Bui. 40, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

Plate I.

Issued December 21, 1911.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

BIOLOGICAL SURVEY— BULLETIN No. 40

HENRY W. HENSHAW, Chitf

REPORT ON CONDITION OF ELK IN

JACKSON HOLE, WYOMING,

IN 1911

BY

EDWARD A. PREBLE

Assistant, Biological Survey

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

1911

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. S. Department of Agriculture.

Bureau of Biological Survey.
Washington, D. C, Xovember 1. 1911.

Sir: I have the nonor to transmit herewith for publication as
Bulletin No. 40, a Report on the Condition of Elk in Jackson Hole,
Wyoming, in 1911, by Edward A. Preble, assistant in the Biological
Survey. At the last session of the sixty-first Congress an item was
incorporated in the appropriation for the Biological Survey "for the
feeding, protecting, and removal of elk in the country known as
Jackson's Hole and vicinity, in the State of Wyoming. " Steps were
immediately taken to obtain the information necessary to enable
the Biological Survey to undertake intelligently and effectively the
solution of the elk problem in Wyoming. Mr. Preble was directed
to proceed to Jackson Hole, and Mr. D. C. Xowlin, formerly game war-
den of the State, was appointed as his assistant. They were in-
structed: (1) To make a thorough examination of existing conditions,
to ascertain approximately the number of elk which perished by
starvation, and to collect all available data respecting the life history
and local distribution of the animals; (2) to cooperate with the State
in feeding the elk and to arrange for obtaining a supply of feed for
the winter of 1911-12; (3) to investigate the feasibility of transferring
a few animals to other parts of the State or to game preserves in other
States where nucleus herds might be established under Federal or
State auspices. Upon arrival in Jackson Hole Messrs. Preble and
Xowlin found that the State had already purchased and was feeding
all the hay available and nothing further in this direction could be
done except to make arrangements for the following winter. On
account of the lateness of the season and the impassability of the
roads it was practicable to make only one experimental shipment of
elk, and 12 animals were successfully transported across Teton Pass.
Seven of these were shipped to the National Bison Range, in Montana,
and 5 to the Wichita National Game Refuge, in Oklahoma. All
of them arrived in good condition and are doing well.

The Biological Survey has undertaken not merely temporary relief
during one or two severe winters, but an investigation, in cooperation
with the State of Wyoming, of the broader problem of the mainte-
nance of the elk herd of Jackson Hole as one of the important re-
sources of the State and as a permanent source of income. Such an

3

4 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

investigation includes collection of all available data on the natural
history of the oik ; a review of the efforts which have been made by the
State to protect and perpetuate the species; the losses by wolves,
poaching, and starvation; experiments in feeding during severe
weather; provision for summer range in the State game preserve;
and recommendations for winter refuges where an adequate supply of
forage may be obtained. The present publication is a preliminary
report and deals mainly with the information collected regarding
the condition of the elk during the past winter. It will probably
be followed shortly by a summary of the work accomplished by the
State, and later by reports on feeding and refuges and other problems
concerning which data are not yet ready for publication.
Respectfully,

Henry W. Henshaw,
Chief ] Biological Survey.
Hon. James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

C 0 X T E X T S .

Page.

Introduction 7

Itinerary

General description of the region 9

Value of elk to the region 11

Number of elk in Jackson Hole region 12

Feeding in winter 14

Life history of elk 15

Distribution in summer 15

Movements in autumn 15

Depredations in winter 16

Habits in winter 17

Winter mortality 17

Habits in spring and early summer IS

Birth of young 19

Habits in late summer and in autumn 20

Enemies of elk 20

Illegal killing 21

Transportation of elk 21

Winter refuge for elk 22

5

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page.
Plate I. A herd of elk in Jackson Hole, Wyoming, in winter of 1910-11 . Frontispiece.
II. Map of part of northwestern Wyoming, showing summer and winter

distribution of elk 7

III. Map of Jackson Hole region 10

IV. Fig. 1. — Teton Range, bordering Jackson Hole on the west. Fig. 2. —

Marsh bordering Little Gros Ventre or Flat Creek above Jackson. . 10

V. Feeding elk in South Park near Jackson in late winter, 1910-11 14

VI. Fig. 1. — Elk calves in South Park below Jackson. Fig. 2. — Elk

calves around haystack 20

VII. Elk in the foothills of Jackson Hole in early winter 20

6

Bui. 40, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

Part of Northwestern Wyoming, Showing Approximate Range of Elk which
Winter in Jackson Hole.

Summer range.

*,.' Winter range.

REPORT OX CONDITION OF ELK IN JACKSON HOLE,
WYOMING, IN 1911.

INTRODUCTION.

That part of the valley of Snake River in northwestern Wyoming
usually called Jackson Hole has long been the principal winter
home of large numbers of elk, or wapiti (Gervus canadensis). These
animals, which spend the summer in the southern part of Yellow-
stone National Park and in the mountains south of it, are forced in
winter to seek lower levels, where a lighter snowfall and a milder
climate insure more favorable forage conditions. Their primitive
winter range has gradually been reduced, until this basin has become
their principal stronghold. Here, until recent years, the herds have
fared well, except in an occasional abnormal winter; but with
increased settlement in this valley has come depletion of the range
by grazing. The elk have come down in their old or even in aug-
mented numbers only to find their former haunts shorn of forage
by cattle, and when unusual winter conditions have conspired with
a lessened food supply, great suffering and loss of life have ensued.
Such was the case during the winters of 1908-9 and 1909-10, and
during that of 1910-11, when an almost unprecedented fall of snow
following a dry summer covered to a depth of several feet the remnant
of a scanty crop of grass, conditions became acute. The elk sought
the valley in about their normal numbers, but a little earlier than
usual, and before the winter was half over had suffered great loss.
The State legislature was appealed to and promptly appropriated
money to buy food for the starving creatures. Moreover, the State,
realizing its inability to cope with the situation unaided, presented
the following memorial to Congress :

House Joint Memorial Xo. 1.

