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INSTITUTE OF FOOD AND
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UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA

Gainesville

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Digitized by the Internet Archive
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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR.

SECOND REPORT

OF THE

UNITED STATES

ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION

FOR

THE YEARS 1878 AND 1879,

RELATING TO THE

ROOKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST,

AND THE

WESTERN CRICKET

AND TREATING OF

THE BEST MEANS OF SUBDUING THE LOCUST IN ITS PERMANENT BREEDING
GROUNDS, WITH A VIEW OF PREVENTING ITS MIGRATIONS INTO THE
MORE FERTILE PORTIONS OF THE TRANS-MISSISSIPPI COUNTRY,
IN PURSUANCE OF APPROPRIATIONS MADE BY
CONGRESS FOR THIS PURPOSE,

WITH

MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

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WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1880.

FORTY-SIXTH CONGRESS, SECOND SESSION.

CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES.

In the House of Representatives, April 9, 1880.

The following resolution, originating in the House of Representatives, was this day
concurred in by the Senate :

Resolved by the House of Representatives (the Senate concurring), That there be printed
with necessary illustrations, at the Government Printing Office, ten thousand copies
of the second report of the United States Entomological Commission on the Rocky
Mountain locust and other injurious insects, five thousand copies for the use of the
House, three thousand copies for the use of the Senate, and two thousand copies for
the use of the commission.

Attest :

GEO. M. ADAMS, Clerk.

tablp: of contents.

Page.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL rx

PREFACE xni

CHAPTER I.

Additions to the chronology of locust ravages 1

The locust in 1878 in Minnesota and Iowa, 1 — in Nebraska, Texas and Indian
Territory, 2 — in Kansas, 2, 3 — in Dakota, 3, 4 — in Colorado, 4 — in Wyo-
ming, 4, 5 — in Utah and Idaho, 5-7 — in Eastern Oregon and Nevada, 7 —
in Montana, 7-9 — Summary, 9 — The locust in 1879 in Nebraska, Washing-
ington Territory, Dakota, and Texas, 10 — in Colorado, 10, 11 — in Wyoming,
11, 12— in Utah, 12, 13— in Montana, 13, 14.

CHAPTER II.

The relation of the locust and its ravages to agriculture and the

settlement of the territories 14

Character of the Permanent Region, 15 — Importance of subduing the locusts
in the Permanent Region 15, 16 — Difficulties of burning over, 16-18 — Ex-
termination impossible, but subjection possible, 19, 20 — Settlement of the
Permanent Region the best remedy, 19, 20 — Source of the more destructive
swarms, 20 — Railroad needed in the Permanent Region, 21 — Agricultural,
not pastoral, population wanted, 22 — Difficulties of constructing railroads
in the Permanent Region, 22 — Climatic character of the Permanent Re-
gion, 23 — Disturbing and fighting the locusts in the Permanent Region,
24, 25 — Other proposed plans, 25 — Plowing not feasible, 25, 26 — The locust
question solved in the Temporary Region, 26 — New definition of the Tem-
porary Region, 27, 28 — The locust problem a national one, 29-31.

CHAPTER III.

Facts concerning and laws governing the migrations of locusts in

all countries 31

Most species of Acrididw not migratory, 31 — Migratory disposition not caused
by anatomical differences, 31, 32 — Writers on locust ' flights, 32, 33 —
Earliest accounts of locust flights hi Europe, 33, 34 — Locust flights in
Europe in the middle ages, 34-37; in the seventeenth century, 37, 38 — The
locust invasion of 1693 in Europe, 38, 39 — Locust flights in Europe in the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, 40, 41 — Locusts in Asia and adjacent
islands, 41 — in Cyprus, 42 — in Arabia and Syria, 43, 44 — in Persia, 44 — in the
Steppes, 45 — in China, 46 — in Manila, 46 — in India, 46,47 — in Australia, 47 —
inNewZealaud, 47 — Locust flights in Africa, 48 — in Northern Africa, 48,49 —
in Egypt, 49 — in Algiers, 50, 51 — in Abyssinia, 51 — in Central Africa, 51 — in
Eastern Africa and the Canary Islands, 52, 53 — Locusts in South America,
53, 54 — Prevalence of locusts in deserts and dry regions, 54, 55 — Locust flights

in

IV

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Facts concerning and laws governing the migrations of locusts in-
all countries— Continued.

not governed by laws of periodicity, 55, 5C— Permanent breeding grounds of
locusts, 56, 57 — Tbeir geographical distribution, 58 — Caloptenua apretus not
in Mexico, 58 — Migratory locusts in Yucatan and the West Indies, 58, 59 —
in Nicaragua, 59 — Geographical limits of Caloptenua apretua, 59— of Pachy-
tylus migratorius, 59, CO— Difficulty of determining species, CO, Gl — Defini-
tion of permanent home of migratory locusts, 62 — Range of I'achytylus
migratorius, 62, G3 — of Acridium peregrinum, G3, C4 — Comparison with the
laws of geographical zoology, G5, CC — Meeting point of three sub-regions,
67 — Each species has its permanent breeding ground, C8 — General charac-
ter of the permanent breeding grounds, 68, 69 — Breeding ground of Calop-
tenua italicus, G9 — of Pachytylua migratoriua, 69, 70 — of Acridium peregrinum,
70 — of Caloplenus apretua, 70, 71.

CHAPTER IV.

Habits and characteristics of locusts in all countries witiiin tiieib
areas of permanent distribution, 80 far as these relate to their

movements 72

Caloptenua apreiua always migratory, 72,73 — Flights of C. apretua, 73, 74 —
Invading swarms come from northwest, 74, 75 — Other opinions eliminated,
75,76 — Swarms in 1875 and 1876,76,77 — Direction of returning swarms of
C. apretua, 78 — of other migratory locusts, 78, 79 — Direction of local flights,
79-81 — Returning swarms do little injury, 81,82 — Distance to which
swarms may migrate, 82-84 — Length of a single flight, 84, 85 — Swarms
able to cross large bodies of water, 85, 86 — Swarms carried far by winds,
86, 87— The mode of flight, 87— Position of the locust while flying, 87, 88—
Locusts flying with the wind, 88, 89 — Method of falling of swarms, 89 —
Formation of swarms, 89-91 — Movements of swarms of C. apretua, as re-
ported by Dr. Child, 91-93— Other reports, 94 — Movements of swarms in
other countries, 95-96 — Swarms usually alight at night, 96, 97 — The height
at which swarms move, 98-100 — Different directions of swarms at the
same time and place, 100 — Fall of locusts into the sea, 100-102 — Great
flying power of locusts, 102 — General causes of migration, 103 — Excessive
numbers, 103, 104 — Want of food, 104 — Excessive heat, 105 — Dry condi-
tion of the atmosphere, 105, 106 — Arid condition of the mountain region,
106, 107 — Immediate causes of migration, 107, 108.

CHAPTER V.

Influence of meteorological conditions on the development and

migrations of locusts 109

Influence of heat and dryness, 109, 110 — Packard's table of locust years,
111, 112— Table of rainfalls for 1860 to 1866, 112— Influence of the rainfall,
especially in 1864, 112, 113 — Average monthly temperature for 1864 and
1866, 113-115— Rainfall of the years 1863 to 1867, 116— Temperature of the
years 1863 to 1867, 117 — Extreme variations of monthly mean temperature
from 1863 to 1867, 118, 119 — Monthly and annual mean temperature from
1872 to 1876, 119-121— Monthly and annual rainfall from 1872 to 1878,
122-124 — Extreme fluctuations between monthly mean temperature,
125, 126 — Greatest variations between monthly mean temperatures, 126 —
Variations of temperature between months of consecutive years, 127, 128 —
Daily temperature at Fort Sully from 1872 to 1875, 129-134 — Relation of
temperature to the development of the eggs, 135, 136 — Professor Riley's
experiments, 137 — Professor Abbe's theory on the subject discussed,
137-140 — Table showing temperature and direction and velocity of wind
at Western stations, 141-154 — Relation of temperature and winds to locust
flights, 155.

TABLE OF CONTENTS. V
CHAPTER VI.

Page.

The southern limits of the distribution of the rocky mountain

locust 156

Few locusts permanently breeding in New Mexico, and none in Arizona,
156 — Caloptenus spretua probably not in Southern New Mexico, Central and
Southern Arizona, &c, 156 — History of locust invasions in New Mexico
from 1864 to 1879, 157-159 — Southern range of the locust in New Mexico,
159 — Changes in the map in Report I, showing the distribution of the
locust, 159, 160.

CHAPTER VII.

Summary of locust flights from 1877 to 1879 160

General remarks on Maps Nos. 2 to 4, 160, 161 — Flights of locusts in 1878,
161, 162— Flights in 1879, 162, 163.

CHAPTER VIII.

The western cricket 163

Difference in habits between the western cricket and the locust, 163 — Occur-
rence of Anabrus purpurascens, 163,164 — of A. simplex, 164 — Mode of egg-
laying, 164 — Movements of an army of the western cricket, 164, 165 — Its
ravages, 165, 166 — Its food, 166 — Its enemies and parasites, 166 — Its breed-
ing habits, 166, 167— Remedies, 167, 168— Geographical distribution of the
species of Anabrus, 168, 169 — Synopsis of the species of Anabrus and its
allies, 169, 170 — External anatomy of Anabrus, 170 — the head, 170-172 —
the thorax, 172-174 — the abdomen, 174, 175 — Internal anatomy of Anabrus
purpurascens, 175 — the digestive system, 175,176 — the nervous system,
176, 177 — the breathing apparatus, 177, 178.

CHAPTER IX.

The air-sacs of locusts with reference to their powers of flight 178

History of the study of the air-sacs, 178 — Air-sacs in different insects, 178, 179
— The air-sacs of the Acrydii, 179 — Use of the air-sacs in flight, 179-182 —
Their origin, 182, 183.

CHAPTER X.

Histology of the locust (Caloptenus) and the cricket (Anabrus) 183

Study of histology of insects, 183, 184 — Explanations of Figs. 1 and 2, Plate
II, 185, 186— The cuticula, 186-188— The epidermis, 188, 189— Sense organs,
189 — Nervous system, 190 — Tracheae, 191-195 — Air-sacs and spiracles, 195 —
Muscles, 195, 196 — Organs of circulation, 196 — Connective tissue, 196-198 —
Ovary, 198-201 — Anterior caecum of the oviduct, 201 — Uterus of locusts,
201-203— Male organs, 203— Testis, 203, 204— Development of the sperma-
tozoa, 204-207 — Vasa de/erentia, 207 — Ductus ejaculalorius, 207 — Vesiculm
seminales, 207, 208— Digestive canal, 208-210— Crop, 210, 211— Proventricu-
lus, 211, 212— Stomach, 212-214— Diverticula, 214, 215— Gastro-ileal folds,
215-217— Ileum, 217— Colon, 217, 218— Rectum, 218, 219— Summary on the
digestive canal, 219-221 — Malpighian vessels, 222.

CHAPTER XI.

The brain of the locust 223

The nervous system in general, 223, 224 — The brain of insects compared with
that of vertebrates, 224-226 — The brain of the adult locust, 226 — Histologi-
cal elements of the brain, 226-228 — The sections of the brain, 228-230 — In-
ternal topography of the brain, 230— The central body, 230, 231 — The
mushroom bodies, 231-234 — The optic lobes, 234 — The optic ganglion, 234

VI

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Page.

The brain of the locust— Continued.

— The antennal or olfactory lobes, 235 — The commissural lobes, 235 — The
brain of locusts compared with that of other insects, 235, 23G — Structure of
the brain in the embryo locust, 23(3 — The brain of the embryo locust com-
pared with the first thoracic ganglion, 238 — The brain in the second em-
bryonic stage, 238, 239 — Structure of the suboesophageal ganglion, 239 —
The brain of the freshly hatched larva of Caloptenus «j>re<««, 239 — of the
third larval stage of C. bivittatus, 239 — of the second or last pupal stage of
C. spretus, 240, 241 — Bibliography of the internal structure of the brain
of Crustacea and insects, 241, 242.

CHAPTER XII.

Locust ravages in California 242

Position of the genus Camnula in the CEdipodini, 242, 243 — Description of the
genus Camnula, 243— of QZdipoda pellucida, 24'.! — of (Edipoda atrox, 243, 244 —
of Camnula pellucida, 244-246 — The locust in California in 1878, 246 — in
Sierra Valley, 247 — in the vicinity of Loyalton, 247, 248 — of Sierraville,
249 — History of locust devastation iu California, 250 — Enemies of the
Californian locust, 251 — Protective measures, 251,252 — Life history of
Camnula atrox, 252, 253 — The red or locust mite, 253 — Damage done by the
locust in Sierra Valley, 254, 255 — The locust in California in 1879, 255-257 —
Description of (Edipoda obliterata, 257-259 — Remarks on Cratypedea Put-
nami, 259.

CHAPTER XIII.

Further facts about the natural enemies of the locust 259

Blister-beetle larvse feeding on the eggs of the Californian locust, 259, 260 —
Retardation in the development of blister-beetles, as shown in Epicauta
vittata, 260 — Philosophy of such retardation, 260, 261 — Eggs of Chauliog-
nathua pennsylvanicua, 261 — Habits of the young larva, 261, 262 — Egg-laying
of Asilid-flies, and particularly of Mallophora orcina, 262 — Bee-fly larvae
common among the eggs of Camnula pellucida, 263 — Habits of bee-fly
larvie, 263, 264 — Observations on the larval habits of Bombilii, 264, 265 —
Larval habits of Argyramwba, 265,266 — Abundance of bee-flies and blis-
ter-beetles in the Western country, connected with the abundance of
locusts, 266 — Life history of Systachus areas, 266, 267 — Description of its
larva, 267 — of the pupa, 267, 268 — of the imago, 263 — Description of Syt-
toechu8 oreas, 268 — Larva of Triodites mus, 268, 269 — Image of Trioditcs mua,
269 — Dr. T. A. Chapman's observations on Bombylius major, 269 — Hair-
worms and red-mites abundant upon locusts in California, 270 — Chalcid-
fly parasitic on locusts, 270 — Synonymy of the locust-egg parasite, 270 —
Digger-wasps killing locusts, 270.

Chapter XIV.

Courses that may be adopted by the general government to lessen

locust injury 271

Importance of destroying the locusts in their native breeding-grounds,
271 — Recapitulation of means suggested in first report, 271 — Importation
of English rooks, 271 — Importance of burning over the permanent breed-
ing-grounds, 272 — Breeding-grounds occupy comparatively small areas in
the Permanent region, 273 — Protection from invading swarms, 273 — Locust
warnings through the Signal Bureau, 273 — Diverting swarms by means of
smoke, 274 — Co-operation of governments and governmental institutions,
274 — Apathy apt to result from periods of immunity from locust inva-
sions, 274 — How the government can aid, 275 — Surface characteristics of

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

VII

Pags.

Courses that may be adopted by the general government to lessen
LOCUST INJURY — Continued.

the permanent region and the proportion of burnable land, 275 — Number
of square miles in the Permanent region, 276 — The plains area east of the
mountains, 276 — Its vegetation, 276 — Burnable land practically inden-
tical with grazing-land, 277 — The plains area in the British possessions,
278 — In the United States, 279 — The mountain area, 280 — Timber-lands in
the mountain area dependent upon latitude and altitude, 280 — Northern
section of the mountain area, 280, 281 — River valleys in Montana, 281 —
Valley of the Yellowstone and its tributaries, 281 — Of the Madison River,
282 — Of the Jefferson and Missouri Rivers, 281? — The Wind River and the
Bighorn Mountains, 283 — The Green River Basin, 283 — Valley of the Snake
River and its tributaries, 286, 289 — Southern section of the mountain area,
289— In Southern Wyoming, 290,291— In Colorado, 291— The San Luis
Valley, 292 — Mountain area in New Mexico, 292 — The plateau area, 293 —
Its extent, 293— The Roan Plateau, 293— The Uinta Valley, 293— The Grand
River Valley, 294— The Great Sage Plain, 294— The San Juan River Valley,

295 — The Colorado River Plateau, 295— The Great Basin area and the
Wasatch Mountains, 296 — Valleys of the Bear River and its tributaries,

296 — The Wasatch Range and its valleys, 298 — Mountain ranges in Ne-
vada, 299, 300 — The Mojave Desert, 300 — Preventive measures in the plains
region, 300 — Calaptenus spretus breeds, especially in British America and
Montana, 300 — Fertile grass-land in the Territories, 300 — Its extent, 302 —
Encouragement to settlement, 302 — Modification of climate by settlement
and cultivation, 302 — Professor Thomas's communication to Governor
Pillsbury, 303 — The settlement of Dakota will benefit Minnesota, 304 —
Forest planting on the coteau of the prairies, 305 — Preserving of lakes,
ponds, and swamps in Minnesota, 306 — Encouragements to railroads, 307 —
Irrigation, 307 — Extent of the arid region, 307, 308 — Only a small portion of
the land irrigable, 308 — Agriculture in the arid West and in the Missis-
sippi Delta require assistance of the national government, 308 — Preven-
tion of floods by means of reservoirs, 309 — Cost of irrigation, 310 — Influ-

( ence of irrigation on the locust question, 310 — Mr. H. Gannett's report

on irrigation in the arid region, 310 — Waste of water in irrigating, 311 —
Amount of irrigable laud, 311 — Amount of water necessary for irrigation,
312,313 — Irrigable land in Colorado, Utah, California, &c, 313 — Arable
land in the Territories, 314 — Amount of land in actual cultivation, 314 —
Irrigation by means of artesian wells, 315 — Methods of irrigation,
315, 316 — Uselessness of reservoirs and great irrigating cauals in the arid
region, 316 — How irrigation should be regulated, 316 — Preservation of
forests; tree-planting, 317 — Judicious burning in spring, 317 — Permanent
establishment of locust signals and warnings, 318 — Co-operation with the
Dominion Government, 319 — Preventive measures iu the mountain and
plateau areas, 319 — Breeding-grounds of the locust in the mountain area,
319 — Influence of settlement, 320 — Replanting of forests, 320 — Importance
of locust signals to the farmer in Colorado and Utah, 321 — Very destruct-
ive locust invasions not likely to recur in the future, 321 — The locust has
ceased to be an object of dread, 322.

j

• j

VIII

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Appendix I.

Miscellaneous data and replies to circular No. 1

Circular No. 1, [3]— Nebraska data, L4]— Data for Minnesota, [17]— Data
for Iowa, [20]— Data for Dakota, [21].

Appendix II.

List of the Orthoptera collected by Dr. A. S. Packard, jr., in tiie west-
ern United States in the summer of 1877

Bradynotes opimus, Scudd., n. sp., [24] — Pezotettix pacificus, Scudd., n. sp.,
[24] — Gomphocerm shastanm, Scudd., n. ep., [25] — Circotettix maculatus,
Scudd., n. sp., [26] — Trimerotropis latifasciata, Scudd., n. sp., [26] — T.
Hmilis, Scudd., n. sp., [27] — T. caruleipes, Scudd., n. sp., [27] — Peinidia
wallula, Scudd., n. ep., [27].

Appendix III.

Report of John Marten

Observations of John Marten, special agent, on locusts in Iowa, [29] — In
Minnesota, [30]— In Dakota, [30],— In Nebraska, [31].

Appendix IV.

Bibliography of some of the literature concerning destructive lo-
custs

Introductory and explanatory remarks, [33] — Bibliography on the destruc-
tive locusts of Europe, Asia, and Africa, [33] — Supplementary list to the
bibliography on locusts in foreign countries, [50] — Additions to bibliog-
raphy on the locusts in America, [55].

Appendix V.

Data concerning locust in texas

Notes furnished by Gen. A. J. Myer, U. S. A., Chief Signal Officer, on locusts
in Texas, chiefly in the year 187", [57] — Locust data from Indian Terri-
tory in 1877, [61].

Appendix VI.

On the flight of locusts

Translation, by F. P. Spofford, of a memoir by Gaetano de Lucretius, [63] —
Translation of d'Azara's paper on locust invasions in Spain from 1754 to
1757, by F. P. Spofford, [66].

Appendix VII.

Notes of a journey made to Utah and Idaho in the summer of 1878, by

A. S. Packard, Jr

Observations on locusts in Nebraska and Colorado, [69] — In Wyoming,
[69] — In Utah, [69] — In Idaho, [70] — Observations on the jonrney re-
turning East, [71].

Appendix VIII.

YER8m'S RESEARCHES ON THE FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE AR-
TICULATE ANIMALS

Translation, by Dr. A. S. Packard, jr., of Laussure's abstract from Yersin's
Re"cherches sur les fonctions du systeme nerveux dans les animaux articu-
16s, [73]

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

Office of the United States Entomological Commission,
1700 Thirteenth Street, Northwest,

Washington, D. C, November 15, 1879.

Sir : We have the honor herewith to transmit to you the Second Ee-
port of the United States Entomological Commission on the Eocky
Mountain Locust, or grasshopper of the West. The report is the result
of the labors of the Commission during the years J 878 and 1879. In
transmitting onr First Eeport we endeavored to show that it was prac-
tically exhaustive of one phase of the inquiry, viz, the subjection and
destruction of the young or unwinged insects as they hatch out in the
more fertile portions of the trans-Mississippi country. We at the same
time laid stress on the fact that it was impossible in so short a time to
properly study the second phase of the question, one most difficult and
most important, in our judgment, viz, how to prevent this fertile country
from being overrun by the disastrous winged swarms from the North-
west. This fact cannot be better set forth than in the following portions
of our letter to Dr. Hayden, submitting that report :

The young insects as they occur in the more fertile States affected can be mastered,
as the Report will, we hope, abundantly prove. We point out the way, also, which
we have every reason to believe will prove feasible and practicable, to prevent future
incursions of the winged swarms.

While it has been the object of the Commission to cover as much ground as possible,
so as to make this annual report as full and reliable as the time would permit, there
y*t remain several important subjects that it has so far been impossible to properly
and exhaustively study.

The territory affected is so vast, embracing about 2,000,000 square miles, that much
of it was imperfectly explored, especially in the Northwest. Mr. Riley had to cut
short his investigations in British America both for want of time and want of funds.
For similar reasons, and on account of Indian troubles, Montana, Wyoming, and Dakota
have been but superficially explored.

The year 1877 was an abnormal year, i. p., the winged insects had the previous year
overrun and laid eggs in a large section of country in which the species is not indige-
nous, and a numerous progeny hatched in such country the past spring. This was
most fortunate for many reasons, as it enabled the Commission to carefully study the
insects in this their unnatural condition, and to carry on experiments with a view of
learning how best to control them. Much of the work of the Commission was with
these young insects. The losses sustained through the devastations of the pest by a
young and struggling frontier population, ill able to bear them, were immense, and
there was so much discouragement that hundreds and thousands of persons were on

IX

X

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

the point of abandoning their new homes. At this juncture the Commission went
into the field, and, by its encouraging predictions and recommendations, did much to
inspire the people with hope and confidence, and greatly helped to draw westward
again the emigration that had stopped.

All this work, however, interfered with needed investigation into the proper range
and native home and breeding grounds, and some other important questions which
can only be properly studied during a normal year, f. e., one in which the insect is con-
fined to its native or permanent breeding grounds. Such a year will be the present
(1878), for from our investigations we are able to state with confidence that the
people of the more fertile country west of the Mississippi, occasionally termed the
border States, will not be troubled with the young insects next spring and summer, and
probably not for sovoral years to come.

It is therefore quite important that the investigations be continued until every ques-
tion is settled that human investigation can settle.

Fully recognizing the importance and the magnitude of the work yet to
be performed it was our object to ascertain, as far as possible : 1. The
relative amount of plains and prairie land that is susceptible of burning
over in the permanent breeding grounds of the insect, and, as far as
possible, the proportion in square miles, and the particular locations.
2. The proportion of more arid land and other regions not susceptible of
being burned over, but in which the insects may develop. 3. The
probable cost of burning over such land as will permit of it, and the
present facilities for, or difficulties in the way of, doing so. 4. The best
means of destroying the insects in the less fertile areas that cannot be
burned over. 5. The proportion of laud that can be irrigated and set-
tled, and the best method of bringing about, as far as possible, the
settlement of the same. 0. Such meteorological data, especially the pre-
vailing direction of the winds at different seasons, as bear on the migra-
tion of the locust. 7. The cheapest and best method of making obser-
vations on the egg deposits, the hatching of young and the movements of
the winged insects, and how far the force already in government em-
ploy is available for the purpose.

In order to perform this labor we asked for an appropriation of
$25,000. But $10,000 were granted by Congress, and this only toward
the end of the fiscal year 1878. It was then too late in the season to
satisfactorily accomplish, with such limired means, the work proposed —
a work to be done in a region in which it is difficult and expensive to
travel. In order, therefore, to accomplish as much as possible with the
means afforded, Mr. Eiley drew no salary and remained in Washing-
ton editing and superintending the printing of the First Eeport, while
Messrs. Thomas and Packard devoted themselves to the task of ex-
ploration. These facts were set forth in our annual report to you for
the year 1878, and an additional appropriation of $15,000 was asked
for, being the balance of the amount originally estimated as necessary.
This was granted by Congress, but in the bill making the appropriation
the Commission was charged with the additional work of investigating
and reporting on the Cotton Worm, and other insects injurious to the
cotton plant and to agriculture. The operations of the Commission thus

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

XI

being enlarged during the third year of its labors, the work was divided,
and it was decided that Mr. Eiley should take charge of that in the
Southern States relating to insects affecting cotton, while Messrs.
Packard and Thomas should continue that in the Northwest relating to
the Eocky Mountain Locust, and, in addition, prepare two bulletins,
one by the former on the Hessian Fly, and one by the latter on the
Chinch Bug, two insects of vast importance to the western farming
community. These have been prepared, as also an elaborate one by
Mr. Eiley on the Cotton-worm, containing the results of his labors in
the South. The p resent report deals more particularly with the second
phase of the locust question, and in transmitting it we recommend to
your consideration, and to that of Congress, our conclusions in the
closing chapter and our recommendations in reference to encouraging
settlement, the building of railroads, the advisability of broader schemes
of irrigation, of judicious burning, of co-operation with the Dominion
Government in its efforts in the same direction, and particularly of a
permanent system of observations and warnings, to be carried on under
the auspices of the Chief Signal Officer.

The interest felt in the work of the Commission has resulted in a con-
stantly increasing number of letters asking information on the subjects
with the study of which we are charged, and an extensive correspond-
ence with parties in all parts of the country has consequently been car-
ried on at headquarters, in addition to the more special work of the
Commission.

We take this occasion to thank you for the cordial encouragement
and assistance which you have given us in our labors.

With some pride in the knowledge that events have fully justified the
conclusions and predictions ^\ e have been able to make from year to
year — based as they were upon the comparatively limited observations
which time and means have allowed — and with the conviction that the
carrying out, so far as practicable, of the suggestions in this and our
previous report on the subject, will tend to a material abatement of the
national evil which we have been studying, we have the honor to remain,
Very respectfully, your obedient servants,

CHAELES V. EILEY,
A. S. PACKAED, Jr.,
CYEUS THOMAS.

Hon. Carl Schurz,

Secretary of the Interior.

PREFACE.

This Second Report of the Commission on the Rocky Mountain Lo-
cust is the result chiefly of the labors of Messrs. Packard and Thomas,
in their efforts to solve a most difficult problem, namely, the permanent
amelioration of the locust evil by preventing the excessive increase of,
the destructive insect in its native habitat, and its disastrous migra-
tions therefrom.

During the year 1878 the labors of the Commission were seriously in-
terfered with, first, by an inadequate appropriation unavailable till the
1st of July; second, by the time required of Mr. Riley in publish-
ing our first report; third, by the warlike disposition of the Indians
that year, which rendered travel unsafe and sometimes impossible in
many parts of the country to be explored. Dr. Packard visited por-
tions of Colorado, Wyoming, Utah, and Idaho, and also received infor-
mation from others regarding the presence of locusts in these Territories,
and especially in Montana and Eastern Oregon. He found that this was
a normal year, and the locust was found to occur throughout all these
Territories in greater or less numbers, but usually only in scattering
swarms ; still, damage of a serious nature was done to crops in portions
of Montana and Utah. To particularize, in Colorado scattering indi-
viduals occurred all over the northern counties, both on the plains and
on the mountain summits. Small swarms occurred in Estes Park, South
Park, and among the mountains of Gilpin County, where eggs in large
numbers were laid.

Wyoming, on the whole, was less infested than in 1877, though large
swarms were observed on eclipse day at Como Station on the Union
Pacific Railroad, and local swarms were observed on Gilbert's Peak and
on Ham's Fork late in August. In Utah locusts were a severe scourge
in Summit County, one-half the wheat crop having been destroyed by
them. They were also abundant in Cache and Malade Valleys, which
indicated danger in Northern Utah the ensuing year of 1879. None
occurred south of San Pete, Utah. He found that in Eastern Idaho
locusts were abundant from the Utah line to the Montana line, especially
at Franklin and at Taylor's Bridge, and local swarms were observed
about Shoshone Lake.

In Montana local swarms were destructive to farms on Stinking- Water
River and Ryan's Canon and about Bozeman and Sterling as well as

XIII

XIV

PREFACE.

Deer Lodge. They were also abundant at Virginia City and on Son
Eiver and on the Upper Missouri between Helena and Fort Benton.
They were also observed locally in the region south of Yellowstone Park.

In Eastern Oregon swarms were observed between McDonnell's Ferry
and Blue Mountains. He thus proved that the Rocky Mountain locust
is indigenous over the immense region already mapped by the Commis-
sion as the permanent breeding ground, and that the prospect for 1879
was that local injuries would ensue in the Territories, but unless the
spring and early summer were unusually favorable the Mississippi States
would not be invaded.

Mr. Thomas visited Colorado and other parts of the West, his special
object being to ascertain if C. spretus would be found localized in Col-
orado. He found this to be the case as far south as Colorado Springs, not
only up in the canons and on the hills and mountains, but on the plains.
He found them in considerable numbers in one or two canons, and show-
ing a disposition to migrate. He found specimens on the very tops of
the range, and on the very top of Pike's Peak.

In Nebraska, Eastern Dakota, Minnesota, Manitoba, and Kansas no
specimens, with one or two exceptions, were to be found, and their en-
tire absence showed how completely they had left the Temporary Region,
and the wisdom of the Commission in so designating the fertile country
which, in exceptional years, suffers so greatly.

There was one limited locality of a few acres in Southeast Nebraska
where some hatched out. They were quite injurious around Bismarck,
destroying the gardens, but they came in from the north. This erup-
tion, which appeared late in Juty, was traced from British America to
Kansas, and was confined to a narrow belt. It did not touch the west-
ern border of Manitoba, or reach to the middle or interior of Dakota ;
on the west it did not reach to Fort Benton, but was wholly east of that.
It touched southern, but did not reach the extreme southeastern part of
Dakota, passed south in the region of Ponca, Nebr., and thence south
and southwest into Kansas.

His investigations this year showed a strong tendency to rapid change
in character of those locusts which remain for a few generations in the
Sub-permanent Region. A few very limited flights were observed over
the southwestern part of Minnesota.

At the close of the year it was deemed unwise to publish a final report
until further investigations had been pursued, and an appropriation of
$15,000 for continuing them was therefore asked of Congress. The appro-
priation was granted, but with it the Commission was charged with in-
creased duties, and during the year now closing Mr. Riley's attention
has been given to the subject of insects affecting the cotton-plant, while
Messrs. Packard and Thomas have continued the locust investigation.
Mr. Packard, with four students and one interpreter, visited portions of
New Mexico and ascertained the southern portion of the range of the
species with a view of more accurately mapping out the southern limit of

PKEFACE.

XV

distribution, left incomplete in our former map. He obtained import-
ant data upon the habits of the locust in that section and found that
they had flown in and about Santa Fe from the north during the years
1865, 1868, 1874, and 1877, and he also traced them into Eastern Arizona.
Mr. Thomas during this year devoted his time more particularly to the
meteorological facts bearing upon the increase and development of the
locust. He was forced to the conclusion that the meteorological data
hardly bore out the generally received opinion that heat and dryness are
necessary to excessive increase, but that winter conditions have greater
influence than has been suspected. While the data he obtained have
comparatively little value, therefore, "and the annual and monthly means
were of no value whatever as throwing light on increase and develop-
ment, the daily records proved most valuable in their bearing on flights.

In planning this report it was decided to introduce with the more
practical chapters a few giving the results of some of the purely scien-
tific work that has grown out of the inquiry.

In Chapter I, Messrs. Packard and Eiley have added to the hitherto
published chronological history of locust injury by giving data for the
past and the present year.

In Chapter II, prepared by Mr. Thomas, the subject of the relation
of the locust and its ravages to agriculture and the settlement of the
Territories is discussed in all its different bearings. Different plans of
inducing increase in the purely agricultural rather than the pastoral
population, the difficulties in the way of successfully burning over the
locust-infested area, and the non -feasibility of other plans are dwelt
upon; and while utter extermination of the pest is out of the question,
it is clearly shown that the evil may be materially modified, and that
government action in the matter is warranted because the evil is essen-
tially a national one.

In Chapter III, also by Mr. Thomas, a mass of information is brought
together in regard to the laws governing the migrations of locusts in
all countries. It is there shown that the essentially migrating habit is
confined to about four species, all of them inhabiting and coming from
treeless, arid, and elevated regions. In a few instances a species which
is sedentary in one part of a continent becomes migratory in another.
As in the case of our own species, there are no laws of periodicity gov-
erning destructive flights, these only occurring at irregular intervals.
Nevertheless the history of the most noted locust years, both in this
country and in Europe, shows a tendency to their recurrence about every
eleven years. It is also shown that the European and Asiatic species
have, hke our own, areas where they permanently breed, and from which
they swarm in exceptional years to extend over adjacent regions in
which they are not found permanently.

Chapter IV, also by Mr. Thomas, treats of the habits and characters
of locusts in different countries within their areas of permanent distri-
bution, especially so far as such areas relate to their movements. The

XVI

PREFACE.

Eocky Mountain locust is shown to be migratory within the limits of its
permanent range, and the source of the invading swarms of our own
species, and the differences, both in direction and character, of return
swarms, are set forth. These return swarms do little or no injury, and
the migratory locusts of other parts of the world appear to manifest the
same disposition to return to the country whence their immediate par-
ents came, as in the case of our own species. The distance to which
swarms may migrate in the course of a season, the. position of the insects
in flight, the influence of the winds on the flights, the height of flight,
and other questions in reference to the movements of winged locusts,
whether in this country or abroad, are discussed, as also the causes,
both remote and immediate, of migration.

Chapter V, also prepared by Mr. Thomas, deals with the influence of
meteorological conditions on the development and migrations of locusts,
as also on the development of the eggs.

Chapter VI, prepared by Mr. Packard, deals with the subject of the
southern distribution of Caloptemis spretus, and gives the history of
locust invasions in New Mexico.

In Chapter VII Mr. Packard gives a summary of locust flights during
the years 1877, 1878, and 1879.

In Chapter VIII, also by Mr. Packard, an accouut is given of the
western cricket, an insect that proves extremely destructive in the mount-
ain regions of the West, and about which the Commission has had
many inquiries. Its ravages, enemies, and parasites, breeding habits,
and geographical distribution, are set forth, so that they can be com-
pared with those of the Eocky Mountain locust. Eemedies are sug-
gested, and the chapter concludes with a study of the external and in-
ternal anatomy of this large cricket.

In chapter IX Mr. Packard treats of the air sacs of locusts, with a
view of indicating their origin, and of showing their use in flight.

Chapter X, by Mr. Charles S. Minot, is the result of careful histological
study of the locust, and of the cricket before mentioned.

Chapter XI, by Mr. Packard, on the brain of the locust, is the result
of similar study of the nervous system and the brain of the locust.

Chapter XII, by Messrs. Eiley and Thomas, treats of the destructive
locust of California, and shows, that while the species is distinct from
the Eocky Mountain locust, yet in size, habits, destructiveness, and even
in natural enemies, the two strongly resemble each other.

Chapter XIII, by Mr. Eiley, gives further facts about the natural ene-
mies of locusts, and deals more particularly with the locust egg-feed-
ing habit of the larvae or the Bee-flies (Bombyliidce), a large family of
two-winged flies, quite abundant in the West, and the larval habits of
which were not previously known.

In the closing chapter, XIV, Mr. Eiley has endeavored to present
more accurate data than had hitherto been given concerning the perma-
nent breeding grounds, with a view of ascertaining what courses the gov-

PR15FACE.

XVII

ernment may pursue in the future toward ameliorating- the locust evil.
With the assistance of a large map (Map I) in six sections, so arranged
that they may be put together on canvass or cloth and hung up in
school-rooms or other public buildings, the surface characteristics of
plains, mountains, plateaus, and basins are considered, especially from
the point of view of the relative areas in which the vegetation is sus-
ceptible of being burned over. No one particular course is recommended
or deemed sufficient, but it is shown that good results will flow from in-
creased settlement of the Territories, the building of railroads, increased
irrigation, the preservation of the timber, judicious burning, the perfec-
tion of a system of observations and warnings, and co-operation with
the Domiuion Government in these various measures.

In Appendix I will be found some further data and replies to our
first circular. In Appendix II Mr. S. H. Scudder gives a list of the
Orthoptera collected by Mr. Packard in his western trip made in 1877,
and describes some new species. The list is interesting, as showing
the number of forms closely allied to spretus, but with shorter wings,
occurring in Washington Territory and Oregon. The report of Mr.
John Marten (Appendix III) of observations made the present year
in Iowa, Dakota, Minnesota, and Nebraska under Mr. Thomas's direc-
tion, gives a detailed statement of the locust conditions in those States,
In Appendix IV a very full exposition of locust literature is given by
Mr. B. P. Mann, supplemented by Mr. Thomas ; while in Appendices V
and VI additional data regarding the locust in Texas and regarding
flights are brought together. In Appendix VII Mr. Packard gives
some notes of his journey in 1878, and in Appendix VIII an account of
Yersin's researches on the functions of the nervous system of articulates,
as supplementary to Chapter XI on the brain of the locust.

The delay in printing the report which was not ordered printed by
Congress till April, 1880, is to be regretted, but has permitted the in-
cluding of some facts ascertained since it was submitted.

The commissioners take pleasure in here thanking the numerous cor-
respondents who have replied to the circulars issued, and the managers
of the following railroads for favors over their respective lines :

Lake Shore and Michigan Southern ; Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific ;
Chicago, Milwaukee and Saint Paul; Western Union ; Northern Pacific ;
Saint Paul and Sioux City ; First Division Saint Paul and Pacific ; Saint
Paul and Pacific ; Sioux City and Pacific ; Chicago and Northwestern ;
Des Moines and Fort Dodge; Chicago, Burlington and Quincy; Central
Railroad of Iowa ; Kansas Pacific ; Saint Joseph and Denver ; Missouri,
Kansas and Texas; Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe; Burlington and
Missouri River, in Nebraska ; Denver and Rio Grande ; Texas and
Pacific ; International and Great Northern ; Illinois Central ; Denver
Pacific ; Union Pacific ; Atchison and Nebraska.

L II

XVIII

PRKFACE

Their acknowledgements are due to a number of persons who have;
aided, but particularly to Mr. Henry Gannett, of W ashington, Mr. S. B.
Scudder and Mr. B. P. Mann, of Cambridge, Mass., Dr. C. S. Minot, of
Etoslindale, near Boston, Mr. .J. G. Lemmon, of Siena Valley, CaL, and
Mr. John Marten of Carbondale, who have contributed to this report; to
Mr. E. A. Schwarz, who has constantly assisted in office work, and to
the late Albert J. Myer, who, as Chief Signal Officer, obligingly fur-
nished meteorological data whenever required.

MAI* <>i a portion of WESTERN NORTH AMERICA

SHOWING TH E DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETATION WITH
REFERENCE TO THE MULTIPLICATION OF AND MEANS OF SUBDUING THE
ROCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST.

Prepared underthe direction of (lie U.S. Entomological Commission
Bj Henry Gannett E M.

Map I.

NORTH WF. STERN SECTION

1879.

Vob eible Breeding Grounds.

Forest Land.

Grass -covered. Easily biu-uod.

SageLand and semi- desert.
Not easely burned.

Desert.

MAP "fa PORTiosr of WESTERN NORTH AMERICA

SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETATION WITH
REFERENCE TO THE MULTIPLICATION OFAND MEANS OF SUBDUING THE
ROCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST.

Prepared under the direction of the U.S. Entomological Com miss ion
By Henry Gamietl KM.

187!).

Map I.

NORTH EASTERN SECTION

Climb erlpiyt jfouse

( arleimy

a La Corne ^ ' , M l t_^__—

f 1

1

POifcuPiih

AIT.

/*\ x* • ***-

r^mpp Jut

IT^HP () \jS Vi

Qu 'appe/

-5- <P_

1 Pr°;*c<2±J£2>

OI/CK

\ \\ \

1 R

iff ,

; 'A

Assist

r

■ail (

^ EM .Berthol1

si

-~ pt. ClaTlt?<V ^V/T^V 1 /i

\ - - 1 >'"jSu " -r- — \ I,, / V M-' —

Si

o

J

Probable Breeding (d-

Oronnds

Orass-o

Luuuua

overed. Easily burned.

Forest Land

Sa£P Laud and semi - desert .
Xot easely burned.

Desert.

Map I.

MIDDIE WESTERN SECTION

MAP <» a portion of WESTERN XOKTII AMERICA

S H OWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETATION WITH
REFERENCE TO THE MULTIPLICATION OFAND MEANS OF SUBDUING THE
ROCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST.

Prep'ared under the direction of the U.S. Entomological Coin mission
By Henry Gannett E.M.
la?!).

WHITE
RIVER

w^::;!;;i';>lateau

LORADO

Probable Breeding Grounds

Grass -covered. Easily burned.

Pore si Land. Sage Land and semi - desert . Desert.
Not easery burned,

!

t

MAP of a poirnoxo. wi ;STi;HX NORTH AMERICA

SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETATION WITH
REFERENCE TO THE MULTIPLICATION OF AND MEANS OF SUBDUING THE
ROCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST.

Prepared underlie direction of the r.S.Kiitoinoloeical Commission

l>v Henry Gannetl ElM.

i 3 Map I.

'<>'•'• -MIDDLE

z EASTERN SECTION

i

Map I.

SOUTH WEST CRN SECTION

MAP of A portion of WESTERN NORTH AMERICA

SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETATION WITH
REFERENCE TO THE MULTIPLICATION OF AND MEANS OF SUBDUING THE
ROCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST.

Prepared uriderthe direction of the IT.S.KntoHiologieal Commission
|»v Henvv (iaimctl E, M
1870.

Probable llrocdine Grounds

Grass-covrrcd. Kasilv bura<

I'Wcsl Lam

Saj£e Land and senri deserl
,\'<>i eaaely bupned.

I

Desert.

1

MAP oka portion of WESTERN NORTH AMERICA

SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETATION WITH
REFERENCE TO THE MULTIPLICATION OF AND MEANS OF SUBDUING THE
ROCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST.

Prepared underthe direction of the U.S.Eiitcjimdlogical Com mission

By Henry (laimelt E.Njf.

1879. Map I.

SOUTH EASTERN SECTION

\

CHAPTER I.

ADDITIONS TO THE CHRONOLOGY OF LOCUST RAVAGES.

THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST IN 1878.

THE LOCUST IN MINNESOTA IN 1878.

In a letter, dated August 2G, Mr. A. Whitman, of Saint Paul, Minn.,
says:

I inclose a few more clippings on grasshoppers. I see by the papers that a swarm
of them alighted at Maukato a few days ago. All these cases seem to he wandering
squads that make short visits, and they seem to he as much scattered as they were at
the end of last year.

The same correspondent writes, November 3, 1878 :

There seems to have been a slight raid across the southwest corner of the State late
in the summer. There was nothing to hurt then, and as it lasted hut a few days I
don't believe there are eggs enough to do any hurt.

The clippings sent by Mr. Whitman refer to the appearance of the
Locust in Dakota, and only the following refer to Minnesota :

We understand that on Monday last, 12th, a pretty numerous swarm of grasshoppers
settled down in the vicinity of Luverne, and still remained there on Thursday. They
had not laid eggs at last accounts. — [Maukato Review, Rock County, August 20, 1878.

Reports from Rock County in this State, and the counties bordering in Dakota, are
to the effect that the grasshoppers which recently settled down there are laying eggs.
They occupy a pretty large district, chiefly a locality in which but little damage was
done during their previous raid. — [Maukato Review, September 3, 1878.

'Hoppers were seen flying over Big Stone County last week. — [Pioneer Press, Min-
nesota, August 11, 1878.

A gentleman who was in Saint Paul yesterday, from Nobles County, reported the
unusual prevalence of grasshoppers in that county. He says that they are consuming
the com and almost everything to be consumed, and doing a good deal of devastation.
— [Pioneer Press, September 11. [Nothing to devastate. — A. W.~\

THE LOCUST IN IOWA IN 1878.

The grasshoppers have hatched out in the vicinity of Red Oak, 20 miles east of here,
in large numbers, but are doing no damage worth mentioning. They seem to be dis-
eased and are only in a small locality about 20 miles square. They are the only ones
that I have heard from in the Northwest this spring. — [W. K. Jollett, Malvern, Iowa.

Fort Dodge, Iowa, September 5. — A few days ago the people of Northwestern Iowa
■were somewhat alarmed by a report that the grasshoppers were again upon us. Upon
inquiry we find the fact to be that they alighted one evening somewhere between
Cherokee and Le Mars, densely covering a tract of country three or four miles wide.
They took wing again early on the following day, and left without doing serious injury
to anything, and without depositing any eggs. They came from the Northwest and
went toward the Southwest.— [Chicago Tribune.

The Rocky Mountain News, of October 30, 1878, reports the locusts in-
juring fall wheat lately sown at Fort Madison, September 30.
1l

2 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

THE LOCUST IN NEBRASKA IN 1878.

Mr. Clark Woodman, of Omaha, Nebr., communicates the following
observation on September 17 :

I Lave just returned from a trip on the Union Pacific Railroad. There are swarms
of locusts at Schuyler, 70 miles west of Omaha, and beyond ; none between Schuyler
and Omaha. They are doing no damage, but are laying their eggs in great numbers.
No one seems to be afraid of the results next spring.

Lieut. W. L. Carpenter writes from Omaha, Nebr., April 20, 1878 :

A small brood of C. spretiin is hatching out about 20 miles west of Lincoln, Nebr.
There are none in this vicinity. I think the damage from spring broods will bo
trilling throughout the State.

The Rocky Mountain News of October 30, 1878, reports the locusts
flying to the South at Genoa, Nebr., September 9.

Lieut. W. L. Carpenter communicates the following note, dated Omaha,
Nebr., June 25, 1878 :

A small flight of full-grown C. spretm appeared here June 16 and 17 from the south
and southeast. Not large enough to do any damage. Could not learn that they were
hatched in Nebraska.

THE LOCU8T IN TEXAS IN 1878.

Mr. H. C. Overaker, of Piano, Tex., writes, December 8, 1878, that no
grasshoppers had appeared this Fall.

THE LOCUST IN INDIAN TERRITORY IN 1878.

The Body Mountain News of October 30, 1878, reports from Fort Sill,
Ind. T.:

September- 23 quite a number of locusts coming from the north ; September 24, re-
maining ; 25, great numbers traveling south ; 26, large swarms, great many alight-
ing ; 27, few remaining ; 28, a few flying north and a great many on the ground ; 29,
a few flying north ; 30, more numerous than at any time since their first appearance,
depositing eggs.

THE LOCUST IN KANSAS IN 1878.

Mr. Day Graham, of Bazaar, Chase County, Kans., writes, September
14, as follows :

I suppose you know that the spretm is appearing in small numbers in Barton
County. I understand they are not doing much damage yet. The people are expect-
ing them almost any day.

On the other hand, Professor Thomas writes, November 7, that in
Nebraska, Eastern Dakota, Minnesota, Manitoba, and Kansas no speci-
mens (with one or two exceptions) were to be found.

The grasshoppers are very thick in Cowley, Sumner, Reno, and other counties, and
ha.ve done much damage to wheat. — ISaUna Herald, December 7, 1879.

The Rocky Mountain N~ews of October 30, 1878, reports from Creswell,
Kans., the locusts flying to the south on September 7, and on the 20th
to the north ; from Dodge City, Kans., September 6, swarms coming to
the earth from the northeast with the wind; on the 7th, 10 a. m., "im-

CHRONOLOGY, 1878: DAKOTA.

3

niense swarms, disappearing at 3 p. m., height of swarms 50 to 1,000
feet, flying from the northwest ; September 10, 11 a. m., quite thick,
swarms about 1,000 feet high, and flying west with the wind. Chinch
Bugs at Creswell, Kans., September 26, eating young wheat.

Mr. Thomas Mxon, Argyle, Sumner County, Kans., writes, on Oc-
tober 4, 1878 :

I have noticed the Rocky Mountain locust passing over here. For some time there
•were some Hying north on the 18th and 19th days of Septemher. They passed over
once the 1st of this month very thick, going southeast , with wind quite strong south-
east. Sky clear and fine. Some few have alighted and are depositing their eggs.

THE LOCUST IX DAKOTA IX 1878.

They have come and gone. They were evidently what was left from former years.
They were hungry but not healthy. The swarm was about three miles wide and
cleaned up nearly all the gardens, injured corn very much, and trimmed the potato
vines. The wheat and oat crop was all harvested before they came. Corn had been
more injured by the grub than it was by the grasshoppers The cabbage crop had
also been injured by insects. Drouth had affected the gardens and the potato crop,
but the wheat and oat crop was all that could be desired. The 'hoppers were coup-
ling when here, and yet the ground in some localities was honeycombed with holes
where they had tried to deposit their eggs ; but one gentleman who was through the
grasshopper troubles in Southern Minnesota, and his two boys, searched three hours,
and, though they found thousands of holes, they discovered only four eggs. They
found a deposit filling the egg-sacks, however, which, after lying a day or two,
resembled red granulated sugar. The 'hoppers were also covered with red parasites,
were generally smaller than the 'hoppers of former years, and many of them died from
grief or other causes while here. The settlements west of Bismarck, on Hart River,
*nd east of Apple Creek were not affected by them. They covered just a narrow
strip about Bismarck. — [Quoted in Farmers Union, August 22, 1878.

A few grasshoppers were seen at Sioux Falls, Dakota, last week, but they appeared
to be rising and had done but little damage to the unsecured crops. — [Saint Paul Pioneer
Press, August 28, 1878.

Bismarck, June 29, 1878. — The first genuine grasshoppers of the season appeared here
yesterday. The wind in the forenoon was directly from the south, and about noon
changed and came from the west. After the wind changed the 'hoppers were first
noticed. They came from the south and lit when the wind changed, but not in any
great numbers. They are not afflicted with the parasite of last summer. In 1873, the
first grasshoppers appeared here during the first week in June, and came f rom the south-
west and disappeared northeast, after leaving their eggs. In 1874, the young grass-
hoppers hatched out in great numbers in May and destroyed all the gardens around
Bismarck. Afterward, during the same year, a great many swarms of grasshoppers
passed over from northwest going southeast, and only lit when encountering an adverse
wind. In 1875, grasshoppers also hatched here, and innumerable swarms passed over,
the largest of which came from the south and passed directly north. They resembled
clouds of smoke from prairie fires while passing over. This was in July, before the
prairie grass was dry enough to burn. In 1876 and 1877 we were visited by grasshop-
pers, and great numbers flew over, mostly to the southeast, while a few swarms passed
over to the north.

The only material damage done here to crops by grasshoppers since the settlement
of this locality in 1872 was done by the grasshoppers that hatched here in May, 1874.
We seem to occupy the middle ground. There is no doubt that the locusts hatch out
in immense numbers to the north of our locality, and periodically move to the south
and southeastward, and reach as far as Iowa and Kansas. — [Pioneer Press.

4 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

The Rocky Mountain Xeirs of October 30, 1878, reports from Rismank,
Dak., September 1 and 2, locusts flying southerly at great altitudes; on
September 3, " on the ground and a few in the air, number decreasing
rapidly;" on the 4th, very few on the ground, none in the air; Septem-
ber 5, C, and 7, rapidly decreasing and many dying ; September 9, (lis-
appeared.

The same newspaper, of the same date, reports from Yankton, Dak.y
locusts somewhat numerous until about September 12, and disappearing
almost entirely after the cold weather of the 26th.

THE LOCUST IX COLORADO IX 1878.

The Rocky Mountain Locust during the summer of 1878 bred sparingly
throughout the mountainous portion of the State. We found them not
uncommon on the road to Gray's Peak, five or six miles from George-
town, at an elevation of about 9,000 feet, August 20. On the extreme
summit of Gray's Peak a few were seen flying by the workmen on the
Summit House, then building, and I found several under stones, be-
numbed with the cold. At an elevation of about 12,000 feet they were
common on the *' alpes." or grassy slopes, leaping and flying when the
sun was shining.

We were informed that a swarm was seen in South Park, August 14,
flying east for an hour or two. It breeds annually in Snake and Bear
River Valleys, but none had been seen the present summer in Snake
River Valley.

We were also told that August 13 and 14 locusts were abundant in
Estes Park ; they were seen flying in the air in large numbers ; and it
was feared that they would lay their eggs, the ground being covered with
them. We were also told that they bred this summer in small quanti-
ties in Gilpin County, especially on the Bear Mountains. At Summit,
August 26, locusts were observed flying southwest with the wind. (United
States Weather Signal Reports.) From these facts we judge that Calop-
tenus spretus bred sparingly in 1878 throughout the more elevated por-
tions of Colorado, not existing in its normal numbers, and nowhere
sufficiently abundant to gather into large, destructive, migratory swarms,
though locally migratory. Later in the season we received the following
information from Mr. William X. Byers :

September 10-13 I was in Northern Colorado. I found them abundant on White
River, at White River Indian Agency, and extending up that river four miles (proba-
ably further) and down it an unknown distance ; also, northward about forty miles,
diminishing in numbers from south to north ; also, a few along the Upper Bear River
Valley. They were depositing eggs.

THE LOCUST IX WYOMING IX 1878.

Along the hue of the Union Pacific Railroad the locust had not been
seen this year, except in very limited numbers. Near Summit Station
they had bred in the bottoms, but only in sufficient quantities for
bait both this summer and in 1877. At Laramie City we were informed

CHRONOLOGY, 1878: UTAH AND IDAHO.

5

that some were seen between the 6th and 8th of August in the air, flying
in a southeasterly course. At Rock Creek Station we were told by
teamsters that there were no locusts seen this season between there and
Fort Kinney, 200 miles north. On the whole, the Locust was more nu-
merous in Wyoming this year than in 1877. On the day of the eclipse,
July 29, Mr. William Oarlin, at Cotno, saw a large swarm of locusts (G.
spretus) passing over in a course a little south of east from about 10 a.
m. to 4 p. m., the eclipse here not being total ; they were also seen there
three or four days after this date, flying in a northeasterly course. They
were supposed to have bred in the Wind River and Big Horn region.*

Locusts were also observed by Mr. W. H. Reed in Freezeout Mount-
ains, 35 miles northwest from Medicine Bow, flying to the east in con-
siderable numbers, August 12. We saw a few on the ground Septem-
ber 5. Locusts were observed at Cheyenne, August 30, flying southeast.
(United States Weather Signal Reports.)

From a letter of Mr. F. H. Williston, dated Como, Wyo., we take the
following :

July 29, 1878, about 11 o'clock a. m., I first saw the Kocky Mountain Locust flying
over Como Station on a southeasterly course, with wind about the rate of 15 miles per
hour, the temperature 80° or 90° ; continued to fly till about 3 or 4 p. m., and during
the eclipse. A few of the locusts alighted, but none of any consequence.

THE LOCUST IN UTAH AND IDAHO IN 1878.

After passing through Wyoming and reaching Evanston, Wyo., the
Rocky Mountain Locust was seen flying in the air in abundance in the
bottoms, and continued to be seen as far west as Echo. They were also
observed here by us September 2, on our return, at Evanston.

At Coalville, I was informed by Bishop Clough that during this sea-
son the young locusts had destroyed nearly one-half of the wheat crop
in Summit County, and that when fledged they flew back (contrary to
the general rule, as they usually keep on in a southeast course) in a
northerly course to Morgan County, whence they came the previous
autumn and laid their eggs; others flew towards the southeast. The
invaders of the autumn of 1877 laid their eggs in the wheat fields, not
in the hill-side as usual, so that the young when hatched in the suc-
ceeding spring could not be kept out of the wheat. At the Dairy, three
miles south of Wahsatch, locusts were very thick August 24.

August 27 we noticed C. spretus frequently about the railroad station
at Ogden, though they had not been specially abundant at this place
the present year. At Logan they were abundant, flying 20 feet high,
and at Smithfield and Richmond a few were to be seen.

At Richmond they came from the northeast over the mountains about
the 1st of August, none having hatched out in the spring. They

* Mr. Carlin told us that in August, 1875, he saw at Creston au immense swarm of locusts flying in a
southeast course from the northwest, probably from the Wind River Mountains. They were so abun-
dant that they delayed the train, so that they had to sind the track, the men shoveling them away. In
July and August. 1675, they were observed flying southeast at Rawlings, as also at the end of July,
1874, flying in the same direction, as well as in the summer of 1873.— [W. H. Reed.

6 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

destroyed this summer one-third of the oats and a third of all the gar-
den produce. We saw them at this place August 27, flying in the air
at an elevation of apparently about 500 feet ; their course was down the
valley, many taking a southwest course.

Flights of locusts entered Malad Valley late in August from Idaho,
on the northeast. August 10, locusts were observed on the Snake Iiiver,
at or near Taylor's Bridge.

At Franklin, Idaho, none hatched in the spring, but from the middle
of July until the 30th flights arrived from the north, from the region of
Market Lake and Port Neuf. I was informed that a large majority of
those which hatched out last spring went, when fledged, in a northeast
course (an exception to the ordinary rule, as they usually fly southwest-
ward), and their progeny are supposed to have returned from their
breeding-grounds to the northeast. I saw them in abundance August
27 and 28, at Franklin — a lew in the air. most of them on t ie ground —
when they were coupling, but not depositing eggs. They were seen
eating the leaves of the willow, wild rose, and golden-rods.

Stage passengers from Montana noticed locusts all the way along the
road from Pleasant Valley to Franklin. They were observed about the
18th of July in Gentile Valley, between Franklin and Soda Springs.
They were seen by Mr. L. Bruner at Soda Springs August 18, but no
eggs were deposited ; about the 25th they flew in southeast and south-
west directions.

A few locusts had recently passed over Salt Lake City, and we noticed
them in the stubble of a recently harvested wheat field at Lake Point,
20 miles west of the city. According to the Weather Signal report, " vast
numbers" flew over the city July 20, southward. They were reported to
have extended this season to San Pete, where they had appeared late in
August, while the settlements at the eastern portion of Wahsatch County
were visited, about one-half of the wheat crop having been lost. Locusts
were also seen by Mr. Bruner at York, 70 miles south of Salt Lake City,
and also at Provo, September 1.

Flying swarms of grasshoppers have coine here of late, and we are unable to learn
from what direction they have come in every instance. However, they were too late
to damage our small grain and do no great injury to other crops. They are deposit-
ing their eggs, and promise a crop for the coming season. These insects are subject to-
die in great numbers, which has often been the means of saving our crops. Even
now they are dying off quite fast. There is a worm or insect attached to these crea-
tures sometimes, that is fatal to their vitality. — [A. Christensen, Brigham City, Box
Elder County, Utah, September 24, 1878.

From these statements it will be seen that a widely extended but not
dense swarm, or several swarms, left the Pleasant Valley region on the
Idaho line about the middle of July and traveled southward, reaching
Salt Lake City and York by the end of the month. The movement was
general, the advance guard reaching the southernmost limits of this area
long before the main body arrived. The emigration beginning so early,,
the breeding-grounds must have been in Central Montana, directly north

CHRONOLOGY, 1878: OREGON, NEVADA, MONTANA.

7

of Utah. The history of the invasion of Utah, slight as it was this year,
is a repetition of that of former years, such as has been described in our
First Annual Report (p. 156), the locusts originating in Central Montana,
flying into Idaho one season, and their progeny invading Northern and
Central Utah the next. The locusts seen this summer were the progeny
of those which entered Central Montana in 1877. The season of 1878
in this basin region was very hot and rather dry.

THE LOCUST IN EASTERN OREGON IN 1878.

In the Lower Snake Eiver region, in Eastern Oregon, we were told that
locusts were seen this summer between McDowell's Ferry and the Blue
Mountains, both flying and on the ground.

THE LOCUST IN NEVADA IN 1878.

This year, as well as 1S77, was a locust year in this sparsely-settled
territory. July 11 great numbers appeared at Winnemucca, and dis-
appeared the 13th ; on the 18th and 19th large swarms again appeared.
(United States Weather Eeport.)

THE LOCUST IN MONTANA IN 1878.

From the statements of Mr. E. V. Sutherlin, editor of the Rocky Mount-
ain Husbandman, we learn that this Territory was not seriously molested
by invading locusts in 1878, as he writes :

Those that hatched out in March, April, and May did some damage in a portion of
Gallatin Valley and the Missouri and Prickly Pear Valleys, but when they took wings
they were fortunately carried away from us, nearly all the swarms going beyond the Ter-
ritorial boundary. Their course was towards the southwest. In the extreme southern
part of the country that is cultivated (Upper Ruby Valley), a small farming district,
a few swarms stopped just as the oat-fields were heading out, and did a great deal of
damage. After getting a taste, they seemed to be contented to remain, and did so,
depositing many eggs. In a portion of Gallatin Valley there were a few swarms that
stopped and deposited eggs. Except the valleys above named, there have been no eggs
deposited this year. Crops were generally good, and the yield of grain very large.
A few farmers in the sections named above suffered, but after all the suffering was light
compared with former years.

At Virginia City locusts were observed July 25 flying northwest; the
27th and 28th large numbers were seen, and they did some damage to
gardens, leaving the 30th ; August 1 small herds were seen flying north-
west against the wind ; on the 2d they flew northwest against the wind,
some alighting; on the 3d they also flew in a northwest course, while
on the 4th they disappeared. (United States Signal Bureau.) At
Sterling a few eggs were deposited late in July. This region has been
visited each summer from 1873 to 1878. Colonel Berthoud, engineer of
the extension of the Utah Northern Railroad into Montana, made ex-
tensive surveys in Montana, and visited in person Deer Lodge, Madi-
son, and Fire Hole Valley, the Geysers, Henry's Lake, &c, and reports
to us that August 24 the locusts, Caloptenus spretus, were very abundant
on Snake River, extending from Corbett's Station to three miles north of

lilBRAirr FL^ORIBA AGRTCnTLTTTTRAlv
EXPERIMENT STATION.

8 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

Taylor's Bridge, a distance of 22 miles ; the direction of their flight was
to the south and southeast. August 30 locusts were seen in abundance
for a distance of one or two miles at Pleasant Valley Station (about
8,000 feet elevation; this is near the Idaho line). "At Deer Lodge I
saw a few, but no damage was done by them. It was reported to me at
Helena that on Sun River grasshoppers appeared in large numbers, as
also near Clark's Fork, at Yellowstone River."

Immigrant grasshoppers have made their appearance on East Gallatin, and have
already destroyed several crops. They are still coming, and it is feared they will do
more damage than ever before. The 'hoppers that hatched out in the valley ate up a
few crops entirely, and it looks now as though they will make a clean sweep, except
under the mountains.— [Ilocky Mountain Hunbandman, August 8, 1878.

Grasshoppers in various localities are reported hatched and hatching in myriads.
In the grain sections of Meagher County, in the Prickly Pear Valley, and elsi-w here,
the pests have shown their destructive instincts, devouring the wheat aud all kinds
of young vegetation. Farmers are flooding their fields, and millions of the insects ia
this manner are swept away. Other methods are adopted to combat the encroaching
insects, the most effective, perhaps, being that of scattering straw in the line of ap-
proach, setting fire to the same, and singing the 'hoppers to a helpless state, or burn-
ing them to a roast. Every product of the soil promises this year to find an activ*
home demand, and it is to be hoped that the farmers will exhaust every means in theii
power to ward off an enemy active in dissipating the fruits of an important industry,
— [Quoted by the Denver Neat of June 11, 1-78, from the Helena (Montana) Herald.

Mr. James Fergus writes us from near Helena that in the spring of this
year, particularly in the lowest valleys, the eggs and young locusts were
destroyed by the cold, snowy, freezing weather. Late in the spring fol-
lowing— an early warm spring — locusts appeared on Smith River, doing,
however, little or no harm. On the Upper Missouri River they did great
damage to the late-sown wheat. On Middle Creek it is stated that fully
one-fourth of the entire crop is destroyed by 'hoppers.

From the facts here presented it will be seen that the locusts which
bred in the spring of 1878 in the Upper Missouri, Gallatin, Prickly Pear
Valleys, aud about Bozeman, constituted the swarms which from the
middle of July to the end of August passed over the divide at Pleasant
Valley into Eastern Idaho, and Cache and Malad Valleys of Utah, and
passed south to the region about Salt Lake.

It thus appears that the locusts which bred in Central Montana in the
spring of 1878 hatched from eggs laid in that region late in the summer
of 1877 by swarms which came over the Belt Mountains from the Yellow-
stone and adjacent valleys lying to the north. (See First Report of the
Commission, pp. 151 and 155.) The general course of the migration
agrees with those of former years, as stated in our First Report.

Owing to the vigilance and activity of the farmers of Central Montana,
the damage done was light. The following extracts from the Rocky
Mountain Husbandman will show how the young unwinged locusts were
met and vanquished :

Steven Howes, near Bozeman, has rigged up a machine to catch the grasshoppers
in a bag. On Tuesday morning last, while the 'hoppers were numb and chilled, he
ran the machine over eight acres of ground, and hauled in five bushels of them. He

CHRONOLOGY, 1878: SUMMARY.

9

is quite elated over his success, and feels confident of being able to save bis crop,
•which, only the day previous, be bad been tempted to give up in despair.

The farmers of the Missouri Valley have been doing good execution during the past,
few weeks righting grasshoppers. Thousands upon thousands have been destroyed.
Of the many modes employed, that of burning dry manure and straw mixed is proving
the most effective. The sides of the fields are protected by water ditches, and the
manure and straw is scattered across one end in a narrow strip when the 'hoppers are
on the move, and set on fire and is burned. The manure with a little straw mixed
with it will burn for several hours. We are informed by those who have made the
experiment that they have seen the 'hoppers march on until the burning heaps wore
a mass of grasshopper cinder.

As the season grows older the war upon the grasshoppers becomes more general all
over the Territory. On the Missouri Valley the conflict has been lo»g and tierce. The
'hoppers came out early, and are now almost ready to fly, and should none of the
winged armies from other sections come in the crops will be good, notwithstanding
great damage has been done. On the Gallatin it was thought there would but
few hatch out. The spring there being cold and stormy, the eggs did not hatch ; but
late advices inform us that during the hot, sunny days of the past two weeks they
have come forth in great numbers, and it is feared will yet destroy many crops. On
other valleys they have not been so late in coming out. but have hatched at intervals ;
as fast as one army was vanquished by the industrious farmer, another was ready for
action.

The modes of defense employed have been greatly diversified and numerous. Where
the land has considerable grade and water is plenty, water is the only weapon needed ;
but if the laud is level, then it is necessary to employ coal oil. The Gallatin and
Prickly Pear farmers have tried the latter plan with great success. The 'hoppers,
which are well grown, and would ferry a slow stream with ease, are instantly killed
by coming iu contact with the coal oil. The quantity of oil required is small. On
the Missouri Valley, where water has been comparatively scarce, the burning of straw
and manure has been the most successful.

The damage already done, taking the Territory throughout, will not reach a fourth
of the acreage sown, and if the defense continues as successful, the remainder of the
season, the harvest will be good. There seems to be no probability, however, that it
will be so large as to produce a decline iu prices. There was more than double the
amount of grain raised on the Missouri Valley last year than there was the year pre-
vious, and we believe the same may be said of many other sections ; yet grain bears a
better price now than one year ago. This indicates that the demand is growing more
rapidly than the production, and there is no question but the remuneration would be
fair should the crop of the Territory exceed last year's production by half.

To sum up the situation of things iu 1878, we may safely say that the
Locust in its native home, as mapped out by the Commission in its First
Report, comprising' the Rocky Mountain plateau, and especially the
Territories of Montana, Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming, with the State of
Colorado, was much less abundant and destructive than iu 1877. Every-
where the insect existed in nearly its usual normal numerical propor-
tions, the swarms being local, and only occasionally doing local damage;
the crops of grain being everywhere large and abundant. It will, how-
ever, be seen that even in " off" years the Locust is annually migratory,
and even if the numbers are slight, they gather into swarms and travel
hundreds of miles from their hatching-grouuds.

10 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST IN 1879.

THE LOCUST TN NEBRASKA IX 1879.

From a communication dated June 14, from Mr. John Tannaliill, Co-
lumbus, Platte County, Nebr., we learn that the young grasshoppers are
doing some damage in the gardens; that they are still working farther
north of Columbus, and that they extend into Madison County, where
they destroyed large fields of grain.

Norfolk, Madison County, June 8. — In this valley, for a radius of six miles wide
and twenty-five long, "the 'hoppers'' are making a clean sweep of small grain. At
present the wheat fis half destroyed and going hy degrees from the ravages of the
grasshoppers. Oats are not damaged as much as wheat. Wheat ground is being
plowed up and put into corn. " Crop prospects" growing beautifully less.

Mr. G. M. Dodge, of Glencoe, Xebr., writes, on May 19, as follows:

C. spretuv has been hatching abundantly (in localities that were hard and bare last
fall) from May 5 until date. Of course they do not yet appear to do much damage.
I saw many young ones on the l*th on prairie land that was burned over on the 17th.
The weather has been very dry all spring, with slight showers lately.

Norfolk, Madison County, May 23. — Young grasshoppers have made most fearful
work in this region. Farmers are plowing up their wheat fields and planting corn.
In some cases, wheat, rye, and barley all gone. They have not injured oats much, but
are going for the early corn. — [Chicago Tribune.

Chicago, Jinn «;. — Within the last three weeks I have seen spring-wheat ruined by-
grasshoppers in Nebraska and Dakota, and the ruined wheat plowed up. Such is the
case west of Lincolu and Schuyler, in Nebraska. These facts are kept quiet in those
States, for fear they will check immigration. No State newspapers have mentioned, or
will mention, such casualties. — [Chicago Tribune.

THE LOCUST IN WASHINGTON TERRITORY IN 1879.

There are no spretiiz here, I think. — [H. K. Morrison, Kalama, Wash. T., May 13, 1879.

THE LOCUST IN DAKOTA IN 1879.

Riverside, Clay County, May 16. — The drought has injured our wheat badly.
Prospect for a crop very poor. The grasshoppers commenced hatching the 11th of
April. The grain grows so slowly that they are eating off large areas of it. Grass just
coming through the ground since the rains. — [Chicago Tribune.

Sioux Falls. Minnehaha County, May 18 — Have had a splendid rain. Weather
cool and prospect favorable for wheat. There are a few grasshoppers here ; doing
very little damage. — [Chicago Tribune.

Vermillion, Clay County, May 23. — The spring wheat is badly damaged by grass-
hoppers. The outlook now quite gloomy for all crops. — [Chicago Tribune.

THE LOCUST IX TEXAS IN 1879.

Dallas, Tex., May 17. — Locusts are swarming two miles below here, on Trinity
River. — [Chicago Tribune.

THE LOCUST IN COLORADO IN 1879.

Locusts were seen by us July 30 on Pike's Peak above timber line, in
much the same situation and abundance as observed in 1878 on Gray's
Peak. Noue, however, were seen, either this year or last, flying over the

CHEONOLOGY, 1879: WYOMING.

11

summit by the Weather Signal observers on Pike's Peak. No speci-
mens were observed among the foot-hills at Mauitou Springs.

A few small swarms flew over from the mountains to the plains, as
will be seen by the following data communicated to us by Mr. J. S. Stan-
ger, editor of the Colorado Farmer. The Locust appeared about the 15th
of July in small flights on the Cache a la Poudre and Saint Vrain Bivers?
in Laramie and Boulder Counties. July 23 a flight passed over Denver
and alighted at Littleton, on the Platte Biver, but did not remain there
an entire day, flying southward. They came from the Bear Biver Val-
ley. It will be remembered that locusts were seen in abundance in
White and Bear Biver Valleys early in September, 1878. The flights
this year were evidently the progeny of these locusts.

The only other instance we could learn of was from Mr. J. B. Piper,
who sent us a long-winged genuine male C. spretus, with the following
note, dated August 1 :

Inclosed find a specimen picked up by me at dark this evening at West Las Animas,
Bent County, Colo. They were in moderate numbers and flying north.

From this it will be seen that there were a less number of locusts in
Colorado this year than even in 1878. The summer in Colorado was
unusually dry, the rainfall of June, at Denver, being .32 inch. In May
there was a slight excess of rain, as the United States Weather Signal
observer informed us, and the spring was not unusually dry. The sum-
mer, however, was regarded as the driest since 1863, as it was through-
out the Bocky Mountains.

No need to be alarmed at the report about locusts hatching. Eiley says a few
hatch out every year in some places in Colorado. — [Colorado Farmer, June 12,1879.

THE LOCUST IN WYOMING IN 1879.

In this Territory also locusts were still less frequent than in 1878.
A few were seen the middle of July, at a height of 150 to 200 feet in
the air, at Bock Creek Station, we were told by a person at this point.
None were seen this season, so far as we could learn, between Sidney,,
Nebr., and the Black Hills.

The following data have been received since our return :

Lieut. C. A. H. McCauley, U. S. A., writes from Fort Steele, on the
North Platte, July 3, 1879 :

A cloud of Orthoptera, as per sample, has been all day long passing through and
over the post ; numbers great, flight low, direction of arrival from the south and
southwest chiefly ; a strong, high wind from that direction prevailing all day. Tem-
perature high, about 90c F. Alighting on ground ; flights short when disturbed.

The same correspondent, in a letter dated Fort Steele, Wyo., August
12, 1879, continues as follows :

It will probably be of interest to add that my survey extended to the southwest
some 50 miles, during which I observed the extent of the Orthoptera observed here be-
fore starting out. The route was up the North Platte and tributaries in the east,
farthest point a locality on Brush Creek; situation, long. 106° 30' W., lat. 41° 23' N.,
both approximate, and altitude some 1,200 feet above this (6,850 feet above the sea)^

12 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

The ravages along Platte River were chiefly felt by ranchmen (farmers), whose
crops of vegetables in the river bottom were greatly damaged.

C. spretun, in immense quantities, was noted on the road-crossing of Cedar Creek (an
■eastern tributary of the North Platte), a point some 10 miles northwest from the above-
mentioned locality on Brush Creek, on July 26, none scarcely being there on our pac-
ing, July 18. The creek bottom is there limited — 25 yards willow undergrowth adjoin-
ing water, and grassy area not over 100 to 150 yards from the creek's banks, upon
•either side. The Ortkoptera did not go outside of the grassy area, beyond which, in
every direction, extends sage-brush, the general vegetation of this part of the coun-
try, extending from the bottoms of creeks and rivers to the foot-hills, &c, of the
mountains, whence they spring up to what is commonly called the lower timber line.

Mr. William Myers, hospital steward, U. S. A., referring to the lo-
custs mentioned by Lieut. McCauley in his first communication, writes
as follows from Fort Steele, Wyo., August 12, 1879 :

The disappearance of the locusts toward the north was noticed on the 23d of July.
The wind on that day was recorded: south, velocity 25 to 30 miles per hour; strag-
glers were observed for a week afterwards ; the flight was low, the ravages committed
in the vicinity slight, the vegetation consisting chiefly of sage-brush ; the cotton-wood
trees forming the groves on the banks of the Platte River were uninjured.

THE LOCUST IN UTAH IX 1879.

The summer in Utah was very dry, as was made evident by the fact
that the Salt Lake has fallen two or three feet since last year, and early
in August was falling daily. A few locusts hatched out on the benches
about Salt Lake City, within a radius of 10 miles, but did little if any
injury to the crops. May 14, and earlier, they appeared in considerable
numbers in Provo Valley.

In Ogdeu Valley the young, May 21, were "exceedingly numerous,"
and even said by the newspapers to be "committing great ravages
there," and to "have eaten the grain clear to the earth."

At Pleasant Grove, May 24, they Avere extremely abundant, and on
the 23d were in force at Parowan and Cedar City, Iron County. May
25, they were abundant in and around American Fork. On the 22d of
the same month they committed fearful ravages in grain crops at Eden.
Weber Canon was reported, June 7, to have been stripped, the fields and
pastures being laid bare and even the sage-brush stripped of their
leaves. June 19 the locusts were reported to have been destroyed in
large numbers by the fly, probably the flesh-fly {Sarcophaga carnaria),
which always abounds wherever the young of the locust exist in unusual
numbers. Early in June the Utah southern train for Sandy was stopped
by locusts. According to the Salt Lake Herald, " the insects accumulated
on the rails so thickly that the train had to be cut in two parts going
up the grade to Sandy."

Mr. John Lee reported, June 24, from Heber City, "that the ironclads
are mowing everything down in that region. About eighteen or twenty
farms were already cleaned out, and they are still at work."

Severe suffering resulted from the ravages of the young in Morgan
County, particularly at Croydon. Mr. C. Bunting writes us :

This place was visited by the grasshoppers early in April last. The spring was
wery open, and all seeds were in and up, when they appeared in swarms so small as to

CHRONOLOGY, 1879: MONTANA.

IS

appear as fine coal-dust, iu patches of some six feet square. They grew, and for four
months continued to hatch out fresh ones ; it was late in the season before they leftr
and at this date there is no appearance of any for the next season. Not a green thing
grew at this place ; the wheat was up six inches high, but now all gone, as also oats :
all trees and even sage-brush stripped. I have known the hoppers since they first
came to Utah, but the continued hatching out for so long a time I never saw before.
At the one and same time could be seen on the ground hoppers ready to fly, others
just winged, and again others so small you could just see a place covered as with coal
dust. I kuow of no place iu Utah that has suffered so much as this this season. Set-
tlements only two miles oft' raised some three parts of crop ; others just across the
Weber River, half crop. Fish died in the creek as it dried up, and this creek was
knowu as Loss Creek, from the Indians years ago ; but never since the settlement, now
some seventeen years, has it answered to its name.

Mr. Jobu Tooue, of Croydon, also writes :

I have felt so disheartened at the loss of everything, not having raised the first
green thing on which we can subsist either man or beast, that it has taxed all our
physical energies endeavoring to find ourselves something to live upon.

In June, locusts were observed at Coalville, flying south and south-
east, very high in the air.

At Lake Point some damage was done to grain in the spring, and a
few small male spretus were observed there by us August 7.

August 5, a few locusts were seen flying in the air just east of Peter-
son, on the Union Pacific Railroad, but there was no migration south-
ward from Montana such as took place last year in August ; so that
Northern Utah will in 1880 be, in all probability, comparatively free from
youug locusts, and probably from incoming swarms.

THE LOCUST IN MONTANA IN 1879.

The first grasshopper of the season was placed on our desk this week by Mr. F. F.
Fridley, of the Upper Yellowstone. The specimen before us was several weeks old and
seemed to belong to the hungry species. Mr. Fridley says large numbers have hatched
out in the vicinity of his place. — [Bozeman Courier, April 10, 1879.

There are no grasshopper deposits this year to send forth a horde of destroyers upon
the young crop. The only thing to be feared from this pest are th$ immigrants, and
the earlier grain is put in the better chance it will have to escape. — [Roclcy Mountain
Husbandmun, March 13, 1879.

This year the settled portions of Montana were entirely free from the
locusts, either unfledged or summer immigrants, as will be seen by the
following correspondence. Large numbers of locusts were reported by
the Rocky Mountain Husbandman to have hatched out in the Upper Yel-
lowstone River, but they were never heard from afterward.

Mr. O. C. Mortoon writes from Fort Benton that one very small scat-
tering swarm of locusts arrived there July 21 from the southeast, the
wind blowing gently from that quarter :

No eggs were deposited about Fort Benton this year, no swarms afterward appear-
ing. There is no prospect now of this section suffering from the locust in 1880, unless
by incoming swarms in July or August.

Mr. Chauncey Barbour, editor of the WeeMy Missoulian, reports that
there were no locusts in the Missoula Valley in 1877, or 1878, or 1879 :

" I confidently predict that grasshoppers in destructive numbers will,
not visit Western Montana before 1885."

14 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

Mr. William F. Wheeler writes :

I have traveled all over Montana this year, and it gives me great pleasure to state
that I have seen or heard of no migratory locusts or grasshoppers this year. Our crops
have not been injured by them in the slightest degree. Some doubt about our having
them next year, because there are no visible deposits of eggs.

Mr. W. 0. Gillitte writes from Dearborn, Lewis and < llarke Counties:

I have been during the summer in that section of Montana lying between Helena
.and Sun River, and I have neither seen nor heard of any locust flying over or alight-
ing in this region ; in fact tin- native grasshoppers were very scarce compared with
previous seasons. I have not heard of any damage caused by the locust in other
parts of the Territory. My opinion is that we shall have several years of freedom from
this plague. I have been in the Territory se\ cntecn year-, and judge by the past.

Mr. James Fergus writes from near Helena :

"We have been entirely free from grasshoppers in this portion of Montana the past
season — the lirst entire exemption in many years. As no eggs were laid, we shall
expect no young to hatch and destroy our crops next spring.

J. S. Wooluian, Territorial auditor, writes from Helena:

As this is the only year since 1*7'2 that Montana has been exempt from injury from
locust, it appears highly probable there will be another immigration here in 18^0.

Mr. J. D. McCaman writes from Bozemau:

There were not many hatched in this county this season; some hatched on my
farm and vicinity ; they did not do any perceptible damage. The course the young
hoppers travel is southwest ; after they obtain their wings they rise and fly away from
the location where they were hatched. The course is generally southwest. I was
east during the summer ; the men on my farm saw some swarms in the air. I pre-
sume they were the ones hatched and reared in the vicinity. We cannot reasonably
expect any hoppers next season, as there were no eggs deposited in this vicinity and
I have not learned of any being deposited in the Territory.

f CHAPTER II.

THE RELATION OF THE LOCUST AXD ITS RAVAGES TO
AGRICULTURE AND THE SETTLEMENT OF THE TERRI-
TORIES.

The whole of our first report and all of that part of the present which
relates to the locusts might very properly be included under the above
title ; but our object in devoting a chapter to the subject named is to
call attention more particularly to the effect of locust visitations on the
agricultural condition and. prospects of the newly-settled portions of the
West, and also to what is likely to be their effect on the settlement of
the Territories.

This topic if properly discussed will have to be considered in two
divisions, one relating to the sections within the permanent and sub-
permanent areas, and the other relating to those lying in the temporary
legion.

THE PERMANENT REEGION.

15"

The effect the locust question is likely to have on the agriculture of
the temporary region east of the Eocky Mountains, the boundaries of
which we have found no reason for changing in any essential particular
from what was given in map No. 1 of our first report, depends very
largely upon the solution of the problem so far as it relates to the per-
manent region. We shall therefore consider first this division of the
subject.

First. As to the Permanent Region.

Since the publication of our first report the facts obtained have forced
us to the conclusion that the boundaries of this region will have to be
extended through more of the northern part of Nebraska and of Dakota
than is included in our first map. The change we consider necessary is
marked in the new map given in the present volume. The reader should
bear in mind that by the term "permanent" we do not wish to convey
the idea that the locusts are to be found breeding in all parts of this
area each year, as we have stated in this and our former report that they
are essentially migratory within this region, continuing in some sections
for a year or two, and then changing to others, but that they are capable
of continuing their race in any part of this region ; that it differs in this
respect from the temporary region. In the latter the climatic conditions
are such that they do not appear to be capable of continuing their race,
the progeny of invading swarms deteriorating and finally fading out
unless they return to their native habitats. That the boundaries be-
tween these two regions cannot be marked with definite accuracy we
admit, and hence in our former report mapped out an intermediate area
to which we applied the term sub-permanent region, and, as will be seen
by reference to the new map in this volume, we have still retained this
region, though somewhat circumscribed. But the exact boundary is a
matter of little importance practically ; the two regions as such are very
easily distinguished from each other by marked characteristics.

In the permanent region, which embraces the Eocky Mountain pla-
teau and the bordering plains from the middle of Colorado northward,
the rainfall is insufficient for agricultural purposes, and hence irrigation
has to be resorted to ; in the temporary region this is unnecessary ; the
plains and plateaus of the permanent region are to a large extent dis-
tinguished by the presence of Artemesia, Chenopodiaceous plants, and
what is usually termed "bunch-grass in short by all the characteris-
tics of a drier climate. One other peculiarity which should not be over-
looked appears to mark roughly the southern boundary of the permanent
home of the Eocky Mountain locust, and that is the isothermal curve or
line of the 50° of mean annual temperature, which also corresponds very
nearly with the isotheral curve or line of summer temperature of 70°.
But this applies only to that portion of the region which extends upon
the plains east of the mountains.

If any practical means of exterminating the locusts in this permanent
region could be devised the whole locust problem could be solved, and

16 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

nothing further would be necessary ; but when we take into considera-
tion the vast extent of this area, and the fact that a very large portion of
it cannot be brought under cultivation without a material change in the
climatic conditions, there appears but little hope that such a means of
actual extermination will ever be devised, however much we may hope
to check the injurious increase of the pest by the means recommended
in the concluding chapter of this report. Our discussion of the future
prospects of this region in reference to agriculture may as well therefore
proceed on this basis. This may appear to be an abandonment of the
hopes held out in our first report, but if the reader will examine that
report carefully he will see that we there based these hopes upon the
possibility of man being able, by the advancement in science and the
knowledge of natural laws, to modify tin- climatic condition.- of that
region. At present we are proceeding upon the basis of the want of
the knowledge as to how this desired end is to be accomplished.

It was thought that a plan for a general burning over the areas in
which the locusts hatch, if done while they aie in the larv a state and
properly carried out, would be one of the most effectual means of de-
stroying them.

Theoretically the plan appears to be a good one, and although entail-
ing considerable labor and expense, if it would prove as effectual prac-
tically as it appears theoretically, might be carried out under govern-
ment authority and the expense justified.

But there an- practical difficulties which decrease our hope of obtain-
ing relief in this way, and we will present these in tin- strongest light
here, as we shall recur to the subject in another chapter, and the expe-
rience of individual commissioners differs somewhat upon it.

First, the region over which the patches of egg deposits are scattered
is so great, including an area of at least 500,000 square miles, that noth-
ing short of an absolute certainty of forever exterminating this pest
would justify the government in entering upon so formidable an under-
taking. The actual area occupied in this region in any one year by egg
deposits is, as a matter of course, but a small portion of this immense
district, probably never amounting to more than 25,000 or 30,000 square
miles, except in the years of greatest development. But supposing
there was no other difficulty in the way than the labor and expense, it
would still be a formidable undertaking, considering the widely scat-
tered position of these areas of egg deposits ; yet a certainty of accom-
plishing the desired end would justify the attempt by the general gov-
ernment.

As a very general rule, egg deposits, except in cultivated districts,
are made where there is more or less grass, never being made in per-
fectly barren areas, and very seldom made in wood lands ; this would
appear to favor the theory.

But in order that burning may be effectual, it must be done after the
locusts are hatched and before they have acquired wings, as burning

PRACTICAL DIFFICULTIES OF BURNING OVER. 17

the grass does not destroy the vitality of the eggs, and if delayed too
long, the locusts would largely escape the dauger by flight. It is neces-
sary, therefore, to prevent the old grass from being burnt during the
winter, as was attempted in parts of Iowa and Minnesota in 1876-77.
But it would be impossible to carry out a plan of this kind over the
extensive area included in the bounds of the permanent regions. For
in order to do this, it would be necessary, first, to know exactly where
the egg deposits were made the autumn preceding the spring in which
it was intended to put tlie plan into practice; next, it would be neces-
sary to guard these areas carefully until the time for burning arrived to
prevent them from being prematurely fired.

But there are other reasons why this plan, which appears so com-
mendable in theory, fails to accomplish the expected result when put
into practice.

First, the hatching is so uneven that it generally happens that some are
acquiring wings by the time others are leaving the eggs. In the second
place, there are few areas occupied by young locusts that the flames will
sweep over without leaving gaps and unburned patches.

In all the prairies and plains except a few such " dead flats " as the val-
ley of the Red Biver of the North, there are innumerable little "breaks"
or barren spots where the surface declines ; and these are the very spots
the locusts select in which to deposit their eggs ; on such spots the young
locusts chiefly congregate, and these are points the fire fails to reach.

There are also numerous little depressions which the fire fails to reach,
many little spots where the grass is too short or sparse to carry the flame,
onward and thus breaks, and many points where the fire passes on so
rapidly, simply burning the larger blades, that locusts are not killed.
Thus, in various ways, a very large portion escapes, and the result, under
what would appear to be most favorable conditions, falls far short of
what is anticipated.

Mr. Whitman, in his paper published in the appendix to our first
report, remarks, speaking of the large deposit of eggs in 1876, that —

This impending danger aroused the farmers to unusual exertions during the fall of
1876. In counties where the trouble was an old one, conventions were held and meas-
ures taken to prevent the prairie grass from being burned before the hatching season
of 1877. To preserve this grass and fire it just at the time when the locusts were
hatching seemed to be one of the most feasible methods of general destruction, and
one which in past years had commended itself to the citizens of the infested counties.
It was carried into effect in the spring in such a way as not to do all the good of which
it was capable, or to show that it was impossible to produce anything like wholesale
destruction, on a date specified beforehand, by this means.

The writer of this chapter happened to pass through the southwestern
part of Minnesota while the burning was going on. It was evident that
the date chosen was too early, and hence the result in this case cannot
fairly be cited as a test. In Northwestern Iowa the utmost precautions
were taken by the authorities to give it a fair trial, but the undiminished
2l

18 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

hordes of young grasshoppers which ravaged the wheat fields afterwards
gave clear evidence of the failure of success by this plan.

This method, if we may judge from the slight notice of it by Kdppen
both in his " Eemchrecken in Sudrussland" and his paper on the
"Destruction den Sauterelles," to the Exposition Internationale at Brus-
sels in 187G, is considered of but little value in Southern Russia.

In a file of papers in the form of bulletins, published by the revenue
department of the Government of Madras in 1878, in reference to the
locusts that troubled that part of India that year, we find the following
statement in reference to an attempt to destroy young locust.s by burn-
ing them with straw:

Hero the ground was literally covered with them. I collected about 100 people aud
when I saw a largo swarm (for they wero just like bees) I first threw some straw over
them (having carefully surrounded them) and set fire to it. Some perished, but they
were but a few out of the millions and millions there. I worked for six hours at this
work, aud, though we did all we could, I do not suppose we effected much.*

This is not directly applicable to the point now under discussion, but
it tends to show that the impression that all the locusts are killed where
the fire passes over them is erroneous. We are, therefore, after a more
thorough investigation of the subject, confirmed in the following opinion
expressed in our first report :t

Scarcely any eggs arc laid in rank prairie, and the general impression that locusts
are slaughtered by myriads in burning extensive areas is an erroneous one, at least
in the temporary region.

We are inclined to think the same thing is to a great extent true in
reference to the permanent region. There is some difference, it is true
in the character of the ground selected for egg deposits, and also in the
grasses of the two regions, but not such as to render it probable that
the result would be much more favorable in one section than the other

Although we do not think this plan offers sufficient prospects of ef-
fectual destruction to justify the government in attempting to put it
into operation, yet we think it may be used as one means of destroying
the young in favorable localities by the farmers and others of those
localities who are interested. But it is unnecessary except where it is
certain the young locusts are in the grassy area, and should not be car
ried into effect until the locusts are nearly half grown, or, in other
words, well advanced in the larva state.

If the plan for a general destruction by burning is abandoned as un
tenable, we must then confess we see no prospect at present of entirely
exterminating them by artificial means.

The problem, then, is confined to a modification of the evil by lessen
ing the numbers, or in some way counteracting them.

The various methods which may be adopted for destroying the uu
fledged locusts are fully explained in our first report. All these meth
ods are fully as applicable in the permanent as in the temporary region

* Proceedings of Board of Revenue of Madras, June 20, 1878, No. 1702. tPage 363.

SETTLEMENT OF THE PERMANENT REGION.

19

and some, which depend upon the possibility of irrigation, are applicable
on an extensive scale only in the permanent region, and may be used
there with a very large degree of success.

A careful investigation of this subject for several years and repeated
visits in person to this region have served to convince us that, with the
advantages afforded by the system of irrigation necessarily adopted,
there is no reason why the agricultural area lying along the east flank
of the range should suffer any more from these pests than portions of
the temporary regions. We do not think there is any likelihood of this
section ever suffering from locust depredations to the same extent as
Southern Eussia, yet the peasants and agriculturists there manage to
carry on operations and maintain themselves, although greatly deficient
in that intelligence and education which is necessary to enable them to
combat these pests to the best advantage. The superior intelligence
and energy of our farmers will enable them to accomplish results of
which the Russian peasants are wholly incapable.

But we refer to this simply as an illustration to show that this draw-
back will not of itself prevent the settling and cultivation of the arable
areas of the permanent region. The agriculturist of those sections will
become accustomed to these insects and acquire a thorough knowledge
of their history and habits, and by this means — and, as we trust, largely
through the work of this commission — learn how best to counteract
them ; and thus in the course of a few years the terror their invasions
once caused wdl be no longer felt, and they will be ranked side by side
with the chinch-bug, Hessian -fly, cotton-worm, and potato-beetle.

Although we confess we do not see any way of entirely preventing
the incursions of invading swarms or of wholly avoiding injury by them,
yet we think it possible and feasible to greatly modify the evil.

First, the means already suggested in our first report of destroying
the young of the resulting broods, if carried out with energy, will not
only save to a large extent the crops, but will destroy a very large
number of the locusts ; as the population increases the results will be
more and more favorable ; and year by year the methods of destroying
them will be improved upon and probably new plans discovered. Aside
from this direct favorable effect of the increase of the agricultural popu-
lation of this section, there will be a secondary effect which will ten<d to
modify the evil.

This agricultural belt, extending from Colorado into British America,
is partly along the margin of and partly in the very heart of the perma-
nent breeding- grounds where the swarms that invade the temporary
region originate ; it follows, then, as a natural consequence that just so
far as the numbers are lessened by the operations in this section, just
so far will the agriculturists of the temporary region be benefited, and,
as we will hereafter see, like operations in the latter region will benefit
those in the permanent region. We are fully aware of the fact that the
part of this vast region which can be irrigated and cultivated is small

20 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

in comparison with the whole, area which tonus the native home of the
species, but fortunately in one respect this cultivated belt occupies in
part, at least, the point of departure of the swarms which invade the
temporary region. This fact, therefore, renders it more important that
it be occupied by an agricultural population.

Although we have admitted that we are unable to present any plan
of exterminating the locusts that holds out sufficient promise of success
to justify the general government in undertaking it, it does not neces-
sarily follow that there is no plan of modifying the evil which the gov-
ernment would be justified in undertaking. On the contrary, if the
views we have advanced be correct, they suggest a means by which the
general government might greatly aid in bringing about the desired re-
sult; and fortunately the result would be beneficial even should we be
mistaken in the opinions advanced.

As will be seen by what has been stated, the great desideratum is to
settle the cultivable belt alluded to as rapidly as possible with an agri-
cultural population. Wherever valuable aud permanent mines are dis-
covered in the neighboring mountains, the arable areas in the vicinity
will be taken up and cultivated to an extent at least sufficient to sup-
ply the demand for agricultural products, as in parts of Colorado. But
there are large sections where no such influence will be brought to bearr
and this is the case along that portion of the belt where the agricultural
population is most needed for the purpose mentioned.

An examination of map No. 1, in our first report, will show that a
comparatively Umited belt in Central Montana, extending from the Big
Horn Mountains northwest to the British line, a little west of Cypress
Hill, forms the turning-point of the locust movements. Without now
repeating the data which may be found in that report, we may summa-
rize it by saying that from this region a large portion of the swarms come
which visit Dakota, Minnesota, Nebraska, and Kansas; from this area
also proceed a large portion of the swarms that move southwest into
Idaho and Utah ; this appears to be the point to which most of the re-
turning swarms from the temporary region direct their flight.

That there are other areas in the permanent region which appear to
be special breeding-grounds, as points of departure, is certainly true, but
none to such an extent as this, and none affecting an agricultural area
bearing any comparison with the area affected by the locust swarms origi-
nating in this belt.

Even should it be shown by subsequent investigations that as a rule
the swarms falling on the temporary regions come from intermediate
points, as Central and Southern Dakota and Northwestern Nebraska,
the facts already ascertained warrant us in asserting that, as a very gen-
eral rule, they originate in the belt mentioned.

It is evident, therefore, that if any method can be devised by which
an agricultural (not pastoral) population can be thrown into this belt it
will form one of the best possible means of modifying the evil. If they

A KAILROAD NEEDED IN THE PERMANENT REGION. 21

can be effectually distributed in this area tbe result will be of immense
value to the agricultural interests of Dakota, Minnesota, Nebraska, Iowa,
and Kansas, in fact of tbe entire temporary region. We do not pretend
that it will wholly relieve this area from locust invasions, but it will
very materially lessen their extent and injury.

In order to carry on agricultural operations to any great extent in
this belt, an extensive system of irrigation will be absolutely necessary.
It will have to be on a scale of greater magnitude than any that will be
undertaken by a pioneer popuhition. We doubt the propriety of the
general government undertaking such a work directly, if it is possible
to accomplish it in any other way. This, we think, may possibly be
done by giving the land for this purpose. We are fully aware of the
opposition at present to the government's donating any more of the
public land, but the circumstances of this case bring it out of the gen-
eral rule. If donating the entire body of public land in the belt de-
scribed would suffice to settle it with an agricultural population, not
only would the very purpose for which it is held be accomplished, but,
if our views are correct, the result would be of immense benefit to the
border States.

We therefore suggest the following as probably the most feasible plan
of accomplishing the desired end : Let the United States donate a belt
of fifty or sixty miles in width, running from the Black Hills west-north-
west, so as to strike the Yellowstone River a short distance above the
mouth of Big Horn Biver ; from thence north-northwest by way of Fort
Shaw, or the mouth of Sun Biver, in the direction of Fort Hamilton, in
British America; this to be granted on condition that the company to
which said land is granted shall, within a given time, construct a rail-
road from the Black Hills along the line designated, to the international
boundary ; shall undertake and carry out, to an extent to be designated,
a system of irrigation, and shall equip and keep in operation said road
for a certain number of years.

Whether such grant will be sufficient inducement for any competent
company to undertake the work specified is probably the chief difficulty
in the way of successfully carrying out this plan. On this point we do
not feel qualified to express an opinion. That such a road, starting from
the Black Hills, if once built would soon be connected southward and
eastward with other roads cannot be doubted. That it would be the
best possible means of bringing an agricultural population into this belt
cannot be doubted. It would also be an important factor in settling the
troublesome Indian problem in this section of the West.

L° the plan should be adopted it might be well to colonize, if possible,
with Russian peasants who are accustomed to fighting locusts.

The advantage to be derived from this plan consists chiefly in the
fact that it is possible to destroy the young to a very large extent by
the use of the proper means. If this is done in the very heart of their
breeding-grounds, it greatly lessens the numbers that will migrate. Not

22 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

only does it prevent the number destroyed from migrating, but for eacfi
one killed, so to speak, an entire family brood of the next or migrat-
ing generation is destroyed. In other words, the destruction of thou-
sands there would be as effectual as destroying millions of the migrating
swarms. The means of destroying the young, as before stated, can be
made more effectual in the sections where irrigation is carried on than
where it is not.

As shown in our first report the destruction of the young locusts
bred in the temporary region from the invading hordes not only gives
immediate relief but also tends to postpone future invasions by so less-
ening the numbers in the returning swarms that a longer time is re-
quired for development. With an agricultural population in the area
designated the work of destruction would then be carried on at each
end of their migratory route.

Here we may also remark that the present idea of making that sec-
tion of our country peculiarly pastoral area, while doubtless profita-
ble to the present and for two or three generations to come, will in the
end entail hardships upon those to follow. It can no longer be doubted
that while the destruction of forests was the chief agency, yet the pas-
toral habit of the people of Western Asia and other Oriental countries,,
once so fertile but now barren, was one important factor in producing
the present dry and barren condition of those countries, ifo country in
the interior of a continent, unless supplied with numerous lakes or nu-
merous and permanent rivers, can remain permanently fertile and pro-
ductive if given up largely to pasturage of sheep, goats, and cattle
without cultivation. The rapid destruction of the mountain forests, and
pasturing their slopes and bordering plains, will most certainly have a
tendency to render that portion of our country more dry and barren.

Unless, therefore, our government adopts some policy by which an
agricultural population can be thrown into that area the day will most
assuredly come when it will be as barren and desolate as the plains of
Arabia. The development of the locusts is but an incident of the
change from a former condition of abundant moisture to the present dry
one. But this branch of the subject we propose to omit at present.

It will be seen, therefore, by the foregoing that we think it is possible
to modify to a very large extent the operations of the locusts so far as
these relate to the area along the east tiank of the mountains ; and that
the general government may, without any very great expense, very
greatly assist in the work.

It is proper to state here, before leaving this part of our subject, that
we have not suggested the building of a railroad along the belt desig-
nated without some knowledge of the difficulties in the way of such a
scheme. Instead of following the valley of some stream it would have
to cross alternately narrow valleys and broad elevated plateaus its en-
tire length, but the difficulty in this respect would be no greater, and
perhaps not as great, as that experienced in running the Northern Pa-

THE CLIMATE OF THE PERMANENT REGION.

23

cific across Eastern Dakota from the Ked Eiver to the Missouri. That
bat a comparatively small portion of the land along the hue from Black
Hills to the Yellowstone can be brought under cultivation we are fully
aware, but fortunately for the object in view the locusts deposit their
eggs and breed only, or at least chiefly, in these restricted areas.

Between the Yellowstone and the point where this railroad would cross
the Missouri the country is rough and broken, but there are a number
of fertile valleys and small areas that can be irrigated and cultivated.
North of this it would run through as fine an agricultural region as there
is in the Territory.

