrated sea water (ex., 90 per
cent).

5. Individuals of same species more stunted close to
water's edge when submerged for longer time.
Examples, the maritime ruppia (Ruppia maritima),

glasswort (Salicornia) Sedge spartina (Spar-
tina stricta glabra).
Shores of marl ponds. Soil calcareous.
Vegetation often xerophytic.

Ga NAS

Ex., shrubby cinquefoil (Potentilla fruticosa—Dasi-
phora fruticosa).

XX. AQUATIC PLANT SOCIETIES.

I. General Considerations.
How differ from sand swamp or mud swamp societies and
gradation one to the other and to soil societies.
Relation of plants to water.
I. Some entirely submerged.
2. Some float on surface of water.
3. Some stems submerged, leaves on surface.
4. Some leaves erected above water, near semiaquatics.
Characters of aquatic plants.
I. Supported by the water. :
2. Only a sight development of mechanical tissue.
3. Provided with air by large air spaces throughout the
tissue. |
4. Little development of root hairs.
5. Where roots are developed they are used chiefly as
holdfasts.

Depth of growth. Regions of light.
1. Bright light region, or photic region.
a.. Macrophytes.
b. Microphytes with photosynthesis.
2. Dimly lighted region, or dysphotic region..
a. Mscrophytes stunted or fail.
b. Few photosynthetic microphytes, ex., diatoms.
Dark region, or aphotic region.
Organisms not capable of photosynthesis, ex., bac-
hewtas
Gulf of Naples bacteria found 800-3,500 ft.
Relation to substratum.
(Note on Schimper’s use of Benthos, and the use of piank-
ton and hemiplankton.) 3
1. Benthos fixed ( Bevos depths).
2. Plankton.
3. Hemiplankton.
Effect of the water on vegetation.
I. Vegetation dependent on varying degree of salinity.
(1) Evaporation.
eee 2 eres water
Zee Gtedtesr salt content tomund im the Red Seay (4.3) per
cent. )
Color due to Trichodesmium.
mae Ocean 2.5 pen cent. mineral, 2.6: per cent. salt. Greater
in tropical than in Arctic regions.
4. Movement of water affects the distribution of plants.
2 SINISE NIA,

b. Ebb and flowstide.

Marlponds. Affected by quantity of calcium carbonate (fresh
water marlponds).
Inland lakes and salt ponds.
Vegetation of hot springs.
a. Beggiatoa.
b. Phormidium, Spirulina.
c. Anabaena, Gloeocapsa.
Affected by temperature.

1. Perennial pelagic algae no rest, some growth during
winter.

53

2. Inland lakes and ponds in temperate regions.

a. Perennials, seeds, spores, akinetes, hormogones.
b. Annuals.
3. Note Lemanea in winter streams. Bacteria in ice.
Division of water plant societies.
1. Hydrophytic societies—fresh water or limnetic plants.
2. Halophytic societies=marine or pelagic plants.
Il:~ Fresh water or Limmetic: Societies:
Pond or inland lake societies.
Vegetation zonal.
1. Littoral zone, or semi-aquatics.
2. Mid zone, plants with floating leaves and slender
stem.
3. Submerged zone, pond weed type and Chara.
Free floating forms are found in Ist and 2nd zones.
River or Fluvial plant societies.
Plants adapted to rapid and violent movement of water.
River-weed, mosses and algae, Podostemon.
Where water is quieter, pool or pond types.

Structural types of Jjimnetic plants.

I. Quillwort type. °
2. Waterlily type.

Bey ed: weed May pe:

4. Duckweed type.

5. River-weed or fluvial type.

Til. Marine or Pelagic Societies,
Mostly lithophytes and sea algae. ,

1. Benthonic forms mostly lxthophytic.
Disk-like hoidfasts of large forms.
Diatoms with gelatinous stems.

Large number of small ones, Epiphytes.
Many semiparasites among algae.

Few fungus parasites.

ee few attached to mud or sand bottoms.
Flora very scarce and corresponds with deserts.

Caulerpa, root like holdfasts.

' Meadow or sea weed in shallow places.
Photic region 30-40 meters (100-125 ft.)

An pwd

54

Upper photic zone divided into two strata, ebb and flow
here.
I. Algae stunted, thick epidermis.
2. Best for growth. All pelagic seed plants and great
mass of algal vegetation.

Lower photic zone divided into two strata with only algae
found in this zone, different algae in different depths,
below ebb.

Green algae.

Brown algae.

Red algae, sensitive to light, light decolorizes them.