A joint resolution relating to the preservation of big game in the State of Wyoming, and memorializing
the Congress of the United States to make an adequate appropriation to aid the State of Wyoming
in providing winter food for and otherwise protecting the big game which range in the National Park
and in the Jackson Hole region of this State, alternately.

Be it resolved by the house of representatives (the senate concurring):

Whereas the principal remnant of the big game of the United States, comprised
of moose, elk, and deer, range alternately during the winters in the National Park

7

8 CONDITION OF ELK IX JACKSON HOLE, WYOMING.

and game restive and the Jackson Hole section of the State of Wyoming, south of
the National Park; and

Whereas during the winters they suffer greatly and perish from famine in large num-
ben, which could be bo B great measure prevented by adequate and systematic pro-
\i-i<m (or feeding and protecting them during storms and blizzards; and

Whereas the State of Wyoming has been and is making appropriations of large
sums of money and using every available means within its power to preserve said
big game; and

Whereas the sufficient and thoroughly adequate protection of said big game
is too expensive and burdensome to be borne alone by the State of Wyoming: There-
fore be it

Resolved by the Legislature of the State of Wyoming, That the Government of the
United States be, and is hereby, requested to cooperate with the State of Wyoming
in feeding, protecting, and otherwise preserving the big game which winters in great
numbers within the confines of the State of Wyoming; and the Congress of the United
States is hereby memorialized and requested to make an adequate appropriation of
money, to be used in aiding and cooperating with the State of Wyoming in the
laudable and desirable effort to feed, protect, and preserve from extinction the prin-
cipal remnant of the big game of the United States, which range during the winters
principally within the territory of the State of Wyoming; be it further

Resolved, That engrossed copies of this memorial and request be sent to the Presi-
dent of the United States, to the President of the United States Senate, to the
Speaker of the United States House of Representatives, and to the Secretary of the
Interior, asking their aid in bringing the object of this memorial and request before
Congress and in securing from same an adequate appropriation of public moneys for
the noble, humane, and national purpose herein set forth; and be it further

Resolved, -That engrossed copies of this memorial and request be sent to the Sen-
ators from Wyoming in the Congress of the United States, viz., Hons. Clarence D.
Clark and Francis E. Warren, and our Representative in said Congress, Hon.
Frank W. Mondell, asking them to use their best efforts to secure favorable action
upon the request embodied herein.

Approved February 17, 1911.

In accordance with this memorial the act approved March 4, 1911,
making appropriations for the Department of Agriculture, included
an item of $20,000 immediately available for feeding, protecting, and
removing elk in Jackson Hole and vicinity. The administration of
this fund was intrusted to the Biological Survey, and to the writer was
assigned the task of making the preliminary investigation.

ITINERARY.

J left Washington on March 7, 1911, and reached Cheyenne, Wyo.,
March 9. Here I was joined by Mr. D. C. Nowlin, formerly State
game warden, who was to be associated with me in the work. Pur-
suant to my instructions, conferences with Gov. Joseph M. Carey
were held on March 10 and 11. The governor, as chairman of the
newly established game commission, expressed himself as pleased to
see steps taken toward Federal cooperation in the protection of the
elk, and furnished me letters of introduction and a permit to capture
a number of animals for removal to parks in other States. On March
12 Mr. I). F. Hudson, the present State game warden, joined us, and

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF REGION. U

the next day Mr. Hudson, Mr. Nowlin, and I left Cheyenne for Jackson
Hole, via Pocatello and St. Anthony, Idaho. To reach the scene of
our work, a two days' stage trip after leaving the railroad was neces-
sary. We left St. Anthony on March 15 and passed the night at
Victor, Idaho, close to the western base of the lofty and picturesque
Teton Range. Xext day we crossed this range, over from 10 to 40
feet of snow, via the Teton Pass, at 8,429 feet altitude, and descending
the eastern slope of the range crossed Snake River and reached the
town of Jackson. This point, in the southern part of Jackson Hole,
was our headquarters for nearly three months. From here we made
trips by stage and other conve3^ances and on foot to various parts of
the valley of Snake River from the head of Jackson Lake south nearly
to Hoback River and visited also the valleys of Buffalo and Gros
Ventre Rivers. We left the valley in early June to take up other
work, but Mr. Nowlin returned about August 1 and continued the
investigations.

During the progress of the work I was greatly assisted by Mr.
Nowlin. His intimate personal acquaintance with the people of the
region and with the various phases of the problem made him peculiarly
valuable. To the residents of the region, also, I am greatly indebted
for courtesies extended.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE REGION.