Another fact which is often overlooked should be borne in mind in
discussing this scheme; that is, that the elevation of this region is much
less than that of the plains along the east flank of the mountains in
Wyoming and Colorado, which tends to very materially moderate the
climate.

The following statistics from the meteorological records kept at Fort
Shaw will furnish some data in reference to the climate of this region :

Monthly means of the temperature for two years.

August 67.15

September 54. 04

October t 49.12

November 39.92

December 26. 75

Year 47. 33

January 21.28

February 30.39

March 36.58

April 46.51

May 56. 04

June 64.98

July 70.22

This certainly shows a very moderate climate for this northern lati-
tude. Wheat, oats, rye, and barley grow well, and Indian corn is also
raised without difficulty and produces good crops. Such fruits as apples,
plums, cherries, currants, raspberries, and gooseberries may be grown
and matured here, the climate presenting no serious obstacle.

The amount of land that can be brought under cultivation depends
wholly upon the amount of water that can be obtained for irrigation.
If the plan for making reservoirs for preserving the winter supply should
ever be adopted, the breadth of the agricultural belt would be very
largely increased, and this would be doubly beneficial in assisting to
destroy the locusts and tending to increase the moisture in the atmos-
phere by forming a larger evaporating surface. The growth of trees and
shrubbery around these reservoirs would also be beneficial in the same
direction.

But experience in the settlement of these mountain regions and West-
ern Territories show that no such extensive works will, or in fact can be,
undertaken by a pioneer agricultural population. Some efficient aid of
some kind must be given if such a scheme is ever carried into effect, and
if the land itself will do this, the government will act wisely in giving
it for this purpose.

In reference to the bearing of the locust problem on the agricultural

24 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

prospects of the inter-montane area, we have but few facts and few con-
clusions to present that we consider of special importance, and these re-
late almost entirely to Northern Utah and Eastern Idaho. The portion
of this inter-montane section within the locust area consisting of Idaho,
Western Wyoming, Western Colorado, Utah, and Nevada offers but
little prospect of extension of agricultural operations within its bounds.
It is not probable that of the 375,000 square miles contained in this area
more than 25,000 to 30,000 square miles will be brought under cultiva-
tion for a century to come, its chief value being its mineral resources.
The chief agricultural area at present, and the only one to which we shall
call attention at this time, is the belt running north and south through
the central part of Northern Utah and Southeastern Idaho.

As shown by our first report the region around Salt Lake is subject to
repeated locust invasions from the north, apparently the resulting broods
of the swarms that originate in that portion of Montana of which we
have been speaking, and which pouring over the mountain pass at the
head of Jefferson River, move down Snake River Valley.

If the scheme we have suggested should be carried out and should
prove beneficial in reference to the eastern area, it would have, to some
extent at least, a like effect as to this section. If it is possible to estab-
lish and maintain an agricultural population in the Upper Snake River
Valley, this would have a strong tendency to modify the evil. But the
present barren aspect of this region would seem to forbid any hopes of
ever accomplishing this desired end. Still there appears to be one pos-
sible means of bringing this about, at least to a limited extent. The de-
mand of trade will doubtless complete the railroad already started in
that directiou which is one step toward the desired end, but something
more is required in this case.

Snake River affords a large body of water which if properly utilized
would irrigate a large breadth of land, and notwithstanding the barren
appearance of the soil it is really fertile when irrigated. It is possible,
with a moderate expense, to throw dams across this stream at certain
favorable spots, and by this means to spread the water over the adjoin-
ing plains.- A work of this kind would of course have to be done by the
general government. The feasibility of this project could easily be as-
certained by an officer of the Engineer Corps of the Arcny ; and as this
is on the line of the chief inter-montane thoroughfare and also of the
locust invasions of this region, the subject is certainly worthy of the at-
tention of the government.

As will be seen by what we have presented on this subject, the philoso-
phy of our plan for modifying the evil is to place an agricultural popula- '
tion in the very home of the species, which from necessity would be
compelled to wage a constant warfare against them.

By stirring the soil their nests would be disturbed; by fighting the
young their numbers would be diminished ; and as irrigation would be
necessary the effect of dry seasons on the crops would not be felt as in

OTHEE PEOPOSED PLANS NOT FEASIBLE.

25

the temporary region. The possibility of inundating to a considerable
extent their egg deposits by the winter supply of water would tend to
diminish their numbers. The fact that their breeding-grounds are
chiefly in the limited agricultural areas is also another argument in favor
of the plan.

That large areas would be left where locusts breed, and pour down
on the nearest cultivated areas, as in Western Colorado, is certainly true,
but this does not lessen the value of the plan proposed, nor is it a reason
why it should not be put into operation.

Other proposed schemes for destroying or preventing the multiplication
of locusts in their native habitats. — Mr. Ellwood Cooper, of Santa Bar-
bara, Cal., writing to the Commission in 1877, makes the following state-
ment and suggestion :

I have found on my ranch of 2,000 acres that these beds of (egg) deposit do not
amount to more than five or six acres. I marked these places so that when the rainy
season came I could plow the ground and thus destroy the eggs, and while grasshoppers
were produced by the millions on adjoining ranches none were hatched on my place.
* The conclusion is, that it is not a question to be solved by meteorologists, scientists, or
naturalists, but one for the plodding farmer, and that their total destruction is a mat-
ter easy, simple, and not expensive. It is a question of the plow — deep and thorough
plowing of all the breeding-grounds. This will require a concert of action on the part
of the Government of the United States and the governors of all the Western States.
Let there be appointed for each Territory five commissioners and as many for each
State where they have suffered from the ravages of this insect. The duties of these
commissioners [to be] to solicit information during the coming summer, and wherever
the locusts appear, to follow them and mark their breeding-spots ; in the following
spring have every spot well plowed ; some kind of crop can be raised that will pay
the expense. If this plan is vigorously followed up for a few years, the devasta-
tion and misery produced by these insects will be a history of the past.

While plowing is one most excellent method of destroying the eggs
in thickly-settled districts where it can be practiced, the idea of carry-
ing out the plan suggested over the vast area of the permanent breed-
ing grounds in the mountain district is wholly impracticable. If, as we
have shown, it would be impracticable to attempt to burn over the
infested areas,the idea of plowing over these areas must be considered
as Utopian.

The introduction of foreign locust-eating birds has been suggested as
one means of modifying the evil. That this plan has been adopted in
certain islands with success is probably true, and we think it would be
well to try the experiment in this country; but a more thorough exami-
nation of the subject and the result of the introduction of the English
sparrow we must confess has greatly weakened our faith in the plan.
We think it wise to protect by stringent laws our native insectivorous
species, especially in the temporary region, as these have undoubtedly
proved to be of great value in destroying the young locusts. But in the
permanent region the birds have to a very large extent been left undis-
turbed in their native wilds ; and as they have not, so far, increased to a
degree sufficient to aid to any visible extent, there is no likelihood they
will ever do so.

26 REPORT UNITED STATE8 ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

Other plans have been proposed (one or two will be mentioned further
on under General Remarks), but as most of them are still less feasible and
show a want of knowledge of the character of the breeding grounds and
the difficulties to be overcome, it is unnecessary for us to consider them.
The proposition for the government to burn over the areas of egg deposit*
after the young are hatched out offers some hope as a means of their
destruction, but, as we have seen, appears to be impracticable with the
hinited population in the permanent region.

Collecting and destroying the eggs and young in the permanent breed-
ing grounds, which is hereafter noticed, is worthy of careful consideration,
as it is possible; but the immense expense it will entail has prevented
us from mentioning it among the practicable remedies.

We are, therefore, of the opinion that the best plan to be followed is,
first, to adopt measures to throw an agricultural population into the
radiating points of the permanent breeding grounds, commencing with
the portion of Montana designated ; and, if possible, induce the Domin-
ion Government to unite in this effort so far as relates to the region
immediately north of the international boundary along the east flank of
the Rocky Mountain range.

The plan proposed in our First Report of stationing a corps of observers
connected with the Signal Service Bureau in the breeding areas of the
Northwest for the purpose of gathering information in reference to the
extent of egg deposits and numbers hatching, and to give notice of these
facts and the departure of swarms, we think not only entirely feasible,
but important, and one that would be of immense value in locust years
to the sections the swarms from this region are in the habit of visiting.

Second. As to the Temporary Region.

What has been stated in the previous part of this chapter in refer-
ence to the probable effect of the settlement of the belt in Montana on
the locust problem in its relation to this region need not be repeated
here. As the relation of the locust problem to agriculture in the tem-
porary region has already been discussed in our First Report, and as the
chief objects we had in view in devoting a chapter to the general sub-
ject in this report were to consider the feasibility of the plan for de-
stroying the locusts by burning over the grassy areas of the permanent
region and to present the scheme herein mentioned, we do not design
to enter at present into an extended discussion of this second divisio
of the subject.

The experience of the farmers of this section in fighting the youn
locusts, a more thorough knowledge of their history and habits obtaine
through the work of the commission, the complete fulfillment of the pre
dictions of the commission that 1877 would close the series of the inv~
sion which had continued from 1874, and the conclusive proof of th
theory advanced by the commission that this pest could not remain per-
manently in this region, have served to dispel the terror these insects
once inspired, and should no other remedies than those already known

NEW DEFINITION OF TEMPORARY REGION. 2T

ever be discovered, the locusts can never prevent the settlement of this
section, or infactof any other portion of the United States. This part of the
problem, at least, is undoubtedly solved. That invading swarms will
again come down on these border States and Territories is not doubted;
that almost every year, in fact, a limited swarm drops down here and
there, we know to be true ; and that some loss is occasioned to some few
farmers here and there is also true ; but it is no more than occurs in
almost every part of the Union. Every year limited areas in every State
suffer from some kind of insects ; in one it is the locust, in another the
potato-beetle, in another the cotton- worm, in another the cabbage-
worm, «Scc. We should not be surprised, if the coming spring and sum-
mer are dry, to see a limited invasion of the temporary region this year.
We have no sufficient data on which to base a decided opinion, nor do
we feel warranted in saying that even the probabilities lean in that
direction, but there are a few slight indications, chiefly meteorological,
which are sufficient to prevent us from asserting that there is no danger
of an invasion the coming summer.

As heretofore stated, facts gathered during the last two years have
forced upon us the conclusion that the northeast portion of Nebraska
and the eastern part of Dakota should not be classed in the temporary
region in the same sense as Western Iowa, Southern Nebraska, Kansas,
and the regions southward ; but that they really belong to what may
truly be termed the subpermanent region. Even the extreme western
part of Minnesota appears to fall into the same category. In this region
the species appears to be able to maintain its existence for a longer time
than in the southern section, though perhaps the former region is no
more subject to the invasions of the great hordes than the latter. The
area to which this statement appears to be particularly applicable
is that which lies around the southern and western side of the Co-
teau of the Prairies. The elevated plateau is perhaps one cause of this.
But the data we have obtained are not sufficient to enable us to decide
this point with certainty. *

If the proposition of the Commissioner of Agriculture to cover this
with trees could be carried out, it would most certainly have an ameli-
orating effect; but without any means of irrigating them, we have some
doubt as to whether they could be made to live and grow. If any
species can be found that will live without irrigation, the plan is most
certainly a good one and would justify the government in undertaking
it. A belt of timber along the Niobrara, which, within historic times,
was a wooded stream, would also be beneficial to a limited extent. But
to materially modify the locust injuries by this means would require
a broad forest belt of a hundred miles or more in width, stretching
from Big Sioux to the vicinity of the Black Hills. If the locusts sweep
over mountains covered with forests, as we know is a fact often wit-
nessed in Colorado, a narrow belt of timber along the line of their march

* Note. — Recent investigations strongly confirm this opinion.

28 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

is not likely to stop their progress; but if the Coteau of the Prairies is
really a permanent breeding ground, whieh we are not yet fully pre-
pared to affirm, clothing it with a forest growth would have a tendency
to prevent them from using it for this purpose.

We are inclined to believe that, aside from the improved means of
destroying the young, and a system of farming least liable to suffer in-
jury from the invading swarms, the chief hope of amelioration lies in
the increase of the agricultural population and its gradual extension
into Dakota. The railroads which are now pushing their way into this
section, especially those leading into Southern Dakota, will aid greatly
in bringing about this result. With the increase of population the de-
struction of the young and of eggs will become more and more effectual.

As Minnesota is well supplied with lakes and the supply of moisture
ample, it is more than probable that it would be a wise policy for the
farmers of the southwestern portion and also of the extreme southeast-
ern part of Dakota to devote their lands and attention largely to graz-
ing of cattle and sheep. This industry, as has been shown in our First
Report, is not liable to the same injury from the locusts as are the grain
■crops. But it is not hkely this will be adopted to any considerable ex-
tent until the virgin freshness and strength of the soil is weakened by
repeated wheat crops or wheat raising ceases from some cause to be
remunerative. This State is well adapted to its production, and it is
not only the most profitable crop at present, but is the money crop.
The raising of wheat will, therefore, go on until it ceases to be as profit-
able as it is now, in spite of locust raids and grasshopper devastations.

We may repeat, therefore, in reference to the whole of the temporary
region, that the " grasshopper scare " is over and past ; the tide of immi-
gration thither is greater than ever before, and those who go now, go
with their eyes fully opened to the difficulties with which they have to
contend, so far as the locusts are concerned, and hence will not be driven
back by this cause. Year by year, as the population increases, the
power to contend with this evil increases. The cultivation of the soil,
the planting of trees, the introduction of stock, such as hogs, the in-
crease in domestic fowls, and the improvement in the means of destroy-
ing the young, bring the evil more and more under control. There is,
therefore, good reason for believing that the day is not far distant when
the locust will be looked upon as no more injurious than the chinch-bug
or cotton-worm, or perhaps as even less so.

The work of the Commission, therefore, so far as it relates to the locust
in the temporary region, may be considered as about completed. The
great point left for us to determine is that which is chiefly discussed in
the present report : Is it possible to exterminate the locusts in their
native breeding grounds ? Lf not, how far and by what means is it pos-
sible so to diminish their numbers as to render the migrating swarms
comparatively innoxious ?

General remarks. — It is held by many citizens of the districts subject

THE PROBLEM A NATIONAL ONE. 291

to locust ravages that it is the duty of the general government to offer
bounties for the eggs and young locusts, as this would be one efficient means
of destroying these pests. But it is difficult to convince members of
Congress from Mississippi and Georgia that there is any better reason
for paying the citizens of Minnesota and Nebraska for destroying insects
injuring their wheat and corn than there is for paying the planters of
Mississippi and Georgia for collecting the worms injuring their cotton.
It is therefore not at all probable that any such plan will ever be adopted
by Congress, at least in States which have power to adopt such measures
for themselves. But there is another light in which this question may
be considered which brings it out somewhat from under the principle
stated. If it could be shown that there is a limited area within the
bounds of our national territory from which the cotton-worm moths pro-
ceed and spread over the cotton States to deposit the eggs that produce
the worm, and that by destroying the insects in this native home the
spreading would be prevented, then the subject becomes a national one;
just as the passing of lines of commerce over State boundaries renders
them subjects of national control. If this native habitat should be in a
territory, this fact of itself would bring it more exclusively under na-
tional control.

That all these supposed conditions do apply to the locust problem has
been fully shown in our reports, and is well known to every one. The
question then arises, Is not the general government under obligations
to make a reasonable effort to prevent the hordes of locusts bred in the
Territories from invading the States % The lands of Minnesota, Nebraska,
Iowa, and Kansas have been sold to those who have them, or have been
granted to them for the purpose of inducing them to settle upon and
improve them. Now they find they are subject to the ravages of an in-
sect which has its native home and breeding grounds beyond the bounds
of their own States, and in Territories of the United States over which
their State authorities have no control, and where they can take no
measures for destroying the pests or preventing their invasions. These
facts render the case peculiar, and different even from that of the Colorado
potato-beetle. In the latter case, as in the case of many other injurious
insects, it was an extension of the permanent home, thus bringing all
possible remedies within the reach of the authority of any State or
section invaded. But it is not so with the locusts; their migrations are
not a spread of their native habitat, and do not bring within reach of
the authority of the State invaded all possible remedies ; in fact, the
most effectual remedies are beyond the control of the States in the tem-
porary region ; they have no authority to take even the first step toward
preventing the invasion of their territory, and hence are entirely help-
less in this respect.

We hold, therefore, that this is an exceptional case, and that the gen-
eral principle above mentioned does not apply to it ; and we think it is
the duty of the general government to make a reasonable effort to pre-

30 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

vent swarms of devouring locusts from sweeping down upon the crops
of the farmers of the temporary regions, who themselves and whose
State authorities also are helpless in this matter.

While, therefore, Congress might feel that it would not be justified in
offering bounties for locust eggs and young locusts collected in these
States as a means of destroying these pests in the temporary region, it
does not follow that it would be improper or even unadvisable to offer
bounties for their collection in those sections of the Western Territories
where the swarms that visit the temporary regions originate.

As heretofore stated, we have not presented this remedy as among the
most important ones, because of the immense expense it is supposed it
would require if carried out effectually. The plan was proposed in Min-
nesota in 187G, and the proper authority for carrying it into effect was
granted by the legislature to the counties; but it was found that it
would impose such onerous taxes upon the counties suffering most that
it was abandoned.

Still, it is possible that the government may, by this means and with
a moderate expenditure, do much to modify this evil. If the corps of
observers suggested be established in Montana and Northwestern Da-
kota, notice could be obtained by this means of heavy egg deposits ;
"with a law of Congress granting bounties for eggs and young, wherever
the facts ascertained by this corps made it apparent that heavy inva-
sions were likely to result notice could be given that the bounty would
be paid for all collected in the areas designated. This plan, if it can be
carried out, would undoubtedly prove very beneficial, and so far as it
extended, certain. There are, however, two serious difficulties in the
■way: one is to induce persons to go so far away from inhabited sections
for this purpose; the price necessary to bring this about would probably
make the expense so great as to prevent the government from undertak-
ing it.

The plan of burning, heretofore mentioned, might be combined with
it, thus rendering it more effectual.

The possibibties would appear to justify the government in making
one or two experiments in order to see the result, as in this way only can
the feasibility and effectiveness of the plan be ascertained. In any case
it is advisable to place a corps of observers in the section named, which
should be connected with and under the control of the Signal Service
Bureau, as it is essential to study carefully the climatic conditions under
which the locusts increase most rapidly. Moreover, the value of the
predict ions in reference to their migrations will depend largely upon the
forecast of the season and the knowledge of climatic influence on these
insects. After a few years' observations, this corps would be able to
inform Congress, through the Chief of the Signal Service Bureau,
whether it would be advisable to attempt to burn over the infested
areas or to offer bounties ; and, in case the latter plan should be adopted,
could act as agents of the government in measuring and paying.

LAWS GOVERNING THE MIGRATIONS OF LOCUSTS. 31

As a plan of relief, propositions were brought forward some years
ago in Southern Russia and Algiers to form companies that would insure
against losses occasioned by locusts. M. Koppen, who discusses these
propositions at some length, in his paper " On the destruction of the
locusts," read before the u Exposition Internationale et Congrds d?Hygtine
et de Sauvetage," at Brussels, in 1876, arrives at the conclusion that such
a plan would be impracticable on account of the difficulty of assessing
damages.

CHAPTER III.

FACTS CONCERNING AND LAWS GOVERNING THE MIGRA-
TIONS OF LOCUSTS LN ALL COUNTRIES.

In our former report the facts relating to the migrations and " local
flights " of the Rocky Mountain locust were given somewhat fully, and
also discussed to some extent ; but the time allotted to the preparation
of that report and the space allowed did not permit us to properly ar-
range and give all the data collected, much less fully digest and discuss
it. This part of our work has therefore been largely reserved for this,
our Second Report.

As we have heretofore stated, there is nothing connected with the
life-history and habits of the locust, no matter how trivial it may ap-
pear, but what is of some value in the solution of the problem for which
the Commission was organized. The migratory habit constitutes, in
fact, one of the chief characteristics of the migrating species, and adds
very largely to their destructive powers.

That their migrations and flights are governed by certain laws will be
admitted by all who believe that the forces of nature are governed by
laws. To ascertain what these laws are has been one object of the inves-
tigations made by the Commission, and although we are fully aware that
our work is not complete in this respect, as there are a number of points
stfll shrouded in mystery, yet we believe sufficient data have been col-
lected to enable us to point out some of these laws as positively ascer-
tained, and to present more fully and satisfactorily than has been done
heretofore the indications of others.

That, as a rule, the various kinds of grasshoppers, or species of Acrid-
idai, are not migratory, is a fact well known to all; in fact, out of the
twelve or fifteen hundred species belonging to the family, less than a
dozen are known to be truly migratory. That the migrating species are
not limited to any one genus or group of the family was long ago as-
certained.

Oedipodini and Acridini are two rather well marked groups, distin-
guished from each other by important characters, yet in each of these
two do we find migrating species. It is evident, therefore, that the
migratory instinct, or disposition, does not depend upon anatomical

32 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

characteristics or differences of sufficient importance to mark the groups
of the family. If we examine the species of the different restricted gen-
era containing the more noted locusts, as Pachytylux miyratorius, Acrid-
ium pcrcyrinum, Caloptenus italicus, and Caloptenus spretus, not only do
we find the same thing true in reference to them, but also that in some
cases the most closely allied present the strange fact that one is truly
migratory while the other is not ; as, for example, Caloptenus spretus and
Caloptenus femur -rubrum of our own country, and Acridium pereyrinum
of the eastern continent, which is scarcely distinguished from Acridium
americanum of North America. It is therefore evident thai we must
look to something else than such anatomical differences as distinguish
genera for the cause of the migratory disposition. Before entering upon
the discussion of this peculiarity in habits, we will first discuss the facts,
so far as known, in regard to their migrations, with reference chiefly to
the Rocky Mountain locust of our own country, but referring to other
species for illustration and to correct what we conceive to be erroneous
opinions.

In our investigations of the migrations of the Rocky Mountain locust
we have found it necessary to direct our attention to the following points
as the ones of chief importance, and as forming the principal divisions
of the subject :

1. Native breeding ground or point of departure, its position, bound-
aries, physical features, climate, &c.

2. Habits or characteristics of the species within this area of perma-
nent distribution, so far as these relate to their movements ; especially the
question as to whether they are essentially nomadic or sedentary.

3. Their flights.

4. Climatic conditions.

5. Causes of migration.

6. The effect or consequences of these migrations.

The present chapter will be limited strictly to a consideration of the
"philosophy of migrations," the last and all important topic — "conse-
quences"— to which the attention of the Commission has been largely
devoted, being treated of in other chapters.

I. — A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF LOCUST MOVEMENTS IN OTHER COUNTRIES.

As we shall have frequent occasion to refer to the migrations of locusts
in other countries as well as our own, we will give a brief general review
of locust movements in various parts of the world, limiting ourselves
strictly to such facts as have a direct bearing upon the question under
discussion. For the facts mentioned in this part of the chapter we are
largely indebted to the following writers, but have endeavored, by a la-
borious consultation of the authorities quoted, so far as to be found in
the Congressional and other libraries of our country, to verify these
quotations :

K. Ritter. — "Die Heuschreckenplage der Lander der Alten Welt,.

LOCUST MOVEMENTS IN OTHER COUNTRIES.

33

nach ihrer geographischen Verbreitung." Bitter, Erdkunde, pt. 8, j).
789-815, 1843.

Adolph Keferstein. — " Ueber die sehadlichen Heuschrecken." In En-
tomologische Zeitnng, Stettin, 1843.

Fr. Th. Koppen. — "Ueber die Heuschrecken in Siidrussland," St.
Petersburg, 1SGG.

Numerous subsequent as well as older authorities not mentioned by
these writers have been consulted.

The object in view in presenting the facts in relation to other species
of locusts than our own is to draw therefrom conclusions in reference to
the limits of their areas of permanent distribution ; extent and direc-
tions of migrations ; relations to faunal districts ; powers and modes of
flight ; character of countries inhabited by them ; effect of climatic influ-
ences ; causes of migrations, &c.

It is now well ascertained that there are but two species of true mi-
gratory locusts (Pachytylus migratorius and Caloptenus italicus) that
prove injurious in European countries,* hence it is fair to conclude that
the older accounts of locust invasions and locust devastations in Europe
apply to one or the other of these species. The locust literature relat-
ing to this part of the world is very voluminous and much of it of very
little value in determining any of the more important questions in ref-
erence to the natural history, habits, or specific characters, being chiefly
valuable in determining the regions visited and the chronology of
locust migrations.

Among the earlier accounts of the locusts in Europe we notice the fol-
lowing :

Pausanias,' who says he personally knew that these insects three times
perished upon Mount Sigylus, though not from the same causes ; once
the sudden visitation of a hurricane dispersed them ; a second time the
evaporation of a severe heat following upon a rain-storm destroyed them ;
and the third time they perished through a sudden cold.

Livy2 states that in the year of Borne 579 (B. C. 75), the whole Pomp-
tine district was covered with clouds of locusts.

Pliny 3 remarks that —

There is another mode also in which these creatures perish ; the winds carry them
off in vast swarms, upon which they fall into the sea or standing waters, and not, as
the ancients supposed, because their wings had been drenched by the dampness of the
night. The same authors have also stated that they are unable to fly during the night
in consequence of the cold, being ignorant of the fact that they travel over lengthened
tracts of sea for many days together, a thing to be the more wondered at, as they have
to endure hunger all the time as well, for this it is which causes them to be thus seek-
ing pastures in other lands. * * # As they fly they appear to be larger than they
really are, while they make such a loud noise with their wings that they might read-

*We are fully aware of what is said in reference to other species migrating, Irat we speak here of
"true migratory species," and, notwithstanding numerous statements to the contrary effect, we an
satisfied there are but two European species entitled to this designation.

'Attica, lib. i, cap. 24.

'Lib. 42, cap. 2.

JNat. Hist., lib. 2, cap. 29, Bostock & Riley's English Transl., Bonn's ed. iii, p. 35.

3l

34 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

ily bn supposed to be winged creatures of quite another species. Their numbers, too,
an mi vast that they quite darken the sun. " • • Tboso from Africa are the ones
which chiefly devastate Italy; and more than once the Roman people have been
obliged to have recourse to the Sibylline Books to learn what remedies to employ under
their apprehensions of impending danger.

This statement of their coining over from Africa has been so generally
accepted as true by subsequent writers, without investigation as to its
truth, that we shall hereafter call attention to it, in order to show its im-
probability.

Julius Obsequens4 states that " Before the birth of Christ about 170
years the pastures of Italy were covered, as it were, with clouds of
grasshoppers, and about Capua a hundred years thereafter."

According to Gregory, of Turin,5 two armies of locusts appeared, which,
passing through Arvernum, came together in Romaniae, where a great
battle was fought between the hosts and many slain. No date is given,
but it appears from fche context to have been about 558. Purchas, who
quotes the same incident, says that " the two armies passing by Clermont
into the Roinanaick Territory (a place in France) there fought together,
where many of them were killed ; when Clotarius was about to fight
with his son Chrannus."

The year 593 A. D., following a very severe and general drought, was
noted for a very general invasion of locusts.6 The particular sections
devastated we are unable to ascertain.

In 852 immense swarms from the eastern regions invaded the west,
penetrating into Gaul, their daily marches being computed at twenty
miles a day ; and their flights, as stated, being regulated by leaders who
flew first and settled on the spot which was to be visited at the same
hour the next day by the whole legion. These marches were always
undertaken at sunrise.7

Cuspiuian mentions an invasion of Gaul in 874.8

In the reign of Basilius, the Emperor (according to Georgius Cedrenus)
the eastern parts were consumed by grasshoppers to such an extent as
to compel the inhabitants to sell their children and at last to pass into
Thrace. But afterwards a vehement wind carried the locusts into the
Hellespont, but they were thrown back on the sands and, reviving to a
large extent, wasted the countries adjoining, and Thrace also, for three
years.9

The following chronological account of their migrations in Europe,
from 874 to 1092, is taken from Keferstein's article before mentioned :
They visited Italy in 864.10 In 870 they showed themselves in France

4 As quoted by Purchas on Insects. The full title of this quaint old work is as follows: "A Theater
of Politicall Flying Insects, wherein especially the Nature, the Worth, the Work, the Wonder and the
Manner of Eight-ordering of the Bee is Discovered and Described." London, 1657, p. 197, et seq.

'Historia Ecclesiastica Francorum, lib. 4, ch. 20.

'Shaw's "General Zoology," vi, p. 137, probably following Aldrovandus.
'Shaw, I. c— Purchas on Insects, I. c. — probably quoted from Aldrovandus.
8 Purchas on Insects.
'Purchas.

10 Cantor, Geschichte der merkwiirdigsten Naturbegebenheiten auf unserer Erde, Bd. 2 (1804), 104.

IN EUEOPE FROM THE 9TH TO THE 14TH CENTURIES. 35

and destroyed all vegetation so that a famine ensued.11 In 872 they
were in Germany in such masses that they swept clean in one night 150
acres of land where they alighted.12 In S73 they again destroyed in
France the entire crops, and a strong wind drove them into the canal (?).13
This is probably the same invasion alluded to by Cuspinian. In 885
they again appeared in Italy, especially near Rome, and Pope Stephen
II exerted himself in vain to extirpate them.14 In the year 1034 every-
thing near Constantinople was devoured by them until a strong wind-
storm drove them into the sea.13 Just as destructively they showed
themselves here again in 1092.16

The first invasion of Russia of which we find any notice is that of 1008,
of Kiev, mentioned by Karamsin.17 Kbpperi also mentions the following
invasions of that country in the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centu-
ries. In 1095 the locusts came the 28th of August and covered the earth.
The movement was to the north.18 The same author is quoted for inva-
sions in 1103 and 1195, but without particulars. The chronicle of Nes-
tor (quoted by Koppen) mentions another invasion in 1237. In 1271 all
the cornfields of Milan were destroyed.19

From 1333 to 133G great swarms of locusts committed frightful rav-
ages f they migrated from Servia into Hungary, spread from there
farther over Poland, Bohemia, and Austria, and divided here into two
bodies, one of which visited Italy, the other Fiance, Bavaria, Suabia,
and Saxony.20

Again, in 1338, the neighborhood of Halle, on the Saale, was greatly
devastated by them.21 In May, 1350, an innumerable multitude of
grasshoppers of an unwonted greatness, and uncertain origin, appeared
in the province of Catania, in Sicily, which consumed corn, vineyards,
woods, gardens, and trees, eating the bark to the roots in one day, and
then by a sudden wind were carried into the Ionian Sea and drowned;
but, being afterwards cast upon the Sicilian shore, "caused by their
stink a cruel plague in July following."22

According to Otho Frisingensis,23 grasshoppers came out of Africa
into Italy, and also into France, in 1353 and also in 1374, causing such
a famine and plague that the third part of the people perished. This
old writer asserts that at last they were hurried by a violent wind into
the British Ocean.

11 Cantor, 104.
"Cantor, 104.
* Cantor, 105.

"Eathleff, "Acridotheologie," i, 43.
,5Rembold, "Tractat von Heuschrecken," 13.
16Ratbleff, "Acridotheologie," 37.

" History of Russia, i, 438, quoted by Koppen. See also the French translation.
"Karanisin Hist., ii, 172.

19 Shaw, Geul. Zool., vi. 137, from Aldrovandua.

50 Cantor, 220; Keferstein, I. c.; Kronika Marcina Bielokiego, 1764, 189; Joannis Dlugossi, '.'ffistoria
Polonica," T. i, lib. ix; Koppen, 111-112.
slDurhaupt, "Beschreibung des Saalkreisea," Th. i, p. 645. 1749. Keferstein.
23 1'azellus, quoted by Purchas.
MPurchas on Insects.

36 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

Rathleff24 says that in 1354 they laid waste Italy and the fruitful
provinces of Switzerland. This is probably the same invasion mentioned
by Otho Frisingensis. Cantor25 also mentions the invasion of 1374f
adding that they again appeared in France in such masses that they
reached even to England.

Shaw20 (probably following Aldrovandus) states that in 1339 all the
corn-fields of Lombardy were destroyed by the locusts.

In 1231 the locusts were so destructive in Puglia Daunia, a province
of Naples (?) that the Emperor Frederick II promulgated a special law
requiring every agriculturist, during their invasion, to collect every
morniug at sunrise four measures and present them to the magistrates,,
who were required to burn them.27

For a hundred years after the great invasion of 1374 Europe appears
to have been comparatively free of these troublesome pests, at least the
voluminous locust literature of this grand division is silent in reference
to this long period.

In August, 1475, the insect storm proceeding from Hungary fell upon
the oft devastated lands of Poland, Moravia, and Silesia. The swarms
were so immense that they covered the sun like a thick cloud.28

Following this invasion there appears to have been another exemp-
tion of fifty years, the next appearance of note being in the year 1527r
when they appeared again in Poland ; and in 1536 in Hungary, travers-
ing Lithuania and Poland to Schleswig.23 Georgi says that in 1527
they came out of Turkey, and in 1536 from the Black Sea. Shaw gives

1541 as the date of another visitation to Poland ; Georgi states that in

1542 a great swarm passed through Poland and Lithuania to Prussia
and also visited Silesia. Rivero Pontano, as quoted by Lucretiis, says
that " in the summer of 1541 a great army of locusts flew through Ger-
many into Italy, towards our region. Wherever this swarm extended
it devoured everything in its path, for the locusts were very large and
numerous." Keferstein says also in reference to this invasion, that
some passed forward over SUesia and Saxony, whUe others turned them-
selves toward Austria and Italy ; and that again they were in Austria
and Tyrol in 1544 and 1547. The invasion of Saxony is also mentioned
by Ruyschet.30

In 1542 an immense multitude spread over a great part of Europe.31
John Exel, as quoted by Purchas, says that about Misnia in 1543
there were so many grasshoppers that they covered the ground about
a cubit thick." We may remark here that our observations of the Rocky
Mountain locusts have taught us not to treat all such statements as this

34 Acridotheologie, i, 47. Keferstein.
25 240— Keferstein.
» Gen'l Zodl., 6, 137.

"Gaetano de Lucretiis, "On the Plight of Locusts." Atti del Real Instituto Sci. Xat. Xapoli, 1811,
233 et seq.

28 Cantor, 265 — Keflerstein; Dlugoss, ii, 535-540— Koppen.

^Rathleff, i, 48— Keflerstein ; Georgi "Geogr.-physik. Beschr. desRuss., 2058"— Koppen.

30 "Wahrhaftige Zeitnng, in Schlesien, geschehen, 1542."

31 Paulus Draconus— from Purchas ; Ruyschet,- e. c.J

IN EUROPE IN THE 16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES. 37

as wholly imaginary. That locusts ever fell at any time or in any
country a cubit thick over an extended area, we do not believe. But it
not imfrequently happens that they are driven by a storm and lodged
in a ravine, against a bank, fence, or other obstruction, to the depth of
several inches, or even a foot or more. Purchas32 remarks that " great
droughts produce them, at least cause a prodigious increase of them ; in
1553, after five years' drought, were great armies of them." In the
tenth year of the Emperor Maurice, after a great drought, extending from
January to September, there were infinite numbers of locusts in Italy,
which caused a two years' famine.

Valleriola33 notices an invasion of Ai'les in 1555. An invasion of
Mailand in 1556 is also mentioned.34

For another hundred years from this time Eussia appears to have been
so little afflicted by the locust pest that Koppen fails to note a single
invasion of that country. But after a rest of forty years they again ap-
pear in Italy, and Lucretus 35 informs us that —

So great were the injuries caused in 1571 in this country that the Vice Duke of
Alcala, D. Parafante de Ribera, was obliged to put forth by the vote and advice of
the royal council on the 8th of October, 1572, the first pragmatic decree De Bruchis,
title 23, by which it was ordered that the communes should appoint experts and
practical men to explore their territories and to search out all the places in which the
locusts had deposited their eggs ; and when found they were to dig trenches in the
months of September and October through which operation the eggs might be de-
stroyed. And in the month of April the swine are turned loose to devour the locusts,
of which they are very gluttonous. The housewives also spread sheets or piecos of
cloth at convenient times, long and large, upon which the locusts alighting are folded
up and entrapped.

In 1613, in the month of May, a supposed new species of locust ap-
peared in Provence which destroyed the entire crops.36

It appears from two papers, one by Bart. Xim. Paton 37 and the other
by Juan de Quinones,38 of which we have seen only the titles, that
Spain was afflicted in 1618 or 1619, probably by C. italicus.

The account of the locust swarms seen in the Ukraine in 1645 and
1646 by Beauplan 39 is so interesting that we give it here :

The grasshoppers, or locusts, which are there so numerous that they put me in mind
of the scourge which God sent upon Egypt when he would punish Pharaoh. I have
seen this plague for several years one after another, particularly in 1G45 and 164C.
These creatures do not only come in legions, but in whole clouds, five or six leagues
in length and two or three in breadth, and generally come from towards Tartary ;
which happens in a dry spring; for Tartary and the countries east of it, as Circassia,

3JXoc. cit.

^Curationes medicales, Lib. ii, Ob. 1.

M W. Strauch. ' Nat m lie he Conterfeyhung des gewaltigen Fluges Heuschrecken." Hagen.
aLoc cit.

^Rembold "Von Heuschrecken," 45 — Keferstein; A. Bersandier 'Discours 8ur le degat que lea
sauterelles firent en Provence, 1613-1614."

37 "Discorso de la langosta, quo en el tiempo presente aflige y para el venidero amenaza," 1619.

38Tratado de las langostas muy util y necessario, en que so tratan cosas de provecho y curiosidad
para todos los que professau letras divinas y humanas y las inayores ciencias. Madrid, 1620.

■"A description of the Ukraine,'' in Churchill's Voyages, i, p. 541.

38 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

Bazza, Mingrelia, are seldom free from them. These vermin being drove by an east
or southeast wind, come into Ukraine, where they do much mischief, eating up all
sorts of grain and grass; so that wheresoever they come, in less than two hours they
crop all they fiud, which causes great scarcity in provisions ; and if the locusts re-
main there in autumn, and the mouth of October, which is the time when they die,
after laying at least three hundred eggs apiece, which hatch next spring, then the
country is three hundred times worse pestered. But if it rains when they begin to
hatch they all die, and the country escapes that year unless they come from other
parte. It is not easy to express their numbers for all the air is full and darkened ;
and I cannot better represent their flight to you than by comparing it to the flakes of
snow in cloudy weather drove about by the wind. And when they alight upon the
ground to feed, the plains arc all covered, and they make a murmuring noise as they
eat, where in less than two hours they devour all close to the ground. Then rising
they suffer themselves to be carried away by the wind, and when they fly, though
the son shines never so bright, it is no lighter than when most cloudy.

In June, 1G4G, having staid two months in a new town, called Novogorod, where I
was building a citadel, I was astonished to see so vast a multitude, for it was pro-
digious to behold them, because they were hatched there that spring, and being, as
yet, scarce able to fly, the ground was all covered and the air so full of them that I
could not eat in my chamber without a candle, all the houses being full of them even
to the stables, barns, chambers, garrets, and cellars. I caused cannon powder and sul-
phur to be burnt to expel them, but all to no purpose ; for when the door was opened
an infinite number came iu and the others went out fluttering about. And it was a.
troublesome thing when a man went abroad to be hit on the face by those creatures ;
sometimes on the nose, sometimes on the eyes, and sometimes on the cheek, so that
there was no opening one's mouth but some would get in. Yet all this was nothing,
for when we were to eat these creatures gave us no respite, and when we went to cut ,
a bit of meat we cut a locust with it, and wheu a man opened his mouth to put in a
morsel he was sure to chew one of them. * * * I have seen them at night, when
they sit to rest them, that the roads were four inches thick of them one upon another,
so that the horses would not* trample over them but as they were put on with much :
lashing, pricking up their ears, snorting, and treading very fearfully. The wheels of J
our carts and the feet of our horses bruising those creatures, there came from them ]
such a stink as not only offended the nose but the brain. I was not able to endure
that stench, but was forced to wash my nose in vinegar and hold a handkerchief dipped
in it continually to my nostrils.40

In 1G50 Lithuania and Poland were again visited,41 and in 1662 the j
province of Puglia Daunia.42 In 1684 an immense number appeared in
Hungary and Austria.43 In the year following an immense swarm fell 1
near Avignon.44

In 3689 another general invasion of Northern Europe began, striking
first Lithuania and Poland45 reaching Yolhynia in Russia in 1690.46, 1
According to Eembold,47 they were also abundant in Ukraine. In 1693
they swept in immense swarms through Hungary, Bohemia and Austria |i

40Al8o "Gentleman's Magazine,'' 1748. August, p. 363.
41K6ppen, 114.
42 Lucretiis, I. c.
« Rembold, 325.

44 H. Justell, Phil. Trans., 1C86, vol. 16, p. 147.

46 Jean Gallois, "Observations sur les sauterelles qui ont ravage la Pologne et la Lithuanie in 1C89 ' — ' I
Mem. Acad. Sci. Paris, v. 2, 88.

^Stoikoovitsch, "Tiber die Heuschrecken und die Mittel ihrer Vertilgung," 1823, s. 8 — Koppen ; S-
TJssans, 1 ' Particularity remaiquables des Sauterelles qui sont venues eu Russie," 1690.

*»P. 18— Keferstein.

IN CENTRAL EUROPE IN 1693.

39

into Germany, destroying the crops in their pathway. Lndolf, who was
an eye-witness of this invasion gives the following account of it:4B

We had already entered upon the autumn of the year 1693, when the first intelli-
gence was heard of the descent of locusts ; they had come over on the 3d of August
into Austria from Hungary, and farther eastward. From there they went into
Bohemia, and apssed into Voigtland, and into the regions of Altenburg ; then they
flew across the Saal, and came finally within twenty days to Thuringia. There were
so many millions of them that they showed thence like black clouds. In the day-
time when it began to grow hot they raised themselves from the earth and sought new
pasture ground, but by night they lay a hand (or even half a foot) deep on the ground
and consumed everything that was green. Some mounted upon the trees, and in such
multitudes that they bent the branches down to the ground. On the 18th of August
they came through Jena, but these were only the forerunners ; on the 20th of August
at noon they flew over the city in indescribable multitudes. There were three
bodies which followed at a certain distance from each other, and with such a noise as
if a great stream were falling from a considerable height into the depths. A south
wind struck them and drove them toward the north, on to the mountains lying near-
est, where indeed they destroyed all the grass, but spared the vines and most of the
trees. The day afterwards as on the third day about nine o'clock they mounted in a
clear sunshine ; by three o'clock in the afternoon they were all assembled together,
and flew away as one army ; only a few remained behind. They came to Weimar on
the 20th of August about noon, and covered the ground two hands high about the
city. All the locusts were yellow, but the males were smaller and brighter, females
darker. Swans, ducks, and hens, as well as swine, eat of them greedily. There en-
sued a cold rain and frost so that they could go no farther, and so they perished at
Naumburg and in other regions of the Saal after they had lived in those parts four
weeks. The people feared for the next year, but nothing farther was observed of new
locust swarms.

France, Italy, and the other parts of Southern Europe appear to have
escaped the scourge at this time, but from a letter in the Philosophical
Transactions (vol. 18, No. 208), it would appear that they reached Wales.49

MApp. 2 to Hist. Aethiop.

49 This invasion gave rise to quite a number of papers, of which we note the following : X. C'h. Crell,
"Dissertatio <le Locustis non sine prodigio nuper in Germania conspectis." Lipsise, 1693. — G. Wolf.
Eberlin, "Oratio ile prodigioso locustarum agmine (prod in diversis Pannonia? et Germanise tractibus
obumbravit solein. terrasque opperuit, an. 1693." Altdorf, 1693.— G. E. Fesken, "Gottes bede.nkliches
Heuschrekken-Heer, welches sich hin und wieder neulicher Zeit in ungewohnlicher Menge sehen
lassen." Leipsig, 1693. — Melissander Flchtelberijer, "lien! Schrecken! Von Heuschrecken, So dieses
Anno 1693." St. Annaberg, 1693. — J. P. Hebenstreit, " De locustis immenso agmine aerem nostrnm im-
plentibus. et quid portendere, &c." Jense, 1693. — Same author, "De remediis adversus locustas,
imprimis Pontificiorum methodo expellendi eas perexcommunicationem." Jena?, 1693. — Caspar Kirch-
maier, "De Locustis insolitis tergemino examine et portentoso numero e Thraci.a Daciaque in
Pannoniam inferiorem perqne Austrian! in Germania? regionibus plures sese infundentibus, &c."
Wittenberg. 1693. — Ab. Klesel, "Bericht von deni 1693 geschehenen Durchzuge der Heuschrecken."

1693. — Christoph Lorber. "ilit Gott! Eigentliche Besebreibung des entsetzlich grossen Heuschreeken-
Heers welches in August — A 1693 bei und tvnweit Jena, &c." .Tena, 1693. — Also, "Besebreibung des
Heuschreeken-heeres. " 1694. — I. Ph. Freuner, "Dissertatio pha-nomena locustarum pra-cipue nuper-
rimarum." Jena. 1693. — G. A. Wvllenhaupt. " Dissertatio locustas et portentosam earum nubem, &c. '
Erfurt, 1693. — Anon, "Eine Heuschreckliche Schreckzruthe so zu Plauen ini Voigtlande am 15, nnd
folgenden Tagen Augusti dieses laufenden Jabres 1693 sich merklich blicken gelassen, &c." Dresden,
1693 — Anon, "Heerzugder Heuschrecken." Leip, 1693. — N. Hoepfner, "Abbandlung iiber die Sturm-
winde nod Heuschrecken." Gera, 1694. — Job Lndolf. "Appendix secunda ad historiam iEthiopicam. '

1694. — E.Floyd, "A letter giving an account of locusts lately observed in Wales," Phil. Trans, 1694,
v. 18, No. 298.— G. Owen, "Extract from bis history of Pembrokeshire," Phil. Trans. 1694, vol. 18, No.
208.— Casper Neuman, " Donnerwetter und Henschrecken, beide im Jahr Christi 1693 zu Breslau
gesehen." Breslau, 1694.— Carl Payger, "De locustis volantibus," Ephem. Acad. Nat. Curios. 1694,
Dec. 3, p. 29. Also. Kembold, 19 ; and Dreihaupt, 645, and accounts given in Bitter, Kefferstein,
Fischer, Kbppen, &c.

40 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

After the locusts had shown themselves repeatedly here and there in
Germany until 1696 they disappeared.

In 1708 the numerous invasions of the eighteenth century commenced,
culminating in the memorable irruption of 1747-'52, which spread over
Europe from Turkey to Wales. We can do but little more than give
dates of this busy locust century. In 1708 they came out of Wallachia
and passed through Poland into Russia.90 In 1710 a vast swarm for a
time spread alarm through the army of Charles XII in Bessarabia.51

In 1712 they passed through Gallicia to Germany, and in this or the
following year were very severe in Silesia. This invasion must have
been much more severe than the brief notice given it by Ritter, Keft'er-
stein, Fischer, and Koppen would indicate. It appears to have con-
tinued for three or four years and to have spread to Italy if we may
judge from the following papers which appeared at that time.52

Italy was again visited in 1727, and parts of it severely ravaged. In
1730 to 1732 they visited Germany, penetrating to the vicinity of Berlin.53

In 1747-M8 the great locust swarm of the century, starting from Tur-
key,54 spread through Wallachia, Moldavia, Transylvania, and Hungary,
and from thence, in 1719, passed into Austria, Bavaria, and Germany,
reaching Brandenburg in 1750. The Ukraine, Poland, and Silesia were
also visited. Xor did the vast horde cease its onward course until it had
penetrated into England and Scotland. In England they were espe-
cially destructive in Norfolk, Stafford, Cheshire, and Derbyshire.55

In 1759 they again visited Italy: v parts of Russia were invaded at
intervals from 1783 to 1802, but no swarm entered Germany until 1803,
and then only crossed the eastern border;57 but in 1825,1826, and 1827
various parts of this country were visited by them. From 1812 up to
1860, according to the record given by KOppen, some part of Southern

"Georgi — in Koppen.

"Demole, Stoikoovitsch, Koppen. Keferstein, and Capellan.

aJ. ChUtoph Ortlob, " Dissertatio de praesagiis locnstaruni ineertis et falsis." Lipsioa. 1713.— Paul
Jetzen, "Con.jecturse de ominosislocustis quae aestate superiore Silesiam depopulatas sunt, &c." Sedini,
1713. — Same, "lluthmaasungen von den wundersamen Heuschrecken welche im vorigen Summer in
Schlesien grossen Schaden gethan, &c." — Stettin. 1713. — S. G. Loeber, "Epistolade locustis." Epbem.
Acad. If at Curios. 1715, cent iii, iv, app.. 137. — Guiseppe del Papa, " Eelazione delle diligenze usate con
felice successo nelT anno 1716 per distruggere le cavallette, le quali avevano stranamente ingombrato
una gran parte delle Maremme di Pisa, di Siena, di Volterra. e tutte le campagne di Pioinbino, Scarlino
eSovvereto." Firenze, 1716. — Tommaso Buonaventuri, " Eelazione delle devozioniedoperedipietacbe si
son fatte nelT anno 1716 per ottenere da Dio la grazia di discacciare le cavallette cbe infestavano le Mar-
omme di Pisa, di Siena e di Volterra. Firenze 1717. — Francesco Scu/oni, "Osservazioni intorno alia
cavallette." Roma;, 1718. We bave seen only tbe titles of most of tbese papers, and notice tbem simply
as indications of a more destructive invasion than generally supposed by European writers.

^Keferstein. — J. L. Frisch, "Beschreibung von alleiley Insecten in Teutschland. &c," T. 9, p. 6 See,
also, C. H. Eappolt, "E generali contemplatione, &c." Beilin, 1730, and Anon. — "Edict wegen Vertil-
gung der Heuscbrecken der Sprengsel; sub dato Berlin, 13 April. 24 Oct., 1731," in corpus, constitut.
Marcbic, 1740, v. 5, pt.3. — J. F. Wiedler, 'Narratio de erucarum et locustarum quae agros Vittenburgaj
vicinos aliquot abhinc annis vastaruut, interitu," Phil. Trans. 1734, v. 38, p. 294.

"Fischer Orthoptera Europea," 292.

"Keferstein, Fischer, I. c. — Ritter — Rathleff Acrid otheologie in preface. — Koppen 115— Keunitz ' Art
Heuschrechen, in Ocon. Encyc." — Shaw Genl. Zool. 130. — Phil. Trans, v. 46. Gentleman's Mag., v. 18,
p. 362. Also the various articles to which this invasion gave origin, too numerous to be mentioned here.

"Lucretiis.

w Keferstein.

LOCUSTS IN ASIA.

41

Bussia has suffered from thetn almost every year. As we shall have oc-
casion hereafter to refer to such of these migrations as afford facts bear-
ing upon the questions under discussion, we will omit further mention of
them here.

According to Koerte53 Germany has been visited in some part of its
territory by the locusts the following years since the middle of the fif-
teenth century : 1475, 1527, 1030, 1080,' 1093, 1G90, 1712, 1714, 1715, 1719,
1727, 1728, 1729, 1730, 1731, 1734, 174G, 1747, 1748, 1749, 1750, 1752,
1753, 1754, 1759, 1703, 1803, 1825, 1820, 1S27.

In Spain59 the chronicles of locust visitations have distinguished the
following years as the most noted : 1495, 1542, 1547, 1019, 1082, 1088, 1792.

An examination of Koppen's chronological record of locust migrations
\o European Eussia and the adjoining provinces on the south shows the
following dates of visitations to some one or other section of this area :
1008, 1092, 1094, 1095, 1103, 1195, 1237, 1333, 1334, 1335,1330, 1475, 1527,
1530, 1542, 1050, 1089, 1090, 1093, 1708, 1710, 1712, 1747, 1748, 1749, 1750,
1750, 1757, 1783, 1793, 1799, 1800, 1801, 1802, 1803, 1805, 1800, 1812, 1813,
1814, 1815, 1810, 1820, 1821, 1822, 1823, 1824, 1825, 1828, 1829, 1830, 1831,
1832, 1834, 1835, 1830,1843, 1844, 1845, 1840, 1847, 1848, 1850, 1851, 1853,

1 1850, 1859, 1800, 1801. Dates subsequent to 1801 are omitted from this
list though given by that author.
In our notice of locust movements on other parts of the Eastern con-
tinent we shall not attempt to give the accounts in chronological order,
or to pay any particular attention to dates, but to quote such facts as
will assist in determining the areas visited, the direction of flight, the
faunal districts to which the species appertain, &c.

Locusts in Asia and adjacent islands. — The monumental remains of Nin-
eveh and Babylon reveal the fact of their presence, showing that they
were used as food. Tbey are also very distinctly figured on a cylinder, as
mounted upon and feeding on some kind of shrub, the antennae, long
posterior legs, and abdomiual segments being clearly shown59". The ac-
curate and striking description given by Joel is so exact that we think it
evident the species was Pachytylus migratorius ; but the remarkable fact
which corroborates this opinion is the unusual direction of movement,
as will hereafter be seen.

But I will remove far off from you the northern army, and will drive him into a laud
barren and desolate, with his face toward the east sea and his hinder part toward the
utmost sea*.

Diodorus Siculus61 says, speaking of the Acridophagi " over against
Babylon," that —

In these parts in the time of the spring, the south winds rise high and drive an in-
finite number of locusts out of the desert of an extraordinary bigness, furnished with

M " Die Strich— , Zug- oder Wanderheuschrecke." Berlin, 1828. p. 6.

MIgnot tie Asso. ' • Oryctolog. et Zool. Arragonias," 1764, p. 113 in Ritter's Heuschreckenplage tier Alten
Welt," p. 11.

69a Rawlinson s Ancient Monarchies, ii., 493. The "buzzing insect " mentioned in the Zendavesta
probably refers to the locust.
"Chap, ii, 20.

"Booth's Transl., i, p. 170.

42 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

most dirty and nasty colored wiDgs ; and these are plentiful food and provision for
them all their days.

In the year 62 of the Christian era a plague of locusts spread over Upper Mesopo-
tamia, and devoured vegetation to such an extent that the Parthian campaign was
stopped for want of forage6".

Capt. Charles C. Frankland62, July 20 and 27, at Smyrna —

At this period an immense flight of locusts (which indeed had for some days shown
themselves in great numbers) passed over thecity, falling upon the roofs of the houses
where they lay two or three inches deep, and tumbled into the sea in such quantities
that they could be traced in continuous streams for many leagues from the land, re-
sembling in color and appearance so many millions of broiled shrimps. These insects
being brought by the sea-breeze into the harbor, were thrown upon the shore and
against the quays in such masses that their putrified carcasses infected the air in all
directions. The passage of these animals lasted during many days, and at night as
they crossed over the disk of the moon, by reflecting the light as they shot across the
face of the planet, they resembled so many flakes of snow, or almost as many shoot-
ing stars. The heat of the weather at this period (87c) was so intense that during
the night I was always obliged to sleep with my windows open, the consequence of
"which was that the locusts used to tumble into my room and upon my musquito cur-
tains, and by hopping about the floor, and creeping into my bed, generally annoyed
me considerably.

He observes further that there were two kinds, one more lubberly and
less active than the other. M. Lefebvre 63 states that during one of his
voyages, while in the vicinity of Smyrna, " the earth was covered in a
short time to the depth of about two inches with a quantity of insects
appertaining to the species (Edipoda cruciata Charp."

Corance64 observed during many years residence in the island of Cy-
prus, that regularly inside of two years swarms of locusts were thrown
upon the north coasts of the island by the north wind, from the shores
of Carmania, which completely laid waste the country. Hasselquist 65
remarks that on his return from Cyprus to Smyrna they were becalmed
for some days on the coast of Carmania, when they daily got some grass-
hoppers on board from the continent, and that he then was enabled to>
observe what miserable sailors these insects are. He observes that in
the month of May and June a number of them were seen coming from
the south, directing their course to the northern shore. " They darken
the sky like a thick cloud, but scarcely have they quitted the shore be-
fore they, who have ravaged and ruined the country, cover the surface
of the sea with their dead bodies/' He says they come from the deserts
of Arabia, take their course over through Palestine, Syria, Carmania,
Natolia — go sometimes through Bithynia by Constantinople, and con-
tinue their journey through Poland, &c. An assumption we think in
great part unwarranted.

It is somewhat singular that neither of the early travelers in Pales-
tine— Arculf, Willibald, Bernard the Wise, Seawulf, Sigurd the Crusa-

610 Tacitus, Ann., xt, 5. — Kawlinson, Sixth Orient. Mon., 273.

62 "Travels to and from Constantinople in 1827-'28,'' vol. i, 264.

63 Annales Soc. Ent. France, 1833, ii, 338.
« " Itineraire," Paris 1816, p. 238.— Ritter.

66 " Voyages and Travels in the Levant, 1749-'52,r Engl, transl.. 444.

LOCUSTS IN ASIA AND EGYPT.

43

der, Benjamin of Tudela, Mandeville, Bertrandon de la Brocquiere, or
Maundrell — makes any mention of the locusts. The same thing is true
in reference to De Velde, to Bev. J. L. Porter, who resided for five years
at Damascus; to Stevens, Stanley, and a host of other travelers in this
part of Asia ; which is strong negative evidence that there are numer-
ous and considerable periods of rest from this plague in this part of
Asia, where it is supposed to be so constantly found.

Olivier 66 relates that following the south wind, great clouds of locusts
come up out of the interior of Arabia and the southwest regions of Per-
sia, into Syria and Mesopotamia. He was twice an eye-witness of their
invasions, the species being A. peregrinum. He observed this species in
Egypt, Arabia, Mesopotamia, and Persia. The neighborhood of Aleppo
is frequently ravaged by locusts.07 In the year 1800, J. Morier observed
their devastations in the region of Smyrna, and describes the perfect
insects as 3i inches long from the head to the end of the legs ; of a red
color. He states that they remained until July and August upon the
fields, " driven now inland, now oceanwards by the winds." 68 B. B.
Madden 69 states that in Smyrna he has seen the sky literally black with
them ; and that they appear always to travel in a straight meridional
line, and thus all the line of country in their course is laid waste by
them. Irby and Mangles 70 observed them at Shobek (near Mount Hor),.
and were told by their guide that they were on their way to Gaza, and
that they pass almost annually. Chesney 71 says the fields of Asia
Minor suffer comparatively little from locusts, but that they are not
wanting in Syria. W. G. Palgrave72 encountered the locusts on the
Hasa plain, where he says they had akghted in their northerly wander-
ings from their birth-place in Dahna. He speaks of them as being red-
dish-brown and of large size.

M. Niebuhr, who was accompanied by Forskal in his travels through
Arabia and other eastern countries, gives some important items of in-
formation in reference to the locusts of these regions. He says they
did not find the numbers so great as they are commonly supposed to be
in Europe. In Egypt he once only saw a cloud, which was brought by
a south wind from the deserts of Lybia and fell in Cairo. In November,
1762, he observed a large cloud of them at Jidda, which was driven
over the city by a west wind from the other side of the Arabic gulf.
He adds, " Therefore, many of the insects must have been drowned in
their passage." In July following he found a small quantity near Mount
Samara, which seemed to have spent the season in Arabia. " These
swarms often cross the Bed Sea a second time and return to Egypt,
the upper part of which, adjoining the deserts of Lybia, seems to be the

66 Travels in Syria, 2, 695.

67 Russell's Aleppo, p. 407.

ra " Second Journey," 03.— Ritter.

m Travels in Turkey, Egypt, Nubia, and Palestine, 1824-'27, ii, 30.

70 Travels in Egypt and Nubia, Syril. and the Holy Land. Murry's ed., 136.

" "Expedition to the Euphrates," vol. i, 302 and 561.

73 "Narrative of a Year's Journey through Central and Eastern Arabia, 1802- 63," 2d ed., pp. 137-8.

44 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

•cradle of these animals." lie often saw clouds of them in Persia and Syria.
The species found in Arabia was named by Mr. Forskal Gryllus gregarius,
which, he thinks, is different from that named by Linnaeus G. migra-
torius.13 " Jidda or Dsjidda," according to his map, is in Arabia, on the
Red Sea, latitude 21° 28', near Mecca.

Volney,74 speaking of Syria, states that the inhabitants of Syria have
remarked that the locusts are bred by mild winters, and that they al-
ways come from the deserts of Arabia. That the south and southeast-
erly winds drive with violence these clouds of locusts over the Mediter-
ranean, where such quantities of them are drowned that when their
carcasses are thrown on the shore they infect the air for several days,
•even to a great distance.

St. Jerome speaks of seeing the thickest swarms traversing Palestine
and Laying waste the land.75

While Olivier found the destructive locusts in a great part of North-
ern Persia, other travelers met with them along the southern borders
of this country. Chardiu saw near Bender Abassi, in the middle of
March, 1074, so vast a cloud that the sky was completely darkened by
them. They were red and very large.76 J. Morier has, in his opinion,
met with the same species (which Kefferstein correctly supposes cannot
be G. migratorius) in the year 1811, at exactly the same season, near
Abuschahr, during a southeast wind. The insects had legs three
inches long, body and head a bright yellow.77 He also observed them
at Shiraz the 11th of July, driven by a southwest wind. Ousley78 also
observed locusts in the southern part of Persia. They also visit Kur-
distan and Southern Media.78"

Burkhardt 79 asserts that Nedjed, or the central and elevated portion of
Arabia, is especially subject to the ravages of the locusts. That when
they have devoured the crops they enter the huts of the inhabitants,
•even into the innermost chambers, eating everything, even to the leather
and water-bottles ; and that they multiply rapidly and to fearful num-
bers by a three times repeated laying of eggs. He further states that
when he visited the peninsula of Sinai in 1816 the locusts had already
for five continuous years destroyed the harvests. The same writer 80 re-
marks as follows, in reference to the Syrian locusts :

It was at Naeme (a place east of the Jordan) that I saw for the first time a swarm of
locusts ; they so completely covered the ground that my horse killed numbers of them
at every step. This species is called in Syria Djered Nedjdyat or Djerad Teyar, that is,
the flying locusts, being thus distinguished from the other species called Djerad Dsahhaf
or devouring locusts. The former have a yellow body, a gray breast, and wings of a

73 " Travels through Arahia and other Countries in the East." Heron's translation, ii, 334 et teq.
71 " Travels through Syria and Egypt in the years 1773-75." Translated into English, i, 305.

75 Comment, on Joel, chap. 2.

76 "Voyage," vol. ii, p. 221.— Ritter.

77 " 2d journey," 43.— Bitter.

78 " Travels," i, 195.

784 Kich. Kurdistan, 173 ; Kinneir, p. 43 ; Chardin, iii, 44.

79 " Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabis," ii, 89.
*> " Travels in Syria and the Holy Land," 238.

LOCUSTS ON THE STEPPES AND IN GEORGIA.

4&

dirty white, with gray spots. The latter, I was told, have a whitish gray body and
white wings.

He states that the former are much less dreaded than the latter.

Pallas81 asserts that Gnjllus italicus appears annually on the dry emi-
nences in the arid southern regions from the European boundary as far
as the Irtish and the mountains of Altai, but that it is only in particular
years it multiplies in such numbers as to become pernicious. The larger
species, G. migratorius, which is also common in this region, is also fre-
quently observed mingled to a certain extent in the swarms of the
former. Dr. Clark, who traveled over the steppes of Tartary, observed
immense swarms of both species; but has confused the names of the
species by designating the former (G. italicus) as G. migratorius and the
latter (P. migratorius) as G. tartaricus. He says his guide informed
him that instances had occurred of persons being suffocated by a fall
of locusts on the steppes.82

In 1770, great swarms of G. migratorius appeared north of the Irtish
in the Barbara Steppe.83 On the west side of the Caspian Sea the locust
plague appeared in Georgia and near the mouth of the Volga, almost
always with the south wind, borne in great clouds out of Eriwan toward
Georgia and Daghistan.84

The following, from a daily paper, applies to 1878 or 1879 :

A plague of locusts. — A detachment of Russian troops, hound for General LazerofPs
expedition against the Turcomans, met with a curious misadventure near the Georgian
town of Elizavetopol. At a few versts from the town the soldiers encountered the
wing of an army of locusts, reput ed to be twenty miles in length and broad in propor-
tion. The officers in charge did not like to turn back, repelled by mere insects, and,
pushing on, soon became surrounded by the locusts. These appeared to have mistaken
the soldiers for trees, and swarmed by thousands around them, "crawling over their
bodies, lodging themselves inside their helmets, penetrating their clothes and their
knapsacks, filling the barrels of their rifles, and striving to force themselves into the
unfortunate men's ears and noses." The commander gave the order for the troops to
push on double-quick for Elizavetopol, but the road was so blocked with locusts that
the soldiers grew frightened, and, after wavering a few minutes, a regular stampede
took place.

Led by a non-commissioned officer of keen vision, who had observed a few huts a
short distance from the road, the troops dashed across the fields, "slipping about
over the crushed and greasy bodies of locusts as though they had been on ice." The
huts were soon reached, and the officers rushed inside, but the refuge proved to be of
little value, as the premises were already in the possession of the enemy. The peas-
ants told the correspondent of the Kavkas that for days they had been besieged by the
vermin, the insects filling the wells and tainting the water, crowding into the ovens
and spoiling the bread and preventing any food being cooked or stored. At intervals
the villagers issued from their houses and made onslaughts on the locusts, killing
them by thousands, and carting them away afterward to the fields for manure. The
soldiers were detained prisoners by the insects for forty-eight hours, and on their
march to Elizavetopol in the rear of the locust army they found every blade of grass
and green leaf destroyed and the peasants reduced to beggary.

81 " Travels through the southern Provinces of the Russian Empire, " Engl, transl., ii, 4, 22.
62 " Travels in Russia, Tartary, and Turkey," 4th ed., i, 133..
• 83 Georgi " Siberische Reise," pt. i, p. 28.— Ritter.
MGamba " Voyage dans la Russie meridionale 1820-'24," ii, 226.

4G REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

The locusts also ofteu commit great ravages in China, and especially
in the Province of Xensi.35 In the year 104 B. C. a swarm arose in the
east and flew through Turhoung, near Jumeu — Thor at the entrance of
the desert of Loj, in Western China — and the consequence was so great
a famine that the campaign which the Emperor Wan Li was prosecuting
had to be abandoned.8* Xavarette87 says that in the reign of the Em-
peror Tai-Zung (about A. D. 030) immense swarms of locusts infested
China, and that this noble Emperor, to stay the plague, took up a locust
in the presence of the people and ate it, and immediately the locusts
left his empire.

Ma-tuan-lin, in his grand encyclopedia entitled Wen bein-tun kao,
registers year by year the locust devastations for a period of 1924 years,
in which are recorded 173 visitations.88

John White89 witnessed such flights of locusts in the island of Manila
in 181!) that he was for hours protected from the rays of the sun by the
passing swarms. " Fortunately," he adds, "this is not the case every
year, ami many years have elapsed without an invasion." He simply
describes them as brown and resembling the large flying grasshop-
per. It had at the time he wrote not been satisfactorily ascertained
from whence they came, whether from a distance or near at hand. Paul
De la Girouiere90 asserts that the locusts almost regularly every seven
years leave the isles of the south in clouds and fall upon Luzon, bring-
ing desolation and even famine. He describes their appearance in flight
as a "fire cloud in the horizon.'' The figure given in his work is beyond
question that of an Acridiwm. A more recent traveler to these islands,
F. Jagor, confirms the statements of Gironiere as to the locust visita-
tions, but adds in a note that the species is identified by Gerstacker as
Oedipoda subfasciata of Haan — Acridium manilense of Mayen.91

In the East Indies, according to Wahl,92 there were found not only the
■destructive army locust (G. migratorius), but also a kind of yellow locust
called Tscheddy, which often covers whole fields and darkens the air
like a cloud.

Major Moore9J was an eye-witness in Poonah how a swarm of locusts
laid waste the country of Mahratta, and was supposed to have come
out of Arabia. Their flight (or column) is supposed to have extended
over five hundred miles.94 The species is described as blood-red, and as
different from G. migratorius. The Bombay Courier9'" states that a great

85 "Reise der Hollandischen Gesandtschaft nach China vom Jahre lG55-'57," p. 356. — Kefferstein.

86 Ritter, p. 7.

87 "An Account of the Empire of China," Churchill's Voyages, i, 95.

88 Alfonso Andreozzi, " Sulle Cavallette, " &c. — Noticed in Bulletino, Soc. Ent. Ital. , ii, 1870, p. 77.

89 " Voyages to the China Sea," 140.

80 "Twenty Tears in the Philippines," 229.
91 " Travels in the Philippine Islands," 273.

92 Erdbeschreibnng von Ostindien, B. 2, 844. — Kefferstein.

93 According to Kirby and Spence. Introduc. pt. 1, 239.

94 As no statement of this kind is found in Maj. Moore's ' ' Narrative of Captain Little's Detachment,"
we presume the communication was verbal or by letter.

95 January 21, 1826, as quoted in the Asiatic Journal, vol. 23, pg. 90.

LOCUSTS IN INDIA AND AUSTRALIA.

swarin of locusts, which for two months have been scattered over Guz-
urate, flew in a cloud over Baroda on the 23d of December, and occu-
pied a space of ten English miles in reaching their destination.

G. Playfair96 gives an account of the appearance of locusts in the
Doab.

Salt97 states that while he resided at Bombay numbers of the same
-species of locust (as that he saw at AmphUa, on the coast of Abyssinia)
were sent down to Mr. Duncan from the upper country for the purpose
•of pointing out the insect which had at that time laid waste several ex-
tensive tracts of land in the interior. He describes and figures the spe-
cies, showing it to be an Acridium closely allied to A. peregrinum.
In an article from the South Australian Register, of Adelaide, Australia,
December 19, 1871, January 2, 1872,98 in reference to the locust visita-
tion of that region the following statement incidentally occurs :

Mr. Home related some of liis experiences concerning locusts in India, the species
being probably Acridium peregrinum. They were in such numbers that they could be
collected by tons, and they were fed upon by almost every description of animal.

In the article last quoted is a very full account of the locust ravages in
Australia in the latter part of 1871. From this it appears that they
take their origin in the north part of the country, and move southward.
One correspondent quoted states that the locusts appear more or less
every year in some part of the colony, though seldom so numerous as at
this time. There appears to be but one migratory species, briefly de-
scribed as " female dirty-brown, and male bright yellow." They usually
come in November and December, seldom remaining after the 1st of
January.

On the 17th of December, about sundown, there was an immense flight at Glendg
from the seaward. They were iu countless myriads, and flying about nine or ten feet
high. They had every appearance of having crossed the Gulf ; at least they were in
full force at the end of the jetty, and appeared to be making their way against the
wind towards the hills. One of the Glendg fishermen states that he has, on previous
occasions, seen locusts crossing the Gulf, and that he has while out at sea found his
boat covered with them. A few days afterwards (December 20) the locusts arrived in
force at Glendg, traveling rapidly southward. The right wing of the army rested on
the coast line, but did not go further westward than the green herbage of the sand
hills. On the bare sands only a few stragglers were to be seen, and scarcely any within
three or four yards of the water.

Another severe visitation to this section of Australia in 1824 is also
mentioned.

It appears that New Zealand also occasionally suffers from locusts,
-but we have been unable to find any account of their movements or
ravages in these islands.

On the Isle of France and Madagascar swarms of locusts appear,
which darken the sun.99

96 Trans. Med. and Phys. Soc. Calcutta, i, 1825, p. 103.
"Voyage to Abyssinia in 1808 and 1810, App. lsi.
98 Quoted in Trans. Ent, Soc. Lond., 1872, xii.

"Bory do St. Vincent, " Voyage a l'Ue de Bourbon," i, 226.— Mandelslo, Morgenlandische Reise, 1058.
u, 171. -Bitter.

48 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

Northern Africa has a locust history reaching back to the days of the
Pharaohs :

And Moses stretched forth his rod over the land of Egypt, and the Lord brought
an east wind upon the land all that day, and all that night ; and when it waa morn-
ing, the east wind brought the locusts.

And the Lord turned a mighty strong west wind, which took away the locusts and
cast them into the Red Sea.100

The fact of their passing over the Red Sea from one side to the other,
or rather of going from Arabia into Egypt and returning, is noted by
modern travelers.

The statements of Paulus and Orosius,101 Julius Obsequeus, 102 and
Eutropius, in reference to the vast hordes of locusts cast into the sea
on the coast of Cyrene during the consulate of M. P. Hypsaenus and
M. F. Flaccus, and producing a pestilence that destroyed 800,000 people,
hosts of cattle, fowl, and wild beasts, has been so often repeated that it
is only necessary to mention it here in order to add that it is scarcely
worthy of belief. The fact of the locusts being cast into the sea is valu-
able as adding one to many incidents of this kind. Leo Africanus101
speaks of immense swarms in Northern Africa, especially in Mauritania.
Among other old works which speak of locust ravages in Northern
Africa and Abyssinia, but contain little that is of any value in the
present discussion, we may mention the following: Job Ludolph10* gives
an account of locust ravages in Abyssinia, also in other parts of Northern
Africa. Joano dos Santos105 describes the terrible famine brought on the
inhabitants of Eastern Ethiopia by the locust ravages. Frances Alva-
rez106 speaks of the incredible multitude of locusts that fall upon the
earth, and that hide the sun by their swarms. Nicolaus Clenardus107
makes mention of seeing immense swarms at Fezzan.

One of the fullest accounts of the locusts of Northern Africa preced-
ing the later investigations of the French naturabsts is by J. G. Jack-
son.108 He says " they are produced from some unknown physical cause,
and proceed from the desert, always coming from the South." He re-
marks that —

In traveling from Mogodor to Tangier, before the plague in 1799, the country was
covered with them. A singular incident then occurred at El Araiche. The whole
country, from the confines of the Sahara to that place, was ravaged by them ; but
after crossing the river El Kos, they were not to be seen, though there was nothing to
prevent them from flying across it ; moreover, they were all moving that way — that is,
to the north ; but when they reached the banks of the river they proceeded eastward,
so that the gardens and fields north of El Araiche were full of vegetables, fruits, and
grain. * * * In the year 1799 these destructive insects were carried away into the

"»Exodus, x, 13, 19.
""Contra Paganos, 1. 5, c. 11.
!t«Cap. 30.

103 "Geographical Hist. Africa," Engl. Transl., 349.

101 "History of Ethiopia." Latin Ed., Bk. 1. n. xcvi, 13 and Gents transl., p. 67.
106 " Pinkerton's Voyages," vol. 16, p. 717.
106 Itinerary to Ethiopia.

>°?Epist. L. 1 p. 73, quoted by Ludolph, Latin Edn.
««"An Account of Morocco, &c," 2d edn., p. 100, &c.

LOCUSTS IN NORTHERN AFRICA.

49

Western Ocean by a violent hurricane, and the shores were covered with their dead
bodies.

He says that when the locust is young it is green ; as it grows it as-
sumes a yellow hue, and lastly becomes brown. The figure given in
this edition, plate 3, is very poor ; but the thorax shows that it is an
Aeridium, and about three inches long.

According to Shaw the locusts in 1724 began to gather in Barbary
after a south wind had been some time blowing. Toward the middle of
April they had so multiplied that they formed immense clouds, darken-
ing the suu. About the middle of May, when about to deposit their
eggs, they began to move backwards into the plains of Metidja and
other adjoining regions, and when the young were fully grown they be-
came more ravenous and swifter in flight than before. Yet this condi-
tion lasted not long, when they scattered themselves and laid their eggs ;
as, moreover, their flight and progress came always from the north (?) so
it is probable that they found their death in the sea.109 Morocco and
Taflete are often visited by locust swarms which come in great flocks
from the south ; they often appear two or three times in the course of
the year, and their flights are frequently followed by famine, and this
by pestilence.110

On the 23d of September, 1761, Forskal observed a swarm come down
in Cairo. The swarm was composed of the species he termed Gryllus
gregarius (undoubtedly A. peregrinum).ni He saw them again in Jan-
uary, 1702, flying over the Libyan desert with the southwest wind ; and
in November, 1762, Niebukr observed them (?) again on his journey from
the Arabian Gulf to Djedda, where they came up with the wind out of
the west, across the Gulf, and continued their flight toward the east.112

Browne observed them in Darfur.113 Light met with them on the 11th
of May, 1814, in destructive swarms at the entrance into Nubia, going
up the Nile from Egypt, near the island of Phila.114

Burkhardt1'5 mentions finding them at Tacazze, in Nubia, and also at
the same time in Belad al Taka, in Lower Mareb, which he calls their
peculiar brooding-place, from whence they issue iu destructive migrating
swarms and lay waste the fields and pastures of Nubia.

In 1813 they devoured everything in the country of the blacks from
Besber up to Shendy. Burkhardt affirms that the locusts are at home
in the whole district of the Nile from Egypt to Sennaar, and in all the
Nubian desert ; that all the swarms which he saw in Upper Egypt came
from the north, and that the Nubians declared they came from Upper
Egypt to them UG.

109 " Travels in Barbary and the Levant."— French Transl. of la Haye, i, 331.— Kefersteln.
110Host, "Moroco,"p. 300.— Ritter.

111 "Descriptiones aninialium qua! in itiuere orientali Observata, Forscal" p. 81.

mBeschreibung von Arabien 168.— Kefferstein.

'"Travels, 226.— Ritter.

114 Light, Travels in Egypt, p. 56.

»« Travels in Nubia, 391.

116 Ritter Heuschrecken plage der Alten Welt, p. 19-23.— Keffenstein, 1. c.
4l

50 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

In this connection we may add that Diodorus Sicnlus says "the west,
north, northwest, and east winds blow in Ethiopia as in other parts of
the world; but the south winds never blow, nor are ever known in
Ethiopia"117.

The visitation of Algiers by these pests in I860 was so severe that it
drew a special official circular from Marshal Canrobert. They first ap-
peared during the month of April, coming from the gorges of the moun-
tains and the fertile valleys of the Littoral. They descended first on
the plains of Mitidja and the Sahel of Algiers. Their mass at certain
points intercepted the light of the sun, and produced an effect similar
to that of the snow storms which in the winter season fall in Europe and
blot out even the nearest objects from the sight. They deposited eggs
which soon gave life to innumerable larvae, so that the first swarms were
soon replaced and centupled by new generations. They not only de-
stroyed all vegetation, but filled up the water-courses, the canals, and
the rivulets, so that the troops had the greatest difficulty in preserving
the water from infection. Almost at the same time the provinces of
Oran and Constant ine were invaded at Heman, where no locusts had
appeared within the memory of the oldest inhabitants. At Sidi-bel-
Abbis, at Sidi-Brahim, and at Mostaganen they attacked not only the
tobacco plantations, the vines, and the fig trees, but also the olive trees,
notwithstanding the bitterness of their leaves. At Belizabe and at
Harba they invaded the cotton grounds. In the province of Constantino
the locusts appeared simultaneously from the Sahara to the sea, and from
Bougie to Callem.

M. Girard119 gives a very interesting account of this invasion, in which
he says the opinion most generally accredited in reference to Acridians
(locusts) of Algiers is that they come from the equatorial regions of
Africa, from Soudan. That the swarms hatching in the sands of these
regions — a part of which move to the south, the others to the north —
those moving northward arrive by steps in the Tell of Algiers. The
specimens of this swarm which were sent to the society, in all stages
of growth, when examined proved to be A. perigrinum.

Eeference to the species which is found migratory in Algiers and
other parts of Africa, and its specific charaeteristics, will be found in
various works.120

The most complete account of the natural history and ravages of this
species in Algiers is by M. G. Lallemant.121 He says the two great in-
vasions, that of 1864 and of 1866, arrived in the month of April. That
these insects inhabit all the North of Africa, and a part of Asia ; that

"'Booth's Trans., i, 189.

118 Trans. Ent. Soc, Lond., 1866, vol. v, Proa, xxiii.

»»In Ann. Soc. Ent. France, 4th Ser., 1864, vii, BulL, x-xiii.

™>Oliveer, "Voyage dansl'emp., Othom."ii., p. 424.— Servittt, "Orthop." 666.— Shaw, "Travels in Bar-
bary and the Levant." — Poiret, Voyage en Barbarie, i, 306. — Compte-Bendu, Acad, des Sci., 1845, pp. 1041
and 1499.— Lucas, "Explor. Scient. Alg.," in Scien. Phys. Anim., art. iii, 29, and Bull Soc. Ent France,
1845, xxxii.

ui In Ann. Soc. Ent. Big., voL 9.

LOCUSTS IN AFRICA.

51

he does not believe the swarms arise at once en masse (as though by a
preconcerted signal), but, inhabiting this whole country, the isolated
individuals join the group as it passes, thus augmenting it as it pro-
ceeds ; hence, the longer the distances and the more the wind favors,
the larger will be the swarm. He says they generally come into the
French possessions of North Africa under the influence of a hot wind
from the south, known in Algiers as the sirocco. This wind attains in
Algiers a temperature of 51° (cent.), as he has ascertained by observa-
tion of many days in succession.

The three chief invasions of this section were in 1845, 1864, and 1866.

Bolivar's statements in reference to this species will be introduced
hereafter, when we come to consider the question of passage across the
Mediterranean Sea from Africa to Europe.

Eev. Samuel Gobat 122 makes the following statement in reference to
an invasion he witnessed near Axum, in Abyssinia, in June, 1831 :

The air was teeming with locusts, by which the light of the sun was already greatly
obscured. But this was only the advanced guard. On looking toward the north I
perceived, about a league distant, several faint clouds, as it were, rising from the
earth, which I at once took for locusts, having before seen this appearance of them
near Cana of Galilee. Afterward this mist became so thick that it entirely hid the sky
and neighboring mountains from our view, and the people of the country, though ac-
customed to seeing locusts, no longer believed these wonders to be occasioned by them;
but the locusts soon arrived tTo convince us of the fact. The air was so darkened that
we could scarcely discern the place of the sun ; and the earth was so completely cov-
ered with these insects that we could see nothing else. Children running about the
fields, at only a stone's throw, could scarcely be seen through the multitudes of locusts
surrounding them. Every year there is a greater or less descent of locusts in Tigre,
but they are much more numerous this year than usual.

He states that they are rarely found "beyond" (southwest of) theTa-
cazza Eiver.

Henry Salt123 says that during his stay in the bay of Amphila a large
flight of these insects came over to one of the islands and in a few days
destroyed nearly half of the vegetation. He describes, as before stated,
a species seen at Bombay, which he asserts was the same as seen here.
James Hamilton124 mentions passing through a swarm in the latter part
of April, 1854, on the Eahat, a branch of the Blue Nile, about N. lat. 14°
10', E. long. 34o 10'.

Barth, in his Central Africa125, remarks as follows : "I was here not
a little surprised at the swarms of locusts which the wind drove into our
faces and which certainly indicated our approach to more fertile re-
gions." it was July, 1854, and he was then on the Niger about Gaben,
N. lat, 16° 30', E. long. 0° 20', going south a little east. The southern
limit of the desert he places at the latitude of Gao (or Gogo), N. lat. 17°.

The oft-quoted description of locust flights by Adanson126 relates to

m" Journals of a Residence in Abyssinia," p. 392.
m "Voyage to Abyssinia in 1800 and 1810," p. 172.
m " Sinai, the Hadjaz, and Soudan," p. 297.
mLondon Edition, V, p. 242.

"•"A Voyage to Senegal." The isle of Goree, and the river Gambia. Engl, transl., p. 159.

52 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

migrations observed in February, 1750, during his voyage up the Gam-
bia. In this case they were brought by a strong east wind, which he
supposed would ultimately cany them into the sea. He describes them
as being entirely brown, of the breadth and length of one's finger, and
the wings much longer than those of any locust he had ever seen before.
Barrow127 encountered an immense swarm March 19, 1802, near the
crossing of Orange River, S. lat. 29°, E. long. 23° 30'. From his lan-
guage and judging by the direction he was moving we presume this was
a swarm returning northward.

Moffat,129 after giving a vivid description of their ravages in 1820, and
the ineffectual efforts of the natives to stay their progress, remarks
that —

When a country is not extensive and is bounded by the 8ea, the scourge is soon over,
the winds carrying them away like clouds to the watery waste, where they alight to
rise no more. Thus the immense flights which pass to the south and east rarely re-
turn, but fresh supplies are always pouring'down from the north. All human endeav-
ors to diminish their numbers would appear liko attempting to drain the ocean by a
pump.

Eichard Jobson's narrative 129, in which he speaks of the terrible suf-
fering and famine brought on by locust devastations, relates to Eastern
Africa — Barua and Dongali. Captain Clapperton 130 makes no mention
of locusts, but his faithful servant, Eichard Lander, in his journal, which
is appended (p. 323), incidentally mentions them as an article of food in
Yariba. Dr. Herman Krauss 131 gives an account of observations of the
migrations and devastations of A. (Schistocerca) peregrinum in Senegal
by Steindachner in the winter of 18G4. In his enumeration of the
Acridians of this region this is the only migratory species mentioned.
He states that Steindachner observed a swarm, evidently of this species,
flying at sea about 200 nautical miles from the African coast and distant
from the Canary Islands. In connection with this well-authenticated
evidence of flights at sea, we call attention to the remarkable statement
of Sir Hans Sloane, 132 that Colonel Xeedham, who resided for some time
in Teneriffe, informed him that in 1619 locusts destroyed all the products
of that island ; that they were seen to come off from the coast of Bar-
bary, the wind blowing from thence ; they flew as far as they could
then one alighted in the sea and another on it, so that, dropping one
upon another, in this way they at length made a heap as big as the
greatest ship above the water, and, as judged, almost as many tinder
Those above water, on the next day after being refreshed by the sun
took flight again and came in clouds to the island from whence they
had perceived them in the air. They were troubled forty years be

•""Travels" — "An account of a Journey in 1801 and 1802 to the Boshuna Nation, Southern Africa,
p. 429.

128 "Southern Africa," p. 298.

129 "Voyage to Gambora, Africa," in Purchas' Pilgrims, II, 1046-7.

130 "Journal of a Second Journey to the interior of Africa."

1,1 "Orthoptera Von Senegal." Akad. Wissench. Wien., June and July, 1877, p. 33.
"Nat. Hist. Jamaica, I, Introd., LXXXX

LOCUSTS IN AFRICA AND SOUTH AMERICA.

53

fore with a like calamity. He also states in another place133 that while
in latitude 14° 40', and about 500 leagues from Barbadoes, a sailor took
up a live grasshopper from the forecastle of the ship and brought it to
him, assuring him it had fallen upon the vessel. This species he named
Locusta maxima cinereo purpurea, maculis brunnis. He describes it as
being two inches long to the end of the body, and two and a half to the
tips of the wings (elytra), of an ash, inclining to a red or purple color,
with many brown spots on them. He remarks that Vanderhagen noticed
a similar occurrence in his voyage, 134 but without mentioning the dis-
tance from land. But this latter writer says that on his return to Helena
he observed many red and whitish locusts swimming in the water and
that some also flew upon the ship. He also quotes from Cadamosto a
statement in reference to the abundance of locusts in Senegal.135
Andrew Sparrman136 says that —

Sometimes the locusts also afford a delicious treat to the more barbarous and remote
tribes of the Hottentots, when, as at times happens after an interval of eight, ten,
fifteen, or twenty years, they make their appearance in incredible numbers. At these
times they come from the north, migrating to the southward, and do not suffer them-
selves to be hindered by any obstacles, but even if they happen to reach the sea, fly
boldly on and are drowned in it.

The account of these as seen in the Canary Islands, quoted by Bev.
T.H.Gallaudet137 evidently commingles the statements of Sir Hans Sloane
and Beauplan, relating to widely separated regions. Near the Cape of
Good Hope, in Kaffir-land, swarms of locusts often destroy every green
thing.138

Near Galam, in Senegal, in the year 1698, M. Brui encountered on his
voyage an air-darkening swarm of locusts which was two full hours in
passing, until the south wind began to blow, and drove them into the
desert. Captain Stibbs had a similar experience near Barrahonda, on
his voyage on the Zambia.139

As will be seen from the following brief notices, other parts of America,
as well as the Western United States, have their locust pests, though not
to the same extent as the Eastern Continent.

Edward Temple140 speaks of the devastations of locusts about Buenos
Ayres, where they devoured not only fruits and vegetables, but even
large trees. He met with them at Cordova in immense numbers, but
does not give direction of flight.141 Speaking of the destruction of a
field of tobacco-plants he compares the horde when spread over the field
to a " brown mantle," indicating the color.

133 Vol.l, p. 29.

m Excerpt. Clus-cur.

136See also the quotation from Sir Hans Sloane's account in Gentleman's Magazine, vol. 18, Aug., 1748,
pp. 362, et seg.

ae "Voyage to the Cape of Good Hope," Transl, I, p. 263.
"'Scripture Biography for the Young.— Moses, vol. i, p. 114.

138 Brace, Miscellen aus der neuesten auslandischen Literatur, 1834. Heft. 10, p. 107.— Keferstein.
139"Labat, Kelatde l'Afrique Occidental^ " II, p. 176.— Hugh Murray, Hist. Occ. of Africa, I, pp. 1M
and 238.— Ritter.
140 Travels in various parts of Peru, I, p. 104.

"'See, also, Froreip, Notizen der Natur- und Heilkundc, vol. 28, p. 136.— Keferstein

54 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

Ringger,14* in the month of October, 1820, observed for the first time
in Paraguay a swarm of locusts which came over from the right coast of
Paraguay. This was a species of Acridium. According to Molina,14*
Chili is much less infested with grasshoppers than Cujo and many other
countries in America. Kefferstein quotes this writer incorrectly as say-
ing they also show themselves here. According to Fannin,114 they appear
to be rare in this country.

Speaking of Uruguay, Fannin says these pests appear at intervals of
five, six, or seven years, coming from the north in armies and deposit-
ing their eggs here.

Peter Schmidtmeyer observed them in May in immense numbers be-
tween San Luis and Mendoza.144

Darwin's account of the swarm he observed at Luxan, in March, 1825r
has already been given in our First Report.146 We need only to call
attention to the fact thai they came from the South and in mass, pre-
senting a cloud of dark reddish-brown color. He erroneously supposed
them to be identical with P. migratorius, as the species which is migra-
tory in this part of South America, as has been ascertained by Bur-
meister, is Acridium paranense. A list of worts relating to the history
and migrations of this species will be found in our former Report (Ap-
pendix, p. 278). The Gilliss expedition observed them near San Luis j
Padre Ovalle, between Mendoza and Buenos Ayres.1,r

For accounts of their migrations and operations in Central America
and Mexico the reader is referred to our First Report.

REMARKS.

Having now taken a general but brief survey of the movements and
operations of locusts in the various parts of the world, we desire, before
entering upon the discussion of the various topics relating to migration,
to call attention to certain facts which appear to be indicated by this
survey.

The first is, that all the grand divisions of the earth and most of the
larger faunal regions are more or less subject to ravages of locusts ; but
that the area of their most abundant development is to be found in North-
ern Africa, Western Asia, and Southern Europe, or in other words a vast
semi-circular sweep around the eastern extremity of the Mediterranean
Sea, reaching from Poland around the Caspian and southern end of Ara-
bia to Senegal.

The second important conclusion to be drawn is that wherever they
are largely and frequently developed, we find either extensive deserts

142Rei8e nach Paraguay, p. 420. — Kefferstein.
»3Geog., Nat., and Civil Hist. Chili, Transl., I, p. 146.

>« "Chili, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Buenos Ayres," In L'Univers, XXV, p. 6.
i4i "Travels in Chili over the Andes in the years 1820 and 1821," p. 107.
»6P. 466.

"'First Report TJ. S. Entomological Commission, p. 4G6. The date of the publication of Ovalle'a his-
tory of Chili as given in our report — 1846— is probably a typographical error, it should be 1646.

PKEVALENCE OF LOCUSTS IN DRY REGIONS. 55

or vast treeless areas, and an arid or dry climate. The desert character
of that vast region of Northern Africa extending from Senegal to the
Mediterranean, and from the Atlantic to the Eed Sea, is well known, as
is also the arid and desert character of a large part of Arabia, Syria,
Persia, and Mesopotamia. The Ukraine, Crimea, and the regions around
the north and east of the Caspian Sea, are characterized by those broad,
treeless, and more or less elevated plains to which the name steppes has
been applied. Extensive pampas and treeless plains form a marked
feature of those sections of South America in which the locusts are
found. The same we know also to be true in reference to the locust
districts in North America. Keferstein remarks148 that high chains of
mountains covered with snow are the best natural barriers against the
extension and migrations of the destructive locusts. That this may be
true when applied to some species is not to be doubted, but that it is
applicable to all is disputed by the history of our native species, C. spretus.
Eitter assures us149 that no traces of locusts are found in the cold climate
of Thibet, in cool Cashmere, and that in the central interior of Asia, be-
tween the Himalaya and Altai mountain systems, and on the plains of
Dekkan, in the south of Nerbudda, or in India beyond the Ganges, be-
tween the Brahmapootra and Irawaddy Eivers and Tangtse-Kiang,
where a misty, rainy, maritime climate prevails, the locust plague is un-
known.150

Judging from the silence of Stanley, Schweinfurt, and some other recent
travelers in reference to locusts, there is a large region in Central Africa
in which they do not prevail. The same appears to be true in regard to
a large part of the northern portion of South America, where a rich and
luxuriant growth of vegetation and a moist climate prevail. The free-
dom of Eastern North American from this pest is well known.

A third important conclusion to be drawn from our brief review is
that locust migrations are not governed by any law of regular peri-
odicity. If we divide the number of years given by the Chinese rec-
ord (1,924) by the number of visitations (173) it gives an average of
a little over 11 years. The time embraced in Koerte's list of the 30 inva-
sions of Germany also gives an average of a little over 11 years. Kop-
pen'slistof the visitations of Eussia and adjoining regions151 from 1008 to
1861 gives an average interim of something over 13 years. Although
the average periods thus obtained by dividing the whole number of
years by the number of visitations agree so nearly, yet by simply run-
ning the eye over the lists of years any one can see that this argument
is purely accidental and will not hold good when applied to the various
interims. In the earlier times less attention was paid not only to the
study of natural history but to agriculture than at present, and only the

Mag., May, 1878, quoted in our former Report, p. 477,
1,000 feet in Altyn-Tag range, in Central Asia.

'«L.c.

,43neusclireckenplage der Alten Welt, p. 7.
150 But see statement of Colonel Frejvalsky, Geo2
that swarms of locusts were seen at an elevatioi •'
161 " Heuschrecken in Siidrussland," pp. 110-12.

56 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

more remarkable invasions were noted. It is also possible, and we are
inclined to think more than probable, that, in most of the countries
where locust visitations have long been observed, their invasions have
become more frequent than formerly, but the records of visitation can
not be relied upon for the determination of this question. Be this as it
may, the facts we have presented are sufficient to show conclusively that
their migrations are not governed by any regular periodicity, and hence
depend upon some influence which is irregular in its operations, as, for
example, climatic changes.

Yet, notwithstanding this conclusion, we cannot pass on without call-
ing attention to the fact that if we take the years of the great general in-
vasions of Central Europe, 1333, 1050, 1G93, 1748, and 1825 ; of Spain, 1495,
1 542, 1G19, and 1082 ; of Algiers and adjoining regions, 1799, 1845, 1866,
and the recent one of 1878; and the noted locust years in our own west-
ern country, to wit, 1820, 1855, 1866, and 1874-'76, the interim in each
case is very nearly a multiple of 11 years.

II.— PERMANENT BREEDING GROUNDS OR AREAS OF PERMANENT

DISTRIBUTION.

That migratory locusts occasionally extend their flights into sections
where they are not found as permanent residents is too well known to
require proof, and that they sometimes continue in these extralimital
areas for two or three years by reproduction has been clearly demon-
strated. As a proof of this assertion we have only to refer to the paper
by Koppen already mentioned, and our former report. Therefore, in at-
tempting to mark the boundaries of the distribution of these erratic in-
sects, it has been found necessary to draw at least two lines, one to bound
the inner or permanent area and another to designate the limits of fluc-
tuation, or, to quote the words of M. Preudhomme de Borre:152

In this study, so interesting, there is one point on which we should insist. It is this:
that the observations of M. Koppen tend to confirm the principle of zoological geo-
graphy, that the area of a species cannot be limited on the map by a simple curve,
but between places where the species exist in a constant or normal manner and those
where its absence is constant there is always a zone, often very broad, of temporary
visitations, which is to the area properly so called what the penumbra is to the light,
•within the zone, of which the exterior limit is much more easily traced than the inner;
this last is subject to continual oscillations with some undulatory movements depend-
ent on the centrifugal or expansive tendency of the species and from the resistance
■which opposes it, and external circumstances, and evidently also the tendency of other
species to spread out, with which it carries on a struggle for existence.

Koppen, in order to express fully the relation of P. migratorius to the
regions in which it has been observed, found it necessary to trace upo~
the map three concentric lines, one marking the limit of its permanen
distribution, corresponding to what we in our first report termed " per-
manent breeding-grounds " ; a second, outside of this, marking the limits
of its temporary existence in all its stages of development ; and a third or

162 See former !;>-( ort, p. 475.

DESIGNATION OF " PERMANENT BREEDING-GEOUNDS." 57

outer line, sliowiug tlie utmost extent of its presence in the condition of
bands of winged insects beyond the region where the species may live
and propagate, or, in other words, the extreme boundary of its flights.

Our investigations, made independently of a knowledge of Koppen's
conclusions, led to a somewhat similar result. We found it necessary,
in order to express the relations of C. spretus to the various parts of the
area over which it roams, to designate an inner or central region as its
" permanent breeding- grounds," and an outer circumscribing belt as the
"temporary region," corresponding with Koppen's first and second
divisions. Its incapability of continuing its existence in this temporary
region is so marked that we have attempted to designate an interme-
diate area showing the limits of the oscillations of the permanent breed-
ing-grounds. But this, in the opinion of the writer of this chapter, is
too indefinite to be of any real value, an 'opinion which it is proper for
me to state is not fully concurred in by all the members of the Commis-
sion. Our investigations of this species have brought to light no facts
to warrant us in designating an outer belt corresponding with Koppen's
third area, as its flights do not extend into any sections, so far as ascer-
tained, where it may not produce at least one resulting brood.

It is necessary for us to call attention here to the fact that this ar-
rangement does not include all of the relations of migratory species to
the regions they are found inhabiting. For example, a species may not
be essentially migratory and hence may be found to possess this char-
acter in one district where the conditions are favorable whde in another
section it may be truly sedentary. Such appears to be the case with A.
americanum, which in the southern half of the United States is sedentary,
while in Yucatan and other parts of Central America it is said to be
migratory. If P. cinerascens is ever truly migratory, of which we have
some doubt notwithstanding the affirmative evidence on this point, then
it forms a second example, as we are informed by Selys-Longchamps
that it is sedentary iu Belgium and other parts of Europe.153 How far
this characteristic applies to other locusts of the Eastern Continent we
are unable to state, as the attention of European entomologists does not
appear to have been specially directed to this point.

As will be seen hereafter, the evidence obtained by the Commission
in reference to our Bocky Mountain locust shows it to be essentially
migratory. The same also appears to be true of A. peregrinum and P.
migratorius.

We may as well remark here, in order that our arguments and con-
clusions may be the better understood, that we do not include in the
category of " migratory locusts" or of " locusts " in the true sense, those
Acridians which occasionally, through the influence of climatic condi-
tions, are greatly developed and even induced to migrate for short dis-
tances.

As the native home of an essentially migratory species must be a

'"Compt. Bend. Soc. Ent. Belg., 1871-2, xxiv.

58 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

more restricted area within the limits of their migrations, our first step
in trying to fix the boundaries of this area for 0. spretus was to deter-
mine as nearly as possible the outer limits of its geographical distribu-
tion. This was not difficult, except where the line runs through unin-
habited sections from which no data could be obtained ; as this limit, so
far as this species is concerned, is determined not by straggling indi-
viduals, but by the utmost points to which flying swarms reach, for
beyond these points stray individuals are seldom seen.

This outer limit of geographical distribution is found marked in map
No. 1 of our former report, which is repeated in the present volume.
The southern limit, which is supposed to pass through New Mexico and
Arizona, has not been determined with satisfactory certainty, and it may
be that, as mapped through Texas, it is slightly incorrect, as it is possi-
ble that the species extends it's migrations into Eastern Mexico. It is
even possible that the locust which occasionally devastates other parts
of Mexico is Caloptenus spretus, but we think otherwise. We also know,
from personal examination of specimens, that the species which occa-
sionally overruns Honduras, the southern districts of Mexico, and Central
America is quite distinct, and believe that the Eocky Mountain locust,
with the exception of occasional visits to the southern side of the lower
Kio Grande Valley, never goes south of the United States boundary.

Our reasons for this opinion may be briefly stated as follows : The G.
spretus is evidently, as we have shown in our former report, a boreal in-
sect. We cannot learn that any of the collections of insects made in
Mexico contain this species, and we have been unable to obtain any evi-
dence of its being found in that country. So far as it is possible to
judge in reference to the species, in the accounts of locust ravages in
Mexico and Central America, they appear to differ from C. spretus. In
the account given by Gage, in his "New Survey of West Indies,"154 it is
stated "They were after the manner of our grasshoppers, but somewhat
bigger;" also, that "where they lighted, either upon trees or standing
corn, there nothing was expected but ruin," &c. The size indicated here
is certainly larger than our Eocky Mountain locust ; and, secondly, the
allusion to their alighting on trees is more applicable to the habit of
Acridium americanum and its congeners than to C. spretus. The locust
alluded to by Squiers155 is evidently too large for our species, measuring,
according to his statement, " two and a half to four inches."

Those which have of recent years appeared in Yucatan are evidently
species of Acridium. Some specimens were sent to Mr. S. H. Scudder,
most of which proved to be A. americanum ; a few specimens were ob-
served of an unknown species allied to A. flavofasciatum156. Specimens
received during the past season from the West Indies, which give in-
dubitable evidence of having migrated, cannot be distinguished from
A. peregrinum, the ultimate segment of the male abdomen distinguishing

164 See former Report, pp. 461-2.

166 Quoted in our former Report, p. 460.

166 See former Report, p. 462.

BOUNDARY OF PERMANENT REGION.

them from A. americamim and agreeing exactly with that of the former
species.