XXI. SUGGESTIONS FOR PRACTICAL STUDY OF PLANT
FORMATIONS
Student should have had a good course in elementary plant
physiology and general plant morphology.
For independent study more required.
Work of beginning student can be done under the guidance of
teacher. }
Students can more easily detect a life relation, than they can
determine many of the plants.
District selected for study should include if possible
Forest.
Low marshy areas.
Ponds or lakes.
These will usually include rocky, sandy, clayey areas,
ravines, bluffs, meadows, etc.
Map the region, based on some good topographic map, like
those being issued by the U. S$. Geological Survey.
Studies shouid be supplemented by lectures and reading.
For practical work district selected may be in either
1. Coastal plain and continental valley district, or
2. Mountain districts, or
3. Division of territory recognized in Physical Geography.
The larger area may be divided somewhat as follows:

oo

WOODLAND CLIMATIC REGION

Forested areas

Series of
formations

Principal
Formations

Rock hill
Gravel hill
Sand hill
Clay hill

series

Rock areas
Gravel areas

2. Lowland
Sand areas
series
Clay areas

Loam areas

| Ravine
3. River | River bluff
series Flood plain

Mature river valley

' Heath moor

Mud swamp
4. Swamp | Water swamp
series \ Tamarack swamp
Cypress swamp

Mangrove swamp

Lake bluff
Ocean bluff

Humus strand
Coastal swamp

Sand strand or dunes

Non Forested areas

Series of
formations

Principal
Formations

Mud or reed swamp
“Sphagnum moor
Heath moor
Tamarack swamp

Mead
1, Edaphic / aes

¢ Rocky places
series x

Sandy strand and
dunes

Salt marsh

Alkali lands

Shores of marl ponds

Streams
Ponds
Lakes

2. Aowatic
q Salt seas

series
Ocean

Brackish waters
Marl ponds

3. Culture Cultivated places

series Waste places

(no attempt is made here
to subdivide the cul-
ture series. )

56

New features and combinations will present themselves in
each district studied. The above outline must be modified to
suit the particular case.

Montane districts.

Valley series.

Foothill series.

Basal series.

4. Montane series.

5. (Alpine series, beyond tree growth).

ooo ante

Formations.

1. Ifthe area is properly mapped it wil show the principal
formations, covering the distinct physiographic
areas, or edaphic areas, to be examined in detail.

2. he formations (individual formations )can be deter-
mined by discovering the dominant species.

a. Sometimes one dominant species will constitute
the formations.

b. Sometimes there will be several dominant spe-
cies in the individual formations.

c. Chart the area occupied by different individual

| formations and name dominant species in
each.

d. If there are layers as in a forest or heath deter-
mine the prominent ones.

e. On slope determine zona! formations.

f. On shores of lakes or ponds with bowl-shaped
basin determine the succession of forms.

Ist, Littoral zone of semiaquatics.
1. Typha (or equivalent).
2. Bulrushes (or equivalent).
3. Arrow leaf (or equivalent).

and, Floating zone.
4. Pond lilies (or equivalent).
ard, Submerged zone.
5. Pondweeds (or equivalent).
6. Bass weed (or equivalent).
3. Note prominent physical characteristics of soil.

4. Note exposure to sun, wind, etc.

37

Secondary or subordinate species in a formation.

I. Species which are dominant in other similar places but
subordinate here.

2. Species characteristic of the locality but never so abun-
dant as to dominate the formation.

3. Species which are infiltrated in with the dominant vege-
tation form and mark this area off from others.

4. Guilds (or associates or companions), lianas, epiphytes,
Ches

5. Parasites.

6. Wood destroying fungi.

7. Humus forming fungi, etc.

The general features of the study the teacher can iilustrate.

Ist, Lantern slides of vegetation and formations of regions
not illustrated in the local flora.
2nd, By photographs illustrating the different physio-
graphic or edaphic areas to be studied.
3rd, Obtain small collection of plants to illustrate various
features of the study.
The student should keep a neat record, brief, but to the point.
Notes can be supplemented with charts, photographs, pre-.
served plants, etc.
To chart extent and relations of plant formations

See MacMillan, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, 23, 502, 1806.
Pieters, the Plants of Lake St. Clair, Bull, Miche wiish
Com., No. 2, 1894, Lansing.

Ganong, Vegetation of Bay of Funday Marshes,. Bot.
Gaz. 36, 251 Too2, and others:

58

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62

dk
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63

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oe eee

=

_—_——

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64

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67

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