Jackson Hole is the name commonly applied to that part of the
Snake River Valley between Jackson Lake and the mouth of Hoback
or Fall River. (See map, PI. III.) It is a basin about 40 miles in
length from north to south and averaging about 15 miles in width
and extends in a north-northeast and south-southwest direction. It
has an altitude of about 6,700 feet at its north end and falls to about
6,000 feet at its southern extremity. Snake River, after issuing from
Jackson Lake, traverses the valley in a direction slightly nearer
southwesterly than the general trend of the basin, entering it at its
northeastern extremity and crossing to its western border in the course
of a few miles. This river has a rather uniformly rapid current and is
moderately direct in its course, but in places divides into numerous
channels inclosing large islands. From the east it receives succes-
sively Pacific Creek (whose twin, Atlantic Creek, heading in the same
meadow, is tributary to the Missouri), Buffalo River or Buffalo Fork,
Gros Ventre River, and Little Gros Ventre or Flat Creek. Parts of
Snake River and its larger tributaries are bordered by groves of
narrow-leaf cottonwoods (Populus angustifolia) , interspersed with a
few spruces, with an undergrowth of dogwood, alder, and other
shrubs. Along some of the tributaries of Snake River are natural
marshy meadows which support a rank growth of marsh grasses, with
thickets of willows on their borders and along the streams, and a
15973°— Bull. 40—11 2

10

variety of marsh-loving shrubs and other plants on their drier parts.
One of the more extensive of these meadows lies along little Gros
Ventre Creek above the town of Jackson, and will be referred to in
more detail later.

By far the greater part of the area embraced in the basin called
Jackson Hole is covered by a fairly rank growth of sagebrush (Arte-
misia tiidintata and A. carta). Large areas of this land have been
cleared and under irrigation produce fine crops of alfalfa and timothy
and fair yields of oats, barley, and wheat. The altitude of the valley
and the proximity of large areas of high mountains cause frost to be
common through May and in exceptional seasons in August. The
shortness of the growing season prevents the successful raising of any
but forage crops besides the hardier grains and roots, except in a few
favored localities.

The winters are long and severe and the snowfall heavy, though
the amount in any particular section varies greatly from year to year.
Thus, while the depth of snow is usually greater in the upper Gros
Ventre Valley than about Jackson, the contrary was the case during
the winter of 1910-11. The amount of snow which fell in the Valley
of Spread Creek was also much less than on Antelope Flat, only a
few miles distant, or about Jackson, though all three places are near
the same altitude. These local fluctuations seem to be due to the
proximity of the lofty Teton Range, which influences to a remarkable
degree the direction and intensity of local storms. In early January,
1911, about 4 feet of snow fell within 48 hours in some parts of
the valley. On the mountains the amount of snow is, of course,
much greater and the winter of longer duration than in the valley.
On the Teton Pass (8,429 feet), practically the only means of access
to the valley, snowstorms are frequent until midsummer, and even
in the lower part of the valley it is not unusual for snow to fall in late
May and in September.

In the spring of 1911 the winter's snow was practically gone in the
main part of the valley on April 20, but the mountains and foothills
above 7,000 feet were as white as in midwinter.

Bordering the valley on the west is the Teton Range, a succession
of rocky crags with altitudes varying from about 10,000 to nearly
14,000 feet . (See PI. IV, fig. 1 .) These rise abruptly from the compara-
tively low and level valley (f>,000 to 6,700 feet), affording a panorama
whose equal in rugged grandeur is rarely seen. To the east the valley
is bordered by foothills of the Gros Ventre Range, some of whose ] •
reach an altitude of about 11,000 feet. These mountains are treeless
above 10,000 feet. Below this the mountain slopes are usually well
wooded, the commoner trees being Kngehnann spruce (Piaa engd-
maimi), Douglas spruce (Pteudotsuga ta.ri/oiia). and aspen poplar
(Popvlut tit miiloid(s). Within the confines of the valley arise sev-
eral so-called buttes, which rise about 1,000 Feel above the general

Bui. 40, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate III.

Jackson Hole and Vicinity, Wyoming.

Bui. 40, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate IV.

Fig. 1.— Teton Range. Bordering Jackson Hole on West. View from near
Grovont, March 24, 1911.

Fig. 2.— Marsh Bordering Little Gros Ventre or Flat Creek, above Jack-
son. View Northeastward from Base of East Gros Ventre Butte, near

VALUE OF ELK. 11

level. These are mostly devoid of trees, but support a few groves
of aspen poplar and an occasional juniper (Juniperus scopulorum),
nut pine (Pinus flexilis), or Douglas spruce. These hills, especially
during moist seasons, produce a growth of grasses and other her-
baceous plants which are excellent for forage and, as their steep slopes
are early bared of snow by the action of sun and wind, they furnish
fine feeding grounds for both stock and game.

In this fertile valley, with its luxuriant growth of forage and
comparatively mild climate, most of the elk which summer in the
adjacent mountains and in the great area of high country extending
northward into the Yellowstone Xational Park have lately spent
the winters.

In former years large numbers, probably the great majority of those
which summered in the high ranges of northwestern Wyoming, win-
tered on the Red Desert and other parts of the comparatively low
country lying to the southward. Occupation of these tracts by
sheep, with its attendant persecution and gradual depletion of the
range, has forced the elk to confine their southward movements within
ever-narrowing limits. Within the past few years the further march
of settlement into the higher valleys, with the attendant utilization
of the range for cattle grazing, has caused a serious diminution in the
natural food supply available each winter for the. elk.