Mr. E. Flint, in his letter of December 18, 1877, speaking of the migra-
tory locusts that visit Nicaragua, says : "They resemble (Edipoda Say y
these have spotted elytra wings, and are larger; last ventral segment
notched, as in spretusP157

According to his letter specimens were sent to the Smithsonian Insti-
tution for determination, but we cannot learn that they were ever re-
ceived.* We think it almost certain that the species does not belong to
the genus (Edipoda, or to the group (Edipodini. It is most probably an
Acridium, either A. americamim or a closely allied species ; the " spotted
elytra" and notch in the last ventral segment agree with this supposi-
tion, the prominent notch in the male of this species being readily ob-
served. In addition to this we may say that large (Edipodce appear to
be very rare in Southern Mexico and Central America, while in this re-
gion and the northern part of South America Acridium reaches the
maximum in development. A small collection made last summer in
Central America by Professor Burrill contained but a single CEdipodean.

These reasons, we think, are sufficient to render it more than prob-
able that the Eocky Mountain locust does not extend its incursions into
Mexico or Central America.

The line on map No. 1, marking the outer limits of its distribution as
given in our former report, may be considered as very nearly correct,
requiring no change, perhaps, except at one point. Facts ascertained
during the past and present season indicate a more southern extension
in New Mexico, and possibly in Arizona. We have, then, an area ex-
tending east and west from the 93° to 119° of west longitude and north
and south from 27° to 53° of north latitude ; or 26° east and west and
26° north and south, which has as its strongly marked features an im-
mense and highly elevated plateau from which shoot up sharp ranges and
lofty peaks. This elevated section is bordered by broad, treeless plains ;
the entire area is to a large extent free from forests, the chief exceptions
being the higher mountain masses in Colorado and Wyoming, and the
mountainous section in West Montana. Not only is this vast area, taken
as a whole, comparatively treeless and barren, but the climate is dry,
the average rainfall not exceeding twelve or fourteen inches per annum.

By comparing the area of distribution of this species with that of
other species, we are enabled to deduce some important laws in refer-
ence to locust distribution, and the laws of migration which cannot be
detected by studying one species alone.

The paper by Mr. F. T. Koppen in Petermann's "Mittheilungen aus
Justus Perthes' Geographischer Anstalt," in regard to the distribution
of Pacliytylus migratorius has already been referred to in our former re-
port, and M. Preudhomme de Borre's brief analysis of it is given there.
According to this the northern limit of the permanent distribution of

167 See former Report, p. 465.

* Kote. — Specimens, possibly of this collection, sent us are closely allied to A. peregrinum.

CO REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

this species begins on the coast of Portugal near the 40lh parallel of
north latitude, and extends from thence northeast through Spain, ris-
ing obliquely through France to Lake Geneva, and extending from there
eastward, following approximately the 48th parallel, including Valois,
Northern Italy, Carinthia, and Hungary, then passing into Southern
Russia, where it reaches nearly to the 55th parallel. It continues from
there across the middle of Siberia, passing north of the Chinese bound-
ary, and terminates in Japan, leaving out the island of Niphon. From
this point it proceeds southward to the islands of Fidochi to New Zea-
land and Australia, of which it embraces only the northern portion, and
passes from thence to the island of Mauritius, and rising to the north
crosses Africa up to Madeira. But the last part of the limits is more
hypothetical from want of exact knowledge in reference to the exist-
ence of the species in the interior of Africa.

That the immense area embraced within these limits is permanently
inhabited, even in the broadest sense, fcy P. migratorius, or that its migra-
tions extend over it we do not believe can be shown. And if we judge
by this author's paper on the " Destruction of the locusts in Central
Russia," we do not understand him as reallj' holding this view.

We will give some reasons for believing that the area over which this
species roams is less extended than that designated by the boundary
given.

That notices of specimens obtained from the extreme portions of this
extensive area may be found in entomological works and papers we do
not deny ; but this we do not accept as sufficient to establish the fact
that the species is to be found in these widely separated sections as
migratory. That a species may be thus widely distributed we do not
deny, for several instances of the kind have been clearly proved. But
aside from the difficulty of distinguishing the migratory from the closely
allied species of Acridii by single specimens, we are satisfied that the
evidences in reference to the migratory species within this area con-
tradict Koppen's conclusion as given by M. Borre. We doubt very
much whether there is an entomologist in Europe who, without previous
warning, would at once distinguish between C. spretus and C. atlantis.
These differences can only be discovered by carefully studying the species
in their native habitats. It is yet a matter of dispute in Europe whether
P. migratorius and P. cinerascens are distinct ; and the testimony in
reference to the migratory character of the latter is so conflicting and
uncertain that we are unable to come to any satisfactory conclusion on
the point. Yet Kdppen fails to state whether he considers the two as
distinct or not.

Although the descriptions given by travelers are generally considered
as worthless in determining species, yet we think a careful study of the
numerous accounts and a proper appbcation of the laws of insect dis-
tribution, if compared with the more accurate knowledge of these pests
obtained in recent years, will lead to more correct results than by rely-

DIFFICULTY OF DETERMINING SPECIES.

61

ing upon the notices of isolated specimens obtained from various sec-
tions. The experience in this country bears us out in this opinion.
Professor Haldeman, as late as 1853, supposes (E. corallines to be the
species so destructive to vegetation in Utah ; 158 and it was not until
Walsh took the matter in hand in 1866 that the western locust was specifi-
cally determined ; nor was the distinction between spretus and atlantis
suspected until observed by Mr. Eiley in 1874, when the invasion of that
year caused him to enter upon the careful study of the species. What
species the migratory locust of California is, in fact whether California,
has a truly migratory locust, are points not yet satisfactorily settled.

An incident showing the liability to error in determining a migratory
species from specimens sent is mentioned in the Proceedings of the En-
tomological Society of London.159 A copy of a dispatch from the English
charge" d'affaires at Madrid was submitted to the society relative to the
plague of locusts, together with a box of specimens. The insects sent
were stated to be Locusta migratoria, when, on examination, they were
ascertained to be Decticus albifrons.

The confusion in reference to A. peregrinum and the closely allied
species is so great that no entomologist can decide in reference to a
specimen satisfactorily without having recourse to a well-stocked cabi-
net. According to Stal,160 G. migratorius var. z of Thunb., G. rufescens
Thuub., and A. flaviventre~B\vcm. are all synonyms of A. peregrinum Serv.
He also gives as the localities where the specimens of this species which
are in the Mus. Holm, were found as Buenos Ayres, Montevideo, Bahia,
Madeira, Tenerifl'e, Algiers, Egypt, Nubia, and East Indies.

Walker161 gives as localities from which specimens in the British
Museum were taken, Syria, Egypt, Madeira, Teneriffe, South Africa, Cey-
lon, Repaid, Hindostan, North Bengal, and " 500 miles from land." Oli-
vier mentions Egypt, Arabia, Mesopotamia, and Persia. Kxauss and other
authorities mention Senegal and the Canary Islands. In addition to
these localities, it is stated that specimens have been found in Spain,
Portugal, and England.

If we should accept these as true, and from them attempt to fix the
area of distribution for this species, we should have to include all the
territory bounded by a line running from the Ganges to the Aral Sea,
thence to England, thence to the Argentine Eepublic, thence to the
Cape of Good Hope, and back to the starting point. Could such a con-
clusion be accepted ? We think not. Yet the extreme points depend
upon the authority of Stal, one of the most thorough orthopterists of the
present age. That the area over which this species roams is very ex-
tensive must be admitted. There are also some reasons for believing
that it is found in the West Indies, but the species inhabiting the Argen-

^Stansbury's Report, p. 371.
169 1876— xxi, August 2.
,MRecensio Orthopterorum, p. 65.
161Cat. Dermap. Salt., iii, p. 577.

62 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

tiiie Kepublie is distinct ; nor can we find any reason for believing that
it is found in South Africa.

We base our conclusions, therefore, on a careful study of all the evi-
dence, making the fact of migration an essential requisite. Proceeding
upon this basis, let us see what conclusion we shall reach in reference to
the three chief locusts of the eastern continent — P. migratorius, A.pere-
grinum, and G. italicus.

To determine what is the permanent home of a migratory species we
have to rely chiefly upon the following data : 1st. The fact that the
species has been observed for a series of years inhabiting and reproduc-
ing itself in a given area, which is the best possible evidence. 2d. Where
no such data have been obtained, the next best means of determining this
point is to trace back the lines of migration to the point of departure.
But in attempting to follow out the latter method caution is necessary
lest we are led astray by exceptional cases. For illustration, in the great
invasion of Europe in 1747-'50 it is asserted by the best authority that
the locusts came from Turkey into Wallachia, Moldavia, Transylvania, and
Hungary; that in 1749 they passed from thence into Austria and Bava-
ria, and in 1750 reached Brandenburg. The assumption that Austria
and Bavaria were native habitats because the brood that proceeded to
Brandenburg originated there would have been an error, as these locali-
ties were but stopping places in their western progress. Just as well
might the people of Nebraska conclude the home of spretus is in the
south because swarms were observed coming from that direction in 1875
and 1877, when, in fact, they were the resulting broods of the swarms of
the preceding years which had passed southward. Kefferstein asserts
that no existing observations would enable any one to follow any locust
swarm back from Germany into Tartary, and consequently concluded
that the hordes originated in the vicinity of the places where they were
observed. Even those observed in England were believed by him to
have originated in England. Schrank was also of this opinion.162
Yet all the data which Kefferstein presents in reference to the history of
their migrations in Europe, so far as P. migratorius is concerned, show
that they proceeded from points eastward of the places visited.

That there is a large amount of testimony showing that P. migratorius
is indiginous in a great part of Europe is true. But with the exception
of one or two witnesses there is a failure to distinguish between this
species and P. cinerascens. But without stopping to discuss this point,
which is not essential to the object we have in view, we may add that
Koppen's own conclusion, shown by the limits of permanent distribution
he draws, contradicts the larger part of this testimony which relates to
points north of his line. According to Koppen, great mountain chains
are powerful obstacles to the diffusion of this species, and that it is rare
in the southwest of Europe or northwest of Africa where it is almost
completely replaced by other species, i. e., C. italicus in Spain, Italy, and

Fauna Boica, Bd. 2, a. i, p. 35.

EANGE OF PACHYTYLUS MIGEATOEIUS.

63

the middle of France, and A. peregrinum in Algiers. Bolivar, who is
certainly well informed in reference to the Orthoptera of the Spanish
peninsula asserts163 that no data exist authorizing him to affirm the
presence of this species in the peninsula, but that the citations doubtless
refer to P. cinerascens. He does not admit P. migratorius in his list-
For these reasons and others which might be adduced we conclude that
the starting point of the boundary line should be placed much farther
east than given by Koppen. Just where, we are unable to decide from
our data, but it should not include Italy.

It is a significant fact that the great swarms entering Germany, Poland,
Hungary, and even Bulgaria, as will be seen by reference to the preced-
ing quotations, are always from the east, never from the west or south.
As is evident from the facts presented in the foregoing review, and as
shown by our observations of the movements of C. spretus, locust-swarms
almost universally move in direct lines ; hence it is fair to presume that
the swarms which have swept over Central Europe for the past thousand
years from the vicinity of the Black Sea to Poland, Germany, and Aus-
tria had their origin in some productive hive in the East, either around
or beyond that sea. Nor should we omit the important fact that the
swarms which can be identified with any reasonable probability as being
of this species which have visited Italy or France, have proceeded from
Hungary, or some point in that direction.

That this species is found in Southern Eussia, and in the countries
east of the Black Sea to the Irtish and the Chinese border, is a fact well
known. How far east along this latitude it extends is a question of doubt
which Koppen fails to remove. That China has been subject to locust
invasions from time immemorial is shown by the records of that empire,
but whether this species is the one committing the ravages in that coun-
try has not, so far as we are aware, been satisfactorily determined.

That this species should be found in India, we admit, is against the
theory we are here advancing, yet the evidence to this effect is too strong
to be disputed. It is somewhat strange that the data in reference to
the Indian locusts are so meager, when we take into consideration the
fact that so many scientific explorers have visited that country.

That A. peregrinum is the chief destructive locust of that section, we
think is evident from the facts given below, but that P. migratorius is
also found there, and often in great numbers, must be admitted. The
most recent authority we have at hand on this point is a series of papers
issued by the revenue department of the Government of Madras in 1878,
in reference to the locust visitation of that year, which appears to have
been very extensive.

We think it pretty evident that the locusts along this tropical belt are
chiefly species of Acridium — A. peregrinum — and its varieties, or closely
allied congeners. The swarms observed by Olivier in Central Arabia,
Mesopotamia, and Persia, consisted of this species. The Gryllus grega-

Synopsis Ortop. Esp. y Portug., p. 140.

64 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

rim of Forskal and Niebukr seen in Arabia was evidently A. peregrinum,
as were the locusts encountered by Palgrave on the LTasa plains. The
species seen by Morier migrating in Southern Persia was not P. migra-
torius. The species seen by Salt at Bombay, which he asserts is the
same as that observed on the coast of Abyssinia, is described as follows,
and is certainly different from the P. migratorius :

The head and shoulders of the insect are armed with a thick shell or case ; that of
the head has a dull leaden gray color -when alive, interrupted with red; the shoulder
plato being of a reddish brown, spotted with white, smooth in front, and rough on
the hinder part ; the eye is bright yellow, with three black bars across it ; feelers or
hornsblack; thewings [elytra, wosuppose] are of a yellowish-brown, lower part tinged
with a fine purple, and tho whole obscurely dotted with black. The legs are exter-
nally of a leaden gray color, tho upper part shading off into black; the ribs also
deep black, inside of second joint bright purple, and the thorns scarlet, tipped with
black ; the extremities being formed of triangular shells formed of two sharp claws
and a knob in the center, smooth and round.

The figure in the plate is evidently a female Acridium; at least the
thorax, wings, and abdomen would indicate this.

In a note to Mr. Thomas, Mr. S. H. Scudder suggests that it may be
the Acridium Mgyptium of Linneaus ; but this, according to Stal,16* is
synonomous with Gryllus lineola, Thunb165 and A. tartaricum Fisch.106
(not G. tartaricus Linn).

Fischer has doubtless included two or three species under his A. tar-
taricum.

Charpentier,107 who separated A. lineola with some doubt, remarks, tin-
der the latter, that Germar informs him in letters that this species is
found in the East Indies. It is also more than probable that it has
been included by some authors under A. succinctum also, especially those
examples from the East Indies. The remark in the South Australian
Register also agrees with Salt's statement.

Wahl, it is true, affirms that swarms of P. migratorius are seen in
India, but also adds that another species, a kind of yellow locusts, called
Tscheddy, often covers whole fields and darkens the air like a cloud.
Major Moor asserts that the destructive species of this country is " blood-
red" and not the P. migratorius. That the locust infesting the Phi-
lippine Islands is not the latter species is clear from the statements
of Gironiere and Jagor and the figure given by the former traveler;
whether it is an Acridium or an (Edipoda is a matter of doubt.

These facts, together with our knowledge of the general laws that
govern Acridian life, lead us to the conclusion that although P. migra-
torius is found in this part of tropical Asia, yet that A. peregrinum is
really the prevailing migratory species.

Is it found in Africa as a migratory species ? Judging from all the
data we have been able to obtain, we are convinced it is not.

1M"Kecensio Orthopterorum," I, 63.
i«Mem. Acad. Pet., 5, p. 247, 1815.
'"Orthop. Europe., 388.
I6,Horae Entomologicae, 131.

COMPARISON WITH THE LAWS OF GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. 65

The universal testimony of those who have witnessed the locust mi-
grations in Algiers, Morocco, and other portions of [Northern Africa
along the Mediterranean shore (exclusive of Egypt) is that they always
come from the south. As proof of this, we have only to refer the reader
to the accounts we have given relating to this section.

In addition to this, the testimony of the French naturalists and recent
authorities show beyond dispute that the locust of this region is A. pere-
grinum. What species are found on the plains of Australia and South-
ern Africa is yet a matter of doubt, but the facts given are sufficient to
show that the great intermediate tropical belt is not infested by P. migra-
torius as a migratory species.

Before proceeding further in the discussion of this subject, let us see if
our conclusions will accord more nearly with the laws of geographical
zoology than the theory attributed to Koppen. If so, then it is fair to
presume that we are nearer the correct solution of this question than he is.

If the reader will take the trouble to examine Wallace's map of his
Nearctic Eegion 168 and compare the Eocky Mountain subregion (No. 2)
with the line marking the permanent distribution of C. spretus on our
map he cannot fail to observe the almost exact coincidence of the
boundaries of the two, the only difference worthy of notice being the south-
ern extension, which, in reference to C. spretus, is yet an open question. Is
this purely accidental ; or is it in accordance with the laws of animal
distribution which have enabled the talented author of that work thus
to map the boundaries of the faunal region ?

Let him now turn to the map of the Palearctic Eegion, 169. Although
he will fail to find such exact coincidence between the limits of locust
distribution and the boundaries of the faunal districts as marked by the
author, yet a careful examination will show that each migratory locust
is, after all, confined, as far as its area of permanent distribution is con-
cerned, to its own faunal district. The reader will observe that in the
southeast part of subregion 1 (European) and the southwest of No. 3
(Siberian) there is an immense area marked as pasture-land, which ex-
tends east and west from Hungary to China, embracing within its bounds
all that section to which the name Tartary, or Tahtary, was applied by
the early writers and travelers. The northern boundary of this area, as
mapped by Wallace, corresponds almost exactly with the line of perma-
nent distribution of P. migratorius as given by Koppen ; and we are
inclined to believe that, with the exception of the debatable ground of
Asia Minor and Syria (or Asiatic Turkey), the southern and eastern
limits represent approximately the southern and eastern boundary of
permanent distribution of this species.

From these broad, grassy plains, or steppes, carried by easterly winds,
they sweep over Southern and Central Europe, usually along the northern
shore of the Black Sea, but occasionally from Asia Minor ; the Ukraine
and the region of the Crimea, occupying the straits or narrows of this

""Geographical Distribution of Animals, I. p. 115. "»Vol. L., p. 181.

5l

G6 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

westward extension, suffer most. It is from this direction instead of
fro!:i Africa that the hordes come which visit Italy and occasionally
penetrate to Sicily.

We may remark here that some of Wallace's boundary lines in this
region appear to have been somewhat arbitrarily drawn, and in one case
he appears to have been guided too much by the distribution of a single
class of animals. If his line between 1 and 3, instead of following the
Ural Range as it does on his map, had been traced along the valley of
the Irtish, which he gives as the more correct eastern boundary of the
European subregion, it would then correspond almost exactly with the
eastern boundary of the pasture area described.

While there are some strong reasons for uniting the northern and
southern shores of the Mediterranean into one faunal district, there are
equally good reasons for considering the two parts as representing two
faunal areas, less distinct, it is true, than his subregions, but not so
homogeneous as the parts of most of the other subregions. In fact, it
is still a matter of doubt whether it would not have been better to con-
sider these two parts as separate subregions. If this be done, we will
then find the locust distribution corresponding almost exactly with the
faunal subregions, or that their permanent distribution is limited by the
boundaries of their respective faunal areas. The European subregion,
if extended as indicated, and as suggested by Wallace in his text, will
embrace what we are inclined to think is really the home of P. migra-
torius. This is the great pasture region, and its locust is CEdipodaean.
The Mediterranean district, as given by Wallace, is the region of mount-
ains and deserts; the northern section, which is elevated and broken, has
its peculiar locust, the Caloptenm italicus; the southern, or desert por-
tion, has its own migratory species, Acridium peregrinum ; the two be-
longing to the Acridian group of the family Acrididce.

There is a fact which presents itself at this point that, although not
directly necessary to this discussion, is worthy of notice, and may assist
in solving the problem of locust-distribution in the Eastern Continent.
Considering the Mediterranean subregion of Wallace as two sections,
Southwestern Asia, or the region bounded by the Caspian, Black, and
Mediterranean Seas and Persian Gulf, forms the point of union between
the three locust districts, where we may naturally expect a commin-
gling of the three species in their migratory movements. That such is
the fact those who have attempted to trace the areas of distribution of
the two great oriental species know too well.

Here, in fact, is the meeting ground of the three true locusts of the
Eastern Continent ; the area of the P. migratorius pressing into it on
the north; that of A. peregrin inn on the south and southwest; while
that of C. italicus is thrust like a wedge between the two.

As an evidence of the commingling on this debatable ground of
Western Asia, we have only to call attention to the statements of some
of the authorities already quoted.

MEETING-POINT OF THE THREE SUB-REGIONS.

67

Pallas asserts the C. itaUcus extends not only to the Crimea, but
beyond the European boundary even to the Irtish ; thus invading the
area of P. migratorius. Dr. Clark, who traveled over the northern part
of this debatable section, remarks that the locusts —

Consisted of two species, Gryllus tartaricus and the Gryllus migratorius, or the commou
migratory locust. The first, almost twice the size of the second, because it precedes
the other, bears the name of herald or messenger. The migratory locust has red legs
and its inferior wings exhibit a lively red color.

His G. tartaricus is evidently P. migratorius, and his 0. migratorius the
€. italicus.

Mebuhr and Forskal speak of two migratory species being found in
Arabia, Persia, and Syria, one of which, judging from their notices, is
certainly A. peregrinum, which prevails almost to the exclusion of the
others in Arabia and Southern Persia.

Palgrave notices the distinction between the species found in the
south and north part of this region. Burkhardt mentions the fact of
there being more than one species. It is now also well known, as as-
serted by Eev. William Houghton, in the able article "Locust," in Smith's
Bible Dictionary, that both P. migratorius and A. peregrinum occur in
Syria, Arabia &c, but we are inclined to think the former comparatively
rare in Central and Southern Arabia.

From these notices, which might be multiplied, it is evident, notwith-
standing the confusion and manifest errors, that more than one species
of migratory locusts visit this southern portion of Asia, or meeting-
point of the three faunal subregions. This is precisely what was to be
expected upon the theory we are presenting in reference to the distri-
bution of the three principal migratory species. Nor should the fact be
overlooked that the southern district of Wallace's Mediterranean sub-
region extends eastward to the confines of India, where, as we have seen,
it is probable that A. peregrinum is the migratory species. The reader
will also note the close agreement of Major Moore's and Salt's state-
ments with this theory.

It would be interesting to extend this examination to the locusts of
the southern hemisphere, but this would require more space than we
can devote to these collateral points ; moreover, our data are not sufficient
to render such an examination satisfactory. Let it suffice for us to state
that from the meager data we have been able to obtain we are led to
believe that the Australian and New Zealand locust or locusts (if dis-
tinct) are (Edipodsean and somewhat closely allied to P. migratorius;
that the one which devastates Southern Africa is possibly A. peregrinum
or some other species of Acridium ; that there is probably but one mi-
grating species of South America, A. paranense, which is closely allied
to A. americanum. If we are correct in these conclusions, we are justi-
fied in stating, in general terms, that each species of migratory locust
s confined, in its permanent distribution, to its own faunal region or

68 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

district, across the boundaries oi which it may and often docs extend
its migrations into other regions, but not to become naturalized therein
We are fully aware that entomologists describe or note specimens, for
example, of P. migratorius from numerous points immensely distant
from the boundaries we have assigned it ; but our experience in refer-
ence to C. spretus has convinced us that unless such specimens are
known to have been from migrating hordes the evidence is of hut little
value in determining the question at issue. We freely confess the diffi-
culty this fact introduces in the attempt to solve the problem ; but when
we take into consideration the additional fact of the difficulty of dis-
tinguishing such closely allied species as C. spretus and C. atlantis with-
out a careful study of their habits, we can find at least one probable
explanation.

From the evidence adduced and from our knowledge of our native
locust, we conclude that each migratory species has its proper native
habitat or permanent breeding ground, to which, whenever sufficient
data are obtained, approximate boundaries may be assigned, but that
as a general rule, to which we know of but one or two exceptions, they
are essentially migratory within their respective regions of permanent
distribution. The exceptions alluded to are A. americanum, which is not
migratory in the United States, but is in the tropical regions, as before
stated, and P. cinerascens, which is sedentary in parts of Europe at least,
and also in some other sections. It is possible this is true in reference
to some other migratory species, but if so we have no evidence of the
fact ; and, so far as our investigations show, is not true of C. spretus.
That these permanent areas have expanded in the course of time from
smaller areas to their present dimensions we think cpaite certain, but we
will call attention to this hereafter.

CHARACTER OF THE PERMANENT BREEDING-GROUNDS.

That locusts prefer comparatively barren regions, or at least sections
free from arboreal and rank vegetation, has already been affirmed. As
preliminary to our remarks on this point, we call attention to the fol-
lowing passage in one of Humboldt's works : 170

The different quarters of the ■world have been supposed to be characterized by the
remark that Europe has its heaths, Asia its steppes, Africa its deserts, and America its
savannas; but by this distinction contrasts are established that are not founded either
on the nature of things or the genius of languages. The existence of a heath always
supposes an association of plants of the family Erica ; the steppes of Asia are not
everywhere covered with saline plants ; the savannas of Venezuela furnish not only
the graminee, but with them small herbaceous mimosa, legumina, and other dicoty-
ledonous plants. The plains of Songaria, those which extend between the Don and
Volga, and the puszta of Hungary are real savannas, pasturages abounding in grasses;
while the savannas to the east and west of the Rocky Mountains and of New Mexico
produce Chenopodiums containing carbonate and muriate of soda. Asia has real
deserts destitute of vegetation in Arabia, Gobi, and in Persia. Since we have be-

170 Personal Narrative of a Journey to the Equinoctial Regions of the New Continent. Bonn's ed.,
1852, vol. ii, p. 85.

CHARACTEE OF THE PERMANENT BREEDING-GROUNDS. 69

come better acquainted with the deserts in Africa, so long and so vaguely confounded
under the name of "the Desert of Sahara," it has been observed that in this conti-
nent, towards the east, savannas and pastures are found situated in the midst of
naked and desert tracts.

The treeless areas, especially when elevated, are the ones the locusts
appear to prefer, and where, as a general thing, we find their homes, one
species preferring the more elevated, broken, and mountainous sections,
while another selects the lower broad barren plains.

The two parts of the Mediterranean subregion are briefly described
by Wallace as follows :

The northern section is almost wholly a region of mountains and elevated plateaus.
On the west, Spain is mainly a table-land of more than 2,000 feet elevation, deeply
penetrated by extensive valleys and rising into lofty mountain chains. Italy, Corsica,
Sardinia, and Sicily are all very mountainous, and much of their surface considerably
•elevated. Farther east we have all European Turkey and Greece, a mountain region,
with a comparatively small extent of level plain.

Asia Minor to the Caspian is also of a similar character.

This is the district of Caloptenns italicm, in some part of which it is
to be found every year in greater or less abundance and more or less mi-
gratory. The exact limits of its permanent distribution, and whether it
is essentially migratory within these limits, are facts which do not appear
to have been satisfactorily ascertained by European entomologists.

The character of this region presents, in many respects, a striking sim-
ilarity to the home of the Eocky Mountain locust. Here is an elevated
,region, consisting of mountain ranges and peaks rising to the height of
.ten, twelve, and even fourteen thousand feet above the sea, with extensive
intervening treeless plateaus elevated from four to six thousand feet
above the sea. The broad mountain ranges have their sides gashed by
uarrow valleys, whose slopes are usually treeless, and grassy at least on
the lower portion. A lack of arboreal vegetation, except in the heavier
mountain masses, is a marked characteristic. The mountain area is bor-
dered on its eastern flank by a broad, treeless plain, reaching from the
northern lake region of Brit ish America to Mexico and extending eastward
to the Missouri, its western border having an average elevation of four
thousand feet and sloping eastward at the rate of Ave to ten feet per mile.

That these two districts, resembling each other so much in general
character, should be the homes of two migratory locusts so closely allied
ps to belong to the same genus cannot be accidental, but results from
>ome law of Acridian life which has not yet been discovered. To attempt
its solution would carry us back into the history of the climatic changes
>f the country, the vexed question of specific evolution, and into an ex-
imination of the more recent geological changes.

, The native habitat of the migratory locust, P. migrator ins, as we have
ilready seen, consists chiefly of more or less elevated grassy plains, usu-
ally called steppes, resembling in some respects the treeless plains of the
Vest : in other words, the great pasture lands of Western Asia and
Eastern Europe, the ancient Scythian hive, and the present home of the

70 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

Cossacks and Tartars. It is therefore essentially different from the dis-
tricts of the two migratory Calopteni, agreeing with them only in want
of arboreal vegetation and dryness.

The region which forms the home of A. percgrinum is essentially dif-
ferent from either of the others. It is composed of the arid and desert
plains of Northern Africa and Arabia, where rain but seldom falls and
tropical heat reaches its maximum. Although the term desert has been
applied to this region, the fact must be borne in mind, as stated by
Humboldt, that extensive areas in the midst of these deserts are covered
with at least a scanty vegetation, often sufficient for Hunted pasturage.

It is therefore apparent that locusts avoid the heavily forest-clad areas-
and select the open regions as their abode. It is also evident that they
seek the drier areas, avoiding the moist sections, where the rain precipi-
tation is abundant. Some, as A. peregrinum and A. americanum,* require
also the fervent heat of the tropics to develop them in migratory swarms,
whilst others, as C. spretus, although delighting in the warm sunshine of
summer days, will, if the atmosphere be dry, flourish in a moderate de-
gree of cold.

As heretofore stated, it is much more difficult to draw the line of the per-
manent distribution of C. spri t its than that which marks the limits of its-
migrations. That the former falls without (east of) the mountain range
as far south as Denver, we may assume pretty well settled by the obser-
vations of the commissioners in person, each having gone over this-
ground in a different season from the others. That it bends westward
and enters the mountains a short distance south of this point, we think
may be safely assumed from the evidence we have obtained. Proceed-
ing northward from Denver, it bendseastward as we advance, embracing
the western portion of Nebraska and a large part of Dakota, and extend-
ing northward from thence into British America, following approximately
the 103° meridian until it reaches the southern limit of the forests, about
the 53d parallel of latitude. Thence it bends westward, as given in map
No. 1. The portion of the plains east of the mountains which should be
included in this area is a matter of considerable uncertainty, nor is the
line one that can be rigidly marked.

The north and northwest boundary appears to be somewhat strictly
limited by the forest line, though our data in reference to the regions
beyond this line cannot be considered as conclusive.

The western boundary is yet a matter of uncertainty, but it is quite-
probable, from all the facts we have been able to gather, that most of
Idaho, Wyoming, and the northern half of Utah will have to be included,
if we define the breeding- grounds in the sense heretofore explained.

This region may be briefly characterized as follows : Starting at the
point where the southern boundary of Colorado crosses the 105th me-
ridian, the main or eastern range of the Eocky Mountains runs almost

•Note. — Although I have throughout spoken of A. americanum as migratory in Central America, I
Would not be surprised if the species found migratory there should prore to be distinct.

BREEDING-GROUNDS OF C. SPRETUS.

71

directly northward to the 43d parallel of latitude ; here it bends north-
west, reaching about the 113th meridian, where it crosses the northern
boundary of the United States, varying in height from 8,000 to 12,000 feet
above sea level, with peaks here and there shooting up to 14,000 feet.
The heaviest mountain masses are found in Colorado and Northwestern
Wyoming, the former being interrupted by elevated basins or parks
eight to ten thousand feet above sea level ; the latter by valleys extend-
ing north and south. Passing westward from this eastern mountain wall
(for such it really is), in Colorado and Wyoming, we traverse a broad,
barren plain, with Artemisia as its characteristic plant, until we reach
the Wasatch range or western wall, in Utah. This broad area, which
averages in elevation about 6,000 feet, is here and there broken into
rolling hills with occasional ridges, and is almost entirely free from
forests. Passing to the west side of the Wasatch, in Utah, we enter
the great Salt Lake basin, which is also mostly barren, with scanty
vegetation, and is interrupted by numerous narrow ridges running north
and south. It has an average elevation of about 4,000 feet. Passing
west of the Teton range, from Wyoming into Idaho, we enter upon the
broad, level, and comparatively barren valley of Snake Eiver, which is
also without forests. The portion of Montana west of the first range is
rugged, being broken into a series of ridges and valleys running north
and south, more or less clothed with coniferous forests. The chief tim-
ber areas in this extensive region are found upon the mountain masses
in Colorado and Northwestern Wyoming and in the western part of
Montana.

The main or eastern range, as heretore stated, is flanked on the east
by a broad and treeless plain extending from its base eastward to the
Missouri Eiver. That portion of this plain where it leaves the mountains
in Colorado and Wyoming has generally an elevation of from 5,000 to
6,000 feet and slopes eastward at a rate varying from 6 to 15 feet per
mile. As we proceed northward along the mountain flank from the
Black Hills, the elevation grows less and less, so that the great barren
plateau of Central Montana ranges from 2,000 to 3,000 feet above sea
level.

The term "barren-' as here used is not to be taken in the sense of
desert, but as implying without arboreal vegetation, and as usually
clothed with a moderate growth of grass, sage, and other plants of a
similar nature adapted to a dry climate, and generally suited for pas-
turage. The forests, wherever found, consist almost entirely of pine
and fir, and are confined almost entirely to the mountain ranges where
the snow is most abundant.

There is no part of this district where agricultural operations can be
carried on without irrigation, as the rainfall seldom exceeds, in any
portion, 20 inches in a year, and in many parts does not average more
than 6 or 7. The air is very dry, the relative humidity sometimes fall-

72 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

ing in the summer as low as 20 and seldom reaching CO, as will be
seen by reference to the meteorological data furnished by Professor Abbe
and fouud in our former report, aud to that found in a succeeding chapter.

In studying carefully the climatic conditions of the various locust
areas, we notice this difference between those in the Eastern Continent
north of the equator and that of our species. The former have their
greatest extension east aud west, and in the case of P. migratorius
and C. italicus in the direction of the migrations, while that of C. spretus
extends north and south, or at least presents its best-defined side toward
the east and at an angle to the usual course of migrations. The area of
A. percgrinum has its greatest extension east aud west, the western half
at right angles to the usual course of migrations. In speaking of the
character of the area occupied by this last-named species, we omitted to
mention the elevated portion along the southern limits.

As P. migratorius. has its chief, or, as we might say, central area about
the Caucasus range, and a mountain home or back-ground appears
essential to the migratory Calopteni, it is possible that this character-
istic is more important to the development of locusts than has gener-
ally been supposed.

CHAPTER IV.

HABITS OR CHARACTERISTICS OF LOCUSTS IN ALL COUN-
TRIES WITHIN THEIR AREAS OF PERMANENT DISTRIBU-
TION, SO FAR AS THESE RELATE TO THEIR MOVEMENTS.

The chief items of importance under this topic are the following : First.
Are they normally sedentary in the permanent area, developing under
favorable climatic conditions in immense numbers and becoming migra-
tory from some cause connected with this development ; or are they es-
sentially migratory in character ? Second. Do they breed annually
throughout this entire area, or only in certain portions, changing from
time to time from one locality to another ?

In our First Report, in the chapter on " Permanent Breeding Grounds,"
we expressed briefly our opinion on these points in reference to the Rocky
Mountain locust, as follows : •

It is not to be inferred that the locust breeds continuously over the whole extent
of this area each year, as it is to be understood that the locust within its native, per-
manent habitat is essentially migratory in its habits, and while for a series of years it
may deposit its eggs in a given river valley, in some park, or in some favorable area
on the plains lying about the mountain, in a certain year or for several years in suc-
cession it may desert its customary breeding grounds for adjoining regions or cross a
low range of mountains and breed in a more distant valley. Moreover, the true breed-
ing grounds in this area are, for the most part, confined to the river bottoms or sunny
slopes of uplands, or to the subalpine grassy areas among the mountains, rather than
continuously over the more elevated, dry bleak plains.

C. SPRETUS ALWAYS MIGRATORY.

73

When Mr. Thoinas begun to study them in the field in 1809, he was
led to believe from his observations of that season that they are nor-
mally sedentary, but subsequent investigations have served to convince
him as well as the other members of the Commission that they are es-
sentially migratory in their native habitats.

The evidence upon which this conclusion is founded consists of the
numerous facts gathered from the various sections of the mountain area,
showing that year after year they are observed migrating in greater or
less swarms from point to point within that area. Also the fact that
in the mountain valleys and canons, during years when there is no gen-
eral movement, little swarms may be seen rising and flying away to other
points. Last season Mr. Thomas, while on the top of Pike's Peak, cap-
tured two or three full-fledged individuals which had probably been
brought down by the rain of the preceding evening in their attempt to
pass over, yet no swarm was observed passing during the entire season.

It is, therefore, evident that their flights do not depend upon numbers,
but that the brood of a single female, when they attain the proper age,
will migrate.

Another fact, which has been repeatedly observed, tends to confirm
this opinion, to wit, that they do not breed annually over the entire Per-
manent area. In passing over the mountain section of Wyoming, Col-
orado, Utah, Idaho, and Montana, we have found it universally the case
that they are confined to limited districts which are much more extended
in some years than others. A section infested in one year may be en-
tirely free the next. That certain favorable points are more generally
selected as breeding grounds than others is certainly true.

It is true, there is some evidence which tends to cast doubt upon the
correctness of our conclusions on this point ; for example, the repeated
finding of specimens throughout the summer in localities where no migra-
tions have been observed ; but the flight of a few grasshoppers in these
sections is so common an occurrence that it is not likely to attract at-
tention. It is more than probable that many individuals never fly, but
these are exceptions which do not invalidate the general rule. That
they are not habitually sedentary in any known locality, as A. american-
wm is, is certainly a fact that cannot be denied.

FLIGHTS.

As the subject of flights is one of the most important relating to the
history and habits of the migratory locusts, the Commission has taken
special care to procure all the data possible in reference to the flights of
C. spretus. Our success in this respect may be seen by referring to our
former report. That we have exhausted the subject we do not contend,
but we may fairly claim that now the movements of C. spretus are better
known to the world than those of any other locust ; and although we
<lo not wish to appear as boasting, we do feel as we think a justifiable
pride in asserting the fact.

74 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

Our somewhat full, though far from complete, account of flights in our
First Report will render it unnecessary to state much that might appear
to be required in a full discussion of locust migrations ; we therefore refer
the reader to that report to till out such lacunae as appear here.

In studying the subject of flights, Ave have found it convenient not
only to note such points or subdivisions as the mode of flight, direction
of flight, density and extent of swarms, distance over which they mover
date of flights, hours of rising and alighting, the height at which they
fly, rate of movement, meteorological influences, as effect of wind, rain,
heat, &c, flights at night, cause of flights, &c; but also, in the case of
our locust, to distinguish between invading swarms, returning swarinsr
and local flights. As we may have occasion to make frequent use of the
latter terms, we will explain them first, adding, at the same time, what
we may have to say in reference thereto.

1. DIRECTION OF MOVEMENTS.

A careful study of the migrations of the Rocky Mountain locust for
some years past has revealed the fact that the general or combined
movements of this species, so far as the direction or course is concerned,
may be designated by the three terms, Invading swarms, Returning
swarms, and Local flights.

a. Invading sicarms. — This term, when used with reference to the
movements of C. spretns east of the mountains, applies to those swarms
or hordes which move down from their native hatching grounds in the
west and northwest into those sections where they are not in any sense
permanent residents. It is only applied to those which, leaving the
permanent area, pass across its boundary into the temporary regions
shown in our map.

The facts showing that the swarms which invade the temporary region
come from the permanent regions of the west and northwest are so nu-
merous and have been so fully presented in our former report that it is
unnecessary for us to dwell on them at any length at this time, as we
have but bttle to add that is new in reference thereto. It is true that
but few swarms have been traced from their points of departure in the
permanent regions to their stopping places in the temporary section j
yet the circumstantial evidence is so strong as to no longer admit of any
reasonable doubt.

This evidence may be briefly summarized as follows :

First. That the invading swarms, especially in years when eggs hav
not been deposited the previous season, are very generally, if not always,
observed in the temporary region east of the mountains to come fro-*
the west or northwest, usually from the latter direction. The following
brief summary from our former report Iri is strongly corroborative of thi
assertion :

1821. — Swarms of locusts entered Missouri from the northwest.
1864. — Swarms entered Iowa and Minnesota from the northwest.

Pape 148 et seq.

INVADING SWARMS USUALLY COME FROM NORTHWEST. 75

1865. — Locusts flew into Minnesota from the west and northwest.

1866. — There was a general invasion from the west and northwest, which reached
to Texas.

1868. — Locusts appeared in Riley County, Kans., from a northerly direction, the
exact direction not clearly ascertained.

1873. — Locusts entered Texas in September from the north.

1874. — This was a very general invasion, and all accounts show that the flights were
from the northwest.

1875. — Eagle Pass, Texas, was visited by swarms, moving from the north, in Sep-
tember. From Dakota the locusts migrated from the middle of July until the middle
of August, moving south or southeast. But there appears to have been no general
invasion of the intermediate States and Territories.

1876. — There were fresh arrivals in Texas from the north and northwest. During
the same year Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, and Iowa were visited by heavy swarms,
always coming from the northwest.

Some of the swarms this season were traced back nearly or quite to the borders of
Montana, at least to the northwestern portion of Dakota.

This is conclusive as to the direction from which invading swarms
usually arrive in the temporary region, but before it can be made con-
clusive of the proposition, and of value in studying the life history of the
species, it is necessary to eliminate two possible explanations which may
be given without recourse to the hypothesis advanced.

First. It may be contended, as the writer and Dr. Scudder at one time
held, following the idea advanced by Keferstein, Zinnani, Schrank, Kop-
pen, and some other European entomologists, that these invasions may
be from points much nearer the place of arrival than generally supposed
and indicated in the above proposition. For illustration, may not the
swarms that reach Texas come from Eastern Colorado or Indian Terri-
tory ; those arriving in Kansas, from Western Nebraska ; those reaching
Nebraska, from Southwestern Dakota, &c, thus moving on in successive
waves, each wave representing a generation ? And is it not more than
likely that the circumstances which cause excessive multiplication at one
of these poiuts will have the same effect in the other, when these circum-
stances operate generally over a large area, as in 1866, 1874, and 1876,
and hence the movements be apparently the same as if all the swarms
came from the permanent region of the northwest ?

Secondly. As it has been ascertained that the invading swarms sel-
dom arrive earlier than July, and often as late as August and the first of
September, and as those locusts hatched in Texas become full-fledged in
April and May, those of Kansas in May and June, and those of Nebraska
in June, and almost universally fly northward soon afterwards, may not
the invading swarms be the same that moved northward, again return-
ing southward ?

The second supposition is easily disposed of. That " returning swarms,"
or swarms flying from the temporary region northwest, toward the per-
manent area, do often change their course and again move south, and
are sometimes taken for " invaders," is certainly true, as we know from
dara collected in 1877. But this will not apply in years when no swarms

76 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

move northward, as was the case in 1867 and 1874, and to a large extent
in 1876. Experience has now also enabled those who have carefully
studied their characteristics to distinguish, in most cases, " invaders"
from those hatched in the temporary regions. A corresponding fact in
the case of A. peregrimtm will hereafter be noticed, where the difference
in color alone is sufficient to distinguish between the invading and
returning swarms. In the case of C. spretm the difference in color is
slight, the most marked being the somewhat fiery red of the pronotum
in the invaders; and the position of the wings in repose presents also a
variation. Practice and experience will even enable those who have
never paid any attention to the study of entomology to distinguish
between the two.

The first supposition, which appears very plausible, fails also, in part
at least, when we test it by the facts. In the first place, the intermediate
plains where he swarms would have todevelop are so frequently traversed
now by stockmen that the fact of their presence would be communicated.
In the second place, it is now a well-ascertained fact that locusts hatched
anywhere in the temporary region south of the southern line of Dakota
-almost always move northward when they begin to fly, whereas the sup-
position requires them to go south or southeast. Thirdly, as we know,
from positive data, the returning swarms from as far south as Texas
reach Western Dakota and even into Montana, it is therefore highly
probable that the invading swarms extend their flight in a single season a
like distance southward. Lastly, the facts ascertained, although showing
some exceptions, warrant the general conclusion as we have stated it.*

As illustrating this, we present the following facts in reference to
1875 and 1876, the former being considered a year of " returning swarms"
from the temporary region, and the latter a year of " invading swarms"
from the permanent region. Most of the facts stated will be found scat-
tered through our former report.

1875. — In Texas a swarm arrived at Eagle Pass from the north in
September, " but north of this State up to the United States boundary
line there was no general invasion from the northwest."

In Indian Territory locusts hatched out this year in large numbers,
and "during the month of May they departed in a generally north and
west direction." Large numbers flew westward.

In reference to Kansas, the record states that " the locusts hatched
jout mostly in April and early May, and became fledged May 28 to June
15, and then all flew in a general northwest direction,*' and that "there
were no invasions from the north or west that year."

The same thing was also true in reference to Nebraska, but some of
•the swarms which flew north in June appear to have returned southward
in August, the diseased condition of the latter showing that they had
^evidently been hatched in the temporary region.172

172 See Appendix, pp. 129 and 130, First Report,

Note. — Facts recently ascertained appear to somewhat modify this conclusion.

1875 AND 1876 CONTRASTED.

77

Some sections of Minnesota, Dakota, and Northern Iowa were visited
in this year, but it is impossible to ascertain now whether these were
''invaders" or not. It is known that in some cases they were from the
south.

1876. — It is only necessary to refer to our former report to see that
this year was one of general invasion from the northwest reaching from
Dakota to Texas.

Now let us refer to the locust movements during these years in the
permanent region.

In 1875 the locusts visiting Fort Benton and Eastern Montana were
from the east and southeast ; while those which appeared in 1876 came
from the northwest in immense swarms.

In Wyoming vast numbers were observed at Laramie City in 1875,
flying south and southeast. In August of 1876 swarms were observed
in Southeast Wyoming, east of the Big Horn Mountains and north of
Black Hills, flying southeast. In Colorado the flights of 1875 were from
the north and northwest, over Greeley and Denver.

In 1875, as stated by Professor Dawson —

Foreign swarms from the south crossed the 49th parallel with a wide front stretch-
ing from the 98th to the 108th meridian, and are quite distinguishable from those pro-
duced in the country (British Columbia), from the fact that many of them arrived
before the latter were mature. These flights constituted the extreme northern part
of the army returning northward and northwestward from the States ravaged in the
autumn of 1874.

From the same authority we learn that the locusts hatched north of
the boundary line in 1876 flew southward into the United States.

These facts are sufficient to show that the invading swarms which
visit the temporary regions south of Dakota come, as a general and al-
most universal rule, from the permanent area lying to the northwest r.
and that the resulting brood of the following year return over the same
course to the northwest.

The movements in Wyoming and Colorado appear to be independent j
coming out of the mountains, they move down the east flank into Colo-
rado, sometimes stopping and producing a brood which next year either
returns northwestward over the mountains, or as is sometimes the case
moves farther southward, some passing southwest into South Park and
adjoining regions, and at other times passing southeast into Texas-
This will account for the appearance in Texas of invading swarms when
in the sections north, as in 1875, there were no invading swarms.

It appears that returning swarms moving north from Kansas and
Nebraska through Dakota often turn westward near the middle of the
Territory, following up the course of the Missouri.

Those invading Manitoba come from the west generally, sometimes-
from the northwest, but occasionally from the direction of Eastern Mon-
tana. Those invading Minnesota, from the west and northwest.

In the western States these invading swarms are very commonly desig-

78 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

nated as " foreigners " to distinguish them from those which are bred in
the temporary region.

b. Returning swarms. — This term has already been explained by the
use we have made of it in speaking of invading swarms. But there it
is limited to those which, having been bred in the temporary region
between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains, soon after becoming
full fledged fly back toward the section from which their progenitors of
the preceding season came. It may be used in a general sense to apply
to all swarms returning from the temporary regions to which they or
their progenitors may have flown to their native habitats.

How far this habit of returning prevails on the Pacific side of the
permanent area we are as yet unable to say, our data not being sufficient
to determine.

So far as we have been able to ascertain, the disposition to return to
the home of their ancestors is not exhibited by P. migratorius ; at least
we have been unable to find any notice of it in the voluminous locust
literature of Europe.

Koppen expresses some doubt as to the correctness of the opinion that it
is a characteristic of the species to move only from the east to the west,
and cites instances where it has -been known to move northward, espe-
cially on the east side of the Black Sea ; but there is nothing whatever
shown to indicate that there is a disposition of the resulting brood or of
the invaders to return to their native habitat ; in fact, all the data we
can find appear to contradict this. It is more than probable that if the
least indication of this had shown itself it would have been noticed,
whereas the European writers on locusts assert that they ahcays move
from the east toward the west.

The difference in this respect between the C. spretus and P. migratorius
is somewhat remarkable, and as yet we are unable to fully explain it ;
but of this we will speak more fully when we have noticed the meager
data in reference to the habits of the other species in this respect.

We have no data whatever on this point in reference to C. italicus,
which indicates that the attention of European entomologists has not
been called to it, and hence we presume is not so marked as in C. spretus.

The general direction of the movements of A. peregrinvm varies in dif-
ferent sections ; in Northern Africa, west of Egypt, the invading swarms
are from the south, as asserted by Lallemant and Girard, come from
the region of the Atlas range. South of this range, in Central Africa,
the invading swarms move southward and southwest ; 173 in Egypt and
Arabia the movements vary, but are generally more or less east and west.

In the states of North Africa, as we might suppose, there are indica-
tions of a return movement similar to that observed in the case of C.
spretus. Lallemant17* states that the locusts that live for a long time in
the adult state become a rosy color, and at length migrate southward

173 Girard, in Ann. Soc. Ent. France, 4th Ser. 18C7, Bull, x-xii.

174 See last quoted authority.

RETURNING SWARMS IN AFRICA.

79""

in the middle of the summer ; and return iu the winter, when they are of
a maroon color, with the extremities yellow. It is evident that the win-
ter hrood is not the same as the summer brood going south, nor do we
presume the language used was intended to convey this idea. It appears
from the statement of M. Girard that those hatched in Algiers, in 1866>
migrated westward and southwest in January, hut this is spoken of as
unusual.

There is some evidence, though not decisive, that in Central Africa
the resulting swarms return northward, as, for example, the swarm seen
by Barth in July, 1854.

M. Brue175 mentions the fact of swarms which had moved southward
in Senegal returning northward to the desert. The same disposition to
return to the land of their nativity is exhibited by the offspring of those
visiting Southern Africa.

The locusts which plagued Pharaoh came from the east (Arabia) on an
■east wind, and in attempting to return on a west wind were engulphed
in the sea176. Richard Jobson,177 notes a similar case. Mebuhr178 says
that swarms frequently cross the Bed Sea a second time and return to
Egypt, the upp er part of which, adjoining the deserts of Lybia seems to
be the cradle of these animals. Whether correct or not in reference to
their " cradle," these reverse movements indicate clearly a disposition to
return to the place of their nativity.

From these facts, and others which might be mentioned, we feel justi-
fied in assuming that it is a characteristic of this species, as of C. spretus,
for the resulting broods to return to their normal habitat, especially
where the direction of the invading movements is northward or south-
ward.

Shaw mentions expressly that the locusts return to the desert to de-
posit their eggs. Speaking of his observations in Barbary, he says that
towards the middle of April (1724) the locusts had so multiplied that,
they formed clouds which darkened the sun. About the middle of May
their ovaries were filled and they began to move backwards into the
plains of Metidja and other adjoining regions in order to deposit their
eggs.

The same disposition to return to their native breeding grounds is
shown by the A. paranense in its movements in Paraguay, as indicated
by Bengger.179

c. Local flights. — In our former report this term was applied only to
the movements of those locusts hatched in the temporary regions to and
fro, from point to point, within that region. We adopted it chiefly to
avoid circumlocution, and explained it to avoid confusion. The neglect
to distinguish between such movements and real migrations has often led

'"Ritter Hcuschreckenplage 19, Labat, Relat de l'Afrique, Occ. 2, 176.
'"Ex. X.

'"Visit to Gambora, Purchas, ii 1046.
""Travels in Arabia, &c, Transl. ii 334, &c.
*" Roise nacb Paraguay, p. 420.

80 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

to incorrect conclusions ; hence we have found it necessary, in dis-
cussing points relating to migrations, to use some term that would
distinguish these flights from what may be more properly termed true
migrations.

Strange as it may appear to those who have not carefully studied the
characteristics and habits of our western locust that it should be possi-
ble to distinguish a local from an invading swarm ; yet, as we have here-
tofore stated, this may be done in almost every instance, even when
moving in the same direction, and apparently from the same point. As
an illustration of the use of the term, we call attention to the records of
autumn flights of 1877 in Appendix XII of our former report. These
were in nearly every instance, where south of Minnesota, from the north-
west, yet, as was then pretty well known, and as since ascertained, those
hatched in the temporary regions, most of which having flown north as
far as Dakota again turned southward, being joined usually by those of
the section where they again started southward. In some instances our
data from local observers enabled us to designate the time and section
when and where this change of course began.

The data obtained for 1877 — which, as wfll be seen by reference to our
former report, are very full — show that there is considerable difference in
these local flights in the area from Dakota south to Texas and the area
embracing Minnesota and Northern Iowa, the Coteau des Prairies form-
ing the dividing line. In the former the flights were uniformly northward
until in July, after which they were southward until in September, the
turning point being somewhere in Dakota, after which there was but
little flying either way, the locusts doubtless perishing after their flight
southward, and generally without doing injury or depositing any eggs.
On the other hand, there were, as will be seen by the following extract
from Mr. Whitman's report, repeated flights to the northwest and south-
east through Minnesota:

To sum up ; July 1 the air was thick with locusts over a considerahle portion of the
State. July 3 to 6 they moved across the State to the northwest, and turning at Mor-
ris westward ; on July 8 to 10, crossed the State to the southeast-;. July 11 and 12,
crossed the State to the northwest ; July 20 and 21, after the wind had heen blowing
from the northwest for four days, they crossed the State agaiu to the southeast ; July
28, after some flying to the northwest, crossed the southwestern corner of the State to
the southeast ; August 2, crossed the State to the southeast in full force. To all ap-
pearance the locusts have spent the greater part of their time in the air since July 10.

In 1875 the local flights were not so marked as in 1877 ; in that year
the return flights generally reached their destination — their native
habitats in the permanent region — but in the latter year, on account of
adverse winds or their diseased condition, which was very marked, they
failed to accomplish the apparent object of their return flights, and hence
became aimless wanderers, driven to and fro, the weaker dropping out
and dying as they moved until all had disappeared. Our local reports
are full of accounts of their dropping as swarms moved over.

As heretofore stated, it is true that it is possible in almost every in-

RETURNING SWARMS DO LITTLE INJURY.

81

stance to distinguish an invading from a local swarm, although moving
in the same direction and apparently from the same point. Those who
have had considerable experience with them are generally able, from an
inspection of the insects alone, to decide with reasonable certainty this
point. But there are other and still more important methods of deter-
mining it.

It may appear of but little importance to the farmers and agricultur-
ists of Kansas or Nebraska, on whose fields a swarm of locusts has fallen,
whether they are from the plains of Montana or from the prairies of an
adjoining State ; but if a careful study of their habits shows it to be a
general rule that the invading swarms are always, or nearly always,
destructive in their operations, and that the local swarms are seldom
injurious, then this knowledge is important.

One object of the Commission has been to study carefully this point,
for the purpose of ascertaining whether there is any difference in this
respect between the invading swarms and those which are local or re-
turning swarms ; not only on account of its direct importance to the
agriculturists of the invaded States, but also on account of its bearing
upon the question of their continued vitality in these States.

Early in the season, when rumors of flying locusts came from the
South, the commissioners in the field were asked to express an opinion
as to the result ; each, when asked, expressed his opinion without hesi-
tation, and allowed it to be published far and wide :

We do not apprehend any danger from them. In fact, this is precisely what the
Commission anticipated, and is one of the strongest possible corroborations of the
theory held, that these insects can never become permanent residents of this part of the
Mississippi Valley.

The result confirmed to the fullest extent this opinion, and our pre-
dictions were fulfilled in a most remarkable manner. Although from
the middle of June to the last of August of that year swarms were con-
i stantly moving over Minnesota, Dakota, Iowa, Nebraska, and Kansas,
some days covering an area equal to any two of these States, yet in all
that time, though visited by myriads after myriads, scarcely a dozen
fields in all these States were reported as injured. It may therefore be
< stated as a general rule that returning and local swarms do but little
injury. It is possible that with a different season the result may be
different, but, so far as the facts heretofore ascertained are concerned,
they point to the same conclusion ; therefore, with the experience of the
past season added, we are justified in giving this as one general rule in
reference to their habits.

From the facts we have obtained it is evident that there is a marked
difference between local flights in the permanent and temporary regions.
In the latter, as just stated, the swarms appear to have little disposition
to injure vegetation or to deposit eggs, the presumable reasons for which
are given in our former report. While in the permanent area, apparently
6l

82 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

feeling themselves at home wherever they stop, they follow out their
desire tor reproduction.

Our data in reference to the local flights of other locusts are not suffi-
cient to admit of comparison in this respect with what is known of C.
spretus.

We notice here a few statements by travelers and others in reference
to local movements of other species, but they throw little light on the
subject now under discussion. J. Morier,180 while at Smyrna, in the
months of July and August, observed somewhat carefully the locusts
which had hatched out very abundantly there that year (1800). We
judge from his very brief description that the species was A.percgrinum.
He remarks: "It was now completely evident that their devastations
were to curse the land. They remained until July and August upon
the fields, driven now inland, now ocean wards by the winds; laid their
eggs in the autumn, and destroyed, when the corn was already growing,
by preference, the cotton, mulberry trees, and fig trees."

The great swarm which entered Germany in 1093 produced successive
broods for three years before they entirely disappeared, affording Ludolph
an opportunity of studying their habits, of which he, several years after-
wards, gave an account.181 In this he speaks of their passage from one
part of the empire to another, corresponding to the movements of C.
spretus, which we term "local flights." But they deposited eggs and
continued to reproduce until 1090 before disappearing.

In the great irruption of 1748-1752 their movements were somewhat
different, as the resulting broods continued to press on westward.

2. DISTANCE A SWARM MAY TRAVEL IN THE COURSE OF ITS MIGRA-
TIONS.

In reference to migrations two extremes have been maintained by
entomologists and other writers on the subject, which may be well shown
by the following extract from Kefferstein's paper:

It is usually held, and Fabricius himself says, that the Gryllus migratoriuss dwells
properly in Tartary, and issuing from thence in great masses comes iu his migrations
even to Germany and lays waste everything here; but when we consider the immense
distance which this insect must pass over from the plains of Tartary in order to reach.
Germany, crossing rivers and mountains, as compared with the very short period of
existence of the mature insect whose end is merely propagation, in order to die upon
the completion of this life task, it is clear that the assumption of the migration from
Tartary into Germany is an empty hypothesm resting only upon the fact that the G.
migratorius is found abundantly in Tartary. Moreover, we have never, according to
any existing observations on the subject, been able to follow any locust swarm back
from Germany into Tartary. Of the same opinion is also Schrank ; and this acute
naturalist believes that the locusts wherever they show themselves destructive were
there likewise born.

He then proceeds to illustrate by reference to the appearance of locusts
at various points in Europe, where he contends they originated, even

180 Second journey, 99, 100.

"'Beschreibung von allerlei Inaecten in Deutchland. Berlin, 1730. Th. 9, p. 6. — Kefferstein.

DISTANCE TO WHICH A SWARM MAY MIGRATE.

83

contending that those observed in England in 1784 must have originated
there. Koppen appears to lean toward the same opinion, at least so far
as Southern Eussia is concerned. But, as heretofore intimated, the facts
given by Keferstein and Koppen themselves show beyond doubt that
the locusts do pass beyond the limits of their usual hatching grounds
into sections where they are not able to maintain their existence.

While the Tartary of the older entomologists and travelers is an un-
certain laud, and while we must admit that the belief held by many that
the locusts in a single season or single migration pass from the regions
of the Caspian Sea to Germany is not based upon any ascertained fact,
and unfounded, yet that by successive stages they have passed from
Bessarabia and Southern Bussia into Poland and Germany has been
established beyond doubt. That in our own country G. spretus has mi-
grated in a single season from Montana into Nebraska and Kansas ap-
pears now to be too well established to any longer admit of doubt. The
writer for some time was disposed to doubt this as was also Mr. S. H.
Scudder, but the facts ascertained by the commission have proven it
beyond question.

The most positive evidence we have in reference to the distance
swarms of the Bocky Mountain locust travel is to be drawn from the
records of return nights.

As we have now ascertained somewhat definitely the date at which
they acquire wings at different latitudes we can judge with considerable
certainty as to the latitude in which an early swarm seen flying north-
ward originated. As our record of flights in 1877 is very full and we
may say almost complete as to the area east of the mountains, we are
enabled to trace with almost positive certainty the earlier swarms to
their starting point. Those hatched in Kansas did not commence to
move until in Juue, the earliest noted being about the 10th or 12th, but
it is quite probable some small swarms left the more southern parts a
few days earlier. In the southern part of Nebraska there was no gen-
eral movement, but the earliest of which we have any record was in the
latter part of June. In Texas, the movement commenced soon after the
middle of April, from the central part of the State, and by the 10th of
May all had departed.

On the 15th of May a swarm was observed at Amazon, in Franklin
County, Nebraska, flying north ; swarms were observed two days later,
passing northward over Trego County, Kansas. From this time until
the 2ath of the month, numerous swarms were observed passing north-
ward over the western part of Kansas and Nebraska, and the northeast
corner of Colorado. And in the latter part of the month some swarms
from the south settled down at the Black Hills, and there deposited their
eggs. As the locusts in Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, and in this lati-
tude were not yet fully fledged, it is certain that those seen flying came
from some point south of Kansas ; and from the meager reports we re-
ceived from Indian Territory (the only section from which they are not

84 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION

full) we are wan-anted in saying they were from some point still farther
south. These facts make it certain that the swarms of May were from
Texas; and, as we know from the abundant data received from that
State, chiefly from the central part. The distance traveled over in this
movement was some 900 or 1,000 miles. From similar testimony it can
be shown that the locusts hatched in Kansas and Nebraska, in 1875r
moved as far north in their return flights as the Saskatchewan in British
Columbia, or about thirteen degrees of latitude. Invading swarms from
the northwest can be occasionally 1 raced an equal distance in their
movements southward and southeast.

If we count the cut ire distance back and forth, north and south, which
some of the locusts evidently traveled in 1877, it will certainly exceed a
thousand miles. It is, therefore, possible for a swarm of the Rocky Mount-
ain locusts to travel in the course of their migrations a distance of at
least a thousand miles, with favorable winds, and it is also certain that
they do frequently traverse this distance. The fact that our locust can
and frequently dues travel a thousand miles being established, there is
nothing to forbid the supposition that P. migratorius may extend its
migrations in a single season from the Crimea or farther east to Poland
and Germany, and that the resulting brood may reach England the fol-
lowing season if the climatic conditions are favorable. Nor is there
anything impossible in the statement of Major Moore, that A. pere-
grinum passed from Arabia into India in a single migration. C. italicus
does not appear to be capable of such extended movements.

As a matter of course the extent of their movements depends very
laigely on the winds, as we shall hereafter see when we touch upon this
point.

3. THE SPACE OVER WHICH A SINGLE PLIGHT MAY EXTEND.

This is a question more difficult to decide, and one in reference to
which there are stfll greater differences of opinion.

That it is the usual rule for swarms to alight in the evening and arise
again in the morning if the wind and weather favor is undoubtedly true,
as will hereafter be shown ; but that they may, and sometimes do, fly in
the night, can be clearly shown. As they rely chiefly upon the wind to
bear them along, the distance to which a single flight may extend de-
pends upon the rate at which the wind moves and the length of time the
locusts can sustain themselves in the air. That they can sustain them-
selves an entire day in the air is too well established to require any fur-
ther proof here. The experience of 1877 led many persons in the West
to the conclusion that they can remain in the air for days without com-
ing down. While this is an extreme opinion, there are incontrovertible
facts which go to prove that they do sometimes continue their flights
for at least an entire day or more.

The rate at which they travel is variously estimated at from three to

LENGTH OF A SINGLE FLIGHT.

85

twenty miles per hour, according to the rate at which the wind they are
on bears them.

A day's flight may therefore be estimated at from twenty to one hun-
dred and fifty miles. But there are numerous facts which go to prove
that a single flight may extend much farther than the longer distance
here given.

Before presenting the facts bearing on this point, we desire to call
attention for a moment to the statement so often made, as an argument
to show their powers of prolonged flight, that they cross the Mediter-
ranean Sea from Africa to Italy. This appears to have been first made
by Pliny, as already quoted, to refute the theories of certain other au-
thors, that they are unable to fly at night. Most subsequent writers,
even down to the present day, who have alluded to this statement, ap-
pear to have relied upon it, without for a moment questioning its truth
and without investigation. The only other authors we have been able
to find who appear to corroborate this assertion by additional evidence
are Otho Frisingenses, who says they came over from Africa into Italy
and France in 1353 and 1374, and Dor, who believes the invasion of
1858 came from the same country. This is not only contradicted by the
statement of Lucretiis, who, residing in that part of Europe, had the
best opportunity of knowing the facts in the case ; but it is rendered in
the highest degree Improbable, from the fact, as heretofore shown, that
the only migratory species known in North Africa is A. peregrinum,
which has never been seen in Italy, and, according to Bolivar and Lalle-
mant, never approaches nearer to it than the Balearic Islands. We
allude to this not only for the purpose of proving it incorrect, but also
to show how long an erroneous statement in reference to locusts, based
upon theory, may be accepted as true even by entomologists.*

That locusts can and do often cross over considerable bodies of
water is clearly shown by the fact that they reach the Canary Islands
from the African coast ; come into Cyprus from the neighboring coasts
of Asia Minor ; cross over the Bed Sea at least at its northern and
southern extremities, and that A. peregrinum has been seen in the Ba-
learic Islands, having come from Northern Africa. P. migratorius has
also been taken in the vicinity of Edinburg, Scotland, having without
doubt crossed over from the Continent. Statements are on record of
swarms of the same species having been seen crossing over the Black
Sea. Bitter asserts it, and even an official report made to the Bussian
Government states the same thing. Yet Koppen, who has so carefully
studied the history and habits of the locusts in Crimea and Southern
Bussia, doubts the correctness of these statements. And the more care-
fully these insects are studied in their native habitats and in the regions
to which they migrate, the more we find such opinions fading away be-
fore the facts.

♦Kote. — I see it stated recently in a newspaper that a swarm of locusts had this season fallen on the
shores of Italy from Africa. Whether the statement as to their appearance, let alone their nativity,
be true has not been ascertained up to the time this goes to press.

8f) REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

The facts which .ire generally quoted as evidence of their power of
prolonged flight arc the numerous statements of their having been seen
at sea a distance of five hundred miles or more from the nearest land
from which they could have come. We add here one of these state-
ments as an illustration :

Locusts at sea. — The Essex (Massachusetts) Register published the following account
on authority of a letter from the mate of the brig Levant, of Boston, to his friend in
Beverly, dated Montevideo, January 17, last past. Tho mate writes that after
having encountered a severe gale on the 13th of September when in latitude of 18°
north, and tho nearest laud being over 450 miles, they wen: surrounded for two days
by large swarms of locusts of a large size ; and in the afternoon of the 6econd day in
a squall from the northwest, the sky was completely black with them. They covered
every part of the brig immediately, sails, rigging, cabin, &c. It is a little singular
how they could have supported themselves in the air so long, as there was no land to
the northwest for several thousand miles. Two days afterwards, the weather being
moderate, the brig sailed through swarms of them floating dead upon the water.183

If these statements are received as true, and some of them at least
are too well authenticated for us to doubt their correctness, they render
it certain that it is possible for locusts, under favorable conditions, to
be conveyed this great distance over the ocean.

But does it follow as a necessary conclusion that they have flown to
this distance at a single flight ? If the remarkable statement by Sir
Hans Sloane, which we have heretofore quoted, is to be relied upon, we
may be enabled to account for their appearance in mid-ocean without
having to assume that these points were reached in a single flight. That
locusts maj7 fall into the water in such masses as to buoy many without
being submerged, which may afterwards take flight, is not impossible.
Lallemant observing a swarm cast into the sea off the shores of Algiers,
remarked that many thrown upon the beach by the waves regained
their vitality under the iuflueuce of the sun. The same thing has also
been frequently observed elsewhere.

It is also possible for them to be carried long distances over the ocean
by whirlwinds and by violent winds which ascend on leaving the land,
the force of which is sufficient to carry them forward in spite of the
apparent natural tendency they have to drop when over the water.

We therefore are not inclined to accept these isolated and unusual
occurrences as applicable to the question now under discussion ; not that
we deny the possibility of a swarm passing over a distance of 500
miles in a single flight with a favorable wind, but that the evidence
to show these were regular flights is wanting, and from the fact,
which will be hereafter shown, that when they come over large bodies
of water they have a natural or at least almost universal tendency to fall.

All the facts, therefore, which we have been able to gather in refer-
ence to their power of flight lead us to believe that with a strong and
long-contiuued wind they may pass over a distance of from three to
five hundred miles, and possibly even more before alighting. The fact
that they are driven by the wind instead of really flying as does a bird.

"'Annals of Natural History, vol. vi, page 527.

POSITION OF THE LOCUST WIIILE FLYING.

87

and hence have only to sustain themselves in the air, the labor of which
is less and less as the velocity of the wind increases, renders the state-
ments of such extended flights less improbable than they would other-
wise appear.

4. THE MODE OF FLIGHT; AND MANNER IN WHICH SWARMS ARE

FORMED AND MOVE.

The position of the individuals during flight has not yet been studied
. with sufficient care in this country to enable us to speak as exactly in re-
gard to it as we desire. So far as the observations of the Commission in
reference to it extend, and the reports of local observers go, it appears
to be their rule when the wind is any ways strong to turn their heads to
the wind, the hind portion of the body dropping so that the axis of the
body forms an angle of 30° or 40° with the plane of their flights. In
this position the beating of their wings against the wind has a tendency
to carry them upwards ; in fact, the force of the wind against the ex-
panded wings would have this tendency. This, as will be observed, is
the easiest possible position they can assume, and the one that requires
the least muscular effort; it follows also that the stronger the wind the
less the effort necessary to keep them up. When the wind is very light
and insufficient to support them with a moderate exertion of muscular
power, they either come down, or turning their heads in the direction
the breeze is moving, propel themselves by true flying.
An accurate observer writing from Marshall, Lyon County, Minnesota,

They only float with the wind when flying high, and go just as fast as the wind
blows. With a strong glass I can plainly see locusts and cotton wood-seeds flying
together, and they keep the same rate of progress, but the locusts will leave the
seed to the right and left and go below and above them, showing that they make use
of their wings to keep up and gyrate in flying, but I think they propel ahead none at
all after they get high, but fly forward and upward very fast 'when rising from the
ground to fly away or for short flights. — [D. F. Weymouth.

Now this statement, which corresponds with most of the statements
on this point by our local observers and our own observations, makes it
evident that the locusts when high were moving backwards, that is, with
the head to the wind and opposite the direction in which they were mov-
ing ; for there is no position they can assume with the head forward, in
which the wind can buoy them up and drive them forward. The only
position they could assume to accomplish this end would be with the
abdomen turned obliquely upward and the head downward, an impossi-
ble posture for them to maintain.

Another correspondent says :

They always travel with the wind, that is in the same direction ; of a calm day they
travel as fast as the wind, but when the wind is strong they right about face, letting the
wind carry them. — [H. M. Cox.

This corresponds exactly with theory and with our own observations.
When the air is nearly calm and they attempt flight they must ueces-

88 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

sarily propel themselves by the use of their wings, and this can only be
done with the head in the direction they are moving.

But one very careful observer (A. L. Child) whose letter is' quoted
hereafter says that they move faster than the wind. How this can be,
except where the wind is light and they are moving by real flight, it is
impossible to conceive, at least it is impossible if they move backwards
as heretofore stated.

Koppen'83 says that during flight they have the feet drawn up under
the thighs. lie also quotes the observation of his father, P. Koppen,134
thai —

Tho locusts camo over the sea, having come without doubt out of the laud of the
Cossacks of tho Black Sea, from north-northeast to south-southwest. All, as dis-
tinctly seen, did not have their bodies straight in the direction of the flight held;
probably necessitated so to steer themselves in their flight through the air.

Frauenfeld,105 who observed an immense locust flight in Manila, says
that—

Usually they fly regularly with the tibiae drawn up, the body at an angle of 40° or
50° to tho direct lino of flight, with the tip of the left wing below.

Koppen, from whose work we take this quotation, adds that he has
also observed this sidewise posture of the locust during flight. That
many a time of an evening when circling toward the north or south he
had observed that they flew sidewise, with the head toward the sun,
and at the same time sweeping with the wind, which was blowing out of
the west; in their fall they had thus, as in their flight, the wind on the side.

We may add thai we have also observed this sidewise movement,
which appears to be very common with them, and is probably adopted
when they desire to vary their course somewhat from that of the wind.

Bussegger186 remarks that what struck him most forcibly was that
the locusts when about to alight for repose, or to eat, turned round with
their heads opposite to the direction of flight, and that this was so con-
stantly observed that he concluded it was a characteristic of the animal.

Lichtenstein informed Koppen that he had observed in Africa great
locust flights, not against and not with the wind, but, as might be said,
with half wind.

When the air is calm and warm and they are ready to move they will
be seen rising in the air, in short flights, and often moving aimlessly in
circles. They appear to be seeking a current of air to bear them away.

The following statement from Colonel Byers, formerly editor of the
Eocky Mountain Xews, quoted in our First Beport, describes very vividly
their mode of descending :

Along towards noon on bright warm days they rise by circular flights, each seeming
to act individually, to a considerable height, and then all sail away with tolerable
regularity, in one general direction. If there is no wind, many of them continue

183 Heuschrecken in Sud Russland, 41.

184 In Bull, de Moscou, 1859, HI.

ls^Der Aufenthaltauf Manila wahrendder Weltreiae derk.-k. Fregatte Xovara. in Verh. derk.-k. ZooL
Bot. Ges. In Wien, xi, 1861, 275.

186Eeise in Egypteni Nubia, und Ost-Sudan, 2 ter. Tk. 242. Koppen.

HOW SWARMS ARE FORMED.

89

whirling about in the air, like bees swarming, but away beyond myriads can be seen
moving across the sun toward the southwest, looking like snowflakes. If there is
a change in the atmosphere, such as the approach of a thunder-storm or gale of wind
they come down precipitately, seeming to fold their wings and descend by the force
of gravity, thousands being killed by the fall, if it be on stone or other hard sub-
stance. If not interrupted by such causes, they descend during the afternoon.

It is proper to add that this applies to the east base and within the
mountain region, where the atmosphere near the surface of the ground
is protected by the mountain wall, while an upper current may be mov-
ing eastward or southeast — a condition not found on the plains. The
commissioners have also had the pleasure of witnessing this habit of the
locust of circling upward in the mountain region, behind some inject-
ing ridge, and in the narrow cations, apparently for the purpose of ascer-
taining the condition or direction of the upper currents, and suddenly
dropping, if from any cause it proved unfavorable. This habit of drop-
ping suddenly and with folded wings is very marked, and when first
observed by the writer attracted his attention more than any single
point connected with their movements. Nor does this habit appear to
be confined to our native species, but is true to a certain extent both of
P. migratorius and A. peregrinum.

Lucretiis says that when they find themselves in a condition not to
sustain a long journey they at first drop and then fall precipitately to
the ground.

Eichard Jobson,187 describing the fall of locusts in a storm, says :

As we returned homeward there came so many of them behind us that they seemed
to be blows of stones and staves.

Captain Frankland,188 while at Smyrna in the latter part of July, ob-
served a large swarm ; in speaking of them he remarks that —

They passed over the city, falling upon the roofs of the houses, where they lay two
or three inches deep, and tumbling into the sea in such quantities that they could be
traced in continuous streams for many leagues from the land.

Although the method of falling is not described, it is evident from
what he says that it was precipitately.

The formation and movements of sivarms. — The disposition to mass
together begins at an early stage in the life of these insects; in fact, as
stated in our former report, it is shown in C. spretus from the first,
though, as Koppen remarks in reference to P. migratorius, no decided
association for the purpose of moving forward appears until the second
or third stage. But from the third stage onward until they acquire
wings this disposition to move forward in armies is shown quite dis-
tinctly. The fact that they combine together and move in immense
swarms in the winged state, often in such numbers as to darken the sun
for hours, is too well known to require any further proof. This habit
appears to have given origin at a very early date to the belief that they
are led by kings — a belief which, judging from some of our locust cor-

"» Loc. cit. '""Travela to awl from Constantinople in 1827-28, I, 264.

90 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

respondence, is not yet wholly "h en up. We find it frequently stated
in the older writers that these kings or leaders with a lew companions
go before the army a day's journey as it were to find out suitable stop-
ping places, to which the main body comes with unerring certainty.
Solomon says (Pro v. xxx, 27), "The locusts have no king, yet go they
forth all of them by bands," and in this he is certainly correct. But we
may add with quaint old Purchas, "Though they be nine rege nine lcgey
yet have they a conspiring agreement to do mischief.''

Sometimes they arise suddenly over a large area, as if inspired
instantaneously by the same impulse, and fly away. This usually hap-
pens under the following circumstances. A swarm makes a start in a
given direction, and are stopped by an adverse wind; they remain,
generally doing more or less injury, uutil the wind again turns to the
original course. If this change happens during the warm part of the day,
and somewhat suddenly, almost in an instant all arc on the wing.

The following extract from a letter by Capt. Leslie Smith, then sta-
tioned at Fort Sully, Dak., is directly to the point :

It has been observed by me that when the grasshoppers are on the wing, if tho
wind is fair, they do not alight ; but should the wind suddenly change and blow a
little fresh, they immediately alight, and remain until the wind becomes favorable
again, when they, with wonderful unanimity, take wing and fly off on their intended
course.

Norton, Norton County, Kansas, August 13, 1877 :

The divide between Prairie Dog and the Sapper was literally covered with locusts
at 9 o'clock, and at 10.35 a gust of wind came from a little west of north, when tho
whole of them rose and started off on their southern tour. — [Thomas Beaumont.

It also occasionally happens that they depart suddenly and in concert
from the section in which they have been reared; but their desire to
depart will be shown previously by constantly rising in the air iu the
hot part of the day, taking short flights and circling around in an uueasy
and impatient manner. This occurs usually while the air is calm, but
the moment it turns in the proper direction, if during the warm part of
the day, they are off. But it is usually the case that the larger swarms
are formed by constant additions to the ranks of those which first start.
Those of a given locality starting, as they move along, others arise and
join them. Lallemaut, who has studied very carefully the history and
habits of the locusts of Algiers (A. peregrinum), paying particular atten-
tion to their migrations, gives this as his opinion.199 This is also con-
firmed by the statements of a number of our Western correspondents.

The following notice of their methods of forming bands is given in the
accouut of the invasion of Transylvania in 1747, and the resulting brood
of 174:S.190 Speaking of the resulting brood, the writer says :

As soon as any of them found themselves able to use their wings, they soared up,
and by flying around the others enticed them to join them, their numbers increasing
daily; they took circular flights of twenty or thirty yards square, until they were

189 Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg., ix.

isoPkiL Trans., vol. 46 j also, Shaw's Gen. Zool., vi, 130.

THE METHOD OF MOVEMENT IN MASSES.

joined by the rest, and, after miserably laying waste tbeir native fields, they proceeded
elsewhere in large troops.

That they will migrate even in small numbers is evident from the
numerous statements bearing upon this point to be found in the appen-
dices to our former report. The members of the Commission can all
bear testimony also to this fact from personal observation. The brood
of a siugle female will migrate and even cross over the Eocky Mountain
Eauge without other associates, and during the flying season, on almost
any clear, warm day, more or less may be seen in the air moving with
the wiud, sometimes so few and scattering that only here one and there
one can be seen far up toward the sun by the flash of their silvery
wings, appearing like floating snow-flakes.

A much stricter discipline (if such a term can be applied to them)
appears to prevail in the swarms which come from the permanent
region than in the local flights within the temporary area.

"We have assumed throughout our discussion of their flights that they
move only with the wind when flying in swarms. Although there are
occasional apparent exceptions to this rule, we think they are only ap-
parent, and that there are no real exceptions. The facts already given
show so conclusively that this is the general rule that it is unnecessary
for us to present further proof now, though we may have something
more to say when we come to speak of the meteorological influences on
flights. That no well-attested instance of a swarm flying directly against
the wind can be shown, we are quite confident ; but that they can and
do occasionally vary their course from the direction of the wind, beating
around to the right or left, is certainly true. In addition to the one or
two instances mentioned in our report, we add the following from
Bowles,1'11 who appears to speak from personal observation:

I have seen a troop of locusts pass through Malaga and enter for a quarter of a
league ov er the sea ; but when the people began to take pleasure in the hope that
they would disappear and be drowned, they gave a sweep toward the left, Hew
straight to the earth, and paused to deposit their eggs.

The following from our correspondents in reference to the movements
of the Eocky Mountain locusts, and from authors in reference to the
swarms of the Old World, will probably illustrate their method of move-
ment in masses better than any explanation we can give.

The following letter from Dr. Child, who acted as local observer for
us at Plattsinouth, Nebr., from which we have already quoted, is so-
interesting that we give it in full :

Plattsmouth, Cass County, June 7, 1877.
1867, July 2. — General south to north direction on gentle breeze (signal office nom-
enclature of winds) from south. First noticed about 9 a. m.; continued on the 3d in
a heavy body, as also on the 4th, until 3 p. m., when a heavy rain of 1.60 inches in 1-J
| hours obscured (?) them. A very few were found on the ground after the storm, but
not .0001 of what were seen before the clouds obscured them. What became of them 1
Frequent observations since have shown that when flying with the wind which brings-

191 Introduz., &c., I. c.

92 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

a storm they simply disappear from view as the clouds obscure the sky. But if a
wind adverse to their course meets them they come down in large numbers. The 2d,
3d, and 4th, up to 3 p. m., were nearly or quite clear and wind continued southerly.

18C8, August 8, 10, and 11. — Each day much the same calm, but few clouds in the
forenoon, and immense swarms passing from south to north ; but each day from 1 to 3
p. m. a northwest to north wind from strong to fresh brought them down like a hail-
storm.

Many memoranda were made of flights and arrivals from 18G8 to 1875 too lengthy
to copy, but all to this general effect : They were invisible when passing over-head
until near 9 o'clock a. m., or in the afternoon much after 3 o'clock. They must be
nearly in a line with the sun to be visible, and the sun falling below this angle of
some 45° leaving untold myriads of them in the air ; yet I never knew them to come down
after that time (unless driven down by an adverse wind). Again in June, 1875, from
the 13th to the 24th, on every day, if the sun shone out, they were passing over, but
none were seen descending at night. The locust rarely moves much in the morning
till the sun warms up the air as also the locust, and I have no record or recollection
of their rising till from 9 a. m. to 11 a. m., yet the mass above would be seen by or
before that time high up on their regular course. Such immense masses could not de-
scend each night without literally covering or burying the ground.

Does the main army continue its march night and day, only dropping a few
stragglers as they become too weary or hungry to keep up f

1 b. August, 1868.— On the 8th, 18th, 19th, and 20th, days of flight, the thermometer
ranged from 57° to 86°.

July, 1875. — From the 13th to the 22d the maximum temperature was from 70° to
94°, the minimum from 52° to 66°.

June 14 and 16. — The flight was from northeast to north on northerly winds; 57° to
79°.

August 24 to 28.— Northeast wind; 59° to 86°.

August 29. — Wind south, immense numbers ; 74° to 86°.

I do not think they rise to join the crowd above (I never knew them to rise unless
there were swarms passing over at the time) in cloudy weather. Still, when in regular
flight I do not think clouds stop them, although it obscures them from view. As the
sun has appeared through broken clouds I have often seen them passing, while when
the sun was obscured they were invisible.

1 a and c. Invariably in the direction of the wind, be its force more or less.

1 c. By arranging the focal distance of a spy-glass at a known horizontal distance,
and comparison of appearance, and size of locusts; I think the passing swarms are
from $ to 1 mile high, varying at times, probably seeking currents of wind of greater
or less velocity. In case of sudden or heavy rains, when the air was full of them, none
of consequence came down with the rain. It seems impossible that they could fly
through the storm. Do they rise above it ? In heavy swarms my glasses show them as
dense as they can move without interference.

The extent of the swarm it is difficult to ascertain, as the observer can only see a
small belt. They may extend indefinitely right or left. During the flight from June
15 to 25 of 1875, I telegraphed east and west. I found a continuous line moving
northward of 110 miles, and then somewhat broken 40 miles farther. The movements
of the winds for five days (15th to 20th) averaged about 10 miles per hour; and the
locust evidently moved considerably faster than the wind, at least 15 miles per hour.
The swarm I estimated at from one-quarter to one-half mile deep. It seemed like pierc-
ing the milky-way of the heavens ; my glass found no limits to them. They might
have been a mile or more in depth. They were visible from six to seven hours of each
of the successive five days, and I can see no reason to suppose that their flight was
checked during the whole five days. If so, the army in the line of advance would be
120 hours by 15 miles per hour = 1,800 miles in length, and say at even 110 miles in
width, an area of 198,600 miles ! and then from one-quarter to one-half mile deep.
This is utterly incredible, yet how can we put it aside ?

DK. CHILD'S LETTER.

93

All my records and recollections say they rise to depart between 9 a. m. and 12 m.,
and never unless there is a swarm in motion overhead.

2 a. June 13 to 15, 1868. — Towards northwest on a southeast wind.

1869, June 20. — After a four days' southerly wind, they came down largely on a north
wind.

1875, June 13 to 22. — The air was full of them every day, the wind generally from
south or southeast. The locusts weut with it ; two short changes to northeast brought
them to the ground.

June 24. — During the forenoon the wind was light from the north, and locusts with
it (a rare case). At noon full calm, and progress stopped. They circled round and
round, and many came down.

25th to 28th. — Wind southeast. Locusts on it to northwest.

June 14 and 15, 1876. — To the southward on northerly winds.

August 10. — No wind and no general course.

August 24 and 25. — Northwest and northeast winds brought a few.

On the above times the winds were generally light, from five to ten miles per hour.
The weather fair, of course, where the locusts were visible, for they are invisible in
cloudy weather.

2 6. The temperature at the time of rising has ranged from 70° to 90°. Cold or cool
weather renders them sluggish.

2 c. The direction always corresponds with the flocks above, of which I have spoken
above. I have rarely seen a large number rise at once. The lower air will be very
full of -them, but at least four- fifths of them rise, take long horizontal flights, but
seemingly unable to rise, come to the ground again. I presume they have to make
several attempts before they succeed.

August 24, 1876. — I first noticed them. I know nothing of any marching or travel-
ing except as they march across a field of grain or other food and leave a bare plain
behind them. When on the wing I am inclined to think they fly all night. Their
movement must be regulated largely by the wind they are on, and this they out-travel,
according to my observation.

Yesterday, July 22, about noon, I noticed they were passing over in very large num-
bers ; a fight southerly wind blew them northward. I gave my entire attention to
them, and watched them, assisted with a spyglass. The swarm was of great depth,
at least one-quarter mile ; how wide I had no means of determining. Through some
peculiarity of the atmosphere, probably aided by a lower flight than usual (the bar-
ometer indicated from 30.019 to 30.062 inches jiressure) I kept them in view until after
7 p. m. with no perceptible diminution of numbers. Careful observations in the even-
ing, and again this morning, show not a single one on the ground.

At 8.30 this morning I succeeded in getting sight of them again overhead, and as
the sun rose higher developed numbers about the same as yesterday. (Query: was the
flight continuous through the night?)

For several years I have observed the locust, and have seen no exception to the gen-
eral rule that it is very sluggish in the cool of the morning, i. e., on the earth. It does
not leave its perch, roost, or bed until the air is warmed up from 8 to 10 a. m. Sup-
posing this swarm had descended somewhere ; it must have literally more than covered
the ground ; yet, in violation of their general habit of late rising, here theyr are at
8| a. m. in regular flight overhead. The thermometer last night was at 68°, this morn-
ing at 7 a. m. at 64°. A minimum thermometer fell during the night to 55°, altogether
too cool for them to have risen from the earth to recommence their flight this morning.
But, on the other side, if cold renders the locust sluggish, how does it succeed in keep-
ing on its way in the upper strata of air, which are much colder than that on the earth ?
Does its action develop enough heat to enable it to keep up its flight? When met by
opposing winds I have seen them come down in large numbers, but by common con-
sent to descend en masse I have no knowledge of it. I see no way to avoid the conclu-
clusion that they fly all night.

A. L. CHILD, M. D.

94 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

MAK8HALL, LYON COUNTY, MINNESOTA.

When flying high in the air, old locusts always go direct with the wind, but often
beat up against the wind or at some angle of it by short flights near the surface. In
1865, July 13, a large caravan passed across my claim, going west in the teeth of a
strong northwest wind. The advance was two days ahead of the rear guard, and be-
tween them there was at least a grasshopper to the square inch all the way and all the
time. I do not think they went quite a mile an hour, and they eat all in their way
and left the country as soon as the wind changed to the southeast. They had been
hatched in the lower valley of the Redwood and eaten it clean, and started west for
food, and pressed on as fast as the winds would admit ; and when they could not fly in
the usual way they flow as far as they could aud then flew again, feeding as they went.
The same swarm of locusts will fly in every direction, short flights. I have most satis-
factory evidence that they have flown from the north part of Lyon County to Lake
Benton — say 40 miles — in one day, and returned to the central part of Lyon County
the third day, and, after remaining a day or two, gone east and not returned.

They do not fly high in cloudy weather, but will go from one wheat-field to another.
Do not fly high in hard winds, and never are seen flying except between 8 a. m. and 7
p. m., generally from 10 a. m. to 4 p. m. If they fly nights no one knows it. If they
go to roost they are in the same spot the next morning, and do not move until they
breakfast and the dew is all off. They only float with the wind when flying high, and
go just as fast as the wind blows. With a strong glass I can plainly see locusts and
Cottonwood seeds flying together, and they keep the same rate of progress ; but the
locusts will leave the Cottonwood seeds to the right and left and go below and above
them, showing that they make use of their wings to keep up and gyrate in flying ; but I
think they propel ahead none at all after they get high, but fly forward and upward
very fast when rising from the ground to fly away or for short flights.

As to how far they fly I have no reliable data nor much basis for an opinion. But
"we can, at least, judge pretty certainly at the age of a locust ; for a locust breeds bnt
once, never couples until it has flown, but does directly after, doing his courting flying,
and does not live long after it lays its eggs. So we can judge by their age in what
latitude they hatched, and by that give a good guess how far they have traveled. Now,
those that came hero in 1673, June 17, began to couple as soon as they lit. They
hatched and came to the winged state far south of this, and came here pretty rapidly.
Last summer flights came here in August (I cannot fix date) and began to couple as
soon as they alighted. We could trace them back by telegraph as far as Manitoba.
I believe they came from Saskatchewan Valley and hatched after the middle of J une.
I think they fly above the limits of human or telescopic vision in long journeys, and, it
may be, day and night for a thousand miles. — [D. F. Weymouth.

Mr. Weymouth evidently speaks of a movement on foot where he says
"they went west in the teeth of a strong northwest wind."

Mr. G. S. Coddington, of Dell Bapids, Minnehaha County, Dakota, in
his letter of December 10, 1877, published in the appendix of our first
report, gives the following description of a singular movement observed
by him:

The immense swarms, of which I had just kept in advance on the route from Red-
wood Falls, came rolling over the country. The word " rolling " seems to express the
appearance of the movement. The movement of the mass seemed like a great roller
moving over the ground. They would drop and rise, make a curved flight, and drop
again.

We can understand this if we imagine an immense swarm moving
along the ground by short nights, those behind flying over to the front
and alighting, the next tier or portion, which would now be behind, mov-

DESCRIPTIONS OF MOVING SWARMS.

95

ing forward in the same way; a movement which the writer of this chap-
ter has observed on a small scale.
Denon,192 speaking of a flight he observed, says:

Information was brought that the plain was covered with birds, which traveled in
close phalanxes and descended from the east to the west. From a distance they actually
saw that the fields seemed to roll along the plain in the direction mentioned. Instead
of birds, they found a cloud of locusts, who only skimmed along the land, stopping at
every blade of corn to devour it and then flying to fresh prey.

The following description of their movement by the traveler Anders-
son is worth repeating 193 :

The several columns that crossed our path in the course of the day must each have
been many miles in length and breadth. The noise of their wings was very great,
not unlike that caused by a gale of wind whistling through the shrouds of a ship at
anchor. It was interesting to witness at a distance the various shapes and forms that
these columns assumed, more especially when crossing mountain ranges. At one time
they would rise abruptly in a compact body, as if propelled by a strong gust of wind:
then, suddenly sinking, they would disperse into smaller battalions, not unliko vapors
floating about a hillside at early morn, and when slightly agitated by the breeze ; or
they would resemble huge columns of sand or smoke, changing every minuto their
shape and evolutions.

During their flight numbers were constantly alighting ; an action which has not
inaptly been compared to the falling of large snowflakes.

The Italian author Lucretiis, from whose paper we have already fre-
quently quoted, makes the following statement in reference to their
movements :

Upon the emigration of locusts, certain circumstances, as common as they are un-
heeded, merit the attention of the observer. Their flight is more certain, and at a
greater altitude, whenever the atmosphere is of a heated temperature, and the air
clear and calm (?)• On the other baud, when the atmosphere is charged with mist or
with rain, or pervaded by a chilly element, or oven about the rising or the setting of
the sun, they move more slowly, exhibiting a certain rigidity, moving their wings with
difficulty, and not rising to any great height. And when they attempt to continue
their raids in a rainy season, or one tending to cold, they begin by agitating their
wings and exerting all their strength to rise; but not finding themselves in a condi-
tion to sustain a long journey, they at first droop, and then fall precipitately to the
ground, and are compelled to continue their journey on foot.

Bowles,191 who believes the chief cause of their migration is the flight
of the females to avoid the importunities of the males, says :

In their efforts to escape they begin to rise little by little into the air, and finally to
the height of 400 or 500 feet, forming a cloud which intercepts the rays of the sun.
The clear and serene sky of Spain is obscured and becomes in the midst of summei
more dark and gloomy than that of Germany in spring. The rustling of so many mill-
ions of wings forms a dull roar similar to that which a sudden blast of wind produces-
in a forest full of leafy trees. The route which the first formidable swarm takes always
follows the wind, and this first flight is usually prolonged about two leagues, but if
the weather is calm and serene the length of their flight is less. In these fatal pauses
the locusts commit the most frightful ravages. By their exquisite sensibility to odora
they scent from a great height in the air a field of grain or a garden. I have seen
them turn from the course of their march more than a half a league obliquely to de-

192 Travels in Upper and Lower Egypt, Eng. Trans.

193 Lake Ngami, 282.

194 Introduziono alia Storia Nat. ot Geog., flsica Spagna, T. 2, pp. 1-24.

96 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

stroy a field of grain, and after they had devoured it, rise again and resume Iheir first

direction which they had left.

The species here alluded to is Galoptenus italicm.
Lallemaut (I. c.) says, in reference to the Algerine species (A. peregri-
num), that —

By striking their wings one against another they produce a loud noise resemhling
that of a swarm of hees when heard at a distance. Gifted with a very strong flight,
and above all favored by tbe wind, the locusts are able to pass over considerable dis-
tances without repose. Indeed they have been encountered more than 00 leagues at
sea, even at the Balearic Isles, and upon the coast of Spain. The hotter the sun the
stronger and more rapid is their flight.

He also states further, that if the Sirocco blows and is strong they ap-
pear to accomplish a journey of 20 leagues in a single day, flyiug fre-
quently at a very great height.

The noise made by the locusts of the Old World during flight is
frequently mentioned by travelers. In addition to what is already men-
tioned on this subject, we may add that Niebuhr says that " the noise
they make in flying is frightful and stunning, like that of a waterfall."
But so far only one correspondent has mentioned anything of the kind
in reference to our Western locust.

5. FLIGHTS AT NIGHT.

That as a general rule swarms alight as night approaches, and wait
in the morning until the dew is off and the warmth of the sun is felt
before starting again upon their journey, is so well established in refer-
ence to locusts in all parts of the world as to need no proof here. But
that this rule has its exceptions we asserted in our former report and
gave there some reasons for entertaining this belief. Further investigation
of this point has served not only to confirm this opinion, but to induce
us to beheve that the exceptions are much more numerous than we then
supposed. This fact and the strong probabibty, or, as we think we may
say, certainty, that swarms frequently are at such a height as to be in-
visible in daytime, are absolutely necessary to explain some of the
phenomena of locust movements. We should therefore be led to this
belief even if we had no direct testimony on these points.

As we have heretofore seen, the question of nights at night was a
subject of discussion even in the days of Pliny, who held the affirma-
tive in opposition to some authors who asserted that they were unable
to fly at night on account of the cold. This author attempted to prove
his position, not by any actual observations on the point made by him-
self or others, but from the supposed fact that locusts passed over the
Mediterranean Sea from Africa to Italy, and hence, on account of the
time required, must necessarily fly at night. That he was mistaken in
reference to the case cited as proof we have already shown, yet we think
he was correct in his conclusion.

So far as we have been able to ascertain, this question has received

FLIGHT AT NIGHT.

97

but little attention from European naturalists, although so important in
explaining some facts in reference to locust movements.

Kohl 195 says that they fly in the night on their native southern steppes
in July and August, but not later than 12 o'clock, and in warm, clear
pights when it is light. Demole denies this, and asserts that they fly
only (lining the day, remaining at rest at night. But the facts given
in our former report, and the statement made by Mr. Child, quoted
above, are corroborated by the following direct testimony of Captain
Frankland : 19G

The passage of these animals lasted during many days, and at night as they crossed
over the disk of the moon, by reflecting the light as they shot across the face of the
planet, they resembled so many flakes of snow or almost as many shooting stars. The
heat of the weather at this period, 87°, was so intense that during the night I was
obliged to sleep with my "window open, the consequence of which was that the lo-
custs used to tumble into my room and upon my musquito-curtains, and by hopping
about the floor and creeping into my bed generally annoyed me extremely.

The fact that it is the general habit of locusts to alight in the even-
ing and resume their journey next day after sunrise, if the wind is fa-
vorable, together with the difficulty of observing them at night, even
when the moon is shining, have led to the general impression that there
are no exceptions to this rule.

In the data obtained by us in 1877 we found repeated statements by
our correspondents of the sudden appearance of locusts in the morning
in localities where none had been seen the day before.

There were also several accounts of swarms seen flying over localities in
continuous streams for several days during the entire day, but none alight-
ing. It was impossible to account for these and some other facts, too well
attested to be doubted, without supposing the swarms continued their
flights during the night. Starting with this clue, we sought for all the
information we could obtain bearing on this subject. This, so far as re-
ceived at the time our first report was published, was then given. Since
then a somewhat thorough examination of the locust literature of Eu-
rope and the statements of travelers in other countries who note
their observations of the locusts, although bringing to light but few pos-
itive statements, such as that given above by Captain Frankland, has
convinced us, as the facts in reference to the flights of C. spretus did,
that it is no uncommon thing for locusts to fly at night when the weather
is quite warm and the wind favorable. It is possible they prefer nights
when the moon shines, but we do not think they are confined to these ;
the warmth and wind being the influencing conditions. Certainly
this point, as Pliny seems to have been aware, is an important item in
determining the possible distance to which single flights may extend.
Flying two days and one night, say thirty hours, with a moderate wind,
moving 15 miles an hour, will carry them 450 miles.

195Keisen in Siitlrusaland, iii, 163.

7l

196 Loc. tit.

08 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

G. THE HEIGHT AT WniCH SWAEMS MOVE.

Iu studying the flights of 0. sprctus over the temporary region certain
facts, as the sudden appearance of swarms iu the afternoon of bright,
clear days at certain points, when nothing had been seen or heard of
them over the surrounding area; and large swarms departing from one
section in a certain direction over a well-settled area, though nothing
could be seen or heard of them in that direction, &c, led us to investigate
this subject also with special care, to ascertain, if possible, how this was
to be accounted for.

There appeared to be no other possible solution of the problem than
that the swarms flew at such a height as to be entirely out of sight.

Observations of flying swarms soon made it apparent that although,
when seen at some distance approaching and flying rather low, the
swarm is observed as a mass resembling a cloud, yet when passing over-
head the locusts arc seen only as individuals. This fact rendered it ev-
ident that the height at which it was possible to see thein was much
less than would generally be supposed from the descriptions of locust
flights given by t ravelers in the Old World. It is also probable that what
is said here in reference to the invisibility of swarms of Rocky Mount-
ain locusts is not fully applicable to swarms of the larger Oriental spe-
cies.

It is not possible to determine with any exactitude the height of
swarms even when visible, as they do not move in broad sheets, as many
who have never observed a flight imagine, nor are they generally in a
compact body whose boundary is well defined, forming a clear line, but
more like a vast body of fleecy clouds, or, still more correctly, a cloud of
snow flakes, often having a depth that reaches from comparatively near
the ground to a height that baffles the keenest eye to distinguish the
insects in the upper stratum. Professor Aughey has made some at-
tempts at measuring the height of swarms, and in some instances has
succeeded in ascertaining pretty correctly the elevation above the sur-
face, and also the depth of the swarm. But the only important question
to be decided in reference to this point is, whether they can and do fly
at an elevation so great as to carry the entire swarm out of view on a
clear day.

The facts already mentioned, which could be accounted for in no other
way, and which were of repeated occurrence, render this not only highly
probable, but almost certain, and we would be justified in assuming the
affirmative even if we had no other evidence.

But, as stated in our former report, the strongest evidence in favor of
the view that they do often fly at an elevation above the plains of the
border States which renders them entirely beyond the natural vision, is
the fact that they can fly at that height. That it is no uncommon thing
for cranes and wild geese to fly north and south along the Mississippi

HEIGHT AT WHICH SWARMS MOVE.

99

at a height which carries them entirely out of view is well known, as
their notes can frequently be heard overhead when the eye searches in
vain for them. At what elevation these move it is impossible to tell,
but it is not probable that it is much, if any, over two miles ; and it is
reasonable to suppose that a height which would render them invisible
would render a swarm of locusts invisible when passing overhead, as the
latter, as before stated, are seen, not as a mass, but as individuals.

