qoL 688 C9M16 1833 BIRD JOHN E. THAYER. LANCASTER. 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Another natural group is distinguished from the preceding under the title of ra wy xeeyagodovra by Aristotle; who did not, however, seize its true character*. This remained in obscurity until Ray described certain animals as ‘* Quadrupeda vivipara pede multifido herbivora binis prelongis dentibus anterioribus in utraque maxilla seu Leporinum genust.” Linnzeus saw the truth of the order as thus characterized, from all others; but changed the name to Glires, which has given way among the disciples of Illiger to the clumsy appellation of Prensiculantia, and among those of Cuvier, to the very applicable one of Ron- geurs or Rodentia. A Member of the Linnean Society may, however, be permitted to retain the name of Guires. Another most natural group was pretty well understood and characterized by Aristotle under the name of ra jer ovx apPodorre, all other viviparous quadrupeds being ePoderre,—that is, fur- nished with cutting-teeth or incisors in both the upper and under jawt. He also described them as not furnished with claws but with hoofs, which occasioned Ray, who understood the value of the group, to call it Ungulata, all other quadrupeds being Unguiculata. Somehow or other, Linnzus unfortunately lost sight of this group, and contented himself instead with * It is not clear whether Aristotle placed this group among the augolovre or not. My only reason for thinking he did so is, that he places them in opposition to the xagxagodovra. If, however, the word azgodovra means circumdentata,—a signification that it will bear,—then it is clear that he could not haye meant the Glires to be included in this group. + Rai Syn. p. 204. { Apgoduy, utrinque dentatus. VOL. XVI. E some 26 =Mr.W.S. Macreay on the Comparative Anatomy some of Aristotle’s subdivisions of it, which are all excellent. The group of Uncutara has not, however, escaped the eye of M. Cuvier. The last order we have to mention is the z7rwd, of Aristotle, Cetaceum genus of Ray, Cete of Linneus, and Natantia of Illi- ger. It is in truth a group which cannot fail to strike the most ordinary observer, from the limbs taking the form of fins, and the whole animal the form as well as habits of a fish. Every Mammiferous animal may be reduced to these five orders; that is, may be assimilated, in a greater or less degree, to one or other of the following typical forms; viz. Man, the Lion, the Horse, the Whale, and the Mouse. I shall show hereafter how these five orders form a continued series returning into itself, so as to be a natural group. In the mean time, I must recall to the attention of the reader the orders of Birds as defined and arranged by Mr. Vigors*; and to which definitions and arrangement I have just applied so severe a test, only to corroborate their accuracy and to make them display additional harmony. When we have heard the Parrot or Mainate speaking ; when we have witnessed the former feeding itself as it were with a hand; when, in short, we have reflected on the remarkable intelligence and development of brain throughout the whole order of Insessores, to which both birds belong,—there has been no one, perhaps, dull enough not to compare them to Primates. fEliant says: “Ta we arr trav wdinay OgVEMY EVTTOMEL, HAL TY YAWTTN Pbeyyeras, Oingv avdewrov.” I allow, indeed, that it is difficult to follow the opinion of the great naturalist of France, who, igno- * Linn. Trans. vol. xiv. p. 406, et seq. + Ed. Schneid. lib. I. c. xx. With respect to the particular case of Parrots, 1 cannot do better than refer to the ample collection of classical quotations given on this subject in the Zoological Journal, vol. ii. p. 40, &c. rant of certain Birds of Cuba. 27 rant of the true nature of relations of analogy, imagined that the Psittaceous tribe of Birds ought to occupy the first step in the scale of nature below Man: but we cannot help adopting the notion of Linnzeus in the Systema Nature,—that although not near him in construction, they are yet analogous to him in various important respects. And, adopting this notion, we must place the whole order of Insessores, to which Psittacus belongs, opposite to the Primates, of which Man forms the type. The analogies existing between Birds of Prey and Carnivo- rous Quadrupeds having been noticed by Aristotle, who called both groups yauavye, were enlarged upon by Plutarch*. Among a host of moderns who have been struck with the resemblance, I may particularly mention Linnzeus, who in his Systema Nature has expressly called his Accipitres ‘ Ferts ana- logi ;” and Buffont, who has treated the subject at length and with his usual eloquence. I conceive, therefore, that no one can object to the propriety of my placing the Fere opposite to the Raptores. The analogy between Aquatic Birds and Aquatic Mammalia scarcely requires the mention of the