Thus, although elk probably became more numerous in Jackson
Hole after settlement began, it is painfully evident that during the
past few years the encroachments of civilization and coincident
unfavorable winter conditions have resulted in serious inroads on
their numbers.

VALUE OF ELK TO THE REGION.

Some of the most intelligent residents of Jackson Hole have esti-
mated that the value of the elk to the region is equal to the revenue
derived from stock raising, which is the principal industry. Others,
while considering this estimate excessive, admit that the value of the
animals is very great, and that without them the region under present
conditions would not support nearly so large a population as it now
does. Whatever the opinion of individuals on this point, it is evident
that elk have plaved a very important part in the development of the
region. Probably a majority of the more successful residents owe
then start to the presence of these animals. Many trappers and
hunters who were first attracted to this part of the State by the
abundance of game, and later by the opportunities which it offered
for acting as guides to visiting sportsmen, have now extensive stock
interests and have abandoned their former pursuits, while others
still guide hunting parties.

The amount of money which the elk are instrumental in bringing
into the country is very large. During the hunting season of 1910,

12

24 nonresident bunting Licenses were granted in the four precincts
of Jackson Hole, and in addition many parties who obtained licenses
at other poi; Cody, Lander, Dubois, Rock Springs, and

Pinedale -hunted in the Jackson Hole region. Hunters are obliged
to hire guides, packers, cooks, and pack animals, and to provision
the party. A conservative estimate places the average daily expense
of a person hunting in this region at $14. Thus, a trip of 30 days
would cost each nonresident $420. Practically all this is spent in
the vicinity of the hunting grounds.

The food value of the animals killed by residents is also very
large. During the season of 1910, 413 resident licenses, each good
\nv the capture of two elk, were granted in Jackson Hole. It is fair
to assume that 800 elk, with an average value of $20, not counting
the value of hides, horns, and scalps, were taken under these licenses.

NUMBER OF ELK IN JACKSON HOLE REGION.

Any statement regarding the number of elk in the Jackson Hole
region can be only approximate. This is evident since, out of the
large number of estimates obtained from residents, the smallest and
largest given by persons whose opportunities for intelligent judgment
were about equal varied as one to four. The migratory habits of
the animals and the difficulty of traveling during the season when
they are most easily observed makes it difficult to judge their num-
bers. Careful consideration of all the data obtained leads me to
estimate at from 20,000 to 25,000 the number which habitually range
in the region drained by Snake River south and west of the Conti-
nental Divide in the southern part of the Yellowstone National
Park, most of which spend the winter in the Jackson Hole region as
above defined. Recent investigations have established the fact that
a line approximately represented by the Continental Divide in the
southern part of Yellowstone National Park separates the northward
and southward migrating bands of elk. A conservative estimate of
the number of Jackson Hole elk which summer north of Buffalo
Fork, the southern boundary of the game preserve, is 12,000, and of
this number not more than 4,000 (or 20 per cent of the total number
wintering in Jackson Hole) cross the boundary of Yellowstone Park
jpend the summer. Owing, moreover, to the fact that snow
ins deep on these high mountains until very late, it is mid-
Bummer before this part of the park is suitable for occupancy. By
mid-September snow has again begun to fall, and the elk start to
move southward from the Divide and soon regain the game preserve,
where the rest of the 12,000 have spent the summer.

The remaining 8,000 which complete the total of 20,000, a. eon-
sei \ atiye estimate of the number inhabiting the Jackson Hole reg
spend the Bummer principally between Buffalo Fork and Gros Ventre

NUMBER OF ELK. 13

River, and in the Gros Ventre Range to the southward between the
Snake and Green River Valleys. A few hundred animals from the
more easterly of these bands probably winter in the Green River
Valley, but most of them seek Jackson Hole at that season.

Most of the residents consider that the elk have increased in num-
bers within the last 10 years, but nearly all agree that there has been
a decided decrease within the last 3 years. This is owing, of course,
to the large number which died during these winters because of
abnormal conditions.

Assuming that the elk number 20,000 and that the number of each
sex is approximately the same, the herd just before calving time
following a normal winter will be divided approximately as follows:

5,425 cows 4 years old and over.

1.200 co\cs 3 years old.

1,500 cows 2 years old.
5 female calves.

10,000 females in all.

10,000 males in all. of approximately the same relative ages.

20,000

It is elsewhere estimated that from 2,000 to 2,500 elk starved to
death in the Jackson Hole region in the winter of 1910-11, and it
must be borne in mind that this disastrous season was preceded by
two others notable for heavy loss. It is plain that the animals can
not maintain their numbers under such drains. But so high is the
birth rate that elk will hold their own under a considerable winter
loss.

The estimate already given is that a band of 20,000 elk will include
about 6,625 cows 3 years old and over, of which about 75 percent,
or 4,968, will drop calves each year. If, then, the elk are not to
fall below their present numbers, the total deaths from all causes must
not exceed 4,968 per year; or, in other words, the total deaths each
year may rise to 4,968 and still the elk will hold their own.

The total death roll is the result of four causes : (1) Natural causes,
including accidents; (2) starvation; (3) wolves and other predatory
annuals; (4) hunting. It is evident that anything done to decrease
s from the first three causes will increase the number of elk that
can be shot each year without diminishing the herd as a whole. But
just in proportion as starvation or wolves claim a greater number of
victims must the number shot be curtailed, or else the total of the
elk will be diminished.