The statement by Mr. Byers,197 that while on Long's Peak he observed
swarms flying over as high as the eye could reach, and that of Mr. Put-
nam to the same effect, show very conclusively that it is possible for
them to fly as much above the reach of the natural eye as the tops of
Long's and Parry's Peaks are above the plains of Kansas aud Nebraska —
about 10,000 feet. The writer has taken specimens on the very summit
of Pike's Peak, brought down, probably, by a preceding shower of rain,
yet no swarm had been noticed passing over by the Signal Service offi-
cer in charge of the station. The Signal Service officer at Bismarck
states that with a glass he observed a swarm on one occasion flying
above the clouds.

The careful and interesting observations of Dr. A. L. Child, of Platts-
mouth, Nebr., whose letter has already been quoted, appear to settle
this point beyond dispute ; and although we have other evidence point-
ing to the same conclusion, we deem it unnecessary to present it. "We
conclude, therefore, that as a general rule swarms of C. spretus are not
visible to the natural eye at a height of more than seven or eight thou-
sand feet above the plains of the temporary region ; that in their long
flights, when invading and returning, they not only often, but probably
generally, fly, during part of the distance traversed, so high as to be out
of sight, and that sometimes they pass above the lower and rain clouds,
though as a general rule it is only during clear weather, when the sky is
cloudless, that they fly.

If we are correct in these conclusions, they, together with the fact that
the locusts also occasionally fly at night, will enable us to understand
why it is so difficult to trace the flight of a swarm, and will also serve
as an explanation of much of the mystery that has surrounded their
movements.

It is somewhat strange that this question should have been overlooked
by European entomologists, when it would have sufficed as an explana-
tion of some of the points long in controversy.

Koppen 196 says :

The height of the flight is quite variable ; they direct themselves according to the
wind and weather, and may vary during the continuation of the flight. I observed
the flight of locusts soon after their last moult ; it was in the evening and on a mod-
erate west wind ; they mostly flew at a height of 15 or 20 feet ; single individuals only
reached a height of 40 or 50 feet.

w First Report, 144.

1!» Heuschr. Sud-Russ, 52.

100 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

Yersin 199 gives 40 or 50 feet as the height. Kohl2"" says that in fine
warm weather the locusts fly very high, from 20 to 30 fathoms (150 to-
200 feet) ; but in cloudy weather they tiy much lower, scarcely a fathom
high. These statements evidently apply only to short local flights,
as these writers were fully aware of the fact that V. migrator ins, of
which they are speaking, frequently passes over extensive mountain
ranges, covered with forests, which would of necessity require a greater
elevation than that given. Bowles201 says that C. italicus, when start-
ing on a flight in swarms, gradually rises to the height of 400 or 500
feet.

As the elevation given by these writers is so far below that at which
swarms of C. spretm attain in a general movement, we presume no at-
tempt was made to ascertain the greatest height reached.

7. OTHER FACTS IN REFERENCE TO FLIGHT.

As stated in our former report, flights in different directions at the
same time and place are not of frequent occurrence, but have been oc-
casionally observed in the case of C. spretm. These are always one above
the other and in different air currents, sometimes in directly opposite
directions, sometimes one column crossing the other obliquely. The in-
stances mentioned in our first report are the only ones of which we have
any knowledge.

Whether a swarm ever, by ascending or descending into a different
current of air, changes its course without alighting, is a question as yet
undecided. From their well-known habit of usually coming down to the
ground whenever met by an opposing current, we would suppose such
a case very rarely if ever occurs. Professor Aughey noticed in one in-
stance where two swarms were moving in opposite directions, that some
from the upper column dropped into the lower, where, as a matter of
course, they could no longer be distinguished from the others, but doubt-
less were borne along by the current in the direction this column was
moving.

There are some other points relating to flight which might properly
be mentioned here, but as they have some connection with meteorolog-
ical conditions we will defer mentioning them until we have discussed
the bearing of meteorological influences on the migrations of locusts.

But this branch of the subject will be included in a separate chapter ^
hence all points inseparably connected therewith will be included in that
chapter. We will therefore pass to the other divisions of our subject,
referring to the chapter on meteorology as may be necessary as though
it had been introduced at this point in our discussion.

Supposed tendency of swarms approaching the sea to drive onward and
fall into it. — In the preceding portion of this chapter relating to locust
flights in other countries, the reader will observe frequent mention of

i^Biblioth. Univ. de Geneva, 1858, 272. **Reise in Siidrussland, iii, 102. »' I. c

FALL OF LOCUSTS INTO THE SEA.

101

swarms plunging into the sea, often in such immense numbers that when
thrown upon the shore by the waves the stench arising from their decay-
produced epidemical diseases among the inhabitants residing in the vi-
cinity. We might add numerous other instances of a like character, but
this is unnecessary, as our object at present is only to call attention to
the fact and suggest a possible explanation which appears to have been
overlooked by those who have written upon the subject.
Eoppen202 says:

The abundance of such instances has led many to believe that they fall into the sea
not from an external cause, but from an inner propensity. Thus, says Erichson, "It
is well known that the locusts gladly draw toward the sea and there become the spoil
■of the waves. It seems also that a hidden instinct drives these animals into this ele-
ment, which thus in great masses are destroyed."

He looks upon this opinion as somewhat hypothetical, but remarks
that it is nevertheless not without its parallel among insects, of which
Anisoplia austriaca presents an example.

Darwin's explanation, as given by this author, is, that the insects,
searching in vain for shelter of tree or hill, are driven by a land-wind
into the sea ; au explanation which Koppen thinks the most satisfactory,
as it suits well the treeless and hill-less steppes of Southern Russia.

If we can judge correctly in reference to the characteristics of other
locusts by what we know of C. spretus, we should decide unhesitatingly
against the idea that the locusts have any propensity to plunge into
the water; on the contrary, we believe they avoid, as a rule, flying
over it, and only do so when driven by strong winds or by excessive
hunger.

As will be seen hereafter in the chapter on meteorological influences,
and as indicated in our First Report, 203 a sudden change in the tempera-
ture or humidity of the atmosphere has a tendency to bring down a fly-
ing swarm. Whether the amount of moisture over a large body of
water caused by evaporation, and the difference in temperature, as com-
pared with that of the atmosphere over the parched, barren, bordering
lands, would be sufficient to sensibly affect the locusts may be doubted ;
but, notwithstanding their apparent hardiness, they are extremely sensi-
tive to changes in the condition of the atmosphere. Facts already given,
as the case mentioned by Bowles, where a swarm varied its course in
order to return to land ; the similar circumstance mentioned in reference
to the flights in Australia, and others of a like character -which might
be quoted, show an evident desire to avoid the danger of falling into the
water where the danger is perceived and there is any ehance of avoiding it.
A strong confirmation of this fact in the history of the migrations of 0.
spretus is, that in their approach to the Gulf of Mexico in their flights
southward through Texas they have always stopped a few miles from
the shore. It was reported at one time that swarms had been observed
passing on to the Gulf, but careful inquiry has not only failed to confirm
this, but, ou the contrary, to indicate that no such case has been known.

^Heusch. Sud-Rnss., 49.

""Page 182.

102 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

But one well-attested ease of locusts or grasshoppers being driven into
the waters of a gulf or lake in this country, except instances where
swarms have fallen into Salt Lake, is known. This occurred in August
of 1879. A vast number of C. femur rubrum were observed floating in
Lake Michigan, between Racine and Waukegan. So numerous were they
that myriads were cast ashore by the waves in winrows along the beaeh.
A hundred specimens of these, collected by the well-known naturalist
Dr. Hoy, and sent to Mr. Thomas, were all of the species named. These
were cast into the lake by the severe wind-storm of the day preceding
that on which they were observed.

The writer of this chapter, after a careful examination of all the ac-
counts he could find of locust swarms actually observed falling into the sea,
is led to the conclusion that as a very general, if not an almost universal
rule, they .are driven against their will by severe wind. The chief ex-
ceptions, if there are any, appear to be where they attempt to cross over
large bodies of water, as to the Canary Islands, from the African shore.
In such cases their coming down may be accounted for in several ways
consistent with what we know of the laws governing their flights, with-
out resorting to the hypothesis of the abnormal propensity heretofore
mentioned. It may be on account of the difference in the temperature
and humidity of the atmosphere already suggested. It may be occa-
sioned by meeting an adverse current of air, or that the current on which
they are borne is fading out.

Kirby and Spence record an example of the great flying power of the
locust. The ship Georgia, which sailed from Lisbon to Havana with a
light wind from the southeast, found itself on the 21st of November, 181 1,
at a distance of 200 English miles from the Canarian Islands, the near-
est land; suddenly there came on a calm, a light breeze rose from the
northwest, and at the same time there fell from the clouds a countless
multitude of great locusts, so that they covered the deck, the masts, and
every part of the ship on which they could alight. They appeared not
in the least tired, but sprang, on the contrary, quickly up when it was
sought to catch them, and tried to escape. The calm or a very light
breeze lasted a full hour, and during this time a shower continued fall-
ing upon and around the vessel.204 Otto von Kotzebue observes, in his
Voyage round the World, that the course from Plymouth to Teneriffe hav-
ing been very long, protracted by many calms, only one noteworthy cir-
cumstance struck him. namely, a vast multitude of locusts, with which
the sea was covered for many miles.205

It is possible that these voyagers, possessing such keen eyes, in search-
ing out the green fields of the plains, are deceived by the dark green hue
of the sea. Aeronauts could possibly enlighten us on this point.

It is somewhat strange that Koppen, after showing, as he does, that
locusts avoid wooded and mountain regions, should accept Darwin's ex-

'"Intrortuction to Entomology, Ofeen's Edn., vol. i, p. 246.

Ki Allgemeinr geographischc Ephemeriilen von Bertuch. 19r Jahrgang. Feb. 1806, p. 254.

CAUSES OF MIGRATION.

103

planation as the most satisfactory. Our native species, instead of seek-
ing forests as a place of shelter, appear to avoid them as far as possi-
ble.

Darwin's theory is undoubtedly contradicted by the characteristics
of all the migratory species.

8. THE CAUSES OF MIGRATION.

As stated in our First Eeport,206 "we must recognize the fact that the
influences bearing on migration fall into two distinct categories, viz,
remote or general, and immediate or special." We shall therefore briefly
consider the two classes separately.207

a. Remote causes. — Why one species of insect should at certain times
develop in immense numbers and migrate, while another closely allied
species, inhabiting the same locality, and to all appearance subject to
the same influences, never increases to the same extent and never exhib-
its a disposition to migrate, is a question which has long puzzled ento-
mologists.

If entomologists are asked why locusts migrate, ninety-nine out of
every hundred will probably answer, " On account of excessive numbers?
We might press the inquiry farther and ask why they develop in such
excessive numbers. But we propose, at present, to seek for the remote
causes by another road, as the attempt to press back the inquiry step
by step would lead us into a labyrinth of biological questions which we
have no occasion to enter upon at this time.

A thorough and exhaustive examination of this question would carry
us back Into the last geological changes of the earth's surface ; but this
we have not the time to undertake if we felt qualified to do so, which
we by no means claim.

As we have heretofore shown, migratory locusts are found only in tree-
less, dry, and more or less barren regions, and, as a very general rule,
their breeding grounds are in areas or plateaus of considerable eleva-
tion*. The native home, for example, of P. migratorius, appears to have
been the steppes of Southern Siberia and Tartary. A. peregrinum has
its points of greatest development in Central Arabia and the dry, ele-
vated table-lauds of Northern Africa ; A. paranense, in the higher bar-
ren plateaus of Argentine Eepublic; and C. spretus, in the high, barren
regions of the Eocky Mountaius, and the elevated plains of Montana,
Western Dakota, and British America. The marked characteristics of
all these regions are, absence of forests, more than ordinary dryness, and
rarefied air. Keferstein remarks that —

A dry, warm, uncultivated, treeless plain, -where the brood can be deposited un-
disturbed and left to ;;rnw up, is especially favorable to the propagation of the locust,
and in such districts of country the locust plague appears most frequently and regu-

mPago 240.

^'It is proper to state here that while the Commissioners agree in the main as to the causes of migra
tion the writer of this chapter must be held alone responsible lor some of the views advanced here.

104 EEPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

larly ; this is especially found in the district lying hetwccn the Libyan Desert and
Iran, between the Arabian and Persian Gulfs; in Arabistan, sbut in by it-i adjacent
States, and, in a broader 6ense, with the regions of the Jordan and Euphrates south-
ward toward Jemen.

As a further evidence that all these conditions are necessary to their
excessive increase and the development of the migratory instinct, it is
found that P. migratorius is unable to maintain continued existence in
Germany or Poland; and that C. sprctus cannot remain permanent on
the prairies of Texas, Kansas, or Nebraska, or, in fact, in any portion
of the area we have denominated the "temporary region." The same
thing is also doubtless true in reference to the other migratory .species.

It is apparent, therefore, that a more than ordinarily dry and rarefied
air is necessary to the development of the migratory instinct; at least
we are justified by the facts in assuming this. If it is argued that this
condition is necessary to their excessive increase in numbers, and that
this increase makes change of place necessary in order to procure food,
ami that this is the cause of migration, we reply thai C. 8pretU8,sd Least,
is essentially migratory in its native habitat, and that it will migrate
whether in excessive numbers or not; and that the same fact appears
to be true of P. migratorius. It follows, then, that the disposition to
migrate does not depend upon numbers, but is owing to some other
cause; for why should C. spretus and P. migratorius become so excess-
ively multiplied under this intluence and other species under the same
conditions not ?

As a further proof that want of food is not only not the remote cause
of migration, but is not always the immediate cause, we may adduce the
now well-known fact that swarms reared in the temporary regions will
leave the fields of wheat and barley, and the rich grass of the prairies,
to return to the barren plains from which their ancestors came. It is
also a fact that those reared iu the mountain canons, where there is
abundant food, even though there be but few compared with the supply
of food, will, when they have reached the proper age, fly away with the
first favorable wind. Nor is this only an occasional occurrence but a
constant habit; in fact it is almost universally the case. Both on the
plains and in the mountains, even when there is abundant food at hand,
often when the day is warm and clear and no wind is blowing, they may
be seen circling upwards, evidently desiring, as shown by their uneasy
movements, to move away, only waiting for the air to assist them.

These facts, which are brought out more fully elsewhere, I think show
conclusively that the desire to migrate is not caused by want of food.
And as it is manifested to the same extent in their native habitats as in
the temporary regions, when parasites are absent as well as present, it
cannot depend upon the presence of parasites.

As we have heretofore stated, Bowles assumes that the males are
largely in excess of the females ; that their ardor is excessive, while the
females, needing a larger supply of food, are always intent on feeding.
That when the sun has dried off the dew in the morning, the females, to

GENERAL CAUSES OF MIGRATION.

105

avoid the importunities of the inqles, after repeated short nights, at
length rise up and float away with the wind.

Our only comment upon this eccentric writer's view is, that a careful
count of a large number of specimens of G. spretus in different collections
shows no marked difference in the number of one sex as compared with
the other. In our First Report this subject was alluded to'107, and we see
no reason to modify what is there stated.

Keferstein remarks208 that —

The same causes which impel the Gryllus italicus to take the field, move also the
Gryllus migrator ius to his wanderings, namely, want of food; the instinct of breeding,
which the female, well knowing that thereby her life-aim will be accomplished, and
she must then die, believes will be accomplished through the migration; and, finally,
the instinct to seek out a suitable place of abode for their progeny. So then the flight
of all species of locusts may be said to depend upon similar causes at bottom : neces-
sity, love, and instinct drive them thereto.

That the desire to seek places to deposit their eggs in localities which
are best adapted to the young, influences locusts as well as other insects,
cannot be doubted : and that this is one cause of migration is more thaa
probable. But this will not account for the fact that they are essentially
migratory even in their native habitats. Nor is there any reason, so far
as we know, why it should operate in one species of Acrididce more than
another when placed under the same circumstances. (Edipoda Carolina
is found throughout the area occupied by C. spretus, and has ample wings
to assist it in flight, but it is never found migrating in any true sense ;
yet the maternal solicitude for the welfare of the young is doubtless as
stroug iu the one species as the other. Neither of the reasons given,
therefore, appears to be satisfactory.

Darwin's opinion, as already quoted, appears to be, that excessive
heat causes a kind oi* irritation or uneasy feeling in the locusts, which
makes them restless and desirous of seeking some place where they can
be sheltered from the rays of the sun. That some kind of irritation caused
by excessive heat and dryness may render them restless and uneasy, is
not only possible but probable ; but that this causes them to fly in search
of the shelter of hills and forests is very questionable, especially when
we take into consideration, as heretofore suggested, the well-known fact
that, as an almost universal rule, they avoid forests and forest-clad areas.

The only certain fact, then, that we have to start with in our investiga-
tion as to the origin of the migratory impulse is, that it is in some way
connected with a more than ordinarily dry and rarefied condition of the
atmosphere. If we suppose this impulse or instinct to be once formed
by such climatic conditions, we can then easily explain the flights in the
lower plains of the temporary region where the atmosphere is more dense
and humid. These conditions, combined with unusual heat, may pro-
duce a kind of irritation in the air-tubes, and this may cause them to
arise in search of a more rarefied condition of the air ; the moving breeze
is found to favor respiration and tends to allay the irritation or uneasy

807 Page 250.

xwLoc. cit.

106 REPOKT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

sensation, and hence they continue to move upward until they reach a
current of air of sufficient strength to bear them onward ; they continue
to float on this until exhausted, a change in the condition of the atmo-
sphere causes them to descend, or a suitable place for depositing eggs or
procuring food is observed.

That a dry condition of the atmosphere does originate this migrating
instinct I think is evident not only from the fact that migratory locusts
are only found in dry and arid regions, but from the additional fact that
in excessively dry years we see in this country Acridium amcricanum,
Caloptenus diffcrentialis, C. atlantis, and ft femurrubrum, exhibiting a
strong tendency to mass together and migrate. Even their forms appear
to be modified so as to adapt them to this purpose. C. femur-rubrum,
under such circumstances, I am satisfied from numerous observations
made in the last twenty years, undergoes certain modifications which
bring it nearer C. spretus. This, as a matter of course, is only distinctly
apparent when two or three unusually dry years follow in succession.
One fact noticed, and for which no satisfactory explanation can so far
be given, is the tendency (among the Acridians) of the last segment of the
male to become elongated and pointed, and generally to become notched
at the tip, or where there is a notch, as in the species of Cyrtacanthacris
{Acridium americanum and allies) to change from the square or U form to
the sharp or V form. Whether the same thing is true with reference to
the CEdipodeans I am unable to say ; so far as my observations extend,
I have observed nothing of the kind in any species of this group.209

Another fact worthy of notice is that as a very general rule — so far as
I am aware without exception — the elytra are spotted, the spots usually
more or less quadrate

A careful comparison of the internal anatomyjof the migratory and
closely allied non-migratory species would probably reveal some con-
stant peculiarity which would assist in explaining how the climatic con-
ditions mentioned bring about this disposition or propensity to migrate.
I am inclined to think it is largely due to the effect these atmospheric
conditions have on the air-tubes and air-sacs. The vivi-dissections made
by Mr. Packard, and recorded in our First Report, tend to confirm this
view by showing the important bearing the numerous and large air-sacs
must have on the flight of the insect ; and the large amount of tracheal
surface brought in contact with the air and thereby rendered sensible to
its changes.

Our conclusion, therefore, is that tin- migratory habit or instinct of lo-
custs, whether in the Eastern or Western Continent, is directly attributa-
ble to the arid condition of the area iu which they originate ; that the unus-
ually dry and raritied state of the atmosphere is the chief factor in originat-
ing this instinct ; that while it affects, to a greater or less extent, all parts
of the insect its chief influence is produced by its effect on the tracheae and
air-sacs. It also must have a tendency to harden the integuments and to

109 I have since noticed the same tendency in (E. atrox.

IMMEDIATE CAUSES OF MIGKATION.

107

shrink or lessen the size of the softer parts. As a very general rule, more
species of the CEdipoid groups are found in barren areas than of the Acri-
didae; the Acrididce, on the other hand, are generally fleshier or, to use a
botanical term, more succulent than the (Edipodae; it follows, therefore,
that the effect of unusual dryness would manifest itself much sooner in
the Acridiaus than in the OEdipodeans, and such is undoubtedly the
fact. Although we are unable to follow out fully the effect of the dry
condition of the atmosphere on the locust system and tell just how and
why it results in the migratory habit, yet we are satisfied we are now on
the direct course toward and very near the solution of the question.
The usually slender form and unusually hard and horny condition of
the external crust agree with this theory, as does also the tendency of
the ultimate sternite of the male (sub-anal plate) to grow narrower and
become elongated. During the long- continued dry seasons of 1874-187(>
the effect was very visible on Caloptenus differentialis, a species which
delights in rank vegetation, and is, if possible, more lubberly than C
Mvittatus. Examining specimens of a swarm that had flown from Ken-
tucky and had fallen in the streets of Cairo, 111., in large numbers, I
was astonished at the change from the typical form ; they had a wild,
ferocious look similar to that observed in C. spretus ; their bodies were
much slenderer than usual ; there was a compactness or, to use a term
which expresses exactly their appearance, a "trimness" of form never
before observed in them.

If the theory here advanced is correct — and it is really but a slight
extension of an opinion long maintained and generally received — we
have a partial explanation at least of the reason why C. spretus became
migratory and the (Edipodeans, inhabiting the same region, did not.
We also have a theory which agrees with all the data bearing upon the
question and which explains most of the facts and does not stand in
opposition to any. If this theory is correct, and we are not to suppose
a species was formed with a migratory instinct, then it follows that
whatever produced or brought about the arid condition of the area
where a migrating species originated or became migratory was the ulti-
mate cause of the migratory instinct.

As the arid condition of the mountain region and plains of the West
is, in a geological sense, of comparatively recent date, I think it more
than probable that C. spretus is but a modified form of C. femur-rubrum ;
and that several of the apparently local species found in Kansas^
Nebraska, Texas, and Minnesota, which are closely allied, are, so to*
speak, but results of the visits of C. spretus; stragglers, left in their at-
tempt to return to their native habitats, produce a second brood in lim-
ited numbers and a combination of favorable circumstances preserve
them from the usual fate, and in this way the local form results.

Immediate causes. — If the theory advanced is correct there is no neces-
sity for searching after immediate causes, as they are essentially or we
might say constitutionally migratory and will take to flight without any

108 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

additional impulse. I think it more than probable th;tt the (-fleet of the
dry and rarefied condition of the air upon them is such that when they
arrive at the perfect state and the season of their amours arrives the
migratory impulse is increased by irritation of some kind which causes
an uneasy, restless feeling. Although I do not believe their migrations
are for the purpose of carrying on their amours, yet I think it highly
probable that at this stage of their lives the migratory impulse is strong-
est, and that the excited condition of all the internal organs is probably
one cause of its being strongest at this time. But that the migratory
impulse does not depend upon the perfected condition of the insects is
shown by the strong disposition of the young to migrate. Hence, the
cause which operates to produce this effect acts upon the larva} and
pupae as well as the perfect insects.

There are souk; things connected with the movements of the Locusts
which appear to indicate something more than an impulse simply to fly,
which is the weak point of the theory if limited to irritating or uneasy
sensations as the only cause of migration ; one is the evident disposition
often manifested by the locusts to go in a given direction. This was
.shown in our first report and need not be repeated here.

That hunger will cause them to move from place to place in search of
food is certainly true, but it would be a violent presumption to say that
a swarm in Montana starts from there on a voyage to Nebraska iu
search of food, or from Southern Russia to Germany. Having the mi-
gratory instinct already implanted in them, and with it the adaptation
to long flights, when once they start in search of food it is not incon-
sistent with reason to suppose they continue on their course as driven
by the wind until they find food or are exhausted. So far we can con-
nect cause and effect, but we must confess that there are still facts
•connected with their movements unexplained. For example, as will here-
after be shown in the chapter on meteorological influences, those bred in
the temporary regions in their attempts to return to their native breed-
ing-grounds are not governed by the prevailing course of the winds, for
if this were so some would go intone direction and some in another ;
whereas those bred in Nebraska and southward exhibit a uniform dis-
position to go northward or northwest even when the prevailing course
of the wind is adverse.

CHAPTER V.

I

INFLUENCE OF METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS ON THE
DEVELOPMENT AND MIGRATIONS OF LOCUSTS.

That the increase and diminution of insects depend very largely upon
meteorological conditions is now too well known to require further proof.
As a very general rule, which has but few exceptions, warm, dry years
are favorable to an increase of insect life, while cold, wet seasons have
a tendency to diminish their numbers. Not only is this true, but the
development is to a large degree in proportion to the heat and dryness y
that is to say, when the season is unusually hot and the drought ex-
cessive, insects abound and enormously exceed their ordinary numbers.
This is especially noticeable in the case of such insects as the true-
locusts and other Acridians, the chinch-bugs, most of the Aphides and
many Lepidoptera. But as a general rule the maximum development
of a species requires two successive favorable years ; at least, such is th&
case with the locusts and chinch-bugs.

We may state, therefore, as a proposition which we presume will be
admitted as correct, that the development and movements of the locusts are
very largely influenced by meteorological conditions. The extent to which
these conditions effect their development and govern their movements
is a point not yet fully settled, but much of the uncertainty in this
respect has been cleared up by the investigations of the commission.

The effect of wind, heat, cold, and moisture upon the movements of
the locusts is so marked that it had been observed before the days
of Pliny ; even the writers of the Old Testament show by their state-
ments that they were aware that the wind is necessary to aid them in.
flight. Moses states,202 "And the Lord brought an east wind upon the
land all that day, and all that night ; and when it was morning, the east
wind brought the locusts ; " and again : 203 "And the Lord turned a mighty
strong west wind, which took away the locusts, and cast them into the
Red Sea."

Pliny, as heretofore stated, mentions the fact that certain authors con-
tend that they could not fly at night on account of the cold, although
he tries to disprove this by the hypothesis that they cross the Mediter-
ranean Sea from Africa to Italy ; yet it shows that these writers had
observed the effect of cold upon their flights.

A. Heat and dryness. — As already mentioned in this chapter, migra-
tory locusts are found only in regions of more than ordinary dryness,
which are free from the shade and moisture-retaining influence of forests y
at least indicating, if not proving, that the migratory instinct is caused
by, or in some way depends upon, this dry condition of the region in-
habited.

""Ex., x, 13.

203 Ex., x, 19.

109

110 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

That heat and dryness are the climatic conditions most favorable to
the development and migrations of the locusts has been maintained by
all who have paid any particular attention to the subject and have ex-
pressed their views in reference thereto. Koppen204 asserts that "Heat
and dryness are both necessary to the extraordinary increase of the
locusts;" and the views of other European entomologists accord with
this. In our former report we expressed the same opinion in reference
to the development and migrations of the Rocky Mountain locusts.
Some attempt to show this by the meteorological records was made, and
although not so full and satisfactory as we desired, was all we were then
able to present, as there was not time, previous to the date fixed for
publication, to examine and discuss thoroughly these records in their
bearing upon this subject, though the material was readily furnished by
the courtesy of the Chief Signal Officer, to whom we are under many
obligations for favors on this subject. A further examination of the
older records and of new data which have been very kindly prepared
and furnished us by the Signal Service Bureau, a summary of which is
here presented, has served to somewhat modify our views on this point.
Not that it has caused us to doubt the general correctness of the state-
ment that heat and dryness are the climatic conditions most favorable
to the increase of locusts, and hence of their distribution by migration,
but that the mode in which these influences operate is not precisely, nor
so direct and immediate, as heretofore supposed. But before discussing
the point we will present our additional meteorological data, referring
the reader to what has been given in our former report in order to avoid
repeating it here.

As we shall have occasion to refer repeatedly to Mr. Packard's table
of locust years, we insert it here as a means of ready reference.

""Henachr. Siid-Buss, 68.

TABULAR VIEW OF LOCUST YEARS.

lit

•oouaray

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O O r-t f-H

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u u

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X X X X X X X X X X X / / / X>

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ee S fi
S CO CO

00 ao ao oo oo

oooccoccaogp^HXiao

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CD CO CO J CD

CO CO co X co

co rfj co x co

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00 00 00 00

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noaoS

H-H*

112 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

As this table was intended only to illust i ate the rhapter on chronology,
it does not indicate the years of invasion of the temporary region. \V<
therefore call attention to the fact that the years of great locust invasions
of these regions, to which we shall chiefly limit the present discussion,
were 187G, 1874, and 1SGG. The year 18G4 was also marked by the ap-
pearance of numerous invading swarms in the northwest, but the locust
distribution was nothing like so general over the west as in 18GG. Accord-
ing to Mr. Alexander Taylor, 1855 was also a noted locust year, especially
in the intcrmontane area, on the Pacific slope, and in Mexico ; but he
speaks also of them as abundant in that and the following year in
Nebraska, Kansas, and Minnesota Territories. As the 'meteorological
records that reach back as far as 1855 are too meager to be of any real
value, we shall of necessity confine our investigations to the period
embracing 18G4, 18GG, 1874, and 1876.

The following table of rainfall for the years 18G0-186G, at the stations
named is taken chiefly from Schott's Table of Eatios.205 The figures,
except in the bottom line, are the ratios of the rainfall in the different
years mentioned, to the mean annual rainfall of the station named at
the head of the column. The bottom line shows the mean rainfall in
inches at the different stations. A few omissions in Schott's table have
been filled out from the record in the Reports of the Agricultural Depart-
ment:

Table I. — Eatios of rainfall for the years 1860-1666.

Year.

1860

1861

1862

1863

1864

1865

1866

Annual mean in inches.

P3

1.22
L 29
.57
.69
.48
1. 00
1.X0

23.11

.66
.90
L 17
.73
.56
1.36
L 00'

.77
.74
.89
.72
.74
1. 06
L 00

25. 69 41. 96

.80
1.15
1.05
1.01

.75
L 08
1. 08

L 00
L 24

.80

.71
.90

L 04
.88
.79

1.11

32.24 42.88 42. IS

.61
.86
.93
.96
.51
L 61
L52

31.74

1.34
.86

1.16
.61
.94

1.15

28. 62

L 08
1.35

1.16

a -~

C5.3

.07
.77
.87

L00
.85t
.93t

L 03t

3

a

?
•a

.68
.92
1.13
.81
.87
L 33
1. 36

17.34 25.55 30.48

.78
1.02
.95
.87
.73
L 02
L13

3L 25

* Ratio of the nearest stations for the year. Those of 1866, Fort Ripley and Fort Ridgley are the
average 'within less than . 01 of those stations in Minnesota 'west of the Mississippi,
t Ratios of the Bellevue records.

A careful study of this table brings out several interesting facts, of
which we may mention the following as most important. The mean
ratio of 1864 is the smallest of the series, and as all the ratios for that
year fall below the average of the several stations, it, so far as dryness
is concerned, was favorable to the increase and migrations of the locusts ;
and, as heretofore stated, they did appear in portions of the Northwest,

206 Tables and Results of the Precipitations of Rain and Snow in the United States, 147-152.

INFLUENCE OF THE RAINFALL ON THE LOCUST. 113

especially in Nebraska, Iowa, Minnesota and Manitoba. This was also
a year of visitation in Utah, Montana, parts of Dakota, Colorado, and
the northern portion of New Mexico. Bnt in numbers and general dis-
tribution in the region east of the mountains, it was far exceeded by the
locust invasion of 18GG ; in fact it is not usually counted as one of the
great locust years.

Before passing to other points suggested by this table we desire to
present other evidence showing the unusually favorable conditions of
this year for the increase and spread of the locusts so far as dryness
is concerned.

First we call attention to the fact that there had been a gradual
decrease in the rainfall the two preceding years, as will be seen by refer-
ence to the column of means. In 18G2 the mean of all the stations was
.95 ; in 1863 it was .87, falling in 1864 to .73.

Does the character of 1864, as shown by these figures, correspond
with that of the year throughout the West ? By reference to Schott's
tables, we find these ratios given for that year in the following States and
Territories. The names of the stations are not mentioned here, as our
object is only to show the general character of the season in reference
to humidity, as compared with the mean annual rainfall. Each ratio
represents the rainfall of a station for 1864, in the same manner as given
in the forecoiner tables :

Texas, .81.

Tennessee, .89.

Kentucky, .93.

Ohio, .96, 1.19, .74, .96.

Michigan, .86.

Indiana, .79, .87.

Illinois, .79, .83.

Wisconsin, .98.

Minnesota, .48, .56, .75, .61.

Iowa, .74, .86, .75.

Missouri, .79, .87, .96, .94.
Kansas, .51, .51, .66.
New Mexico, .76, 1.25.
California, .99, .81, .91, .86.
Washington Ter., .81, .69.
Oregon, .91, 78.
Idaho, .82.
Utah, 1.00, 1.20.
Dakota, .87.
Nebraska, .70.

The general average of these ratios is .83, or 17 per cent, less than the
usual rainfall throughout the entire West; and what is rather unusual,
and indicative of the general prevalence of the dry season over the en-
tire western portion of the United States, is that, with the exception of
one station in Ohio, one in New Mexico, which is estimated, and the two
in Utah, the records all show less than the average precipitation. So
far, therefore, as the amount of moisture is concerned, this was evidently
a favorable year for the locusts.

Now let us turn to the record of temperature and see whether that
was favorable or unfavorable. For this we have recourse to the re-
ports of the Agricultural Department as the only data at hand adapted
to our purpose. As our object is to compare the meteorology of 1864
with that of 1866, we present, in the following table, in parallel columns,
the record of monthly means of temperature of the two years in Minne-
sota, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, and Missouri.
8 L

114 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.
Table II— Average monthly temperature for 1864 and 1866.

Mouths.

January

February

M.u ■ 1 1

April

May

June

July ,

August

September

October

Norember

December

Annual mean

Minnesota.

Iowa.

1864.

1866.

1864.

1866.

0

0

o

o

11.4

11.5

17.0

17.8

22.5

9.3

26. 6

18. 1

27.0

19.1

32.6

28.2

41. 9

42.8

45.7

49.6

60.8

56.8

61.3

58.3

66.9

65.2

72.0

67.6

72. 3

74.8

75. 5

76.4

70.7

65.5

72.1

67.4

62.2

55.5

63.7

57.2

45.0

47.9

46.5

51.4

30.0

33.6

33. 1

38.0

1L3

17.0

17.5

22.2

43.58

41. 58 , 47. 05

40.01

Nebraska.

1864.

17.4
31.2
34.0
45.8
6.1. 4
74.3
77.5
74.6
66.9
45.7
33.7
19.9

48.7

1866.

20.6
24.5
29.5
51.4
60.7
68.3
78.4
72.6
58.4
51.8
40.7
24.6

48.46

Kansas.

1864.

25. 1
39.6
40.0
51.3
65.4
76.9
83.6
80.2
73.3
50.5
37.8
28.1

1866.

27.7
30.2
38.7
56.4
73.1
70.0
77.2
73.6
61.5
55.8
42.4
29.8

Missouri.

1864.

24.4

36.7
40.8
50.6
66.6
75.5
80.2
74.1
68.3
49.7
39.8
24.5

54. 31 53. 03 52. 0

1806

29.5
30.2
39.7
58.6
62.6
7L9
79.4
73.0
61.6
56.0
44. 8
32.4

53. 31

From this table we see that the average temperature of 1864 in each
one of the States mentioned except Missouri, was slightly in excess of
that of 1806, showing that the former year was somewhat warmer than
the latter. A comparison of the monthly means, brings out no fact that
would have a tendency to change the bearing of the annual means on
the locust question. The months of April, October, November and
December are the only ones in which the temperature of 1866 was gen-
erally higher than that of 1864.

Do the records of the raiufall for 1866 over the entire West correspond
with what is shown in our first table ! In order to test this, we present
here the ratios of this year in the different States and Territories in the
same manner as heretofore "riven for 1864.

Texas, 1.34.
Tennessee, .96.
Kentucky, 1.23, 1.09.
Ohio, 1.11, 1.18, 1.11.
Michigan, 1.05.
Indiana, 1.31, .96, 1.33.
Illinois, .88. 1.02, 1.13, 1.03, .91.
Wisconsin, 1.19.

Iowa, 1.00, 1.08, 1.03, 1.45,
Missouri, .99, 1.36, 1.22.
Kansas, 1.15, 1.52.
California, 1.36, 1.57, 1.57.
Utah, 1.60.
Montana, 1.30.
Nebraska, 1.03.
Minnesota, 1.00, 1.08, .81

91.

Adding those ratios together and dividing by the number of stations
represented, we obtain as the general average 1.16, showing that the
rain precipitation over the "West in 1866 was about 16 per. cent more
than the average annual amount. We are fully aware that in order to
obtain strictly correct results on which to base calculations as to the ab-
solute amount of rain precipitation, each station must be compared
only with itself at different times ; but the method here adopted does
give a correct idea of the character of the year in reference to humidity
so far as meterological records will show it. In fact, we can obtain a
general idea of a season over an extended area, from meterological
records, in no other way.

What do our investigations thus far show in reference to the years

KELATION OF HEAT AND DRYNESS TO THE LOCUST. 115

18(34 and 1866 being favorable or unfavorable to the increase and spread
of the locust ?

First. That 1804, as regards heat and dryness, was unusually favorable
for their development, and that the decrease in the rainfall the two
immediately preceding years, rendered the conditions still more favora-
ble than they would otherwise have been.

Secondly. That in 1866 all these conditions were reversed, the rain-
fall was considerably in excess of the average amount, the season through-
out the entire Northwest was somewhat colder than in 1864, and the pre-
ceding year presented these adverse conditions to an equal if not greater
extent.

If it be true, as heretofore stated, that unusual heat and dryness are
both necessary to the excessive development and spread of locusts, how
are we to explain the apparent contradiction of this theory shown by the
data presented ?

So far as the data given relate to 1864, the facts accord with the theory,
the only cause for surprise being that the invasion of the temporary re-
gion was not more general. The difficulty isi to explain how those relat-
ing to 1S66 can be made to accord with it. That the locusts did invade
Kansas, Nebraska, Missouri, and a part of Texas this year in large
numbers is a fact that cannot be disputed, and that large swarms ap-
peared in Montana is also, true ; that the season throughout the entire
West was generally of a slightly lower temperature and considerably
more humid than the average is clearly shown by the meteorological
data given.

Shall we contend that meteorological records do not always correctly
indicate the general character of the season ? This would be virtually
saying that they are of no practical value, a proposition we are unwilling
to assume. Shall we abandon a theory in reference to the increase of
insect life which accords with the experience of a thousand years, and
which no one has ever ventured to dispute ? By no means. Whether
able to explain this apparent contradiction or not we are not prepared
to abandon either of these views.

Before attempting an explanation we will present fuller records of the
seasons named as given in the annual reports of the Agricultural De-
partment, and also bring forward the meteorological data relating to
the great invasions of 1874 and 1876.

Table III shows the monthly means of rainfall by States, being the
averages of all the stations in a State. It is from the records in the re-
ports of the Agricultural Department.

116 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

I

I

I

~S838?!8:;?3iSs?t,$5

g3S83835S3S;3£
s d d =d • ■

'", M ri - ~ ri - ri irf »-J ri id

d - - m si o ri d - d d

(j8SSSS83E;S83S
a^is^SSsh'Ssi-'I

l~,d--- = s;-^ri-:M^d

,iSS38£8S888SS

i83588S3SgSSS
eS88§g§ag3f3 :g

^ • d ri - d d - - r-i

8

jL
§

8

:2 ISSUES?.

^dods>!<i«ei<rf-:de>iri

eSSSS38S88SSSaS

""•-idridt^dd-^-d

e = 8S3SS33§! : :8
^drtciMrttd-w-id,-;

,58Sg8SS8;333&S

Ndd-;N-;NriMt)dd-i
s d ri d ■» id ->i t> d rt ra

MONTHLY MEANS OF TEMPERATURE.

CO

s

jj

53.3

I

1

o

23.9
33.4
41.8
51. 9
GO. 1

74. 5
74.2

75. 6
74.8
50. G
4G. 0
2G.G

53.7

V f. X » ^ f 1 rl P) [• X U*

52.5

CI C C M "T * 1* " t- X C H

S3

48.1

47.4

48.3

I

s

I

ss

42.9

47.1

i

48.4

i

i

49.7

o
17.4
31. 2
34.0
45. 8
63.6
74.3
77.5
74. G
60. 9
45.7
33. 7
19.9

48.7

00

52.2

S

I
*

56.8 1

§

!

mm i

118 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

Table III is so imperfect that it is of but little value, and moreover it is
formed of the averages of monthly means of the rainfall of all the
stations, varying from two or three to twelve or fifteen in a State. As
new stations are added they may very materially change the average
from what it would otherwise be. Although a combination of tbis kind,
of the rain-fall records at different stations over a State or Territory,
may be valuable as showing the average rain-fall over a State for a
single year, it is of little or no value, as expressing the variation in
different years, unless from the same stations. It is given, therefore,
simply as one means of enabling the reader to form a general idea of the
rain-fall in the Northwest in the years specified.

Table No. IV, showing the monthly and annual means of the tempera-
ture, consists of the average means of all the stations in the State, as
the preceding, but is more complete aud of more value in the discus-
sion of the question we are now considering. As will be seen by refer-
ence to the annual averages it corresponds generally with what has
already been said in reference to the temperature of 18G6, though not in
a marked degree.

The year 18G5, according to this table, appears to have been as warm
as any, if not the warmest, of the five. But the differences are too slight
to indicate any law bearing upon the locust problem. An examination
of the monthly averages also fails to reveal anything worthy of notice
in this connection unless it be that July as a rule was warmer in 1864
and 1866 than in the other years. The only fact which can be drawn
from the table which appears to be of any value in this discussion is
shown by the following exhibit of the extreme variations in the monthly
means, and this only because it appears to correspond somewhat with
what will hereafter be shown in reference to the years 1872-'78.

Table V. — Extreme variations of monthly mean temperature from 1863 to 1867.

Months.

s

o
m

0

a
-

§

Iowa.

e

00

a

00
03
00

a

a

M

03
M

09
Bj

u

e

•a

09

to

03
u

3

<

0

o

o

o

' o ,

10.4

13.8

19.2

6.5

13.9

12.8

13.5

12.5

11.7

9.4

7.9

11.0

15.7

19.9

12.8

19.0

20.3

17.5-

5.3

9.2

8.0

8.6

7.9

7.8

12.9

15.2

10.8

14.0

8.1

12.2

5.8

7.4

3.6

6.9

6.4

CO-

7.2

7.3

3.7

7.6

6.6

6.5-

5.4

7.5

4.7

6.C

2.8

5.4

1!.C

13.9

13.2

12.9

13.8

13.1

8.9

10.1

9.2

8.3

15.2

10. 3

8.0

6.0

6.2

8.5

9.8

7.7

9.6

8.4

11.9

13.7

10.9

10.9

January . .
February.

March

April

May ,

June

July

August

September
October . . .
November
December.

An inspection of the averages shows that the chief variations are in
the winter or cold months, from December to March. The variations
in May and September are somewhat remarkable, and, as will be seen
hereafter, do not correspond with what is shown by the reports of the^
Signal Service Bureau.

TABLES OF TEMPERATUAE FROM 1872 TO 1878.

110

That no fact of any value bearing on this question cau be obtained
by an examination of the annual mean temperature can readily be shown
by a few examples. For instance, the extreme variation of the annual
mean at Fort Leavenworth for 40 years is only 7.83°, and the extreme
variation from 1800 to 1870 is only 5.20°; at Muscatine, Iowa, for 25
years it is but 8.13°; at Fort Snelling, Minn., for 42 years it is only 8.40°.

The following tables of temperature and rainfall for the years 1872 to
1878 are extracted from the annual reports of the Signal Service Bureau.
The records of the different stations are. brought together so that the
variations may be readily seen by running the eye over the columns.

Table VI. — Monthly and annual mean temperature from 1872 to 1878.

Tears and sta-
tions.

Annual.

January.

February.

March.

April.

May.

June.

July.

August.

September.

October.

u

<a

a

s
>

December.

FORT BENTON,
MONT.

1872

■

o

o

0

0

0

0

o

o

o
47. 2
40.3
49.8
51.1

o
24.3
35.1
19.4
17.1

0

11. 3
13.7
29.6
36.8

1873

1874

1875

1876

42.5
42.4
43.5

16.5
11.3
-8.6
13.9

18.4
22.4
13.9
16.7

36.4
18.4
27.8
13.3

40.7
44.4
43.0
47.4

52.4
59.2
58.1
56.8

64.1
63.0
62.0
63.8

69.8
75.1
74.5

69.3
69.1
68.9

53.2
58.0
60.6

PEMBINA, DAK.
1872

18.4
16.1
14.4
11.1
15.4
25.7

1873

12.9
11.9

33.9
29.4
32.9
35.4
33.1
45.5

52.3
55.3
53.3
54.6
56.8
47.9

66.1
64.4
59.2
60.5
55.7
63.7

65. 2
69^9
64.9
67.4
68.1

64. 4
67^0
64.3
63.7
64.3

46. 8
56.2
52.7
51.9
55.4

35. 4
42! 2
37.5
37. 1
40.0

O. D

1874

-3.0

2.6

.8.1
-6.3
27.4

1876

1877

1878

36.3
oo. y

-2.6

— O. A

11.2

-4.5

25.5

6.5
8.3
36.2

VIRGINIA CITY,
MONT.

1872

43.9

23.6
35 6
25.7
25.9
30.9
28.1

18.8
16.7
24.9
30.5
24.4
24.0

1873

23.4
23.1
1.7
17.1
18.8
23.1

15.6
18.4
22.8
28.1
27.5
27.9

1

56.9
53.9
56.2
57.1
52.8
58.6

1874

1875

1876

1877

40.4
39.4
43.1
40.3

24.1

22.8
24.7
33.2
37.8

38.4
37.9
37.9
36.5
39.8

51.1
47. 1
46.4
44.0

45.5

67.7
63.8
64. 5
65.2

61.8
60.8

58.5
65.2

50.2
55.9
53.5
51.7

45.8
47.7
44.9
39. 1

BI6MARCK, MONT.
1874

41.3
42.7
40.7
42.3

18.1
17. 2
18.3
28.6

15.6
20.1
6.8
29.1

1875

1876

1877

1878

36.9
36.8
41.6

-8.9
7.9
6.3
17.5

—5.9
4.9
26.5
27.8

15.3
13.1
19. 0
40.4

33.9
40.3
40.4
47.0

41.0

35.0
34.0
36. 1
38.3
40.5
47.6

56.1

56.0
56.9
50.8

53.0
52.0
60.2
56. 0
56. 3
58.4
51.2

58.3
54.5
63.2
60. 1
61.7
58.6

60.9
61.4
59. 0
60.1

65.0
69.5
65.9
60.8
63. 1
58.9
64.9

70.3
74.2
70.2
66.0
68.1
63.6

69. 3
70.3
70.9

66.2
68.0
69.7

56.1
53.7
60.5

BRECKEXRIDGE,
MINN.

1872

67.1
67.6
70.2
67.7
70.9
69.5

65.1
67.0
67.8
63.8
67.6
65.9

58.3
49. 1
57.7
55.4
53.8
58.5

45.0
38.2
43.8
42. 0
38.1
41.9

21.0
23.4
21.4
18. 3
18.7
27.0

0.4

8.0
12.8
18.1

0. 1
28.3

1873

1874

1875

1876

1877

1878

35.2
38.0
34.6
35.7
38.1

2.3
2.6

-9.5
6.3

-0.9
14.7

8.0
4.2
-7.9
4.3
21.5
27.4

10.4
15.1
14.7
10.5
15.2
39.2

FORT SULLEY, DAK.
1872

73.5
74.3
79.2
73.9
75.6
74.9

72.2
75. 5
76.1
71.4
73.1
72.7

62.4
57.3
65.2
61.3
58.6
64.7

31.5
14.9
26.9
27.0
13.7

1873

1874

1875

1876

45. 5
38.8
41.5

9.6
16.1

0.1
18.7
13.9

14.7
20. 3
4.2
14.4
33.4

32.4
27.7
22.3
15.9
23.8

41.5
43.9
39.2

42.1
50.9
48.9

35.1
26.2
24.4

1877

44.7

45. 0 !

120 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

Table XL— Monthly and annual mean temperature from 1«72 to 1878— Continued.

Tears and sta-

*^

j

tions.

P

3

a

9

s

9

3

3

H
—

a

a

■<

ft

S

3

TA>'KTON, DAK.

o

O

O

0

O

0

0

1872

40.1

54.2

72.6

46.6

15. 6

18. 8

30. 6

44. 4

62. 1

70.7

1875 ..............

41. 3

0. 6

2. 5

23. 7

40. 4

CI. 2

60. 1

43. 5

18. 9

20. 7

20. 4

46. 7

61. 6

65. 7

1877

41.4

13.6

36.4

28.5

45.8

58.8

65.0

1878

21.8

33.2

43.4

50.5

54.5

66.5

KOBTIt PLATTE,

NEUIL

46. 7

7. 4

21. 3

33. 2

42. 2

01. 3

69. 9

48. 0

23. 6

32. 4

27. 9

50. 3

59. 6

07. 9

47. 9

17. 4

34. 1

32. 7

45. 4

57. 9

66. 2

24.9

34.6

44.3

51.0

54.9

66.0

OMAHA, NKBB.

1872 ..............

20. 0

19. 0

27. 5

31. 0

51. 0

61. 0

72.7

48. 2

16. 9

26. 9

38. 2

44. 2

59. 0

74. 4

45. 7

22. 3

23. 4

33. 8

45. 1

liti. 1}

73. 2

1875 ..............

46. 9

16. 1

13. 8

30. 5

45. 4

63. 2

71.1

48. 5

26. 8

30. 1

29. 3

51. 3

63. 6

08. 0

51. 1

20. 2

37. 3

33. 7

50. 5

60. 7

09. 1

28.9

36.9

48.1

55.0

58.5

68.4

KEOKUK, IOWA.

51. 6

25. 8

30. 4

35. 0

53. 9

64. 5

75. 2

50. 5

17. 6

23. 1

38. 7

48. 5

61. 5

77. 9

1874

52. 9

27. 8

29. 4

38. 3

44. 6

67. 2

76. 7

48. 1

16. 7

18. 1

34. 1

49. 5

62. 9

71. 4

1876

51.2

34.1

35.0

34.9

53.0

63.9

70. 1

53. 3

22. 5

38. 4

32. 6

51. 0

62. 3

71. 7

1878

33.3

37.8

50.3

57.5

60.3

70.7

8AINT PAUL, MINN.

41. 2

15. 1

20. 3

21. 9

45. 1

55. 2

67. 9

41. 6

6. 7

14. 3

26. 7

41. 9

55. 1

73. 0

1874

43. 5

13. 8

14. 4

23. 7

37. 5

62. 2

08. 7

1875

38. 3

—2. 4

— 1. 8

22. 0

39. 7

58. 8

03. C

16. 6

17. 4

24. 3

43. 9

59. 2

G6. 3

1877

46. 9

10. 0

32. 0

23. 7

46. 2

62. 0

63. 7

1878

22.5

31.6

44.4

51.1

55.1

66.6

CHETBXNE, WTO.

1872

42. 0

26. 6

30. 9

33. 0

38. 3

52. 0

51. 5

1873

45. 6

24. 6

25.0

39. 7

34.4

49. 2

69. 5

1874

45.7

30. 4

22. 9

28. 9

39. 0

56. 6

65.2

1875

42.7

12. 5

25. 6

24. 3

36. 9

54. 7

63. 7

1876

44. 5

23. 8

30. 7

26. 8

42. 4

50. 6

60. 8

1877

45. 3

25. 0

31. 6

35. 9

38. 2

50. 8

59. 0

1878

25.3

30.9

38.7

43.5

47.9

58.6

DAVENPORT, IOWA.

1872

49. 0

23. 0

27. 8

33. 3

5J. 9

61. 5

73. 2

1873

49. 8

17. 1

23. 9

36. 7

46. 9

59. 6

77. 9

49. 8

23. 7

25.0

34. 7

41. 6

C4. 5

73. 2

45. 7

B. 4

10. 9

30. 4

46. 3

CO. 9

68. 6

1870

49. 0

29. 8

29. 9

32. 2

51. 2

02. 4

69. 4

1877

51. 0

17. 2

36. 1

28. 7

49. 8

02. 2

69. 2

1878

30. 9

36. 9

48. 4

55. 0

57. 7

68.2

DENVER, COL.

1872

47.8

23.8

33.7

36.3

46.2

57.7

67.3

1873

48.0

30.0

30.3

44.0

39.9

53.3

08.9

1874

50.0

31.5

24.7

36.4

43.1

01. 9

70.0

1875

48.8

16.8

32.3

33.4

44. 5

00.2

70. 4

1876

49.8

28.3

37.7

34.4

49.3

57. 1

05.8 i

1877

4& 6

24.1

34. 5

42.8

44.2

56.5

05. 1

1878

26. 1

36.2

44.3

49.9

54.9

04.3 I

5
p

74.7
78.2
71.8
73.3
73.4

77.1
74.2
68.3
72. 1
71.2

60.4
61.7
60.6
58.1
64.7

40. 1
49 4

47.2
45.4
40.8

35.9
30.4
25.9
27.1
31.3

72.5
76.3
75.5

71.7

72.8
72.8

77.0
75.7
80.0
74.4
75.1
76.0

75.6
71. 1
77.3
70.2
75.4
73.2

62.5
60.1
64.6

52.4
53.4
47. 9
44.6

35.7
31.5
30.4
33.4

78. 6 77. 3
70. 3 78. 7
80.5 | 76.8

76.3
76.5
76.7

71.2
71.0
74.7
73.8

73.6

64.5
69. 7
71.8
64. 0
72.3
70.2

70.3
75. 0
78.0
74.0
75.9
75.3

09.3
71. 5
70.1
08. 1
70.4
73.8

71.0
70.2
74.4

09.2
70.7
70.5
06.0
09.9
72.2

C5. 1
C9.2
68.6
63.2
66.5
G7.9

02.8
60.6
63.0
62.9
60.0
66.0

53.0
48.5
54.0
49.6
50.3
51. 1

30.6
38.5
36.0
32.6
33.2
36.3

68.2
63.9
07.1
04.3
64.4
70.1

55.5
49.8
55.7
51.1

52.2

34.6
38.9
40.2
35.3
36. 0

55. 3 39. 6

57.6
54. t
60.9
57.2
56.8
66.6

47.2
41.3
49.4
42.8
43.2
45.7

23.8
25.6
28.7
25. 2
29.6
32.4

74.0
78.0
74.4
09.9
74.9
72.8

09.8
70.8
73.0
09.0
70.1
70.9

55. C
55.9
54.2
50.0
57.3
50.2

04.0
02.3
65. 5

61. 7

62. 5
07.3

00. 1
59.8
59.0
01.7

01. 5
61. 9

45.2
42.5
40.7
47.9
40.9
40. 0

52.1
48.3
52.5
48.8
49.3
53.7

50.1
45.2
52.9
54. 1
51.7
44.7

28.2
40. 1

35.8
30.3
33.2
30. 1

32.9
34. C
36.4
33.5
35.3
37.2

32.5
40. C
42.2
37.3
37. 1
34.8

TABLES OF TEMPERATURE FROM 1872 TO 1878. 121

Table VI. — Monthly and annual mean temperature from 1872 to 1878 — Continued.

— ■

Tears ami sta-
tions.

Annual.

January.

February.

Q
H
CS

April.

>>

C3

June.

July.

s

0

■<

September.

October.

November.

December. |

COLORADO SPRINGS,

COL.

•

o

0

o

o

o

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

•

37.4

42.7

47.7

30. 3

25. 5

34.5

38. 5

58.6

68.9

73.2

70. 3

56.7

49.9

37.9

28.1

1875

46.4

19. 1

29. 2

30.4

41. 6

57.3

67. 9

64. 6

65.3

57. 9

51.3

37.1

35.4

187C

28. 2

35.0

33. 5

46. 5

54. 9

64. 0

72.0

DODGE CITY, KANS.

1 Q7A

60. 7

38.4

34. 2

52.1

13.2

29.8

38. 1

47.9

65. 4

75.4

75.5

74. 6

68.7

56.6

39.9

40.7

1876

54.2

35. 3

41. 5

34. 7

56. 6

64. 5

71. 2

79.6

77. 2

66.7

52.6

38.4

22.8

1877

53.2

23.9

37. 1

42. 6

50. 1

62. 7

70. 6

77. 5

76. 2

68.4

51.7

38. 6

39. 0

32. 0

38.2

49^3

55.9

61.9

70.5

I-'ORT GUSSON IND.

TER.

1873

56.2

67. 6

70.6

80.7

78. 8

70.2

56.9

49.8

40.6

1874

60. 9

39. 5

41. 3

52. 2

53. 0

70. 3

78. 6

83. 1

86. 1

71. 5

60. 9

50. 7

43. 4

1875

58.2

27.7

38.7

47. 7

56.7

67 6

77.9

80.0

74. 6

70.8

57.7

49.4

48.4

1876

59. 2

45.4

47. 6

44. 4

63.4

69. 6

73. 6

81.0

81. 4

71.8

58.4

44.8

29.9

1877

59. 0

33. 7

44. 8

49. 2

57.9

68. 2

75.3

78.2

77. 1

70.5

60.5

44.3

48.6

1878

39.2

45.4

57. 3

64.4

68. 5

74.9

LEAVEN WORTH,

KANS.

1872

52. 4

25. 0

30. 9

37. 0

56. 2

65. 6

77. 2

78 4

78. 4

67 7

56 4

35 0

21. 0

1873

52^5

mo

30.0

42. 1

48^6

63. 0

75! 5

77^5

79. 2

65^4

56.9

4l! 8

3l! 9

1874

54.4

28.4

28.8

40. 0

49.0

67. 3

77.4

82.8

81 3

66.8

57.0

40.0

32.7

1875

51.4

16.7

22.3

37. 6

49.8

65. 8

76.7

77.6

73. )

66.6

53.6

37.3

39.9

1876

53.2

35.4

38.3

35. 7

55.2

65. 5

71.2

78.9

78. 2

66.0

53.7

37.6

23.3

1877

54.1

24.6

39.5

38 4

53.3

63. 8

71.9

76.3

75. 1

67.9

54.5

39.5

44.2

33.8

40.2

5o!o

58.8

62^3

70.5

SANTA FE, N. MEX.

1872

48.3

27.0

34.0

38.8

45.8

58.1

66.9

67.6

67.0

60.0

49.0

33.0

32.6

1873

48.8

29.0

32.0

44.0

44.0

56.0

65.6

71.0

66.0

61.0

51. 0

4L1

25.8

1874

48.9

31.0

27.8

36.2

42.1

59.8

69.3

71.1

69.9

60.5

52.3

38.7

29.2

1875

48.6

28. 1

31.4

34.4

47.4

59.2

67.9

65.2

66.5

58.7

53.5

38.7

32.6

1876

47.9

29.0

32.8

36.5

50.2

55.9

66.0

69.2

65.2

60.2

48.6

35.7

28.5

1877

48.3

31.7

33.3

44.4

42.3

54.4

66.6

68.6

68.4

61.4

47.3

33.4

27.8

21.4

30.0

40.7

47.4

55.8

62.9

122 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

Table VII — Monthly and annual rainfall in inches from 1872 to 1878.

Tears and stations.

i
-

PEMBINA, DAK.

1872 .

1873 .

1874 .

1875 .

1876 .

1877 .

1878 .

*OBT BENTON, MONT.

1872.

1873 .

1874 .
1875.
1876.

BU3MABCK, DAK.

1874 .

1875 .
1876.
1877 .
1878.

BRECKJNTtrDGE,
ML.W

1872 ....
1873....

1874 ....

1875 ....

1876 ....

1877 ....

1878 ....

V1BGINIA CITY,
MONT.

1872 .

1873 .

1874 .

1875 .

1876 .

1877 .
1878.

FORT SULLY, DAK.

1872 .

1873 .

1874 .

1875 .

1876 .

1877 .

SAINT PAUL, MINN.

1872 .

1873 .
1874.

1875 .

1876 .

1877 .

1878 .

YANKTON, DAK.

1673 .
1874 .
1875.
1876.

1877 .

1878 .

In.

In.

In.

In.

0. 06

0. 06

0.04
0.44

25.75
21.67

0.17
0.06
0.12

0.53
0.10

0.26

1.09
L13
4.50

11.19
10.45
12. 75

0.60
0.67
0.66
0.71

0.65
0.10
1. 11
0.28

0.23
0.64
0.22
L53

27. 43
31.00
17.68

1.05
0.78
1.64
0.00

L32
L50
0.19
0. 26

2.06
8.30
0.77
L 46

27. 39
27.63
17.75
1&13
29.38

1. 63
L 74
0.30
0. 10
0.03
0.06

2. 21
0.57
0.67
0.19
0.01
0.18

t 81
2. 21
2.11
1.63
0.30
4.07

16.32
17. 00
17.63
17. 47

0.13
0. 11
1.29
0.59
0.56
0.45

0.19
0.06
1.37
0.49
0.73
0. 02

0. 14
1.50

1. 06
1.35
0.91

14.62
16.24
13.99

1.00
0. 09
0.53

0. 09

1. 01

0.29
0.17
0. 91
0.10
0.03

0. 49
0.92
0.58
0.91
2.52

33.74
35.51
30. 06
23.67
28.86

L 31
0. 49
1.41
0. 73

0. 55

1. 00

1.54
1.07
1. 72
0.66
0.07
0. 67

1.34
2.24
2.19
1.43
1.57
1.24

23.83
37. 15
28.84
28. 17

0. 57

1. 07
0. 32
0.74
0.20

0. 65

1. 51
1.10
0. 33
0.27

0. 79

1. 79
2.18
1.37
0. 93

In.

In.

In.

In.

0. 25
0. 15
0. 47
0.49
0.68
5.78

2. 16
LSI
1.87

a 55

4. 15

2.54

2.90
3. 45
3.83
3. 43
9.85
3. 57

1 14
0.43
L 04

L. 25

3. 03
2.98
1.60
11.06

1.67

a. h.

2.57
1.45

4.22
2.77
1.32
5.71

3. 40
5.74
4.15
3. 15

5.02
L24
4.60
2.78

2.11
0.55
L 07
1.87
2.08
7. 77

2. 33
2.08
2. 01
1.87
2. 81
2. 77

4. 17
a 21
4.95
0.85
7.44
7.01

0.10
0.30
0.84
1.38
1.83

4. 18
4. 16
5.58
3.93
5.13

1.06
0.21
1.60

4.14

3. 17
5. 05
2.62
1. 37
4. 02

2.44
0. 95
2. 27
2.23
1.93
2.43

0.71
3. 58
1.54
2.65
2.08
3.78

3.23
6.24
2.36
4.25
1. 76

4. 63 7. 74
L 65 11. 67

3. 06
3.15
5.43
2. 33

0. 24
5. 26
0.97
5.99
5.14

2.59
2.04
3. 15
4.45
4. 04

4. 33

2. 02
7.13

3. 58

6.65
9.21
3. 18
5.07
7. 83

1.47
t 40
1.18
5.52
L 47

In.

In.

In.

1. 29
0.10
2.24

L53
1. 48
2.52

2. 78
L23
0.70
2.34
6. 54

1.10
0.73
1.96
1.79

1.86
0.67
0.51
1.99
3. 69

3.83
1.95
0.82
2. 73
0.52

3.84
5.53
5.49
1.17

2.88
3.02
2.62
0.47
0.51

1.59
1.17
1.19

1.95
1.70
0.92
0.54
L 40

0. 58
0.49
0.13

2.89
6.55
0.35

7.20
7.27
3. 31
5.84
3.36

3. 11
2.94
1.56
0.23

2.66
0. 57
3. 26
4. 14
0.84

4. 61

3. 90
8.74
5.28
2.83

4.05
4.95
5. 14
1. 16

0.64
1.85
5.61
0.11

0. 38
1.43
1.80
2.26
2.50

1.46
1.25
0.88
2.70

0. 07
0.18
0. 89
4.09
0.44

2.56
5.76
2.16
2.99
2.56

1.74
5.33
5.26
L 23

0.40
0.40
L26
0.14
0.69

0.19
0. 19
0.56
0.71

0.83
2.37
0.30
0.94

2.17
L 25
L55
0. 37
L10
2.85

0.12

1.12
0.81
0. 91
L 39

0.02
0.56
1.51
0.38

L'ii"

0.52
2.57
3.21
1.56
1.27
3.62

1.49
1.64
0.14
0.88
3.66

TABLES OF EAINFALL, 1872-1878. 123
Table VII. — Monthly and annual rainfall in inches from 1872 to 1878 — Continued.

Years and stations.

OMAHA, NEBR.

In. In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

1872.
1873 .
3874 .

1875 .

1876 .

1877 .

1878 .

27. 05
25.75
42. 89
32. 51
40. 95

DAVENPORT, IOWA.

1872 ....

1873 ....

1874 ....

1875 ....

1876 ....

1877 ....

1878 ....

28.08
36.79
31.99
46.82
35.10

CHEYENNE, WTO.

1872.

1873 .

1874 .

1875 .

1876 .

1877 .
18/8.

10.01
9. 71

12. 10
3. 03

11.71

NORTH PLATTE,
NEBR.

1874 .
1875.
1876.
1877 .
1878.

15.35
11.84
25.47

KEOKUK, IOWA.

1872 .
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.

1877 .

1878 .

41. 99
35.45
48. 42
51. G5
48. 59

DENVER, COLO.

1872

1873

1874

18">5

1876

1877

41.73
13.46
20.26
18. 64

DODGE CITY, KANS.

1874 .

1875 .
1876.

1877 .

1878 .

10. 78
15.40
27.89

LEAVENWORTH,
KANS.

1872 .

1873 .

1874 .
1875.

1876 .

1877 .

1878 .

34.17
33. 05
31. 26
44. 48
52. 06

0.64
0.32
0. 26
0.22
0.53
1. 13

0. 02
0. 92
0. 51
0. 40
0.44
0.14

0. 44
1.49
1.24
3.18

1. 26
3. 09

3.83
2.01
3. 06
2. 65
6.24
3. 97

5.59
L 24
4. 25
2. 07
8.62
5.77

5.86
6. 93
10. 95
3. 47
8. 36
8.48

4.27
0.54
10.01
7. 30
0.96

1. 60

2. 08
7. 77
6.27
3. 13

1.86
7. 18
2.55
4.93
2. 05

In.
3. 89
1.82
1. 45
1. 16
0. 69
5.86

3. 56

4. 34
0. 38
3.47
1.41
0.36

0. 77

0. 74

1. 09
3.63

0. 07

1. 09

1. 43
1.34
0. 88
4. 35
3. 91
2. 21

3. 96
2.64

2. 30
5. 39
3. 28
2.89

6.37
3. 45
2.01
6. 70
2.82
5.14

2. 16
5. 37
4. 91
4.25
5.80
4. 36

2. 37
3. 10
9.36
4. 82
3.42

0.51
3. 68
1. 73
4.27
3.21

1. 00
7. 86
4.05
5. 50
1. 45

0. 61
1.48
1.30

1. 63
1.54
4. 88

0. 03
0.11
0.42
0. 02
0.20
0. 08

0. 02
0.11
0.06
0. 06
0. 14
0. 13

0. 38
0. 74
0.23
0.54
0.98
1. 16

0.92
0.61
0.50
0.23
1.11
0.19

2. 41
1.50
1. 20
2. 50
2. 24
4. 46

1.77
1. 34
0. 29
0. 10
1.27
1.71

1. 10
1.87
4.47
0. 79
0.43

2.07
0.44

2.12
0. 26
0.83

0.36
0.93
1. 34
0.00
2.02

0.33
0.70
1. 86
0.60
0. 00
1.99

0.24

0. 09

1. 38
0. 00

0. 26
0. 13
0. 37
0. 18

0. 40
0. 49

0. 19

1. 40

6.21
0.51
0.37
1. 15

1.69
2.97
3. 22
3.24

1.62
0.49
2.99
5.85

2.12
1.16
2. 04

0. 66
2.46
5.03

0. 85
1.40
1.47
4. 49

1. 46

0. 14
1.07

1. 23

3.31

3. 66
0. 61
3.68
0.84
0. 17

0. 53
0.89
1.84
1.45
0. 15
2. 95

0. 51
1. 14

1. 67

3. 45
3. 76
3. 78

5.65
2. 40
0.89
3.99
4. 22
2.31

3.42
1.65
6. 70
5.28
5.55
3. 47

1. 21
4.01

8. 33

6. 73

7. 82
3. 93

8. 77
4.54
12.70
6.79
7. 06

0.54
3. 87
3.83
4.03
2.52

3.37
7.92
4. 62
11.08
3. 61

0.42
4.69
1.94
2.71
2.12
7. 11

0. 13
0.84
3. 38

0. 21

1. 70

0.24
0.53
0.60

0. 11

1. 90

0. 22

0. 49
C.39

1. 80
0.40

2.43
1. 70
2.24
0. 22
1.40

0. 75
2. 43
1.94
8.57
2. 77

2. 24
1.21
0.43
1.10
2. 30

2. 00
3. 35
4. 32
1.22
1. 93

1. 41

0. 68
1.97
1. 16

0. 89

1. 34
2.89

2. 03

0. 68
0. 73
0. 64
0. 22
0.60

0. 12
0. 00
0. 18
0. 21

0. 10
0. 05
0. 56
1.13

0. 04
3.59
0.25
1.01

0.72

0. 16
3. 38

1. 06

2. 26
1. 15
4. 96
4. 63

0. 73

2.53
3.92
2. 19

3. 28
2.26
1.79

2. 06
1. 03
4. 09

0.94

1. 32
2. 13
0.50

0.22
0. 06
1.00
3. 34

3.02
3. 14
0. 23
1.42
0. 73
2. 34

1. 03
1. 35
1.25
0. 20
0.50
2.94

1. 75
3. 05
2.50
5.78
4.39
2. 35

5.07
2. 80
1.67
7. 65
7.14
2.86

5. 38
1. 60
3. 53

6. 78
8. 67
5.28

3.15
4.96
3. 85
5. 71
10. 00
5.27

2.04
3. 23
8.82
4. 01
5. 34

2. 40
1.72
3. 73
3. 40
2.85

3.64
5. 50
1.97
3. 56
1. 95

2. 06

1. 56
1.49
0. 72

2. 79
4.87

124 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

Table VII. — Monthly and annual rainfall in inches from 1872 to 1878 — Continued.

■years and stations.

Annual.

January.

i1

3

u

S

a
E
m

April.

May.

A
z

July.

August,

September.

October.

N.i\ embei

%

e

e
»
i — ■

-COLORADO 8PRING6,

COLO.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

In.

1874

16.53

0.06

0. 54

0. 50

3. 55

5.90

0. 20

0.81

0. 91

3.37

0. 19

0.35

0. 15

1875

17. 37

0.24

0.56

1.12

0. 30

L 03

1.82

6.07

2. 39

2.23

0.13

1. 19

0.29

1876

0. 12

0.19

0.63

0. 52

3.83

1.89

6A1NT LOUIS, MO.

0.55

2. 01

L70

1873

o. Do

1. 52

2. 10

D. £t

6. 68

& OA

d. yo

0. 07

3. 02

3. 27

1. 64

5. 10

37. 79

3. 04

3. 66

4. 36

3 43

3. 70

2. 00

6.71

4 70

2. 32

1. 09

2. 32

1. 46

.1875

42.99

0.54

2. 59

4. 08

2.53

5. 48

10. 84

9. 49

2.66

0.24

1.23

0. 89

2. 42

1876

48. 46

4. 75

2. 86

6. 90

2. 25

3.13

6. 43

6.90

5.03

7.63

1.66

1.74

0. 18

1877 :

41.26

1.24

0.88

3.41

2.86

3.11

8.69

2.88

2. 61

3.56

4.92

3. 76

3. 34

1878

2.36

1.69

2.79

6. 74

4.63

2.40

SANTA KE, H. MEX.

0.25

0. 01

0. 04

1873

9. 47

0.55

0. 14

0. 15

0. 26

0.33

L 72

1.02

2.79

1.23

o. o;

0. 38

0. 83

19.83

1.39

1. 60

L 51

1.71

0. 70

0. 54

3.92

1.73

1.42

2. 47

0.58

2. 26

18.97

0.67

0. 72

L 37

0.33

0.88

0. 33

6. 91

1.59

4. 14

0.06

1.50

0. 47

1876

15. 07

0.61

0. 40

0.64

0. 46

0.83

1.62

5.43

2. 13

0.85

0.75

0.97

0.38

1877

13. 15

0.18

i «8

0. 14

1.83

0.92

0. 13

3.54

1.72

0.96

1.32

0.70

0.63

1878

0.21

0.89

0.73

0.22

1.01

3.18

FORT GIBSOJf, DiD. T.

1873

2.80

L97

3.66

1874

38.88

3. 69

3.44

2. 91

5.83

3.54

3.38

1.99

1.54

4. 41

0. 81

4.64

2.70

1875

44. 10

0.64

0. 73

2.48

8.74

5.59

3.52

10.93

4.27

1.34

1. 19

2.26

2. 41

.1876

35. 48

4.94

0. 61

5.67

1.85

1.94

6.82

6.06

0.94

2. 43

1. 10

2.89

0.20

1877

46.79

0.29

1.47

2.27

7.77

4.82

7. 74

2.89

3.78

2.21

a 36

4. 19

3.00

1878

2. 79

2.40

1.44

2.83

7.52

6.61

We propose to discuss first the record of temperature ; but in order
to do this in a way to be clearly and easily understood, it is necessary
to consider each point or bearing separately, and so far as possible
tabulate the results.

As heretofore intimated, it is unnecessary to take any further uotice
of the annual mean temperature ; we shall therefore confine our discus-
sion to the monthly means as shown in Table VI.

If the excessive development of locusts depends upon unusual heat
.as one of the necessary meteorological influences, and no adequate va-
riation is shown in the annual means, it ought to appear in the monthly
means, for it is absurd to suppose it depends upon the temperature of
one or two days, and a considerable variation in several days will be
shown in the monthly means.

If, after all, this excessive development does not depend so much upon
the absolute degree of heat above the normal condition as upon the
absence of excessive changes at the periods when they are most easily
affected, then a careful examination and comparison of the monthly
means ought to reveal the particular months or periods of the year in
which these excessive changes are most likely to occur. If it depends
upon the sum of the heat — that is. the number of hours they are ex-

FLUCTUATIONS IN MONTHLY MEAN TEMPERATURE. 125

posed in the egg and larval states to a given degree of heat — this can only
be obtained accurately by the daily records, but should be indicated by
a comparison of the monthly means. This point is not considered int
the discussion of these tables, but will be alluded to further on.

Two conditions are absolutely necessary to excessive development j,
first, that the parents shall be in a healthy condition and properly de-
posit the eggs ; second, that the eggs shall very generally hatch out.
There are other conditions that retard or favor, but these are absolutely
necessary. It follows, therefore, that there are critical periods in the
life of the insect, and hence it may be necessary, in order to ascertain
the meteorological conditions favoring the development of excessive
numbers in one year, to examine the meteorological records of the pre-
vious years.

Another fact to be taken into consideration in the discussion is that,,
although excessive numbers may hatch, they may be killed, greatly
diminished, or rendered diseased by unusual moisture ; or their devel-
opment may be retarded, and migrating to a great degree prevented, by
unusually low temperature.

Bearing these facts in mind and remembering also that 1874 and 1S7&
were the years of the great locust invasions, let us see if any important
fact bearing upon the subject can be drawn from the foregoing table of
the monthly temperature of the Northwest in the locust area.

If we examine the fluctuations in the same month for the different
years and select the extreme variations — that is, the difference between,
the highest and lowest means — we shall find them to be as shown in
Table VIII.

Table VIII.- Extreme fluctuations in monthly mean temperature.

Months.

9
U
■3

'S
a

©

w

V

u
M

| Fort Sully.

Yankton.

Omaha.

■M

O

V

M

Saiut Paul.

| Leavenworth.

*c
ft

C3

"5

03

co

Cheyenne.

Denver.

d

o

"3

<x>

ffl

u
o

s
a

3

a

P4

Virginia City.

Bismarck.

Average.

o

0

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

0

0

o

o

o

o

January •.

24.2

18.6

21.212.8

17.4

24. 9 18. 7

10. 3 17. 9 14. 7

25.1

16.4

21.7

26.4

19.3

February

35.3

19. 2 33. 9|16.3

i20.3

33. 8

17.9

6.2

8. 0 13. 0

8.5

30.0

12. 5,33. 7

20. G

March

38.8

16.513.0,18.8

17.7

22.4

15. 2

10.0

15. 4 10. 9

23. 1

29.7

15. 0,27.3

19. 6

April

13.6

5. 5 10. 4

10.8

12.9

13.610.2

8.1

9.1

10. G

6.7

16.1

3.3

13.7

10.3

May

9.0

8.7

7.9

8.1

6.9

7.1

5.0

5.4

8.7

8.6

6.8

8.9

7. 1

6.1

7.5

June

10.6

10.6

7.6

5.8

7.8

9.4

6.9

6.4

18.0

6.1

2.1

10.4

5.8

2.4

7.6

July -

10.4

5.7

6.4

5.6

4.2

3.7

6.5

5.9

8.3

8.3

5.3

5.0

3.9

1.6

5.8

August

4.0

4.7

8.8

7.1

7.1

5.6

8.2

4.7

6.0

4.0

0.4.

3.3

6.7

3.5

5.3

September

9.4

7.9

6.6

6.6

6.2

12.5

2.5

2.7

3.1

2.9

7.4

9.4

5.7

6.8

6 4-

October

6.9

10.2

4. 0

5.5

5.9

8.1

3.3

6.2

7.9

9.4

10.8

6.8

8.6

2.0

6.8

November

6.7

10.7

10.0

7.9

5.6

8.6

6.8

8.1

11.9

9.7

18.0

14.6

12.0

11.4

10.1

December

28.2

15.5

22.0

20.2

25.8

25. 5 23. 2

1

6.8

10.0

15. 4 23. 1

33.7

13.8

22.3

20.4-

Average variation of winter ami spring taken together, 16.8 (that is, from November to April).
Average variation of summer and autumn taken together, 6.6 (that is, from May to October).

In this table each number in a column shows the extreme variation,
during the series of years included in Table VI, of the mean for the
month opposite, and at the station mentioned at the head of the column.
For example, in the Breckenridge column 24°.2 is the number given j.

126 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

this shows that the difference between the highest and lowest mean for
January in the series of years was 24°.2. By reference to the Brecken-
ridge record in Table VI it will be seen that the lowest January mean was
in 1875 (— 9°.5), while the highest was in 1878 (+ 14°. 7) ; the difference be-
tween these two is 24°.2, as given in the above table of extreme varia.
tion of monthly means. The right-hand column shows the average of
all the stations for each month.

The value of this table consists in the fact that it shows at a glance
the months in which the greatest variations occur. This is, as is well
known to all who have made meteorology a study, in the winter half of
the year ; but reference to the column of averages shows that in the
West and Northwest this is true to an unusual degree, the average varia-
tion for the winter half (from November to April) being 1C°.8, while for
the summer half (from May to October) it is only 6°.G.

If we confine the examination to the northwestern stations, Breck-
inridge, Fort Sully, Yankton, Fort Benton, Pembina, Virginia City,
and Bismarck, we find the averages to be as follows: January, 21°.9;
February, 24°.7; March, 23°.3; April, (P.9; May, 7°8; June, 7<M;
July, 5°.5; August, 4°.5; September, 7°.G; October, 7°.0; November,
11°.9 ; December, 22°.7 ; the average of the winter half of the year,
19°.l, and of the summer half, G°.G, showing the difference to be still
greater.

But in order to apply the law which these figures appear to indicate
more directly to the subject under discussion, we present here a table of
a similar kind, made up from the same series of years, differing from the
last only in the fact that it shows the greatest variation between the
monthly means of two consecutive years.

Table LX. — Greatest variations between monthly means of two consecutive years.

tn

a

Months.

"E
a
a
-=

Q
O

>rt Sully.

a

o

&
a

es

a
"a
£

[>okuk.

int Paul.

o
is
a

©
>

C5

a
3

•onuoA'oi

a

o

a

©

S3
u

■mbina.

irginiaCil

smarck.

rerago.

u
«

fx

O

W

X

<B

Hi

03

5

Q

o

Pi

t>

<

o

0

o

0

o

0

o

O

o

o

o

0

0

0

0

January

15.8

18.6

18.3

10.7

17.4

19.0

18.7

10.3

17.9

14.7

22.5

16.4

21.4

16.8

17.03

February

17.2

19.0

18.2

16.3

16.9

19.2

16.0

4.2

5.9

7.6

8.5

21.9

5.3

21.6

14.13

March

24.0

7.9

14.9

14.4

17.7

20.7

12 5

7.9

10.8

8.4

18.0

27.9

8.5

21.4

15.36

7.1

4.7

6.3

6.8

6.5

4.9

7.6

7.9

5.5

0.3

4.4

12.4

3.3

7.2

6.49

8.2

8.7

7.9

7.6

5.7

7.1

4.3

3.3

7.4

8.6

6.8

8.9

4.0

6.1

6.76

6.0

4.5

.4.6

2.5

5.3

5.1

5.5

3.7

*18

4.6

1.8

8.0

5.8

2.4

5.56

or
4.58

3.2

5.3

6.4

5.6

4.2

3.7

5.3

4.9

7.8

8.3

5.3

5.0

3.9

L0

5. 00

August

4.0

4.7

5.9

7.1

5.2

3.9

8.2

3.4

5.4

4.0

0.2

2.7

6.7

1.8

4.51

September

9.2

7.9

6.6

6.6

5.7

9.8

2.3

1.8

1.8

2.7

4.8

9.4

5.7

6.8

5. 79

October

6.8

10.2

3.3

5.5

5.9

8.1

3.4

4.9

6. 9

7.7

9.5

6.8

5.8

2.0

6.20

November

8.3

10.6

5.5

7.9

4.9

4.4

6.8

8.1

11.9

8.1

15.7

10.3

12.0

10.3

8.91

December

28.2

13.3

22.0

20.0

25.8

25.5

20.9

6.8

10.0

10.6

15.9

33.7

8.2

22.3

18.80

Year

3.4

6.7

5.3

8.2

7.1

fi.2

3.0

0.7

3.6

2.0

LI

3.7

4.8

4.21

* This large variation indicates an evident error in the mean of this month for 1872. Omitting 1872,
*he extreme variation is 4.3.

EFFECTS OF VAKIATION IN TEMPERATURE ON THE EGGS. 127

Precisely the same rule holds good here as in the preceding table. The
•chief variations are in the months of December, January, February and
March.

If the excessive increase of locusts depends to any considerable degree
upon the temperature, and this excessive increase is the exception and
not the rule, then we must seek for the cause in the abnormal conditions
of the temperature. These we see from the foregoing table are found
chiefly in the winter of the year, the variation in the means of the sum-
mer months being comparatively unimportant.

The condition as to moisture must, as a matter of course, be combined
with that of temperature in making the direct application and compar
ing the locust years with the non-locust years, but at present we are
only endeavoring to ascertain if possible in what respects the records of
temperature show a variation likely to affect the increase or development
of the locusts.

As the eggs are deposited before December, and do not hatch out in the
northern latitudes of their native habitats until after March, it follows
that if the excessive changes of this part of the year affect them in any
way it must be by their action upon the eggs. But the facts presented in
our first report tend to the conclusion that the eggs of C. spretus are
but little affected by changes of temperature.

There are some other facts presented in Table VI worthy of notice.

If we compare the winters preceding the locust years with those of
other years, we find that in the series 1873 to 1877, as a rule, the former
were warmer than the latter.

Variations between months of consecutive years.

Tears and stations.

December. January. February.

Mean.

BRECKENRWGE.

J873-74

1874- 75

1875- 76

1876- 77

1877- 78

FORT SULLY.

1873- 74

1874- 75

1875- 76 •

1876- 77

YANKTON.

1873- 74

1874- 75 " '

1875- 76

1876- 77

FORT BENTON.

1872- 73

1873- 74

1874- 75

1875- 76

PEJIBINi.

1873-74

1875- 76

1876- 77

1877- 78

8.0
12.8
18.1

0.1
23.3

14.9
26.9
27.0
13.7

18.1
23.0
27.3
12.2

11.3
13.7
29.6
36.8

6.6
8.1
-6.3
-27.4

2.3
-9.5

6.3
-0.9
14.7

16.1
0.1
18.7
13.9

15.6
0.6
18.9
13.6

16.5
11.3
-8.6
13.9

-3.0
-2.6
-5.2
11.2

8.0
-7.9

4.3
21.5
27.4

20.3
4.2
14.4
33.4

18.8
2.5
20.7
36.4

18.4
22.4
13.9
16.7

2.6
-4.5
17.4

25.5

6.1
- 1.5
9.6
6.9
23.5

17.1
10.4

20.0
20.3

17.5
8.7
22.3
20.7

15.4
15.8
1L6
22.5

2.1
0.3
2.0
21.4

128 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

Variations between months of consecutive years — Continued.

Tears and stations.

VIRGDHA CITY.

1872- '73

1873- 74

1874- 75

1875- 76 ,

1876- 77

1877- 78

OMAHA.

1872- 73

1873- 74

1874- 75

1875- 76

1876- 77

1877- 78

December.

18.8
16. 7
24.9
30.5
24.4
24.0

19.0

25.2
2a 4
33.5
19.2
39.2

January.

23.4
23. 1
1.7
17.1
18.8
23.1

16.9
22.3
16. 1
26.8
20.2
28.9

February.

15.6
18.4
22.8
28.1
27.5
27.9

26.9
23.4
13.8
30.1
37.3
36.9

Mean.

19.3
19.2
19.8
25.2
23.6
25.0

20.9
23.6
19.4
30. 1
25.6
35.0

It will be seen by comparing these means that as a very general rule
the temperature was higher in the winters of 1873-74 and 1875-76
than the preceding or following winters, but that to this rule the winter
of 1877-78 forms a remarkable exception. But in these cases the win-
ters appear to correspond with the general character of the year. The
results are scarcely sufficiently marked and uniform to justify the con-
clusion that they present a clew to the solution of the problem.

An inspection of the summer months in Table VI shows a much
smaller variation ; for example, at Breckenridge, where the differences
between the winter means are the greatest, the summer means are as
follows: 1873,520.2; 1874, 53°. 4; 1875, 51°.0; 1876, 52°.6; 1877, 52°.6;
the extreme variation being but 2°.4.

Yankton :

1874 65c.2

1875 61°.4

1876 62C.9

1877 63°.l

Virginia City :

1874 53C.&

1875 53^.6

1876 530.0

1877 52°.6

A longer series of years would doubtless show greater variations, but
if these furnish any indication of the general rule, it is evident the
means of summer temperature furnish no such differences as woidd
seem to be required for such important results. So far, then, as the
records of temperature thus far examined are concerned, neither the an-
nual nor the monthly means show any important fact to sustain the
assumption that unusual heat is one of the conditions necessary to the
excessive development of the locusts. If they show any important fact
bearing upon the subject, it is that the winter season (including March)
has more to do with their development than the temperature of the sum-
mer season.

TEMPERATURE AT FORT SULLY 1872 TO 1875.

129

So far as the annual and monthly means show, the year 1873 was
about as favorable as to temperature as 1874 ; and as may be seen by
reference to the table of rainfall (Table VII), it was equally favorable
in this respect. As there was no marked or general invasion in 1871 or
1872, it cannot be claimed that the permanent breeding grounds had
been exhausted by migrations, as it is conceded that there was no general
invasion in 1873, but was in 1874. Let us look to the daily records of
the former and compare them with those of the latter year and see if
they show any important differences.

For this purpose we select Fort Sully as the station within the per-
manent breeding grounds showing the most complete record. The fol-
lowing table is the daily record of the maximum and minimum temper-
ature from October, 1872, to June, 1875.
9l

REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

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132

REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

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TEMPERATURE AT FORT SULLY 1872 TO 1875. 133

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RELATION OF TEMPERATURE TO DEVELOPMENT OF THE EGGS. 135

The first thing we notice in this table worthy of remark is the con-
tinuous low temperature from the middle of December, 1872, to the 3d
of February, 1873, the minimum thermometer making during this pe-
riod 42 days below zero, while during the same period in the winter of
1873-'74 it stood below zero only 17 days. We also observe that during
the former the maximum temperature was below zero 7 days, while it
fell below zero only one day during the winter of 1873-'74. A further
comparison of the two winters shows that the latter was decidedly more
favorable to the locust than the former, if the eggs are at all affected by
long coutinued and extreme cold, which is very doubtful.

The Fort Benton record not only corresponds with this showing, but
the contrast is still more marked ; that of Fort Garry, Manitoba, shows
very little difference between the two winters in this respect ; the record
of Virginia City presents no marked difference,

Eeference to the record of Fort Sully for the winter of 1874-'75, given
in the preceding table, will show that, while December was compara-
tively mild, there was a long continued cold spell in January and Feb-
ruary. The Fort Garry minimum thermometer shows an unbroken suc-
cession of minuses (below zero marks) from December 28 to March 7 ;
also a continuous maximum below zero from January 2 to 19.

The maximum and minimum record for Fort Sully for the winter of
1875-'76, preceding the invasion of 1876, is even more favorable than
that of 1873-'74, if comparative mildness is favorable.

Whether the records of but six or seven years will justify us iu assum-
ing any law as established thereby in reference to the subject now under
consideration is very doubtful ; certainly not, unless the data are uniform
in their bearing on the point. Still there are sufficient indications in the
facts just presented to lead*us to believe it probable that here we shall
find, in part at least, what we are hunting for, but if so we must confess
that it is in a very different quarter from what we supposed.

If we now turn to the record of rainfall, as shown in Table VII, we find
that the amount for the winter months at the stations within or near the
borders of the permanent breeding-grounds is so small throughout the
years included that the differences can cut no important figure in the mat-
ter under discussion. On inspection of the records, the months of May
and June, at Fort Sully, shows, contrary to the theory heretofore ad-
vanced, that the rainfall in 1874 was greater than 1873 or 1875 ; the
same thing is also true in reference to Breckenridge ; but at Saint Paul,
Omaha, and Keokuk the case is reversed. At the other points the differ-
ence is not very marked either way. The total for the years at the
different stations also fails to reveal any very marked difference favor-
able to the theory advanced, except that as a general rule that of 1874
appears to be below the average; but at Saint Paul, Fort Sully, Vir-
ginia City, and Breckenridge the amount in 1874 was actually greater
than in 1875.

We are therefore forced to the conclusion that the meteorological data,
so far as we have considered them, fail to reveal any facts that tend to con-

13G REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

firm in a marked or distinct manner the theory that heat and dryness
are absolutely necessary to an excessive development of locusts. But
we think the investigation is not without profit, first, because it shows
that a longer series of years is necessary to determine satisfactorily the
relation between meteorological conditions and the locust development;
second, because it shows that annual and monthly means, so far as tem-
perature is concerned, are of but little value in the solution of this
question; third, because it indicates the necessity of paying more atten-
tion to the temperature in winter, in reference to this question, than we
have been disposed to allow; fourth, because it presents some facts
which indicate the necessity of somewhat modifying the theory advanced
in our First Report, and maintained in the previous part of this chapter.
We have assumed in our First Report, as well as the present, that as a
very general rule the locust swarms that invade Nebraska, Iowa, and
Kansas come directly from their native breeding-grounds in British
America, Montana, and Western Dakota. Now, several facts presented
by the meteorological data agree better with the idea that two seasons
at least are required for this purpose ; that is, that those developed by
a favorable season in these northern regions migrate that season to
Southern Dakota and Northern Nebraska, and, if the next season is
favorable in this region, move farther south in increased numbers; if
the season is unfavorable they proceed no farther, or in very diminished
numbers. The temperature and rainfall in 18C2-'G3, and 1872-73,
appear to accord bettor with this theory than the other.

Be this as it may, we have given the facts as we find them, that those
who desire to investigate the subject may have the data at hand prop-
erly arranged so as to show their bearing upon the question. We confess
our disappointment in the result of our attempt to prove a theory so
long maintained, and so universally believed ; but, as before stated, we
are unwilling to abandon it, notwithstanding the meteorological records
fail to confirm it in the marked manner we expected, for personal expe-
rience and observation have too often confirmed it.

There is still another way in which the relation of temperal ore to the
development of the locusts may be viewed which does not appear to
have been brought forward until touched upon in our First Report.

Professor Cleveland Abbe, of the Signal Service Bureau, has suggested
the idea that the development of the eggs may depend upon the sum of
the heat rather than the degree ; that is to say, the number of hours they
are subject to heat above a certain degree. This opinion impressed it-
self very favorably upon our minds, and the ingenious method adopted
by the Professor to demonstrante it, as given in our First Report206
agreed so well with the facts that we were disposed to accept it as the
true key to the relation between temperature and locust development.

Without at present deciding as to its value we must confess that a more
thorough examination of it has tended to render us somewhat skeptical as
to the value of the theory when applied to the data in solving the pr'ob-

™ Tages 425-432.

RELATION OF TEMPERATURE TO DEVELOPMENT OF THE EGGS. 137

lem under discussion. That it serves to bring to view an important
factor that had not been sufficiently considered is undoubtedly true; it
also clearly indicates, so to speak, an inner law of the influence of heat.

Eeferring the reader to our First Eeport for an explanation and illus-
stration of the theory as given by Professor Abbe, we propose to discuss
it briefly here.

That there is a limiting temperature below which, if continuous, the
eggs will not hatch must be admitted. Just what that limit is has not
yet been accurately determined, though approximately reached by the
experiments made by Mr. Riley in 1876-77.

But in door experiments, although conducted with the utmost skill
and precision, are likely to vary more or less, in their results, from what
will be found to be true in the actual out-door bfe of the species ; still
they form a good basis upon which to work, and serve as an excellent
guide to the fact sought for.

Professor Abbe assumes the following as a "working hypothesis:"207
that, at a uniform temperature of 50° Fahr. the eggs require 65 whole
days, or 1,560 hours, to hatch.

At a uniform temperature of 60°, they require 60 whole days, or
1,410 hours, to hatch.

At a uniform temperature of 70°, they require 55 whole days, or 1,320
hours, to hatch.

It is proper to call attention in this connection to note 94, on page 428
of our First Eeport, but the object we now have in view does not re-
quire any explanation of the difference there alluded to.

That eggs have repeatedly hatched in some of the northern sections
when the maximum temperature had not at any time during the spring
exceeded 52° or 53°, and seldom rose to 50°, is evident from data
obtained by the Commission. We may therefore safely assume that a
temperature of 50° is not below the hatching point. We may also as-
sume as borne out by the facts that eggs deposited early in the season
will, as a rule, hatch out, under the same conditions, earlier the next
spring than those deposited later. Mr. Stolley, of Hall County, Ne-
braska, who is in the habit of observing and recording the dates of
depositing and hatching, had already noticed this fact, and so informed
us in 1877. Professor Whitman and others have also observed the same
thing. It appears, therefore, that the process of forming the embryo
•commences in the fall, and that the sum of the heat above a certain
degree is a factor not to be overlooked ; and we may remark here, as
indicated by what has been shown in this chapter, that the sum of the
cold below a certain degree also appears to be an important factor in
the problem.

As Mr. Stolley gives us the exact date at which eggs were first de-
posited in Hall County in 1877, let us try Professor Abbe's "working
basis" and theory by an examination of this case. It is true we have
no meteorological record for that immediate section, but as Omaha and

First Eeport, page 428.

138 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

North Platte are on the same parallel, and Mr. Stolley's locality is about
midway between them in the same valley or plain we may take t lie mean
of the records of these two places, which differ very slightly, as repre-
senting that of Hall County.

In this case the eggs were deposited August 13 and 14, 187G, and
began to hatch April 13 and 14, 1877.

The number of days during which the maximum temperature was 50°
oi over, and also the number of days during which it was 60° or over,
were as follows:

Months.

50° «P

Aueuat 17

September 29

October 27

November 10

December 3

January 0

February 12

March 13

April 11

Total

17
28
U
4
1
0

1

5

6.

122

81

In order to ascertain the number of hours they were exposed to these
degrees of heat, respectively, we will follow Professor Abbe's estimate
as nearly as possible, keeping in mind and making proper allowance for
the difference between the surface temperature and that at which the
eggs are placed. We obtain the total number of hours the eggs were
exposed to the degree of heat specified by multiplying the number of
hours during a day in which the maximum was at or above the given
degree by the number of days given above each month.

"7-

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-

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3

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_

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«

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~ o

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as

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24

17

408

22

17

374

September

22

29

638

18

28

504

18

27

486

12

19

228

November

11

10

110

6

4

24

December

4

3

12

4

1

4

0

0

0

0

0

0

8

12

96

4

1

4

10

13

130

6

5

30

12

11

132

10

6

60

Total

122

2, 012

81

1,228

Prom this we see that if 50° be taken as the minimum, it requires
2,012 hours, 1,228 of which must be above 60°, to hatch the eggs in the
latitude of Grand Island, Hall County, Nebraska; or, to be more exact,
784 hours between 50° and 60°+ 988 hours between 60° and 75° + 240

hours above 75° =2,012 hours.

Let us take another case ; and this time we will select one at North
Platte, Nebr., one of the points selected by Professor Abbe in illustrat-
ing his theory. With the explanation given above, the following table
will be understood. Eggs were deposited from July 10 to 25, in 1870.

RELATION OF TEMPERATURE TO DEVELOPMENT OF THE EGGS. 139

and hatched April 25 to May 12, 1877. We will therefore select as our
dates July 25, 1876, and April 30, 1877.

Months.

July

August —
September.
October —
November .
December .
January ...
February . .

March

April

Total .

Number of
days maxi-
mum above
50°.

Number of
hours each
day.

Product in
hours.

Number of
days maxi-
mum above
60°.

Number of
hours each
day.

Product in
hours.

7

24

1G8

7

24

168

31

24

744

31

22

682

29

22

638

28

ia

448

25

18

450

23

11

253

14

11

154

5

6

30

7

4

28

1

4

4

0

0

0

0

0

0

12

8

96

0

0

0

15

10

150

7

6

42

22

12

264

12

12

144

162

2, 692

115

1,771

It is true Professor Abbe's calculations lead him to fix upon April 30
as the time for hatching to begin at this point, but this is upon the
assumption the eggs are deposited about September 1, when, in fact,
they were deposited in 1876 by the 25th of July. If we take his work-
ing basis, that is, 1,440 hours at 60°, the hatching in this case should
have taken place in October ; with 50° and 1,560 hours as the basis, it
should have occurred in November.

Another fact is revealed by comparing the results of the two places
mentioned. Hall County and North Platte, in the same latitude, simi-
larly situated in the same valley and not very far apart, present a wide
difference in the number of hours required to hatch the eggs. At a
temperature of 60°+ it required 1,228 hours in one place, and 1,771 at
the other ; at 50°+ it required 2,012 at one place, and 2,692 at the other,
both calculated on precisely the same basis.

At North Platte, taking 50° as a minimum, it required 2,692 hours,
1,771 of them 60°+, to hatch the eggs ; or, to be exact, as in the former
case, 921 hours between 50° and 60°+ 1,411 hours between 60° and
75°+ 36O hours above 75°.

As a third example, we select Moorhead, in Clay County, Minnesota,
where the eggs were deposited July 20 to August 20, 1876, and hatched
May 15 to 30, 1877. We take, as the dates to be used, August 1, 1876,
and May 22, 1877, and use the meteorological record of Breckenridge,
which is in the same level valley, and but a short distance away.

Months.

August

September . .

October

November . .
December ..

January

February . . .

March

April

May

Total .

c3 O

gas
a|l

31
28
16
2
0
0
1
0
19
21

118

a
8 «°

a§£

I

713
504
192
16
0
0
4
0
152
252

1, 833

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gas

ja no 0

a s?3

31
24
7
1
0
0
0
0
9
19

91

i o a

11

620
336
70
6
0
0
0
0
54
190

1,276-

140 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

The result in this case approximates very closely to that at Grand
Island, if we take 00° as the minimum. As the data in reference to North
Platte is not so positive as that in reference to the other two, we may take
the latter as giving approximately the length of exposure to a given
degree of temperature that is necessary to hatch the eggs in their nat-
ural position.

Taking the results at these two places and Mr. Riley's experiments,
let us from them test Professor Abbe's " working basis." Mr. Riley
found by actual experiment that at a temperature of 85°, from 28 to 33 —
say 31 days — 744 hours were required to hatch the eggs ; that at a tem-
perature of 75° — 42 days — 1,008 hours were required. By taking the
number of hours at which they .were exposed, at these two places, to a
temperature between 50° and 00°, 00° and 75°, and above 75°, to wit,
Grand Island, 784, 988, and 240 hours, respectively, as given above, and
Moorhead, 921, 1,411, and 3G0 hours, and reducing them by proportion
to 50° and 00°, we obtain the following results :

The time required to hatch the eggs at a uniform temperature of 85°
is 31 whole days, or 744 hours ; at 75° is 42 whole days, or 1,008 hours;
at G0° is GO whole days, or 1,440 hours; at 50° is 116 whole days, or
2,784 hours.

The result at G0° is precisely that given by Professor Abbe, the dif-
ference between the two places being only one day — one 60 days, the
other 61. The number of days at 50° in the average of 112 and 120.

Notwithstanding the close agreement between Mr. Riley's experi-
ments and Professor Abbe's theory, there are so many elements of uncer-
tainty entering into the calculation that it can at most be considered
but as a means of approximating, as Professor Abbe truly says, the fact.

If the hatching depends entirely on the spring temperature and not
on the sum during the time they are in the ground, then the length of
time required is not only very brief but is by no means uniform ; but
the results of the foregoing calculations would appear to render it cer-
tain that thesMwis a necessary factor, and for bringing this out we must
thank Professor Abbe ; but we must not forget that time also is a factor
which must be considered, otherwise the southern locabties ought to
produce two broods in the year.

The direct influence of the temperature and winds on flights. — For the
purpose of illustrating this we introduce here the daily records of tem-
perature and wind during the summer of 1877. It is limited to six of
the most important northwestern stations, and has been kindly fur-
nished to the Commission by the Chief of the Signal Service Bureau, to
whom we are under obbgations for numerous favors.

INFLUENCE OF THE TEMPERATURE AND WINDS ON FLIGHTS. 141

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142 EEPOKT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

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TABLES OF TEMPERATUEE AND VELOCITY OF WINDS. 143

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144 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

RELATION OF TEMPERATURE, ETC., TO LOCUST FLIGHTS. 145

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146 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

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RELATION OF TEMPERATURE, ETC., TO LOCUST FLIGHTS.