authority of Linneus to make it be granted. It is indeed so evident, that Hermann, according to his custom, takes it for a relation of affinity +. In both orders the anterior appendages of the vertebral axis dwindling into fins, and the two undivided posterior appen- dages being placed so far behind on the axis as to show that both were intended for motion in the water rather than on land, are circumstances of themselves sufficient to authorize the placing of the Cetacea opposite to the Natatores. Two orders still remain in each class to be considered: the Glires and Ungulata among the Mammalia; and among Birds, , * On this subject, see Zool. Journ. vol. i. +) Vol. i. p. 37. { Lab. Aff, Anim. p. 153. EQ the 28 Mr. W.S. Macteay on the Comparative Anatomy the Rasores and Grallutores. The relations of analogy pointed out by Linneus between Mammalia and Birds are, as Hermann has observed, not always correct; and his errors have arisen from the misfortune of his not detecting the natural group of Aristotle and Ray, which the latter has called Ungulata. Having only been able to seize Aristotle’s subdivisions of ra pe ovx aupodorre, he lost the parallelism of analogy, and fell, as I shall hereafter show, into very glaring mistakes. In the Systema Nature, however, he has mentioned that very striking analogy which appears between his groups of Gralle and Bruta ; that is, according to the parallelism of analogy, between the orders of Grallatores and Ungulata, since the Bruta, as we have seen, do not form an order, but only a natural subdivision of the Ungu- lata. 'That this analogy is demonstrably true, I deduce from the following facts. Of their respective classes, the orders of Ungu- lata and Grallatores contain examples of the longest legs in pro- portion to the body,—witness Camelopardalis and Hemantopus. Both orders present us, in groups not exactly aquatic, with in- stances of the toes being soldered together, as the Horse; or connected together by a web, as the Flamingo. Both orders present us with the greatest elongation of muzzle or facies,— witness Myrmecophaga, or Antilope* and Scolopav; and also with the most depressed form of muzzle,—witness Hippopotamus and Platalea, which genera also afford us the truest specimens of Wading Vertebrata. In both orders we have the most elon- gated claws,—witness Megalonyx and Parra. Both orders afford us the swiftest animals in running,—as the Horse and Tachydro- mus; and the most pugnacious on account of love,—as the Bull and Machetes. ‘The Bull moreover and the Butor (or Bos- taurus, for hence comes the bird’s name), afford us the loudest and hoarsest voice of their respective orders: where we have * Particularly A. bubalus L. also of certain Birds of Cuba. 29 also the most remarkable instances of the upper and under man- dibles touching each other merely at their base and point; as Myrmecophaga, or the whole of the ra wev ove audodovra of Ari- stotle, and Anastomus* Illig. Both orders exhibit ornamental appendages to the head,—as the antlers of the Stag and the crown of the Crane ; and both afford us the only instances of true horns, —as Bos or Rhinoceros, and Palamedea L. To see a hundred such instances of resemblance it is only necessary to walk into a museum. I shall therefore only further say, that both orders contain polygamous animals, are generally gregarious, and more graminivorous than granivorous, being essentially inhabitants of marshes and savannahs. Thus then, with Linneus, I place the Bruta, or rather the whole order of Ungulata to which they belong, opposite to the Grallatores. Four orders in each class being now disposed of, it follows by parallelism of analogy, that the Glires ought to be placed oppo- site to the Rasores. But setting theory wholly aside,—is this position true in factt? Linneus, from the above-mentioned error in his series of affinity, considered the Rasores to be analogous to his group of Pecora. But this group, according to Aristotle and Ray, is only a subdivision of Ungulata, which have, I consider, been now proved to be analogous to the Grallatores. If, therefore, Linneus be right in making his Bruta analogous to the order of Wading Birds, it follows that his Pecora must be so also. * The genus Aramus, which I have killed in this island, also presents the peculiarity of the mandibles not meeting towards the middle of the beak. + The ancient name of Strudhio Camelus, as well as the form and habits of the Ostrich, show indeed a relation of analogy to the Camel; but then we are to recollect, in the first place, that the Ostrich is at the osculant point or confines of the orders of Gralle and Rasores; and secondly, that such slight variations of the parallelism of analogy often appear, although, as has been said, Hore Entom. p. 403, I think it pos- sible that even these are subject to rule. The 30 Mr. W.S. Macteay on the Comparative Anatomy The analogy of the