At present, probably about 2,000 elk a year are killed by hunters
and about 1,000 by wolves. If these figures are approximately
correct, and if it is also true, as claimed, that under normal winter
conditions the elk hold then own notwithstanding these heavy losses,
then it follows that of the calves dropped each year (approximately

14 CONDITION OF ILK IX JACKSON HOLE, WYOMING.

5,< 100), at least 48 per cent live to be 3 yours old. If the herd just
holds its own, the death loss each year would be about 1,200, or one-
fourth of the calves; 800, or one-fifth of the yearlings; 600, or one-
lift h of the 2-year-olds; and 2,400 mature animals. Comparison
of those figures with those of the losses by starvation of the calves
during the past three seasons shows how rapidly the total number of
elk must have diminished.

FEEDING IN WINTER.

The two winters preceding the past one (1910-11) had been
unusually disastrous to the elk, and some feeding had been done.
When it became evident, following the crusting of the deep snowfall
of early January, that the loss was likely to be unprecedented, the
legislature was appealed to and promptly made an emergency appro-
priation. As a result, about the 15th of February the feeding of hay
was begun on as large a scale as possible. The construction of a large
dam by the Reclamation Service at the outlet of Jackson Lake had
created an abnormal demand for hay, and an amount approximately
equal to the normal excess supply had already been taken out of the
valley. It was, therefore, possible for the State to procure only
about 250 tons, and, while this saved large numbers of the animals,
it was far less than the amount needed. Arrangements were usually
made to have the hay fed by the person of whom it was purchased,
a certain amount, varying with the number of animals which could
be most readily reached, being hauled each day to some point easily
accessible to them. The elk soon learn the time of feeding and come
readily to meet the loads. (See Plate V.) It is the custom of most
of the feeders to drive past a band, and, as the more eager of the
animals follow the load, the herd is gradually "strung out/' in popular
phrase : that is, becomes scattered in a long line. The course is then
retraced or paralleled and the hay is thrown out in small quantities
at short intervals. This method insures a fair share of hay to most
of the animals, large and small. The latter part of the afternoon is
considered the best time for feeding the elk, since they are then
fortified for the night. One of the results of feeding is that the
animals become extremely tame, especially when approached only in
vehicles or on horseback. This familiarity, however, is quickly lost
when the feeding is discontinued, and within a few weeks those which
ate freely from the hand of their benefactors become as wild as ever.
It is supposed by some that the feeding during past years has caused
the animals to seek the region earlier, and it is a fact that their
advent in tin4 autumn of 1910 was sooner than usual, but probably
this resulted from the weather conditions rather than from the fact
that they had been fed during the previous winter.

Bui. 40, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agric u ture

Plate V.

I- 9

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L±J s

DISTRIBUTION/ OF ELK. 15

LIFE HISTORY OF ELK.
DISTRIBUTION EN SUMMER.

The elk which winter in the Jackson Hole region come from the
Gros Ventre and other ranges to the eastward, and from the moun-
tains lying between Buffalo Fork of Snake River and Yellowstone
Lake. It has been popularly supposed that most of the Jackson Hole
elk summer in the Yellowstone National Park, but in reality about
four-fifths of them breed and spend the summer entirely south of the
park boundaries and therefore within the State of Wyoming. Of
these probably the majority summer north of Buffalo Fork in the State
game preserve, but large numbers remain in summer in the Gros Ventre
Range and in the mountains about the tributaries of Gros Ventre River.
A few calve and remain all summer among the foothills and buttes close
to the valley, even as low as 7,000 feet. Some summer along the east
side of the Teton Range, but these are so few as to be negligible. To the
south of Jackson Hole proper several hundred summer in the higher
parts of Hoback Basin and descend into this valley in winter, when
their numbers are augmented by the overflow from Jackson Hole.

MOVEMENTS OF ELK IX AUTUMN.

With the advance of the season in autumn the elk leave the higher
altitudes where they have spent the latter part of the summer and
seek lower levels. They move southward gradually, and by the time
the snow becomes deep most of them desert the mountains altogether
and take up their residence in the valleys. The high region north of
Buffalo Fork comprising the State game preserve is then compara-
tively deserted by the animals, but south of that valley a few scat-
tered bands composed mainly of old bulls pass the winter at from 7,000
to 9,000 feet, usually on northerly slopes where the snow, not being
exposed to the heat of the midday sun, does not crust, but remains soft
enough to permit the animals to reach the grass by pawing. In mov-
ing southward from the game preserve the animals pursue more or
less definite routes. Large numbers are in the habit of going along
the eastern border of Jackson Lake to the vicinity of its outlet, where
they cross the narrow arm of the lake or swim the rapid river below the
outlet. Of these possibly the majority cross the plains to the lower
part of Jackson Hole. Other large bands cross Buffalo Fork in various
places and, ascending the tributaries of Black Rock and Spread
Creeks, cross to the valley of the Gros Ventre, where they arrive in
numbers in November. Some of these bands, usually the later ones,
remain on Black Rock and Spread Creeks during the entire winter,
and two or three thousand usually pass the winter in the valley of the