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148 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

-2

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.9

Velocity
(miles"
per hour).

2 S! ^ = £ * 2 2 2 ~ 2 ^ 2 S 2 ° " 2 § ?3 " rl ;-' ~ 3 0 r' »3 SI

£

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RELATION OF TEMPERATUEE, ETC., TO LOCUST FLIGHTS. 149

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150 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

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RELATION OF TEMPERATURE, ETC., TO LOCUST FLIGHTS. 151

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152 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

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RELATION OF TEMPERATURE, ETC., TO LOCUST FLIGHTS. 153

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164 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

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KELATION OF TEMPERATURE, ETC., TO LOCUST FLIGHTS. 155

The best way in which we can show the relation between the flights
and the temperature and wind, is to compare statements in our First
Eeport with this table, which was made out after the report was printed ;
all the statements relate to 1877.

At page 172 it is stated that the first flight observed in Iowa was June
14, from the south, aud that the locusts came down in the vicinity of Sioux
City, in the extreme northwest part, where they remained some days. By
reference to the Yankton column, it appears that the temperature rose on
the 13th and 14th, and fell again on the 15th; the wind was from the
north until the 14th, when it changed and blew from the south, wheeling
again in the evening to the north. On the 16th it was again from the
south, and the temperature again rose, and this condition continued
through the 17th. By reference to page 173, it will be seen there was a
heavy flight northward across the southeastern counties of Dakota.
This is one out of hundreds of similar cases which show not only the re-
lation between the temperature and flights, but that the locusts are not
easily turned back by adverse winds when they start in a given direc-
tion— though in 1877 this was not so marked as is usually the case. In-
vading swarms from the permanent breeding grounds will come down
and remain for days waiting for the wind to blow in the right direction,
and seldom, if ever, are turned back. With local flights, to which cate-
gory those of 1877 chiefly belong, the case is different. The fall in tem-
perature has much to do with their coming down, as in the case just
given, as we find that afterwards those which went northward did gen-
erally return southward in 1877 ; but the case was different in 1876.

From July 2 to 7 the weather was excessively warm, as will be seen
by reference to the records for Yankton and North Platte, and the direc-
tion of the wind was west or northwest. By turning to the record of
flights for 1877 (appendix, 168-173), it will be seen that these were the
days of the great flights to the west and northwest, the air being full of
locusts over Minnesota, Northern Iowa, Dakota, and Nebraska.

Page 174: " July 8. — Swarms returning, moving generally a little east
of south." Compare this, which applies to Minnesota and Dakota, with
records of Bismarck, Yankton, and North Platte for July 8.

It is unnecessary for us to add more illustrations, as the readers can
compare the records of flights as given in our First Report with this
meteorological table for themselves. It appears from a careful com-
parison of this kind that whenever the maximum temperature falls be-
low 70° and the minimum below 60° that there is no flying. See for
illustration the records of flights, July 18 and 19, appendix, p. [182],
so far as it relates to Dakota, and compare with the Bismarck record in
the table for the same dates.

156 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

CHAPTER VI.

THE SOUTHERN LIMITS OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE
ROCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST.

In view of the probable speedy completion of the Atchison, Topeka,
and Santa F6 Railroad and the Southern Pacific Railroad, and the pro-
jected lines of the Atlantic and Pacific, and Southern Pacific Railroads
connecting the Pacific coast and Gulf States, as well as the lower valley
of the Mississippi River, and thus opening up to settlement the arable
lands of portions of New Mexico and Arizona, it has become of a good
deal of practical importance to define with some degree of certainty the
southern limits of the distribution of the Rocky Mountain locust.

For this purpose we made a journey in the summer of 1879 to Santa
Fe, N. Mex., and adjoining places, and were able to obtain much new
information regarding the distribution of this locust in New Mexico and
also to learn something of its occurrence in the adjoining Territory of
Arizona. The facts collected have been embodied in the map accom-
panying this report and in the pages farther on.

It appears from our investigations that the permanent breeding
grounds of the locust scarcely extend into New Mexico, and probably not
at all into Arizona. The area, however, into which they periodically emi-
grate from the permanent region embraces the northern half of New
Mexico and the northeastern corner of Arizona, i. e., that portion adjacent
to New Mexico and possibly to Utah. From this it appears that those
portions of the valleys of the Pecos and Rio Grande Rivers lying in the
northern two-thirds of the Territory of New Mexico are periodically in-
vaded by the Rocky Mountain locust, the source of supply being the
mountain valleys and parks of Southern and Southwestern Colorado.
But it is most probable that the fertile valley of the Rio Grande lying
south of Fort Craig, and most valuable as a wine-growing district, will
never suffer from the invasions of this pest.

To recapitulate what the Commission has been able to ascertain re-
garding the southern limits of the locust region, we may say that in
Texas it reaches, and is bounded on the south by, the Rio Grande ; in one
year * the locusts having crossed the river and entered Mexican territory
fer the distance of a mile or so. The species is apparently absent from
Southern New Mexico and from Central and Southern Arizona, as well
as from Southern Nevada ; unless it should eventually be found existing
in limited numbers on the subalpine mountain peaks of these regions.
There is every probability that the locust (Caloptenns spretus) will not
be found in Lower California and the Peninsula of California, and that
it does not inhabit Mexico. That this is the case seems probable from

* 1873. See First Report of the Commission, pp. 59, 60.

RAVAGES OF THE LOCUST IN NEW MEXICO.

157

the fact that no collections from Mexico and Southern Arizona and Cali-
fornia have contained this species.

HISTORY OF THE RAVAGES OF THE LOCO ST TN NEW MEXICO.

The information given in our First Report regarding the ravages of
locusts in this Territory was scanty, since it was difficult to obtain in-
formation from this region. The following facts were obtained by us
during a journey to Santa Fe, in July, 1879. We are indebted to Ex-
Governor Arny, of Santa Fe, and his sou, William Amy, who acted as
interpreter for us among the Pueblo Indians of San Juan, and to the
Mexicans for much new information and kind aid in obtaining data.
We will arrange the facts collected in chronological form :

1864. — As stated in our First Report, locusts were destructive at Taos
this year. No fresh facts were learned.

1865. — At the Indian pueblo of San Juan locusts were numerous and
destructive. The pueblo of Pojuaque was visited this year by swarms
which came from the northwest and destroyed all the wheat. As stated
in our First Report (p. 105), locusts devoured the crops at Taos this
year.

1868. — This year also the Indian pueblo of Pojuaque was again vis-
ited by locusts, but they came at the end of August, after the wheat had
beeu harvested, and only damaged the fruit trees. In this year the
counties of Valeutia, Bernalillo (and Socorro ?) were invaded by locusts.

1869. — In the summer of this year Mr. Thomas found a few specimens
south of the Raton Mountains, probably in Colfax County. (First Re-
port, p. 105.)

1871. — A few locusts were seen this year at Santa F6, according to
Ex-Governor Arny.

1873. — Between Otero and Cimarron, Colfax County, corn was black
with locusts ; they laid their eggs.

1874. — This was a notable locust year in Santa Fe\ Ex-Governor
Arny informed us that he saw swarms passing over for nearly a whole
day. In Colfax County a few locusts were seen between Otero and
Cimarron. Rio Ariba was also invaded.

1876. — In October of this year, the locusts came to the pueblo of San
Juan, as we were informed by the Messrs. Eldodt Brothers, the agents
of this pueblo, to whom we were indebted for many courtesies during
our stay at their agency. The locusts came from the north of Taos and
extended ten or twelve miles south of San Juau, and spread to the west
and northwest. While most of the Indian wheat and other crops had
been haryested, they ate up the cabbages in a single night, destroyed
the corn on the Indiau farms, and devoured the leaves and bark of trees.
They laid their eggs very thickly, and the young hatched in April of
the following year.

1877. — At Abiquiu, about fifty miles northwest of Santa Fe, the " whole
crop " and fruit and the leaves of trees were eaten this year. It should

158 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

be observed that this town is about fifty miles from the Colorado border,
Taos being about thirty-five miles from the Colorado line. In July of
this year, the crops in the counties of Rio Ariba, Taos, Santa Fe, and
San Miguel, as well as Costilla and Culebra Counties, in Southern Colo-
rado, "were almost entirely destroyed" by locusts, and the people of
these afflicted counties had to call for help on the southern counties of
New Mexico, whose inhabitants sent provisions. It is most probable
that the injury was done by the young which hatched from eggs laid
the previous autumn.

At Santa Fe the locusts were seen passing over in swarms from the
southwest in July, filling the air, and flying towards Taos, but as a
rule they came lrom Taos, which lies to the northeast of Santa Fe\
They were abundant and destructive at Las Vegas, San Miguel County,
this year.

The Pueblo Indians, an industrious and thrifty people, nearly as ad-
vanced in civilization and rather more respectable than the average
Mexican inhabitants of New Mexico, suffered severely this year with
their neighbors. Governor Amy informed us that the following Pueblo
villages suffered this year: Santa Ildefouse, situated sixteen miles north-
west of Santa Fe; also the pueblos of Tezuque, Santa Clara, I'ojauque,
Nambe, and especially of Taos. These Indians lay up supplies of grain
two or three years in advance to provide against drought and locusts.

The Mexican name for grasshopper or locust is Ohopolin (a corruption
of Chapulin ?) ; the Pueblo Indian name is Koweox Kohe, or the word
is pronounced with a guttural accent like Khone.

We were told by Mr. John Bouquet, of Pqjauque, that locusts hatched
there in the spring of 1877 and eat up half of the crop. It is evident
that the light swarms from Southern Colorado which visited the region
about San Juan and southward in October, and attracted little atten-
tion, laid eggs over a pretty extensive region in Northern New Mexico,
and that the progeny of these flights did the damage recorded in 1877,
and that as soon as the young became fledged they flew northward back
to the region from which their parents came. This agrees with the gen-
eral facts observed in the region of the Western Mississippi States from
Missouri to Texas, when the winds early in summer blow from the south-
ward, carrying the newly-fledged locusts back to the permanent breeding-
grounds, from which they fly south and west in the autumn with the
northwesterly winds then prevailing.

1878. — A few locusts were at San Juan in this year. They were also
seen in the mountains, and seemed to disappear west of the Rio Grande
River. We were told that in October of this year a few locusts flew
from the northeast to Pafia Blauca, hatching out in 1879.. (This state-
ment needs confirmation ; it may have been confounded with the Octo.
ber flight from the northward of 1876.) Locusts, however, hatched out
at Taos in 1878, and when fledged flew towards the northwest into
Colorado.

SOUTHEEN RANGE OF THE LOCUST IN NEW MEXICO. 159

1879. — We were told at San Juan that there were a few locuscs on the
grain-fields at this point, but on examination found only a few of the na-
tive grasshoppers, such as species of (Edipoda. We believe that none
existed in New Mexico in 1879, unless scattered individuals among the
mountains near the Colorado line. The summer of 1879 was exception-
ally dry — the "driest since 1852." As already stated, it was also excep
tionally dry in Colorado and Utah.

SOUTHERN RANGE OF THE LOCUST IN NEW MEXICO.

The Rocky Mountain locust (Caloptenus spretus) in the year 1868
seemed to have extended farther south than any year before or since, so
far as we could ascertain. As ex-Governor Arny informed us, the farth-
est point south to which they flew was one hundred and forty miles
south of Santa Fe ; this would carry the southern limits of the region
periodically visited by this species of locust as far south as Fort Craig
on the Rio Grande River in Socorro County. So that we may infer that
occasionally, though rarely, the northern two-thirds of New Mexico, i. e.,
the portion lying north of the 34th parallel, are liable to invasion from
locusts breeding in the Arkansas and San Juan valleys of Southern Col-
orado. In accordance with these facts, we have altered the map and
extended the Temporary Region so as to cover the northern two-thirds
of the Territory of New Mexico.

Ex-Governor Arny, who was agent of the Navajo Indians and lived on
this reservation in the northwestern corner of the Territory, thinks that
the locusts breed in that region of Arizona lying northwest of Valencia
County, New Mexico, and that it is not improbable that the locusts breed
in Eastern Arizona, i. e., that part next to Socorro County, New Mexico,
and extending northward to the Navajo Agency. As stated in our First
Report, Mr. Thomas has seen a few specimens from Arizona collected by
Lieutenant Wheeler's expeditions during the four years previous to
1877. We venture to predict that this species will yet be found in the
Mogollon Mountains of Eastern Arizona.

CHANGES IN THE MAP SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION, MIGRATIONS,
AND BREEDING GROUNDS OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST.

The following changes in the large folding map showing the distribu-
tion, migrations, permanent and subpermauent breeding grounds, &c,
of the Rocky Mountain locust in the First Report, have been rendered
necessary by the investigations made during the summers of 1878 and
1879, and the historical data collected in New Mexico during the last
summer.

In the map as originally published, the Uintah Mountain region in
Utah, and the valley of the White River in Western Colorado, and the
San Luis Valley and adjacent mountainous region in Colorado, and the
Wind River region and Yellowstone Park in Wyoming, as well as the

160 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION'.

valley of the Upper Big Horn region, were not included in the Per-
manent Region, for want of sufficient data. The boundary of the per-
manent breeding grounds has then to be extended considerably to the
west, so as to include the patch in Northern Ctah and the region in
Idaho lying south of Virginia City, Montana. This makes tlu- Perma-
nent Region an uninterrupted rudely triangular or oval area, widest on
the Northern United States boundary line, and narrowing southward,
the apex of the triangle or smaller end of the oval resting near the
southern line of Colorado, on or near the 37th parallel of latitude

North of the 14th parallel the Permanent Key ion has been extended
eastward to a line nearly identical with the eastern border of the
Plateau of the Coteau of the Missouri, extending northward through
the Turtle Mountains and to the region lying a little west of Manitoba.

In New Mexico, the region periodically visited has been extended
southward to Fort Craig, New Mexico, and made to include the north-
eastern section of Arizona.

These alterations have been made in the colored map of the arable
lands, etc., accompanying this report.

CHAPTER VII.

SUMMARY OF LOCUST FLIGHTS FROM 1877 TO 1879.

PLIGHTS IN 1877.

We have prepared the accompanying maps (Nos. 2-4) in order to give
at a glance a succinct view of the leading facts regarding the distribu-
tion of the hatching-grounds and course taken by the resulting swarms
in 1877, 1878, and 1870, respectively. These maps may be compared
with those for 1874 and 1870 in the First Annual Report of the Com-
mission.

The majority of the facts regarding the flights in 1877 are taken from;
the First Annual Report. By looking at Map No. 2 (1877) it will be-
seen that the large majority of the hatching-grounds were those made-
by the locusts which invaded the Temporary Region, lying in general
east of the 104th meridian, in 187G. It will be remembered that the
young of these locusts hatched in the spring of 1877, and. while most of
them were killed by the cold and late rains, many winged their way
towards the Northwest, some dropping down and alighting by the wayT
while a comparatively few reached the permanent breeding-grounds on
the Rocky Mountain Plateau, whence their progenitors of the year pre-
vious departed for the regions lying to the southwest.

A few scattered arrows without barbs will, however, be seen in Texas,
Indian Territory, Western Arkansas, Southeastern Kansas, Southeast-
ern Nebraska, Southeastern Dakota, Western Iowa, and Southwestern
Minnesota. These indicate the scattered flights which, late in the sea-

Map No. 2.

Map No. 3.

Map No. 4.

FLIGHTS OF LOCUSTS IN 1878.

161

son, invaded these areas. But that they laid few, if any, eggs will be
seen by reference to Map 3 for 1878, where no hatching- grounds are in-
dicated.

In Colorado also many hatched about Greeley and Denver, but owing
to the unusually heavy rains, with a light fall of snow, and cold weather
late in April and early in May, the young died in great numbers. A
few hatched in Lake County along the Arkansas, and in Park County,
as well as iu the San Luis Valley and Wet Mountain Valley, while the
injury from the unfledged locusts was greater than in any other part of
the State.

In New Mexico the valley of Taos was devastated by the unfledged
young, and they were abundant at Las Vegas, and at Santa Fe north-
ward to San Juan.

In Wyoming the hatching-grounds this year lay between a point 50
miles northeast of Laramie City extending to Custer near the Black
Hills, and about Fort Beno, as well as in the valley of Hay Creek, while
the flight of early swarms indicate that they originated from hatching-
grounds situated not far northwest of Bock Creek Station and Como,
on the Union Pacific Bailway. It seems also most probable that a few
hatched out northeast of the Black Hills, as we have indicated on the
map, small flights being seen ou the Belle Fourche in the Black Hills,
about the middle of June, going westward.

Iu Utah hatching-grounds of limited extent occupied tracts about
Salt Lake City and Farmington, and many hatched out in the northern
part of the Territory, viz, in Malade, Cache, Morgan, Weber, and Davis
Counties. When fledged the locusts fled southward.

In Idaho locusts bred in considerable quantities at Boise City, and
when fledged it is most probable that these were the visitants which late
in July and early in August proved so destructive to the southwest of
Boise in the Bruueau Valley.

The hatching-grounds iu Montana were evidently of considerable ex-
tent, the young, when winged, almost wholly flying southward into
Idaho and Utah, none to any extent, so far as known, flying eastward
upon the plains. The young were observed hatching out in the valley of
Marias River, also about Fort Benton, as well as near Fort Peck and Wolf
Point, while extensive hatching-grounds extended along the Yellow-
stone River from Froze-to-death Creek to Clark's Fork.

In British America locusts hatched at Fort McLeod, northwest of
Fort Benton.

FLIGHTS in 1878.

In 1878 the hatching-grounds were much more limited in number
and extent than in the previous year. None worthy of mention existed
east of the Rocky Mountains, and it was only in Montana that the
young appeared to any considerable extent. Two small, scattered
flights, causing, however, no local damage, crossed the southwest corner
11 L

162 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

of Minnesota late in the summer, one of them passing into the northwest-
ern cprner of Iowa.

In Nebraska small local flights, going in different directions, were
seen at Schuyler, and a small brood hatched out twenty miles west of
Lincoln, while Omaha was, about the middle of June, visited by a few
locusts from the south.

In Indian Territory a swarm of considerable extent visited Fort Sill
and deposited eggs, but nothing was heard from them the succeeding
year. In Kansas, Dodge City was visited in September. There were
also small local flights in Barton and Sumner Counties, Kansas.

A larger number of flights from the northwest occurred in Dakota,
extending from the neighborhood of Bismarck into Montana, and in
June Bismarck was visited by a swarm from the southeast.

While in Colorado the locust annually breeds in small numbers on
the mountains, above an elevation of about 8,000 feet, only a few local
flights were observed, viz, at Summit, in Estes Park, and at White
River Agency ; also along the Upper Bear River Valley, where eggs
were deposited. The progeny of the latter swarm went east the next
summer (1879), passing over Denver and alighting a few miles to the
southeast. A small swarm was observed going in a northwesterly course
near Las Animas, on the Topeka, Atchison and Santa Fe Railroad.

In Wyoming a large swarm at the end of July flew in an easterly
direction over Como, and were supposed to have come from the Wind
River and Bighorn region, while a few flew over Cheyenne. The north-
western portion of the Territory was visited by swarms from the north-
east which flew southwest.

About Taos and Santa F<§, in New Mexico, as has already been stated,
considerable local damage ensued and young hatched, but none were to
be seen in the year succeeding.

Utah, in 1878, was freer from locusts than in the year previous, but
still the farmers in Summit County lost nearly half their wheat crop
from the young, which hatched out in large numbers and, on becoming
fledged, flew in a northerly course to Morgan County. Flights entered
Malade and Cache Valleys late in August, arriving from Idaho, and
locusts were seen at various points, late in July and during August, be-
tween Franklin and the Montana line, near Pleasant Valley. The
breeding-ground of these locusts was in Central Montana, as indicated
on Map 3. In Montana, also, flights arrived in the central arable part
of the Territory from the Yellowstone Valley on the east and from Brit-
ish America on the north. (See also pages 7 and 8 of the present re-
port.)

PLIGHTS in 1879.

The flights east of the Permanent Region were on the whole fewer this
year than in 1878, as may be seen by an inspection of Map No. 4 ; though
in Nebraska, Iowa, Minnesota, and Dakota there were more extensive

THE WESTERN CRICKET, ITS HABITS AND RAVAGES. 163

hatching-grounds, and a greater number of local flights from the north-
west, but none as in the year previous from the region where the insect
breeds permanently. It will be seen that in 1880 a few local flights of
unimportance resulted from the progeny of these 1879 swarms.

In this year also Central and Eastern Montana was, for the first time
since 1801, the year of the settlement of the Territory, free from this
pest, and to the fact of the freedom from incoming swarms in 1879 is
due the entire immunity of Montana from locusts (C. spretus) in 1880.
We thus have two years in succession in this Territory of entire freedom
from this pest, although the very citadel whence in former years hordes of
locusts have invaded the regions East and South. For notices of the
slight swarms observed in other portions of the Permanent Eegion, the
reader may turn back to Chapter I, pp. 10-14.

CHAPTER VIII.

THE WESTERN CEICKET.

ITS HABITS AND RAVAGES.

Very destructive in the Great Basin, to crops of wheat and other
cereals and to grass is a large, stout, thick-bodied, dark insect, bearing a
general resemblance to an ordinary cricket, but much larger and nearly
wingless. Like the cricket, it is nocturnal in its habits, hiding by day
under grass, sage-bushes, and leaves or stones, and appearing at dusk or
soon after sunset.

Unlike the Eocky Mountain locust, which usually breeds in river bot-
toms and in the less elevated prairies and plains, the cricket breeds al-
most wholly on dry, sterile uplands, where the sage-bush flourishes, and
in the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains and its spurs, up to an eleva-
tion of 12,000 feet ; and while the locust may, and often does, breed at
as high an elevation as the Anabrus, still its more abundant and nor-
mal breeding grounds are, as a rule, situated below the natural habitat
of this cricket.

For example, the Colorado species (Anabrus purpurascens, Fig. 1), is
only seen in Colorado, as far as we are aware, between an altitude of
7,000 or 8,000 feet,
up to an elevation
of 12,000 or 13,000
feet, i. e., from the
foot-hills of the
eastern slope of the
Rocky

range up to about
1,000 feet above the, timber line, which at Gray's and Pike's Peak is
about 11,000 feet above the sea-level. I have met with Anabrus purpur-

Moimtain ^"IG- I Anabrus purpurascens, nat. size ; a, female ;

men, showing the claspers, 6.

end of male abdo-

lb'4 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

ascens most abundantly on the Alps or grassy slopes of Gray's Peak,
between the timber line and the bare rocky summit, i. e. , between 11,000
and 1.3,000 feet, the mountain being 14,341 feet elevation.

In Utah, Eastern Idaho, and Montana Anabrus simplex (Fig.2)abouuds
atelevations of much less height, and its breeding grounds adjoin those of

the locust. For ex-
ample, the black
cricket of the Great
Salt Lake region
breeds and lives on

b Z^Jt. ^^^L, the bench -la nds

FIG. 2.— Anabrus simplex nat. size; a. female; b, end of body of male. S U 1" I' (> 11 11 d i U g the
showing the claspers. ]ake . uut even here

they do not usually lay their eggs in the more fertile, moist, cultivated
lands infested by the Kocky .Mountain locust. From the bench-lands
of the Great Salt Lake the cricket ranges up as far at least as about
S,000 feet in the Wasatch Mountains, breeding in great quantities about
the mining towns, and in the passes among the mountains.

Although, therefore, ordinarily the crickets lay their eggs and the
young develop in the dry bench-lands and sides of the foot-hills, they
emigrate from this region, press down sometimes in great numbers and
invade the wheat-fields, corn-fields, and pasture lands in the lower,
moister tracts. I have often been informed thai this was the habit of
the cricket in the vicinity of Salt Lake City. This is corroborated by
the observations of Mr. Thomas, published in Hayden's Report on the
Geology of Montana for 1871. Referring to Anabrus simplex, the com-
mon brown cricket of Northern Utah and Eastern Idaho, he writes as
follows :

At some points we found them so abundant as literally to cover the ground. In two
or three instances they all appeared to be moving in one direction, as if impelled by
some common motive. I recollect one instance, on Portneuf River, where an array
was crossing the road. It was probably as much as 200 yards in width. I could form
no idea as to its length. I only know that as far as I could distinguish objects of this
size (being on horseback) I could see them marching on. I think that in all the cases
where I saw them thus moving, it was towards a stream of water. They appear to be
very fond of gathering along the banks and in the vicinity of streams. In the north
part of Cache Valley I frequently noticed the ditches and little streams covered with
these insects, which, having fallen in, were floating down on the surface of the water,
and, though watching them for hours, they would flow on in an undiminished stream.

While encamped on a little creek near Franklin, in this valley, it was with difficulty
we could keep them out of our bedding ; and when one went to breakfast, we found
the underside and legs of the table and stools covered with them, all the vigilance of
the cook being required to keep them out of the victuals.

Thefollowing account of the movements of an army of the large brown
cricket (Anabrus simplex) is extracted from Mr. Thomas's notes of his
journey in 1871 :

June 18, Sunday, between Carpenter's Station and the toll-gate at Poftneuf Cross-
ing, I saw a large army of this species moving in regular order ; they were crossing

RAVAGES OF THE WESTERN CRICKET.

165

the road towards the northwest in one continuous stream ISO to 200 yards wide, and
literally covering the earth. The length of the army was not ascertained, but it was
much greater than the width, not less, at least, than a half a mile. The ground was
so thickly covered that the horses could not walk without crushing numbers at every
step. Large hawks were numerous, feasting on them.

The ravages occasionally committed by the Anabrus in its wholesale
descent upon the cultivated lowlands is very great. The most aggra-
vated case brought to our notice occurred in Northern Nevada. Ac-
cording to my informant, Mr. C. 0. Wheeler, of Cornucopia, New, in the
summer of 1876 crickets devoured about $3,000 worth of wheat and
other grain. As the cultivated areas in Nevada are small, the attacks of
the cricket, which are liable to be repeated annually, are much dreaded.
Mr. Wheeler observed that the cricket was very destructive in the north-
ern parts of the Territory. In August, 1878, crickets were very thick
between Elko and Humboldt, Nev., filling the wells and spoiling the
water so that the people had to use brook water.

In Oregon, east of the Cascade Mountains, where the country is dry
and hot, with a climate and soil much like that of Nevada and Central
Utah, the cricket often proves very annoying to the farmers. The fol-
lowing statements by Mr. Henry Edwards, formerly of San Francisco,
is taken from a brief account of this insect from Hayden's Ninth Report
of the United States Geological Survey of the Territories.209

The large brown cricket (probably Anabrus simplex) is a great trouble to the farmers
of this region (the Dalles), and this year [1873 .'] has been unusually common. It ap-
pears that they march to attack the corn-fields in columns, and the only way left to
the farmers to protect themselves is to dig trenches around their fields, into which the
crickets fall in enormous crowds and are killed by their own numbers. The upper
individuals, however, manage to make a bridge of the bodies of their companions, and
sometimes cross the ditches in great quantities. Pigs eat these insects very greedily.
They seem to be periodical in their appearance, the great swarms only occurring once
in six years. I think their depredations are mostly committed in the night, as I saw
none during the heat of the day, but toward twilight they swarmed on the stems of
artemisia and other low plants, and were exceedingly active.

While the cricket is annoying in Arizona according to information
received from Maj. J. W. Powell, it is particularly destructive in Utah,
both in the scattered oases or farming hamlets and villages of the south-
ern and central portions, as well as in the more fertile valley of the
Great Salt Lake, and in Cache and Malade Valley northward on the
borders of Idaho. About Payson, Utah, the cricket has been "exceed-
ingly destructive." Mr. B. F. Johnson, of Spring Lake, states that in
1865, when the Rocky Mountain locust devastated that section of Utah,
"large crickets made their appearance, not only in this, but in the sur-
rounding settlements, in great numbers, and helped the destructive
'hoppers to devour the crops."

The cricket was more abundant formerly in Utah than of late years ;
they then moved in armies which could not be turned back in their re-

^Report on the Rocky Mountain locust and other insects now injnring or likely to injure field and
garden crops in the Western States and Territories. By A. S. Packard, jr., 1877. 8°. pp. 589-815.

166 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

sistless march ; they were especially destructive to young wheat and corn
in early summer.

Food of the cricket. — As may be seen by the account of the internal
structure of the cricket, especially of the organs of digestion, the cricket
must be a very voracious creature. The jaws are large, armed with
teeth, and adapted for cutting leaves from twigs and for cutting grass.
The crop is very capacious, and in the specimens examined was stuffed
with vegetable matter in a partially digested state. Mr. Thomas, in his
journey from Ogden, Utah, to Fort Hall, noticed these crickets in great
abundance along the route in the middle of June. From Worm Creek
to Bear River the large brown cricket (Anabrus simplex) was very abun-
dant, in some places almost covering the ground. He noticed on Worm
Creek this cricket climbing up the bushes and eating the Cicadae, which
were equally abundant. Indeed, this appeared to be a habit, the Anabr us
devouring the Cicada- whenever they could catch them. They are ex-
ceedingly voracious, not only eating the Cicadae with avidity, but they
even attack the crippled and dying of their own species, and devour
them so far as they can manage the tough integument. They also de-
vour greedily the droppings of horses.

On the other hand, the cricket has been used as food by the Ute In-
dians of Utah, and still is by the Pi-Utes in Nevada, who eat them alive
after pulling off the legs. They also roast them with hot stones in the
ground and then eat them.

Enemies and internal parasites. — Though these large insects are pro-
tected by a dense, tough skin, it appears from the observations of Mr.
Thomas that they are eaten by hawks, and it has been frequently ob-
served that the gulls of the Great Salt Lake collect upon the benches or
terraces of the lake and devour them. So useful are these birds that the
Mormons once passed a law forbidding the destruction of gulls, fixing a
penalty for the offense. When they live near the summits of the mountain
the ptarmigan feed upon them, as Colonel Berthoud informs us that he
has found the crops of these birds filled with them on the summit of
Maclellan Mountain, Colorado, during the middle of October. On one
occasion (June 15, on Worm Creek), when the crickets were so numerous
that they covered the surfaces of the smaller streams and acequias, a
large toad was noticed by Mr. Thomas following the stream and eating
the Anabri or crickets which had fallen therein.

So far as is known the Anabrus has no insect enemies external or in-
ternal. They are sometimes, however, tenanted by the hair-worm, which
lives within the body, coiled around the intestine. This fact was ob-
served by Dr. Hayden's party at one time while camped in Idaho, on
Camas Creek, where numbers affected were observed at the creek. The
habits of the hair-worms have been described in the First Report of this
Commission (pp. 326-331).

Breeding habits.— .Few direct observations by naturalists have been
made on the breeding habits of the Western crickets. The most ex-

REMEPIES AGAINST THE WESTERN CRICKET.

167

plicit observations as to the time and mode of deposition of the eggs
have been made by Mr. Thomas. We extract the following statement
from his notes:

On my return from Montana, in the latter part of July, 1871, as I passed through
Malade Valley, Northern Utah, I noticed thousands of Andbrus simplex depositing eggs.
The female thrust her ovipositor straight down into the ground its full length. I did
not have time to stop and watch the operation as I was in the stage.

I am convinced from an examination of the ovaries of a number of
Anahrus purpurascens collected on the flanks of Gray's Peak, above tim-
ber line, in the latter part of August, that this species deposits its eggs
in August and early in September, and that from fifty to seventy-five
eggs are laid by the female. The eggs of this species are cylindrical
long oval, as are those of A. simplex, which are long, with the surface
very minutely, microscopically pitted, and pearly white.

How they are placed in the earth, whether in sacks like those of the
locust, is not known. The young hatch out probably rather late in the
spring, and it is during the early stages of growth, and soon after reach-
ing maturity, that they are most gregarious, moving about after food in
armies, and thus proving most destructive.

Mr. Thomas observed, June 14, 1871, little groups of young, he thinks
from 60 to 75 in a group, evidently hatched from eggs laid by one female.

REMEDIES.

As the crickets usually breed in the more elevated, dry, and sterile
region of the Western Territories, for the most part away from farms,
their habits are not well known, as they are secluded from ordinary ob-
servation ; hence they are only observed when full-sized and while mak-
ing their descents upon the farms lying near the water-courses and
irrigating ditches. When, however, fields of grain are invaded, or in
danger of being invaded, by the crickets, ditching dry and wet, with
the liberal use of coal-oil, is the easiest, most thorough, and practical
remedy. This mode of destroying crickets should be put into practice
in the same manner as recommended by the Commission in its First
Annual Eeport. The cricket, so far as known, has done little or no mis-
chief in Colorado, as it lives among the foot-hills and the higher mount-
ains, far above the agricultural region. In Utah, Nevada, and Idaho,
however, it infests cultivated regions, and in these regions, unfortu-
nately, locusts are not fought so energetically and systematically as by
the farmers of Colorado and the border States. Where irrigation is
practiced it would be easy to protect fields of grain by allowing coal-oil
to drop from a pail on the surface of the water running in the ditches.
These, as well as all other insects, do not breathe by the mouth, but the
air enters the body for respiration by an internal system of air-tubes
{tracheal), through a series of air-holes or spiracles situated along the
sides of the body. If a film of oil covers these holes the insect is choked
to death, i. e., becomes suffocated, and speeddy dies. Hence the use of

168 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

coal-oil, or any oily or greasy matter, is sure death, provided the oily
substance comes in contact with the body or any part of it. As quickly
as the oil touches the insect it spreads rapidly over the skin, covering the
spiracles or air-holes with a thin film.

As fields of young grain and corn are sometimes attacked by the
crickets, one of the best means of getting rid of them adopted in Utah
is to drive a flock of sheep into the grain-field, keeping them compactly
herded. By so doing the grain is not materially damaged, we are told,
and great numbers of the crickets are stamped to death.

It is obvious that most of the means used in fighting the young of
the Rocky Mountain locust, and already described at length in the First
Report of the Commission, may be applied to the cricket.

Geographical distribution of the species of Anabrus. — The species of this
genus are characteristic of the central province of the United States, as
none are found east of longitude 95°, and none on the Pacific slope of the
Cascade Mountains and the Sierra Nevadas. In fact, the geographical
limits of the Western cricket are probably nearly or quite co-extensive
with those of the Rocky Mountain locust.210 The northern and southern
limits have not been ascertained. The species are known, however, to
extend northward as far as Manitoba, and southward into Northern
New Mexico and into Arizona, but these limits are very indefinitely
known.

Within the limits of the central zoo-geographical province there are
two distinct regions tenanted by different species of Anabrus, the line of
division being the great continental divide, i. e., the highest range of the
Rocky Mountains. The great basin, with adjoining regions, extending
from the Columbia River on the north to Nevada and Central — and
probably Southern — Utah and Arizona on the south, is tenanted by
Anabrus simplex; while the eastern flank of the Rocky Mountain range,
with the great plains eastward to about longitude 97°, extending from
Manitoba on the north to Northwestern Texas on the south, is the home
of Anabrus purpurascens and its ally, Anabrus coloradus.

Mr. Thomas has noticed during his journeys into Utah, Idaho,
Montana, and Colorado, that whenever he passed to the east side
of the Rocky Mountain divide, no matter at what point of the range,
Anabrus purpurascens prevailed, no specimens of Anabrus simplex appear-
ing; while, on the other hand, when he passed to the next side Anabrus
simplex prevafled, no specimens of A. purpurascens appearing. He never
knew of any exception to this ride. Our own observations and the re-
corded statements of others bear out this conclusion.211

So far as ascertained, the northern limits of distribution of Anabrus

210 While the distribution of the Rocky Mountain locust has been given in the First Report of this
Commission and mapped, the general characteristics distinguishing the central province from the
eastern and Pacific or western, have been briefly discussed in the American Naturalist for August,
1878; the species of Anabrus may be added to the insects there enumerated.

211 Mr. Thomas has observed A. purpurascens at the following places in addition to Colorado, to wit:
Nebraska; Southeast Dakota, to the west boundary of Minnesota; on the Sweetwater, in Wyoming;
also in Montana, from Pleasant Valley, where we cross the range to Virginia City.

DISTRIBUTION OF WESTERN CRICKETS.

169

simplex are the Dalles on the Columbia River, where it is abundant and
injurious. I have received it from the Malheur River Indian Reserva-
tion in Eastern Oregon, where it is also abundant. It also inhabits
Montana, Idaho west of the Rocky Mountain divide, and, without doubt,
the whole of Utah. Mr. J. D. Putnam212 reports it as common in the
valley of the Wind River, on the plains along the base of the Wind
River Mountains, Wyoming, in July, 1873. " It is called ' Mesch' by the
Shoshone Indians, who are said to sometimes use it for food." Mr. Put-
nam also states that it was " very common in Middle Park, Colorado,
in September, 1872. Scarcely any two specimens were colored alike.
The male was frequently seen ' singing' while seated in the top of a
wild sage-bush, the female being found on the ground below."
Col. E. L. Berthoud writes us that —

October 4-7, 1878, the large, black cricket [without doubt A. simplex'], so common in
Utak and Idaho, were very abundant at Taghee and Henry's Passes, Henry's Lake,
and on Henry's Fork. At Taghee Pass, altitude (J, 970 feet above the sea, they seemed,
in spite of cold and snow, to be scarcely hindered by a temperature of 7° above zero.

At Portneuf Canon this species was abundant in 1878.

Of its southern limits, whether it occurs in Arizona, Southern Nevada,
Utah, and in New Mexico, nothing is known. Its southern range, how-
ever, is probably co-extensive with that of the Rocky Mountain locust
(Caloptenus spretus.)

Anabrus coloradus thus far has only been found in two points, Mani-
toba on the north, and Southern Colorado and adjacent regions on the
south. Mr. Thomas has received specimens from Manitoba, and has
collected it in Colorado, east of the Rocky Mountain divide. Mr. Scud-
der records it as having been collected by Lieut. W. L. Carpenter, U. S.
A., in Southern Colorado, June 11-20, and on Taos Peak, Sangre de
Cristo Mountains, New Mexico, at a height of 13,000 feet above timber
line. This cricket is closely allied to Anabrus simplex, and appears to
represent that species in the plains lying east of the Rocky Mountain
divide. It appears thus far to have a greater northern and southern
range than any of the other species.

SYNOPSIS OF THE SPECIES OF ANABRUS AND ITS ALLIES.213

The following brief synopsis of the Decticides, made partly from that
of Otto Hermann2'4 and partly from the arrangement of the Locustidce
by Ignacio Bolivar,215 will show the relation of Anabrus to the other
genera of the group, and the chief distinguishing characters :
A. Prostcruum with two spines between the base of the anterior legs. This division
contains Pterolepis, Ehacocleis, Ihyrconotus, and several other
genera. As Anabrus Raldcmanii has the presternum spined
it belongs here, probably in Pterolepis.

212 Proceedings of the Davenport Academy of Natural Sciences, vol. i, p. 266.

213 By Cyrus Thomas.

214 Verhand. d. k-k, Zool-bot. Ges., 1871.
215Ortopteros Espan. etPort, 1878.

170 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

A. A. Presternum unarmed.

a. The styles of the subgenital plate of the male fixed (not movable).

Siexroxys. Herm.

aa. Stylos of the subgenital plate of the males articulated (movable).

b. Median carina of the prouotum distinct throughout Decticus. Serv.

bb. Median carina of the pronotum wanting or visible only on the posterior
portion.

c. Dorsum of the pronotum rugose ; elytra squamajform ; wings absent.

Paorodonotus. Burin.

cc. Dorsum of the pronotum smooth.

d. Elytra short but not squamajform Platyclein. Fieb.

dd. Elytra squamajform ; pronotum without distinct lateral carinas.
e. Anterior tibia? with but three or four spines in front ; in one

row Thamnotrizon. Fisch.

ce. Anterior tibia? with six to eight spines in front ; iu two rows.

Anabrus. Hald.

From this table it will be seen, as stated, that A. Haldemanii Girard
does not belong to the genus in which it was originally placed. For
this reason we have omitted it from the present paper.

We may note iu passing that according to the arrangement of the
genera as here given, Thamnotrizon scabricollis Thos., which appears to
be closely allied to this genus, and will by most unscientific observers
be taken for A. purpurascens, must be removed to the genus Psoro-
donotus.

The genus Anabrus appears to be represented only in that portion of
North America north of Mexico and west of the Mississippi. Four spe-
cies are mentioned, A. simplex Hald., A. purpurascens Uhl., A. similis
Scudd., and A. coloradus Thos. The third, A. similis Scudd., appears
to be but a variety of A. purpurascens ; we therefore have but three dis-
tinct species.

These may be distinguished from each other by the following charac-
ters : A. coloradus is the smallest, and has the abdomen distinctly marked
by transverse bands. A. purpurascens, dark purplish-brown, mottled
with yellow. A. simplex, dark shining brown. This species varies con-
siderably in color, being found of every shade from light brownish-yel-
low to almost entirely black ; specimens are sometimes found that are
partly yellow and partly black or dark-purple.

ANATOMY OF ANABRUS.

External anatomy (Figs. 3, 4). — The following account is based on the
external structure of Anabrus simplex.

The head. — In these crickets, the first region of the body, or head, is
large and rounded, the epicranium, or piece composing the bulk of the
head, being large, while the eyes are small and situated far apart; be-
tween them the vertex rises into a shield-shaped prominence, on each
side of the base of which is situated a simple eye (ocellus), forming two
pale, oval, roundish spots easily overlooked. The third ocellus is more

ANATOMY OF THE WESTERN CRICKET.

171

easily discoverable, being a round, impressed spot, some distance in ad-
vance of the end of the vertical prominence. The front edge of the
epicraniam is broad, the front or square edge extending on each side to
the posterior region of the head.

Fig. 3. — External anatomy of Anabrus, seen from above. Drawn by J. S. Kingsley.

The clypeus, or piece to which the upper lip (labrum) is attached, is
faintly divided by a broad, slight furrow into a basal and an anterior
portion, the latter part raised and sinuous on the front edge, while the
sides of the clypeus are bounded by the base of the mandibles.

The upper lip (labrum) is rounded pad-like, as long as broad, moving
freely on the clypeus, so that when the jaws are opened widely the la-
brum drops down between them.

The antennae are very long and slender, reaching to the base of the
ovipositor, with the second joint (of the scape) large and flat.

The jaws (mandibles) are very large and stout, the ends when closed

172 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

overlapped by the upper lip. The accessory jaws (maxillae, Fig. 3) are
divided, as in the grasshopper and other Orthopterous insects, into three
lobes ; of these the inuer, called the lacinia, is sinuous, narrow, horny,
and ends in three long teeth; the middle lobe (galea) is a little longer

than the inner,is membranous, whilcthc third
division forms a five-jointed palpus, the fifth
joint the longest and truncated or docked at
the end.

Coming now to the under lip, or lithium,
we find that its base, called the submentum,
is a little longer than broad ; the sides being
1 j| slightly upturned, sinuous, and contracted
.j » near the base, while the front edge is hollowed
out to receive t lie mentum, which is a square
piece. From under each corner of the front
edge arise the labial palpi (Fig. 3) which are
three-jointed. From the under side of the
labium (i. e., the front piece or mentum) arises
the liguhx (these co-originating with the palpi),
which consists of two lateral, squarish, mem-
branous outer lobes, and two acutely conical
inner lobes. The lingua or tongue is situated
above the ligula, and is a three-angled (tri-
quetate) organ, partly chitinous, with a high
median ridge ; it fills the space between the
J | maxilhe and jaws, and partly closes the
1 § mouth-opening, which lies directly under the
labrum or upper lip and between the jaws
(mandibles.)

Thorax. — This region is peculiar from the
fact that the wings are but partially devel-
oped. As in all insects it consists of three
segments or rings variously modified, and
each consisting of a number of pieces. The
first ring, called the prothorax, is very large
above, the dorsal part (tergum) forming a
large shield-like plate, which is bent down at
the sides to the legs; behind it grows nar-
rower, and extends along the back so as to
cover the basal half of the first abdominal segment. The flanks (epister-
num and epimerum) are small and rudimentary ; the ventral or under
piece (sternum) forms abroad V-shaped horny or chitinous portion.

The second segment (meso-thorax) is a ring one-half as long as broad;
the scutelhim is quite indistinct, and forms a blister-like swelling on the
top of the segment. The flank pieces {episternum and epimerum) are of
nearly equal size, being short and deep, and rather shorter and smaller

ANATOMY OF THE WESTERN CRICKET.

173

than those of the metathorax, or third thoracic segment. The ventral
piece (sternum) is crescent-shaped, while that of the metathorax is twice
as large and transversely ovate.

The third segment (meta-thorax) is of the same size as the middle ring,
but is slightly swollen on the sides, and a slightly marked, indefinite
swelling above represents the scutellum. The flanks are larger, as they
afford insertions for the muscles of the much larger hind legs. Both of
the hinder thoracic segments have broad, flattened, spine-like expansions
of the sternum; and on each side of the prothorax is a sharp slender
spine. The third pair of legs are twice as large as the second.

The breathing holes or spiracles by which the air enters the air-tubes
within the body, for no insects breathe through their mouths as in the
higher (vertebrate) animals, are eighteen in number, there being nine
pairs. The first pair forms a large slit-like opening situated on each
side of the prothorax, and concealed by the tergum or dorsal piece. The
second pair are on the sides of the meso-thorax, and are of the same
size as the eight abdominal pairs which are situated on the eight basal
abdominal segment.

The wings are concealed by the prothorax ; the fore pair are small and
rounded, as broad as long ; they are considerably larger in the male
than in the other sex. The hinder pair are minute, rudimentary, rolled
up, and flattened down upon the body, but when opened are seen to be
oval in form. The wings of the female are smaller than those of the
male; they are flattened, with the veins not strongly marked, and with
no means for producing sounds. On the contrary, those of the male are
much larger ; the veins are raised and strongly marked, with the costal
region, which is full and large, bent down ; the subcostal and median
veins are large and distinct, while there is a clear oval space between
the median and outer branch of the submedian. Below and nearer the
outer edge of the wing is a second large sub triangular, clear, resonant
space. The main submedian vein is large and much thickened, with a
row of dense, fine teeth along the middle. This forms the " file" which
rubs against the other wing. The sound may be produced in an alco-
holic specimen by rubbing one wing upon the other. The "file" pro-
duces the sound, the vibrations being rendered audible by the resonant,
tense, elastic, clear spaces in the other wing, which throw a mass of
air into pulsations. Thus the file may be compared to a violin bow, the
veins of the wing to the strings of the violin, and the resonant surfaces
to the box of the violin, or the elastic wing may be compared to the
sounding-board of a piano. Not only does one fore wing rub upon the
other, the rasping noise being produced by partially opening and clos-
ing the wing, but it seems probable that the file rubs over the stiff?
horny, upcurved hinder edge of the meso-thoracic segment. At any
rate the mechanism in the fore Avings is ampjy sufficient to produce the
sounds referred to by Mr. Thomas in his notes, wherein he states that
" the males utter a sharp sound, not much like that of the katydid-like

174 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

grasshopper (Phaneroptera), but which maybe described as nearly like
thatof the CEcanthus, only notlong continued, but sharper and stronger."
The want of continuity in the shrilling noise is probably owing to the
small size and expanse of the wings as compared with the fully (level-
oped wings of the katydids and the cricket. That the hind wings are
not concerned in making the sound is proved by their undeveloped, soft,
limp condition.

The hind body, or abdomen. — This region is about half as long as the
body, and is a little flattened sideways, ending abruptly, and in the fe-
male terminates in the large saber-shaped ovipositor. It consists of
seven well-marked segments, the other three being rudimentary. Be-
neath are eight hard pieces (sternites, Fig. 4, 2-8), surrounded by a mem-
brane; the four basal ones are broader than long; the fifth nearly twice
as long as broad ; the sixth large, rounded, shield-shaped ; the seventh
thickened, boss-like, and one-half as large as the sixth. The eighth piece
forms a large (oviducal) plate, which is broad, square, beveled olf at the
posterior end, with a slight median ridge, and a sharp spine at each side
of the posterior edge. From each side of the plate is sent off" a spatulate
lobe reaching to the base of the spine below.

The tenth ring forms the supra-anal plate, the pointed end of which
is subtriangular, sunken in the middle and with raised edges, this pos-
terior portion forming a depressed flap covering the anal opening. On
each side of this supra-anal flap is a cercus or appendage (Fig. 4, c),
each acute, small, and slightly hairy. Two rounded, fleshy infra-anal
flaps are situated each side of and below the supra-anal flap, and partly
conceal the vent.

The ovipositor is a little over one-half as long as the body, it is
compressed, and the base is as broad as deep. It can easily be sep-
arated into three pairs of blades called rhabdites. The eggs pass out
through the inner of the three pairs of blades constituting the oviposi-
tor. For example, an egg after leaving the mouth of the oviduct passes
along between the lower (or middle) and the inner pair of blades. The
base of the lower pair of blades has a chitiuous lobe, which isflattened,
closing tightly, and when the ovipositor is depressed fills or covers the
mouth of the oviduct. The lower pair of blades is lined at the base
with a membrane, while the passage for the egg is roofed over by a
membrane connecting the base of the inner blades.

In the abdomen of the male the tenth segment is separated by the
supra-anal plate, which covers nearly twice the area it does in the fe-
male ; it is nearly one-half as long as wide, with a triangular furrow,
which is membranous at the bottom, so as to allow the two sides of the
plate to move together, and thus approximate the claspers. The cerci,
which are simple pointed appendages in the female, are here converted
into a pair of stout claspers (Fig. 1, 2, b, c), ending in two unequal hooks,
the larger hook bent at right angles ; the claspers, owing to the triang-

ANATOMY OF THE WESTERN CRICKET.

175

Along 1

ular membranous farrow, can thus be brought together so as to seize
the body of the female during sexual union.

The plate corresponding to the oviducal plate of the female is narrow
behind and notched at the end, with the edges folded up ; the ends of
the lobes thus formed bear 3
each a movable, cylindrical, «
short appendage. The in- ^
tromittent organ is at base g
soft and membranous con- s.
sisting of two irregular p airs £
of lobes, to the upper l ? I

which the fork-shaped penis °
is attached, consisting of a g
pair of slender boot-shaped |
spines, which are capable of Z.
separating and thus retain- §
ing their hold in the copula- 1
tory sac of the female by the s
toe of each "boot" pointing g
outwards and sticking into
the walls of the sac

— a

the exterior, corresponding %
to the leg of each "boot," »
are two or three spines. £

Internal anatomy. — The |-
following description is »
based on the structure of "»
Anabrus ptirpurascem, gath- g"
ered in Colorado in the sum- ^
mer of 1878, and preserved |
carefully in strong alcohol. §•
From these specimens the s
elaborate drawing by Mr. E. \
Burgess was made, to which g-
the reader is referred (Fig. 5). £

Digestive system. — The fj"
mouth-opening is rather ^
large, and the throat (ceso- g*
phagus) begins on the roof of *
the mouth ; it curves upward \
and a little backward as far g
as the center of the head, I
where it slightly contracts %
before the canal dilates into P-
the large spacious crop (ingluvies), which is filled with partly digested veg-
etable food. In A. simplex' it? extends halt way through the abdomen,

17G REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

being, when distended, ;i quarter of an inch thick; while in A. purpuras-
cens it is a little shorter, only extending into the base of the abdomen.
At its junction with the proventriculus or fore stomach (Fig. 5, pe) six
toothed, chitinous platesor horny ridges radiate from the opening into the
proventriculus, being the continuations of the six principal denticulate
ridges in the proventricle. The latter division of the digestive canal is
small, oval, rounded, no longer than thick, and provided on the inner sur-
face with six rows of large, sharp, finely serrate, triangular, autero-poste-
riorly compressed teeth, with a small spine on each side at the base, while
on each side adjoining are secondary small conical teeth ; there are about
fifteen larger teeth, with a row of fifteen lateral onesoneach side,making
45 in each set or series, so that there are 270 teeth in all. Each of the
six series or rows is separated by a long, narrow, linear chitinous band.
The smaller lateral teeth are not antero-posteriorlv compressed, but are
rounded, and stand separate from each other.

At the beginning of the true stomach (chyle-stomach or ventricle are
appended two eoecal appendages, one above and one below, and much
broader than the narrow stomach itself, each forming a flattened docked
flap, with about 12 longitudinal folds, especially marked on the sides
next to the crop. The stomach is slender, ami without diminishing in
thickness passes backward in the abdomen, then making one turn be-
fore terminating, the end being situated where the numerous urinary
tubes (Fig. 5, ur) originate. These long, fine, thread-like tubes are
very numerous and are over an inch long, twisting about the alimentary
canal, and, in many cases, are firmly attached by their ends to the free
ends of the two ccecal lobes of the stomach.

The stomach is succeeded by the intestine, which is divided into a
short ileum and a colon. The former is but little smaller in front than
the stomach, but becoming smaller posteriorly ; it makes a deep S-shaped
bend. The colon is smaller than the ileum. The long, thick rectum is
situated directly under the tegument of the back of the end of the
abdomen, the anal opening being but little smaller than the diameter of
the rectum. The rectal glands are but sbghtly developed compared
with those of the locust. The salivary glands (Fig. 5, sg) are in loose
botryoidal masses somewhat as in the locust (Caloptenus femur -rubrum).
They discharge the salivary fluid through the salivary ducts (Fig. 5, s r')
into the base of the mouth near the tongue (Fig. 5, t).

The ovaries are two in number, situated one on each side of the turn
of the stomach. Each ovary forms a triangular conical mass, the base
being broad. They are each composed of about 40 long, slender ovarian
tubes, each tube being accompanied by a tracheal branch. These
ovarian tubes unite to form the secondary oviducts, which are moder-
ately long and unite directly under the lost ganglion to form the main
oviduct which ends in the copulatory pouch (Fig. 5, v).

The nervous system is in its general disposition like that figured and
described in our account of Caloptenus. Besides the brain and subeso-

ANATOMY OF THE WESTERN CRICKET.

177

phageal ganglia, there are three thoracic ganglia, the last one being sit-
uated opposite the insertion of the third pair of legs. There are six ab-
dominal ganglia, the sixth and last one being the largest; the first one
is situated quite near the last thoracic.

The sympathetic nerve (Fig. 5, sm) is composed of two branches, which
arise from the under side of the oesophagus, and extend back to the end
of the crop (ingluvies) next to the proventricle, where two minute ganglia
are situated, one on each side. There are three small sympathetic
ganglia under and near the brain, the anterior one being called the
frontal ganglion (Fig. 5,fg).

The breathing apparatus consists, in insects, of air-tubes, called tracheae
which originate at the breathing pores (spiracles), and ramify through-
out the interior of the body, and thus carry the air into every part of
the body ; thus everywhere comiug in contact with the blood, which
flows freely into all the interstices of the body, among the viscera and
muscles, not being contained in arteries and veins.

There are two kinds of tracheae in the Anabrus, those which are simple,
and those which are dilated, but there are no air vesicles or sacs, such as
exist in the locust and other flying insects ; so far as is known no larval
or creeping, unwinged insects possess air-sacs, and we see that in an
insect like the Anabrus, when the wings are but partially developed, but
not used to fly with, they are not present.

The tracheae of Anabrus purpurascens are small where they arise from
the spiracles, but certain of the branches after leaving the small spiracu-
lar opening are dilated. There are eight sets of dilated tracheae in the
abdomen ; the anterior ones are imbedded in the muscles of the sides of
the body. The fifth set of abdominal dilated tracheae supply the ovaries,
there being about 40 branches distributed among the tubes, one for each
of the ovarian tubes. The sixth set send branches to the stomach,
which is provided with eight large dilated tracheae, four on a side,
by which the organ is held loosely in place. No tracheae are apparently
sent to the ingluvies or crop. The seventh set of abdominal tracheae
distribute their branches to the intestine, a pair of these being large?
long, sinuous, dilated tracheae. The tracheae branching from the eighth
(and last) pair of abdominal spiracles supply the rectum, and a pair of
dilated tracheae are very large, forming a barrel or spindle-shaped sac,
situated on each side of the rectum just within the anus. These two
large sac-like tracheae might at first sight be mistaken for true air-sacs,
but they have the same structure apparently under the microscope as
the tracheae themselves, the spiral thread being well developed.

On the lower side of the abdomen, under the digestive canal, may be
found the two main longitudinal (stigmatal) tracheae corresponding to
the two stigmatal tracheae of Caloptenus.216 They lie one on each side
of the nervous cord, and are supplied with horizontal branches from the
spiracles, and the pair extend into the head.

sl6Compare the description and Figs. 16 and 17 s, p. 268, First Report of the TJ. S. Entomological Com-
mission, 1878.

12 L

178 KEPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

From each of the two very large prothoracic spiracles, besides two
small tracheae, a very large barrel-shaped dilated trachea is directed
downwards to the sternum. It communicates directly with the large
spiracle as the point of a needle or knife when passed through the
spiracle entered directly into this trachea.

CHAPTER IX.

THE AIR-SACS OF LOCUSTS WITH REFERENCE TO THEIR
POWERS OF FLIGHT. (Plate I.)

In the ninth chapter of our First Report we briefly described the dis-
tribution of the air sacs in the locust, and indicated that its great powers
of tli.niit were largely due to the fact that this insect is an aeronaut.
For want of space we did not discuss what had been done by others in
this direction, nor did we describe the mode of distribution of these air-
sacs in other insects.

These air-sacs were first noticed by Swammerdam, and afterward by
Sir John Hunter. Swammerdam, a Dutch naturalist, whose famous
work entitled The Book of Nature, appeared at Leydeu in 1737, first
described and figured them in a lamellicorn beetle (Geoirupes nasieornis).
Afterward they were discovered by Sir John Hunter in the bee, and sub-
sequently Prof. K. Sprengel2" discovered them in other insects. They
were in 1828 described and illustrated in a very elaborate and detailed
way by Straus Durckheim in his grot work on the anatomy of the
cockchafer.218 Afterward special attention was paid to them by .Marcel
de Serres, who published a detailed account and figures of the air-tubes
and sacs or vesicles of a grasshopper (Truxalis nasutus). Marcel de
Serres's figure is truer to nature than that of L. Dufour, published in his
work on the anatomy of the Orthoptera,219 &c, and show well the great
number of these air-sacs as seen in a dorsal view of the insect. The
English anatomist, G-. Newport, has also described and figured the air-
sacs in the abdomen of the male bumble-bee in the Philosophical Trans-
actions of the Royal Society of London, 183G.

From Newport's article " Insecta," in Todd's Cyclopaedia of Anatomy
and Physiology, we take the following statements regarding the distri-
bution of these sacs in different insects.

These air-sacs are found most developed in bees, wasps, &c. {Hymen-
optera), moths and butterflies, flies (Diptera), and some beetles and some
bugs (Hemiptera), though in the immature or larval state of all these
insects there is not the slightest trace of them. They thus do not occur

217 Commentarius de partibus quibus insecta spiritus ducunt. Lipsiaj, 1815.

sl8Consid6rations gen6rales sur l'Anatomie comparee des Animaus articules. Par Hercule Straus-
Diirclrheim. Paris, 1828.

J19Eecherches anatomiques et physiologiques surles Orthopteres, les Hymenopteres et les ifevrop-
t&res ; par M. Leon Dufour, Memoires Mathematiques des Savants etrangers, Paris, 1841.

PLATE I.

Fig. 1. Face of locust, showing distribution of air-sacs; oc, ocular dilated sacs; ct,
cephalic trachea.

Fig. 2. Upper side of head of locust ; oc, outer ocular sac ; ioc, inner ocular sac ; cl,

clypeal trachea.
Fig. 3. Main ventral air-tuhes of abdomen.
Fig. 4. Distribution of air-tubes in hind leg.

AIR-SACS OF THE LOCUST.

179

in purely creeping and running insects, but only in those which leap
and always in those which fly. In the two-winged flies (Diptera) the
vesicles are both large and numerous, as any one can see by opening the
body of the common house fly.

According to Marcel ds Serrcs, the Asilidce have an immense number of small
elongated vesicles on eacli side. In one species they amount to so many as sixty.
Burmeister remarks that in the Lepi ioptera vesicles in the Sphingidw and moths are
chiefly found in the males, which agrees with our own observations in Hymenoptera.

The air-sacs in the family of locusts (Acrydii) are as numerous and there
are as many large ones as in any group of insects, the females being as
well provided with them as the males. To the general account given
in our First Eeport (pp. 267-270) we may add a few facts, and present
in Plate I some enlarged views of tiie upper side of the head and the face,
showing better than in the wood-cuts in the First Report their mode of
distribution. Without repeating the distribution of the air-sacs in the
head the reader is referred to page 269 of the First Eeport and to Figs.
1 and 2 of Plate I of the present report.

Our Fig. 3 (Plate I) represents the course of the main ventral tra-
cheae or air-tubes extending along the floor of the hind-body or abdomen
under the digestive canal. They are indicated in Fig. 16 V of the First
Report. In that figure, however, the relation of this ventral system of
air tubes to the air-sacs is not shown. By reference to our figure on
Plate I it will be seen that from these tubes arise small tracheal twigs
in the thorax, which give off numerous minute globular or oval air-sacs;
these are also very abundant at the base of the abdomen, especially in
the front and hinder part of the first or basal segment of the abdomen,
while a few line the walls behind, and others are seen near the middle
of the abdomen in the fourth segment. Again they become noticeable
in the end of the abdomen near the base of the ovipositor, where the
smaller twigs from the ends of the two main tracheae each end in numer-
ous small sacs.

Fig. 4 of the same plate represents the distribution of the air-tubes in
the hind legs of a common locust (CEdipoda sordida). In the fore and
middle as well as hinder pair of legs, the thigh joint (femur) is provided
with two large dilated air- tubes, but there are only four minute, slender
air-sacs at the base (not represented in the drawing). At the end of
the femur these two tubes dilate or expand considerably. A large di-
lated air-tube (t. tr), with numerous small branches, passes along through
the shin-joint or tibia, lying between the muscles, and this trachea ex-
tends through the five toe-joints, ending in several small branches in the
fifth joint at the insertion of the claws.

Use of the air-sacs in flight. — We described in our First Report (pp.
269, 270) the mode of inhalation of the air, or of breathing in the locust,
and briefly pointed out the way in which the air-sacs are filled by the
air drawn in through the spiracle or breathing holes. It thus appears

180 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

that the powers of the locust as an aeronaut are as great or greater than
in any other kind of insect.

That the use of the air-sacs is to buoy up the insect in the air, and
that by filling and partially emptying the sacs during the process of
breathing the insect can enlarge its bulk and change its specific grav-
ity at will, so as to render itself capable of supporting itself on the wing
with little effort, was first discovered by Sir John Hunter. Newport, in
his treatise on insects, remarks :

That this is tho use of the sacs may be inferred from their non-existence in the
larva state, or in insects that constantly reside on tho ground, more particularly in
creeping insects ; and it seems further confirmed by the fact that among volant in-
sects those have tho largest and greatest number of vesicles which sustain the
longest and most powerful (light. Thus the vesicles are found most developed in
tho nymt'noptcra, Lcpidoptera Diptera, and some C'oleoptera, and Tlemiptera, in all
which, in the larva state, there is not the slightest trace of them. A still further
proof that they are for lightening the body is found in Lucanus cervua. In the male
of this insect tho largo and heavy mandibles and head, but more especially the man-
dibles, are not tilled with solid musclo, as in tho Hydrous and others in which these
parts are more in proportion to the size of other parts of the body, but with an im-
mense number of vesicles, which in the mandibles are developed in the greatest
abundance in sacs from long trachea?, that are extended from one end of the organ
to tho other, so that the interior is almost entirely filled with vesicles. By this beau-
tiful provision these projecting and apparently unwieldy structures arc rendered ex-
ceedingly light, while their solid interior fits them for all the purposes of strength
required by the insect. The largo and apparently heavy body of the humble-bee is
lightened in a similar manner. In this insect and others of t he same order the vesi-
cles are fewer, but very much larger than in Colcoptera. The lateral trachea? in the
abdomen form one continuous chain of dilatations, which are larger in the males of
the species than in the females.820

Also, in his article " on the formation and use of the air-sacs and di-
lated tracheae in insects,"221 Newport gives further information regard-
ing the presence of these sacs in other insects :

In the most active Neuroptera the sacs are very numerous and capacious, especially
in the dragon-flies, but they are much smaller and fewer in number in the Ephemera,
the Sialidce, and the scorpion-flies. In the Coleoptera the sacs exist only in the volant
species, and are more or less numerous and capacious in these in proportion to the
bulkiness of tho insect and its degree of activity on the wing. This difference exists
not only in different genera, but in different species of the same genus, according as
they are winged or apterous species. Thus distinct vesicles are found in the winged
Carabidce, but not in the apterous, in which the respiratory organs are simply tracheal.
In the more heavy-bodied genera the vesicles are not confined to the abdominal and
thoracic regions, but are sometimes extended into other parts, as in the unwieldy
stag-beetles, in which they are extremely numerous, and occupy the chief portion of
the interior of the mandibles. In the lcpidoptera, as in the Xeuroptera, they are
largest in the swiftest and most powerful species, and more especially so in those in
the males, which are known to be most active on the wing. On the contrary, in tho
majority of the Orthoptera, which are merely saltatorial in their habits, the trachea
never assume the form of distinct vesicles, excepting in a few genera, which have the
power of flight. They retain the arborescent form in the perfect as in the larva state,
but are considerably enlarged throughout the greater part of their course, their ex-

220 Todd's Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology. Article, Insecta.

221 Transactions of the LinnaBan Society of London, 1851, voL xx, p. 419-423.

AIR-SACS OF THE LOCUST.

181

treme ramifications only retaining their original setiform structure and distribution.
In the truly apterous insects the tracheaB are invariably arborescent, and diminish in
size from their origin to their extremest point in their perfect as in their larva condi-
• tion, and they are invariably smaller in diameter and have fewer ramifications in
the most inactive species.

In the flying locusts the air-sacs or vesicles are not less numerous
than in the bee, and we thiuk that in proportion to the body they are
more numerous, while it is obvious that there is a greater number of
large sacs. When we add to these the large number of broad, expanded,
or dilated air-tubes, some of which would easily be confounded with the
sacs themselves, we can appreciate the wonderful powers of the Rocky
Mountain locust as an aeronaut. With a greater expanse of wing than
in any of its congeners, and as complex an arrangement of air-tubes and
sacs, it is able to rise from the ground in the morning and, if the day
proves clear, remain floating in the air for hours, until near sunset,
borne hither and thither by gentle baffling breezes, or wafted straight on
in its course eastward from its mountain home for miles over the plains,
should the breeze be strong and steady. Meanwhile scarcely as much
muscular force is spent through the day as is exerted during a few
vigorous hops when it alights on the ground.

In the possession and use during flight of these air-sacs, locusts and
other insects may, as Newport suggests, be compared with birds.

In birds the respiratory organs are not only vesicular but are more extensively dis-
tributed over the whole body than in any other vertobrata. These, as every anato-
mist knows, are not confined merely to the great cavities of the body, but are extended
to every part of the skeleton, as in insects. They communicate directly with the
interior of the bones of the wings and legs, as the trachese of the thorax are extended
also into these parts in insects. This distribution in both is more extensive and com-
plete in the most active species. In birds which are unaccustomed to flight, as in the
ostrich, as remarked by Mr. Owen,2-2 the communication of the respiratory organs with
the bones is imperfect ; while in insects, although trachese exist in all, the vesicles
are found only in those of flight. This fact extends even to the sexes of the same
species. Thus vesicles exist in the males of the common glow-worm, which is winged,
and designed to search out the apterous female, in which the respiratory organs are
simply tracheal. The like conditions exist in the common winter-moth, Geometra
brunaria. In the male of this insect I have found the vesicles large and numerous,
but not a trace of these occurs in the female. The trachese in this sex, which has only
the rudiments of wings, are larger relatively than in the female glow-worm, and aie
precisely in that condition in which I have found them in the diurnal Lepidoptera
shortly before changing to the pupa. These anatomical facts are inferential of the
real use of the vesicles, aud are supported by an observation which I have been able
to make on the common dung-beetle, Geotrupes stercorarius, at the moment when it is
preparing to take flight. A specimen of this insect which had been in confinement
for about twenty-four hours, and consequently had not expanded its wings during
that time, when placed on a table immediately prepared to escape. After walking
away quickly for a short distance it began to respire freely, alternately shortening
and elongating its abdominal segments at the rate of about forty respirations per
minute. It then ceased for an instant and slightly separated its elytra without
elevating them, and began again to respire more rapidly. At first its respiration was

^Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology, Art. Aves., vol. i, p. 341.

182 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

•lowly but gradually increased, until a few seconds before it attempted to expand its
■wings and to elevate itself upon tbem, when the acts of respiration became exceedingly
rapid, and amounted to at least 120 per minute. These were most rapidly performed,
and were then suddenly arrested at the instant before it attempted to unfold the
wings. During this increased respiration the abdomen of the insect was distinctly
enlarged, and it was quite evident that this enlargement and the expansion of its
wings wore being effected by forced inspirations, and maintained by the expansion
of the air-sacs over the whole body, and the communication of these with the tracheal
vessels in the wings themselves. As, howover, the wings had become stiffened and
dried through many hours, it did not completely succeed in its attempts to escape,
but only partially raised itself upon them. The results were nevertheless sufficiently
•atisfactory to prove to me that the respiratory organs became distended previous to
the act of flight, as the entire body was distinctly enlarged; the effect of which en-
largement, together with an increased evolution of heat in the body, as the result of
increased respiration, must, of consequence, bo to diminish the specific gravity of the
insect, and thus, by lessening the degree of muscular force required to raise it on its
wings, considerably augment its powers of locomotion, which seems to be the chief
use for whicli the vesicles are developed.

Origin of the air-sacs. — When we carefully examine the tracheae and
observe that in the locusts many are dilated and so expanded that at
first one is inclined to regard them as simply long vesicles, and then
observe the form of some of the vesicles and their relations to the tracheae
from which they originate, one is inclined to accept the following theory
as to their origin given by the distinguished English anatomist whom
we have just quoted.

The respiratory organs are always simply tracheal in the larva state of all insects,
and it is not until the period of change to the pupa is fast approaching that they begin
to be enlarged even in those in which vesicles are afterwards the most numerous. The
enlargement, as I have elsewhero shown, commences in Lepidopterous insects at about
the time when the larva ceases to feed. It is perceptible first in the longitudinal
trachea? of the thoracic segments of the Sphinx, immediately before the insect enters
the earth ; and by the time that the cell in which it is to undergo its transformation
is completed, the trachea? from the second to the fifth spiracles are distinctly enlarged.
In the diurnal species, which do not enter the earth but undergo their changes in the
open air, the dilatation of the trachea? commences while the insects are spinning their
silken threads. When this labor is finished and they have remained for a few hours
at rest, the skin is fissured along the dorsal surface of the thoracic segments and thrown
off, the change to the pupa is effected, and the longitudinal trachea in the fifth and
sixth segments are dilated into vesicles, which continue to be enlarged during the first
few days after the change. The trachea? of the third and fourth segments each give
off a small trunk on their external surface, which is divided into two branches, and is
involved in a fold of the new tegument that is formd beneath the old skin of the larva
some days before its change. The fold of tegument on each side of the third and
fourth segments is supplied with ramifications of trachea? from these minute trunks,
and very closely resembles in appearance the external abdominal branchia? of the
aquatic larva? of Neuroptera. It is these folds which become the most important or-
gans in the perfect state of the insect, its wings. When the old skin of the larva is
fissured and the thoracic segments become shortened, as the skin is thrown off, pre-
vious to their forming one region, the thorax, the trachea? in these folds are rapidly en-
larged and elongated, and mainly assist in inducing a rush of blood into these struct-
ures, which are thus expanded on the sides of the new pupa as the rudimentary wings.
This elongation of the small trunks at the sides of the longitudinal trachea? in the
thorax relieves them of a portion of that tension which results from the powerful

AIR-SACS OF THE LOCUST.

183

respiratory efforts of the insect in effecting its change, and which, with a tendency to
enlarge by the natural forces of growth in these structures, results in the dilatation
first of the trachea) at the base of the abdomen into distinct sacs. This is the man-
ner in which the air-sacs are formed in all insects. After the main trunks have be-
come dilated their ramifications also are enlarged in like manner, and this enlarge-
ment continues from the time when the insect enters its pupa to that of its appear-
ance in the perfect state.

There is no more admirable instance in nature of the adaptation of
organs to the performance of certain functions than this of the air-sacs,
which render certain insects true aeronauts. This delicate correlation of
these organs to the aerial habits of the insects which possess them, seems
to be in the relation of cause to effect. It has been seen that they do
not arise until the final winged state of the insect — the time when they
are first brought into use — and this is an indication that they are the
result of forces acting upon the organism during its adult winged life.
This special adaptation of the air-tubes to the exigencies of its aerial
life may have been suddenly induced, the tracheae in some favored race
of bee, moth, or locust having been distended during the rapid, violent
respiratory efforts of the insect during flight, and resulted in a perma-
nent enlargement of the air-tubes. These initiatory sacs being found
useful were probably transmitted to the offspring, until they became
permanent improvements in the organization of certain races of differ-
ent groups of flying insects, and remained wanting in other even closely
allied groups which did not possess wings. Thus we see that changes
in the mode of life, the influence of the environment upon the insect, pro-
voked the variation,! e., the sudden rise of what ultimately proved to be
useful organs which became further perfected and finally absolutely in-
dispensable and unfailingly present in the descendants of those forms
in which they at first originated. Such is the line of thought or argu-
ment which we are compelled to adopt in endeavoring to trace the origin
of such organs as those under consideration. In brief, it is the influence
of external causes upon the animal, certain changes in the environment,
which become perpetuated by internal causes or inheritance force.

CHAPTER X.

HISTOLOGY OF THE LOCUST (CALOPTENUS) AND THE
CRICKET (ANABRUS). (Plates II-VIII.)

By Dr. Charles Sedgwick Minot.

Insects have hitherto been but little studied by histologists. The
science of general anatomy or histology, which was first established by
Bichat in France, acquired a fresh importance and new meaning through
the investigations of German naturalists, and above all through the
great discovery of Schwann that all animals are composed, like plants,
of certain minute elements or units, which are now famibar to all natu-

184 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

ralists under the name of cells. Cells are found only in living bodies j
and it is very probable, though by no means certain, that no life exists
outside of cells, or in any other bodies. For this reason, to determine
the essential powers and peculiarities of cells, and to discover the modi-
fications they undergo, is the fundamental problem of zoology and botany
at present. Indeed, biology might almost be defined as the science of
cells.

Since, however, microscopic anatomy, which is that branch of science
which deals especially with the forms and appearance of cells, has been
more actively prosecuted by medical men than by zoologists, our knowl-
edge of the tissues of the higher vertebrates is much more complete than
of the lower animals. Of the histological structure of insects singu-
larly little is known, although they are particularly favorable objects for
microscopic investigation. The most extensive series of observations
are those of Leydig, which are summarized in part in his invaluable
Lehrbuch der Histologic, published in 18.38, and in part in shorter special
papers scattered through various scientific journals of the last twenty
years. Max Schultze has made several important contributions, and
there are besides a few excellent single papers, by various authors,
notably Dr. Von Basch, Landois, Claparede, Graber, O. Schmidt, &c.
Several of Professor Rudolph Leuckart's pupils have made very valuable
additions to our knowledge of insect histology. The writings of earlier
naturalists contain many observations of importance, but the ground
covered by them must now be gone over again and viewed from the
stand point of modern anatomy.

When I began the work the results of which are here described in
detail,223 1 found that very few histological observations had been made
on the grasshoppers, or, indeed, on other insects. I feel that this is very
unfortunate, because it prevents my judging of the accuracy of my own
observations by comparing them with the results obtained by others. I
must therefore anticipate that some at least of my conclusions will here-
after require modification.

I regret very much the incompleteness of this report, occasioned in
large part by my inability to devote myself longer than a little over five
months to the work. My results are derived chiefly from the study of
the locust,224 to which I have added a limited number of observations on
Anabrus purpurascens. I have endeavored to increase the value of the
article by incorporating a considerable number of bibliographical refer-
ences. I hope that with these additions this report wdl assist other
American students in becoming acquainted with the present state of
our knowledge of the histology of insects without having to search far
and wide for the authorities. In brief, I attempt to give a bibliographical
index to the general outline of the subject, and to describe in detail such

523 A preliminary report has been published in the First Annual Report of the Commission, pp. 273-
277.

534 The observations are mostly made of the Caloptcnus femur-rubrum, the common red-legged locust,
and on QCdipoda sordida.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES II- VIII.

All The figures on Plates 1I-YII, except those specially otherwise designated, are
taken from preparations made from Caloptenus femur-rubrum. The figures on Plate
VIII, are all from Anabrus purpurascens. All hut three orfour of the figures were drawn
in outline w ith the camera lucida, and the details added afterward with free hand. The
drawings, with the partial exception of Fig. 58, are nowise diagrammatic, hut faJS
short in clearness of the actual preparations.

EX PL AX AT I ON OF THE LETTERING.

An., anus.

art., articulating meinbran
Bd.. muscular band.
ch., cord of ovarian tube.
col., colon.

conn., connective tissue.

Cr.,1 Cr.,- crop. 1st, "2d segment.

Cii., cutrcula.

cys., wall of spermat'oeyst.
J)., dorsal arch of body wall.
d.', d." , dental processes.
Dir.. di\ erticulum of stomach.
D. R., dorsal nerve roots.
Eg., egg.

f.j. Ik. ductus ejaculatorius.
Ep., epithelium.

F.. furrow between intestinal folds.
Gr., granular layer, inside epithelium.
O. 7... ganglion-cells.
A. A.', cuticular hairs.
II., ileum.

In. in., internal muscular coat.
/... longitudinal muscles.
M., inouth.
muc, must le.
muc, C. circular muscles.
M. v., malpighian vessels.
Oe. oesophagus.
Or., ovary.

Ovd., anterior coecum of oviduct.

P., proventriculus.

p., pore canals.

r. m.. musculus respiratorius.

rid., cuticular ridges.

Te., testes.

Tr., tracheae.

Tu., external tunic.

Ft., uterus.

V., ventral arch of body wall.
Yen., ventriculus.
Y. R.. ventral nerve roots.
V. mm., vesienla? seminales.

PIjATES II- VI, CALOPTENU8 AND OEDIPODA;
PILATE VIII, ANABRU8.

PLATE II.

Fig. 1. — Section through tho abdomen of a female at the level of the posterior part of
ventricle. D. , Dorsal arch ; V., ventral arch ; Ov., ovary; Old., blind end
of oviduct; Ut., uterus; Tr., trachea; art., articulation between dorsal
and ventral arches; St., stomach.

Pro. 2. — Section through tho abdomen of a male at the level of the colon. D., dorsal
arch; V., ventral arch; art., articulation between the two arches; Tr.,
trachea;; Te., testes; col., colon; r. m., respiratory muscle ; V. sem., ves-
icular seminales.

Fig. 3. — Section of cuticula of abdomeu. Letters as before.

Fig. 4. — Seotion of cuticula, p. p., pore canals; h. h.', cuticular hairs.

FlG. 5. — Transverse section of wing muscles.

Fig. 6. — Part of transverse section of abdomeu to show the respiratory muscle r, m. ;

D., dorsal arch; V., ventral arch; art, articular membrane ; Ep., epider-
mis; cm., cuticula; h., hairs; conn., connective tissue.

Fig. 7. — Fine tracheae of rectum ; n.', triangular nucleus in fork.

FlG. 8. — Tracheal branchlet.

Fig. 9. — Bundle of striated muscle from the head.
Fig. 10. — Spiral trachea of malpighiau vessel.

Fig. 11. — Diagrammatic section of last ventral ganglion ; D. B., dorsal roots; V. R.,

ventral roots ; G. Z., ganglion cells.
Fig. 12. — Ramification of tracheae in muscles ; x, fine terminations.
Fig. 13. — Ramification of tracheae on the ovary.

I

0 S Entomological Commission. Vol. 2 l'hitc II

HISTOLOGY Or THE LOCUST

PLATE III.

Fig. 14. — Ramification of tracheie on the oviduct (uterus.)

FlG. 15. — Connective tissue cells (fat body?) from between the seminiferous tubee.
Fig. 16. — Section of a ripe ovarian follicle; Eg., egg; Sh., shell (T) secreted by the
epithelium, Ep.

Fig. 17. — CEdipoda sordida. Connective tissue around the ovary.
FlG. 18. — (Edipoda sordida. Epithelium of uterus seen in section.
Fig. 19. — Transverse section of a whole, ripe ovarian follicle; Eg., egg; Ep., epithe-
lium.

Fig. 20. — Surface view of the follicular epithelium of the ovary.
FlG. 21. — (Edipoda sordida. Inner surface of uterus.

PLATE IV.

FlO. 22. — CEdipoda sordida. Longitudinal section of the uterus j Gr.t granular layer
Ep., epithelium ; conn., tunica propria ; muc, longitudinal muscular coat

FlO. 23. CEdipoda sordkla. Surface view of uterine epithelium.

Fig. 24. Section through the upper part (first segment) of seminiferous tuhe; Cy$.

■walls of the spermatocysts ; Tu., external tunic.
Fio. 25. — Caloptenus spretus. Seminiferous tube, isolated; conn., connective tissue ; I

II, III, and IV, the four segments of the tubes.
Fig. 26. — Young spermatoblast. .
FlO. 27. — Spermatoblasts just divided.

A, Spermatoblast in process of dividing.

FlG. 28. — Older spermatoblasts.

Fig. 29. — Transverse section of bundle of young spermatozoa.

Fig. 30. — Transverse section of older bundle.

Fig. 31. — Section of the Upper part of a vesicula seminalis.

Fig. 32. — Epithelium of the upper part of a vesicula 6eminalis.

Fig. 33. — Transverse section of the ejaculatory duct, Ej., D; Ep., epithelium; muc.

circular muscle ; TV. TrJ, trachea?.
Fig. 34. — Transverse section of the muscular portion of a vesicula seminalis.

PLATE V.

Km. :55. — Transverse section of the hind part of the crop. St., spines; rid., ridges

L., longitudinal ; m«c. C, circular muscles.
FlO. 38. — Section of the ventricular wall; d., duct of follicle ; cm., cuticula; Ep., epi-

tlfblium ; conn., connective tissue ; note., muscles ; Tr., trache».
Fig. '.V7. — Transverse section of a diverticulum. Tr., trachea; muc, circular muscular

coat.

FlG. 'M. — Section of a single fold of a diverticulum ; conn., connective tissue or tunica
propria.

Fig. '.VJ. — Inner surface of ventricle, with the epithelium removed. In. »»., circular;

L., longitudinal muscles.
Fig. 40. — Transverse sections of three Malpighian vessels lying against the muscular

walls of the rectum, red.
Fig. 41. — Caloptenus tpretus. Section of the epithelium of the rectum.
Fig. 4:2. — Transverse section of rectal folds. F. F.x, furrows between the folds; L.L.,

longitudinal muscle; M. v., Malpighiau vessels.

I

PLATE VI.

Fig. 43. — Ocdipoda sordida. Epithelial cells of gastro-ileal folds.

Fig. 14. — Oedipoda sordida. Part of transverse section of gastroileal folds; at., cntj^M
ula ; mue.f muscle. ,

Fig. 45. — Longitudial median section of Caloptenus femur-ruin » m. l'emale. to show
the digestive canal. M., mouth; Oc, oesophagus; Cr.1, anterior; Cr^M
posterior division of crop ; p., proventriculus ; Div., diverticulum; reit^M
ventricle; II. , ileum; col., colon; II., rectum; An., anus.

Fig. I —Surface, view of the gastro-ileal folds. Veti., ventricle : />''/.. circular musci^B
lar band under the folds ; 77., ileum.

Fig. 47. — Optical section of Malpighiau tube.

Fig. 48. — Malpighiau vessel.

FiO. 49. — Oed'tpoda sordida; trausverse section of gastro-ileal folds; muc, muscular

band ; Bd., of Fig. 45.
Fig. f>0. — Epithelium of ileal folds. A., middle of folds; B., furrow between folds;

L., longitudinal muscular bands.

L) S Entomological Commission

Vol. 2 Plate VI.

4-5 f

*l "T*T

•*>sa ••

Fi| 44

J I

ft *5

©to
0 p

HISTOLOGY OF THE LOCUST.

PLATE VII.

Fig. 51. — Transverse section of ileum. L., longitudinal muscular bands; muc. C, <

cular muscular coat ; Ep., epithelium.
Fig. 52. — Transverse section through the furrow between two ileal folds. F., furrow;

cu., cuticula; Ep., epithelium; conn., connective tissue; muc. C, circular

muscles. L., longitudinal muscular band.
Fig. 53. — Caloptcnus spretus. Epithelium of rectal glands.

Fig. 54. — Surface view of the interior of the proventriculus ; d', central; d", molar

processes of the teeth; a., longitudinal, interdental ridge.
Fig. 55. — Longitudinal section of the wall of the proventriculus.
Fig. 56. — Epidermal cells, seen from their outer surface.
Fig. 57. — Spiral threads of the same trachea.

Fig. 58. — Transverse section of the proventriculus; d', central: d", molar process of
the teeth; ep., epithelium ; conn., connective tissue ; a., longitudinal ridge;

C, subdental canal; muc, muscularis.

_ _ » , „_ Tfl.n-' Sinclair It Son. LtL Paila

HISTOLOGY OF THE LOCUST AND CRICKET.

!

PLATE VIII.

Fio. 59. — Cuticula from the lateral portion of one of the middle ahdominal segments,

to show the nodules & 6 and hairs.
Fig. 60. — Cuticula of the crop.
Fig. 01. — Tracheal epithelium, from a large trunk.
Fig. 02. — Connective tissue from the ovary.

Fig. 03. — Cuticula from the upper and anterior portions of the dorsal arch of one of
the middle abdominal segments, h., cuticular hair.

Fig. 04. — Ovarian tube. Ch., cord; a-b, region in which the eggs are first formed.

Tu., part of the external tunic. In order to draw this part the focus had
to be changed.

Fig. Go. — Cuticula from the side of the dorsal arch of one of the middle abdomina
segments.

Fig. 00. — Wall of the ventricle after removal of the epithelial and glandular cells.

U S Entomological Commission Vol. 2 Rate Y1LL

HISTOLOGY OF ANABRUS

HISTOLOGY OF THE LOCUST AND CRICKET.

185

of my own observations as I believe to be new. I shall give a more
complete account of the digestive canal than of any other system. The
figures on Plates II-VIII are numbered consecutively from 1 to 66.

In order to make the relation of the various organs to one another
more evident, and at the same time to explain the classification of the
tissues, which has been generally adopted upon embryological grounds,
I figure and describe two sections through the abdomen of the grass-
hopper, Plate H, Figs. 1 and 2. They are both semi-diagrammatic, being
intended to represent rather the general arrangement of the parts than
their exact disposition in a particular section. To insure accuracy,
however, the outlines of both the drawings were made with the camera
lucida from actual sections, and these outlines were then changed only
so much as was necessary to remove very slight irregularities.

Fig. 1 is a transverse section through the abdomen of a female at the
level of the posterior part of the stomach. The outer wall D, art, V, is
shaded and represented of nearly uniform thickness, which is not quite
exact. Outermost is the cuticula, next the epidermis, or cellular matrix,
I and innermost the muscles — the three parts that make up the outer wall
of the body. The same is true of the section through the male, Fig. 2.
This section, however, is taken further back in the abdomen, being
through the colon ; compare Fig. 45 col. The walls of the abdomen are
divided into a large dorsal arch, D, and a smaller ventral arch, V, the
two being united on either side by an articulating membrane, art, which
will be described in speaking of the cuticula further on. The dorsal
arch is really composed of the tergite and the pleurites fused together
into one piece.225 Within the body walls, which form, so to speak, a con-
tinuous tube, there runs from mouth to anus a second tube of smaller
diameter, the digestive canal, the general course of which is shown very
clearly in a longitudinal section through a whole grasshopper, see Fig. 45.
In a transverse section the digestive tract also appears (Fig. 1, St.,
stomach, Fig. 2, col., colon), separated by a considerable space from the
body walls. In this intervening space there lie various other organs,
notably those of reproduction. In the female, Fig. 1, it so happens that
at the level of the stomach the sexual organs lie above the intestinal
canal, while in the male, at the point represented in Fig. 2, the sexual
organs lie partly above, partly below, the colon. In the female we notice
first the round tubes of the ovary, Ov ; second, the ovarian ducts, ovd.,
and, third, on each side the large uterus, Ut, or upper end of the oviduct,
into which the ovarian ducts open directly. In the male, on the other
hand, we see the testes, Te., lying above the intestine, the single tubes
round in section, being embedded in or surrounded by connective tissue
(Leydig's zellig-blasiges Geivebe), and below the colon, col., lie the spermi-
ducts or vasa deferentia, (v. def.) Finally, between the inner and outer
tubes lie various muscles, the Malpighian vessels, and the numerous
branches of the trachese. These are all left out in the drawing except a

»» Oraber Die Tympaualen Sinnesapparate der Orthopteren. Denkschr. Wieti. Akad, Bd. 36 (1876), p. 76.

186 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

few of the tracheae, 2V., and in Fig. 2 the muscle r. m., to which I shall
refer later.

In brief, the grasshopper is built up, 1, of the outer body wall; 2, of
the inner tube, digestive canal ; and, 3, of the organs which intervene
between the two first. Accordingly, 1 shall describe, 1st, the outer
body wall; 2d, the intervening tissue (mesoderm); 3d, the digestive
canal and its appendages.226

Before entering into the special subjects, I would remark that the
Orthoptera, and indeed all insects, are, it seems to me, remarkably fa-
vorable objects for histological investigations. As regards Caloptenus
and (Edipoda, it may be mentioned in general that the cellular elements
of their bodies are particularly large, and the nuclei of the cells distin-
guished by being, for the most part, strikingly granulated and seldom
exhibiting distinct nucleoli.

ECTODERM.

Cuticula. — It is well known that insects have an external crust or
shell, the cuticula, which is supposed to always consist mainly of a pe-
culiar substance, chitine, often mingled with earthy salts, such as car-
bonate of lime and magnesia.

In both locusts and crickets the abdominal segments present differ-
ences in the characteristics of the cuticula of different regions. There
are at least three distinct modifications — first, upon the dorsal arch ;
second, on the spiracular or articular fold, which intervenes between
the two main arches ; and, third, the main portion of the ventral arch —
but in the locusts the dorsal and ventral portions are very similar. The
dorsal arch, as seen in transverse sections (Fig. 3 d), is much the larger,
coveriug the back and sides of the body, and the articular membrane,
art., is a comparatively narrow band. Upon the living locust, or one
recently killed, it is easy to observe that the dorsal and ventral arches
are movable upon one another in consequence of the extreme elasticity
and flexibility of the articular membrane (Fig. G, art). Both the dorsal
and ventral portions of the cuticula are rigid, and, in the locusts at least,
present a faint striation parallel to the circumference of the section.
This striation may indicate a fibrillar structure. The inner surface of the
cuticula presents certain peculiarities in the distribution of a reddish-
brown pigment, probably part of the matrix, but otherwise this surface
appears quite smooth, while the external surface is somewhat roughened,
and is beautifully sculptured in Anabrus, as I will shortly describe.
The thickness of the cuticula is about the same in both arches ; it has a
yellowish tinge, shading off into brown at the posterior edges of the
abdominal segments. The rigid portions of the cuticula are further
characterized by the pores (Poren-canalchen) and hairs. The pores are
quite large in diameter (see Fig. 4 p), and are widened at each end ;

226 For tho relation of these parts the reader may also consult chapter IX of the First Annual Report
of the Commission, pp. 257-272.

HISTOLOGY OF THE LOCUST AND CRICKET.

187

they always run nearly perpendicular to the surface to the cuticula.
Directly over each pore there sits a stiff chitinous tapering hair (Fig. 4 h
and h1), which is generally slightly curved. This relation of the hairs
and pores has also been described by Leydig,227 and is well known to
naturalists. The hairs are all small, though very unequal in size, the
difference in the extremes being much greater than between h and h1 in
Fig. 4. The hairs do not stand upright, but are so inclined as to point
towards the posterior end of the body.

Each hair is constricted around its base (Fig. 03 /(), forming a narrow
neck, below which it expands again, spreading out to make the circular
covering membrane of the hair pore. This membrane is very thin, but
has a thickened rim. In consequence, of this constriction these hairs
are commonly said to be articulated. They are not homogeneous,
but have a distinct medulla (Fig. 63 h), which is probably a prolonga-
tion of the cell which forms the hair. These cells have been described
by Graber.228 They were formerly called " Haut(lriiscnv by Leydig and
others. They are, as it were, suspended from the inner side of the large
pores as the hairs are from the outer. They are somewhat pear-shaped,
and four or five times the diameter of the ordinary epidermal cells, and
have correspondingly large round nuclei ; their contents are very gran-
ular. There are usually two or three, rarely but one nucleus in each
hair-cell. Graber suggests the name of trichogens for these cells. They
are probably strictly homogeneous with the scale-cells of the Lepidop-
tera ; the cells differ in the two orders of insects in that they bear a
round hair in one case, a flattened hair in the other. The plausibility
of this suggestion must, I think, strike every one who is acquainted
with the account of the structure and development of the scales in but-
terflies given by Semper.229 If the homology is correct, these hair or scale
cells must be regarded as specially characteristic of insects, or, possibly,
of arthropods generally.

The articular membrane, though a part of the cuticula, has either no, or
at most very few, hairs. In the locusts the cuticula at the joint is much
thicker and paler in color than elsewhere (Fig. 5, art.), being not only
thrown up into folds, but also covered with numerous minute pyramidal
spines. In the locust the first abdominal segment lacks an independent
articular membrane, its own entering into the formation of the sterno-
coxal membrane, or articular capsule of the third or metathoracic limb.
On the sides of the segment a kidney -shaped piece of the cuticula un-
dergoes peculiar modifications to enter into the formation of the tym-
panal apparatus.

In Anabrus the cuticula presents the following characteristics, besides
those which have been mentioned as found in both it and the locusts:

First, there are projecting conical nodules scattered irregularly over
it, as can be seen in a surface view. (Fig. 59, b b.) These cones are less

m Leydig: Lehrbuch der Histologic, 1857, p. Ill, Fig. 56.
™ Graber : Denk. Wien. Akad., xxxvi, p. 35 (1876).
m Semper : Zeit. fur wiss. Zool. Bd. viii, p. 328.

188 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

numerous, much thicker, and shorter than the cutlcular hairs. They
have rounded apices, and are inclined backward. They do not seem
to correspond in any way to the hairs, for they do not rest over pores,
nor have I seen any specially modified cells underlying them. As
far as I have observed, they are mere local irregularities, each nodule
being apparently supported by some four or six unmodified epidermal
cells.230 The cones in those specimens I have examined are entirely want-
ing in the ventral arch, in the upper portion of the dorsal arch, but on
the sides of the dorsal arches they are of considerably greater dimensions
than upon the spiracular membrane, and finally they are larger and more
numerous on the anterior than on the posterior abdominal segments.
I have not, however, attempted to follow out the distribution of these
structures in greater detail.

Second, the whole of the cuticula except the cones just described and
the hairs, is divided into numerous minute fields (Figs. 63 and 65), each
of which corresponds to a single cell of the underlying epidermis. Each
field is bounded by a distinct polygonal outline, and its surface is either
covered by a large number of extremelj7 minute projecting points (Fig.
65), as on the dorsal arch, or is smooth as upon the articular membrane
and ventral arch. Upon the sides of the dorsal arch and upon the spirac-
ular membrane each held has a projecting spine or sometimes two or even
three. Fig. 65 represents a surface view of part of the side of one of the
dorsal arches. Upon the articular cuticula each spine springs from a
short basal collar. Fig. 63 represents a surface view of the upper and
anterior part of the dorsal arch. The fine scidpture is drawn only on
a few of the fields, none of which have spines. The figure is intended
to show that from the smooth circular area around the base of the hairs,
/t, the fine points of the sculpturing appear to radiate, while elsewhere
they are only irregularly distributed. I have been unable to determine
how this radiating appearance is caused.

The ventral arch has a quite smooth surface and but few hairs. The
articular membrane has few hairs, a number of broad cones, and sculp-
tured fields, bearing spines, which have a thick collar around their
bases. The dorsal arch resembles this membrane generally, but differs
from it by the simpler character of its spines, by their absence from its
upper portions, and by its brownish tinge. The cuticula between the
segments resembles the spiracular membrane.

The cuticula forms also the stigmata or openings of the tracheal sys-
tem. Immediately around each opening the cuticula is perfectly smooth,
while to form the stigmata it undergoes various modifications, which I
have not studied. The cuticula of the thorax, head, and limbs I have not
examined.

Epidermis. — The cuticula is secreted by an underlying layer of cells,
the epidermis proper, often called the matrix or hypodermis, but inas-

00 1 think it possible that the examination of sections, which the imperfect preservation of the parts
prevented my making, will show that the cones are after all really produced by specialized cells. The
surface views I have obtained are none of them thoroughly satisfactory in this respect.

SENSE ORGANS OF THE LOCUST.

189

much as this layer is homologous with the epidermis of other animals,
it seems desirable to secure uniformity of nomenclature by adopting this
name for the subcuticular layer of cells. I have not devoted much at-
tention to this tissue. Its relations and proportionate size in locusts to
the cuticula, Cu., can be seen at Ep., in Fig. 7. The cells composing it
are cylindrical and form but a single layer, interspersed through which
are numerous hair cells, as above described.

In Anabrus, the epidermis is composed of high cylinder-cells, which
contain a great deal of granular pigment, often sufficient to completely
hide the nucleus. „ Seen from the surface these cells present polygonal
outlines (Fig. 5G). When in such a view the nucleus is visible, the
character of the cuticular matrix is at once evident, and it becomes certain
that Leydig was entirely wrong in his assertion that the " hypodermis "
of insects is formed by connective tissue and not by an epithelium. This
mistake has already been carefully and accurately pointed out by
Graber.231

The coloration of Anabrus depends principally upon the pigment of
the epidermis shining through the cuticula. Most of the cells contain
dull reddish-brown granules, but scattered in among them are patches
of cells blight green in color. I have observed no cells intermediate
in color ; on the contrary the passage is abrupt, a brown or red cell lying
next a green one. Indeed I have never seen any microscopic object
more bizarre than a piece of the epidermis of Anabrus spread out and
viewed from the surface. My thought upon first seeing such a prepara-
tion was that my reagents must have played me some trick, but prepa-
rations made from alcoholic specimens, and examined in alcohol, without
having been exposed, to my knowledge, to any other reagent, exhibited
the same peculiarities.

The student will find observations on the coloration of the epidermis
and cuticula of insects in an article by Dr. Hagen,232 and a memoir by
Leydig.233

Sense organs. — This would be the proper place to describe the sense
organs, the eyes, and auditory apparatus, &c, but the extreme difficulty
of preparing these organs satisfactorily induced me to neglect them
entirely, in order to devote my whole time to the investigation of other
points, concerning which results were more readily attainable. For the
convenience of those who may wish to know the present state of our
knowledge concerning these obscure structures, I quote below the titles
of some of the more important recent papers,234 especially those which
give references to the earlier publications.

01 Graber: Denkschr. Wien. Akad. wiss. Bd. xxxvi. (1876), p. 33.
231 Hagen: American Naturalist, vol. vi, p. 388.

^Leydig: Bemerknngen Uber die Farbon der Hantdecke, etc., bei Insekten. A. f. m. A., Bd. xiii, 8.
536 (1876).

^Leydig: Geruchs-uud G-ehororgan der Krebse and Tnsekten. Muller's Archiv., 1860, p. 292.
Wolf: Das Riechorgan der Biene. Nova. Acta, xxxviii., No. 1.

Orobben : Ueber Blaschenformige Sinnesorgane der Larve von Ptychoptera contaminata. Sitzbor.
Wien. Akad.. Bd. lrxii. (1876). (List oontinned on next page.)

190 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

Nervous system*— -This requires special methods and unusual pains in
determining its histological character. I was the less unwilling to let
this omission remain, because the nervous system of insects has been
the subject of elaborate histological investigations on the part of Pro-
fessor Leydig,235 of Bonn, to whose work I may refer those who are de-
sirous of further information on this subject.

A recent article, by Hans Schultze, in vol. xvi, page 57, oftheArchiv
fur mikroskopische Anatomic, is valuable. There is also an extensive
memoir by K. B. Krieger,236 on the nervous system of the crayfish, and
another l>y Bell i'17 on that of Squilla.

Iu order, however, to illustrate the general structure of the nervous
ganglia, I have given, in Fig. 11, a drawing of a section through the
last abdominal ganglion of Caloptenus. The figure is somewhat dia-
grammatic. A ganglion consists of two parts, the central fibrous por-
tion, from which the nerves arise, and the peripheral layer of ganglion
cells, GZ. On each side of these are two nerve roots, one the dorsal, DB,
the other the ventral, VE. These Professor Semper,233 in his article on
Strobilation and segmentation, homologies with the roots of the spinal
nerves in vertebrates, bul 1 do not know how far his conclusions on this
point have been accepted by zoologists. It will be noticed that the four
nerve roots in Fig. 11 pass out from the central fibrous mass, through
the cellular layer, which latter is thus divided into four fields.

The structure of the supraesophageal ganglion, the so-called brain,
is very much more complicated in insects than was formerly supposed.
It differs very essentially from any of the abdominal ganglia. The
brain of insects has been recently investigated by Diet!,239 Flogel,240 and
Newton.241

Graber: Ueber die tympanalen Sinnesorgane der Orthopteren. Denkschr. Wien. Akad., Bd. xxxvi,
(1876), 2 abth., p. 1.

: Ueber neue Otocystenartige Sinnesorgane der Insekten. Arch, fur miferos. Anat., Bd. xvi,

p. 36 (1878).

Mayer: Sopra certi organi di senso nelle antenne dei Ditteri. Mem. Reale Accad. dei Lincei. Roma, 4
Maggio, 1879. (A criticism of Graber's paper on Otocysts.)

Qrenacher: Untersuchungen iiber das Arthropodenange. KHnische Monatsblatter fur AugenheiL
kunde, Jahrg. 15, Beilageheft zum Maiheft, 1877.

Newton: Eye of Homarus. Quait. Journal Micros. Sci., 1875.