Rasores to the Ruminating Animals was first, I believe, mentioned by Linnzeus in the Systema Nature. It has since his days been copied and copied, until now it almost becomes a sort of heresy to inquire into its accuracy. I am not, however, aware that any reason for this analogy has ever been assigned, beyond the fact,—that one order affords the principal part of those birds which are domesticated by man for purposes of food; and the other, the principal part of quadru- peds which are destined to the same purpose. Now, granting even this domestication not to be the work of art, but to be an analogy really existing in nature, | would observe,—setting the whole family of Anatide aside,—that the Glires afford us many eatible or domesticated animals, such as the Capromys and Rabbit; and the Grallatores afford us similar instances in the Snipe and Psophia. If some Rasores be said, like the Pecora, to have ornamental appendages to the head, so it must be re- membered has the Crowned Crane; whereas no rasorial bird is truly horned, like the Palamedea. But it may be worth while to take into consideration successively the grand characteristics of the Rasores, as given by ornithologists to distinguish them from all other birds. The Rasores are, properly speaking, frugivorous birds; by which I do not mean eating fruits only, but all manner of seeds or grain. Now this character of being frugivorous applies much more to the Glires than the Ungulata, which are truly herbivorous, and only feed on grain in an artificial or domesticated state. To begin, then, with the rasorial or scratching powers of gallina- ceous fowls ; these are certainly the most burrowing of frugivo- rous birds: now the most burrowing of frugivorous quadrupeds are certainly not the Ungulata, but the Glires. These birds are characterized by the shortness of their wings and the weakness of their pectoral muscles. Now if we inquire whether it is among the of certain Birds of Cuba. 31 the Glires or Ungulata that we find the corresponding appen- dages of the vertebral axis,—that is, the fore-feet most shortened, —the answer will be, certainly not among the Ungulata; where, on the contrary, the Giraffe has them extraordinarily lengthened: but among the Glires we have the Jerboa, in this respect almost a bird. In general, moreover, this latter order is distinguished, like the Rasores, by the strength of those muscles of the two posterior appendages of the vertebral axis or hind-feet, that con- tribute to locomotion. Gregarious habits distinguish the most of the Rasores; so they do in a still more extraordinary manner the Glires. Many are insectivorous in both orders, and some omnivorous. The muzzle or facies of Glires is short and round, very like that of Fere, there being a direct relation between the two orders. The facies of Rasores is also short and round, very like that of Raptores (the order analogous to that of Fere); and there is also a direct relation between these two orders. Many Rasores perch and nestle on trees; so do many of the Glires. The Rasores generally feed on hard grain, which they pick up with their hooked beak, and masticate in a triturating gizzard : the Glires feed also on hard substances, which they gnaw with their strong hooked incisors, and masticate with their grinders. Tn both orders the thumb is very often rudimentary. In both orders the tail varies from an extraordinary length, as in the Squirrel and Pheasant, to being very short, as in the Hare and Partridge. Mentioning these two last animals together, we are reminded of a beautiful analogy, stated thus by Hermann, p. 167. “Tetrao Lagopus, ut et hic aliquam cum Mammalibus analo- giam adducamus, triplici respectu Lepori analogus qudd digitos subtus lanatos habet, et qudd Leporis variabilis more hyeme colorem mutat, et quod carnis sapore et colore leporinam refert.” No orders in their respective classes present the tail so spread out and flattened as the Glires and Rasores,—witness the Beaver and 32 Mr. W.S. Mactreay on the Comparative Anatomy and Peacock. In both orders the sense of hearing is much developed. In both orders we find animals, such as Squirrels and Pigeons, with their toes perfectly free ; and others, as Hy- dromys and Phasianus, which have them united at the base by a membrane. Castor is an aquatic animal, having some relation to Cetacea; Struthio is a terrestrial animal, approaching to Na- tatores. And so on relation comes so fast upon relation, that I know not how we can for a moment hesitate to place the Glires opposite to the Rasores. I conceive it now to be demonstrated, that, so far as relates to the analogies existing in nature between the orders of Mammalia and Aves, we ought to place them thus: Animals typically. 1. Perm’) 25% 2%. CAYNIVOLOUS ~ We ele es ee 1. Raprores. 2. PRIMATES. ...-.. Gmoiver@Olris oad 4 0.6 oO > Sc ond 2. INsEssorEs. Sr GUIRES c hetle sis): ATU PHVOLOUS|