16

I Ventre. The majority, however, move southeastwardly along
the loot hills to the lower part of Jackson Hole. In 1910 they came
about the last of November. The open valley between the hills and
Snake River, a part of wliich is known as Antelope Flats, was for-
merly a favorite migration route for these animals, but increasing set-
tlement has lately caused them to seek almost entirely the shelter of
the foothills to the eastward. Besides those wliich winter in the val-
if the Gros Ventre within the mountains, a few hundred frequent
willow swamps of its lower stretches. A few winter about the
upper Gros Ventre Butte (usually called the Black Tail Butte), and
the low elevations, called the East and West Gros Ventre Buttes,
which occupy a considerable area in the middle part of Jackson Hole,
harbor a number of good-sized herds. The favorite haunt of the
animals, however, is the large marsh bordering Little Gros Ventre or
Flat Creek above the town of Jackson. This occupies an area about
5 miles in length and varying in width from 1 to 2 miles. Flat Creek,
which traverses it, is partially dammed near the town of Jackson by a
ledge of rock, and the slackened current, permitting the deposition of
great quantities of silt, has caused the formation of this marsh. A
rank growth of coarse grass covers the greater part of this area, much
of wliich is so wet during ordinary seasons as to prevent harvesting.
Several large warm springs drain into it, and these cause parts of the
stream lo remain open during most or all of the winter, but the marsh
itself is partially flooded and freezes early, allowing the animals to gain
s to such forage as remains above the ice and snow. During the
past winter an unusually heavy fall of snowin early January was heavily
crusted as the result of a wet storm and the animals wTere prevented
from obtaining more than a small proportion of the lich store of food
which should have awaited them. The surrounding hillsides, as a
result of the unusually dry summer of 1910 and the consequent exces-
sive grazing, did not afford the usual amount of food, and before the
winter was half over the condition of the herds had become appalling.

DEPREDATIONS BY ELK IN WINTER.

The passage of bands of large animals through even a sparsely
settled country naturally results in some damage to fences. The
ordinary rail fence used for the confinement of stock offers no serious
impediment to the elk, especially when snow lies deep on the ground
and eddies of air about the cornel's of fences and in the lee of knolls
form deep drifts. Thus fences which cross the routes frequented by
these animals are usually broken down early hi the winter. The most
serious damage, however, results from the efforts of animals to
reach ha] . and in this respect the settlers find it almost impos-

sible to protect themselves. Besides their ability to leap or scramble
over high fences, the elk show great dexterity in clambering sideways
between the poles and, if even a narrow space is left, they frequently

HABITS OF ELK. 17

force apart even strongly fastened rails. The difficulty is. of course,
increased by the tendency of drifts to form about high objects like
haystacks. High fences of woven wire would doubtless prove much
more effective than the rail fences in common use, but the initial cost
of this fencing and the difficulties of transportation have prevented
its adoption. Many settlers, despairing of fencing the starving
animals from the hay needed for their stock, are forced to sleep beside
the stacks during much of the winter, a task which is not conducive
to a tolerant view of the situation.

HABITS IX WIXTER.

The life of the elk during a winter so severe as that of 1910-11 is a
constant struggle to preserve existence. Following the path of least
resistance, the majority of the animals, including most of the young-
calves, find themselves in the valley, where they are soon driven to
browse on the willows and other shrubs already nearly destroyed
during previous winters. The elk soon eat the smaller twigs and
then are forced by hunger to attack the bark and larger branches.
The woody fiber thus swallowed has little nutriment and is without
doubt actually injurious, especially to the younger animals. Even
sagebrush is drawn on for sustenance. Haystacks about ranches
are, of course, eagerly sought. If insecurely fenced, they are soon
at the mercy of the starving animals, which frequently die from
overfeeding. When they find the stacks securely fenced, large
numbers die immediately around them. The larger animals by
standing on their hind legs may be able to reach a few morsels of hay,
while the young calves in the group are trampled by their larger
associates and perish miserably.

Many herds, composed mainly of adults of both sexes, sometimes
accompanied by a few calves, remain on the open hillsides and among
the aspen and spruce woods of the mountain slopes. Although
there is usually some mortality among these herds, they fare better on
the average than those which seek the valleys, since they are in
smaller bands and have a larger proportion of older and experienced
animals. Besides securing some withered grass, they browse on the
twigs and bark of the aspen poplar and to a less extent on the spruces.
Any brush left by woodchoppers is eaten at night, as the animals are
freely nocturnal. Some of these bands make forays to the valleys at
feeding time or during the night and return to the hills to rest.

WIXTER MORTALITY OF ELK.

Apart from the death of elk from actual starvation, there is, of
course, the normal mortality, most of which takes place in winter,
when the conditions surrounding the animals are hardest. Even in

18 CONDITION OF ELK IN JACKSON HOLE, WYOMING.

mild winten and in times of plentiful food supply, many of the older
animals of both sexes die. Owing to the fact that a large proportion
of the animals killed for food during the autumn months are females,

I great many young calves are left motherless and are in a more or

weakened condition when winter comes on. Furthermore,
many of the late-born calves are poorly equipped to withstand the
winter, and this is likely to be true also of many of the cows which
have borne and nursed young the previous season.

A conservative estimate places the number of elk which died of
starvation in the Jackson Hole region during the winter of 1910-

II at some 2,000 to 2,500. Of these, by far the greater number
were calves of the previous year. Probably 75 per cent of the
calves which came into the valley in November and December had
perished of starvation before the end of the following March. In
some bends the loss of calves was as high as 90 per cent, but other
bands suffered less. The greater part of the loss occurred before
feeding began, but large numbers, both calves and older animals,
were so weak that they died even when receiving what would ordi-
narily have been an abundance of food. Many, in fact, on being fed
after a period of starvation, die almost immediately. There is
evidently little difference in the relative mortality of the sexes in
adult elk, find out of 75 calves examined for sex 32 were males and
43 were females, indicating that in the case of the young the burden
on the sexes is not strikingly unequal.