Lowne: On the modification of the simple and compound eyes of Insects. Phil. Trans. R. Soc, London,
voL 169, p. 577.

Bullar: On the Development of the parasitic Isopoda. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, London, voL 169, p.
513, 514 (structure of eye).

Oraber : Ueber das unicorneale Tracheaten, und speciell des Arachnoideen- und Myriapodenauge.
Arch. f. micros. Anat., xvii, p. 58 (1880).

235 Vom Bau des Thierischen Kbrpers, Tubingen, 1864. Histologij des Nervensysteme der Arthropo.
den, pp. 214-226 ; bei Orthopteren, p. 262.

^Krieger: Ueber das Centralnervensystem des Flusskrebses. Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zool., xxxiii (1880),
p. 527. Taf. xxxi-xxxiii.

237 Bellonci, G. : Morfologia della systema nervose della Squilla mantis. Annali Museo civico stor.
Nat. di Genova, vol. xii (1878), pp. 518-545.

^Semper: Arbeitendes Zool. zoot. Inst., Wiirzburg, Bd. iii.

239 Dietl: Die Organisation des Arthropodengehirns. Zeit. f. wiss. Zoologie, xxvii, p. 488.

240 Flogel: Ueber den einheitlichen Bau des Gehirns in den verschiedenen Insectenordnungea.
Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zool., Bd. xxx, Suppl. (1877), p. 556.

241 E. T. Newton: On the brain of the cockroach, Blatta orientalis. Quatr. Jour. Micros. Sci., voL xix
1879), p. 340.

AIR-TUBES OF THE LOCUST.

191

Trachea'. — The tracheae of insects have long attracted the attention of
comparative anatomists, and the cnrious spiral thread which lies within
their interior has been frequently mentioned both by the older as well
as the more recent writers. Those who wish to become acquainted with
the opinions of the authors of the beginning of this century, will find a
capital summary in Shuckard's Burmeister, p. 170. It may, also, be
well to state that the trachea) do not consist of an "external serous and
internal mucous membrane," as quoted by Dr. Packard on pp. 40-41 of
his invaluable "Guide to the Study of Insects," that idea of their struc-
ture being now known to be incorrect. The true structure of these in-
teresting air tubes was not known until 1875, when Dr. Chun, one of
Leuckart's pupils, published an article242 on the " Rectaldriisen der In-
secten" in which he incidentally describes with approximate exactitude

Fig. 6. — Testis of Anabrus, showing the ramifications of the trachea).

the structure of the tracheae. Leydig243 had previously found that the
inner membrane consists of two layers, and that the spiral filaments are
not distinct and separate, but, on the contrary, intimately connected with
the inner membrane. Leydig also found the tracheae to have an outer
layer, which contained nuclei, and which he wrongly supposed to be con-
nective tissue, even venturing to say that no one could think of regard-
ing it as an epithelium. Chun, in his paper above cited, was the first to
show that Leydig was in error in making this statement, and that, in a
variety of insects, the cellular matrix, which secretes the inner membrane
and the spiral thread, is really an epithelium. At the same time I made
similar observations on various insects, particularly on the large water

242 Chun : TJeber deu Ban , die Entwickelung und physiologisehe Bedeutung der Rectaldriisen bei deii
Insekten. Abh. Senkberg. Natforsch. Ges. Frankfurt, 1876, Bd. x, p. 27. Structur der Tracheen, p. 39.

'"Leydig: Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol., 1855, p. 458. Lehrbuch der Histologie, p. 386. Vom Bau des
Thierischen Korpers, p. 41.

192 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

beetle, ITydrophilus piceus. The results of my investigations were after-
wards published in Paris.2" A few months later Graber also described
the structure of the tracheae, pointing out Leydig's error. Graber's ob-
servations are published incidentally in his article on the tympanal
organs of the Oi tlioptera.245

I have found that the account 1 I lien published of the minute anatomy
of the air tubes in Ilydrophilus is applicable, almost without change, to
the grasshoppers, and I have, moreover, been able to convince myself
that the epithelium is not columnar, but a true pavement epithelium
(Pflasterepithel) as I had previously found it to be in llydrophilus and
other insects. My own observations certainly imply that Dr. Chun is
in error as to the nature of this layer in those species that he examined.

In order to avoid repetition I reproduce here a figure (7) of a longitudi-
nal section of a trachea of the European water beetle, taken from the
American Nattvralist, -July, 1877. Externally lies the
epithelium cp, which is readily recognized by the flat-
tened elongated nuclei. Next follows the inner layer of
the cuticula, cw, and interiorly the darker colored inner
layer, in which are imbedded the dark colored spiral fila-
ments/. This arrangement recurs in a number of in-
sects and probably in all, the variations being merely
in the proportionate thicknesses of the various parts,
and the relative size of the spiral threads.

If short pieces of the tracheae be pulled out, then
stained with carmine or haematoxiline and mounted, it
section ot? large De noticed that the size of the spiral filaments, and
trachea of Hydro- also the distance between them, diminishes with the
phiius piceus. sjze of the tracheae. Where a smaller trachea springs
from a larger one, there is not a gradual passage from the large to the
small threads, but at the point of origin the filaments of the large
tracheae bend apart so as to leave a space in which the tracheal branch
takes rise, beginning at once with small spiral threads.

The preparations we are now considering further show that there is
not a single spiral thread, but several, which run parallel to one another,
as I have shown before246, and end after making a few turns around the
trachea. The single threads terminate not abruptly but by tapering
down to a point and so disappearing.

The nuclei (Figs. 8 and 61) of the tracheal epithelium are elliptical in
outline, much flattened, though considerably thicker than the body of
the cells. Their long axis is more or less nearly parallel with that of the
trachea, and they all have a very distinct and highly refringent nucleo-
lus ; sometimes two. The nucleoli are, I bebeve, always eccentrically

144 Archives de Physiologia Normals et Pathologique, 1876, p. 1, and in Ranvier's Travaux do. Labora-
toire, etc., 1876, p. 1.

145 Graber : Denk. Wien. Akad, Txxvi, p. 35.
Minot: Recherch.es histologiques sur les Trach6es de l'Hydrophilus picous. Arch, de PhysioL

expt. 1876, p. 1.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE AIR-TUBES.

193

placed. The nuclei can be seen in Anabrus in tracheae that have been
mounted in balsam, without being stained, for the flat cells are sur-
charged with unusually large, highly refringent, reddish-brown pigment
granules of nearly uniform size (Fig. 01), hence the nuclei appear as clear
ovals in the midst of the dark bodies of the cells.

The spiral threads are unusually delicate in Anabrus (Fig. 57), and
lie quite close together.

In the finer branches of the tracheal system the structure is slightly
modified (Fig. 8). In the first place, the nuclei are farther apart,
showing that the cells are much larger than in the main tubes, and the
nuclei appear much elongated, though their volume does not seem much,
if at all, changed. The fine branches divide mainly by forking. In
the crotch of the fork there often sits a triangular nucleus of entirely
different shape from those on the other parts of the respiratory appa-
ratus (Fig In').

The peculiar elongated shape of the nuclei on the finer tracheae ren-
ders it possible to follow the course of the delicate air tubes (in stained
preparations) through the other tissues with considerable ease. Never-
theless it is advantageous in studying the distribution of the tracheae in
the various organs to examine them immediately after the insect is killed,
because they are then injected with air, so that under the microscope the
large tubes appear silvery and the fine branchlets as dark lines in the
fresh tissue. It will then be found that their distribution is almost as
characteristic of the single organs as is the course of the blood-vessels
in vertebrates. Williams247 has reported some observations on this sub-
ject, but his statements are generally received with some questioning.

Sir John Lubbock 248 has published a valuable and extensive memoir
on the distribution of the tracheae, containing the results of observations
on a very large number of iusects of all orders. As far as I have been
able to express my own results in general terms, I believe they are
confirmed by the facts recorded by Lubbock. I find that the distribu-
tion of the tracheae depends, first, upon the shape of the organs, and,
secondly, upon the size of those whose size is variable ; whereby it must
be remembered that the trachcce, as far as at present known, are exclusively
confined to the connective tissue, including, of course, the fat body. No
epithelium is ever penetrated by the air tubes in any instances known
to me, through either my own observations or the writings of others.
I give descriptions of the distribution of the trachea} in certain organs
of Caloptenus and CEdipoda. Around the large organs (intestine, sexual
organs), with interior cavities, the tracheae ramify in all directions, as
on the ovary, for instance, Fig. 13, forking so that the branches diverge
at a wide angle. In the organs which have muscular walls, like the
oviduct (Fig. 14), for example, the tracheae run straight when the walls
are distended, but have a siuuous course, as in the figure (14), when

M' Williams: Ann. Hag. Xat. Hist. (1854), vol. xiii, p. 194.

248 Lubbock: Distribution of the trachea} of insects. Phil. Trans. 18C0, vol. xxiii, p. 194.
13 L

194 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

the walls are contracted. This shows, as I also know from direct obser-
vation, that the trachea?, though capable of great elongation, are more
easily bent than compressed, so as to diminish their length. Around
the organs of more elongated form the branches of the tracheae run
more longitudinally, as is shown by the air tubes of the muscles, which
also present some peculiarities worthy of especial notice. A short thick
trunk (see Fig. 12) arrives at the muscular bundle, and, dividing very
rapidly, breaks up into a large number of delicate tubes, which pene-
trate between the muscular fibers, there terminating in tubes of exceed-
ing fineness, which, at first sight, seem to form a network that might
well be called a rete mirabilc. A closer examination, however, reveals
that it is not a real network, but rather an interlacing, confusing to"the
eye. The longitudinal direction of the trachea} of the muscles presents
a striking contrast to the system of divarication, represented in Figs. 13
and 14. The course of the trachea? of the Malpighian tubes is also very
curious. It is represented in Fig. 10. There is one large trachea which
winds around the tube in a long spiral, giving off numerous small
branches, which run to the surface of the tube, upon which they form
delicate ramifications. Each tube has but a single main trachea, and I
think the trachea continues the whole length of the tube, but of this last
point I am not quite sure.

Many organs, as for instance the testis of Anabrus (Fig. 0 in the text),
are supplied by a few large tracheal trunks, which give off many small
branches, the ramifications of which penetrate the organ in question.

The fine terminations of the trachea? have been investigated, as far
as I am aware, only by Max Schultze,249 Weismann,250 and LL Meyer.251

They all agree in stating that they end blindly in stellate and branch-
ing cells. Max Schultze discovered that these terminal cells are dyed
black by per-osmic acid, so that they are then very sharply marked off
from all the surrounding tissues. The trachea? extend into the interior
of these terminal cells. Graber252 gives a singular account of the termi-
nation of the trachea? in Phthirius Uujuinalis. I cannot but think that
his description is based upon a false interpretation of his observations.

The development of the trachea? has been studied by Weismann and
Meyer in the papers just cited, and also by Semper,253 in an admirable
paper on the development of the wings in Lepidoptera.

Dr. Williams, in his article published in the Annals and Magazine of
Natural History for 1854, vol. xiii, maintained that the finer branches
anastomosed, resembling in that respect the capillaries of vertebrates.
Lubbock has already pointed out that the tracheal anastomoses are con-

2,3 Max Sch ultze : Zur Kenntniss der Leuchtorgano von Lamp yris splendidula. Arch. f. mikros. Anat
1, p. 124 j Trachcen, p. 130, £f. ; figs. 4, 5, 8, and 9.

"° Weismann : Die Entwickelung der Dipteren im Ei. Zeitschrift fur Wiss. Zool. Bd. XTTT (1863), p. 193.

251 H. Meyer : Ueber die Entwickelung des Fettkorpers, der Tracheen und der keimbereitenden Gesch-
lechtstheile bei den Lepidopteren. Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zool. Bd. I, p. 174.

K'Oraber: Zeit. f. Wiss. Zool. XXII, 147 (1872).

^Zeit. Wiss. Zool. VIII, p. 328.

MUSCLES OF THE LOCUST.

195

fined to the larger branches. My observations on the grasshoppers en-
tirely confirm Lubbock's opinion, and probably his Conclusion may be
safely made general for all insects.

Air-sacks and spiracles. — Concerning the latter I have made no obser-
vations, considering that an account of their structure belongs rather
to the anatomist. Of the air-sacks I have only to say that in them the
spiral filament is wanting, their inner walls being thrown up into quite
high and somewhat irregular folds, but concerning the histological ele-
ments of the sacks I can add nothing to what is already known. The
absence of the spiral thread had already been noticed by the older
authors.254 The true air-sacks must be distinguished from simple tracheal
dilatations.

MUSCLES.

By far the majority of the muscular fibres in Caloptenus and (Edipoda
are transversely striated. Examined with a high power they are found
to resemble closely the fibres of the common water-beetle, which has been
so often figured and studied.255 First there is a broad
dark band, then a broad light band, which is, however,
divided in two by a narrow dark line, just as in the
fibres of HydropMlus, figured in the accompanying wood-
cut.

The way in which the muscular fibres are grouped
together varies very much in different parts of the body.
For instance, in some of the muscles of the head the
fibres are not collected in bundles, but are more or less
isolated, as appears with the utmost distinctness in a
fibre of HydrophUus transverse section like Fig. 5, whde the muscles of the
picens.-AfterMinot.^ilorax form bundles of more or less cylindrical form, as
appears in Figs. 9 and C r. m. The single fibres are not round, as might
be thought upon looking at one spread out longitudinally, but polygonal
in section, as is seen in Fig. 5, the corners being rounded off. They are
commonly four-sided, but sometimes three or five-sided. In every mus-
cular bundle there are to be seen oval nuclei, whose long axes lie more
or less nearly parallel with the direction of the muscular fibres. The
nuclei are small and flattened, slightly granular, and many of them (Fig.
9) contain a small eccentric nucleolus. They are situated on the surface
of the fibres, to which I think they belong, though they are perhaps
the nuclei of the sarcolemma.

Besides the striated muscles there are also smooth fibres to be found
around the intestine, as wfll be more particularly described hereafter.

254 Burmeister : Manual of Entomology, translated by Shuekard, p. 178.
^Hanviar: Traite Technique d' Histologic, p. 477 ff.

Dr. T. Dwight: Structure and action of striated muscular fibre; in the Proc. Boston S. N. H. (1873-
*74), vol. xvi, p. 119.

Engelmann : Pliiger's Archiv. fur Physiologic, Bd. vii, pp. 33 and 155, and Bd. xviii, p. 1, and many 1
others.

196 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

This is not the place to describe the single muscles of the body, but
there is one which, I will mention, because its disposition can hardly be
seen as clearly in any other way but in a section through the abdomen.
The muscle in question is shown in Fig. C r. to., and may be called the
M. respiratorius, for it serves to approximate the upper and lower cuti-
cular arches (Fig. 2 D and V) and so to diminish the capacity of the
abdomen, hence it is to be concluded that it subserves the act of expira-
tion. It has a broad attachment to the lower part of the side of the
dorsal arch (cf. Fig. 2 r. to.) and a narrow insertion into the upper edge
or rim of the ventral arch. It is surrounded by a network of fibrous
connective tissue. Graber256 calls this muscle the "dorso-ventral." In
the living grasshopper the respiratory movements of the two arches are
readily seen.

ORGANS OF CIRCULATION.

These organs I have not examined with sufficient attention to justify
the publication of my fragmentary observations. The two most recent
articles on the heart are by Graber257 and Dogiel,*58 both of whom refer to
the older literature. I wish also to use this occasion to refer to the in-
vestigations of Graber259 on the pulsating ventral sinus of insects, and
the discovery of ganglion cells in the heart of Crustacea by Dogiel260 and
Berger.201 The student should also compare Burger's paper262 on the so-
called ventral vessel, which he shows to be really a cord of connective
tissue surrounding the ventral ganglionic cord.

CONNECTIVE TISSUE.

In insects all the internal organs of the body are, so to speak, spun
around by a web of fibrous and fatty tissue, which extends in the space
between the outer body wall and the digestive tract, so as to surround
all the intermediate parts. This is the connective tissue, which also
acts as carrier or staging of the tracheae. The arrangement of this net-
work is such that the spaces left between the beams or threads of it form
a system of lacunar spaces, which serve as channels for the circulation
by being directly connected with the arteries on the one hand and the
veins on the other. Indeed it is not improbable that the distinctive
blood-vessels are nothing more than specialized lacunse of the con-
nective tissue, so that it would be eminently proper to consider the vas-

*« Graber: Denkschr. Wien. Akad., Bd. 36, p. 75.

257 Graber : Ueber den propulsatorischen Apparat der Insecten. Arch., f. mikros. Anat., ix (1873), p.
129.

^Dogiel : Anatomie und Physiologie des Herzens der Larve von Corethra plumicomis. Mem. Acad.
St. Petersb., xxiv, Ho. x (1877).

259 Graber: Ueber den pulsirenden Baucbsinus der Insecten. Arcb. f. mikros. Anat., xii (1876), p.
575.

^Dogiel : De la Structure et des Fonctions du Cceur des Crustacea. Arch. Phys., 1877, p. 401.
261 Berger : Ueber das Vorkommen von Ganglienzellen im Herzen des Flusskrebse, Vienna, 1877, pub-
lished by Ceroids Sohn.

161 Burger, Dionys: tiber das sogenannte Bauchgefass der Lepidopteren, nebst, etc. Niederl. Arch. £
Zool., iii (1876), p. 97.

CONNECTIVE TISSUE OF THE LOCUST.

197

cular system under this head had the time at my disposal permitted my
investigating it.

In the connective tissue we find, first, long fibres upon which sit small
compressed and elongated nuclei (Fig. G con.), and which form a loose
network ; second, the pale round cells, with a nucleus at the periphery
(Leydig's zellig blasiges Gewebe'263) : third, the fat-cells204 (Fig. 15) ; and,
fourth, the connective tissue with stout trabecular and small meshes
around the ovary (Fig. 17). I shall here speak only of the third and
fourth kinds of tissue. The " Fettkorper" of the Germans, or the fat-
body, is generally, and I think correctly, supposed to be merely a mod-
ification of the connective tissue. Fig. 15 is from a section cut from
the object after it had been imbedded in paraffine, so that the action of
turpentine on the cells, while the object was being prepared for imbed-
ding, probably altered their appearance from what is natural by dis-
solving a portion of the fat they originally contained. In a preparation
of this kind, which has b een colored by hreinatoxiline, the outlines
and nuclei of the cells appear very distinctly. The cells are nearly of
uniform size, and so crowded together (Fig. 15) that their walls are flat-
tened by mutual pressure. The nucleus is placed iu the center of the
cell and is nearly or quite spherical, and especially characterized by
containing some fifteen to twenty or more large granules of nearly uni-
form size and darkly colored by the logwood, while the intervening
spaces are quite pale and clear. The nature of the body of the cell is
obscured by numerous indistinct lines and dots, the real nature of which
I have been unable to make out.

Graber has described some interesting peculiarities iu the fatbody of
insects, especially in Pthirius.265 He found the cells in this insect to be
elongated, charged with greenish pigment, with spherical nuclei. Ono
end of the cells is pointed and free, the other is united with a cord of
connective tissue, the ultimate course of which he could not follow.
Graber suggests that these cords contain trachea} running to terminate
in the fat-cells themselves. Besides these Graber saw other fat-cells in
which he discerned no nucleus. The presence of pigment in the fat-
cells is very common. The pigment is usually green or yellow, but
sometimes of other colors.

As regards the connective meshes with stout trabecule around the
follicles of the ovary, I believe that Fig. 17 illustrates its appearance in
the locusts better than any description I could give. I will, therefore,
only call attention to the rounded form of the openings and their un-
equal size, and I have often seen them much larger than any in Fig. 17.
Of this same ovarian tissue I have obtained very beautiful preparations
from Anabrus (Fig. C2), showing both its fibrous character and the shape
and form of its nuclei. The fibres are exceedingly fine, and show a tend-

m3Leydig Vom Bau dcs Thierischen Korper'a. Tubingen, 1804, p. 29.

'"See particularly Leydig TJober den Fettkorper der Arthropoden, Miiller's Arch., 1803, p. 192.
865 Graber Z. Z., xxii, p. 152-157. Taf. xi, fig. 7 b.

198 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

ency to gather themselves into bundles, which, though they run in va-
rious directions, have a common trend parallel to the ovarian tubes.
The interspaces of the network are, for the most part, of an elongated,
rounded form, their long axes being parallel with the general trend of
the fibres. The majority of the nuclei are irregularly oval in shape, and
contain numerous granules, which are darkly stained by hoematoxiline.
Whether these nuclei belong to the fibrous tissue itself or to an endothe-
lium covering it, I cannot say. The latter view seems tome more prob-
able.

A very singular modification of this tissue may be found in the tunica
propria of the Malpighian vessels of Anabrus. Spiral bands wind round
the tubes. These bands are composed of a network of fine fibres, with
small meshes and occasional granular oval nuclei, each of which is sur.
rounded by a little court (" hof ") of protoplasm. At first sight these
bands might be taken for a nervous plexus, but closer examination re-
veals their true character. In the locusts, as will be described shortly,
there is a trachea which winds round each Malpighian tube in a spiral.
It is possible that a similar disposition exists in Anabrus, though I have
not observed it. In that case the spiral bands of connective tissue in
the latter insect may be the means of fastening the trachea to the Avails
of tlic Malpighian tube.

The trabecular or retiform modification of the connective tissue is
probably very generally, if not always, to be found in all invertebrates
above the Gozlenterata. It does not seem to me necessary to give ex-
tended references. I will, however, mention Grobben's figure.206

The nervous chain of Lepidoptera is covered in the abdomen, but not
in the thorax, by a cord of connective tissue, originally described by
Treviranus as a ventral vessel, "Baucbgefiiss." Its true nature was
first recognized by Leydig in 1862, and more recently it has been the
object of a special study by Dionys Burger,267 who proposes for it the
name of chorda supraspinalis. It is to be hoped that subsequent inves-
tigators will search for this organ in the Orthoptera and other insects in
which we may reasonably expect to find it.

SEXUAL ORGANS.

I. — Female organs.

Ovary. — The ovary is composed of a number of separate tubes, each
of which is more or less independent. They all have essentially the
same structure histologically, the differences I have observed relating
merely to the proportions of the parts to one another. Every ovarian
tube begins in the thorax with a small cord (Fig. 04 ch.) of connective
tissue, which, is said to be attached to the heart.263 Graber states that in

^Grobben: Die Geschicclitorgane Ton Squilla mantis. Sitzber. Wien Akad., Bd. lxxiv 1. Abth.,
p. 389. (Fig. 8 of plate.)

267 Burger, Dionys : Uber das sogenannte Bauchgefiiss, etc. Niederl. Archir. fur Zoo]., iii ( 187G), p. 97.
268Leydig, Burmeister, Waldeyer, Lubbock, and others.

STRUCTURE OF THE OVARY.

199

Phthirius, three cords spring from each ovarian tube, instead of one as
in most insects. Leydig2ra considers this cord to be hollow, while most
other authors describe it as solid in the insects they have examined.
Neither in the locust or the cricket have I seen any trace of an interior
cavity. The cord is covered by an external membrane, very thin, and
apparently homogeneous, except for the nuclei, which enter into its
composition, and appear in stained preparations as dark bodies project-
ing above the general level of the membrane, which, in short, very
closely resembles the tunica propria of the Malpighian tubes. In the
interior of the cord are numerous granular oval nuclei (Fig. 64 ch.), their
long axes being nearly parallel with that of the cords. If a cord be
teazed out with needles, each nucleus is found to lie in the middle of a
spindle-shaped body, from either end of which a thread-like process runs
out lengthwise of the cord. In what manner these threads terminate
I do not know. This cord runs to the rounded tip of the ovarian tube,
which begins quite abruptly, quickly attaining twice the diameter of the
cord in Anabrus (Fig. GI), or three or four times in the locusts. From
the tip downwards the tube is divided into compartments, each of which
contains a single egg. The lower we go, the wider the tube and the
more advanced in development the egg. Between every two fully-
developed compartments the tube is somewhat constricted. In Anabrus,
a long narrow piece sometimes intervenes between two adjacent com-
partments. In locusts, at least, the tubes are narrowed by a marked
constriction just before they open into the oviduct. In Anabrus (Fig.
64 «), the commencement of the upper end of the ovarian tube proper is
marked by the transverse direction of a few oval nuclei. Immediately
below these are found rounded nuclei, and among them lie a few cells
which have already assumed the distinctive characters of eggs ; these
latter cells are larger the lower their position. In this part of the tube
(Fig. 64 a b) there is no distinct division into compartments. The cor-
responding region in locusts differs in that at the upper end or very tip
I could distinguish only one kind of cells, which had clear nuclei and
distinct nucleoli. Lower down some of the cells become larger than
their fellows, and partly surrounded by them ; still lower the large cells
appear isolated, larger, and completely inclosed by a layer of cells that
form a perfect epithelial follicular wall.

The remaining lower and largest part of the ovarian tubes is divided
into distinct compartments or follicles. As we proceed downward in
our examination of the tube we see that the egg-cells, which were at
first spherical, become elongated in the direction of the axis of the tube,
while at the same time the nucleus becomes indistinct, and the proto-
plasm of the original cell charged with yolk granules, the deutoplasm
of Fdouard van Beneden.270

It. will thus be seen that the development of the eggs in Caloptcnus

Lcydig: Zum feineren Ban <ler Arthropoden. Miiller's Archiv., 1855, p. 472-3.

Composition et Signiiication do 1'oBuf. Mem. cour. Academie Iioyalo Bclg., T. xxxiv, p 1 (1870.)

200 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

and Anabrus is identical with that observed in other insects,271 for which
I refer the reader to Waldeyer,272 Leydig,273 and particularly to the elabo-
rate and accurate memoir of Dr. Ludwig.274

I wish to describe somewhat carefully the relation of the egg to the cells
of the follicular wall in the locust. If a bit of the wall of one of the largest
follicles be spread out on a slide and colored with carmine it will be seen
that it is composed of very large and beautiful cells, Fig. 20. The cells
are for the most part pentagonal in outline, a few being hexagonal. The
nuclei are very large, taking up a great part of the cells, in the center
of which they lie. They are slightly oval, though departing but little
from a circular outline. They are darkly colored by carmine, and are
filled with innumerable small granules, which prevented my ascertaining
whether there is any nucleolus, though in many cases there seemed to
be one of considerable size. A transverse section through the whole
follicle, such as is reproduced in Fig. 19, shows that the cells form a
single continuous layer, Ep, around the egg, Eg. Examined with a higher
power, Fig. 16, such a section reveals the form of the cells. The free or
outer surface of the epithelium, Ep, is nearly flat, while the side towards
the egg, Eg, is dome-shaped. Between the epithelium and the egg there
is a layer, Sh, of finely-granulated and very pale substance that is not
colored by carmine or h ajmatoxiline. This layer has its outer surface
hollowed out into little cups, each of which is intended to receive the
dome-shaped end of one of the epithelial cells, as is shown very plainly
in Figs. 10 and 19, which represent sections in which the epithelium is
artificially raised from t he granular layer. In the normal condition the
cells rest directly on the layer, and there is no clear space, as indicated
in Fig. 10. It is to be added that the layer in question consists of three
strata: 1, a very delicate external membrane, which rests against the
epithelium ; 2, the middle granular portion ; and 3, a fibrous stratum,
which assumes a roseate hue after staining with carmine, and which lies
next the egg. The layer is formed in the follicles, and is probably se-
creted by the follicular epithelium. It is not to be found in the upper
part of the ovarian tube. If I am not mistaken, it passes over with the
egg into the oviduct, being destined to form part of the shell. I cannot
help suspecting that it is this structure which has given rise to the opin-
ion that, at least in some insects, the wall of the egg follicle passes off
with the egg to form part of the shell.

In the egg proper of locusts, Figs. 10 and 19, Eg, the enormous masses
of nutritive yolk deserve special mention, though I have been unable
to determine their relation to the protoplasm of the egg.

The ovarian tubes have further an external tunic, which I have studied

"'Excellent diagrams of the development of eggs in insects are given in Gegenbaur's Grundziige der
Vergleichenden Anatomie. 2 Aufl., p. 463, fig. 121, and an even better figure of Vanessa urticoe is given
by Waldeyer in Strieker's Handbnch der Lehro von den Geweben, p. 5G3, fig. 195.

272 Waldeyer: Eierstock und Ei, Leipzig (18T0), p. 86, and especially p. 90.

mIieydigi Eierstock und Samentascbe der Insecten. Nov. Act. Caes. Lcop., xxxiii (1867).

174 H. Ludwig : Semper's Arbeiten. Bd. I.

STRUCTURE OF THE OVARY.

201

in Anabrus only, Fig. 64, Tu, continuous with the tunica externa of the
cord ch. The appearance of the tunic is represented at Tu, the rest of
Fig. 61 being drawn with the objective focused lower. The membrane
is thin, delicate, and entirely distinct from the follicular epithelium,
which has shrunk away from it, as seen in the figure. The external
tunic is very transparent, and contains more or less nearly oval, flattened
nuclei, with no distinct outline or apparent nucleolus, and containing a
single layer of flue granules, all of which are darkly stained by hsema-
toxiline. Apparently every granule lies by itself, and is separated from
its fellows by a clear space, only very slightly tinged by the logwood.
Toward the upper end of the tube the nuclei are smaller and he closer
together. They lend a peculiar character to the tunic, and remind one of
the similar nuclei in the tunica externa of the spermatic tubes of locusts.

The peculiar net-work of connective tissue which surrounds the ovary,
and which is represented in Figs. 17 and 62, has already been described.

Anterior ccecum of the oviduct. — By this name I designate the narrow
convoluted anterior prolongation of the oviduct in locusts, which Dufour 275
calls the " boyau borgne et flexueux, qui termine l'ovaire en avant," and
which is represented on his Plate II, Fig. 18 c. In a transverse section
through the middle of the abdomen, the two coeca are cut across sev-
eral times, ovd, in Fig. 1. It is then seen that they are tubes with thick
walls and a cavity of moderate size. The main thickness of the wall is
made up by the epithelium, the real character of which is obscure in my
preparations, there being a great many oval nuclei scattered through it
at all levels, while the limits of the single cells do not appear. Outside
the epithelium is a distinct but thin layer formed by the connective tis-
sue, tracheae, and muscular fibres, which, as far as I can make out, seem
to run circularly. It is very possible that in better preparations longi-
tudinal fibres will be likewise found.

Uterus of locusts. — I employ this name to designate the enlarged
upper end of the oviduct, or that division which Dufour in his classical
memoir calls the " calice."276 Of this organ I have obtained some very
beautiful preparations from QSdipoda sordida. If the whole uterus just
before the eggs descend into it be hardened in alcohol and then exam-
ined, it will be found to be compressed laterally. With a very sharp
razor it may then be cut in halves, so as to obtain two flat pieces ; some
granular matter and coagulated secretions will be found adherent to
the inner surface, which may be removed under alcohol by the careful
use of a camel's hair brush. The piece may then be colored with hsenia-
toxiline, and mounted, with the inner surface upwards, in Canada
balsam. Part of such a preparation is represented in Fig. 21. The in-
ner surface is seen to be lined by a beautiful epithelium, which is thrown
up into broad transverse folds, with intervening depressions of about

2,5Recherches Anatomiques et physiologiquea sur les Orthopteres Memoires a 1' Acad. K. des Sci.
Inst. France, 1834, p. 324.
276 Dufour: 1. c. PlancheH., fig. 18.

202 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

the same width ; the folds are not quite regular, but sinuous in outline,
though, roughly speaking, they are all parallel to one another. Under
a higher power, the epithelium is seen to be composed of cells, which,
viewed from above, present a polygonal outline, varying with each cell,
as is seen in Fig. 23; the nuclei appear nearly in the center of the. cells;
they are oval, and coarsely granular, the granules being darkly colored
by haeraatoxilino and all of nearly uniform size; I failed to detect any
nucleolus. The relations of the epithelium to the remaining layers
of the uterine walls appear best in longitudinal sections, because in
them the folds are cut across. Fig. 22 is taken from a section of a
uterus distended with eggs, and therefore with the folds very much
drawn out. The cells of the epithelium, Fig. 22 ep, are " cylinder cells,"
with the large nuclei lying somewhat towards their free or inner ends.
Their appearance is better shown in the enlarged drawing, Fig. 18 i
they are sharply separated from one another ; their protoplasm is finely
granular, the granules being unequally distributed so that some parts
of the cells appear clearer than others. The free surface of the cells is
nearly if not quite flat, while their outer ends or those which rest upon
the connective tissue (conn.) are often rounded ; finally, the cells are not
all of the same height. Outside the epithelium follows a layer of fibrous
tissue, in which the trachea? ramify, Fig. 22, and which contains numer-
ous small, oval nuclei belonging to the cells of the tissue and elongated
nuclei of the fine tracheal branches, as represented in Fig. 7. Outside
the connective tissue lie the muscular layers, Fig. 22 muc, the fibres of
which are all smooth and not striated. They are arranged so as to form
an internal circular, and a much more powerful external longitudinal
coat, that is very distinctly shown in Fig. 22. Within, the epithelium
is covered by a layer of fibrous matter, Gr., that fills up the whole space
between the uterine walls and the eggs. In many sections there are
nuclei contained in this mass, closely similar to those in the underlying
epithelium. As to the nature of this layer and the source of the nuclei
I cannot venture an opinion.

The remaining portions of the efferent ducts of the female apparatus
I have not investigated. I particularly regret my inability to give some
account of the receptaculum seminis. The reader will find some unsat-
isfactory, because very brief, notices of the female appendices in Ley-
dig's Textbook,277 and a more elaborate monograph273 by the same author
giving a general account of the structure of the receptaculum in insects,
but containing no new observations on the Orthoptera, though in a
previous article279 Leydig has described the " Samentasche" in this order
as being lined by an epithelium, which rests on a tunica propria and
bears a chitinous cuticula, aud outside of which is a thin layer of striated
muscle. The part that Dufour230 calls the uglande sebifiriue''1 is really the

277 Leydig : Lehrbuck tier Histologie, p. 544.

Nova Acta, xxxiii (18G7).

'"Mailer's Arch., 1859, p. 8G.

™<Dnfour: Kecbcrcbes sur les Ortboptdres, 1. c. 325, PI. II, fig. 17 c.

STRUCTURE OF THE TESTIS.

203

receptaculum seminis. A description of the receptaculum and its dncts
in Phthirius is given by Graber.281

2. — Male organs.

The close analogy between the male and female genital systems in
insects is shown by the correspondence of their divisions, and has been
repeatedly pointed out. The analogy in the way in which the sexual
products are developed, though attention has been called to it, has not
been so often emphasized. The testes are elongated sacks or tubes
whose upper ends terminate blindly and whose lower ends open into
the efferent ducts. The spermatozoa begin their development in the
caecal end, in which, accordingly, we find the earliest stages always
represented, while the more advanced zoosperms all lie further down in
the sack, just as we find the youngest stages of the eggs in the upper,
the oldest in the lower part of the ovarian tubules. The simplicity
and distinctness of the parts and straightness of the seminiferous tubes
in the grasshoppers renders the testes of these insects the very best
object to demonstrate the development of the spermatozoa, with which
I am acquainted, as in a single preparation all the principal stages are
often distinctly shown.

Testis.™2 — The male glands are composed of tubes which, instead of
ascending from below forwards as do the ovarian tubes, incline from
below backwards. The whole set of tubes is inclosed in a common sack-
like envelope (Fig. G, p. 191, testis of Anabrus), and from this the tubes
must be isolated. I have found the most convenient way of doing this
to carefully harden a whole male insect in alcohol, and then to cut the
whole abdomen in two along the median line, after which if a little
pains is taken the single seminiferous tubes, which will be easdy recog-
nized lying over the stomach, can be isolated under alcohol with needles.
The following account refers to locusts only. The general shape of
one of the tubes is shown in Fig. 25. The upper end is rounded off, and
from the tip downwards it widens very rapidly, the tube soon attaining
its maximum diameter, which it then maintains through the rest of its
upper half; the lower half gradually tapers down to a comparatively
small tube. The whole, when isolated in the manner described, is
more or less surrounded by connective tissue, as shown in the drawing,
conn. The tube may be roughly divided into four segments as indicated
by the numbered brackets of Fig. 25. The upper segment [I] is filled
with aggregations of cells in various stages of transformation into sper-
matozoa, but still distinctively cellular in their appearance. In the
second segment [II] the cells are gathered into distinct bundles, each
bundle being as shown in the figure in a different stage of development,
those lowest down being most advanced ; in Fig. 25 each one of the dark
masses represents one of the bundles, each of which is composed of a

281 Graber: Z. Z., xxii (1872), pp. 161-162.

282 This account of the testis is taken mainly from Caloptenus spretug.

204 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

great many cells or spermatozoa, the dark portions indicating, however,
only the heads of the zoosperms, the tails being many times longer, but
very pale ; it will bo noticed that the shape of the bundles changes from
above downwards, being broad with rounded ends in the upper part,
and becoming narrower and sharply pointed lower down. In the third
segment [III] the interior of the tube is entirely filled up with the long
tails of the spermatozoa, the tails belonging to each set of heads being
themselves gathered into a sinuous bundle, which are perhaps fifteen or
twenty times as long as the bundles of the heads. Finally, the fourth
segment is filled with globules of various sizes, highly colored by the
haeinatoxiline, very slightly refringent, and closely crowded together,
leaving room only for small interspaces and a few bundles of spermatozoa
tails which extend down among them.

Before entering into the description of various details, which can be
studied on the isolated tube, I will describe a transverse section through
the upper part of the first segment, such a section as is represented in
Fig. 24. The whole tube is formed by an external membrane, Tu., and
its interior is divided up by septae, cys., into several distinct cavities, the
spermatocysts, each of which contains a number of cellular elements, the
spermatoblasts, all in about the same stage of development. In the
walls of the spermatocysts there are a number of peculiar nuclei, so
flattened that in a transverse section they appear as hardly more than
a narrow dark line, as is indicated in the figure. The cells of the sperm-
atoblasts are large and distinct, and are destined to be transformed each
one into one or more spermatozoa. Near the top of the tube the sperm-
atoblasts are round cells, the protoplasm of which is highly tinged with
hoeniatoxiline, and which are provided with a bulky central nucleus each,
as is shown in Fig. 2G. The nuclei are approximately spherical and very
coarsely granular, the granulations being dyed almost black by hsema-
toxiline. Judging from the analogy with other animals, the parts just
described must be interpreted as follows : The whole of each spermato-
cyst arises from a single cell, in which the original single nucleus gives
rise by division to the secondary nuclei, each of which becomes a sperm-
atoblast, the original cell enlarging until it becomes a cyst ; the mother
nucleus also divides into nuclei like itself, which become transformed
into the peculiar nuclei before mentioned, in the wall of the cyst. This
is of course all hypothetical, not based upon direct observation, for in
all the seminiferous tubes I have had an opportunity of examining the
cysts and spermatoblasts were all fully formed. The most complete and
satisfactory account which I am acquainted with of the development of
the spermatozoon is that given of the frog by La Vallette.283 I would
also refer those who wish to understand the great theoretical importance
of these facts to the brief summary of the observations previously made,
which I have published elsewhere.284

283 La Vallette: Archiv fur Mikros. Anat., Bd. xh, s. 797, Taf. xxiv, xxxv (1876).
^Minot: Theory of Impregnation. Proo. Boston S. N. H"., 1877, vol. xix, p. 165.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE SPERMATOZOA.

205

Let us now return to the examination of an isolated tube. In it also
we can recognize the single cysts, and we perceive at once that each cyst
pursues its independeut development, and gradually changes into one of
the bundles that appear so very plainly in the second segment, Fig. 25 II.
It will next be noticed that the further we descend the more numerous
and the smaller the spermatoblasts in each cyst, the nucleus diminish-
ing in size with especial rapidity. The nature of these changes appears
in Figs. 26, 28, 29. Fig. 26 represents a few spermatoblasts from the
upper portion of segment I; their characters have been already de-
scribed. Fig. 28 is taken from lower down. Fig. 29 is taken from a
transverse section of one of the upper bundles of the second segment.
The cells have begun to lengthen, but the nuclei have not changed much.
To this fact I shall recur directly.

Segments I and II, Fig. 25, correspond to two natural stages in the
development of the spermatozoa; first, the multiplication of the sperm-
atoblasts; second, the metamorphosis of the spermatoblasts into the
spermatic threads (Samenfaden). It is therefore only in the first seg-
ment that we find the signs of division, which have been frequently
noticed in the development of the male products in various animals (I
may mention the Batrachians in particular285), but have, I believe, hith-
erto puzzled all naturalists, without exception. These signs of division
are the cells, such as are shown in Fig. 27, which, instead of the ordinary
nuclei, contain a number of very dark and very large granules, often
somewhat irregularly distributed. I have been so fortunate as to obtain
some of these cells isolated, and saw at once that they were in process
of division, and upon closer examination, with a very high power (Tolle's
immersion -r2 th), I was able to see that many of them were in the condi-
tion indicated by Fig. 27 A, elongated, constricted in the middle, the
granules accumulated at the two opposite poles, and running between
the two accumulations a faint striation. There can be no doubt that
this represents the last stage of the division of the nuclei, by the forma-
tion of a Kernspindel, that remarkable phenomenon which has been so
actively studied in Germany and Switzerland during the last two years
by so many distinguished observers.286 This discovery naturally leads to
a variety of theoretical considerations, which cannot be appropriately
introduced here. I will add that I have observed several other stages in
the formation of the Kernspindel, but as my investigations on this point
are still incomplete, I will reserve further details for another occasion.

^Spengel: Urogenital System der Amphibien. Semper's Arbeiten, iii, p. 1, plate ii, figs. 27-34,
Spermatozoa of Epicrinm glutinosum.

^BiiUchli: Studien iiber die ersten Entwickelungsvorgange der Eizelle, etc. Senkberg. Natf. Ges.,
Frankfort, Bd. x, p. 1.

Zur Kenntniss der Theilungsprooess der Knorpelzellen. Zeitsch. Wiss. Zool., xxix, p. 206.

Entwickelungsgeschichtliche Beitrage. Zur Kenntniss der Furchungsprocess bei Neplielis.

Z. Z. xxix, p, 239.

O. Hertwig: Befrachtung, etc. Morph. Jahrb. i, p. 347 ; iii, p. 1 and p. 271.

H. Fol: Sur le Developpement des Pteropodes. Arch. Zool. Expt. G6n. (1875), Tome iii, p. 104 ; also,
same journal, T. V, Fasc. ii.
Compare also the writings of Auerbach, Strassburger, Balfour, et al.

20G REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

Since the peculiar cells of Fig. 27 are signs of division they are not
always present, but in some tubes they are absent altogether. The mul-
tiplication of the spermatoblasts by self-division is interesting because
it shows that all the male elements do not arise directly from the mother
nucleus, a fact of most profound theoretical meaning.

We must now pass to the consideration of the alterations of form which
the spermatoblasts undergo after their multiplication ceases. As before
stated, these changes occur altogether in the second segment of the
tube. The body of the spermatoblasts begins to change before the
nucleus, as is frequently the case with other animals,287 and is perhaps
even the general rule. In the grasshopper the cells begin to elongate,
the nucleus remaining in the upper part. There remains a small head of
protoplasm around the nucleus, while the rest of the protoplasm length-
ens out to form a long tail, so that when the spermatozoon is about half-
developed it consists of a head with a small, spherical, granulated nucleus
surrounded by a little protoplasm, which is prolonged into a thread-like-
tail. The further metamorphosis consists mainly in the elongation of
the nucleus, it first becoming pointed at both ends and bulging in the
middle, then growing more and more rod-like until it is quite filamen-
tous and about six times its original length; meanwhile the protoplasm
around the nucleus gradually disappears, forming probably the little
thread that extends beyond the nucleus, and also contributing to the
growth of the tail. The nucleus, while lengthening out, does not remain
perfectly straight, but at a certain period of its formation is curved
somewhat in the form of an S. The nuclei afterwards straighten out
agaiu forming the heads of the spermatozoa and they then lay them-
selves parallel to one another, and as they become more perfectly packed
together they form the sharp-pointed bundles, which are so character*
istic of the lower part of the second segment of the seminiferous tubes,
Fig. 23, II. In a transverse section through the head of a bundle of
spermatozoa, the heads appear as minute dots closely crowded together,
while in a section of a younger bundle, Fig. 30, they lie at some distance
apart.258

There now remain to be mentioned the very singular nuclei which
appear in the walls of the seminiferous tubes in the lower three-quarters
of their length. They are irregularly distributed, oval, very much flat-
tened, quite large, and contain a few large granules, which alone are
stained by hsematoxiline, the intervening space remaining perfectly clear.

287 La Valletta St. George: Der Hoden in Strieker's Handbuch i, p. 522, especially figs. 183, 188, 189.

TJeber die Genese der Samenkbrper. 4. Hittheilung. Arch, ilikros. Anat., Bd. xii, p. 797.

Spengel: L c.

Braun: Das Urogenital System der einheimischen Reptilien. Semper's Arbeiten, iv, p. 113. Hoden,
p. 158 ff.

KMlikcr: Handbuch der Gewebelehre, 5 Aufl., 1867, pp. 526-528.

Sertoli: Sulla Struthora delli Canalicoli seminiferi, etc. Archivio delle Scienze Mediche, vol. ii, p.
107 (1877).

288 For other accounts of the development of spermatozoa in insects the reader is referred to H Meyer,
Zeit. Wiss. Zool., Bd. i, p. 187.

STRUCTURE OF THE MALE DUCTS.

207

I think these nuclei are probably the degenerating remains of the nuclei
in the walls of the sperinatocysts, and which I regard as the mother
nuclei of the spermatoblasts.

Vasa deferentia of locusts. — These are long, nearly cylindrical tubes,
the walls of which are composed of an interior lining epithelium and an
external layer hardly one-fourth as thick as the epithelium, and com-
posed of connective tissue and tracheae, and, as far as I have been able
to observe, entirely without muscular fibres. The epithelium is formed
of cylindrical cells, with large and distinct nuclei in the basal third of
each cell. It is interesting to compare these ducts with the correspond-
ing canals of Crustacea, the histology of which has been recently studied
by Grobben289 and by August Gruber.290 It now seems probable that fur-
ther observations will soon render it possible to give a description of the
minute structure of the male ducts which shall correctly record the typ-
ical form among arthropods.

Ductus ejaculatorius of locusts. — If we make a transverse section
Jthrough the abdomen of a male C. femur -ruorum at the level where the
'ejaculatory duct runs straight along underneath the dorsum a section of
the duct will be obtained of the appearance indicated in the unfinished
drawing Fig. 33. The canal of the duct, Ej. D, is oval. Below, on either
side, is the section of a large trachea, Tr. and 2V1. The duct itself is
lined by an epithelium, Ep., the height of which is very great at the
sides of, but inconsiderable above and below the duct, so that while the
cavity appears oval in section the external outline of the epithelium is
more nearly circular. Above and below, where the epithelium is nar-
row, there is but a single row of nuclei, but in the broad lateral portions
the nuclei are at very various levels, though never outside a certain cen-
tral zone of the cells, so that just below the inner, and likewise the
outer, surface of the epithelium there is a clear space in which there lie
no nuclei. The epithelium is surrounded by a muscular coat, Muc, of
circular fibres, which form a layer of considerable thickness. This coat,
as will be seen from the figure, is not really separated by the neighbor-
ing connective tissue. In fact, the external limits of the wall of the duct
are not defined.

Vesiculae seminales of locusts. — These are bbnd cylindrical tubes of
larger diameter than the vasa deferentia. They consist of an upper,
wider, non-muscular, and a narrower lower division that has a muscular
coat. The passage from the upper to the lower portion is gradual, not
sudden.

A section through the upper part, Fig. 31, shows that its walls are
formed mainly by a cylindrical epithelium, with slightly oval nuclei,
nearly in the center of each cell. I think, but am not sure, that the nu-
clei are nucleolated. There is a delicate interior cuticula. I thought

285 Grobben : Eeitriige zurKenntniss dcrraannl. Gescblecbtsorg. der Decapoden; etc. Arb. Zool. Inst.
Wion. (1878).

290 A. Gruber: Tiber zwei Siisswasser Calaniden, Leipzig, 1878. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Genera-
tioDsorgano der freilebenden Copepoden. Z. Z., xxxii (1879), p. 407.

208 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

in some sections that I could see cilia, but this point I could not settle
to my satisfaction. There is a thin, but distinct, layer of connective
tissue around the epithelium. The character of the epithelium is not
the same throughout this upper division. In the lower part, when seen
from the inner surface, the epithelium presents the appearance repre-
sented in Fig. 32, the nuclei being oval, of nearly uniform size, and quite
closely crowded together. Higher up the nuclei are further apart and
vary considerably in their dimensions ; the outlines of the cells also ap-
pear more clearly as pentagonal. Near the rounded tip the distance
apart of the nuclei is still greater, and they are more irregular in size.
In some of the specimens I have examined the whole upper division of
the tube was crowded with bundles of spermatozoa. In one tube I counted
over 200 bundles.

The lower end of the upper division tapers off, the nuclei becoming
smaller and even more crowded than in Fig. 32. The muscular coat ap-
pears thin at first, but, increasing, soon acquires its full thickness, the
cahber of the tube diminishing at the same time. A transverse section
of this lower part of the vesicula (Fig. 34) shows that the epithelial
cells are very much smaller than in the upper portion (compare Fig. 34
with Fig 31, both being equally magnified -Lf2-); the walls, however,
rendered very much thicker by the enormous muscular coat, Fig 34 Muc,
the fibres of which appear to be exclusively circular.

I have also made a complete series of sections through the posterior
end of the abdomen of the male, some of which display very beautifully
the relations of the parts, but these structures are so complicated that
an elaborate investigation is necessary to secure a satisfactory interpre-
tation of the sections. Therefore I must reserve the subject for another
occasion.

DIGESTIVE CANAL.

Of the digestive canal I shall give a more complete histological
description than I have of the other systems. Of the cavity of the
mouth and of the oesophagus I shall say but little. The sabvary glands
I have not studied at all, for want of proper material. Those in the
cockroach have been described by von Basch,291 and also in the more
recent superb monograph of Kupffer.292 Leydig293 has made some valua-
ble observations. The glands have likewise been studied in other insects
by various authors, to whom I need not refer here.

In order to render my description easier to follow, I will preface my
account by a brief review of the divisions of the digestive canal in
locusts; my own investigations having shown that the divisions adopted
by the older authors,4 and since generally introduced in all text-books,

291 S. Basch : TTntersuchungen ueber das Chylopoetiache und Uropoetische System der Blatta orien-
tals. Sitzber. Wien. Akad., xxxiii (1858), pp. 234. Speicheldriisen, p. 235, Taf. v, Fig. 11.

292 Kupffer: Die Speicbeldriisen von Periplaneta orientalis und ihr Nervenapparat. Beitrage Anat..
Phys., C. Ludwig gewidmet, p. 64, Taf. ix.

^Miiller's Arch., 1859, pp. 59-70.

STRUCTURE OF THE DIGESTIVE CANAL.

209

are not quite sufficient. The descriptions, both general and histological,
refer to the locusts unless expressly stated to refer to the cricket.

The best method with which I am acquainted for readily obtaining
a general view of the course and divisions of the digestive tract is the
following : Place a female (a male will do, but is not quite so good) in
alcohol of about 50 to 60 per cent, for from 12 to 24 hours; then
put it in strong alcohol (90 per cent.) for a day or longer; then, with a
sharp razor, cut it carefully into halves along the median line, so as to
have the right and left sides separately. Lay the pieces under alcohol,
and carefully remove the contents of the digestive canal, which will
then appear very plainly, its course being as represented iu Fig. 45.
The cavity of the mouth, M, ascends obliquely forward, and is generally
found filled with a black mass, the coagulated " molasses" which grass-
hoppers pour out when caught or irritated. The oesophagus, oe., is nar-
rower, of uniform diameter, it curves upwards and backwards, terminat-
ing very nearly in the center of the head, where it opens into the very
large crop, Or. The crop extends through the posterior half of the
head and the whole of the thorax ; it attains its greatest diameter in
the prothorax, behind which it descends, tapering off slightly, and end-
ing in the proventiculus, P. The crop itself is divisible into two dis-
tinct portions : 1, the anterior (Or.1) lies in the head and prothorax, and
is characterized by the somewhat irregular transverse ridges on its
inner surface ; in Caloptenus spretus, the Rocky Mountain locust, these
ridges are somewhat less numerous and powerful than in 0. femur-
rubrum ; 2, the posterior ( Or.2), in which the ridges are longitudinal and
much smaller and closer together than in the front segment ; the shape
of the posterior division is that of a truncated cone. The proventriculus
(Kaumagen) P, is so much reduced in the grasshopper that it appears
as hardly more than the terminal portion of the crop, instead of being
a large and distinct segment of the digestive canal as in other Or-
thoptera. The Kaumagen opens into the large " chylific stomach " or
ventricle, ven., which extends along the ventral surface about half the
length of the abdomen. At its anterior end it gives off the six blind
pouches, so long known and so frequently described ; iu a longitudinal
section only one of these can be seen (Div.) extending forwards under-
neath the crop. The first part of the intestine I propose to call the
Ileum, II. It appears at first sight as the direct continuation, or rather
as the posterior division, of the stomach, from which, however, it is in
reality perfectly distinct, both by its structure and by its separation
through a peculiar valve, which I shall describe later. The Malpighiau
vessels open just underneath and in front of this valve. The second
division of the intestine I call the colon, col., a name sometimes applied
by older authors to the rectum. The colon is smaller in diameter than
any other part of the digestive tube ; it ascends and opens into the
rectum, B. The rectum extends horizontally directly underneath the
dorsum ; its diameter is about two-thirds that of the stomach ; its inner
14 L

210 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

surface is thrown up into six longitudinal folds, the rectal glands, three
of which are found in each half-section. The rectum opens into the
short anal tube, An., which opens externally on the back just in front of
the upper clasper.

Crop. — Both divisions have their walls composed of the same layers:
1, an internal chitiuous cuticula, which forms the hard covering of the
ridges; 2, the underlying epithelium, the matrix of the cuticula, which
seems to be pigmented, but unfortunately is not very distinct in my
preparations ; 3, an inner layer of longitudinal muscles ; and 4, an exter-
nal layer of circular muscular fibres. The muscular fibres of the crop are
all striated. There is a Layer of connective tissuebetween the muscles and
the epithelium (Wilde), making five layers in all. As it is not distinct in
my preparations I do not enumerate it with those I have myself made
out. In the front division the ridges are transverse, somewhat irreg-
ular, but each one continuous and not formed of single teeth ; they
are much more numerous and closely crowded in femur-rabrum than in
spretus. The inner covering of the ridges is the thick cuticula. Upon
the posterior edge of each ridge there is a row of sharp chitinous spines
which point inwards and backwards. The ridges are not all parallel, as
is shown in Fig. 45. Those next the oesophagus are broader than the
rest and are armed with several rows of spines. The posterior ridges
become first slightly irregular, then zigzag, and so gradually change
their direction until they become longitudinal and very regularly paral-
lel. The area where the ridges are zigzag marks the limit between the
two divisions of the crop. The two muscular layers are well developed
in the front division, the longitudinal, which are of course transverse to
the ridges, being particularly powerful.

The posterior segment of the crop, Fig. 45, GV.2, has longitudinal ridges.
In a transverse section, Fig. 35, it is seen that the ridges are small, rid.,
rounded on top, with small projecting cuticular spines of yellowish color,
s, s. In each ridge the pigmented epithelium appears as a dark layer
underneath thecuticula. The inner muscular coat, X, of longitudinal fibres
is but little developed in comparison with the enormous coat of circular
fibers, mac. C. Thus we see that, in both parts of the crop, that muscu-
lar coat obtains predominance whose fibres run transversely to the direc-
tion of the ridges. An examination of the inner surface of the hind
part of the crop reveals the fact that the ridges are not continuous, but
composed of rows of imperfectly individualized oblong teeth, each of
which is armed with a few small spines.

It will be seen that the general character of the crop is the same as
in the cockroach, according to the descriptions of Basch,294 who adds that
the epithelium corresponds to Bamdohr's "flockige-Lage? and is the
same as the membrana propria of Straus-Durckheim and Burmeister.
Finally, I must call particular attention to the recent capital memoir295 of

<**S. Basch. Sitzher. Wien. Akad. (1858), xxxiii, p. 242.

296 K. F. Wilde? Untersuchungen iiber den Kaumagen der Ortbopteren. Arch. f. Naturgesch.
Jahrg. xliv, l.Bd., p. 135 (1877).

STKUCTURE OF THE CROP.

211

Dr. Wilde, of Leipzig, iu which, p. 139, he gives the most accurate account
of the crop and proventriculus of the Acridians and other Orthoptera
which has yet been published.

The crop of Anabrus is not divided into two parts, and its cuticula
forms no ridges, but is divided up into distinct fields (Fig. GO), each of
which corresponds to a single epithelial cell, for in preparations colored
with logwood, and examined from the surface, a sharply defined, round
nucleus appears in the middle of each field. Each field has a spine, which
rises from its posterior part and points backward. These spines are
more developed than their fellows on the cuticula of the epidermis. The
close resemblance of the two cuticulse serves to corroborate the view
that the crop of insects arises in the embryo, as a secondary invagination
of the ectoderm.

Proventriculus. — Dr. "Wilde, in the article just mentioned, speaks of
the liKaumagenn as the terminal portion of the crop, bat I see no ob-
jection to considering it entirely distinct and fully equivalent to the pro-
ventriculus of other insects with which it is homologous, as Wilde has
already pointed out. Wilde appears to have overlooked the fact that
it is sharply limited both in front and behind, and in his figure (1. c,
Plate IX, Fig. 2) the front limit is not marked.

An examination of the proventriculus opened, and spread out so as
to expose the inner surface, shows that there are six large teeth, which
present a triangular outline, the base facing frontwards, the apex point-
ing backwards. The ridges of the crop become zigzag just in front of
the bases of these teeth close to which they terminate. Between the
single teeth of the proventriculus there are a few parallel ridges, which
are not continuous with those of the crop, and which terminate abruptly
with rounded ends, at the level of the apices of the large teeth, that is
to say at the entrance to the stomach. In the apical portions of the
large teeth there is more or less pigment, while in the basal portions
there is almost none. The base of the large teeth is notched ; the apex
rounded off; and their surface covered with a multitude of minute con-
ical spines, which project up from the cuticula.

In Anabrus the proventriculus is fully developed, and resembles that
of other crickets.2* It consists, as in Gryllus domesticus, of two parts :
one, anterior, serves -as the communication between the crop and the
proventriculus proper. This anterior part has no definite limit either
in front or behind. Both parts are traversed by six rows of teeth, but,
though the rows are continuous, the form of the teeth differs in the two
parts. If a single row be examined it will be seen that the change from
one form of tooth to the other is gradual, not abrupt. A transverse
section through the posterior part of the proventriculus shows the dis-
position of the parts to be as drawn in Fig. 58. Externally is the muscu-
lar coat, consisting mainly of circular fibres, intermingled with trachea?.
I have not succeeded in detecting any longitudinal fibres in transverse

Wilde, I. c. Arch. f. Naturgesch., 1877, 1. Bd.,pp. 159-165.

212 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

sections, though in surface views they appear very plainly ; inside the-
coat of circular muscles all the fibres are transversely striated. The
teeth form six distinct arches, and are united with the muscular coat
only at their sides. The attachments of the adjacent teeth to the mus-
cularis are separated by a longitudinal ridge, a, which runs unbroken
through the length of the crop, separating the neighboring rows of teeth
(compare a surface view Fig. 54 a). Each tooth is tripartite, having a
central -pointed division, d', and two lateral protuberances, d", which
Wilde terms "molar" (mahlzahnartig). The shape of these is best ex-
plained by the figure. The whole proventriculus is lined by a contin-
uous resistent cuticula, which rests upon a cylinder-epithelium, that
varies greatly in height in different regions of the teeth, as is plainly
shown in Fig. 58, cp. The epithelium rests on a layer of connective tissue
conn., beneath which is the space left by the dental arch; this space, 0,
corresponds to a large canal which runs under each row of teeth. Ex-
amined from the surface, Fig. 54, the same disposition of the parts can
be seen, though less plainly. The central process of each tooth is pointed
and inclined backwards, so as to slightly overlap the next following
tooth. Certain of the anterior " molar'1 protuberances are distinguished
from the posterior, by having three dark colored projections of their cu-
ticula. The cuticula is armed with spines upon the central dental divis-
ion, and with numerous bristles upon the " molar " protuberances and
interdental ridge. A side view, Fig. 55, is also given in order to make
the relation of the teeth to one another as plain as possible.

In the anterior part of the proventriculus the teeth are simpler in
form, and the longitudinal ridge and "molar" protuberances are want-
ing. The cuticula gives off a dense coat of long hairs. The edge of
each tooth is deeply serrated on both sides of its point, instead of being
merely somewhat roughened as in the posterior part. Finally these an-
terior teeth are convex on their front, concave on their hinder sides.
They become smaller as we go forward, the rows spreading apart as they
widen out to form the crop.

Posteriorly the rows of teeth stop quite suddenly. The interdental
ridge runs somewhat further on, and is rounded off at its termination.
On the last five or six teeth the middle process gradually loses its prom-
inence, and on the last two the " molar " processes are also very much re-
duced.

The total number of teeth in each row is twenty three or four, of which
eight or nine belong to the anterior and fifteen to the posterior division.
In Gryllus campestris and domesticus the crop, likewise, forms two divis-
ions, in the posterior of which there are fifteen teeth in each row. It is
to the posterior division alone that Wilde (1. c.) restricts the name pro-
ventriculus, but I cannot see what grounds he has for so doing, for the
two parts have essentially the same characteristics.

Stomach. — This name I apply to the ventriculus of authors, the Chy-
lusmagen of the Germans, Fig. 45, ven. Of no part of the digestive

STRUCTURE OF THE STOMACH.

213

«aual is our present knowledge so unsatisfactory as of this. The few
observations that have been made are eminently incomplete. It is
known that there is no thick cuticula ; that the muscular layers are less
powerful than in other parts, and certain other details, which a brief ex-
amination suffices to clear up. Frey and Leuckart297 pointed out that the
walls of the stomach were not folded, but that the secretory surface was
increased in some cases (in many Coleoptera, for instance) by the epithe-
lium and connective tissue forming villi, a fact already noticed by H.
Meckel.298 Sirodot 299 subsequently showed that there are also gastric
glands in many insects, and describes particularly (1. c, pi. 13, Fig. 3)
how in the field cricket the gastric follicles occupy the interspaces of a
network formed by the sinuous fibers of the connective tissue, " tunica
propria " auct. I have found essentially the same structure to exist in
grasshoppers (Caloptenus and Oedipoda). The description of the
minute anatomy of the veutriculus which Leydig gives300 is very meager
and insufficient, while that given of the epithelium and glands in the
stomach of the cockroach by von Basch301 will probably require some
modification.

The walls of the stomach are composed of an internal epithelium, a
layer of connective tissue, an inner layer of unstriated circular muscu-
lar fibres, and an external layer of longitudinal fibres of striated muscle.
In studying these layers I have found it best to begin by viewing them
from the inner surface. If the walls of the stomach be spread out and
stained and then mounted in glycerine or Canada balsam, it will be seen
that the nuclei of the epithelium are not uniformly distributed, but there
are little clusters, each of which corresponds to a small gland or follicle ;
it can be further seen that each gland has a cavity or duct ; each follicle
lies in a cup of connective tissue, which separates it from its neighbors.
If a piece of the wall spread out on a glass slide in a drop or two of
water, is gently brushed with a fine camel's hair pencil, the epithelium
•can be removed, and if the specimen be then stained and mounted the
structure of the remaining layers will be displayed as shown in Fig. 39.
The connective tissue, tunica propria, forms a somewhat irregular net-
work,302 the meshes-of which vary in size only between certain limits. In
the figure the network is drawn somewhat darker than it appears in
reality, in order to make it stand out more plainly. The spaces of the
network are the cups before mentioned in which the gastric fol-
licles lie. The tissue has a fibrous character and also forms the bottoms
of the cups, as is shown by sections. Underneath the connective tissue
follows the internal muscular coat, In. m., composed of a great number

297 Frey und Leuckart: Anat. Physiol. TJbersicht. Thierreichs, 1855, p. 114.

^ileckel. Mikrographie einiger Driisenapparate niederer Seethiere. Miiller's Arch., 1846. Die Ein.
theilung ties Darmcanals bei den Insekten. Par. 4, p. 23.

Sirodot Recherches sur les secretions chez les Insectes. Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. Ser. 4. Tome X, p.
183 (1858).

300 Leydig. Lohrbuch der Histologic, 1858, p. 337.
*01 Basch, 1. c, Wien. Akad. Sitzber., xxxiii, 248,ff
302 Compare Sirodot, 1. c, PI. 13, Fig. 3.

214 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

of pale fibres, running singly, and parallel to one another around the
stomach. Between this layer and the tunica propria there are some in-
distinct longitudinal fibres that may be muscular; these fibres also ap-
pear in transverse sections. If my supposition as to their nature is
correct, then there are two layers of unstriated muscles, the longitudi-
nal layer being innermost, just as we found with the striated muscles of
the oesophagus. Most externally are the longitudinal striped muscles,
which are distributed in single bundles (L, L,) and do not form a con-
tinuous layer. Each bundle is composed of a number of fibres and pur-
sues its own course ; the bundles are not parallel, as will be evident upon
glancing at the Fig. 39 ; sometimes two bundles unite, or one bundle
connects two others; in spite of these irregularities, however, the trend
of the muscles is lengthwise of the stomach. Finally, it must be men-
tioned that numerous tracheal branches penetrate the muscular layers
and ramify both through them and also through the connective tissue.

A transverse section (Fig. 3G) through the walls of the stomach exhib-
its further structural features. The epithelium is composed of cylindri-
cal cells, with large, finely granular nuclei, in some of which a nucle-
olus can be distinguished ; the limits of the single cells are not well
defined. The folbcles are formed by simple involutions of the epithe-
lium, there being no apparent change in the general character of the
cells except in their shape, which is not plain enough in sections for me
to describe it with real accuracy. They are, however, certainly not
spherical, as affirmed by Sirodot. The epithelium is covered by a cuti-
cula, ext., which also descends into the folUcles, and is traversed by nu-
merous pore-canals. I cannot make out any basement membrane, but
apparently the epithelium rests immediately upon the connective tissue,
conn. The manner in which this layer extends up between the follicles
is seen very plainly in transverse section ; it is comparatively thin, as is
also the circular coat, muc., of unstriated muscles. In the part figured it
so happens that there are no longitudinal bundles of striated muscle,
but the tracheae, Tr., appear very distinctly.

The ventricle of Anabrus differs from that of the locusts, as far as I
have observed, only in unimportant details. The diameter of the glands
is somewhat greater, as shown by the size of the " cups " of connect-
ive tissue (Cf. Figs. 66 and 39) in which they rest. The longitudinal
muscles form more regular bundles than in the locusts, and fibres cross
less frequently from one bundle to another.

Diverticula. — I employ this name for the six esecal pouches, frequently
called the appendices ventricular es. It has been commonly stated that
these caeca do not differ in structure from the stomach, a statement which,
though quite incorrect, is repeated even by so exact an author as Milne-
Edwards, in his magnificient compilation of Anatomy and Physiology.303
Yet, that there is a great difference, had been noted in 1846 by H. Meckel,304

303 Milne-Edwards : Lemons sur la Physiologic Tome v., p. 608-609.
*» Meckel: Mullcr's Arch., 1846, p. 38 ff.

STRUCTURE OF THE GASTRIC CCECA.

215

whose observations are also cited by Leydig on p. 337 of his "Hand-
buch." Sirodot 305 repeats the old and incorrect statement, while Graber 306
expressly states that their structure is not the same as that of the stoin-
acb, and that they are not " einfache Aussackungen des Chylusinagens."
More recently M. F. Plateau30" has again called attention to the incorrect-
ness of the old view.

In fact, a single transverse section of one of the diverticula (Fig. 37)
demonstrates at once that its structure is entirely different from that of
the stomach. Its inner surface is thrown up into longitudinal folds,
generally twelve in number. These folds shine through the outer walls,
and are, accordingly, indicated in the drawings of Dufour, Graber, and
others. The whole diverticulum has an external muscular envelope, out-
•side of which are a few isolated longitudinal muscular bands. The
folds within are formed mainly by the high cylindrical epithelium, which
lines the whole interior of the cavity. The shape of the folds will be
more comprehensible from the Fig. 37 than from any description I
can give. They are not all of the same height, but they form two op-
posite groups, the folds in the center of each group being the highest.
On either side and between the two groups there are smaller folds.
Whatever the height of the folds, however, they all have the same gen-
eral histological character, which is indicated by Fig. 38. The cells
are large and cylindrical, slightly granular, those near the top of each
fold being slightly pigmented with brownish matter that obscures their
definition. The nuclei are large, oval, coarsely granular, and lie in the
middle or lower parts of the cells. The cells are protected by a delicate
but very distinct cuticula, in which I can detect no pore-canals, though
it otherwise resembles the cuticula in the ventriculus. In the center of
each fold there runs up a thin partition of fibrous tissue (Fig. 38, conn),
which separates the epithelium of the two sides, and is itself an off-
shoot of the connective tissue, tunica propria, that intervenes between
the muscles, mnc, and the epithelial layer. The tracheae ramify through-
out all the layers outside the epithelium ; one of the main trunks run-
ning to the wall is shown at Tr. (Fig. 37). It sometimes looked as if
there were glandular follicles in the bottom of the spaces between the
folds, but of this I could not make sure.

Towards the tips of the diverticula the folds decrease in height as the
diameter of sacks diminishes, until finally they disappear almost com-
pletely.

Oastro-ileal folds. — I have now to speak of some very curious and
striking formations which seem to have escaped notice until now, for I
find no description of them in any of the works on insect anatomy which

305 L. «., p. 157.

306 V. Graber: Zur niiberen Kcnntniss des Proventriculus nnd der Appendices ventriculares bei den
GriUen nnd Laubbeuschrecten. Sitzber. Wien. Akad. (1869), lix, p. 33.

3W F. Plateau: Recbercbes sur les Phenomenes de la Digestion cbez les Insectes. Memoires Acad.
Roy. Belg. (1875), tome xli, p. 75,

21G REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

I have been able to consult. It is impossible to follow Dufour's account308
df the termination of the stomach and the origin of the intestine, for it
seems to me not only incomplete but also inaccurate.

I have already referred to these folds, p 209, as the valve which marks
the termination of the stomach. They are indicated in Fig. 45 as six dark
spots, round in front, and lying at the anterior end of the ileum, II. , so
as to form a ring around the interior of the intestine. If this part of
the digestive tract be opened, spread out, colored," and mounted, it will
appear as represented in Fig. 40. In front lies the stomach, ven., from
which the epithelial lining has been removed, and which can therefore
be readily recognized by the network of connective tissue before de-
scribed and the isolated, longitudinal, muscular bundles. Behind the
protuberances comes the ileum, which is traversed by six broad and
low longitudinal folds, three of which appear in the figure. On the line
between the ileum and the ventricle lie the strongly pigmented gastro-
ileal folds. They are twelve in number, and all alike. Their shape is
best indicated by the figure. They are rounded off' in front, where they
are broadest and stand up highest ; they narrow down backwards ; the
pigment disappears, and they gradually fade out into the ileal folds ;
directly underneath them, and just at the posterior termination of the
ventricle, there is a strong band of circular striated muscular fibers

014 mm wide>

These folds are found in C.femur-rubrum, C. spretus, and (Edipoda
sordida, and probably in all grasshoppers. I have made sections of
them from (Edipoda, Figs. 49, 43, and 44. Fig. 49 shows the general
arrangement of the folds ; there are twelve of them, all pedunculated
with broad tops and thick stems. They are covered with an epithelium,
the cells of which are smaller and for the most part not pigmented be-
tween the folds, and larger with a great deal of pigment on the folds, as
also appears in Fig. 45. The muscular coat, muc, is very powerful, and
of even thickness throughout. Between it and the epithelium there is
a well-developed tunic of connective tissue. Examined with a higher
power it is seen, Fig. 44, that the epithelial cells are large, with an oval
nucleus in the lower half of each cell. The cells in the valleys are not
so high as on the folds, though the nuclei are not any smaller. The epi-
thelium is covered by a thin cuticula, which is armed on the surface of
the folds with minute conical spines, Fig. 44, cu., which are generally,
but not always, wanting between the folds ; the spines are sharp-pointed
and inclined backwards. The connective tissue is fibrous, and contains
a good many small, granular, oval nuclei. The layer of circidar muscles
is composed of three or four parallel layers of bundles. I think there
are some few longitudinal fibres between the muscular coat and con-
nective tunic.

Betuxning now to the epithelium, we find cells in all stages of pig-
mentation. The pigment is in fine granules of various sizes; they first

3»»Dufour, Sur les Orthopt&resj, 1. c, p. 314.

STRUCTURE OF THE INTESTINE.

217

collect around the nucleus, Fig. 43, and as they accumulate they extend
through all the rest of the cell, except the upper part underneath the
cuticula, which portion always remains clear, as is seen in Fig. 44. Viewed
from above the epithelial cells appear as polygonal pigmented fields,
each separated from its neighbors by a clear line. Posteriorly the cells
become less and less pigmented, and pass by gradual changes into the
epithelium of the ileum.

Ileum. — The ileum is traversed by six longitudinal folds, with inter-
vening furrows. Outside each furrow is a longitudinal muscular band.
Viewed from the inner surface, the epithelium is seen to have an unusual
character. The cells in the middle of each of the flat folds are quite large
(Fig. 50 A), polygonal in outline, with large, round, granular nuclei, which
stain very darkly with haematoxiline. Toward the furrows the cells be-
come very much smaller, those at the edge of the furrow being not more
than one-sixth the size of those in the middle (Fig. 50 B). Underneath
the furrow, the longitudinal muscles (Fig. 50 L) are seen shining through.

A transverse section (Fig. 51) shows that the walls are double ; the
inner leaf is composed of epithelium, Ep., and connective tissue, the outer
leaf, of the circular muscles, muc. C. The furrows are indicated by the
six bands of longitudinal muscles, L L. It is only opposite these bands
that the two leaves are united, as is shown more plainly in Fig. 52.
The epithelium, Ep., rests directly upon and is intimately united with the
connective tissue, so forming a single leaf, which then bends down, mak-
ing afurrow, F, opposite the longitudinal muscle, L L, where it is united
with the circular muscular layer, mice C. The consequence of this ar-
rangement is that underneath each fold there is a very large longitudi-
nal cavity between the propria and the muscularis.

The cuticula (Fig. 52), cun is thin, but probably chitiuous ; it resembles
that on the gastro-ileal folds, except that there are no spines, but it is
not in the least like the ventricular cuticula. It extends equally over
the folds and the furrows.

The epithelium has round nuclei ; the size both of the cells and of the
nuclei diminishes rapidly towards the bottom of the furrows (Fig. 52), F.
The bases of the cells are somewhat dome-shaped. The nuclei are sur-
charged with granules, and have a less distinct outline than the nuclei
from other parts of the body.

The circular muscles are moderately developed. Each longitudinal
muscular band consists of 10 to 15 single bundles. The fibres are
striped.

Colon. — In the colon the six longitudinal folds of the ileum are con-
tinued, but their surface, instead of being smooth as in the ileum, is
thrown up in numerous irregular curved and zigzag secondary folds, as
is imperfectly indicated in Fig. 2, col. The cells of the epithelium are
of uniform size, and contain, especially at the summits of the secondary
folds, pigment granules like those in the cells of the gastro-ileal valve.
The epithelium is covered by a highly refringent cuticula without spines,

218 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

and, like that on the ileum, it rests upon a layer of connective tissue,
beyond which follows (1) an internal coat of longitudinal, and (2) an ex-
ternal coat of circular muscular fibres, which are striated.

Rectum. — The rectum of insects is remarkable for containing certain
curious structures now generally known as rectal glands. They are in-
cidentally mentioned by older authors, but Frey and Leuckart309 were, as
far as I am aware, the first to recognize their general distribution and
importance. Leydig310 was the first to give an accurate account of their
histological structure. Since then they have received but little atten-
tion until 1870, when Dr. Chun published his investigations,3" which were
made under the guidance of Professor Leuckart. Chun extended his
researches over a variety of insects, but gives no account of the glands
as found in the grasshoppers, though he studied the closely allied Katy-
did (Locusta viridissima, I. c., p. 32). He describes the glands as six flat
folds, formed by a high epithelium and well-defined cuticula; the con-
nective tissue (tunica propria) is largely predominant ; there is a coat of
circular muscular fibers, and six external longitudinal muscular bands,
corresponding to the furrows between the glands. This description is
applicable also to the grasshoppers I have investigated, the oidy differ-
ences being in the structural details of the single layers.

Seen from the inner surface the epithelium presents a most curious
and puzzling aspect, Fig. 53, because there are two kinds of nuclei
at different levels; small, spherical nuclei nearest the surface, and
larger nuclei of oval form deeper down. The small nuclei are less
numerous than the large ; in the portion represented in Fig. 48 there
are 21 small aud 49 large nuclei, or, in other words, less than half as
many of the superficial as of the deep nuclei. As the two sets are at
different levels they cannot both be in focus at once, hence in drawing
Fig. 53 with the cameraducida, the large nuclei were first focused
and drawn, and then the smaller nuclei were drawn in the same way
over the first. When we focus upon the large nuclei, the polygonal
outbines of the cells can be seen in successful preparations as repre-
sented in the figure ; as there are no spaces between the cells with the
large nuclei, the cells belonging to the small nuclei do not extend so far
down, though the cells of the large nuclei do reach up among the small
nuclei, as can be seen in sections. The outlines of the cells to which the
small nuclei belong, I have not been able to distinguish.

The small nuclei are spherical, very refringent, and have a sharp out-
line. The large nuclei are oval, their long axes lying generally length-
wise rather than transversely on the folds of the rectum. An epithelium
presenting a somewhat analogous peculiarity has been described from
the epididymis of mammals by Klein.312 He figures small darkly stained

309 Frey and Leuckart: TTebersicht des Thierreichs, 1855, p. 11G.
3W Leydig : Lehrbuch der Histologie, p. 337.

311 O. Ohun: TJeber den Bau, die Entwickelung und physiologische Bedeutung der Rectaldriisen be!
den Insecten. Abh. : Senckb. Natforsch. Ges. (Frankfort) Bd. x, p. 27, mit drei Tafeln.

312 Klein: Observations on the structure of cells and nuclei. Quart. Journ. Micros. Sci., XLX, (1870),
p. 138, pi. VII, fig. 9.

THE DIGESTIVE CANAL AS A WHOLE.

219

cells lying at the bases of the high columnar ciliated epithelium. It is,
however, uncertain whether these small cells lie between the others, or
form a sub epithelial endothelium, similar to that described by Debove.313
Underneath the epithelium appear the round nuclei of the tunica
propria, and the very much elongated nuclei of the tracheal ramifica-
tions.

In a transverse section, Fig. 42, it is seen that each gland is a low flat
fold of the epithelium ; each fold is separated from its neighbor on
either side by a deep but narrow furrow, F, F, and is covered internally
by a cuticula, which is quite resistent, highly refringent, and very
slightly tinged with yellow. The epithelium, Fig. 41, is, as was to be
expected from the presence of the two sets of nuclei, composed of two
kinds of cells ; 1st, cylindrical cells corresponding to the oval nuclei ;
in sections these nuclei appear round and are seen to lie in the basal por-
tion of the cells; 2d, cells corresponding to the superficial nuclei ; each
of these nuclei is surrounded by a clear space, as indicated in Fig. 41,
but this space has not a sharp outline as there represented ; the shape
of these cells I have been unable to determine.

The epithelium rests upon a layer of connective tissue, in which there
are round granular nuclei, as before stated. Outside of the connective
tissue there is a thin layer of circular muscular fibres, Fig. 42, muc.
The tracheae, with their distinctive nuclei, ramify throughout all parts
of these two layers. Opposite each furrow there is a longitudinal mus-
cular band, Fig. 42, L D ', composed of some twenty or more striated
bundles. Attached to the outer walls are found large tracheal trunks,
Tr., and Malpighian vessels, M. v.

At the points where the epithelium of the folds descends to form the
intervening furrows, there is a little accumulation of pigment granules.

From the above description it will be seen that the rectal folds do
not offer the least appearance of glandular structure; neither is any evi-
dence deducible from their microscopic anatomy to indicate that their
function is that of absorption. Neither does it appear to me that Chun,
in his memoir, has elucidated their function in other insects, and the
opinions he expresses with apparent confidence I cannot regard as any-
thing more than speculative.

SUMMARY OF OBSERVATIONS ON THE DIGESTIVE CANAL.

*

If we now glance back at the descriptions above given of the histo-
logical peculiarities of the various divisions of the digestive canal,
there are certain general features which deserve especial attention. In
the first place it will be recognized that the digestive tract is composed
of three main divisions: 1, the oesophagus, crop, and proventriculus ;
2, the ventricle and diverticula ; 3, the ileum, colon, and rectum.

In the first division there are two coats of muscles, an internal longi-

313 Debove : Memoire sur la couche endothelial sous-6pith61iale des membranes muqneuses. Arch, do
Physiol., 1874, p. 19.

220 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

tudinal and external circular coat; the fibres are all striped. The lining
epithelium is not much developed, but forms a thick, hard, and very re-
fringent cuticula that is thrown up into ridges, that may be armed with
spines. The chitinous lining, or the cuticula, is undoubtedly always
secreted by an epithelium,314 and does not belong in the series of con-
nective tissues, as Leydig has maintained.315 It will be seen that these
features are common to all the subdivisions of the anterior segment of the
digestive canal, the principal variations being in the form and develop-
ment of the ridges, and the muscular layers, as I have already described
in detail. The thick cuticula of the " Vordcrdarm" has been observed
in many insects,318 and of all orders.

The second division of the alimentary canal is distinguished from the
first by the epithelium being composed of very high cylindrical cells,
which make up the greater part of the thickness of the walls ; by the pres-
ence of a very delicate, and but slightly refringent, cuticula, and the ab-
sence of ridges; by the unstriated muscular coats, and, finally, by the
development of glandular follicles and folds. The ventricle and divert-
icula have all these peculiarities in common, while no other part of the
digestive canal resembles them in the least. Essentially the same pe-
culiarities distinguish the "Mitteldarm" of Phthirius inguinalis. Leach317,
except that there are no glandular follicles. Landois318 has wrongly ho-
mologized this part with the crop of the Orthoptera.

The third division (intestine and rectum) has an epithelium, the cells
of which are intermediate in size between those of the first and second
division. The cells are often pigmented; they are covered by a cuticu-
la much firmer than that of the ventricle, but not so thick and hard as
that of the first division. The very refringent cuticula is not trans-
formed into ridges, though in some parts it is covered with delicate
conical spines, which are very short. The epithelium and underlying
connective tissue {tunica propria) are thrown up into six folds, which
run longitudinally, being regular in the ileum and rectum (as the rectal
glands), but very irregular in the colon. Outside the depression between
each two neighboring folds there is a longitudinal muscular band, thus
making six bands. This peculiar disposition of the longitudinal muscles
does not occur in any other part of the canal ; it is therefore especially
characteristic of the third division. From this statement of the charac-
teristics of the three divisions, it is evident that the gastroileal valves
belong to the third.

The curious repetition of the number six may be pointed out here. I
cannot but think it will be ultimately found to have some hitherto un-
suspected meaning. There are six rows of teeth in the proventriculus,

311 Semper: Ueber die Entstehung der Schuppen bei den Lepidopteren. Zeit. Wiss. Zool., VLLL Cf.
also, Gegenbaur, Chun, Braun, et al.
315 Leydig: Vom Bau des Thierschen Korpers, p. 38, ff.
316 For example : Phthirius inguinalis Leach. Graber. Z. Z. XX II, 141.
317 Grafter.- Zeit. Wiss., Zool. XXII, 142-144.
3l* Landois: Zeit. Wiss. Zool, XIV, p. 1, and XV, 502.

THE DIGESTIVE CANAL AS A WHOLE.

221

six diverticula arising from the stomach, and twelve longitudinal folds
in each diverticulum. There are twelve (twice six) gastroileal folds, ar-
ranged in twos, each pair appearing as the double anterior termination
of one of the six ileal folds, which, changing their character, extend
backwards through the colon ; finally, in the rectum there are six rectal
glands.

The three divisions of the digestive canal are perfectly natural; their
existence of itself suggests that they represent the three segments which
are usually distinguished upon embryological grounds, namely, the fore-
gut, midgut, Mndgut ( Vorderdarm, Mitteldarm, and Hinterdarm). This
supposition is strengthened by Bobretzky's 319 observation that in dec-
apods the embryological foregut forms the oesophagus and Kaumagen,
while the midgut forms the follicular stomach and diverticula (liver).
This is a strong confirmation of the conclusion that I have been induced
to consider probable upon purely anatomical grounds. It seems to me,
moreover, that Hatschek's320 observations also point to the same conclu-
sion, viz, that the ventriculus (Chylusmagen), together with its append-
ages, represents the midgut, all in front being foregut, and all posterior
to it arising from the hindgut.

The principal respects in which the middle division differs from the
other two is by, 1, its glandular character; 2, the presence of a delicate
cuticula, probably not chitinous ; and, 3, of unstriated muscles. It seems
to me now a legitimate problem in insect anatomy to determine whether
these characteristics are applicable to the midgut of all insects.

In all parts of the digestive tract the succession of the layers is the
same: 1st, a cuticula; 2d, an epithelium ; 3d, connective tissue; 4th,
muscles. Besides which there is stated to be a pavement epithelium
(serosa) outside the muscles in some insects. This I have not observed
in the grasshoppers, though it may be present.

Of the physiological functions of the single parts of the digestive
canal little is really known, though some observations have been pub-
lished by Sirodot and Plateaux.

I should like to interpolate here a comparison, which is curious and
odd rather than of scientific value. After Malpighi had shown that the
grasshopper had several stomachs, some of the older authors, according
to Colin, considered these insects to be ruminants, comparing the vari-
ous parts of their digestive canal with the divisions of the stomach in
the true ruminants. Of course this idea is now entirely rejected, but it
is nevertheless curious to notice that with our present knowledge we
can trace an analogy between the crop and the rumen, the ventricle of
the grasshopper and the sheep, while the diverticula with their leaf -bike
folds singularly imitate the structure of the psalter. Those who are not
familiar with the anatomy of ruminants, will find a clear and excellent
account in Huxley's Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals.

319 Bobretzky : Zur Embryologie der Arthropoden (in Russian) as abstracted by Hoyer in Hoffmann nnd
Schwalbe. Jahresbericbt der Physiol, u. Anat. fur 1873, p. 314.

3X1 B. HaUchek: Beitrage zur Entro. Lepidopteren. Jena Zeitschr. Bd. XI. (1877), (p. 17 des Separatab-
druckes.)

PLATE IX.

Fig. 1. Front view of the brain of CalopUnnx ft mur-rubrum : opt. gang., optic ganglion;

OC., ocelli and nerves leading to them from the two hemispheres, each ocel-
lar nerve arising from the region containing the calices; m. oc., median
©cellar nerve ; opt. I., optic lohe sending oil . the optic nerve to the optic
ganglion; ant. I., antenna! or olfactory lohe; ant.n., antennal nerve ; f.g.,
frontal ganglion of sympathetic nerve; Ibr. n., nerve to lahriun ; x, cross-
nerve or commissure between the two hemispheres ; 03. c, oesophageal com-
missure to snbrcsophageal ganglion.

2. Side view of the brain and subcesophageal ganglion (lettering of brain as in

fig. 1): 8. g., 6tomatogastric or sympathetic nerve; a. s.g., anterior, and
p. a. g., posterior, sympathetic ganglia ; g. 2, suboesophageal ganglion ; md.,
nerve to mandible; nix., maxillary nerve ; /«., labial nerve; n. f, unknown
nerve, perhaps salivary t

3. Interior view of the right half of the head, showing the brain in its natural

position: an., antenna; ch, clypens; Ibr., labrum; m., mouth cavity ; md.,
mandible; t., tongue; a., oesophagus; c, crop; en., right half of the eudo-
cranium or X-shaped bone, through the anterior angle of which the oesopha-
gus passes, while the great mandibular muscles play in the lateral angles.
The moon-shaped edge is that made by the knife passing through the center
of the X.

4. View of brain from above (letters as before).

5. Snboesophageal ganglion from above : t. c, commissure to the succeeding tho-

racic ganglion ; other letters as before.
Fig. 3 is enlarged eight times ; all the rest twenty-five times.

Note. — The figures on this plate were drawn from original dissections by Mr.
Edward Burgess.

PLATE X.

Fig. 1. — Frontal section 16, through the front of the brain of adult Caloptenua spretiu;

X $ inch objective, A. eye-piece.
Fio. 2. — Section 17, showing the central body (centr. b.) and mushroom hody, optic

and antennal lobes, and commissural lobes; X i A.
Fig. 3. — Enlarged view of the trabecula and its nerves, of the mushroom hody, its

calices and stalk, and the origin of the optic nerves; for lettering see

schedule. X i A., 225 diameters.
Fig. 4. — Section 18, passing through the back of the central body, showing the double

nature of the stalk of the mushroom body, and passing through the back

of the commissural lobes and behind the trabecula and the base of the

stalk ; X i A. Are oc. n. T the origins of the ocellar nerves?
Fig. 5. — Vertical (longitudinal) section through one of the hemispheres, showing the

origin of the commissural and antennal nerves and the optic lobe.
Fig. 6. — Longitudinal section through the brain and subcesophageal ganglion (X 50

diameters), showing the two portions of the calyx, the antennal lobe, and

in the subcesophageal ganglion the three lobes giving off respectively the

mandibular, maxillary, and labial nerves.
Fig. 7. — Longitudinal section through the optic ganglion and the eye ; X 50 diameters.
Fig. 8. — Longitudinal section through the brain, showing the calyx, antennal lobes,

and commissural lobes ; X 50 diameters.
Fig. 8a. — Enlarged view of Fig. 8 (X •} B.), showing the relations in a longitudinal
section of the calyx to the stalk, although the direct connection of the
stalk with the calyx is not seen in this section.

S. Kntomol os*ica 1 Commission Vol. - Plate X

PLATE XL

Fig. 1. — Section 19 ( X i A.), passing through the back of the brain, showing the pos-
terior edge of the oalices and antennal lobes and oesophageal commissural
nerves and optio nerve, tr., small trache*.

Fio. 2. — Section 20, passing through the back of the brain, showing the relation of
the optic nerve to the optic ganglion and eye ; the cornea, cones, rods, and
retina of the eye are 6hown ; X \ A. eup. «., superior, m. «., median, and
inf. «., inferior commissural nerves connecting the hemispheres.

Fig. 3. — Enlarged view of upper part of the stalk and calyx, and the ganglion cells
surrounding and filling the latter; X 225 diameters. 3 a, b, c, d, different
ganglion cells seen from different directions, 3 c showing the large nucleus
lilled with coarse granules, but showing no nucleolus ; one, however, is seen
in Fig. 3 b. ncl. ; X 725 diameters.

Fig. 4. — Longitudinal section of iho brain and suboesophageal ganglion, ma<;ni(ied
50 diameters, showing the relations between the two, and of the origin of
the oesophageal commissure from the upper side of each ganglion, i. e.t
from the back of the brain and the upper side of the suboesophageal gan-
glion.

Fig. 5. — Enlarged view (X i B) of the suboesophageal ganglion of Fig. 6, PI. X, show-
ing the origin of the commissure to the first, thoracic ganglion, and on the
under side the three lobes (mandibular, maxillary, and labial), whence the
nerves are sent to the mouth-appendages, mand. I., mandibular lobe;
max. I., maxillary, and max. I'., 2d maxillary or labial lobe; com., commis-
sure to suboesophageal ganglion.

■5

PLATE XII.

Fig. 1. Section No. 7 of brain of embryo C. snrctus, earliest stage observed, passing
through the upper and lower cerebral (embryonic) lobes (up. 1., low.
(Do the upper cerebral lobes become (he calices and the lower cerebral lobes
ultimately become the trabecule ?) (Sec lig. hue. I.), op. I., optic lobe;
ant. 1., antenna! lobe; eye, outline of the eyes ; X &, Tollcs's objective, A eye-
piece.

Fig. la. Portion of the left upper cerebral lobe of fig. 1, magnified 400 diameters,]
showing the gradual passage of the cortical ganglion cells iuto the central
granular nervous substance, the granules (gran.) extending and filling up
the spaces between the nucleated ganglion cells (gang, c); it will be noticed
that there are at this time no nervous fibers.

Fig. 2. Section No. f> of head of a more advanced embryo, just ready to hatch, the
section not including any part of the brain, the cells represented being con-
nective-tissue cells enveloping' the brain. The portions left blank in tigs.
1, 7, and 9 are in the actual sections filled with similar connective-tissue
(mesodermic) cells.

Fig. 3. Section No. C of the same embryo, passing through the optic and antenna
lobes.

Fig. 4. Section No. 7 of the same, passing through the "upper cerebral lobes" oh
calices of the future mushroom body (cer. /.), and also through the optic and
antenna] lobes.

Fig. 5. Section No. 8, passing through the brain (next behind No. 7).

Fig. 0. Section No. 9, passing through what is probably (.') the mushroom body

marked as the cerebral lobe (cer. 1.).
Fig. 7. Section No. 10. The parts not well defined.

Fig. 8. Section No. 11, through the brain of the same embryo as figs. 2-7, and passing
through the upper and lower cerebral lobes, and the central body (cent, b.), at
this point clearly indicated. Probably the " lower cerebral lobes " become
the trabecular of the adult insect. The sections do not enable us to deter-
mine with exactitude the history of the embryonic upper and lower cerebral
lobes. (For enlarged views of the upper and lower cerebral lobes and the
central body see Plate xiii, fig. 4) ; int. indicates the integument of the head.

Fig. 9. Section No. 12 of the same embryo : up. 1., upper, low. 1., lower, cerebral lobes ;J
<B8., oesophagus (compare also tigs. 6 and 7 of Plate xiii. representing sec-
tions behind the head of the same embryo).

Fig. 10. Section No. 6 of the younger embryo, passing in front of No. 7, fig. 1, of this'
plate, and representing the subcesophageal ganglion, showing the form of
the ganglion and the relation of the central granular nervous matter (gran.)
to the envelope of cortical cells (gang, c.) ; Xl, Tolles's objective, B eye-piece.
Figs. 2-9 were drawn with the same objective, A eye-piece.

PLATE XIII.

Fig. 1. Section through the hrain of Caloptcmts bitrittatut in the third larval stage,
showing the two hemispheres or sides of the brain and the ocelli and ocellar
nerves, which are seen to arise from the top of the hemispheres directly over
the calicos (compare Plate ix, fig. — ) ; o. cat., outer calyx of left mushroom
body. The lighter portions represent the granulo-fihrous central part of the
hrain, and the dark the cortical ganglionic cells ; X i A.

Fig. 2. The right hemisphere of fig. 1 magnified 225 diameters, showing the mush-
room hody, its peduncle (p.), cauliculus (com.), and outer (o. cal.) and inner
(t. cal.) calices, and the bundles of libers variously distributed to the optic
and commissural lobes.

Fig. 3. Section passing immediately in front of that represented in fig. 1, and show-
ing the calices without the stalk, and the oesophageal commissural lobe and
its commissure (com.); the two hemispheres are united below; separate in
fig. 1.

Fig. 4. Enlarged view ( x 400 diameters) of the central body and contiguous parts
from section 11 of the older embryo of C. sprctus, represented in Plate xii,
fig. 8, cent. b. and low. I. The central body is seen to be separated from
the other parts by a partition of ganglion cells. Arc the four ganglion cells
in the upper part the rudimentary cellular bodies? Only the right half of
the central body is drawn. The right half of t he upper cerebral lobe is rep-
resented (up. I.), and below the entire trabecula, as it appears to be.

Fig. 5. Section No. 8 of the first thoracic ganglion of the youngest embryo (see, also,
Plate xii, figs. 1, la, and fig. 10). The hour-glass-shaped ganglion consists of
inner granular nervous matter (gran.), with no fibers present, and of a layer
of cortical ganglionic cells (gang, c), the layer being thickest on the under
side of the ganglion and wanting at and near the middle of the upper side.
Magnified 225 diameters.

Fig. G. Section No. 15 of older embryo, represented also by figs. 2-9 of Plate xii. show-
ing the nervous cord (n. c), surrounded by connective-tissue cells ; X $ A.

Fig. 7. Section No. 16 through the same embryo, posterior to section 15, the cord
being smaller than in section 15. These sections were cut just in front of
the stomach and cceca.

PLATE XIV.

Fig. 1. — Enlarged view of brain and eye of C. spretm in the second pupal stage ; X J A.

This view of the brain is taken from the same preparation (No. 10) as Fig.
1, Plate XV. Ccntr. b., the central body, showing the two series of cells in.
the lower division and the two rows of unicellular bodies in the superior
division ; oc com. I., oesophageal commissural lobes, with the ball-like masses
distinctly seen, though this preparation was stained only with picrocar-
inino, cc. com., oesophageal commissure; opt. nvl., optic nervules; ntina,
retina with rods and cones beyond, the cornea not shown.

FlG. 2. — The central body of adult C. sprctus, from section 17, show'ing the inferior and
superior divisions, the cells in inferior division (inf.) and the two rows of
unicellular bodies (ce. cell, b.) in the superior division (sup). Magnified 225
diameters.

FlG. 3. — The central body of the second or last pupal state, from section No. 10 ; c, cells

in the fibrous septum between the lower and upper divisions of the central

body, from section No. 11. X 225 diameters.
Fig. 4. — Vertical section of the suboesophageal ganglion of the cockroach (Blalla

orientali*), showing the commissure on the left side.
Fig. 5. — A section farther behind, showing the back of the ganglion (gang.), seen

separate from the commissure (com).
Fig. 6. — A section through the commissure just behind the ganglion.
All the sections represented on this plate were stained with picrocarmine.

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THE BRAIN OF THE LOCUST

PLATE XV.

Fig. 1. — Frontal section No. 10, through the head of second or last pupal stage of C. spre-
tus, passing through the middle of the brain, the optic ganglion, and eyes, and
cutting across the oesophagus. Drawn in order to show the relation of tho
brain to the eyes and the exterior of llic head ; magnified 1!0 diameters. In
the brain the right mushroom body is seen, while the optic and antenual
lobes are not so well marked. The central body (centr. b.) is cut through
near the middle; below are the trabecular (trab.), nextto the commissural
lobes, two trachea; (tr. ) or air-tubes passing near the brain. The commissure
to tho suboesophageal ganglion is drawn on the right side, passing down
the oesophagus. In the eye the cornea, the respective portions composed
of rods and cones, the black retina, the stratum of optic nervules, and the
optic ganglion and optic nerve passing off from the optic lobe are all well
marked.

PlG. 2. — Section through the brain and eyes of the same second pupa of C. spretus,
passing through the anterior part of the calices, but not through the cen-
tral body. The section is oblique and does not well represent the right
side.

Fig. 3. — Calyx of the section represented by Fig. 2 ; magnified 225 diameters. It is
composed of granulated nerve substance with a few fibers, the continua-
tion of those of the stalk, and with a few ganglion cells.

FiG. 4. — Section through the back of brain of the adult Locusta Carolina, passing he-
hind the mushroom body, showing the oesophageal commissures, the anten-
ual lobes, and the bundle of nerve-fibers crossing to the right hemisphere.
The left calyx is cut through, the microtome -razor passing behind and not
grazing the right mushroom body. The distribution of the large (Z. g. c.)
and small ganglion cells (sw. g. c.) is well seen in this section. It will be
seen that the brain of Locusta Carolina does not differ in any respect from
that of Caloptenus spretus, so far as the sections show.

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THE BRAIN OF THE LOCUST

•

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THE BRAIN OF THE LOCUST.

223

CHAPTER XI.

-ps-

THE BRAIX OF THE LOCUST.

In order to appreciate the habits, migratory, reproductive, &c, of the
locust, and to learn something of its general
intelligence as an insect and as compared <»-
with other insects, it is necessary for us to sp.
study with a good deal of care the organ of
the locust's mind, i. e., its nervous system,
comprising its nervous centers aud the nerves if-
arising from them. The present chapter
will be devoted to a study of the braiu.

The nervous system in general. — The ner-
vous system of the locust has been described
in a general way in the First Annual Eeport
of the Commission (p. 2G1, Figs. 14, 15). It
consists of a series of nerve centers or ganglia,
connected by nervoiis cords called commis-
sures. There are ten of these ganglia in the
locust, i. e., two in the head, the first and
largest of which is called the "iraira"; there
are three ganglia in the thorax, and five in
the hind-body or abdomen. The brain is
situated in the upper part of the head, rest-
ing upon the gullet or oesophagus, whence its
true name stqrracesophageal ganglion. (Plate
IX, Fig. 1.) The succeeding nerve-center is
situated in the lower part of the head, be-
hind the mouth and under the oesophagus,
hence it is called the subasopliageal ganglion.
(Plate IX, Fig. 5.) The supracesophageal
ganglion is larger than the succeeding ones,
and is compressed from before and behind,
its height being much greater than its
length, while the other ganglia are more or
less lens-shaped and flattened vertically, be-
ing broader than thick. The brain really is
a double ganglion, being composed of two
hemispheres, each hemisphere being a single
ganglion or nerve-center; all the succeeding
ganglia are also double ganglia ; but for con-
venitnce we will call the "brain" and each
of the succeeding nerve-centers a ganglion.
Each side of the brain contracts, and then
swells out into a rounded portion next to Tia- 9-

the eye, called the optic ganglion. From this optic ganglion the optic

224 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

fibers proceed to the facets of the eye. The optic ganglion connects
with the brain by the large optic nerve. There are, then, two optic
nerves, besides three slender nerves (ocellar nerves) sent to each of the
three ocelli or simple eyes ; moreover, a nerve is sent to each of the an-
tennae and are hence called the antennal nerves. The relations of the
brain to the head, and to the succeeding ganglion, and the origins of
the nerves distributed to the eyes, antennas and ocelli, as well as of the
nerves sent to the jaws, etc., are clearly seen in the figures on Plate
IX.

On the other hand the mouth parts, i. e., the jaws (mandibles) and ac-
cessory jaws (first and second maxilla:, the latter called the labium or
under lip) are each supplied by a pair of nerves, called, respectively, the
mandibular, maxillary, and labial nerves. These three pairs of nerves
arise from the subcesophageal ganglion. (See PI. IX, Fig. 2.)

The brain of insects as distinguished from the brain of vertebrates. — The
"brain" or supraoesophageal ganglion is, as we shall see, a much more
complicated organ than any of the succeeding ganglia, having impor-
tant parts which are wanting in all the others, hence it is jpar excellence
nearer to our idea of a brain than any of the other nervous centers. It
should be remembered, however, that the word "brain" is applied to
this compound ganglion simply by courtesy and as a matter of conve-
nience, as it does not correspond to the brain of a vertebrate animal, the
brain of the horse or man being composed of several distinct pairs of
ganglia. Moreover, the brain and nervous cord of the fish or man is
fundamentally different, or not homologous with that of the lower or
invertebrate animals, though the nervous system of the insects and
Crustacea present greater analogies to that of the vertebrates than any
other of the lower animals, with the exception, perhaps, of the cuttle-
fish. The nervous cord of the insect consists of a chain of ganglia con-
nected by nerves or commissures, while the spinal cord of the fish or
man is essentially "a double and fused series of nerve-centers." More-
over, if this cord is cut through, a section shows that it consists of two
kinds of substances or tissues, called the "gray" and "white" substance.
The gray matter is situated in the center, and consists largely of nerve
or so-called "ganglion cells," while the external white matter of the
brain or cord is composed of a mass of nerve fibers. Xow, in the nervous
system of insects there is nothing to compare with these substances, but
the ganglia, on the contrary, as we shall see farther on, consist primarily
of an external layer of ganglion cells, whose fibers pass in to form a
central fibrous mass or net-work, the meshes of which are filled with a
fine granulated nerve substance, the nature of which is not clearly
understood. Moreover, the entire brain of an insect is white, as are all
the ganglia.

A ganglion in its simplest form is a little rounded mass, or nodule, of
ganglion cells, with fibers leading from them ; such cells are represented
by Fig. 3a, on Plate XL Xow when the fibers lead in from the sensitive

THE BRAIN OF THE LOCUST.

225

hairs on the crust of the insect, or from the antennae, or the eyes or ears,
and end in separate masses or lobes, which are modified ganglia, such
ganglia are regarded as " sensory ganglia," and the nerves leading in
from them are ealled ingoing or " afferent nerves," while the ganglia
which give rise to the outgoing or " efferent" nerves, i. e., those going to
the muscles of the wings, legs, &c, are called " motor ganglia," as
stated by Bastiau, in bis popular and excellent work " Tbe Brain as an
Organ of Mind." As to the term ganglion we quote as follows from
Bastian:

Two or more sensory ganglia, or two or more motor ganglia, may grow together into
a single mass ; or, what is equally common, a sensory and its corresponding motor
ganglion, or two or more pairs of these, may fuse into a single larger nodule, which
may he called a " nerve-center." The term ganglia is, however, commonly applied
to any round, ovoid nodule containing nerve-cells, whatever its size or degree of in-
ternal complexity. Many ganglia in the lower animals, which are typically deserv-
ing of the name as regards mere form and separateness, are also, hy reason of their
compound nature, true nerve-centers. The two terms are, therefore, to a considerable
extent, interchangeable.

Beferring the reader to Bastian's book, or to the text-books on physi-
ology by Huxley, Foster, or Dalton, for information regarding the
structure and physiology of the nervous system in general, we will pro-
ceed to describe that of the locust. It should be borne in mind, how-
ever, that the subcesophageal ganglion, or " brain," of the insect is much
more complex than any other ganglion, consisting more exclusively both
of sensory as well as motor ganglia and their nerves. But it should
also be borne in mind that the suboesophageal ganglion also receives
nerves of special sense, situated possibly on the palpi and possibly on the
tongue, at least the latter is the case with the bee ; hence, this ganglion is
probably complex, consisting of sensory and motor ganglia. The third
thoracic ganglion is also, without doubt, a complex one, as in the locusts
the auditory nerves pass into it from the ears, which are situated at the
base of the abdomen. But in the green grasshoppers, such as the katy-
dids and their allies, whose ears are situated in their fore legs, the first
thoracic ganglion is a complex one. In the cockroach and in the Leptis
(Chrysopila), a common fly, the caudal appendages bear what are prob-
ably olfactory organs, and as these parts are undoubtedly supplied from
the last abdominal gangbon, this is probably composed of sensory and
motor ganglia ; so that we have in the ganglionated cord of insects a
series of brains, as it were, running from head to tail, and thus in a still
stronger sense than in vertebrates the entire nervous system, and not
the brain alone, is The organ of the mind, or psychological endowment,
of the insect.

We will now proceed to examine the brain of the adult Caloptenus
spretus, and compare it with that of other insects; then study its devel-
opment in the embryo, and finally examine the changes it undergoes in
15 L

226 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

the larva and pupal stages before attaining the fully developed structure
of tbc adult locust.

THE BRAIN OF THE ADULT LOCUST.

The method of examination employed by us has been to cut the brain
into a number of thin sections by means of the microtome, previously
hardening the tissues in alcohol. The labor of cutting these sections
has been performed by Mr. Norman X. Mason, of Providence, R. I., who
has brought to his work an unusual degree of .skill and care in prepar-
ing such delicate sections. In all these sections the brain was not pre-
viously removed from the head, but the entire head was cut through,
having previously been hardened in absolute alcohol for twenty-four
hours or more, and then soaked in gum arabic for one or two or more
days. The objects were then embedded in a preparation of paraffine and
sweet-oil and wax, or, in some cases, in soap and oil. After the sections
were cut they were stained with picrocarmine, or partially stained with
osmic acid, and then treated with picrocarmine. Finally the slices were
mounted in glycerine jelly for study under the microscope.

The sections were in most cases frontal ones, namely, cut transversely
from the front of the head or brain backwards, while a few were longi- .
tudinal or vertical ones, viz, cut parallel to the median line of the body.
They were either or of an inch in thickness.

It should be observed that the brain is divided by a furrow into two
halves or hemispheres ; these are deepest above and below, and the
upper and lower portions may be called, respectively, the frontal and
posterior furrow.

The brain is mostly surrounded by a thin delicate membrane, the neu-
rilemma, also called by Krieger the perineurium ; it is formed of very
dense fibrous connective tissue.

Histological elements of the brain. — The brain is histologically or struct-
urally divided into two kinds of tissue or cellular elements.

I. An outer, slightly darker, usually pale grayish white portion is
made up of " cortical cells," or " ganglion cells." (PI. XI, Fig. 3, a, ft, c, d.)
This portion is stained red by carmine, the ganglion cells composing it
readily taking the stain ; when thus stained by carmine, the nucleus of
the cells is rendered quite distinct, but the cell wall is also distinct ;
when stained by haeniatoxylin the large nuclei are remarkably distinct,
but the cell walls are not well brought out ; when stained by osmic acid
these cells are not so clearly shown as by a picrocarmine or carmine
stain, and the nucleus is less distinct than when treated by the two other
stains mentioned.

This outer loose cellular envelope of the brain consists of large and
small ganglion cells. Where the tissue consists of small ganglion cells,
it is naturally from the denser arrangement of the smaller cells, which
are packed closer together, rather darker than in those regions where the
tissue consists of the more loosely disposed, large ganglion cells.

THE BRAIN OF THE LOCUST.

227

A. The large ganglion cells (PI. XI, Figs. 3, 3 a, 3 b, 3 e, 3 d} 3 e) are
oval, and send off usually a single nerve fiber ; they have a thin fibrous
cell wall, and the contents are finely granular. The nucleus is very large,
often one-half the diameter of the entire cell, and is composed of large
round refractive granules, usually concealing the nucleolus (the granules
are much larger and fewer in number and the nucleolus is less distinct
than in the brain of Limulus, the king crab). These large ganglion cells
are most abundant and largest on each side of the upper furrow, and in
front of the "ceTitral body," also at the bottom of the lower furrow,
and along the exterior of the optic and antennal lobes, and along the
commissural lobes.

B. The small ganglion cells apparently differ chiefly in size from the
large ones, and are most numerous in the front swelling of each hemi-
sphere ; they surround and fill the calices of the mushroom bodies, and
they extend along each optic nerve and form a large proportion of each
optic ganglion, especially the layer next to the retina of the eye, though
they are replaced by large ganglion cells at the junction of the fibrous
part of the optic nerve with the dilated granular portion. The brain
is surrounded more or less completely by the connective tissue cells
belonging to the mesoderm or middle germ layer, and which are some-
times liable to be confounded with the ganglion cells, as they stain the
same tint with carmine. It should be borne in mind that the nervous
system, ganglia and nerves, originate from the tegumental or exodermal
layer.

II. The medullary or inner part of the brain consists of matter which
remains white or unstained after the preparation has remained thor-
oughly exposed to the action of the carmine. It consists of minute
granules and interlacing fibers. The latter often forms a fine irregular
net- work inclosing masses of finely granulated nerve matter.

In the antennal and commissural lobes is a third kind of matter, in
addition to the granular and fibrous substances, which forms irregularly
rounded masses, cream -colored in picro-carmine preparations, and which
stain dark with osmic acid. This is called by Dietl u marlcsubstanz^
and is described by Newton as " a peculiar arrangement of nervous mat-
ter, which appears sometimes as fine fibrillar, with an axial arrangement,
sometimes as a very fine net-work of different thicknesses, and some-
times as thin lamella?, or altogether homogeneous. Under all these
forms this third group of textures is characterized by turning very dark
under the influence of osmic acid, whilst the other elements are only
turned brown."

It is to be noticed that this central unstained portion contains few, if
any, ganglion cells, and it is most probable that the fibers of which it is
composed originate from the cortical ganglion cells. At one or two
points at Fig. 3, PI. XI, I have seen the fibers passing in from ganglion
cells towards the middle of the brain. In the horseshoe crab (Limulus),
owing to the simple structure of the brain, it is evident that the optic

228 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

and ocellar nerves and posterior eominissures originate from the large
ganglion cells which in this animal are situated in or near the center of
the brain. In the last abdominal ganglion also the fibers arising from
the peripheral ganglion cells can very plainly be seen passing in towards
theeeuterof the ganglion and mingling with the libers forming it. Hence
in all probability the fibrous mass of the central part of the brain mostly
originates from the peripheral or cortical ganglion cells.

To briefly describe bhe brain of the locust, it is a modified ganglion,
but structurally entirely different from and far more complicated than
the other ganglia of the nervous system. It possesses a "central body,"
and in each hemisphere a " mushroom body," optic lobe, and optic gan-
glion, and olfactory lobe, with their connecting and commissural nerve
fibers, not found in the other ganglia. In the succeeding ganglia the
lobes are in general motor; the fibers composing the oesophageal commis-
sures, and which arise from the oesophageal commissural lobes, extend
not only to the subcesophageal ganglion, but pass along through the suc-
ceeding ganglia to the last pair of abdominal nerve centers."26 Since,
then, there is a direct continuity in the fibers forming the two main lon-
gitudinal commissures of the nervous cord, and which originate in the
brain, it seems to follow that the movements of the body are in large
part directed or co-ordinated by the brain.-*27 Still, however, a second
brain, so to speak, is found in the third thoracic ganglion of the locust,
which receives the auditory nerves from the ears situated in the base of
the abdomen ; or in the first thoracic ganglion of the green grasshoppers
(katydids, &c), whose ears are in their fore legs ; while even the last ab-
dominal ganglion in the cockroach and mole cricket is, so to speak, a sec-
ondary brain, since it receives sensory nerves from the caudal stylets
which are provided with sense organs.

Description of the sections of the brain. — We will now describe the sec-
tions upon which the subsequent account of the brain is founded. The
sections, unless otherwise stated, are frontal,i. e., cut transversely across

326 We have seen that the two great longitudinal commissures pass directly from the brain into and then
pass backward from the subcesophageal ganglion, but beyond that point have not traced their course,
as it is generally supposed that they extend uninterruptedly to the last abdominal ganglia. This has
indeed been shown to be the case by Michels in his admirable treatise on the nervous system of a beetle
(Oryctes) in Siebold and Kolliker's Zeitschrift fur wissen. Zoologie, Band 34, Heft. 4, 1880. Michels
states that each commissure is formed of three parallel bundles of elementary nerve fibers, which pass
continuously from one end of the ventral or nervous cord to the other. "The commissures take their
origin neither out of a central "punet substanz (ormarksubstanz), nor from the peripheral ganglion cells
of the several ganglia, but are mere continuations of the longitudinal fibers which decrease posteriorly
in thickness, and extend anteriorly through the commissures forming the oesophageal ring to the
brain."

327 The following extract from Xewton's paper shows, however, that the infra or subcesophageal gan-
glion, according to Faivre, has the power of co-ordinating the movements of the body ; still it seems
to us that the brain may be primarily concerned in the exercise of this power, as the nerves from the
subcesophageal ganglion supply only the mouth parts. "The physiological experiments of Faivre in 1 857
(Ann. J. Sci. Nat., torn, viii, p. 245), upon the brain of Dytiscus in relation to locomotion, are of very
considerable interest, showing, as they appear to do, that the power of co-ordinating the movements of
the body is lodged in the infra-cesophageal ganglion. And such being the case, both the upper and
lower pairs of ganglia ought to be regarded as forming parts of the insect's brain." Quart. Jour. Micr.
Sc., 1879, p. 342.

THE BEAIN OF THE LOCUST.

229

the face from before backwards ; in cutting thus through the head, twelve
sections were made before the front part of the brain was touched, the
thirteenth grazing the front of the brain. Section 14 passed through the
anterior part of both calices, but did not touch the stalk of the mush-
room body (these terms will be explained farther on). It passed through
the central region of each hemisphere, including the front part of the
trabecules or base of the stalk of the mushroom body. The section passed
through the commissural lobes, the lower third being composed of ganglion
cells, but the substauce of the commissure itself is filled with the ball-
like masses of " marksubstanz." The commissures to the suboesophageal
ganglion were not touched, and do not appear in the section, since they
arise from the back of the brain.

In section 15 no additional organs are exposed. In section 16 (PI.
X, Fig. 1) the trabecular are seen, when magnified 225 diameters, to
be composed of ascending fibers, which form the base or origin of the
double stalk of the mushroom body.

Section 17 (PI. X, Fig. 2) is the most important of all the sections, as
the entire mushroom body and the central body are cut through, together
with the antennal lobes, and the commissural lobes, and also the origin
of the optic nerves.

In section 18 (PI. X, Fig. 4) the double nature of the stalk of the
mushroom body is seen ; the optic lobes are now well marked, and the
razor grazed the back of the commissural lobes, as well as the inner
side of the optic ganglion. The section passed behind the trabecular and
the base of the stalk aud through the back of the central body. The
calices arc each seen to be so furrowed and uneven as to appear in the
section as two separate portions. Two important nerves (PI. X, Fig.
4, p. a. ».) are seen to arise from the commissural lobes, and to pass
upwards, ending on each side of the upper furrow, near the origin of
what we think are possibly the ocellar' nerves (o. c. n.f).

Section 19 (PI. XI, Fig. 1) passed through the back of the brain (com-
pare Fig 4. of the same plate, which represents a vertical or longitudinal
section of the brain), through the oesophageal commissures, and the back
edge of the calices, while the antennal lobes and a part of the optic lobes
are well seen in the section. A transverse commissural nerve (t c n) con-
nects the two antennal lobes, and the commissural nerves are seen to
cross at the bottom of the furrow.

Section 20 (PI. XI, Fig. 2), which passes through the extreme back of
the brain, shows in this plane four transverse bundles of nerve fibers
connecting the two hemispheres, i. e., the inferior {inf. »..), two median
(m. n.) and, a superior nerve {sup. ».). In this section the relations
of the optic ganglion and eye to the brain are clearly seen, the optic
ganglion being situated in the posterior region of the brain. It will
also be seen that the two hemispheres are at this point only connected
anteriorly.

In sections 22, 23, and 24 the brain nearly disappeared, and only the

230 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION'.

optic ganglia were cut through hy the microtome, affording instructive
sections of the three lenticular masses of white unstained granulo-fibrous
substance surrounded by ganglion cells.

INTERNAL TOPOGRAPHY OF THE BRAIN.

Disregarding the envelope of cortical ganglionic cells, though they are
evidently of primary importance in the physiology of the insect's brain,
we will now describe the internal topography of the brain. It consists
primarily of an irregular net-work of nerve-fibers, inclosing masses of
granulated nerve matter. This mass is divided into a number of sep-
arate areas or lobes, of which the ''central body" (corpus centralc of
Flogcl and Newton) is single and situated between or in the median line
of the two hemispheres. There is also a primitive superior and inferior
central region, better shown, however, in the brain of the embryo and
larval locust than in the adult. Besides these areas are the rounded
masses or "lobes," i. e., the optic, antennal, or olfactory and commissural
lobes; the optic nerves arising from the optic lobes, the antennal nerves
from the antennal lobes, and the commissures surrounding the oesopha-
gus and connecting the brain with the subcesophageal ganglion ; these
arise from the commissural lobes. Finally a "mushroom body" is
situated in the upper and central part of each hemisphere.

The central body. — This is the only single or unpaired organ in the
brain. It is best seen iu section 17 (PI. X, Fig. 2), which also passes
through the optic and antennal lobes and the trabecular and mushroom
bodies. This singular orgau is apparently present in all winged insects,
though differing somewhat/ in structure in different insects. It is, as
seen in PI. X, Fig. 2, situated iu the same plane as the peduncle and
in the same plane as the center of the entire mushroom body, and rests
upon the inner sides of the trabecular. Section 1G does not pass through
it, though the next section, which is -51q incli thick, passes through its
middle. Section 18 (Fig. 4) passes through its back, while the next sec-
tion does not include any part of it ; hence its antero posterior diameter
is slightly over of an inch. It is about twice as broad as high, and
thus is a small body, though from the universality of its occurrence in
winged insects, it may be one of considerable importance.

It is surrounded by a dense net- work of fibers containing a few small
ganglionic cells, the fibres in front continuous with those near the bottom
of the frontal median furrow and connecting the two optic lobes. Pos-
teriorly the fibers apparently are not continuous with those of the trabe-
cular; hence the central body appears to be quite isolated from the rest
of the brain. Its substance, when magnified 400 diameters, appears to
be a white granular matter like the adjoining parts of the brai^. It is
divided into two parts, the superior and inferior, the former part con-
stituting the larger part of the body. The inferior portion is separated
by fibers from the superior; it contains numerous nucleated spherical
cells situated either irregularly or perhaps primarily (see PI. XIV, Fig. 3,

THE BRAIN OF THE LOCUST.

231

of the pupa), in two rows when fewer in number than in the adult. The
superior and larger division of the central body contains the series of
what we may call unicellular bodies, sixteen in a series. The lower se-
ries are spherical or slightly elongated, and rest in the fibrous partition
or septum, forming the floor of the superior division of the central body.
The upper row of bodies are cylindrical, and about three or four times
as long as thick. They are separated by thin fibrous septa. PI. XIV,
Fig. 2, represents the central body enlarged 225 diameters. When we
examine the central body in an earlier stage, i. e., the second pupal
(PI. XIV, Fig. 3), we see that the body is covered above by a stratum of
nucleated ganglion cells continuous with those next to the bottom of
the upper furrow ; and that the fibrous septum between the upper and
lower division also contains small cells. These cells disappear in the
adult, and evidently give rise to the fibers which take their place. It
will also be seen that the "unicellular bodies" are shorter, more cell-
like, than in the adult; hence they seem to be modified ganglion
cells, which have at an early date lost their nucleus and nucleolus. My
observations on the central body of the locust agree in the main with
those of Newton (compare his Fig. 9). His drawings are not especially
clear and definite, but the differences appear to be unimportant. There
are perhaps two (16, instead of " 12 or 14") more cellular bodies in the
locust than in the cockroach. Unfortunately my sections of the brain of
the cockroach do not show the central body. Dietl states that the central
body is a " median commissural system." This description we would
accept in a modified sense. We have shown that the unicellular bodies
and the cells beneath them were once like the ganglion cells, but that
they have lost their nuclei and nucleoli ; hence the functions of the cen-
tral body must be unlike that of an ordinary commissural lobe. Flogel
states that the number of "sections," or what I call unicellular bodies,
is eight; we have counted sixteen. Both Flogel and Newton appear
to regard these bodies as simply spaces or sections between fibrous
partitions ; but it would appear that these sections are really modified
cells, and that the fibrous septa, are possibly the cell-walls, somewhat
modified.

The mushroom bodies. — These curious organs have attracted a good
deal of attention from writers on the brain of insects. Dujardin, in 1850,
first drew attention to them. His memoir we have not at hand to refer
to, but as stated by Newton 328 —

Dujardin pointed out that in some insects there were to he seen upon the upper
part of the hrain certain convoluted portions which he compared to the convolutions
of the mammalian hrain, and, inasmuch as they seemed to he more developed in those
insects which are remarkable for their intelligence, such as ants, bees, wasps, &c, he
seemed to think the intelligence of insects stood in direct relationship to the devel-
opment of these bodies. The form of these structures is described by the same au-
thor as being, when fully developed, as in the bee, like a pair of disks upon each side,

s^On the Brain of the Cockroach. By E. T. Newton. Quart. Journ. Microscopical Science, July,
1879, H, pp. 341,342.

232 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

each disk being folded together and bent downwards before and behind, its border
being thickened and the inner portion radiated. By very careful dissection he found
these bodies to bo connected on each side with a short pedicle, which bifurcates below
to end in two tubercles. One of these tubercles is directed towards the middle line,
and approaches but does not touch the corresponding process of the opposite side.
The second tubercle is directed forwards, and is in close relation to the front wall of
the head, being only covered by the pia mater [neurilemma]. These convoluted
bodies and the stalks upon which they are mounted are compared by Dajardin to cer-
tain kinds of mushrooms, and this idea has been ictained by more recent writers on
the subject.

The form of the mushroom body is much more complicated in the
bee or ant than in insects of other orders. In the cockroach and in other
Orthoptera, notably the locust, the four divisions of the calices are united
into two; while the structure of the calyx in the cockroach is quite
different from that of the locust. Mr. Newton, in his description, not-
withstanding Dujardin's statement, appears to practically limit the term
" mushroom body" to the cap or calyx on the end of the stalk. In the
following description we apply the term " mushroom body " to the en-
tire structure, including the base or trabecula, the double stalk, and the
cap or calyx.

So far as we have been able to observe, the double stalk of the mush-
room body rests on a rounded mass of granulo -fibrous nerve matter; this
rounded mass or base of the column is called the trabecula (PI. X, Fig.
2, trab.). The two trabecular (one in each hemisphere) are much more
widely separated (in my sections) than in the cockroach or in those
insects studied by Flogel ; the space between them being filled by a
loose cellular mass containing small nucleated cells. The thickness of
each trabecula is greater than that of the double stalk. Section 14
passes through the outer or anterior edge of the trabecula, and also
through the calices at some distance from the edge. Section 18 (Fig. 4)
does not include it, though showing well the mushroom body, with the
exception of the base of the double stalk. It follows that the thickness
of the trabecula is about 3^ of an inch.

The substance of the trabecula is seen to be minutely fibrous under a
power of 725 diameters, with masses of granules among the fibers which
are much finer than in the optic or antennal lobes. At the point passed
through by section 17 the trabecular appear to have no connection with
the stalk, but the latter appear to stop abruptly just before reaching it.
the envelope of ganglionic cells and fibers surrounding the trabecule
being interposed between the base of the stalk and the trabecula. (This
does not preclude the fact that the stalk does not arise from the trabe-
cula, though there are no signs of it in this section ; for it clearly ap-
pears to thus arise in the drawings and descriptions of Dietl, Flogel,
and Newton;.

The structure of the trabecular in the locust, judging from our sections,
appears to be more complex than would be inferred from the observa-
tions of the other observers just mentioned. Section 17 (PI. X, Fig. 2,
trab.) passes through the middle of each of these bodies, and it then ap-

THE BRAIN OF THE LOCUST.

233

pears that there are four bundles of nerve-fibers passing out of each
body. A bundle of transverse nerve-fibers (Fig. 2 t. c. n. and Fig. 3)
passes along under the central body, directly through the middle of the
trabecular, and anastomoses with the fibrous envelope of each trabecula.
In front of this transverse intra-trabecular nerve is a small short ascend-
ing bundle of fibers (Fig. 3, a. I. n.) which passes next to the pedicel, but
does not apparently form a part of it, but anastomoses with the fibers
on each side of the central body. Below, the fibres pass downward and
outward to apparently connect with the fibrous envelope of the trabec-
ula. Another short bundle passes out from the trabecula obliquely to-
wards the central body and anastomoses with the fibrous envelope of
the central body.

Below, but in the same plane, is another transverse bundle of fibers
(Fig. 3, I. t. «.), which is slightly curved and on the left side its fibers
are distinctly seen to enter the trabecula. This lower intratrabecular
nerve, as we may call it, connects with three vertical short nerves aris-
ing from near the edge of the lower furrow between the hemispheres of
the brain. Of these, the central one (centr. n.) is in the median line of
the brain, and the lateral ones (lat. n.) are on each side. There would
thus seem to be a direct double nervous communication between the two
trabecular, and with the fibers surrounding the central body, and hence
with the rest of the brain. This seems to be opposed to the statement of
Newton that the trabecular, and the mushroom bodies in general, have no
nervous connection with the rest of the brain. This section also clearly
indicates the origin of the optic nerve, which passes behind the stalk of
the mushroom body, and also the relation of the fibers of the stalk to
the calices, as they appear to penetrate far into the interior of the body
of each calyx.

The double stalk (cauliculus and peduncle). — These names are applied
to the larger and smaller divisions of the stalk of the "mushroom body."
They are represented in the eighteenth section (Fig. 4) where the outer
part of the stalk {cauliculus) supports the outer calyx, and the inner
slenderer column of fibers supports or ends in the inner division of the
calyx. These two bundles of fibers are somewhat curved, but as they
do not appear in sections 16 and 19, must be less than of an inch
thick. Their fibers are seen to penetrate deeply into the base of the
calices, and thus to directly communicate with the fine granular sub-
stance of the calices.

The calices. — The cups of the mushroom bodies in the locust differ
decidedly in form from those of the cockroach, and this part of the
mushroom body is more variable in form in the different orders of insects
than any of the other parts of the brain. It is nearly obsolete, or, as
Flogel states, "not more than rudimentary" in hemipterous insects
(notably Syromastes), and is less completely developed in many smaller
moths, beetles, and flies, as well as Neuroptera (JEschna), according to
Flogel, than in the larger moths, in the Orthoptera, and especially in the

234 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

Hyraenoptera, where it is well developed. We have been tillable to find
It as yet in the brain of myriopods or of the spider. In the locust each
body is more or less rounded and rudely saucer-like rather than cup-
like, with the rim very thick ; the hollow of the cup, if it be hollow, is
small in proportion to the thickness of the saucer-like cup. The diam-
eter of a calyx is about yfo. The anterior edge reaches to the front
edge of each hemisphere of the brain, but does not extend to the baek
part of the brain. The relations in a vertical, i. c, longitudinal section
of the mushroom body to the rest of the brain are seen in (PI. X, Fig.
8 a). It thus appears that the double stalk is situated near the center
of the brain, and that the cap projects far forward, but posteriorly does
not extend behind the an tennal lobes or the commissures. In section 18
(Fig. 4) the calices are seen to be double, the outer (0. cal.) attached to
the cauliculus (cati.) and the inner arising from the peduncle. Fig. 8 a
gives an idea of the two calices and their mode of attachment to the
stalk. The peduncle (if we interpret that division of the stalk aright)
subdivides, sending a thick bundle of fibers to each calyx, ending ab-
ruptly in the hollow of the calyx. The substance of the calices is finely
granular, with some coarse granules, and apparently short scattered
irregular fibers. The structure of the calices of the locust appears to
be more homogeneous than that of the cockroach, judging by our sec-
tions of the latter. Owing to different treatment by reagents the dark
masses described by Newton as existing in the cockroach were not so
clearly shown in my sections (tooo mcn thick) as in those made by Mr.
Newton. The substance of the calices when examined under a power
of 725 diameters is much the same both in the cockroach and the locust,
the dark bodies not appearing in either. The form of the calices is very
different in the cockroach, the calices being truly cup-like, the disk being
deeply folded, and the edges of each cup being thin compared with those
of the locust.

The optic lobes. — As seen in section 19 (PI. XI, Fig. 1 op. I.) these
bodies are larger than the antennal lobes, and consist of numerous
irregular small bundles of fibers besides those composing the optic
nerve, the interspaces being filled with fine granular nerve substance.
The optic nerve is much larger at the outer edge of the lobe before pass-
ing into the optic ganglion, the fibers still being immersed in the finely
granular nervous substance.

The optic ganglion. — This is situated at the back of the brain, and is
a large rounded mass of white fine granular nervous matter, enveloped
in very numerous but small ganglion cells, which stain dark red by car-
mine, the granular matter remaining unstained by the picrocarmine.
The granular or white portion is subdivided into three rudely lens-
shaped masses (see PI. XV, Fig. 1), the one nearest the eye being much
the largest. The structure of the optic ganglion is substantially as
described by Newton, as seen in his description and our preparations.
A farther description is reserved for our account of the eye, which we
hope to give in the next report.

THE BEAIN OF THE LOCUST.

235

The antennal or olfactory lobes. — Section 19. (PI. XI, Fig. 1., ant. I.)
These are smaller than the optic lobes, though in section 19 they ap-
pear larger. They give rise to the antennal nerve, and as the locust
carries its ears at the base of the abdomen, the auditory nerves entering
the third thoracic ganglion, reasoning by exclusion the antennae in
Orthoptera must be organs of smell, and the lobes and nerves to the an-
tennae are consequently olfactory. This is the opinion of some recent
writers, notably Hauser.329 The lobes are, as described by the other
observers, filled with ball-like yellowish masses, which stain dark by osmic
acid, much as in the commissural lobes. Nerve fibers are seen in sec-
tion 19 to pass from one antennal lobe to the other in the rear of the cen-
tral body and of the trabecule, while other nerve fibers are seen to pass
into the optic lobes and the commissural lobes. This system of intra-
lobal nerves demonstrates that there is a nervous intercommunication
between these cerebral lobes and the ganglionic chain of the entire body.

The commissural lobes. — From these large bodies proceed the two grea.t
longitudinal commissural nerves, forming the connecting threads of the
nervous cord, and which extend from the brain to the last abdominal
ganglion, passing through the intermediate nerve centers. The lobes
are filled with ball-like masses, of the same general appearance as in the
antennal lobes, but more distinct and numerous.

Comparison of the brain of the locust with that of other insects. — Newton
rightly regards the cockroach's brain as a generalized form of brain,
which may serve as a standard of comparison. The cockroach is geologi-
cally one of the oldest of insects ; its external and internal structure is
on a generalized plan, and the brain conforms to this order of things.
Our knowledge of the cockroach's brain is derived from the photographs
and account of Flogel, and Newton's excellent descriptions and figures,
supplemented by two sets of sections made for us by Mr. Mason, but
which, unfortunately, are quite defective as regards the trabecular and
stalk of the mushroom body. The shape of the calices of the cockroach,
as already stated, is very different from that of these bodies in the locust,
and indeed from any other insect, the cup being very deep and the sides
thin ; but the intimate structure seems nearly the same in the two insects.

In the cockroach the antennal and commissural lobes are of much
looser texture, with large and numerous ball-like masses (ballensubstanz) ;
these are, when magnified 400 diameters, not only larger, but more dis-
tinct from the rest of the nervous matter of the lobe than hi the locust.
When magnified as mentioned, the ball-like masses appear to be simple
masses of finely granular nervous matter, with darker granules, much
like the rest of the granular portions of the brain, but with coarser
granular masses than in the substance of the optic lobes. These ball-
like masses are surrounded by a loose net-work of anastomosing nerve
fibers continuous with those of the antennal nerve, and with scattered

329 Physiologische und liistiologische Untersuchungen iiber das Geruchsorgan der Insekten. Sievold
und Kolliker's Zeitschrift fur Wissen. Zoologie, Bd. 34, Heft. 3.

236 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

nucleated cells, which become very numerous in the antennal nerve.
The nerve fibers are stained reddish by the picrocarmine.

Turning now to other orthopterous insects, Flogel mentions Acrydium,
but states that he had no serviceable' preparations, and after describing
the brain of Forhcula, the ear- wig, says : " As I observe in Acrydium, the
cells and fibers in this animal are especially large, and these objects in-
vite further investigation." Flogel's photograph and description of the
brain of Forhcula, a representative of an aberrant family of Orthoptcra,
and Dietl's beautiful figures and descriptions of the brain of the mole-
cricket (Gryllotalpa vulgaris) and the cricket (Acheta campestris) show
that the orthopterous brain, judging from these representative forms, is
constructed on a common type, the most variable part being the calices
of the mushroom body.

From these facts we should judge that, on the whole, the locusts were
as highly endowed intellectually as any other insects, with the excep-
tion of the ants, bees, or wasps, i. e., the social species; while in a num-
ber of insects the brain is less developed than in the locust. It would
thus appear that, as in the vertebrates, there are different grades of
brain-development, considerable extremes existing in the same sub-class
of insects, as in the same sub-class of mammals.

The brain of the bee and ant, as shown by Dujardin and demonstrated
by Dietl and Flogel, is constructed on a higher, more complicated type
than in the other winged insects, owing to the much greater complexity
of the folds of the calices or folded disk-like bodies capping the double
stalk of this organ.

STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN IN THE EMBRYO LOCUST.

Much light may be thrown upon the structure of different parts of the
adult brain if we can trace their origin in the embryo, or in the larval
and pupal conditions. Hence, we have, with what material we could
obtain, made a series of sections of the embryo and different stages of
the larva and pupa, with some results of considerable interest and im-
portance. No one has yet examined the brain of the embryo insect. The
only observer who has studied the brain of the larva, as compared with
the adult, has been Flogel. Speaking of the cockroach, he says :

Of especial interest would be an investigation of the development of the separate
parts of the brain. The difficulty of making preparations of small heads has been such
that no particular results have been reached. Still, I can say this much, that in small
creatures 7-8mm in length all the parts are present, only of a finer and more delicate
structure than in the large adult 25mm in length.

He says that in the Hymenoptera he has discovered much concern-
ing the development of the parts of the brain ; that in bee larvae the
calices are present, though very small and with thin walls. The peduncle
and trabecula have reached their ultimate proportions more nearly
than the cauliculus, which is still very thin. In the larval ants the cen-
tral body and entire mushroom bodies are present, though an early larval

THE BRAIN OF THE LOCUST.

237

stage shows, in place of the calices, lour symmetrically situated balls of
much smaller size ; the central body was very flat, and the other parts
were wanting. In the pupa all the parts had attained their definite
shape. It appears from his observations that the calices are the last to
be developed.

He then gives the results of his examination of the brain of caterpil-
lars, as compared with that of the adult sphinx moth. In a caterpillar
examined near the time of pupation, the central body is very much un-
developed, forming a small linear transverse body (Querleiste), while the
different parts of the mushroom body are indicated. In smaller cater-
pillars it is scarcely possible to work out the development of the brain.
In that of Pontia brassicce the mushroom body and central body were
undeveloped, while in that of an Euprepia larva the double stalk of
the mushroom body was developed as well as roundish calyx masses.
But in a Xoctuid larva the entire mushroom body, including well-devel-
oped trabecules and a very flat central body, was present.

The brain of the mature pupae of Lepidoptera, for example Satumia
carpini, contains all the portions of the adult brain, and in the same
relative proportions. But a brain of Sphinx ligustri, in a considerably
younger stage of development, did not differ much from the brain of the
larva.

We offer the following observations on the brain of the embryo locust,
shortly before hatching, with much diffidence, as we are liable to be cor-
rected by future observations in the same directions. The embryos
were taken from the egg-shell, hardened in the usual manner, and then
cut by Mr. Mason, the sections being frontal, the entire insect being
embedded in a mixture of paraffine, wax, and oil.

In the youngest stage (which we will call stage A) observed, the body
and appendages were formed and the eyes with their facets, the pigment
mass coloring the cornea pale reddish.

At this stage, as seen in section 7 (PI. XII, Fig. 1), the antennal and
optic lobes of the brain are indicated, but the central body and mush-
room bodies are not yet differentiated. In a plane lying in front of the
optic and antennal lobes, the brain is divided in each hemisphere into two
regions or lobes, i. e., an upper (Figs. 1 and 8, up I) and lower cerebral lobe
(low I). From these embryonic cerebral lobes are eventually developed
the central body and the two mushroom bodies. The stratum of cortical
ganglionic cells is, at this period, quite distinct from the paler unstained
granular braiu matter. PI. XII, Fig. 1 a, represents the structure of the
ganglionic cell-portion, which gradually passes into the central white brain
substance, which is composed of fine granules or nuclei alone, and which
do not apparently differ from the granules scattered among the ganglion
cells. It is to be observed that there are no fibers among the granules.
It thus appears that the brain of insects, like the other ganglia, origi-
nally consists of a paler portion formed of fine clear granules (nuclei?),
enveloped by a thick irregular layer of nucleated cells, containing fine
granules outside of the nucleus.

238 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

As tbe fibers of the adult brain are evidently secondary products, it
would appear that they must be transformed granules or nuclei, and
not in all cases, at least, the fibers thrown off from the ganglion cells,
although at this time the ganglion cells have no fibers, the fibers of
those seen in the adult brain being also secondary growths. It may be
that the white inner granulo -fibrous matter of the adult brain is (1)
made up of modified granules, which in some cases remain such, and in
others form libers, and (2) of fibers sent in from the cortical ganglion
cells.

Comparison of the brain at this stage with the first thoracic ganglion. —
If we compare at this stage of development of the nervous system the
brain with one of the ganglia of the trunk, we shall obtain a fair idea
of the primitive difference between the brain and one of the ordinary
ganglia (PI. XIII, Fig. 5). By a glance at the figures of the two it will
be seen that the organization of the thoracic ganglion is essentially
simple. It is divided into two portions or regions. The central granular
region is enveloped by a thick stratum of cortical ganglion cells. The
whole ganglion in section is rudely hour-glass-shaped and much smaller
than the brain. There is no differentiation into distinct lobes as in the
brain. The formation of the brain, as is well known by embryologists,
is one of the earliest steps in the development of the nervous system,
the entire system being at an early date in the life of the embryo set
apart from the epidermis or integument, the latter with the nervous
system originating from the ectoderm or outer germ-layer.

Second embryonic stage, B (PI. XII, Figs. 2-9). — In embryos more ad-
vanced, and just ready to hatch, the eyes being now dark red, the cen-
tral body is formed, but our sections do not show any traces of a mush-
room body. The sections are frontal, and we will describe them in
order. The fifth section is through the head and front part of the eyes,
but does not graze the brain itself. Fig. 2 shows the structure of the
interior of the head, being filled with connective tissue cells not dis-
tinguishable from the ganglion cells.

Section G (Fig. 3) passes through the outer portion of the optic and
antennal lobes, now clearly differentiated.

In section 7 the cerebral lobes are seen, and in section 8 are larger, as
are the optic lobes, while the antennal lobes are somewhat reduced in
size. Section 10 passes through the cerebral lobes and also grazes the
optic lobes, passing through the optic ganglion.

Section 11 (Fig. 8) shows the central body, separated from the upper
cerebral lobes by a thin layer of loose ganglionic cells. The relation of
the central body to the upper and lower cerebral lobes is well shown in
this section.

Plate XIII, Fig. 4, shows the relation of these and their structure
greatly enlarged. Through the granular substance of the lobes are
sparsely scattered ganglionic cells.

Section 12 passes through the lower cerebral kobes and the upper left

i

THE BRAIN OF THE LOCUST.

239

cerebral lobe and the optic ganglion. The oesophagus is situated be-
neath the cleft under the lower cerebral lobes. The next section (13)
passes behiad the brain, not touching it. These sections are inch
thick.

Structure of the subcesoyhageal ganglion (PL XII, Fig. 10). — In its form
this nerve center is more like the brain than the first thoracic ganglion.
The figure is drawn from the youngest embryo observed. The ganglion
seen in section is very much larger and quite different in shape from the
thoracic ganglia. It expands above the lower fissure between the two
sides, being very deep and narrow, while the superior farrow is broad
and shallow. The internal paler portion (when magnified 400 diam-
eters) is seen to consist of granules. The stratum of outer cells (the
future ganglion cells) is thickest on the outside of the upper part of the
ganglion, .and at the base of each hemisphere.

The brain of the f reshly -ha tched larva of C. spretus. — In the larva but a
few hours after hatching, the brain, so far as I can learn from four sec-
tions, does not essentially differ from that of the embryo just before
hatching, as the interval is apparently too short for a decided change to
take place. It is evident that by the end of the first larval stage the
brain attains the development seen in the third larval state of the two-
banded species.

For illustrations of the different larval and pupal stages of develop-
ment of the locust the reader is referred to the first Report of the Com-
mission (Plates I, II, III).

Third larval stage of Caloptenus bivittatus (PL XIII, Fig. 1-3). — In the
third larval condition of another species, the common Caloptenus bivit-
tatus of our gardens, the different parts of the brain have attained
nearly the same structure and proportions as in the adult. PL XIII,
Fig. 1, represents a section passing through the front of the brain, and
also the lateral ocelli and the right eye. The ganglion cells surrounding
and filling the calices are smaller and more crowded than elsewhere.
The mushroom bodies are now formed, though the trabecule are not to
be seen in our section, but the entire double stalk and calices are very
clearly seen. The fibers from the stalk are observed to extend along
the inner edge of each calyx and to suddenly stop just beyond the mid-
dle. The granular calices contain slight irregularities and sinuous lines,
as shown in Fig. 2, i. cal., o ca., but to what these appearances are due
it is difficult to say ; there are also a few scattered large granules. As
the section passes through the front of the brain, where the hemispheres
are separated by the frontal furrow, the lobes are not well marked, but
the substance is made up of irregular intercrossing bundles of fibers,
with the interspaces filled with granulated matter. In Fig. 3 the regu-
lar saucer-like form of the calyx is well shown. Fig. 2 is an enlarged
view of the right side of Fig. 1, and at this stage large important bundles
of fibers are seen passing into the optic, antennal, and commissural
lobes.

240 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

First pupal stage of Caloptenus spretus. — My sections are too imperfect
to describe, but the form of the bruin is closely like that of the next stage.

Second or last pupal stage of Caloptenus spretus. — A number (14) of very
successful sections made by Mr. Mason from one head give an excellent
opportunity for studying the head of the locust in this stage, just be-
fore becoming Hedged (see first Report, PI. I, Fig. 5). Of these sections,
Nos. 8 aud 9 pass through the calices and oesophageal lobes, but do not
reach the central body. Section 10 (Fig. 1 of PL XIV) passes through
the central body, which is of an inch in thickness, the section itself
being of the same thickness. In the optic ganglion the section passes
through the front of it, but two lenticular masses appear. The trabe-
cular are as in the adult, and the superior and inferior intra-trabecular
nerves are clearly seen to pass into the center of each trabecula just as
in the adult. On the left side the origin of the cauliculus and peduncle
is clearly seen, under a power of 225 and of 400 diameters, the relation
of parts being exactly as in the adult (see PI. X, Fig. 3). The base of
the two divisions of the double stalk arise suddenly, as if inserted into
or resting simply upon, rather than arising from, the trabeculse ; the
bases of the cauliculus and peduncle being in the same line with the
base of the center of the upper division of the central body. It ap-
pears as if a few nerve fibers passed under the base of the stalk between
it and the trabecula ; at any rate, I have been unable to observe either
in the pupa or larva or adult, among a number of preparations, any con-
tinuity between the trabecular and the double stalk.

In this section the curving of the double stalk backwards and the
passage in front of this double column is to be clearly seen, and is just
as we have described it from similar sections of the adult brain (Fig.
3 of PI. X). The ball like masses in the oesophageal commissures are
as distinctly shown as in the adult.

Section 11 passes behind the central body, not showing it nor the
basal part of the double stalk of the mushroom body. This section, and
those behind it, show well the structure of the optic ganglion. In sec-
tion 11 the three lenticular bodies clearly appear.

The main, and almost the only, difference between the second pupa
and the adult appears to be in the degree of development of the ceutral
body. In the second pupa (PI. XIV, Fig. 3) it is rather more elementary
than in the adult, the upper and lower series of unicellular bodies being
a little shorter and rounder, nearer their primitive condition, aud the
septa between them are plainly fibrous. Their contents are as finely
granular as the adjoining parts of the body.

Section 11 is instructive as showing a bundle of directly ascending
and obliquely ascending fibers from the back part of the trabecula, of
which a portion is contained in the section. Two large bundles enter
the commissural lobes, one from above and one from the inner side under
the central body, the bundle from above passing down into the lobe from
around the upper side of the trabecula. From this fact we should infer

THE BRAIN OF THE LOCUST. 241

that there is a partial nervous communication between the trabecular and
the commissural lobes. The libers enveloping the trabecula above are
more numerous, the mass of fibers much thicker than in section 10,
Showing that what we supposed to bo libers separating the stalk from
the trabecula appear to bo really such.

A broad bundle of fibers is also seen on the right side, passing down
from the upper side inside of the upper end of the peduncle, down out-
sido and back of the central body, and to enter the commissural lobe on
its inner side, terminating at the point where the ascending fibers to the
npper side of the trabecula originate. There is thus a direct communica-
tion between the upper part of the brain and the oesophageal commissure
in the lower part. It appears, also, that three large nerves or bundles
of fibers enter each commissural lobe from above.

At the under side of the commissural lobes the cortical ganglion cells
(some of them very large) appear to send their fibers into others to build
up the mass of fibers enveloping the lobe. Flogel states that the opinion
that the ganglionic cells in winged insects are in direct relation through
the fibers with the organs of the body are unfortunately provisionally
contradicted by his observations. But here (seen in a portion of the
commissural lobe not represented in Fig. 3 of PI. XI), as in one or two
other places, we think we have seen fibers from the cortical ganglion cells
passing into and aiding in building up the nerves. Such a relation is
very plain in the brain of the horseshoe-crab, Limulus polyphemus.

LIST OF WORKS ON THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN OF
CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS.

Dujardin. Memoirs sur le Systeme nerveaux des Insectes. Par. F. Dujardin. An-
il ales des Sciences naturelles. Ser. 3. 1850. Tom. xiv, p. 195-206, tab. 1, 1850.

Ofsianxikoff. Ueber die feinerer Structur des Kopfganglions bei den Krebsen, be-
sonders boim Palinurus locusta. Von Ph. Ofsiannikof. Mem. Acad. Imp. Sc. St.
Petersbourg. Tom. vi, No. 10, 1863. Plate i.

Leydig. Voni Ban des thierischen Korpers. Von P. Leydig. Tubingen, 1864, p.
214-226.

Rabl-Rlxkuaiid. Studien uber Iusecteugehirne. Von Rabl-Ruckhard. Archiv fur
Anatomic, Physiologic, etc., herausg. von Reichcrt u. R. Du Bois-Raymond, Jan.
1876, p. 480. Plate i.

Dietl. Dio Organization des Arthropodengehirns. Von M. J. Dietl. Zeitschr. wis-

sensch. Zool. Bd. 27, 1876, p. 488. Plates xxxvi-xxxviii.
Berger. Memoir, by E. Bergcr, in Arbeiten des zoologischen Iustituts zu Wien. Bd.

i, Heft, ii, p. 173, 1878.
FLOGEL. Ueber den einheitliehen Bau des Gehirns in den verschicdenen Insecteuord-

nungen. Von J. H. L. Flogel. Zeitschr. wissensch. Zoologie. Bd. xxx, suppl.

1878, p. 556. Plates xxiii, xxiv.
Newton. On the Brain of the Cockroach, Blatta orientalis. By E. T. Newton.

Quart, Journ. Microscopical Science, July, 1879, p. 340. Plates xv, xvi.
Graber. Ueber das unicorneale Tracheateu, and speciell das Araehuoideeu- und

Myriopoden-Auge. Von. V. Graber. Archiv fur mikroskopischo Anatomic. Bd.

xvii, Bonn., 1879, p. 58-93. (Gives a sketch on pi. vi of the brain of Julus sabu-

losus and Lithobius forficatus.) Taf. v-vii.
MlCHELS. Beschreibuug des nervensvstems von Oryctes nasicomis in Larveu, Pup-
10 L

242 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

pen, und Kiiferzustande. Von H. Michels. Zeitschrift i'iir wisseus. Zoologic. Bd.

xxxiv, p. G41-702. PI, 33-36. 1880.
Packard. On the internal structure of the Brain of Lirnulus Polyphemus. By A. S.

Packard, jr. American Naturalist, June, 1880, \>. 444-448.
. The Eyes and Brain of Cermatia forceps. By A. S. Packard, jr. American

Naturalist, August 1880, p. 602.
. The Anatomy, Histology, and Embryology of Lirnulus Polyphemus. By A.

S. Packard, jx. Anniversary Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History.

Boston, 1880, pp. 1-45. PI. i-vii.
Krieger. Ueher das Centralnervensystcm des Flusskrebses. Von K. R. Krieger,

Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaft. Zoologic. Bd. xxxiii, Jau. 23, 1880, p. 527. Plates.

CHAPTER XII.
LOCUST RAVAGES IN CALIFORNIA.

As the chronology of the history of the locusts in California has been
given in our first report, we only add here the data obtained since that
time and such as we deem of importance then omitted.

Up to the present time the question as to whether Caloptenus spretua
ever invades California remains an
open one which we have been unable
to answer decisively.83" That Oa lu-
nula pellucida (Gldipoda atrox is a
synonym) is often very destructive,
is conclusively shown by the data
here given, furnished by Mr. J. G.
Lemmon, of Sierra Valley, California.
But that this species is truly migra-
tory, or migratory in the sense this
term is usually understood when ap-
plied to locusts, appears very doubt-
ful ; in fact, as will be seen by refer- FlG- w.-camnuiapeiiurtda.
ence to Mr. Lemmon's statement, there are strong reasons for believing
it is not, which agrees with our opinion judging from the insect alone.

As introductory to the data furnished by Mr. Lemmon we give here
a description of this species and also the generic characters.

Before presenting a description from the specimens now before us we
will indicate briefly the position the genus occupies in the family, accord-
ing to recent classification.

By reference to pages 34 and 35 of our First Report the reader will
observe that the subfamily Acridina', so far as represented in this coun-

3311 It should be mentioned, however, that Mr. Packard, as the result of his journey
through California, Western Washington Territory, and Oregon, has stated his belief
that the Rocky Mountain locust (C. spretus) does not inhabit nor visit the Pacific
Coast, nor pass west of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains. — [See first report,
p. 455, and Appendix, p. 142. ]

LOCUST RAVAGES IN CALIFORNIA.

243

try, is divided into three groups, Truxalmi, Acrid/mi, and CEdipodini,
the migratory species being confined to the second and third, which are
distinguished from each other by the presence or absence of a prosternal
spine or tubercle, thus :

To the former group belong most of the migratory species, to wit :
Acridium peregrinum, A. paranense, A. americanum (if this is the Central
American locust, which is doubtful), Caloptenus italicus, and G. spretus.

To the latter belong Pachytylus migratorius and Camnula pellucida.
The former of these two species, which is large, measuring about two
inches in length, is found only on the Eastern Continent ; the latter,
which is comparatively small, is found only in North America.

The genus Camnula, which was established by Stal, is, according to
that author, distinguished from other genera of the same group by the
following characteristics :

The fastigium of the vertex slightly defiexed, rather narrow ; seen from the side it
forms an obtuse angle with the frontal costa, concave, not carinated (that is, without
a, median carina), nor terminated posteriorly by a carina, but in fact by a slender
transverse impression ; frontal costa slightly sulcatc, distinctly narrowed below the
ocellus ; the pronotum with the lateral margins distinctly carinated ; the (posterior)
sulcus divides the median carina, but is usually interrupted by the lateral carinas
which are usually severed by the middle or anterior sulcus ; the posterior lobe is dis-
tinctly longer than the anterior surface, not granulated or rugose.

CEdijyoda pellucida Scudd., Bost. Jour. Nat. Hist. VII, 1862.

atrox Scudd., Hayden's Geol. Surv. Neb., 253.
Camnula tricarinata Stal, Recens. Orthop., 1873.

In order that the reader may judge for himself in reference to the
identity of the species, we give here the three original descriptions.

CE. pellucida Scudd.

Ash-brown ; face reddish brown ; antennae* yellowish at base, dark brown toward
tip ; a triangular black spot behind the eye, the apex touching it ; a quadrate trans-
verse black spot on the anterior upper portion of the sides of pronotum ; pronotum
above, sometimes with a dark band down the middle ; wing covers with the basal half
dark brown, with small yellowish spots and transverse streaks, especially on front
border; apical half clear, with dark brown rounded spots, prevalent along the middle,
decreasing in size toward the tip ; when closed the upper surface is dark brown, with
a rather broad yellowish vitta along each angle on the upper surface ; wings pellucid,
with black nervules; legs dark brown, the hind femora yellowish or reddish brown,
with two or three rather broad diagonal dark brown streaks, dark at the apex ; hind
tibiaa yellowish brown, reddish toward the tip, with a very narrow, generally faint,
annulation of dark brown at the base ; spines tipped with black.

Length of body : male .65 inch, female 1 inch ; spread of wings : male 1.3 inches, fe-
male 1.6 inches ; depth of wings : male .33 inch ; female .4 inch.

CE. atrox Scudd.

Head uniform, pale brownish yellow ; the raised edge of the vertex dotted with fus-
cous; a dark fuscous spot behind the eye, broadening posteriorly, but not extending

a Presternum or front breast armed with a spine or tubercle
aa Presternum unarmed

Acridiui.
CEdipodini.

CAMNULA PELLUCIDA.

244 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

upon the pronotum. Antennae as long as the head and pronotum togcllier, dull honey
yellow, growing dusky toward the tip. Pronotum dark brownish yellow, the sides
darker anteriorly; median carina extending the whole length of the pronotum, mod-
erately raised, cut once by a transverse line a little in advance of the middle ; lateral
carina) prominent, extending across the anterior two-thirds of the pronotum; anterior
border of the pronotum smooth, very slightly angulated ; posterior border delicately
marginato, bent at a very little more than a right angle, the apex rounded; teginina
dull yellowish on the basal half, with distinct fuscous spots; toward the apex obscurely
fuscous, with indistinct fuscous markings ; humeral ridge yellowish, and, when the
tegmina are in repose, inclosing a brownish fuscous triangular stripe ; the spots are
scattered mostly in the median hold, consisting in thebasal two-lifths of the tegmina
of small roundish spots and one larger longitudinal spot in the middle of the basal
half; there is a large irregular spot in the middle of the tegmina, and beyond a smaller
transverse spot, followed by indistinct markings; wings hyaline, slightly fuliginous
at the extreme tip ; the veins, especially in the apical half, fuscous ; legs uniform brown-
i-.li fuscous; apical half of spines of hind tibia; black.

Length of body, 0.9 inch ; of tegmina, 0.9 inch ; of body and tegmina, 1.125 inches ;
of pronotum, 0.2 inch ; of hind femora, 0.5 inch.

It bears a strong resemblance to CEdipoda pellucida Scudd, common in Northern
New England.
Camnula tricarinata Stal.

Pale brownish-yellow ; front on each side from the base to the lateral fovcolas and
usually a stripe on each cheek below the eyes, black. Elytra in front of the middle
somewhat brownish, fuscous, costal area pale, with fuscous spots; behind the middle
dull hyaline with fuscous veins, and obsoletely clouded. Wings hyaline, colorless,
with fuscous veins, posterior femora with two oblique fuscous stripes; posterior tibisB
pale ; spines except at the base, black.

Appearance and markings very similar to Tragocephala [CEdipoda'] sordida; vertex
and fastigium narrower, sulcus of the frontal costa not reaching the base, antennas
slenderer, lateral margins of the pronotum distinctly carinated throughout ; median
carina less elevated, elytra narrower ; intercalate veins visible, radial area of the
wings with no dilated areola;, and the exterior margin behind the middle obsoletely
fuscous, posterior tibia? pale. Frontal costa sparsely punctulate, middle slightly exca-
vated, base narrow. Vertex behind the fastigium furnished with a slender, abbrevi-
ated, longitudinal carina; fastigium slightly deflexed slightly narrowed, slightly
concave, lateral margins raised, marked with minute black lines. Lateral foveolae dis-
tinct, triangular. Pronotum with shallow punctures on the lateral lobes but smooth
on the dorsum which is flat ; median carina subcristate and equal throughout ; lateral
margins distinctly keeled throughout, before the middle lobe parallel, distinctly diverg-
ing posteriorly ; dorsum more or less distinctly fuscous, sides paler ; the lateral lobes
are often marked with black or fuscous spots, the anterior of these spots interrupted
by oblique paler marking. The mesosternal lobe in the male about double as wide, in
the female a little more distant, as the metasternal lobes. Posterior femora medium,
the margins entire.

Vancouver's Island, Western North America.

The following description is drawn up by Mr. Thomas from specimens
collected in Sierra Valley, California, by Mr. Lemmon, directly out of the
hordes injuring the crops, from others collected by Mr. Marten, at Fort
Peck Agency, Montana, and also by Mr. Thomas in Colorado :

Camnula pellucida Scudd.

Male. — Length of body .G5-.90 inch; to tips of elytra .80-1 inch; expanse of ely-
tra 1.50 inches. Female. — Length of body .80-1 inch ; to tips of elytra 1 to 1.25
inches ; expanse of elytra 1.75 inches.

Occiput rising slightly above the pronotum, with a minute longitudinal median

LOCUST EAVAGES IN CALIFOENIA.

245

carina usually obsolete behind, more distinct in front where it extends to the trans-
verse incision in the posterior part of the median foveola of the vertex. Vertex in
front of the eyes deflexed at about an augle of 25° from horizontal ; margins raised
forming an ovate median foveola which is narrowed and closed in front ; there is
usually a slight but distinct linear transverse depression across the posterior part of
this foveola opposite the upper canthus of the eyes ; there is also occasionally visible
a very minute median carina, but this has been observed only in some of the Califor-
nia specimens, in which the lateral margins are rather less elevated than in the speci-
mens obtained elsewhere ; lateral foveola more or less distinct, triangular, the sharpest
angle forward, base pressed closely against the eye. Frontal costa rather broad, nar-
rowed, prominent and punctate above, widened and slightly depressed at the ocellus,
slightly narrowed and soon fading out below the ocellus, not reaching the clypous; it
is rather more than usually broad at the ocellus and not sulcate above or below it.

Antennae scarcely reaching beyond the tip of the pronotum, rather slender, some-
what flattened and very slightly enlarged toward the apex. Eyes rather small, not
prominent ; posterior margin semicircular, less convex in front. Pronotum short, the
greatest length about equal to the depth ; the constriction, which is slight, very near
the front, expanding posteriorly ; the median and lateral carinas distinct, extending
the whole length ; the median subcristate, straight on top, or very nearly so, usually
distinctly, but sharply, severed in advance of the middle by the posterior sulcus; the
lateral carinas are sharply defined, but less prominent than the median, parallel on
the front lobe, but diverging from thence to the posterior margin. These (lateral
carinas) are usually more or less distinctly severed by one of the transverse impressed
lines, but vary as to the one, sometimes by the first, sometimes by the second, some-
times by the third, and occasionally by two of them. The dorsum is flat and not
granulated or rugose; the anterior margin very obtusely angled ; posterior margin
forming an angle a little larger than a right angle, rounded at the extreme tip ; pos-
terior lateral angle about a right angle. Elytra rather narrow, furnished with a dis-
tinct intercalate vein ; basal half opaque, apical half, or at least the apical third,
nearly transparent, extending slightly — from one-tenth to one-fifth their length — be-
yond the tip of the abdomen.

The wings rather less than medium width, very thin and delicate, resembling very
closely the wings of C. spretus, but more delicate and transparent ; the width of the
subcostal'area is marked on the external ^ apical) margin by a distinct notch.

Abdomen in both sexes very distinctly carinated above. In the female the cerci,
as usual, very small, the valves of the ovipositor are quite slender and very sharp.
In the male the cerci are rather longer than usual in (Edipodini, cylindrical, slightly
tapering, the tip of the abdomen usually curved more or less upward, the subanal
plate curving upward strongly, somewhat prolonged, tapering, and broadly subtrun-
cate at the tip ; it and the cerci slightly hairy.

Posterior femora rather slender for the group to which the species belongs, upper
carina elevated, entire, and very thin and sharp ; in the females they scarcely reach
the tip of the abdomen — the same thing appears to be true in reference to the males.
The posterior tibias very slightly shorter than the femora, slender ; the spurs at the
base robust ; the spines rather small, usually nine or ten in the outer and ten or
eleven in the inner row.

Color. — The general or ground color of the California specimens is considerably
lighter than that of the Eocky Mountain or eastern specimens ; if a number, with
the wings closed, are placed together there is a quite distinct dull yellowish shade
observed ; but the general color is a dull (earthy) brown, varied by lighter and darker
shades, the dark shade increasing toward the head, being a decided brown on the
head and pronotum — not so distinct in the California specimens. The cheeks and
sides of the posterior lobe of the pronotum dull yellow. The chief characteristic
markings are to be found on the elytra ; these have a yellowish ray more or less
tinged with reddish extending along the inner margin from the base to where it fades

246 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

out at tho inner margin about one-third tho length from the tip; the costal area i»
marked with from one to three dark brown or fuscous spots, the one next the base
and opposite the costal angle the largest, one or both the others, which are small,
often wanting; the discal or middle marked with rather largo spots -of the same
kind, which are somewhat transverse, and fading toward the apex where they are ob-
literated. Wings pellucid, veins and veinlets of the outer (anterior when spread)
half dark, except the strong subcostal vein, which is white or pale yellow ; those of
tho inner half mostly yellowish. Posterior femora varying in color from dull yellow
to brown ; usually, but not always, marked externally with two oblique brownish
bands. Posterior tibim yellowish.

THE LOCUST IN CALIFORNIA IN 1878.

The following extracts will give an idea of the injury in 1878*
This valley has been infested by locusts increasing so much of late as to totally
destroy the crops and striko terror to the inhabitants. While botanizing here two
years ago, I collected specimens of various locusts and sent them to the Academy of
Sciences, at San Francisco. No report. Last season I was absent in Southern Cali-
fornia, so I have no specimens of the locusts that devastated this valley, and whoso
eggs are thickly deposited on many of the sunny knolls.

I think these locusts come from the desert northeast of us by easy 6tages, yearly.
This valley lies in latitude 39° 40' north, and longitude 129° 30' west, at an altitude
of about 5,000 feet.

As this valley, 35 miles long by half as wide, lies in the Sierra Nevada, to the west
of one of its loftiest chains, it will be interesting to know if the true C. aprctus is the
locust that is devouring our herbage.

To perfectly understand the problem, it is fair to state that the valley is connected
to the great basin through this Sierra barrier by the low pass of Beckwourth, though
the locusts did not come through it, but, as supposed, they came eating their way
from over the ridge to tho northward as stated.

I will in due time send forward specimens of the species here, with notes of their
habits, ravages, &c.

The excellent and useful report of your Commission (First Annual Report United
States Entomological Commission, 1877), is in my hands. Wish I knew whether it
was advisable to exhort the farmers to fight the pest- with coal-oil and machinery.
They have bred here for three years, and seem on the increase. Eat up grain and
late grass. Last year damage estimated at §30,000 in a population of 2,000. — [J. G.
Lemmon in a letter to C. V. Riley, March 10, 1879.

Grasshoppers IN Sierra. Valley. — Reno Journal, July 8: A gentleman in from
Sierra Valley informs us that the grasshoppers are destroying a great deal of grain in
the valley. Out of one field, from which 400 tons ought to have been cut, only 150 tons
were left, and even this was saved by the exertions of the farmers. The hoppers are
now all in the north end of the valley, but when this is all eaten up they will no
doubt turn their attention to the lower end. They rise in such clouds that the sun
is darkened, and shortly after they light on a field nothing is left but a mass of un-
sightly stalks. They do not touch the wet land, nor will they touch the hay after it
is cut and cured. Cases are cited where the insects have gone just ahead of the
mowers and destroyed the majority of the grain. In one such case, out of 200 tons
only 25 were saved. Dairymen are suffering considerably because their grazing lands
are being destroyed, and this, with the low price of butter, is causing many to leave
that business entirely. Probably one-half of the entire crop of the valley will be lost.
Fortunately 2,000 tons of hay was carried over from last year. This will keep the
price this year about as usual, but next year it is likely a notable advance in the price
will be apparent. The grasshoppers have possession of Sierra Valley, and what is

LOCUST RAVAGES IN CALIFORNIA.

247

worse, young ones are hatching every day, while the old ones are laying eggs and
eating grass. — [Pacific Rural Press, July 13, 1878.

Sierra Valley Hoppers. — Reno Journal : We spoke yesterday of the myriads of
grasshoppers in the Sierra Valley, and of the imminent danger the crops were in.
Another gentleman tells us that there is a mile square in the center of the valley,
which is completely covered with the young insects, which have appetites like cross-
cut saws. He suggests that tho farmers club together, and, by rolling over this tract
with heavy rollers, kill at least the major portion of them, for should they all survive,
they will not gratefully spare the green acres around them. The crops never looked
better, and the farmers have only this one thing to fear. One has no idea of the mag-
nitude or destructibility of this plague. Flying in clouds so thick as to darken the
sky for an hour at a time, they leave the country over which they pass as bleak as if
a fire had swept it. Millions may be killed, but like the war with China, there are ten
to take the place of every one that falls. It is not profitable to raise grain for grass-
hoppers' use. We hope our Sierra Valley friends will escape the impending danger. —
[Ibid, June 22, 1878.

Reports from Sierra County, California, state that the grasshoppers appeared there
in May and June, since when they have become very numerous, destroying almost
the entire crops in the Sierra Valley. — [Rocky Mountain News, October 30, 1878.

Grasshoppers are so plenty in the mountains which the Central Pacific climbs that
trains can hardly mount the grades, and the brakes sometimes fail coming down. —
[Boston Journal, 1878.

• The following more comprehensive account was communicated by
Mr. J. G-. Lemmon to the Truckee Republican, and pxiblished in several
numbers of that journal :

April 5, 1879.

The amount of damage to crops in Sierra Valley last year (1878) by a certain rav-
enous grasshopper, or, properly, locust, and the fact that millions of eggs were de-
posited on hitherto non-visited ranches, menacing a larger area of land than ever^
naturally causes a deep interest to be taken in the terrible scourge, and justifies a
somewhat careful examination of the whole subject.

I have just been down through the infected district, making observations upon the
eggs, and taking notes from the inhabitants on the origin and habits of tho locusts,
which I will first give, then draw conclusions in regard to the insects, methods of
fighting them, hopes and fears for the future, &c.

THE SCOURGE NEAR LOYALTON.

Thomas F. West states that the locusts came from Clover and Last Chance Valleys.
Saw them in the latter three years ago. Breeding ground previous year (1877) was
on what is known as "The Island," some few miles out in the valley south of Beck-
wourth ; arrived at his ranch in myriads June 1st. Their flight was only a few feet
from the ground, striking heavily against fences and buildings. In the morning
hours many of them flew southward, then turned, after feeding, perhaps, and returned
in the afternoon. Many remained and deposited eggs in August, on warm, sunny
knolls, the rest disappearing southwestward. Loss, about $500.

F. M. West suffered very severely, and is fearful that his crops will all bo taken
this year, since eggs are so thickly deposited on his ranch. The insect selects warm,
dry knolls for this purpose ; large patches are literally filled with eggs. They came
from the northeast, staid two or three weeks, then went southwest. Did not fight
against them ; "as well contend against the wind." Loss, 125 tons of hay, §625, and
his fall feed, estimated at $100. Ranch of 240 acres. Many hatched on his ranch in
May, but the bulk came from " The Island" about June 20.

D. T. Machomick lost 120 tons of hay, $600 ; had no grain ; ranch of 160 acres.
Other items same as the Wests.

248 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

John Young lout G5 tons'of hay.

W. A. Poole lost 75 acres of oats, worth $1,800; hay not injured much. Locusts
came about July 20 from northeast. lint few remained to lay eggs. Most of the
damage was done iu two to four weeks. Disappeared to the southwest.

A. R. Dodge, not much injured ; has a ranch of 200 acres.

Joe Dyson lost everything in 1877 ; last year, 200 tons of hay, worth §1,000 ; had no
grain. The locusts hatched mostly on his ranch from May to August very numerously;
covered the ground ; (lew low.

Mr. Lewis lost heavily, estimated at $3,000, mostly of grain. The other farms above
Loyaltou, Dooley's, Parker's, and Robinson's, suffered more or less.

D. B. Patterson lost 75 tons of oats from choice seed, costing 3 cents per pound,
from which ho expected, it standing so well on the ground, 3,000 bushels, worth
$2,000. Lost one-third of his hay, 100 tons, worth $500, with a valuable gardeu, po-
tatoes, &c. Fall feed eaten up. Farm of G40 acres. The atrocious gourmands came
originally from Clover Valley, and mowed down his oats seemingly in twenty-four
hours ; many laid eggs ; the bulk disappeared to the westward. Hosts of 'hoppers,
eome of them flying high, darkening the sun.

John Schroeder lost 65 acres of oats, worth $2,500. Came from the north, about
July 1, eating his grass ; greatest damage to grain about July 10. The array came
from " The Island," divided near his ranch, one wing continuing up Smith's Neck, the
other turning westward ; were about three weeks eating his crops ; many laid eggs,
the female dying afterward. He fought them diligently with his largo family, saving
garden and potatoes thereby, worth $800. Drove them off with papers tied to sticks,
which were brandished about the small iuclosures. Insects very thick, covering the
ground ; near fences and buildings they were gathered in heaps. This ranch of 320
acres was not affected the year before. Flew low, not more than 20 feet at the
highest. They reminded him of 'hoppers met with on the Humboldt in 1854, though
those were more destructive, eating willows and sage-brush.

J. C. Brown lost heavily iu grass and garden. Came from the eastward ; filled the
air, stopping his horses while raking hay, and pelted fences and buildings like hail ;
devoured cured hay in the bunch, before he could get it drawn into the barn. His
mother made a desperate fight for her garden ; had to protect face and eyes by nearly
closing her bonnet with one hand, while with the other she swung her besom of des-
truction ; were ravenous four weeks ; left many eggs; disappeared by death and by
going west.

W. S. Paine lost 75 acres of oats worth $1,500, with hay and fall feed worth $200.
Oats were just in full stand when attacked, about July 20. Ate for two weeks. He
made desperate and temporarily successful efforts to defend his crop ; took 200 yards
of baling rope, fastened papers to it, and swept over his grain, driving the locusts be-
fore the shaking papers ; " drove them out forty times ; was overpowered by the num-
bers of the enemy and cleaned out." Many remained on the ground, deposited eggs,
and died on dry knolls. Those that left went westward. Thinks they came from
" The Island." For four days during the morning hours they poured in upon his
ranch of 500 acres from over the hill, eastward. Proposes to never give up, but to
fight them still.

Silas Sturgeon lost heavily of oats, barley, and wheat.

Dan Ebe lost $1,000 worth of oats ; barley damaged. Came from northeast ; went
on southwest ; many laying eggs ; farm of 450 acres.

W. T. Wilson's former ranch up in Antelope Neck was saved by the late arrival of
the pests.

J. B. Eachus lost 40 acres of oats. Thinks the eggs were hatched out early in
March.

J. H. Sims lost $400, mostly in hay and pasture. The locusts arrived from the north-
east during the first week in July ; flew low ; deposited eggs and disappeared south-
west ; ranch of 480 acres.

LOCUST RAVAGES IN CALIFORNIA.

249

VICINITY OF S1EREAVILLE.

The brothers H. P. and William Robbins suffered slight losses of grass and grain.

A. J. Flint got ahead of the tireless harvesters with four mowers, securing his hay,
but a small patch of wheat was munched as a daiuty morsel in a few hours.

Mrs. Chandler was relieved from the expense of finishing a field of grass that stood
well at eve ; ere noon of next day it was full of locusts, shearing it close to the
ground.

D. D. Newman lost 75 acres of oats and much fall feed. A small field of rye was not
attacked, so he takes the precaution to sow all his grain land to this cereal.

Jonah T. Jones lost but part of his oat crop, owing to the late arrival of the scourge.
In his granary I obtained mutilated specimens of the insect (they had been through
the thresher and fanner) that confirmed my suspicions of the true character and
name of the species.

George P. Haine suffered but little, being mostly beyond the last stragglers of the
army. Has had occasion to pass among the ranches near Adams's Neck during sum-
mer seasons. Has observed the habits of the young ; correctly distinguishes between
them and the full-fledged grouse locust, often mistaken for them. Saw young, half-
grown, wingless locusts once seeking fresh pastures on Moffatt's ranch. Stopped by
a stream, they retracted the flanks of their column, and crossed a bridge, as thick on
the ground as they could be and move ; were four days crossing ; thinks they can be
ditched,

Merritt Harding, being fond of tempting trout from his streams with grasshoppers,
made a most important discovery. The insect was found to be infested by a little
red louse. When carrying six to eight of these blood-sucking enemies the locust
looked sickly and was very weak. These were late comers.

T. S. Battelle, Peter Olsen, B. F. Lemmon, the Himes Brothers, and Jack Campbell
have each their quota of eggs deposited by the last vanguard of the army late in
July and August, menacing their own and adjoining ranches this summer.

The reported damages foregoing foot up : Grain, $15,000; hay, $5,250 ; feed, $1,400;
vegetables, $600 ; total, $22,250. This should be increased about one-third by the
addition of those farmers not reported — $30,000.

The damages in the vicinity of Beckwourth and the Summit, and along the west
side of the valley and the interior, was perhaps half as great, which, added to the
above, gives a total of damage of $45,000 in Sierra Valley for the year 1878.

Now, what is this fell destroyer ? What its relatives, its habits, its enemies, and
how can its attacks be averted ?

From examination of specimens with a microscope and comparisons with descriptions
and illustrations in my possession, I have determined that this locust is not the ter-
rible migratory Rocky Mountain locust of the interior. Added to which all the facts
given concerning the habits of this insect prove it different. In regard to the scien-
tific names of these two kinds of locusts, the unscientific will notice that they are very
aptly conferred. The Rocky Mountain locust is called Caloptenus spretus. The first
or generic name means " beautiful wing," and refers to the bright silvery sheen of the
wings when seen at great heights in flight, resembling snow-flakes ; the last or specific
name means "despised," "hated." This locust has its permanent breeding grounds
mostly on the eastern side of the Rockies, from the parks of Colorado northward 200
miles beyond the boundary between the States and British America. It makes irreg-
ular forays eastward or southward, devastating large areas in the manner so forcibly
described by the prophet Joel: "The appearance of them is as the appearance of
horses, and as a horseman so shall they run. Like the noise of chariots on the tops of
mountains shall they leap ; like the noise of a flame of fire that devoureth the stubble ;
as a strong people set in battle array. The land is a garden of Eden before them, be-
hind them a desolate wilderness."

During the three years from 1874 to 1877 the damage done to the border States was
estimated at the enormous sum of $300,000,000. This "hated" spretus moves in vast

250 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

swarms Hcveral hundred miles long and wide, and often a mile or more thick. They
have heen seen passing at a great height over the highest peaks of the Rockies. Al-
though there are hreeding grounds just north of Salt Lake and along the valley of
Snake River, in Idaho, from which they sally west and southward, no instance is re-
corded of their ever reaching the Sierra Nevada range. There are two other species
of Caloplenug that arc also migratory and terribly destructive at times; the C. atlania
or "lesser locust," and C. femur-rubrum, the "red-legged locust"; and these species
heing of wider range have, perhaps, ravaged portions of California, hut the principal
damage in our State has been done hy the culprit that is now menacing Sierra Valley,
and which wo will proceed to name and describe.

CEDIPODA ATKOX.

The compound Greek word (Edipoda (accented on the second syllable with the short
sound of i) means "swclled-leg," and refers to the large thigh of the hind or leaping
legs. The specific name atrox means " atrocious," " cruel," "destructive," or " direful."
This atrocious locust breeds all over the country from. Florida to Alaska annually, but
does not often become so numerous as to be destructive. When forced to migrate for
food they form vast swarms, reported (perhaps not this species) as "flying about 200
feet high for the noon hours of two days over the city of Sacramento in 1855, resem-
bling a snow storm. They destroyed half of the crops of Sacramento County." In 1877
locusts (the (Edipoda atrox) ravaged the coast from Point Concepcion to Santa Barbara,
their habits and mischief closely observed by the distinguished naturalist, Elwood
Cooper, of Santa Barbara, who recommends deep plowing under of the eggs. He has
completely averted the scourge by that means, while sowing on and harvesting crops
as usual. The same year the damage iu Fresno County was $20,000. Great damage is
reported in Fresno as early as 1856. The same year two swarms passed over the
Big Trees into San Joaquin Valley, doing great damage.

In 1859 locusts devastated the valley on the west side of Pitt and Fall Rivers (North-
east California) ; covered the ground ; annoying to travelers and stock men.

In 1862 and 1863 at Hornitos they came in June and July "like a glistening cloud ;
ate the bark oft' of peach trees."

In 1866 and 1S67 a swarm 15 miles wide passed over Stockton from the north, "so
abundant that they filled a well."

In 1869 they visited Tulare County from the southwest in May and June ; staid three
weeks, eating grain and grapes.

In 1873 they migrated to Southern California, doing great damage. The last rav-
ages, in 1877, have been stated.

The species doing the injury in the cases is unknown, for want of care in preserving
specimens and in descriptions; most probably they were true migratores, as atlanis and
femur-rubrum. The locust of 1877 was the (Edipoda atrox. which of late, for some as
yet mysterious reason, has become numerous and migratory to a limited extent.

As stated by eye-witnesses, ours have come by easy stages from the northward, en-
tering Sierra Valley from Clover and Last Chance Valleys, and at first deposited but
few eggs. Theeggs are about the size of small, slightly curved rice kernels of a light
huff color. They are deposited during the latter part of the season, from July to Sep-
tember, in sunny exposures, at a depth of half an inch to an inch, in nests or pockets
of ahout 28 eggs each. The female is supposed to make several deposits — three or
four — and then perishes. Neither male nor female of this species lives through the
winter. The earliest laid eggs hatch first, about May 10th. Hatching continues all
the forepart of summer. The insect, while yet in the omnion or sheath, wriggles itself
to the surface of the ground, where first the pelticle gives way to pressure beneath in
the region of the hack and neck. The head emerges, then the antennae and limbs, all
very soft and white. In a few minutes the little rogue, now black and shining, with
stiff legs and a fierce look, hops off in search of something to eat — and trouble begins.

LOCUST RAVAGES IN CALIFORNIA.

251

LOCUST ENEMIES.

First in importance, though silent and unseen, are insects of its own great class.
They prey upon it from the egg to the adult, while roosting at night or flying by day.
It is a law of nature that every animal meets with check. A particular plant-feeder
may swarm to an alarming extent one year, and he unheard of the next, being checked,
perhaps, by an unseen foe. The Locust Commission referred t o, report, describe, and
illustrate a host of insects, including minute mites, no larger than pin heads, flies,
wasps, beetles and the like, whose larva? feed upon the eggs. Wasps, hornets, and
flies attack the grown insect.

Mr. Merritt Harden, through his piscatorial proclivities, happily discovered that
our atrox is badly parasitised with the "red mite" Trombidium locustarum, described
and named by Professor Riley. Should this parasite multiply, the instinct of the
locust will cause it to avoid the vicinity, as was distinctly proved in the East with
the "hated" spretus.

A certain fly (Tachina) seeks out the locust to deposit by a quick dart upon it an
egg, which speedily hatches, gnaws into the body of the locust and preys upon its-
vitals, soon killing it. Swarms of these flies have been known to drive out or turn
the course of an army of locusts. The so-called "hair-worm " lives a portion of its
life in the locust. It never originates from horse hairs, as often thought.

The whole bird family, from the swan to the pee-wee, are valiant friends of man in
the contest. So important is this aid that public sentiment as well as legislation in
all the West protects the birds from wanton destruction. Prof. S. Aughey, of Ne-
braska, investigated this subject in aid of the commission, and names 260 kinds of
useful birds in the crops or stomachs of which he found locusts. Principal of these
are domestic fowls, robins, black-birds, larks, bluebirds, swallows, 6nipe, plover,
ducks, doves, grouse, magpies, crows, &c.

Several quadrupeds rally for the destruction of locusts, including the common
skunk, which for signal service in this cause is voted a benefactor in the locust region,
and is petted, despite his odor.

The Indians of the interior, usually so stolid, become quite excited at the approach
of locusts, not with fear, but joy, as they proceed to harvest a winter's store of " crick-
ets," in this respect resembling the Arab of the desert, who, at sight of the coming
cloud, falls on his face, with loud cries of praise to Allah and the Prophet, for sending
him food.

PROTECTION AND DEFENSES.

These are of five sorts : 1st. Encouragement of natural locust enemies ; 2d. De-
struction of the eggs ; 3d. Destruction of the unfledged young ; 4th. Destruction of
the flyers ; 5th. Warding off by frightful objects or sounds. The best means of de-
stroying the eggs is by plowing them under, harrowing them out of their nests in
autumn and exposing to winter weather and birds, irrigating and rotting them, or
making the ground too hard for egress by rolling.

When it is remembered that the young locust does not dig its way out of the ground —
only wriggles out of the loose soil with its mantle still on — the feasibility of plowing,
harrowing, and rolling is apparent, and I am surprised that not a farmer of Sierra
Valley is reported as trying these remedies. Certain knolls known to be full of eggs
could be thus treated, and the vast bulk of our local pest be destroyed in the egg. I
say " local pest " advisedly. The (Edipoda atrox is not a true migratore, does not rise
in vast swarms to a great height, and journey for days in a given direction ; hence its
destruction may be compassed or completed by vigorous concert of action.

And this is the comfort we may gather from all this investigation ; that this is not
the hateful spretus of the Rocky Mountains, liable at any day to drop out of the sky
in overwhelming myriads, but only a local and usually harmless species, that for some,
perhaps evanescent, cause has multiplied to a destructive extent. The theory lately
advanced in the Republican (which I fear may be credited to me, as the editor refers.

252 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

to mo in the outset,) is radically wrong. Tho statement is made that "to put in
grain crops would only foster the scourge, while to let the ground lie idle may starve
the rapacious insects into emigrating."

No, no. Plow and sow, and harrow and roll, spado and ditch the infected spots.
Aided hy friends, seen and unseen, the plague may ho averted. Take the example of
tho farmers of the East, who fight the " hated " locust, though it is like contending
against the wind, at great expense, with coal-oil cans, with gathering machines, with
firo and water. Failing to fight them here and now, tho creatures may take posses-
sion and hrced in destructive numhers annually, since this is as natural a breeding
ground as any other. For some reason the " check " is removed. Let us seek out
another. Let fortunate farmers not gloat over the temporary advantages to them
from tho misfortunes of their neighbors, for tho " atrocious " locust is perfectly at
home here, and may radiate in any direction towards tho most inviting fields. Let
them rather get into full sympathy with the sufferers, remembering that really in
calamities of this kind all the community suffers. Let all join as one man to limit,
cripple, and kill off this common enemy — tho " atrocious locust."

April 2, 1879.

Three days after sending you the articles on the Sierra Valley scourge, I received a
letter from Professor Riley, Chief of the United States Entomological Commission,
accompanying a box of specimens of tho various migratory species — as I had requested
in March last. These specimens confirm my determinations as given, that our locust
is not a true miyratorc. Iu the absence of full descriptions and perfect specimens the
task of determining what species it was became the more difficult. There is little
doubt, however, that I have named it correctly, as corroborated by the statements of
its habits as given by my afflicted neighbors.

I have at this time several observations to make, derived from a close study of the
young as they are hatching out. A pan of earth containing a large number of eggs
in their pockets was brought in during the fine weather in February, and since have
remained near tho stove, in even temperature. On the 1st of April, the eggs began to
hatch out, and the microscope, aided by plates and descriptions given in the report of
tho United States Entomological Commission, has revealed wonders in the early life
of this terrible plague.

The young atrox pushes off the upper portion of the shell and the tough chorion or
inner membrane, like a cap, and emerges by movements maggot-like in action, always
striving to move upwards. It is still encased in a membrane or mantle (the amnion),
that fits it like a glove, encasing every organ separately. In pushing its way upward
to the light and air the little baby — about 20 hundredths of an inch long — is soft and
pliable, freely turning in every direction. It is able to arrange this tough enveloping
mantle into loose bands encircling its body; the lower edge of each band being free,
is alternately expanded with great force, and then contracted. "When expanded the
outward edges of the inclined bands take hold of the earth, while the insect pushes
its head upward with great force. Advancing by contracting its body and drawing
it in a heap towards its head, it next expands, the band edges cope with the earth on
all sides, while the head is advanced, as before. Arrived at tho surface, the little
•white fellow lies on its side a moment, as if resting ; then commences a series of con-
tortions, resulting in the bursting of the mantle on the back of the neck. The slit
extends soon around to nearly below, the edges sliding back each way, allowing the
facile creature to emerge, the back of tho neck first. The forward portion is soon
slipped over the head and face, the antenna? and jaws withdrawn, the white shriveling
mantle is pushed downward, releasing the legs, and in a few moments the whole is
kicked off by the hind legs, a small crumpled mass resembling a minute mushroom.
At first the insect is white and limber, but in the space of an hour becomes black,
fully hardened, and active. Its eyes and head are relatively very large, its face slop-
ing inward, with never a sign of a wing, but with sight, hearing, legs and appetite
wonderfully strong.

LOCUST RAVAGES IN CALIFORNIA.

255

These observations may lead to the conclusion that early life here, as in most in-
stances, is very tenacious, and is carefully guarded by nature. Such is the force with
which the atrocious villain presses in its mantle or pellicle — a writhing maggot — that
plowing under, to be effectual, must be deep and thorough.

Harrowing the eggs to the surface in autumn, with the Rocky Mountain locust, is
said to be very effective. Tho females deposit with the eggs a sebific or waxy sub-
stance that keeps the eggs in place, suitable for hatching. Brought to the surface,
they are exposed to the rigors of winter, and to the attacks of birds ; and in our val-
ley, with its regular spring freshets, they would be floated off into the sloughs, feed-
ing the trout, The eggs that survive all these conditions would become addled, or at
least the insect would be too weak when hatched to be feared.

THE RED OR LOCUST MITE.

In the pan of earth and locust eggs there happened to be eggs of the red mite (the
Tromlidium locustarum Riley), and I have a full-grown female under thin glass for mi-
croscopic study. My specimen is 6 hundredths of an inch long, about the size of a
flea. It was very fortunate to find this locust pest accompanying our species as it
does the spretus. In some sections of the interior the abandonment of the country by
locusts is charged entirely to the attack of this parasite. They often teem until the
ground is tinged a bright scarlet color. It preys upon both eggs and mature insects.
On the full-grown insect they fasten beneath the wings, suck the locust to a dry shell,
then drop to earth to undergo transformation peculiar to the species.

Instinctively the fear of this red or locust mite is conveyed from parent to child,
for a region once infested by it the locusts avoid for years after. This is one of the
most singular phenomena connected with the locust problem, to wit, how the young-
swarms from abroad know that a certain section in advance of them is infested by
their deadly enemy. They turn from such country with evident fear. Borne along
by the wind, perhaps, as they approach the vicinity of the mites, they face about in
a mass, or if the wind is too strong they drop and crawl hastily back in mortal fear'
and tumult, without feeding.

Some such " check" is sure to arrive in time to drive off or destroy our foe. So let
the farmer take courage. The most disconsolate appearances at the East have been
changed to rescue and safety in a single night by these "checks," adroitly brought in
by old mother Nature, kind at last to all, if we but give her time to complete the
cycles of her mysterious progress. In proof of this it may be cited that the locust-smit-
ten localities of the interior are really the most prosperous in the Union. The locusts
eat up certain noxious weeds, and the most abundant harvests follow their ravages of
the year before. But there is this difference — the spretus never flourishes, from various
causes, more than a year at a time in one place, being an emigrant from the Rockies;
ours, the atrox, is indigenous here. Favoring circumstances have multiplied them, so
that they moved slowly, year by year, along in search of food. May the powers of
earth and air, birds, insects, and protozoa, the devices of man, and the love and skill
of nature, speedily conspire to check this terrible, atrocious locust !

Wednesday, April 9, 1879.

Have just been over a locust patch of eggs on the ranch of B. F. Lemmon, and was
pleased to find the "red locust mite" in abundance. It was running over the ground
only in the vicinity of the eggs, and thus leads the searcher for eggs at once to their
locality. This parasite is now in its mature state, is often so large as to be distinctly
noticed, and is commonly called the " red spider." It seeks out the locust eggs, de-
posits its own therein, besides eating freely ; then, as the young locust hatches, it is
menaced by the larval forms of this louse until the end of the season.

It is hoped that this auxiliary aid, thus brought in by nature, will be efficacious in
averting the scourge.

The dreadful locust ravages and their menaces in future are still the all-absorbing

254 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

themes of thought and speech in Sierra Valley. Though former articles on the sub-
ject are somewhat lengthy, yet the half was not told.

I have just completed the entire circuit of the valley, getting statements from nearly
all the farmers on the north aud west sides, portions of the valley quite as severely
devastated as those reported previously, but for want of time to visit them then the
damages generally were estimated.

Those estimates fall far short of the truth, as details clearly show. It will suffice
now to give the aggregates of damages and the area of the several districts : Adam's
Neck aud vicinity, 818,000, from 22 large farms containing 14,000 acres; Beckwourih
and vicinity, §15,000, 13 small farms of 9,000 acres; west side, $6,300, 15 small farms
of 5,000 acres; interior (estimated), $6,000, 12 small farms of 4,000 acres. Totals,
$45,800 — 67 farms of 35,000 acres. Add Loyaltou and vicinity and Sierraville, as
formerly reported, s:{0,i)iji), 21 farms, 15,000 acres— grand totals, §75,300; 1)1 farms of
47,000 acres, being $30,000 damages more than estimated.

The statements from sufferers elicited on this circuit in regard to t be appearance
and habits of the locust, conform generally to those of others given in the first arti-
cle, though some observers detected two or more kinds of grasshoppers, and it is quite
likely that the culprits comprise more than the one species I have determined as the
CEdipoda atrox. But all statements and all the specimens seen declare against the pos-
sibility that either of the three true migratory species are in our midst.

The satisfaction derived from this conclusion is that we of California are beyond
the range of the all-devouring migratores that so often lay waste the interior. There
they are liable to fall upon the farmer's field during any year of drought. Most of
the border States have enacted expensive legislation to reduce the pest, by giving
bounties of $1 to $5 per bushel for the locusts and $50 per gallon for eggs collected
and destroyed, and also made it obligatory upon the able-bodied citizens to work a
certain number of days to destroy them. Coal oil, Paris green, caustic potash, aud
several other chemical poisons are employed, and twenty-two kinds of machines, more
or less elaborate and costly, are described and illustrated in the last report of the
United States Entomological Commission, as being in ]£se in the infested region. Ex-
tensive systems of irrigation are instituted, co-operative action arranged for burning
the dry grass of the prairies at the right time to kill the unfledged locusts, &c. Fu-
migation, by burning dampened straw along the borders of growing crops, is found to
ward off invading swarms. The aid of the military and Indian agents is invoked to
assist in digging extensive trenches for trapping the young, and a signal corps of ob-
servation is suggested and shown to be of more prospective service than the present
one devoted to " weather probabilities," involving, as the locust problem does, an an-
nual average loss of about $40,000,000.

Professor Riley writes me : " Undoubtedly the same remedies that I have recom-
mended [alluding to this report of the Locust Commission] will apply to your species."

The inutility of most of these remedies lies in the fact that a portion of the eggs are
deposited in patches out in the sage-covered interior of the valley, where they cannot
be treated with machines or with plow and harrow, fire or water, all too late for this
year. But many observers speak of the young as moving in narrow columns, mowing
swaths of grass in their progress. In this stage they might be precipitated into
trenches, or trampled or crushed by rolling. These methods would be feasible only
where the young locusts are not very numerous. Large masses thus ditched, if left
uncovered, would bring in a worse pestilence — horrid diseases.

The insects huddle under dry grass and weeds during cool nights, where they may
often be destroyed by fire.

A thin film of coal-oil, which will readily spread, upon a ditch of still water, will
kill the locusts instantly if they try to swim across.

A shallow pan having a small quantity of coal-oil in it, if placed where the insects
may fall into it, is very effective. The oil in these cases penetrates the breathing ap-

LOCUST RAVAGES IN CALIFORNIA

255

paratus of the insects by way of the ten pairs of spiracles or breathing holes along
the sides of the body.

The invasion of 17 years ago was only for one season. Why this one is prolonged
^or three years it would bo interesting to know. It is hoped this is the last year of
their ravages, if, indeed, they are allowed to complete their work, owing to the para-
sites, but will rise and flee away as soon as able.

The attacks of the "red louse," or "silky mite," have been alluded to iu the pre-
vious articles. I have detected it in several localities, and should it become numerous,
the atrocious locust is doomed, as appears from authentic accounts of its friendly
services in the interior.

In 18bl Sierra Valley was but thinly settled, and the locust damages were not so
important owing thereto, but statements from eye-witnesses convey the idea that in
numbers the locusts far exceeded any experience of this invasion.

For a year or two they had been at work in the north end of the valley, just as now,
rapidly increasing and traveling southward, precisely as in this case — but when they
came around Newman's Point the broad living tide was immense, absolutely several
inches in depth.

Dave Newman states that when he became aware of the direction of their approach,
about the 5th of May, he, with Bill Peck and others, dug a trench 50 feet long by 3
feet wide and 3 feet deep across their course. The young locusts fell into it, smothered
and died, while others traveled on over. He then shoveled out the dead ones and be-
fore night the trench was filled a second time, estimated at 50 bushels. He then de-
sisted, for the stench of the dead he feared would be worse for his family than the loss
of crops. They piled up against his barn like snowdrifts, to the height of several
feet — estimated at 500 bushels.

Jonah T. Jones says they fell into and filled a row of post-holes to the top and died,
amounting to a great many bushels.

George Humphry was driving a stage through the valley at the time, and says the
road was often blocked as if with mud holes by grasshoppers ; that they lay in banks
along the fences and buildings.

No one reports any parasites on them, but as they were known to climb up from the
ground to roost nights, where possible, it is supposed that the fear of the red mite
which travels the ground was the cause, as this is the way with the Rocky Mountain
locusts when so menaced. The autumn of that year saw the last of them. They did
not fly away, it appears, but lay down and died in heaps before depositing eggs.

I have called attention to this locust enemy on every occasion, and much search has
been instituted, but as yet only a few report the presence of the mite, and those in
but a few places and in small numbers, it is to be feared that they are not numerous
enough to destroy or drive out the locusts, but there is yet time for complete rescue.
Their appearance at the East on our parallel is reported as occurring from April 17 to
August 21.

Would that the welcome little red, silky locust-mite could be reported as reddening
the ground of Sierra Valley in all the egg-infested localities.

THE LOCUST IN CALIFORNIA IN 1879.

The following items are taken from various sources :

I did not think, when investigating the locust ravages here last spring, that botany
would take me away from the vicinity all summer, but so it has happened, and now I
am just returned to find that the season has been a terrible one for this beautiful valley.

The damages by the same locust as last year, the QEdipoda atrox, exceeded that of
last year, which was about §75,000, and may be estimated at §100,000 in a community
of about 2,000 persons, with 91 farms of 47,000 acres. * * * The ravages of the
■atrox this season extended back for 20 miles on its old ground northward, and about
40 miles direct march to the southward.

25G REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

Extensive egg-laying has been going on since July 1, and still continues in locali-
ties that do not admit of plow, harrow, or water. So the future is dark. No egg par-
asites yet noticed. — [J. G. Lemmon in letter to C. V. Riley, Aug. 27, 1879.]

Grasshoppers have invaded this section. Two large patches are on the Truckee
meadows. The farmers are not alarmed to any great extent. — [Reno paper, May 9,
1879.

Nevada newspapers announce that vast numbers of grasshoppers' eggs arc incubat-
ing in the Sierra Valley. A spadeful of soil is represented to have contained hundreds
of thousands of eggs deposited in clusters. The farmers have not turned a furrow this
spring, knowing that with these pests in the soil their work would be fruitless of re-
Bult. Grain crops will only foster the scourge, while to let the ground remain idle
may starve the insects into emigration. Fears are expressed that they may sweep
down upon the fertile valleys of California. — [Rocky Mountain Ilusbandman, May 22,
1879.

THE MOUNTAIN GRASSHOPPERS.

Reports from the Sierra state that the grasshoppers, which have laid waste Sierra
Valley for two years past, are now moving toward the west. David Evans, of Long
Valley, tells the Reno Gazette that within the last ten days the grasshoppers have
appeared in strong force in Grizzly Valley. They came from the head of Sierra Valley,
where they are still numerous. Grizzly Valley is at a much greater elevation ; so
high that grain cannot be cultivated, and nothing but grass is grown. Mr. Evans thinks
their next move will be into Indian Valley, whence their progress to Big Meadows,
Plumas County, will be easy. And he surmises that the Sacramento Valley will next
year suffer from the ravages of the insects. This is at present little more than con-
jecture, and though the scourge should bo well watched it is too soon to become
alarmed. The grasshopper of this slope is (Edipo&a a trox, and not the famous Rocky Moun-
tain locust (Calojjtenus spretus). It would not matter much, of course, what difference
there may be in names, but for the fact that our grasshopper has not shown such
migratory and devastating power as the Rocky Mountain rascal, and the probability
is that in the future his grievous work will be restricted to certain localities as it has
been in the past. At all events we shall hope so until there is reason to think other-
wise.— Pacific Rural Press, August 9, 1879.

THE SIERRA LOCUSTS.

Our contributor, Prof. J. G. Lemmon, writes to the Truckee Republican an account
of his recent observations on the locust plague which has afflicted Sierra Valley, and
to which we have frequently referred. His remarks on the various parasitic foes,
which bid fair to reduce the evil considerably, are of much interest. The " red, silky
mite" is here in great abundance, almost every locust in some sections being loaded
with them, especially at the base and under the wings. So is the Tachina fly, chasing
swiftly after the hopping or flying locust, darting upon it and depositing an egg,
which speedily hatches, gnaws its way through the joints of the abdomen to the inte-
rior, becomes a large, many-legged maggot, swelling out of the bodv of the locust and
eating its viscera fore and aft, until, weak and incumbered, the victim falls and
dies. The Gordius, or hair worm, too, is here, and several other undetermined para-
sites, all seeming to riot upon the abundant food. A congener of the atrocious locust
himself, a little yellow cricket about the same size, but ten times spryer, is seen to
vigorously attack the locust on foot or flying, to bring him down, and instantly cut-
ting off his head, devours a morsel, then twirls his antenna about, and cocks his eyes
for another victim.

"And what of the future? When will this visitation cease, or is it overpast? The
female locusts have been noted in vast numbers ovipositing in gravel beds, in dry
knolls of the meadows, aud in the sands under the sage bushes of the common. Those
beginning this work early in the season — in July — it is feared laid perfect eggs aud secured

LOCUST RAVAGES IN CALIFORNIA.

257

them well; those later, because so often found dead at their work with abdomen still
prolonged down into the ground, it is hoped were prevented from producing j>erfect
eggs, or from protecting them by gummy secretions from injuries by winter vicissi-
tudes.

"As a clearing up of the business, I have just sent Professor Riley a box of all the
species of locusts found hero lately, including many individuals of our descriptive
(Edipoda atrox, and of another suspicious species, which I fear is Caloptenus atlanis,
one of the three true migratory species so much to be dreaded. This and the Atrocious
locust are heavily parasitised, and, perhaps, may be living their last day." — [Ibid, Sep
tember 13, 1879.

GRASSHOPPERS AND THE DAIRY FARMERS.

The mountains and valleys surrounding Truckee afford, during the summer season,
excellent pasturage for a large number of dairy cattle ; for dairymen make yearly
pilgrimages from the valleys to the eastern slope of the Sierra to enjoy the delightful
climate, and to allow their cattle to feed upon the luxuriant vegetation to be found
there. Large quantities of butter and cheese are manufactured every season. This
year, however, the dreaded grasshopper has visited these ranges and eaten everything
in sight, and the dairymen have been compelled to seek pastures green and new.
Joe Joerger, whose range is in Martin Valley, has been forced to move with his dairy
of 120 cows. W. H. Williams, from Russell Valley, Mr. Barton, from the Little
Truckee, Johnny Fleckenstien, from Sardine Valley, and the Perazo Brothers, from
Sage Hen, have all been obliged to leave their ranges and go elsewhere with their
dairies. These dairies in years past have been considered among the best in the State,
but this year the grasshoppers have devoured almost everything in the shape of
vegetation, leaving them barren, desolate wastes. — [Truckee Republican, August 6, 1879.

GRASSHOPPER RAID IN SHASTA.

Down at Shasta River, and on the flats toward Willow Creek, the country is over-
run with grasshoppers, which devour everything in the vegetation line, and even
climb trees to eat the leaves. They first appeared at Fiock's ranch after his grain
was cut, and he cut his alfalfa immediately to save what he could of it for hay. At the
Portuguese vegetable ranch below, formerly owned by W. J. Paul, the grasshoppers
are devouring everything, and decimating his splendid crop of corn, tomatoes, cab-
bage, and vegetables of all kinds. Other ranches and gardens along the river are
suffering from this pest. At Little Shasta several farms have been visited with the
nuisance, but the grain, being too far advanced, has escaped injury. The second
crops of alfalfa and all kinds of vegetables and late products, however, are being
pretty well cleaned out. Grasshoppers are worse than crickets or locusts, as they
travel around livelier and eat faster. — [ TreJca Journal, August IS, 1879.

DESCRIPTIONS OF TWO SPECIES.

By Prof. Cyrus Thomas.

From specimens sent to the commission by Mr. Lemmon, and others by
J. K. Lum, of Lewis County, W. Profesor Thomas has described the
following species. The other species will be noticed in our next report :
(Edipoda oblitcrata. Nov. sp.