HABITS IX SPRING AND EARLY SUMMER.

As spring advances and the sides of hills bordering the valley
become bare, the elk, especially the older animals, leave their haunts
in the lower part of the valley and seek the hillsides, where they
subsist on the dry grass which has been exposed by the melting of
the snow. At the time of my arrival, about the middle of March,
they had already begun to work back into the hills, and the numbers
being fed were much less than originally. Many of the animals at
this season spend a part of their time on the hillsides, visiting the
feeding grounds at the time when they have been accustomed to be
led. As the spring advances, this movement into the hills becomes
more and more pronounced, until the valley is entirely deserted.
The last ones left that part of Jackson Hole south of the Gros Ventre
Buttes, known locally as South Park, about April 26, some time after
feeding of hay had been discontinued. They were subsisting on
the green grass then springing up on the borders of some. spring-fed
'•reck-. They were -ecu on the adjacent hillsides until early May.
In the swamn north of Jackson a Urge herd remained later. Inves-
iou showed that they were feeding on the green leaves of the

BIRTH OF YOUNG. 19

coarse marsh grass, evidently the plants which had grown in autumn
after hay harvest. This grass had been kept green and succulent
by its covering of ice and snow. In early May the icy flooring which
had remained solid beneath the tangled grassy covering no longer
held up the animals, and they all left about May 10. For some time
longer upward of 100 remained on the East Gros Ventre Butte,
several hundred feet higher than the valley level. Here they lived
on the grasses and herbaceous plants which were fast springing up.
These elk remained here until about May 25, and then part or all of
them crossed westward and joined others on the larger West Gros
Ventre Butte, which afforded them more protection. Upward of
100 were seen there as late as May 31, and a few remained all summer.
Some of the older bulls dropped their antlers about March 25,
but the shedding continued for several weeks. Among a herd seen
May 4 were a number of bulls still bearing horns, but by May 15
even the younger bulls had all dropped them. As the shedding of
antlers is dependent on the general condition of the animal, the proc-
ess was delayed by the severe winter and late spring. In an earlier
spring following a normal winter the new horns are already well
grown in May, but in 1911 that mouth found most of the bulls with
their horns scarcely started, and in mid-August many were still in
the velvet.

BIRTH OF YOUXG.

About 75 per cent of elk cows over 2 years old bear young. The
majority of calves are born between the 25th of May and the middle
of June. Xearly all the testimony obtained on the subject is to the
effect that only one calf is born at a time. A few thought that twins
sometimes occur, but it seems probable that this opinion arose from
the fact that a cow elk is frequently followed by two calves during
the summer, the extra one being the deserted or orphaned offspring
of another cow. Many of the hunters had examined large numbers
of female elk with calf, and none of these ever found more than one
fetus. The proportion of the sexes at birth is nearly even. Large
numbers of the cows have their young in the hills in the vicinity of
Jackson Hole, but probably the majority of the animals which
come from north of Buffalo Fork return there before dropping their
young. This varies according to the season, an early spring allow-
ing a greater proportion to move northward before calving. The
young are usually born in a thicket, very often among aspens, and
are carefully concealed by the mothers when they have occasion to
leave them. The calves are said to begin to graze at the age of 4 to
6 weeks, and many are weaned in September. In some cases, how-
ever, weaning does not occur until October, November, or even
later.

Bui. 40, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate VII.

ILLEGAL KILLING. 21

become unwilling hosts of large numbers. It is doubtful if the elk are
killed by ticks, but in the spring they are undoubtedly weakened
bv the pests.

ILLEGAL KILLING OF ELK.

The great majority of the people of Jackson Hole are opposed to
the killing of elk contraiy to law, but there is more or less illegal
killing throughout the year. Some of the lawbreakers became resi-
dents of the region because of the opportunity afforded for making a
living in whole or in part from game, and many of these regard the elk as
their natural prey at any season. Many also are "old-timers" — men
whose experience in the West antedates restrictive laws and the period
when they became necessary. Others justify themselves in illegal
killing "because so many of the elk die of starvation.'' It is hoped
that the conditions which furnish this excuse may be abolished.

Lowest in the scale of all the enemies of the elk is the tusk hunter —
the creature who, on the chance of gaining a dollar or two, kills one
of the largest and finest of our game animals and, taking only the
tusks, leaves the bod}r to go to waste. The wolf kills that he may
live, but the tusk-hunter slays only that he may escape honest labor.
Under cover of the mail he forwards his booty undetected to dealers
who dispose of the tusks to purchasers who seek only trophies, indif-
ferent to how they are obtained.

The warden service in the Jackson Hole region at the present time
is very inadequate. The game preserve, with an area of not less
than 1,000 square miles, is little patrolled except by the Federal
forest rangers, whose regular duties will not permit much attention to
game interests. In addition to this there remains an area comprising
at least 1,500 square miles, and this great tract of rough country is
under the care of one deputy game warden with one or two assistants.

TRANSPORTATION OF ELK.

The plans of the Biological Survey contemplated the removal of a
number of elk to other States, where they coidd be liberated on suit-
ably protected ranges and form the nucleus of new herds.

The problem of transportation is a difficult one, because the Teton
Range, 2,000 feet higher than the valley of Snake River, must be
crossed on the way to the railroad. Spring, moreover, when the
snow is disappearing on both sides of the range and is softening and
settling on the Teton Pass, is the most unfavorable time of the year
for moving live animals. The facilities for transportation were not
extensive, and the number captured, therefore, was necessarily lim-
ited by the accommodations at our disposal. A dozen of the more
vigorous animals of various ages were selected from a herd being fed
in the southern part of Jackson Hole, and on April 12 we started
with them for the railroad. Hay or alfalfa was provided for them
morning and night and water at least three times daily. They readily

2z CONDITION OF KLK !N JACKSON HOLE, WYOMING.

took both f<»o<I and water and were given as much of both as they
wanted.

A delay of a few days would have neeessitated making the first lap
<>f the journey on wheels, then changing to sleds, and again to wheels.
Fortunately, however, enough snow remained in the valley to allow
the use of runners, and hut one change was necessar}'. Hacks cov-
ering the entire wagon hed were constructed, and from three to five
elk were placed in each load. A decided lowering of temperature,
accompanied by a snowstorm, made traveling over the Teton Pass
unpleasant and arduous, hut was of distinct assistance in the suc-
cessful accomplishment of a task always dreaded at this season. In
our case the normal diflicultics were magnified by the nature of our
loads, which, though not of excessive weight, were bulky and top-
heavy. Similar attempts in the past have almost invariably been
attended with some loss; but by constant vigilance and the hearty
cooperation of our assistants the mountains were crossed without
mishap. Near Victor, Idaho, close to the western base of the range,
bare ground was readied, and our loads were changed from runners
to wheels. This was done by lifting the wagon bed and racks by
means of a derrick, without removing the animals. The roads from
this point were in excellent condition, and the completion of the trip
was merely a matter of time.

Upon our arrival at St. Anthony, arrangements were made at once
for shipping the animals. The National Bison Range at Ravalli,
Mont., and the Wichita Game Preserve in Oklahoma had been
selected as the places to be supplied, and the lot was divided between
them. It is gratifying to report that the animals in both shipments
reached their destinations in excellent condition and that the project
of reestablishing the species in these depleted localities has been
successfully inaugurated.

WINTER REFUGE FOR ELK."

The establislunent of a winter refuge, where the feed can be pre-
served by excluding stock during the summer, is essential for the
proper protection of the elk. Such a refuge should be of considerable
size, should he situated in a valley winch the elk naturally seek, and
should comprise pasture lands, as well as meadows which will produce
hay for feeding the animals after they have exhausted the available
forage. An ideal situation would include also a tract of somewhat
elevated land, to which the animals could retire for rest.

In 1906, when increasing settlement and the attendant grazing of
the mountain parks began to affect the welfare of the wintering herds
of elk. Mr. 1). ('. Nowlin, then State game warden, suggested the
Batting aside <>f an area including a large part of the valley of the
Ventre Uiver for the exclusive use of the elk and other game.
LaUr, in his annual report for 1908, lie outlined the proposed area,

WINTER REFUGE. 23

which was embraced by the Teton National Forest, and included
several claims occupied by stock ranchers, and recommended its
acquisition by the State.

Early in 1909 a joint memorial was presented to Congress by the
Wyoming Legislature requesting that a tract comprising six town-
ships of public land in the Gros Ventre region be granted to the State
for a winter game refuge, and that provision be made also to acquire
the holdings of the few settlers thereon located, who favored the
proposition and were willing to dispose of their land at a fair price.
Owing mainly to the opposition of the people of Jackson Hole, no
result was obtained.

In the course of the present investigation an attempt was made to
ascertain the sentiment of the people of Jackson Hole regarding winter
refuges. About 40 residents of the valley, most of them living within
a few miles of the town of Jackson, were asked specifically whether or
not they favored the acquisition of a tract for a winter refuge. Of
this number, 27 favored the securing of a tract in the settled part of
the valley. Most of the remainder were in favor of feeding hay in
winter, while a few believed that some area should be set aside for the
elk but were indifferent as to its location. The few inhabitants of the
Gros Ventre Valley were, generally speaking, in favor of the estab-
lishment there of a reserve, and several from other sections were like-
minded. It is evident that, while the inhabitants of the region as a
whole have heretofore violently opposed the setting aside of an elk
refuge on the Gros Ventre, they are really in favor of a refuge and
differ mainly as to its location, the people in the valley advocating
its establishment there, while the settlers on the Gros Ventre favor
that section as its site.

The Biological Survey looks on the establishment of one or more
winter refuges as the best solution of the problem of properly caring
for the elk in winter. An area in the lower part of the region is of
prime importance, since there the greatest number of elk resort and
there an area of a given size can be made to support the greatest num-
ber of animals. On the other hand, the establishment of a second
refuge in the Gros Ventre Valley would be comparatively inexpensive
and would gradually be the means of detaining there in autumn a
considerable number of the elk which would otherwise keep on to the
lower country. It has been estimated that 600 tons of hay can be
harvested on the claims now occupied on the Upper Gros Ventre,
and this amount, with the available forage, would support more elk
than now winter there. The number which might be supported on a
properly managed refuge in the Jackson region would be limited only
by the size of the reservation. It is earnestly recommended that at
least one winter refuge for elk be established.