Male and female. Length to tip of elytra, 1.50; to tip of abdomen, 1.10 to 1.30.
Pale reddish-brown or dull yellowish, tinged with rufous, with irregular transverse
bands of dark, fuscous spots.

Occiput not prominent. Vertex broad, moderately detlexed ; margins with sharp
carina?, forming a distinct, sub-quadrate, median foveola, which is divided into bwo
17 E

258 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

equal sections by a distinct, longitudinal, median carina that extends back part way
upon the occiput ; sides of tho foycola parallel between the eyes, and bending abruptly
inward toward the fastigium, in front, continuous with the sides of the frontal costa;
fastigium with a double; indentation. Frontal costa slightly snleate, suh-tricarinate
at tho fastigium, widening at tho ocellus and extending nearly or quite to theclypeus,
but not expanding below; in tho <J the width is almost uniform throughout. Pro.
notuni, wit h tho median carina sub-cristate, distinctly and deeply notched about the
middle by tho posterior sulcus ; anterior portion irregularly arched, more elevated than
tho posterior portion, which has only tho front part arched; lateral carina) irregular
and indistinct ; the notch of tho median carina is of the oblique type, more distinctly
so in tho male than in the female. Posterior lobe expanding rapidly from the posterior
sulcus, nearly flat on tho disk, which is more or less covered with elongate rugosities,
more distinct and numerous in the female than in tho male ; posterior extremity ob-
tuse-angled ; anterior margin extended in a very obtuse angle upon the occiput. Ely-
tra extending about one-third their length beyond tho abdomen, of medium width,
sinuous and obliquely excised at the tip. Wings narrow, the length very nearly twice
the width, and slightly undulate on the outer margin ; tho nervules unusually regular
and straight. Posterior femora with sharp and elevated carina) above and below.
Antenna) rather short, scarcely flattened, and very slightly acuminate at the tip.

Color (recent specimens dried). — Female somewhat darker than the male ; face pale
purplish, dotted with fuscous; occiput and pronotum fuscous brown, the latter with
a carneous stripe along each lateral carina, which connect at the anterior sulcus and
fade out near the posterior extremity ; the disk of the posterior lobe dark brown.
Elytra pale, dirty yellow, slightly tinged with rufous, crossed by three irregular bands
formed of dark fuscous spots, tho middle one broadest and usually tho best defined ;
apex with irregular, cellular, fuscous spots, those next the costal margin most distinct.
Wings pellucid, with a narrow marginal, rather pale, fuscous band, commencing be-
hind the sub-costal area, where it is broadest, narrowing and fading toward the anal
angle ; tho nerves and nervules, except in the apical portion of the sub-costal area
and iu tho fuscous band, pale yellow, or white. Posterior femora crossed externally
and internally by three oblique fuscous bands ; posterior tibia) pale yellow ; spines
tipped with black.

One male and one female from Sierra Valley, California, furnished by Mr. J. G.
Lemmon.

This species approaches very near Mr. Scudder's Trachyrhachys, but appears to belong
to (Edipoda, as at present limited. If Mr. Scudder's genus Dissosteira (of which he has
given but an incomplete diagnosis) stands, this species will scarcely find a lodging-
place in any of the numerous genera of this group.

In his paper on the Orthoptera collected by Lieutenant Wheeler's survey, published
in 1876, where he first proposes this genus, he makes the following statement : Stal's
limitations of the genus (Edipoda, in his Recensio Orthopt. I, forces us to consider G-ryl-
lus coerulescens, Linn, as the type, and not, as stated by Thomas, (Edipoda Carolina
(Burin)."

He alludes to a statement made in my paper on Orthoptera, in a previous report of
the same survey, where I simply remark that Stal has retained our (E. Carolina, and
that "this appears to he his typical [species]" (by typographical or clerical error
"genus"). By reference to Proceedings Davenport Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. i, 1876, page
257, it will there be seen that I make the following statement in reference to the genus
(Edipoda as given by Stal : "In my opinion (E. coerulescens, Linn, is the proper type of
(Edipoda." This paper was published in June and July, 1876, the entire manuscript
having been forwarded to Mr. Putnam some time previous thereto. I cannot give the
exact date of publication of Mr. Scudder's paper, but his letter of transmittal to Lieu-
tenant Wheeler bears date Cambridge, Mass., May 29, 1876.

I simply mention this in justice to myself.

As I have here referred to this paper by Mr. Scudder I may as well correct another

NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE LOCUST.

259

error he has fallen into in reference to Anabrus haldemanii, Gir. He remarks (page 500)
that "he [Thomas] further confuses his readers hy stating that A. haldemanii Gir. has
the presternum distinctly spined, whereas it is clearly as amucronate as the prester-
num of A. simplex." He falls into this error hecause he has not, or had not then, seen a
specimen of A. haldemanii, which has tbe presternum distinctly spined. The descrip-
tion and figure given in Marcy's Red River of Louisiana are so exact that with a true
specimen in hand, as I now have before me, there is no possibility of making a mis-
take. ' This species is never, as I leam he supposes, found west of the Rocky Mountain
range, nor A. simplex ever found east of it, unless, possibly, in Montana.

Cratypedes Putnami, Thomas.

Mr. A. J. Chipman, who visited Southern Colorado in 1830 on behalf of the United
States Entomological Commission, was fortunate enough to obtain a fine speci-
men of this species, in color. From this I can now give the colors omitted in my
original description: base of the wings, lemon yellow; hind tibiae, bright red. In
the female the yellow spots of the elytra are not so distinct as in the male. The same
is also true in reference to the dark bands on the posterior femora.

At the close of his " Century of Orthoptera" (Reprint from .Proceedings Bost. Soc.
Nat. Hist., vols. 12-20, 1879, page 84) Mr. Scudder, in speaking of Hippiscus lineatus,
Scudd., remarks as follows :

11 Hippiscus lineatus. — This species I had formerly described (in MSS.) under the new
generic name Craiypedes, but, before publishing, concluded it best to include it in Hip-
piscus. I do not recollect that I have ever mentioned this name to any one, and have
never seen more than the single specimen of the specie's upon which I had proposed to
found it, and which has never left my collection. It was, therefore, a complete mys-
tery to me to find a closely allied species described by Mr. Thomas, Proc. Davenp. Acad.
Nat. Sci., I, 257-58) as Cratypedes Putnami, with the remark, 'I have placed this species
in this genus with some hesitancy, yet it certainly agrees very closely with it.' I dis-
claim any proprietorship in the generic name, and do not know to what Mr. Thomas
refers. This remark is offered simply to aid any future student who may search for
the origin of the name."

This statement hy Mr. Scudder indicates a forgetfulness on his part of what he has
written, as the reader will see hy turning to his " List of Orthoptera, collected by Dr.
A. S. Packard in Colorado and the neighboring Territories during the summer of 1875,"
page 267, where he will find the following statement: " Stenopelmatus oculatus and
Cratypedes lineata are describedfrom specimens dried after immersion in alcohol." This
remark is offered simply to aid any future student who may search for the origin of
the name.

CHAPTER XIII.

FUBTHER FACTS ABOUT THE NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE

LOCUSTS.

(Plate XVI.)

There is not much to add to the account in our First Report of the
many different natural enemies of the Rocky Mountain Locnst, but what
little we do add will serve to clear up some unsettled questions, and to
give emphasis to the important part that some of the more minute ene-
mies play in keeping this pest in check.

Blister-beetle larvae.— The habit in these interesting larvae of

260 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

feeding on locust eggs has been confirmed by obtaining tliem from tbe
egg-masses of several other species, and the fact that they have a similar
habit on the Pacific coast is shown by the frequent presence of the
coarctato larva among the eggs of the destructive locust of California
(Camnula pdhicUla Scudd

One experience with them is worthy of record in this connection, i. e.,
the retarded development that is often manifest in certain individuals,
as stated in a recent number of the American Entomologist:

"In the month of October, 1877, we hatched a number of triungulius
from the same batch of eggs laid by a female of the Striped Blister-
beetle (Epicauta vittata), and fed them on the eggs of the Differential
Locust ( Caloptenus differentialis). Several of the resulting beetles issued
the following summer; three of them passed a second winter in the
coarctate larva state, and issued as beetles the second summer; while
one remained unchanged during this second summer of 187!>. We ex-
amined it from month to month, always finding it healthy, but began to
fear, as the present summer approached, that it must have been injured
and was really dead. It was unchanged on the 3d of May of the present
year, but on Looking at it again on the 15th of June, we were gratified
to find that it had left its rigid skin and presented itself in the form of
the final or third larva. It had transformed to the true pupa on the 1st
of July, and would undoubtedly have given out the beetle two weeks
later had we not preferred to preserve it in the pupa state for our
cabinet.

"In this case the individual, though submitted to exactly the same
conditions as the other specimens, which had simultaneously hatched
with it — but which went through all their transformations within either
one or two years — remained dormant for nearly three years, with their
repeated changes of season and temperature. With the exception of
the first winter, when it was kept indoors without freezing and when
development should have been presumably hastened, the specimen was
kept in a tin box buried the proper distance beneath the ground out of
doors, so as to be as nearly as possible under natural conditions."

This irregularity in the development of individuals is noticeable in
many insects that are parasitic and whose mode of life is precarious.
In the case of our blister-beetles, depending as they do on locust eggs,
and especially in the case of those which feed particularly on the eggs
of migratory species, it is not difficult to perceive how this trait may
prove serviceable to the species possessing it. Migratory locusts occur
in immense numbers in some particular part of the country at irregu-
lar intervals, and there are periods or years of absolute immunity from
their presence in the same regions. The young blister-beetles that hatch
the year following the advent of the locusts in immense numbers may
frequently find few or no locust eggs upon which to prey, and the great
bulk of them would, as a consequence, perish ; while the young from such

6'A (Edipoda atrox of our First Report.

NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE LOCUST.

261

exceptional individuals as should not develop till two, three, or more
years after a locust invasion might stand a much better chance of find-
ing appropriate food and of thus perpetuating the species. In this case
and in most other cases of retarded development with which we are
familiar, the exceptional retardation may and does become a benefit to
the species, enabling it to bridge over periods of adversity. And we
can see how, by the preservation of such favored individuals, the habit
of irregular development may have become fixed in the species as a con-
sequence of surrounding conditions and circumstances which render it
advantageous.

Soldier-beetle larvae. — We are not aware that the early larval
characters of these beetles have ever, before been observed. Since our
First Eeport was written we have obtained the eggs of the Pennsylvania
Soldier-beetle (Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus, De Geer) and hatched the
young larvae and fed them until they were nearly full grown. The eggs
are deposited loosely in the ground in irregular batches very much in the
same way as those of the blister-beetles, but are readily distinguished
from these last by being almost spherical or but very slightly longer than
wide. They are pure white and opaque, the shell being tolerably firm
and having no sculpture. Mr. H. G. Hubbard, whom we charged with
rearing the larvae, found that they feu on a number of insects, but showed
a great preference for those, like fly maggots for instance, which have a
soft integument. They molt quite frequently, huddling together during
the process, which would indicate that in their earlier stages at least
they are more or less gregarious. We quote Mr. Hubbard's notes :

The eggs of Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus, which you gave rue at Savannah, hatched
during the night of August 9. The young larva} were silver-gray in color. They
■were very timid, hut sucked up the juices of plant-lice, the bodies of which were
crushed for them against the sides of the breeding-jar. August 12 the larva} retreated
to the bottom of the earth in the bottle, aud curled up in clusters. In two or three
hours they had moulted, and immediately became very active, climbing all over the
sides of the jar. The anal prop-leg acts as a sucker, aud enables them to adhere to
the glass in any position while sweeping the body around in every direction in search
of food. I gave them crushed maggots of Phora aletiw, and they sucked the juices
greedily. They became bolder, and attacked the uninjured maggots, but were unable
to pierce the skin. August 15 I gave them a species of large red Aphis found on cockle-
bur, but they did not relish them, and ate but little. They also ate sparingly of
crushed Aletia larvra, but preferred the Phoras to everything else. August 17 they
retired to the bottom of the jar, and remained torpid two days. August 19 all had
completed their second moult. They were now quite bold and strong, and able to
pierce the skin of Phora maggots given them for food. In feeding, the maggot is
punctured by the sharp tips of the jaws, which are then used as hooks to draw in a
fold of the skin ; this is held between the molar lobes at the base of the mandibles, and
the juices are sucked by the pumping action of the oesophagus, which is thrown into
peristaltic waves. The large mentum is very elastic and mobile, and evidently per-
forms the usual office of a lower lip. An occasional quick movement of the jaws is
made, either to give a squeeze with the molar surfaces, or to take a better hold with
the hooked tips.

The basal joint of the antenna is very elastic, and enables the larva to elongate

262 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

1 his organ considerably. After each moult the markings of the dorsum are very dis-
tinct, and the body is lead or mouse color, growing darker with each moult, but in
the intervals fading to a silver-gray. The larva were lost September 6, at which time
they had undergone five or six molts, but were not over one-third grown.

Asilid-flies. — We .are not aware that the mode of egg-laying in these
flies, or the nature of the eggs, have hitherto been recorded. Mr. Hub-
bard, during his work for the Commission, succeeded in watching the
operation in a Florida species (Mallophora orcina Wied.), and has made
the following notes thereon :

On September 3 or 4, while in the held, a species of Mallophora came dying and
alighted in an open space between the rows of cotton. She seemed to have selected
this spot at one glance as a suitable place in which to deposit her eggs, for without
more ado she applied her abdomen to the1 surface of the ground and began working it
into the earth with a slight oscillating movement. In two or three minutes she had
buried it to its base. Tho eggs must have been very rapidly laid, for after a few mo-
ments she withdrew her body, filled up the hole with her abdomen, aided by her claws,
brushed the surface carefully with the hairy tip of her body, and flew away. The en-
tire proceeding occupied not more than four minutes, and the place of deposit was so
carefully concealed that, although from my position six or eight feet distant I marked
the exact spot with my eye, and immediately after drew a circle around it with my
knife-blade, I could not detect tho slightest disturbance of the surface. The soil was
a tenacious clayey loam. I removed in one lump the earth within the circle made by
my knife, and, on breaking it open, found five or six eggs, packed in a not very close
cluster, at a depth of $ to J of an inch. I placed the lump of earth containing the eggs
in a metal box, where I found the young larva> in the act of hatching a week later.
The eggs are yellowish-white, elongate, rounded at the ends, and, though not very
carefully examined, seemed to present no remarkable structure, but resemble the eggs
of some of the smaller crickets.

Bee-fly larvae (Fanrily Bombyliidce). — We now come to the inter-
esting and hitherto unrecorded life-history of two species of bee-flies, a
family of two-winged flies that have a rapid darting flight and hover
over flowers, from which they extract nectar by means of a long proboscis
which characterizes most species. They derive the popular name from
their hairiness and resemblance to bees, a resemblance enhanced by the
humming which they produce in flight. On p. 303 of our First Report
we figured an undetermined egg-parasite of the Rocky Mountain Locust,
giving some account of its extensive occurrence in and about the egg-
pods of that insect, and showing that next to the Anthomyia egg-para-
site it was the most important enemy of the locust. The larva was
somewhat anomalous. We were in doubt even as to what order of in-
sects it belonged, placing it at the time in the Hymenoptera, and with a
question among the Ichneumonidce. From the absence of spiracles on
the intermediate abdominal joints we suspected, soon after the publica-
tion of our First Report, that this larva would prove to be Dipterous
rather than Hymenopterous.

From such poor descriptions and figures as were extant, that most
nearly approached it, we deemed it might be Anthracid, and were sub-
sequently confirmed in this view by obtaining in October, 1879, a single
pupa from a lot of larvse sent us by Mr. G. M. Dodge, of Gleucoe, Nebr.

NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE LOCUST. 263

Mr. Dodge sent us, with the same lot of larvae, what he supposed to be
the parent fly, reared from a lot of locust eggs among which the larvae
were found. His flies, however, proved to be the Anthoinyia egg-para-
site (A . augustifrons, Meigen, First Eeport, p. 285). The single pupa
thus obtained from Mr. Dodge's specimen agrees with those of Systcechus
oreasm O. S., presently to be described.

During the past two years we have been in correspondence with Prof.
J. G. Lemmon, of Sierra Valley, Gal., who has kindly sent us many
specimens of the locusts occurring there, and especially the eggs and
early stages of Camnula pellucida.

Among such eggs these bee-fly larvae were, if anything, more common
than we had found them among the eggs of Caloptenus spretus east of
the mountains. We here quote one letter in illustration :

By this mail I dispatch another cigar-box rilled, this time, with sods containing
eggs of the terrible locust that for three years past has devastated Sierra Valley ; also
the large, fat, white larva that latoly made its appearance as a voracious feeder upon
locust eggs. Wo don't know certainly what this larva becomes, but at a venture he
is hailed with great joy.

The ground that was first filled with locust eggs by the (Edipoda atrox, by the end
of September looked as if scattered with loose shells, so thorough was the work of de-
struction.

A few of them were detected in among the eggs in April, but not generally. until
Angust. One individual seems to empty several egg cases before retiring from the
feast and coiling himself up in a case which he has emptied, or in a nidus of his own
make. — [J. G. Lemmon, in letter to C. V. Riley, October 12, 1879.

During 1878 and 1879 we failed to rear any of them to the perfect
state, bat on June 20 of the present year, 1880, we obtained from these
California larvae the first fly. This proved to be a male of Triodites mus
O. S.,333 as kindly identified for us by Mr. S. W. Williston, of New Haven.
The delay in the printing of this report enables us to complete the natu-
ral history of these insects. We have, during the summer, reared many
additional specimens of this species and also of the Systcechus oreas O. S.
. already alluded to. Professor Lemmon and his brother, Mr. W. C. Lem-
mon, have also succeeded in obtaining the mature flies, and have ob-
served this Systcechus abundantly buzzing about over the ground in
which the locust eggs were laid, as the following extracts from the cor-
respondence of these gentlemen will show :

An enemy which has proved very destructive in Sierra Valley and vicinity is the
larva of, as yet, an unknown insect. It is first observed as a large yellowish-white
grub about half an inch or even three-fourths of an inch long when extended, it being
usually curved so that the head and tail nearly touch. It is one-sixth to one-fifth of
an inch thick just back of the head and tapers slightly towards the tail, also flattened
slightly dorsally. It is usually found in a case of locust eggs which it has devoured,
pushing the empty shells aside, and at last occupying the space where were 21 to 36
eggs. Often it is found iu a little space below a number of emptied cases, as though
it had feasted off the contents of several nests.

332 Western Diptera, p. 254; Bull. Hayden's Geol. and Geogr. Survey, III, No. 2.
mIbid., p. 246.

264 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

The grub was first noticed last April 20, in the egg deposits near Loyalton. This
fall, September 7, it was detected in great quantity near Sierraville, and afterwards
in several infested spots of the valley. A handful of such soil will generally display
ten to twenty cases of locust eggs, more or less emptied, and half as many of the fine,
fat, grubs. — [J. G. Lemmon, in tho Sacramento, Cal., Weekly Record- Union, Novem-
ber 29, 1879.

Tho white grubs ate out and destroyed thousands of eggs last fall, but, to all appear-
ance, have eaten nothing since, having lain dormant all winter, and being now found
still among the eggs, which are fast hatching out. — [W. C. Lemmon, Sierra Valley,
Cal., June 13, 1880.

I send to you by this mail another packago of tho locust-egg-eatiug grubs, some of
which you will find more developed. My brother, Prof. J. G. Lemmou, came up from
Oakland day before yesterday to spend a few days, and while looking at the grubs
that I had gathered for you yesterday, one of them developed into the humble-bco
fly which you have bred, and a half dozen specimens of which I have caught and
envelop rolled up in paper. — [YV. O, Lemmon, in letter to C. V. Riley, dated, Sierra
Valley, Cal., July 18, 1830.

Happening home on a hurried visit, I find locusts and destruction all around — a
6ad, sad sight ! Find my brother has tried to keep you posted up with specimens and
notes. Am pleased to see a solution of the " big white grub " question. He developed
into a species of fly, hosts of which are now seen in midday, buzzing about among
the locusts.— [Prof. J. G. Lemmon, in letter to C. V. Riley, dated, Sierra Valley, Cal.,
July 18, 1880.

This habit in the larvae of Bonibyliids of preying on locust eggs has
not before been suspected, and in this connection we will review what
has hitherto been known of their habits.

Prof. J. O. Westwood has given, in the Transactions of the Entomo-
logical Society of Loudon, 187G, pp. 497, 498, the following summary of
observations upon the larval habits of Bombilii :

Thanks to the researches of previous observers, the economy and transformations of
the Bonibylii are now satisfactorily known to entomologists. Latreille rightly consid-
ered that tho Bombylii, like Anthrax, were parasites, contrary to the opinion of Zetter-
stedt that the larva feed on the roots of plants (Ins. Lapp., p. 510). The pupa of Bom.
major was first figured by M. Imhoff in the Isis for 1834, having been found by him in a
situation which he had previously noticed to be frequented by Andrena humilis (vol.
1834, p. 536, pi. xii). Li my Introduction (vol. 2, p. 538, 1840) I published a figure of
the same pnpa from a specimen discovered by M. C. Pickering in a sandy gravel-pit at
Coombe Wood on the 28th of March, from which the imago was produced in a few days.
The pupa is very similar to those of the species of Anthrax, which are known to bo
parasites, having the front and under side of the head armed with strong spines, and
the dorsal segments of the abdomen furnished with transverse rows of strong reflexed
booklets. In 1852 M. H. Lucas published the description of a new Algerine species of
the genus, Bomb. Boghariensis, in the Annals of the French Entomological Society, 2nd
ser., vol. x, p. 11, pi. 1, No. 11, which he had reared from a pupa found under a stone
in a damp, sandy situation, and, contrary to the opinion of Latreille, he expressed
himself thus : " Je suis ported a croire que les larves qui composent ce genre ne sont
pas parasites, comme le supposent Latreille et beaucoup d'autres Entomologistes, mais
qu'elles vivent au contraire isolement dans la terre, — opinion, au reste, qui avait deja
6t6 emise, mais avec doute, par M. Macquart, et que mon observation vient confirmer."

Iu 1858 the real history of the Bombylius was discovered by the veteran Leon Du-
four, who in the spring found various exuviae of the pupa of B. major sticking out of
the ground, together with the newly-hatched insect, in places much frequented by
various Andrcnidce, especially in the autumn, by digging on the spot, to find the larva,

PLATE XVI.

(Natural sizes indicated in hair-line.)

Fig. 1. Larva of Si/stai-hus oreaa, from the side ; 1 b, head from side, filill further en-
larged; 1 c, same, from front ; 1 d, left maxilla ; 1 e, left mandible ; 1/, meso-
thoraeic spiracle ; 1 g, pre-anal spiracle.

2. Pupa of Syxtachiis orcas, ventral view ; 2 a, same, side view : 2 dorsal part

of anal end; 2c, prothora-cic spiracle; 2d, form of dorsal horny plates and
spines ou the abdomen.

3. Syslccchus oreas, 9 ; 3 a, head of same from side; 3 b, antenna of same from

above ; 3 c, antenna, of same from side ; 3 d, mouth parts separated.

4. Larva of Triodites mvs as it appears when contracted prior to pupation ; 4 a,

head from side ; 4 b, left maxilla ; 4 e, left mandible.

5. Pupa of Triodites mus, ventral view; 5 a, same, side view; 5 6, dorsal view of

anal parts ; 5 c, form of dorsal plates and spines on abdomen.

6. Triodites mus, 9 ; 6 a, her head, front view ; 6 b, her right antenna from above ;

6 c, right antenna from side.

7. Triodites mus, $ ; 7 a, his head, front view.

D S.Entomological Commission.

Report II, Plate XVI.

BEE-FLIK S

AH(icn fir Co LiQiocausticBahnnorc.

NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE LOCUST.

265

"au milieu des d6blais, oil gisaient par-ci par-la des coques de Colletes" (Ann. Soc.
Ent. France, 3d ser., torn, vi, p. 505, pi. 13, Fig. Ill, and details). The larva is elon-
gated, apod and fleshy, and of a white color. The preceding observations clearly prove
that the larvae of the Bonibylii are parasites in the nests of other insects, in the manner
of the cuckoo among birds.

The last statement of Professor Westwood is, however, not justified
by Dufour's observations. On the contrary, Dufour expressly states
that he did not observe upon what the larva fed ; the inference which
he draws is based upon the analogy of Anthrax,334 and he inferred that it
was upon the larvae of Colletes that the grub fed ; quite a different thing
from being a cuckoo in the nest and feeding only upon the pollen.
There is, in Dufour's paper, no evidence to prove that the Bombylius
larva was found in the cocoons, or even in the cells of the bee; he
states, in fact, that he failed to find it there, but found it among the
clearings (deblais) which he had made in digging out the nests. Prof.
"Westwood himself found numbers of Bombylius medius flying in asso-
ciation with a species of Andrena in the unpaved Forum Triangulare of
Pompeii, and found at the same spot the pupa-shell of the fly protudiug
from the ground.

Dr. Packard (" Guide," &c, p. 397) states that ■" a species [of Bomby-
lius] is known in England to lay its eggs at the opening of the holes of
Andrena, whose larvae and pupae are devoured by the larvae of the fly."
But no authority is given for the statement.

Messrs. Allen and Underbill, in Science Gossip, 1875, p. 80, express
their belief that the Bonibylii are parasitic on humble-bees. In the
volume for 1876, p. 171, they say (speaking of Sitaris) :

In relation to the larva of this beetle, we would remark that this year we have found
it clinging to Bombylii. This is " circumstantial evidence " that Bombylii frequent the
nests of Anthophora to lay their eggs, since Sitaris itself, from its manner of life, can-
not be the parasite of a fly, but only of a bee.

Locust eggs might well have been in the spots where Lucas, Dufour,
and Westwood found the Bombylius.

From all these notes, it is clear that the true habit of BombyUid larvae
had not been clearly ascertained. That they preyed parasitically on
nest-building Hymenoptera was rendered probable by what was known
of the parasitism of the allied Anthracids; but we had only assump-
tion without proof, and the experience we now record weakens the force
of the assumption.

In his "Western Diptera" (1. c. p. 243) Baron Osten Sacken gives
references to the published account of the parasitism of the Anthracid
genus Argyramccba within the nests of Cemonus and Chalicidoma, cites

Z'"I% has been clearly ascertained, and is well known that Anthrax feeds in the larval
state upon the young of certain bees. The larva of the Anthrax before attaining its
own full growth and before destroying its host must await the full growth of the
latter, as it has, by several observers, been bred from the cocoons of the insects upon
which it was parasitic.

266 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

Scliluer's statement that the larvae live parasitically in pupae of Lepidop-
tera, and records the breeding of A. cephus and A. fur from the nest of
a Texan mud-wasp, which he referred, with a question, to Pelopcem, but
which, as we have ascertained from an examination of the mud tubes
which are deposited in the Cambridge Museum of Comparative Zoology,
belong to Trypoxylon. We have similar cells from Texas and other
parts of the South. They differ from those of Pelopoeus, in being
wider, ribbed on the upper surface, and fastened not only side by side
but in long tubes end to end. The Pelopceus spins a thin, yielding, semi-
transparent, elongate cocoon of a golden-brown color, with more or less
loose silk around it and the tail end thickened and docked; the Try-
poxylon spins a tougher, thicker, more solid, and smooth cocoon of a dull,
dark brown color, generally about half as long as the other (but varying
greatly in size), and with the head-end often expanding into a flange.

We have reared what is very near to and probably identical w ith
Argyramocba fur from larvae that had preyed on Trypoxylon albitarsc
which had made use of the mud cells of Pelopceus lunatm, or the common
mud-dab, iu Texas ; also from the same wasp that had made use of the
burrows of a bee {Anthophora abrupta Say). The larva of Argyramceba
has very much the same appearance as that of Systceclws and Triodites
and the pupa is distinguished from the pupa of this last (PI. XVI, Figs.
5, 5 a), principally by. its longer and more numerous hairs, longer anal
spines, and more conspicuous spiracles.

The discovery of the "parasitism" of these Bee-flies upon the locust
eggs at once suggests a comparison with the similar diversity of para-
sitic habits among the Melo'idce, as given in our First Eeport, some of them
infesting Bee-cells, while others, as the true Blister-beetles (Lyttini) feed
on locust eggs.

The Anthracids are now united, by the best authorities, with the Bom-
byliidcc, of which family as a whole Osten Sacken has said:335 They are,
"perhaps, the most characteristic and one of the most abundantly rep-
resented families of Diptera in the western region, including California."
The abundance of blister-beetles is also well known to characterize this
region, and we have shown how this abundance is connected with the
abundance of locusts. It is of interest, therefore, to find that the Bee-flies
bear a similar relationship of parasitism to the latter, and that the
characterization of the fauna in these two groups is really dependent
upon the presence of the locusts as well as upon the rich representation
of the burrowing Hymenoptera.

With these general remarks we will now give a more full and descrip-
tive account of the two bee-flies which, by rearing from the larva, we
know to have this locust-egg-feeding habit.

Xystcschus oreas.

The character of the eggs and the manner in which they are laid have
not yet been observed. The larva (PI. XVI, Fig. 1) has already been

335 L. c, p. 225.

NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE LOCUST.

267

described in our First Report (p. 305), and is found in the locust egg-
pods or near them, of different sizes, during most of the year. These
larvre begin to transform to the pupa state early in the summer, and the
pupa (PI. XVI, Fig. 2) pushes itself half way out of the ground in order
to disclose the fly. These flies continue to issue during the summer
months. As a rule but one year is required for full development, but
there is, in this respect, great irregularity and the same tendency to re-
tardation which we have called attention to in the case of the blister-
beetles. We have had quite a number of the larvae remain over un-
changed till the second year, and all that we have said as to the philoso-
phy of this retardation in the one case applies in the other. We are
inclined to think that future observation will show that there is a still
further parallel, in that the newly-hatched lame of the bee-flies are much
more active than the later stages, and somewhat different in structure.
The three later stages of the insect may be characterized as follows :

Larva (PL XVI, Fig. 1). — We quote herewith our former description :
Average length, 0.50 inch. Body curved, glabrous, tapering posteriorly, swollen
anteriorly. Color opaque whitish, with translucent yellowish mottlings, and some
venous marks at sutures, especially along medio-dorsum. Sutures deep. A lateral
row of swellings. Head small, flattened, dark brown, in five pieces, consisting above
of a frontal ovoid piece and two lateral pieces of somewhat similar form, and each
bearing near tip a minute, two-jointed palpus; beneath of two broad, subtriangular
jaws, having forward and lateral motion, and each, also, bearing near the center, in
a depression, a two-jointed feeler. A spiracle each side in a fold between joints 2 and
3, and another on each side of the penultimate joint, 12. None otherwise perceptible.

With additional material we have been enabled to examine more fully the structure
of the head. Underneath the median elevated piece which may represent the lab rum
we find two stout spiues (PI. XVI, Fig. 1 e), faintly notched on the outer edge,
which are doubtless the mandibles and correspond to the two dark lance-like man-
dibles of other Dipterous lar /ie, for they are retractile and run back into the thoracic
joints, and remain after the other trophi are detached. The pair of feelers upon the
upper lateral jfieces, which seem to have no motion, might then represent tbe antenna}
and the two lower jaws the maxill* with their palpi, while the labium is shown in a ,
chitinous point visible only when the larva extends and raises the other parts. A pe-
culiarity in the movement of the maxilla3 or the lower pair of horny pieces is worthy of
note. They move in alternation with one another in the forward and backward, i. e.
up and down, motion. The palpus of these lower pieces when viewed from above is,
as represented in the figure (PI. XVI, Fig. 1 d), circular, with two dark marks indicating
minute apjiendages.

When the larva is fresh and plump it shows the greater swelling of the thoracic
joints and the translucent mottlings mentioned above. Toward the period of pupa-
tion it becomes more opaque and more contracted.336

Pupa (PI. XVI, Fig. 2). — Average length 8.5mm. Color honey-yellow, but varying with
age, the head and thorax assuming a dark color with maturity. Head narrow, with two
sets of 3 stout, dark spines on the top, all on a common prominence, the two lower ones
of each set connected at base ; a pair of smaller frontal spines near the base of proboscis,

336 So far as we can ascertain, there has hitherto been published no recognizable figure
of the Bombyliid larva. Dufour, in his articles above alluded to, describes that of
Uombi/lius major very indifferently and gives a dorsal view which shows little or no
relation to the larva here described, while his description and figure of the mouth
parts fail to indicate the different pieces we have observed in our larvoe. Yet in gen-
eral form and structure the true Bornbylius larva will undoubtedly be found to agree
very closely with those here described.

2G8 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

■which is protuberant and laid along the breast, extending to near the tips of the wings ;
tho face with two parallel depressions running from between the triple tubercles and
ending in two fossae above the frontal spines; two basal, niedio-dorsal tubercles. Thorax,
unarmed, the prothoracic spiracle very large and raised on a curved tubercle; ineso-
thoracic spiracle on a swelling at base of wings; front tibias stout and curved; front
larsi reaching to tips of wings; middle tarsi to abdominal joint beyond, and hind tarsi
to third abdominal joint beyond. Abdomen curved, with the ninth joint very small ;
across tho middle, dorsally, each joint has a series of parallel, longitudinal, narrow,
chitinous plates having at each extremity a spine, tho posterior one stoutest; both
plates and spines diminishing laterally, gradually aborted on the extreme basal and
posterior joints, and replaced on the small ninth joint by a group of four converging
and truncate tubercles; two stouter anal spines on the subjoint and a ventral lobe
with two short, obscurely articulate processes; each abdominal joint with a circle of
hairs, those on lateral ridge stoutest and one-third the width of abdomen in length ; 8
pair of abdominal spiracles (making 10 with those on thorax), the first and last pairs
rather difficult of detection.

Imago. — Tho perfect fly (PI. XVI, Fig. 3) is at once distinguished from the succeed-
ing species by its broader form and long proboscis. The whole body is covered with
long yellow or fulvous hairs. The species varies in the color of the legs and in size,
some females being larger than the males. The species was originally described from
Sierra County, California, and Mr. Williston informs us that he has a specimen from
Washington Territory. Wo quote Osten Sacken's original description :

Systoechus OREas. — Differs from S. vulgaris in the third anteunal joint being a
little broader, tho mystax being more mixed with fulvous pile, the proboscis longer,
tho legs darker, the wings more grayish, tho covering of pile more dense and of a
paler shade of yellow, the ground-color less dark (when denuded), without reddish on
tho scutellnm; on the average, the size is somewhat larger.

Male. — The blackish-gray ground-color of the body is entirely concealed (in intact
specimens) under a thick covering of pale yellow piie, giving the body an elongated-
oval shape, slightly broader about the middle of tho abdomen ; face and front covered
with a recumbent fulvous tomentum, and erect black pile; mystax mixed of both;
some black pile on tho vertex; antennas black, third joint considerably expanded on
its proximal half; legs black; femora densely covered with the usual appressed whit-
ish hairs, which conceal the ground-color; tibiae reddish, but clothed with the same
whitish pubescence ; the latter part of the tibiae is black, and on the inner side this
color extends farther upward than externally; tarsi deep black. Wings with a
decidedly grayish tinge, brownish-yellow at the base and in the costal a'nd first basal
cells. Length about 10mm (including the length of the pile at both ends of the body,
but excluding the antennae).

Female. — I have a single somewhat damaged specimen, which evidently belongs
here, although it is smaller, and the femora and tibiae, except the tip, are yellowish-
red. Length about 8mm.

Hal. — Webber Lake, Sierra County, California, July 22-26. Three males and one
fcmale. None of my specimens show any reddish on the scutellum.

Triodites mus.

The habits of this insect in the larva state are precisely like those of
the preceding.

Larva (PI. XVI, Fig. 4). — So greatly resembling that of the Systwchus that it is well
nigh impossible to separate the two with certainty. The head parts are somewhat
broader, shorter, and less flattened, the maxillae more blunt, the labrum paler, and the
mandibles sharper and with a smoother outer edge. The thoracic joints bulge less
beneath and the thoracic spiracle is more sunken and less conspicuous.

Pupa (PI. XVI, Fig. 5). — Easily distinguished from that of Systoechus in the broader
and more bulbous head ; in the two sets of three stout spines at top being well sepa-
rated ; in the frontal pair being stouter, each with a conspicuous bristle externally ;
in having a single spine or tooth above these, and another much stouter, erect, re-
curved spiue, bidentate at tip, below them or at base of tongue, which is here repre-
sented by a cordate lobe. There is a spine on the front anterior border of each wing ;

NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE LOCUST.

2GD

the legs aro all shorter; the prothoracic spiracles less conspicuous; the hairs ou ab-
dominal joints shorter; the transverse dorsal teeth smaller and in single row; the
hasal abdominal joint •without spines, but with long stout hairs and the dorsal tuber-
cles of abdominal joint 9 replaced by a single spine.

Imago (PI. XVI, Figs. 6, 7).— The generic characters as indicated in our figures, and
especially the larger head and eyes, more slender form, and short proboscis readily
distinguish this from the Systcsclius. The sexes are also readily separated by the more
pronouuced transverse rows of white or tawny hairs on the hind borders of the abdom-
inal joints in the female. The genus in some degree connects the Anthradni with
the more typical Bombyliini. In certain lights the tegument reveals a greenish tinge,
and the pubescence of the thorax appears generally of a tawny color. The male some-
times has a white tomentum on the front, and in some specimens there is a stump of
a vein extending into the discal cell. We quote the original description :

Triodites mus, $ 9 . — Uniformly clothed with whitish-gray pile ; face with white
pile ; wing hyaline. Length 8-9mm.

Male. — Frontal triangle black, with short, erect, black pile ; face with a dense
covering of short snow-white pile ; antennae black ; occiput black, with appressed
white hairs along the orbits; thorax grayish-black, with a dense covering of delicate,
downy, whitish-gray pile, which in an oblique light looks altogether white ; the few
bristles on the antescutellar callosities and on the scutellum are whitish, almost
colorless ; abdomen black, with the same covering of grayish-white pile, which is
longer here on the sides. Halteres whitish ; knob brownish. Legs black, densely
clothed with white scales ; spines on femora and tibiae whitish-yellow. Wings, in-
cluding the costal cell, of a pure hyaline; veins, except at the root, black ; costal and
first longitudinal brown.

Female. — Like the male, but the front is slightly brownish-pruinose, and has, besides
the erect, black pile, some short, recumbent, yellowish hairs. The hind margin of
the abdominal segments are beset with some short, appressed, whitish hairs, forming
cross-bands.

Bab. — I have a single male, which I took near the Salt Lake, Utah, August 1. One
of the females is from Sonoma County, California, July 6 ; the other from the Shasta
district (H. Edwards, July, 1875).

As the larvae from the Mississippi Valley, so far as ascertained, belong
to Systcechus, and as the Triodites is not yet known to occur east of Utah,
we conclude that the former genus is the one most affecting the locusts
in the Mississippi Valley.337

337 Since the above was written aud in type we have met with an article, previously
overlooked, "On the Economy, &c, of Bombylius," by T. Algernon Chapman, M. D.,
in the Entomologist's Monthly Magazine for February, 1878, vol. 14, p. 196. Mr. Chap-
man gives abundant proof of the parasitism of the European B. major on Andrenalabialis.
He records some observations on the oviposition of Bombylius, the small white egg being
thrown with a short jerk against the earth near where the food of its future larva presum-
ably occurred. This would also imply that, as in the case of the Blister-beetles, the
newly-hatched larva must seek its food, and strengthens our suspicion that it will be
found to be much more active than the mature larva. Mr. Chapman very fully de-
scribes the mature larva and the pupa, and his descriptions show that in all essential
points the larva of Bombylius accords with those of Triodites and Systoechus. We quote
his description of the head : "The head is set into this segment [the 1st thoracic] and
is retractile. It is very small ; its center is occupied by a prominent wedge-shaped
portion, the point of the wedge being downwards and immediately in front of the
mouth. Immediately behind this are two black, very sharp, setiform jaws(?); on
each side is a papillary eminence (antenna?) of three joints set in a circle of softer
tegument, and immediately below project downward on each side two large palpi
(labrum?), looking like jaws, but having a vertical, not a lateral, mobility. On the
anterior surface of each of these there is a palpusof some length, apparently unjointed,
set in a circle." It will thus be seen that he homologizes the parts much as we have
done, except that he refers the two lower palpigerous pieces, with a question, to the
24 L

270 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

IlAIR-WORMS AND RED-MITES REMARKABLY ABUNDANT UPON LO-
CUSTS IN California. — Since reading my brother's articles last week
(being absent myself last fall and winter), I am reminded of having seen
about one-fourth of an acre of my meadow, thickly filled last fall with
eggs in the pools and. along the creek, as the snow went off, covered
with millions and millions of what I now think may have been Gordius
(white hair-snakes), about one inch long; also, another quarter of an
acre fairly covered with little red-mites, which I will hereafter observe
more closely. — [W. C. Lemmon, Sierra Valley, California, June 13, 1880.

CnALCiD Flies. — The only instance in which these flies have been
observed to attack locusts is described in the following quotation from
an article by Professor Lemmon in the Sacramento, Gal., Wceldy Record-
Union, November 29, 1879 :

Another enemy greatly feared by the locusts is a minute, ant-resembling fly of the
Chalets group. It lias monstrous enlargements of the hind legs just above the foot;
yellow, lenticular, and prominent, they resemble the pollen baskets of a bee. This little
swift-flying insect pursues the locust, and hovering over its head, attempts, by a quick
thrust of its ovipositor, to place an egg upon its head or in the sutures of its neck,
meanwhile dexterously dodging the blows aimed at it by the frantic locust. My
close-observing brother, B. P. Leininou, and myself watched it particularly when at-
tacking female locusts ovipositing. Frequently the locust would duck and dodge about,
strike with her hind feet, or hasten away to another spot, but becoming wearied, or
perhaps more concerned in her work of providing for the continuation of her own spe-
cies, she often remained motionless, martyr -like enduring attacks from all quarters.
How this pest is fostered or when or how born the writer cannot tell ; circumstances
prevented the examination necessary at the right times.

The egg-parasite, Caloptenobia ovivora, of our First Eeport, proves to
be Sparasion famelicus of Say,338 a member of the Hymenopterous family
Proctotrupidce. The insect, however, belongs not to Sparasion, but to
the closely allied genus Scelio, Latreille, and should be known as Scelio
famelicus (Say). In our types we note that the mandibles and tegulae
are honey yellow. From Say's description these specimens differ only
in having two, instead of six, of the basal joints of the antennae pale,
and in the mandibles being hardly "piceous."

Digger Wasps. — Accompanying a letter dated July 11, 1880, Mr.
W. C. Lemmon sends specimens of Larra tarsata Say, a digger wasp

labrurn (misprint for labium?), which they cannot possibly be ; they are evidently the
maxillae. The upper lateral pieces bearing the antennas are much less conspicuous,
judging from the description, in Bombylius than in Systachus. The pupa of Bombylius,
from Dr. Chapman's excellent description, differs in the greater prominence and some-
what different arrangement of the cephalic spines, the anterior pair being 6touter and
more bent forward than in either of the genera we have treated of. Dr. Chapman
speaks of these spines forcibly reminding him of the tusks of a walrus, and of their
admirable adaptation to tearing down the clay stopping and digging through, as
" with mattock and shovel," the long burrows of the bee upon which it preys. The
dorsal and anal spines are also much more prominent than in our locust-egg parasites.
The pupa of Systcechus and Triodites, not being under the necessity of such strenuous
digging, have a less formidable armature ; otherwise, there is strict structural corre-
spondence with Bombylius.
338 Boston Journal of Natural History, vol. 1, p. 27G (1836).

NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE LOCUST.

271

differing from that figured on p. 317 of our First Eeport in nothing but
its slightly larger size. Of it he says :

Wo have (to us) a new locust exterminator, that in certain localities kills and buries
large numbers. It appears to kill the locust by stinging him, thrusting into his body
an egg which hatches in a few days into a little grub.

The same species is referred to by Prof. J. G. Lemmon in a letter dated
Sierra Valley, California, July 18, 1880 :

I hear much and see a few specimens of a species of Pompilus, which has been seen
very active in catching, stinging, and dragging locusts into holes dug in the sand, and
covering them hastily — then seize new victims in rapid succession.

CHAPTER XIV.

COURSES THAT MAY BE ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL GOV-
ERNMENT TO LESSEN LOCUST INJURY.

The First Report of the Commission was the result of labors directed
against the unfledged locusts as they hatch out in the more fertile por-
tions of the Mississippi Valley and ravage the crops in what we have
designated as the Temporary region. An equally important — nay, more
important — problem left for solution was how best to destroy the insect
in its native or permanent breeding-grounds, or how to prevent the de-
structive migrations of the winged insects from the Permanent region
to the more thickly settled and fertile country. As intimated two years
ago, the solution of this problem, if at all possible, would require sev-
eral years of investigation. The writer has been deeply impressed with
the importance of concentrating all efforts of the Commission to the
obtaining of facts that bear directly on this important question. Of
the different means that have been suggested we mentioned six more
particularly, in our first report, and discussed some of them hopefully,
as follows :

" 1. The protection and encouragement to the increase of the native
locust-feeding birds. 2. The introduction of foreign locust-feeding birds.
3. Inducements offered to the Indians to collect and destroy the eggs
and young. 4. Destroying the eggs or young by making the greatest
possible use by artificial means of the natural water-supply. 5. Burn-
ing the young in spring. 0. Diverting winged swarms by means of
smoke.

" While every one of these suggestions might be carried out in excep-
tional cases to advantage, and while it is the intention of the Commission
to endeavor to acclimate certain foreign locust-feeding birds,339 yet the

339 In the summer of 1878, with the cooperation of Mr. Montague E. Leverson, of Lev-
erson Eanch, Douglas County, Colorado, we imported two dozen English rooks with
a view of sending them out to be acclimated in Colorado and in the belief that this
bird would prove one of the most useful to acclimate there. The birds were badly
handled on the voyage and detained in the custom-house in New York, and we ar-

272 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

last two methods arc the only ones which at present we have any faith in
as capable of sufficiently general application or as resulting in general
good. The iirst question to consider is whether the insects can be pre-
vented from migrating from their permanent breeding-grounds, and —
considering excessive multiplication the immediate cause of migration —
this virtually means whether they can be prevented from becoming
excessively multiplied in such breeding-grounds. At first view it would
seem hopeless to attempt anything of the sort, and a year ago we had
such a vague and imperfect knowledge of these permanent breeding-
grounds that any proposition looking to wholesale destruction of the
insects in them would have appeared Utopian. But we have learned
enough of the laws governing the movements of the species and of the
country designated as the Permanent region to give us faith, not only
in the possibility of thus keeping the species in check east of the Eocky
Mountains, but in its feasibility.

" There is a popular notion that this pest breeds in and comes from
sandy, desert countries. It is a popular error. The insect cannot live
on sand, nor does it willingly oviposit in a loose, sandy soil. It does
not thrive on cacti and sage-brush. It flourishes most on land clothed
with grass, in which, when young, it can huddle and shelter. It can
multiply prodigiously on those plains only that offer a tolerably rich
vegetation — not rank and humid, as in much of the prairie of Illinois,
Missouri, &c, but short and dry — such as is found over much of the
prairies and plains of the Northwest. Now, the destruction of the eggs,
which is so practicable and effectual in settled and cultivated sections,
is out of the question in those vast unsettled prairies ; but the destruc-
tion of the young locusts is possible. Those immense prairies are not
only susceptible of easy burning, but it is difficult to prevent the fire
from sweeping over them. Some system of preventing the extensive
prairie-fires in autumn that are common in that country, and then sub-
sequently firing the prairie in the spring, after the bulk of the young
hatch, and before the new grass gets too rank, would be of untold value
if it could be adopted. The more we study the question, and the more
we learn of those breeding-grounds, the more feasible the plan grows
in our minds. The Dominion Government has, fortunately, a well-or-
ganized mounted police force, which constantly patrols through the
very regions where the insects breed north of our line. This force is
intended to see that the peace is kept, to watch the Indians, to enforce
the laws, and perform other police duties. It could be utilized, without
impairing its efficiency as a police force, in the work we have indicated,
or it might be augmented for that same work. We have conversed with
the ministers of Agriculture and of the Interior, and with Governor

ranged with the present Commissioner of Agriculture to have them taken care of at
the Department grounds before shipping them West. Those that had not died on
the way arrived in such feeble condition, however, that they soon perished, wirh the
exception of one which is probably yet living in the neighborhood of Washington

COURSES FOR THE GOVERNMENT TO PURSUE.

273

Morris, oil the subject, and they see nothing impracticable in the plan.
Indeed, it was suggested by Mr. Dawson in his first report on the sub-
ject of locust ravages in British America, and by Mr. Eiley in his eighth
Missouri report, for 1875 (p. 132). We have, on this side of the boundary
line, a number of signal stations and military posts in the country where
the insect breeds. We would have our own military force co-operate
with the Dominion police force as a locust vigilance committee. Under
the intelligent guidance and direction of some special commissioner or
commission, we would have that whole country systematically studied
every year by such a force with reference to the abundance or scarcity
of the locusts. We would have such a vigilance force, by a proper sys-
tem of fire-guards and surveillance, prevent the fall fires in sections
where the insects or their eggs were known to abound, in order to burn
them at the proper time the following spring.

" This would be a stupendous work, and perhaps too expensive ever
to be carried out, did the insects breed over the whole of the region we
have designated as the Permanent region ; but, fortunately, the breeding-
grounds are in limited areas in this region, comprising the richer val-
leys and plateaux and strips along water-courses. It is for the Com-
mission to accurately map out in detail these areas, and to estimate with
what force and at what expense to the two governments the work can
be performed. We have no hope nor idea that the pest can ever by
human means be exterminated from that vast region, but do believe
that it may be so kept in check that it will not migrate. The constant
expense will be limited to the employment of the necessary force, and
only at intervals when danger threatens will it be necessary to go to
the extra and exceptional expense of destroying the insects. Again,
as may be gathered from Chapters VII and XV, there is a connection
between locust-increase and seasons of drought, and we may take ad-
vantage of this kuowledge by making especial effort whenever the char-
acter of the seasons indicates danger.

" The next question to consider is, whether the farmer can be pro-
tected from the invading swarms, in case the above-mentioned plans
should fail and the insects had become numerous. We think that this
is also, to a large extent, possible with the proper system and organiza-
tion. We would, in such an event, have this same corps of observers
watch carefully the development and movements of the locusts and fore-
warn the farmers of the country of threatened danger. There is no
reason why the agricultural community should not be informed the pre-
vious autumn as to the extent to which eggs have been laid, and as to
the particular locations where laid; or why, the following spring, they
should not be informed of the prospects, so as to plant accordingly, as
recommended in Chapter XIII, i. e., put in a larger area of small grain
that will be harvested before the winged swarms appear, and plant such
crops as are best protected. Then, as the insects were commencing to
migrate, their movements should be communicated to the people through
18 L

274 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

the Signal Bureau. The information should be m minute, complete,
and prompt as possible. These movements may be likened to those of
a storm, and the people should receive in advance the danger signal,
that they might guard against calamity. The "locust probabilities"
are of far more importance than the weather probabilities to the people
of the West, and the idea of having them telegraphed over the country
does not appear half as chimerical to us now as that of having the
weather foreshadowed did ;i few years ago.

"In this way the farmers could be fully forewarned of approaching
danger. We would, in this connection, have the western farmers adopt
some general plan of defense against possible invasion. The straw
that is now allowed to rot in unsightly masses as it comes from the
thrasher, and which encumbers the ground unless burned, should be
utilized. Let it be stacked in small pyramids at every field-corner, and
there let it remain until the locusts are descending upon the country.
Then let the fanners in a township or a county or in larger areas simul-
taneously fire these pyramids, using whatever else is at hand to slacken
combustion and increase the smoke, and the combined fumigation would
partially or entirely drive the insects away, according as the swarm was
extended or not.

" In short, we believe, first, that by proper co-operation on the part
of the two governments interested, the excessive multiplication of this
destructive insect may be measurably prevented in its natural breed-
ing-grounds, and that the few thousand dollars that would be necessary
to put into operation intelligent co-perative plans are most trifling in
view of the vast interests at stake. With an efficient and properly or-
ganized Department of Agriculture, liberally supported by Congress;
with the aid of the War Department, the Signal Bureau, the Post-
Office Department, and the Indian Bureau, the plan could be perfected
and carried out at a minimum expense. There is no reason why every
signal officer, every postmaster, every mail-carrier, every Indian agent,
and every other government employe in the Permanent region should not
be ordered to do service of this kind, and made, under the direction of an
intelligent head, a medium through which to gather the desired informa-
tion. We believe, secondly, that where the multiplication of the insect
cannot be prevented in its natural breeding-grounds, our farmers in
the more thickly-settled sections may, by the use of smoke, measurably
turn the course of the invading swarms and protect their crops — oblig-
ing the insects to resort to uncultivated areas.

"Did the injury continue for another three or four years as it has for
the past four; were the western farmers to suffer a few more annual
losses of $10,000,000, such schemes as we have suggested would soon
be carried out. The danger is that during periods of immunity, indif-
ference and forgetfulness intervene until another sweeping disaster
takes us by surprise. The other danger is that the majority of our
Congressmen and Senators at Washington, representing constituencies

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PERMANENT REGION.

275

never troubled with this grievous pest, have not, and cannot well have,
any just conception of the magnitude of its devastations, and are con-
sequently without due appreciation of the importance of the subject."

It is with a view of ascertaining the feasibility and practicability of
the last three methods there referred to that we have endeavored to get
more accurate knowledge of the limits and character of the Permanent
breeding-grounds, whence the destructive swarms emanate, so as to
place facts rather than surmises before our readers. In this attempt
we have been made fully aware of the difficulties which the problem
presents, and to modify somewhat the views previously expressed ; but
while the difficulties in some portions of the country are practically in-
surmountable, yet, for a large portion of the country affected, especially
the vast plains and prairie regions between the mountains on the one
hand and the Mississippi and North Saskatchewan on the other, it is
within man's power largely to avoid in the future the immense losses that
have hitherto been sustained. The destruction of the eggs by plowing
or harrowing may be advantageously carried on and stimulated by boun-
ties in exceptional cases, especially iu the Sub-permanent region, but does
not admit of any general carrying out on a large scale; so that we need
add nothing further here beyond what has been said on this score in
Chapter II (pp. 25, 26, 30), to which the present chapter is largely sup-
plementary.

In what way, then, can the national government help to bring about
the desired result? There are, it seems to us, seven ways in which
government action is possible, viz : 1. By encouraging settlement ; 2. By
encouraging the building of railroads ; 3. By broad schemes of irriga-
tion ; 4. By guarding the present timber and encouraging the planting
of forests; 5. By judicious burning; G. By a permanent system of obser-
vations and warnings ; 7. By co-operation with the Dominion Govern-
ment in these various measures.

SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PERMANENT REGION AND THE
PROPORTION OF LAND IN IT UPON "WHICH THE VEGETATION IS
SUSCEPTIBLE OF BEING BURNED.

A consideration of the surface characteristics of this Western country,
including soil and vegetation, will greatly help to intelligent discussion of
either of the above propositions, and particularly of the fourth. To this
end we have had prepared, in six separate parts, the large map (I) which
indicates, as fully as present knowledge permits, the character of the
vegetation in the region in question, and more particularly that which is
sufficiently dense and luxuriant to permit of being burned over. The
dividing lines between the probable breeding-grounds and the land that
is grass-covered, as well as those between this last, the semi-desert and
the desert land must needs, in many cases, be more or less arbitrary as
they shade into each other, and the map cannot, eyen in those parts
where every mile is familiar to us, be more than approximately correct.

276 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

Yet it serves admirably to show the small area over which the locusts
really breed iu great numbers, compared to the whole extent of the
region. We have, also, in studying this question, so as to elaborate the
geueral description given on p. 71, found it convenient to separately con-
sider', 1, the Plains Area east of the Mountains; L>, the Mountain Area;

the Plateau Area; 4, the Great Basin Area: and in doing so we have
not only been guided by the experience of each of the commissioners,
but have drawn from oilier available sources.

The investigations of the past two years have led to a considerable
enlargement of the Permanent region, as we intimated in our first map-
ping of the region340 that they might do when Idaho and Montana had
been more fully studied. Our former estimate was that the region cov-
ered, approximately, 300,000 square miles, whereas, owing to the inclu-
sion of the western border of Dakota and larger portions of Western
Wyoming, Utah, and Southern Colorado, as indicated in the map ac-
companying this report, it will probably embrace more nearly 400,000
square miles.

We are particularly under obligations to Mr. Henry Gannett, E. M.,
who, as topographer for many years of llayden's Geological and Geo-
graphical Survey of the Territories, has obtained very thorough personal
acquaintance with the country under consideration. Tie has kindly
aided us in every way in his power, and furnished most of the data rela-
tive to the mountain and plateau areas.

The Plains Area East of the Mountains.

The vegetation of this area may be classified as follows :

1. The grasses which, though of many distinct species, are, on the up-
lands characterized by growing in bunches and never forming a sod,
whence the general name bunch grass, by which they are popularly
known. The commonest of these grasses on the plains is the Buffalo
grass {Buchloe dactyloides). In the most southern of the Territories sev-
eral species, known commonly as Grama grass, abound; the commonest
of these is Festuca macrostachya ;

2. Artemisia, or sage-brush, is perhaps the best known of the prod-
ucts of the West, as it is certainly the most abundant. Of these the
species which is the widest spread is A. tridentata;

3. The cacti, of which the prickly pear, Opuntia, is the most abun-
dant ; and

4. Greasewood, a name applied to a variety of desert shrubs, the true
greasewood being Sarcobatus (?) vermicularis.

As may be noticed, these staples of the uncultivated soil are by no
means varied, nor are they, with the exception of the grasses, of much
economic value.

Let us now take a glance at the general geographic distribution of
these staples.

340 First Report, p. 131.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PLAINS AREA.

277

The Great Plains, extending from the North Saskatchewan to the
Mexican boundary, are mainly covered with the various bunch grasses.
The luxuriance of the growth differs greatly in different localities, being
modified by the general and local climate. In general terms the growth
is more luxuriant in the north than in the south, and in the eastern por-
tion than towards the west, although at and near the base of the Eocky
Mountains and Black Hills the growth is again quite luxuriant, owing
to the increased moisture of climate produced by the proximity to the
mountains.

Here and there, in the more arid localities, which will be defined in
some detail farther on, are areas wholly or in part given over to sage,
cactus, or the Spanish bayonet (Yucca angnstifolia).

Passing beyond the wall of the Eocky Mountains one enters still
more arid regions where the grasses give way still more to Artemisia,
and other members of the arid flora, which, in the great interior basin,
between the Eocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada and Cascade
Eange, form the primary growths of such of the country as is not utterly
sterile.

Everywhere, however, on the mountain slopes the country is better
watered than in the valleys, and where not covered by timber the
grasses are more luxuriant than below.

The bottom lands of rivers, too, are, for a greater or less breadth, in a
measure artificially irrigated, and the grasses are more close, approach-
ing a turf, and often grow much higher. Such areas, however, are com-
paratively insignificant in extent. Many of these bottom lands, too,
are covered with willow and cottonwood trees, to the partial or total
exclusion of grasses. In the region of the plains and the great interior
valleys, these strips of timber along the streams are practically the oidy
timber.

Greasewood takes the place of Artemisia in many localities, seeming
to prefer a heavy alkaline clay soil, while sage grows indifferently on a
clayey or sandy soil, but on the latter it grows most freely and luxu-
riantly.

"Burnable" land (and by this term we mean land susceptible of being
burned over cheaply and economically) is practically \' identical with graz-
ing land. Bunch and grama grasses burn with the greatest freedom, the
only difficulty being to control the fire and prevent it from doing dam-
age. Most sage-land has more or less grass among the sage. Indeed,
grass land grades into sage barrens by insensible degrees and as the
latter are burnable only with difficulty, the line of division between burn-
able and non-burnable land must in this case be mainly an arbitrary
one, drawn according to the judgment of the observer.

A heavy luxuriant growth of sage will burn freely, as travelers in the
West have had frequent opportunity of observing, but a low, stunted
growth of this plant, which covers great areas of thin, poor soil, can
be coaxed into burning only by constant attention, and it would there-
. fore be very expensive to burn over great areas.

278 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

Grease wood will not burn freely, owing to its being a sparse growth j
and as the Rocky Mountain locust does not frequent the cold, clayey
soils which produce this plant, such regions are of no importance in
ili is connection. •

Timbered lands are not considered in this connection, as these insect*
do not breed in a timbered country.

The great area of the plains, stretching eastward in a long inclined
plain from the base of the Rocky Mountains, is therefore mainly cov-
ered with grasses, which are mostly low, seldom forming a sward but
growing in bunches or tofts.

In the British Possessions the area of the plains, or level, untimbered
regions, is divided by Mr. Dawson, the Canadian geologist, into three
" prairie levels " or steppes — steppes with very slight rise and long trend.
The first of these includes the region of the Lakes Winnipeg, Manitoba,
Winnepegosis, &c. It is heavily timbered, except near its western
border. Its mean elevation is not far from 1,000 feet. Eising from
this, westward, iu bluffs two or three hundred feet in height, is the
eastern escarpment of the second prairie level, of which the Coteau des
Prairies, in Minnesota, is the southern extension. This is tolerably fer-
tile, well grassed, with timber only in the bottom lauds of the streams and
on knolls and the faces of bluffs. Its elevation is from 1,200 to l,50O
feet above the sen. gradually rising westward. The third prairie level
is what corresponds, in the United States, to the plains proper and the
Coteau du Missouri. It rises from the last in ill-defined bluffs, of
small height. From the edge it gradually increases iu height westward
until, at the base of the Pocky Mountains, it is 4,000 to 5,000 feet above
the sea. On this level the grass is shorter, less luxuriant, and in some
places, especially near the boundary, shows the effect of a climate de-
cidedly arid by the presence of sage and cacti. Timber is distributed
very much as on the second level, but is decidedly more scarce.

As we proceed northward over the two upper prairie levels in the
country between the forks of the Saskatchewan, the climate becomes
moister with the increasing cold, and the vegetation approaches more
and more the nature of that on the true prairies of the Mississippi Val-
ley; and north of an undulating line which follows approximately the
course of the 52d parallel, patches and belts of timber begin to diversify
the surface, alternating with the rich grasses. The change from prairie
to forest goes on gradually over a belt 50 to 75 miles in breadth, and
the North Saskatchewan is reached before the forest has asserted solo
proprietorship. South of Belly Eiver, more arid conditions manifest
themselves. At the base of the Pocky Mountains, and indeed for a
hundred miles eastward, and about the Judith and Big Horn Ranges,
the influence of the mountains in inducing a moister climate is plain;
the grass is tolerably luxuriant everywhere, and especially so at the
base of these ranges, gradually shading off in luxuriance with the dis-
tance from them.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PLAINS AREA. 279

Near the meridian of 117°, and just north of Milk River, begins an
area of sparse vegetation, which extends southeast across Milk, Missouri,
Musselshell, and Yellowstone Rivers, and terminates in the western part
of Dakota, north of the Black Hills. Its boundaries are very ill-de-
fined, as it grades off on all sides into the ordinary grass land of the
prairies. Where it crosses the boundary line it is not far from 75 miles
iu width. Its western limit crosses the Missouri not many miles below
Fort Benton, runs around the Judith Mountains at a distance from them
of not far from 10 miles, crosses the Musselshell in longitude 110°, and
thence bears generally southeast, keeping at a distance of a few miles
from the eastern base of the Yellowstone and Big Horn Ranges. Its
greatest southerly extension is reached between the Big Horn Range
and the Black Hills. Thence passing northeast by the Black Hills, its
line, now its eastern boundary, runs north in the longitude of the eastern
base of the Black Hills, embracing the Bad Lands of the Little Missouri,
the Powder, and Lower Yellowstone Rivers. Crossing the latter stream,
it runs generally northwest -to the point first mentioned. North of the
Yellowstone, this region is characterized mainly by the sparsity of all
vegetable growth, the grass is scanty and short, and there is much
cactus. South of the Yellowstone, on the lower waters of that stream,
the Powder, and Little Missouri, are Bad Lands, where the surface is much
broken by minor typographical features, caused by the rapid erosion of
soft strata. There is but little vegetation, with great areas of bare,
powdery, clay soil. Higher up, on and between these streams, the preva-
lent growth is sage.

What has been said regarding the vegetation of the second and third
prairie levels is equally true concerning the coteaus of the Minnesota
and Dakota. While forming parts of these prairie levels, they are in
fact plateaus of no great elevation, being 1,500 to 2,000 feet high, and
well marked by bluffs everywhere, except on the north. They have
a rough, undulating surface, gravelly or rocky soil, containing many
" sinks," but are not well watered.. The luxuriance of the grasses varies
very much with the locality, but is nowhere too sparse to burn with the
utmost freedom.

Within the United States the general character of the grasses may
be thus briefly expressed :

In Central Nebraska and Kansas, Western Indian Territory, and Cen-
tral Texas, which is the belt lying just west of the western border of
timber, the grasses are high and luxuriant, as should be expected, on
account of the comparative moisture of the climate. Westward, as the
aridity becomes greater, the grasses become shorter and sparser, and
this progression continues until we near the Rocky Mountains, where
their influence in rendering the climate moister is shown in the increased
luxuriance of the grasses.

In all this wide expanse of plains south of the Black Hills the area
which cannot be easily burned over is very small. The* Bad Lands be-

'280 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

»

tween the Niobrara and White Rivers, and the sand hills on the latter
si ream, form the only exceptions wort hy of note, and indeed it is doubt-
ful whether they should be excepted. The Llano Estacado is mainly
covered with fine grass, while Jornada del Muerto, of New Mexico, de-
rives Ls name, not from having the characteristics of a desert, but
solely from the dearth of water.

The Black Hills are an isolated group of mountains, some 75 miles in
length by 50 in breadth, rising to a height of 6,000 to 7,000 feet above
the sea, and about 3,000 feet above the surrounding level. They are
heavily timbered throughout, while about their base the grasses are
everywhere Luxuriant.

The Mountain Area~

With regard to the Rocky Mountain region of British America, it may
be briefly dismissed, as little is known about it in detail. It is essen-
tially a heavily timbered region. It is made up of a number of ranges
trending parallel to one another and separated by narrow valleys. It
is a region of heavy rainfall and slight evaporation ; and not only the
mountains>but the valleys also are covered with forest s.

Within the Western United States the presence or absence, and even
the comparative density and the prevalent species, of the forests may be
predicted with a reasonable degree of certainty and detail from the lati-
tude and elevation, i. e., from the same elements as there determine Hie
degree of moisture of the climate. Excepting in the northern part of
Idaho, Washington, Montana, and Wyoming, the general level of the
country is not sufficiently elevated to cover it with forests, and conse-
quently they are, except in the localities summarized above, confined
to mountain ranges and high plateaus. In southern latitudes, eveu, many
ranges of considerable altitude are not sufficiently high to reach the
lower level of timber, as in the case of the majority of the ranges in
Nevada, Arizona, and Southern California.

Occupying the next zone below the forests, we find the grasses. They
are found on the foothills of the mountains and the margins of the val-
leys, and, in cases where the elevation and latitude are sufficiently high
to insure moisture enough, covering the valleys. In other cases a zone
of sage succeeds, the two growths grading into one another, and this in
turn in the most arid localities, as in the deserts of Utah, Nevada, and
Southern California, is succeeded by scanty growth of cacti, yucca, and
by naked soil without vegetation. This succession, being a direct result
of the conditions of aridity, can be premised regarding a certain region
with considerable certainty.

The more northern section of the Rocky Mountains in the United
States, including the mountain region of Montana, Idaho, and Wyom-
ing, is characterized, in the northern part, by a tolerably great precipi-
tation, allowing a growth of forests almost as great as in the British
Possessions. The whole of Kootenai County, Idaho, is covered by

CHARACTEEISTICS OF THE MOUNTAIN AREA. 281

forests, extending southward, over the Bitterroot, the Coeur d'Alene,
and Salmon Banges, as far south as the Snake Eiver Plains.

The Missouri, which in Northern Montana forms the front rank of
the Eockies, is covered with timber. The valley of Flathead Lake,
lying at its western base, contains but small patches of open grassy
country. The valleys of the Deer Lodge, Bitterroot, and Hell Gate
Eivers are all open and grassy. So with the valley of the Jefferson and
its branches, the Madison and the Gallatin. These valleys, while not
sufficiently moist for the growth of timber, are not too arid for grasses.

The Judith Mountains, the Little Rocky Mountains, and other minor
groups scattered about in the more northern plains, are well timbered,
the former particularly so.

The Yellowstone Eiver heads in the Yellowstone National Park,
whence it flows in a generally northern course, nearly to the latitude
4G°, where it turns at right angles to the east, and after a long course
eastward and northeastward it joins the Missouri at Fort Buford. Its
upper course is walled in on the east by the Yellowstone Range, which
separates its drainage. A heavy growth of coniferae covers the country
about the F/pper Yellowstone, and that surrounding Yellowstone Lake.
On the river, below the foot of the lake, extending from the Mud Geysers
nearly to the Falls, a distance of about 10 miles, and westward from the
river about the same distance, is an open grassy park country of roll-
ing hills, which was in former times the bed of an arm of the lake. A
similar area is found on Pelican Creek, a tributary to Yellowstone Lake,
a few miles above its mouth. Aside from these open and burnable areas,
very little open country is to be found on this river or its tributaries
until we pass the Washburn group of mountains. This group of mount-
ains is in the main part well timbered ; the lower northeastern slopes,
however, down towards the mouth of Tower Creek, contain little timber,
and thenceforward the valley and plateaus of this drainage system are
bare of trees and well grassed. Hayden's Meadows, opposite the mouth
of the east fork of the Yellowstone, and the plateau above the third
canon of the river on its left-hand side, are nearly bare of trees.

Glancing now at the east fork of this stream, we find its immediate
valley as far up as the mouth of Soda Butte Creek, the valley of the
latter stream, and of Slough Creek, are all open and covered with grass
and sage. The mountains about this stream, too, contain little timber
on their lower slopes. The high, broad ridge which separates the east
fork from the main river, of which Amethyst Mountain is the culminating
point, contains very little timber, but is covered with grasses. The head
of the east fork, however, is in the densely timbered region.

The next tributary of the Yellowstone of importance is Gardiner's
Eiver. This stream has an open valley extending from its mouth to the
forks, a distance of about G miles, with an average width of 2 miles.
Farther up the stream, on the middle and west forks, is an open val-
ley, 3 miles long by 3 in width. These valleys are covered with the
"usual mixture of Artemisia and grass.

282 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

Below the mouth of Gardiner's River flic Yellowstone flows for 8 miles
in a sage valley containing enough grass to make it fair grazing land,
while grass extends up the slopes of the limiting ranges for nearly 1,000
feet, when if is replaced by timber.

Below this valley follows the second cafiou, where the wooded moun-
tain slopes come close down to the river's margin. This is succeeded
by a long, broad, grassy valley, extending down to the lower cation, a
distance of 29 miles. This open valley has an average width of 4 to 5
miles. On the east it extends to the base of the Yellowstone Range, and
on the west to that of the Gallatin Range, which here separates the Yel-
lowstone from the Gallatin River. This valley contains at present a
small ranch population.

Below this fine valley is the short lower canon, where the river has
carved a passage through a bare ridge connecting the limiting ranges.
Below this an open, grassy country extends down the river to the bend
to the eastward, and up the valley of Shield's River, a large, left hand
branch, nearly to its head.

All the open country on the drainage of the Yellowstone is suscepti-
ble of being easily burned over. The soil is almost everywhere more
or less gravelly or sandy; nowhere a heavy clay.

The Madison River, like the Yellowstone, heads in the high, heavily-
timbered country of the Yellowstone Park, opposite the heads of the
Snake. Its drainage area is timbered as far north as the seeond canon,
below the mouths of its east and south forks. The valleys of these
streams, too, are heavily timbered.

From the foot of the second canon, northward to the lower canon
the Madison Valley consists almost entirely of a succession of terraces
of gravelly soil, covered with grass and sage. This valley has a length
of 50 miles and an average width of G or 7 miles. On either hand is a
high range of mountains, timbered almost to their bases. All this val-
ley can easily be burned over.

The lower canon of the Madison is cut iu sparsely timbered hills, be-
low which the river enters the broad expanse known as the Gallatin
Valley. This fine large basin, second to none in Montana for agricul-
tural and grazing purposes, save perhaps that of the Bitterroot, has a
total length of 32 miles, with a width of 23. It extends southward from
the forks of the Missouri, up the Madison and Gallatin Rivers to the
north ends of the Gallatin and Madison Ranges, and from the East Gal-
latin westward beyond the MadisonRiver. The streams which traverse
it are the Madison, the Gallatin, and several large branches of the latter,
among which are Middle Creek, Bozeman Creek, and the East Gallatin
River. These streams have broad bottom-lands, covered with grasses
and scattered groves of cottonwoods and willows.

The valley is covered with a fine growth of bunch-grass and some
sage. Probably the entire area of the valley can easily be burned over.

The Gallatin and its branches above this valley are in close canon in
a heavily-timbered mountain country.

CHAEACTERISTICS OF THE MOUNTAIN AREA.

283

The Gallatin Valley is partially settled, mainly by an agricultural
population. It contains three small towns, Bozeman, Gallatin City, at
the Forks of the Missouri, and Ilamilton. A large part of the country
along the streams is already taken up by ranches. The population of
the valley in 1870 is given in the census report as 1,578 souls ; and this
is probably but slightly changed at present.

Proceeding now to the Jefferson Eiver, the third fork of the Missouri,
we find in its drainage area much less timber and more open, grassy
country, than in those of the other two forks. The range separating its
drainage from that of the Madison is timbered near its crest, but its
foot-hills and lower slopes are devoid of trees and well grassed. The
valleys of Eed Bock Creek and Beaverhead Eiver, are broad, open, and
grassy. So with the valley of the Bighole, or Wisdom Eiver, and the
hills which form the divide between the latter and the Beaverhead.
The mountaius which stand at the head of the Beaverhead Eiver, sep-
arating this drainage from the Snake Eiver Plains, are well timbered
except on the lower foothills.

All the open country on the Jefferson can easily be burned over.

Turning now to the Missouri, we find it flowing with a somewhat
sluggish current through a tolerably broad bottom-land of fine grass and
groves ot cottonwoods. The country on the west, as far as the base of
the Missouri Eange, is open and grassy, presenting many of the aspects
of the plains. This character extends as far north as Helena.

On the east side of the river, the hills and lower mountains are grass-
covered, while the higher groups of mountains are clothed with timber.
Farther to the eastward, between the Missouri and Yellowstone Eivers,
are the Judith, Snow, and Crazy Woman Eanges, all heavily timbered,
while the surrounding country is well grassed.

The large valley at the eastern base of the Wind Eiver Eange, through
which flow Wind Eiver and the Popo-agies, is, near the mountains, well
grassed; but as we proceed eastward, away from the mountains, the
quality and abundance of its vegetation deteriorate, and on its lower
parts it bears all the aspects of a desert.

The Wind Eiver Mountains rise west of this valley and separate it
from the Green Eiver Basin. The peaks of this range rise to heights
of nearly 14,000 feet. These mountains are heavily timbered from their
base to the timber line, which in this range is at an elevation of about
10,000 feet.

The basin of the Bighorn, in most respects, resembles the valley of
Wind Eiver. On all sides, near the base of the mountains, is high, lux-
uriant grass, gradually shading off toward the interior of the basin into
sage land and even to desert, in some localities. In the small tributary
valleys of several of the western branches of the Bighorn the grass is
exceptionally fine, and stock men are beginning to avail themselves of
the excellent grazing. On the eastern and northern bases of the Big-
horn Eange, also, the grass is luxuriant, grading off northward and east-
ward into poor sage land.

284 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

The Bighorn Range, which surrounds the basin of the Bighorn on
three sides, is described as being heavily timbered, while the country
about its base is exceptionally line for pasturage purposes, the grasses
being very high and luxuriant.

Next we turn to that great area marked on our maps as the "Great
American Desert," the Green River Basin. This district, occupying
about 11,000 square miles, is limited sharply on the south by the Uinta
Mountains. The southern part of the western boundary is ill-defined,
being simply a broad, meridional swell in the surface, separating the
basin from the valley of the Bear River, a large tributary to Great Salt
Lake. Following this divide northward, however, it is seen to develop
into high ridges, which, still farther north, have weathered into mount-
ains, the Wyoming Range. The basin extends northward almost to a
point, abutting against the Gros Ventre and Wind River Ranges, the
latter of which tonus a well defined eastern boundary as far as its cud
near South Pass. Beyond this the eastern boundary is as poorly de-
fined as the opposite western boundary, the land rising by almost imper-
ceptible grades from the basin to the plateaus of the continental water-
shed, above mentioned.

The northern part of this great area is slightly broken by spurs from
the mountains and by fragments of mesas, which have been spared by
the erosive agencies. The central and by far the larger part of the
basin is unbroken, save by long, gentle undulations, like those of the
plains and by the bluffs, which limit the valleys of the few streams
which venture into this arid expanse. In its southern portion, on the
other hand, the conditions which prevail in the plateau province proper
begin to assert themselves. River benches and bluffs develop into cliffs,
and valleys change to canons.

A corresponding gradation in the character of the vegetation is also
plainly traceable. While the southern and lower parts of the basin are
as arid as almost any part of the North American Continent, the north-
ern and higher parts are well grassed and contain comparatively little
sage and no greasewood. The greater part of the basin, however, is
of too desert a character to be burned over economically. Those parts
where the reverse is the case may be summed up as follows :

The country between the Big Sandy River and the Wind River Mount-
ains; indeed, all that near the southwestern base of this range, the
southern part of the basin, extending as far south as Lead Creek, with
the western rim as far as Fontenelle Creek, are sufficiently well grassed
to burn with tolerable freedom.

The soil of the basin varies extremely in different parts. Near the
mountains it is, in all cases, naturally gravelly, coarse or fine according
to the distance from their base. At the foot of the Wind River Range,
about the debouchure of the several branches of New Fork of the
Green, glaciers have in former time brought down immense quantities of
boulders, gravel and the like, which now cover great areas. Farther

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MOUNTAIN AREA.

285

south, along the courses of the Sandys the soil is of the nature implied
by these names, and, farther yet toward the southeast, near the South
Pass, and extending thence far to the eastward along the south base of
the Sweetwater Mountains is a long range of sand dunes, built up from
the accumulations of the prevailing westerly winds.

The broad stretch of country included between the Big Sandy and
Green Eiver is mainly sandy, grading, in its southern part into an ad-
hesive, alkaline clay. The soil of the southern part of the basin, i. e.
that lying south of the latitude of the mouth of the Big Sandy is of the
latter character, produced mainly by the disintegration of the Bridger
beds. Along Bitter Creek, almost the sole vegetation is greasewood.

West of the Green, in this part of the basin, alkali does not form so
large a component of the soils, and while sage is the predominant
growth, still grass is found in some localities in sufficient abundance to
afford fair pasturage. Passing northward on this side of the river we
find the same gradation from a clay to a sandy soil.

The river bottoms of many of the streams contain fine meadow land,,
which can easily be burned over. Green Eiver, from its head down to
Green Eiver City, has a belt of bottom land from one to two miles iu
width, all well grassed, and containing occasional groups of cottonwoods
and willows. Bitter Creek has no bottom land, but flows mainly in an
arroyo, cut in the clay soil. The Big Sandy has but little bottom land.
From its mouth to that of the Little Sandy it flows in a low canon,
whose walls closely confine the stream. Above this point the bottom
lands are narrow, being on an average probably not more than one-
fourth of a mile in width.

The various branches of the New Fork of the Green have but nar-
row strips of bottom laud, but they flow through a comparatively well-
grassed country.

Nearly all the branches of the Green from the west have broad
meadow lands along their courses, in many cases rivalling in width those
of the main stream itself. Of these Horse, Marsh, Bitterroot, Piney,
and Labarge Creeks have particularly fine bottom lands. The Fonte-
nelle bottoms are narrower, probably averaging not more than a half
mile in width, and limited by high bluffs. Slate Creek is an insignifi-
cant stream with no flood plain.

The bottom lands of Black's Fork are particularly broad and fine, be-
ing fully three miles in average breadth. On its main branch, Ham's
Fork, they are nearly as broad, and the same may be said of Henry's
Fork, which enters the -Green just above its canon in the Uinta Mount-
ains.

These bottom lands are everywhere well grassed, and in the spring
when the grass is dry can easily be burned over.

The rolling plateaus which separate the southern part of the Green
Eiver Basin from Bear Eiver are, in this neighborhood, desert-like in
character, Artemisia being the principal production. As we recede

286 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

northward from the railroad toward the upper waters of Ham's Fork,
the face of the country improves, and grass predominates. This continues
northward nearly to the head of Ham's Fork, where timber usurps the
soil.

Turning now to the headwaters of the Snake River, the southern fork
of the Columbia, we find ourselves in a different region. It is in large
pari mountainous, and with the exception <>t'a few open valleys, most of
which are small, it is very heavily timbered. Indeed, this region about
the heads of the Snake, the Yellowstone, and Madison Rivers, embraced
almost entirely in the Yellowstone Park, is the most densely timbered
region in the West, with the exception of Washington Territory and the
western part of Oregon.

The Snake heads in a country of high mountains north of the Green
River Basin, including the southern part of the Yellowstone Park. Its
most northern branch, Lewis's Fork, Lakes its rise in Shoshone Lake,
whence it flows southward. In a few miles it is joined by a large stream
from the east. Both these streams flow through a heavily timbered
country, where the grassy openings are of a very limited extent.

Below their junction the river keeps its southerly course, through a
narrow wooded valley, as far as Jackson's Hole, at the east base of the
Teton Range. On either side, the mountains are heavily wooded up to
the timber line, which in this region is at about 10,000 feet above the
sea.

Jackson's Hole is a large open valley 35 miles long by 10 miles in
width, its length being in a north and south direction. Near its head,
on the west side of the river, its surface is made up of low irregular
hills of moraine deposits, which are very sparsely timbered, and other-
wise covered with sage and grass, the former being the dominaut growth.
On the east side of the river the open valley is several miles in breadth,
and extends far up two large branches known respectively as Buffalo
Fork and Gros Ventre Creek, which here enter the Snake from the east.
In this part, the surface of the valley is but slightly broken and is well
grassed, with a due mixture of sage.

Farther down the valley on the west side of the river, that is, below
the foot of Jackson's Lake, the surface is largely made up of bench land,
producing a similar mixture of vegetation, while the river which here
flows near the eastern side of the valley has a bottom land fully two
miles in width, which supports a dense growth of large willows and
cottonwoods. This broad timbered bottom land accompanies the river
to the foot of the valley, while the river itself gradually moves diag-
onally across the valley to its western side, leaving a broad grassy area
on the east, below the Gros Ventre Buttes.

Nearly all of this valley is burnable, the exception being the broad,
timbered bottom land along the Snake. The soil throughout is gravelly,
being coarsest in the northern part on and near the moraiual deposits
mentioned above.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MOUNTAIN AREA.

287

The principal parts of the courses of the branches of the river which
enter it in this valley are in heavily-timbered, mountainous country.
The Teton Eange is heavily timbered.

Below Jackson's Hole the Snake flows through a close canon, passing
through a gieat mass of mountains in seeking an exit to the Snake Eiver
Plains. In this part of its course it receives three large branches from
the left. The upper of these, Hoback's Eiver, heads in a partially open
valley just north of the Green Eiver Basin, in the angle between the
Wyoming and Gros Ventre Eauges. The surface of this valley is con-
siderably broken. It is well grassed, but on the minor ridges which
•diversify its surface are many groves of aspens and coniferae. This
valley can be burned over, but fires would require constant attention to
prevent them from destroying the timber. Below this valley the stream
flows in a canon, by which it cuts its way across the Wyoming Eange.

The eutire course of John Day's Eiver, the next branch of the Snake,
is in a canon valley between two high timbered ranges, known as the Wy-
oming and the Salt Eiver Eauges. It is heavily timbered throughout
with coniterae.

Next we pass to Salt Eiver, the third large branch of the Snake.
Heading mainly in the Salt Eiver Eange, we find its main stream through
its whole course in a broad valley, mainly of gravelly soil and covered
with a sparse growth of sage and grass. It is probably burnable, though
with some difficulty.

Continuing our examination of the country tributary to the Snake on
the left-hand side, we find the region lying between the valleys of the
Salt and Blackfoot Eivers to consist of a mass of hills, rising one above
another toward the west to a crest, and thence falling somewhat abruptly
to the Blackfoot. About its crest line these hills are well timbered with
coniferee and aspens, but the slopes and lower summits are covered with
bunch-grass, varied by occasional small groves of, aspens, a country
easily burned over.

The region drained by the Blackfoot, the next left-hand branch of the
Snake of note, is characterized by an almost total absence of timber,
eitlier in the valleys or on the hills. Most of the valley portion is over-
laid by a floor of basalt, on which Artemisia grows luxuriantly. The
hills are covered with bunch-grass. That portion of the drainage area
of this stream which lies in and among the hills and low mountains can
easily be burned over. The country about its lower course, which forms
a part of the Great Snake Eiver Plains, is not as combustible, as will be
shown further on.

Next we turn to the Portneuf and its tributaries. Like the Bear and
the Blackfoot, this stream has a very circuitous course through and
around the lava fields which obstruct it. Starting with a southerly
course it suddenly turns to the westward, declining the apparently easy
route southward to the Bear, and cuts its way doggedly through the
Portneuf Eange. Its upper valley is well grassed, as are also the hills

288 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

whi< h lie to the eastward separating it from the valley of the Blackfoot.
This upper valley, after being abandoned by the stream, continues
on southward to the Bear, where it is known as Gentile Valley, and of
which we have spoken above.

Passing through the Portueuf Range, the Portneuf enters, near its
lower end, a broad, fine valley, occupied by Marsh Creek, the most im-
portant tributary of the river. This valley heads opposite that of the
Malade, and extends, with a gradually decreasing width, 28 miles north-
ward. Its greatest width is 12 miles. Bench land forms the greater
part of the valley, and this produces mainly sage, with a small admix-
ture of grass. Marsh Creek, the small stream which flows through this
valley, has a marshy bottom laud through most of its course, from one-
fourth of a mile to a mile in breadth, which produces marsh grasses and
willows. All the valley can be burned over, as well as the lower slopes
of the Portneuf Range on the east and of the Bannack Range on
the west. These ranges contain but little timber, and that near their
crests.

West of the Bannack Range are the valleys of the upper waters of the
Little Malade and of Bannack Creek, both open and grassy, with more
or less sage, and both easily burnable.

At the foot of Marsh Creek Valley the Portneuf turns to the west for
a few miles, cutting its way through a mass of high hills, then turns
northwest, and, the mountains falling away on either hand, the river
sweeps out into the Snake River Plains, in which it joins the Snake
River.

The Snake River Plains are an enormous field of basalt extending
westward from about longitude 112° nearly to the western boundary of
Idaho, and from near latitude 42° uorth to the southern base of the
Bitterroot and Salmon River Ranges. The surface is slightly undu-
lating and is seamed with crevasses like a field of old ice. Most of the
streams which enter this region soon disappear beneath its surface,
perhaps to appear and disappear again. The soil is mainly a shifting
sand, which, driven by the prevailing westerly winds, has collected in
dunes ou the eastern and northeastern border. This great area is mainly
covered with sage, which grows luxuriantly, attaining arborescent pro-
portions. In the interior and southern portions of this waste this mam-
moth growth of sage is the only product of the soil, but near the base of
the mountains on the east and north grass gradually takes the place of
sage, in a measure, and on the lower mountain slopes it monopolizes the
soil to the practical exclusion of other growths.

The country along the northern margin of these plains, i. e., that lying
at the base of the Bitterroot aud Salmon River Ranges, with the lower
slopes of these mountains, can easily be burned over. The larger part
of the area of these plains, however, falls in that debatable ground
where it is very difficult to decide whether it is or is not burnable, eco-
nomically. In some localities the Artemisia is so abundant and so luxu-

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MOUNTAIN AREA. 289

riant that there is no doubt about the ease, but over most of the interior
of this area the sage, though of enormous size, is not, probably, suffi-
ciently abundant to sustain combustion without constant attendance.

The Snake River, on emerging from its long canon, comes out on the
eastern border of the Snake River Plains. Its course changes from
west to south, and it flows thus across this basalt plain, keeping near its
eastern margin. Near the southeastern corner of the plain the river
turns west, and on that course skirts the southern border of this desert
waste.

Shortly after leaving the mountains, the Snake receives a large branch
from the north, known as Henry's Fork. This stream flows south along
the eastern margin of the lava-field. Through most of its course its
valley is heavily timbered. At its head, however, which is in a small
lake in a loop of the main watershed is a small valley containing a few
square miles of burnable laud.

On Cascade Creek, a large left-hand branch of Henry's Fork, is a
small valley, containing 20 to 30 square miles. It is open, very marshy,
and grassy. Farther south, extending from the base of the Teton Range
westward nearly to Henry's Fork, is a fine large valley, watered by
Pierre's River, and known as Pierre's Hole or the Teton Basin. This
valley has an area of open country of about 150 square miles, well
grassed, but, of course, containing a due proportion of sage. Quite a
large area in the middle of the valley is swampy.

With these exceptions, the country lying between Henry's Fork on
the west and the Madison and the Snake Rivers on the east is very
heavily timbered, with few openings of any magnitude whatever. In
its northern part, it consists of a high basaltic plateau, cut by numerous
canons, while towards the south the lofty and rugged range of theTe-
tons separates the drainage system.

Below Henry's Fork the Snake receives no tributaries from the north
for hundreds of miles — indeed, until it has passed the Shake River Plains.
Then it is joined by the Malade, the Bois<§, and Payette, which head in
the Salmon River Mountains. Of this group of mountains little is known,
as it has never been traversed by explorers, and it is but recently that
mining discoveries have drawn settlement in that direction. These
mountains seem to cousist of a succession of ranges, trending parallel
to the Rocky Mountains, i. e., a few degrees west of north. The gen-
eral fact that they are well clothed with timber, and that the forests de-
scend well down into the_valleys between the ranges, and into the broken
country west of them is well known. Of the details of the distribution
of forests and grass land it is at present unsafe to speak.

The southern section of the Rocky Mountain region is comprised in
Southern Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico. It is characterized by
the greatest elevation of the continental plateau, which rises as we pass
southward from Southern Wyoming into Colorado, and near the center
of the latter State attains a mean elevation of about 10,000 feet, and
19 L

290 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

thence declines gradually .southward, through New Mexico, and enters
the Republic of Mexico with an elevation of about 4,000 feet.

In Southern Wyoming we meet first the Laramie Range, which rises
to an elevation of about 9,000 feet above the sea. At its eastern base,
and far up its slopes, the fine grass of the plains extends, growing more
luxuriant with the altitude. On the summit of the mountains is a strag-
gling growth of timber, nowhere heavy. The western slope is but a
repetition of the eastern.

At the western base we enter the plains of Laramie. These; lie be-
tween the Medicine How ;m<l Laramie Ranges, are limited on the north
by the latter of these ranges, where it sweeps around to the west, and
on the south they extend up into the angle of the junction of the Medi-
cine Bow and Laramie Ranges. The surface of these plains, like that
of the (Ireat Plains, is chiefly rolling, entirely bare of timber, and cov-
ered mainly with bunch-grass. Here sage becomes rather more abun-
dant than on the east side of the mountains, but is by no means the chief
product.

Passing the Medicine Bow Range, we find the country, as far west as
the valley of the North Platte, to resemble in most respects that of the
Laramie Plains, being open and grassy.

West of the North Platte comes a broad plateau, separating the
drainage of the Platte from that of the Colorado. This broad, ill-de-
lined divide extends from the South Pass southeastward to tlie north end
of the Park Range. It has an uneven, rolling surface, containing many
sinks, in which disappear the waters gathered over large areas.

This region, from the railroad northward to the base of the Sweetwater
Mountains, and from the North Platte to the Green River Basin, is
almost a desert. It has a heavy, cold, alkaline, clay soil, which produces
only a sparse growth of greasewood and stunted sage. It is not a region
in which the locusts are likely to breed or frequent, neither is it to be
burned over easily.

South of the railroad, these plateaus extend up to the base of the Park
Range. As they recede from the railroad southerly, they rise to greater
elevations and become correspondingly more inviting. The soil becomes
more gravelly, greasewood disappears, while a luxuriant growth of sage
and bunch-grass takes its place. Should it become necessary, these
plateaus can be burned over at no great expense. This improvement
in the vegetation seems to commence with Bridger's Pass and extends
southward to the north end of the Park Range, and along its western
flank far into Colorado. The western limit of these more fertile plateaus
it is not easy to point out, as they grade insensibly into a more desert
region, as the elevation decreases.

The valley of the Sweetwater River is everywhere well grassed, with
but little sage brush. It is mainly bench land, with a gravelly soil, and
is free from timber. The river bottom has an average width of about
half a mile.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MOUNTAIN AREA.

291

South of this valley, separating it from the deserts of the continental
divide, is a range of low mountains, trending nearly east and west, and
known as the Sweetwater Mountains. These mountains are timbered
throughout.

North of the valley of the classic Sweetwater, extending from the
Three Crossings eastward to the North Platte, are a succession of low
granite ridges, which are covered with a luxuriant growth of bunch-grass.

The group known as the Eattlesnake Mountains is timbered.

Turning to Colorado, we find a grand and simple arrangement of the
mountain ranges on this crown of the coutinent. In the northern part
there are two parallel ranges, trending a few degrees east of south — the
Front and the Colorado Ranges. Between them lie the North and Mid-
dle Parks. The former, a nearly circular valley having an elevation of
about 8,000 feet, is covered with a luxuriant growth of grass. The latter
has a broken surface, being intersected by several short ranges of mount-
ains. The valleys between them are well grassed, while the mountains
are covered with forests.

In the central belt of Colorado the mountain portion is broader. West
of the Park Range, beyond the valley of the Upper Arkansas, is the
Sawatch, trending parallel to the others, and still further westward the
groups and short ranges known as the Elk Mountains. In this portion
the interval between the Front and Park Ranges is occupied by the South
Park, elliptic in form, and having an elevation of 8,000 to 10,000 feet
above the sea. Timber comes down well to the bases of the surround-
ing ranges and even trenches on the domain of the valley. The little
ridges which traverse the valley are also covered with forest. Else-
where the park is grass-covered. It is nowhere luxuriant, except in a
few localities where there is natural meadow land, as in the northeastern
part. There is some sage land in the lower portions of the park.

The valley of the Upper Arkansas is comparatively narrow and the
part about the head of the river and the bench land everywhere are
covered with forests. The open country is mainly sage land, with more
or less grass.

The region of the Elk Mountains, including the narrow valleys of the
upper branches of the Grand and Gunnison Rivers, is heavily timbered.

In the southern portion of Colorado, the mountain belt attains a still
greater development. The Front Range, which, from Southern Wyo-
ming, has formed the shore to the vast sea of the plains, alter rising to a
great height in the Pike's Peak group, suddenly falls, and disappears,
while the Sangre de Cristo range, the continuation of the Park Range,
comes to the front and for several degrees of latitude through Southern
Colorado and most of New Mexico forms the immediate boundary of the
plains. For a few miles south of the canon of the Arkansas, a short
range, known as the Wet Mountains, standing in front of the Sangre de
Cristo Range, seems to form a continuation of the Front Range, the in-
terval between this and the Sangre de Cristo being occupied by the Wet

292 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

Mountain Valley and Huerfano Park. West of the Sangre de Cristo
Range lies the large valley of San Luis, beyond which is the broad and
complex group known as the San Juan Mountains. These ranges are
all covered with forests to the timber line. The Wet .Mountain Valley
is timbered except in the lower part near the Arkansas River, where the
plateaus, into which it develops, are well grassed. The Huerfano Park
has a very similar vegetation, being timbered near the divide and on the
minor ridges, while grasses cover the lower parts.

The San Luis Valley, which contains the upper course of the Rio
Grande, is a long valley, extending from Poncho Pass down into New
Mexico. It has a length of about 140 miles, a maximum width of fifty,
and an average width of 35 or 40 miles. Its area is not far from 5,300
square miles, of which about two thirds is in Colorado and the balance
in New Mexico. Its surface is almost as Level as a billiard table. In
the northern part the growth is bunch-grass. As we proceed southward
it changes very gradually to sage, which in turn becomes more and
more stunted, and in the soul hern part of the valley the vegetation is very
scanty, excepting at the bases of the ranges on the sides. The soil, too,
undergoes a corresponding change from a gravelly soil at the northern
end and at the bases of the mountains on the sides. Farther down the
valley, about Sawatch Creek, the soil becomes a stiff adobe clay, and yet
farther down the valley it becomes very sandy. In some places along
the eastern side of the valley the sand has heaped up in drifts or dunes.
This is notably the case near the Music and Mosca Passes. The sand
begins near the latitude of the point where the Rio Grande enters the
valley, and extends down to its southern end.

There is quite a large area of marsh and semi-marsh in the northern
portion of the valley. San Luis and Sawatch Creeks entering the val-
ley near its northern end, join and flow down the valley near its eastern
border, and sink in the San Luis Lakes, near Mosca Pass. Their course
in the valley, and especially below their point of junction, is sluggish and
accompanied by a broad belt of marsh and of land naturally irrigated.
About the lakes this area is much enlarged.

The San Juan Mountains contain no valleys of any extent. Baker's
Park, an area of possibly half a dozen square miles, is the only bit of
flat country to be found among them, except among their lower spurs,
which will be noticed farther on, under the head of the Plateau area.

Proceeding southward into New Mexico, we find the lower limit of
timber crowded higher and higher up on the mountains, so that, on the
lower ranges of the southern part of the State, there is no timber what-
ever.

The low range of the Ratons on the boundary between Colorado and
New Mexico is well timbered, though grasses extend well up its slopes.
The Sangre de Cristo Range is covered with forests to its end, near San-
ta Fe, and the Sandia Mountains, a short group which continues its
course for a few miles southward, are also well timbered. East of the

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PLATEAU AREA.

293

latter, on the headwaters of the Canadian, there are several small areas
of timber on the plateaus, and farther south, between the Pecos and
Rio Grande, the minor ranges of the Guadelupe, Sacramento and Jim-
enez.

The country between the latter ranges and the Rio Grande is a sage
barren, depreciating in some places to a desert, excepting that close to
the river, which is covered with good grass.

Ou the west of the Rio Grande, the mountains are timbered, with the
exception of a few small ranges in the south, such as the Burro and
Miembres Ranges. The country is mainly an undulating plateau, and
is in most localities covered with short but abundant grass. In the
northwestern corner of the Territory, however, conditions of greater
aridity prevail, and the prevalent growth is sage.

The Plateau Area.

This region may be roughly defined as the area drained by the Colo-
rado River and its tributaries. The principal of these head in the
mountains, yet their courses are almost entirely in this peculiar region.
Exception should be made, however, of the Gila and Williams Rivers,
of Arizona, which drain a region resembling that of the Great Basin in
Nevada, of low, isolated, parallel ranges, separated by desert valleys.

The plateau region includes the western portion of Colorado, the east-
ern and southern parts of Utah, and most of Arizona. Most of it con-
sists of plateaus, horizontal or inclined, differing widely in elevation
and in degree of natural fertility. The streams, as a rule, flow in cauons
far below the surface, though in a few cases they are in broad valleys.

The Green River Basin, one of these broad valleys, has already been
treated of in detail. South of this, and separating it from the charac-
teristic plateau region to the southward, is the Uinta Range, a broad,
heavily timbered mountain mass, trending east and west. This range
is well timbered, the forests extending nearly to the base everywhere.

On the east and west borders of the plateau region the table lands
are high, reaching along the borders of the mountains proper nearly or
quite to timber line. These plateaus are heavily timbered. Among
them may be mentioned the following: On the east, in Colorado, the
White River Plateau, at the head of the river of that name ; the Grand
and Xorth Mam Plateaus, between the Grand and Gunnison Rivers;
and ou the west, in Utah, the Aquarius and other high table lands,
which continue the direction of the Wahsatch Range and the Kaibab
Plateau, through .which the Colorado cuts its Grand Canon.

The Roan or Book Plateau, and the inclined steppes north of it, which
extend across the whole region from east to west, having heights rang-
ing from 6,000 to 8,000 feet, have considerable range in natural produc-
tions near; their crests producing mainly grasses, with occasional groves
of timber, and iu the lower portions sage only.

The Uinta Valley, at the south base of the Uinta Range, is described

294 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

as being a very fine valley, with luxuriant grasses in the upper part, de-
generating into Artemisia near Green River.

The Grand River, alter emerging from the Middle Park. Hows through
a region of high broken table lands, most of the way in a canon, only occa-
sionally emerging into a narrow sage-brush valley, nearly to its point of
junction with the Gunnison. The latter stream has a somewhat more
open course, with several large valleys. The uppermost of these, Taylor's
Park, near the head of the stream, is pretty well covered with forests.
Then follows a short canon, from which the river emerges into the Gun-
nison Valley, a meeting place of several considerable streams, and of a
number of valleys of greater or less width. The lower part of this com-
pound valley is sage-covered, while the upper parts and the plateaus in
the neighborhood are covered with luxuriant grasses and cotton wood.

Below this valley the river is in canon for a long distance, while the
plateaus bordering it, which rise gradually on the north to the Elk
Mountains and on the south to the San Juan Range, are grassy, with
groves of quaking aspens. At the foot of this, the Grand Canon, the river
emerges into daylight at the foot of the Uncompahgre Valley and flows
across its lower end. This valley extends northward from the base of
the San Juan Mountains, the Uncompahgre River flowing down its cen-
ter. It is about 50 miles in length and 15 to 20 miles wide. It contains
but little grass, except at its upper end. The growth is sage, the soil
a heavy, cold clay. The bottom lands of the river are broad — one-half
mile to a miie — and overgrown with bushes of various species, with
quite an extensive growth of cotton wood and willow. At the foot of
this valley it joins the Gunnison, which in the valley has bottom lands
one to two miles in width, with a fine growth of willows.

Below the mouth of the Uncompahgre the Gunnison flows in a canon
on the left-hand side of a broad valley which produces but very little
vegetable growth ; and the same remark holds good, in a still more
marked degree, concerning the broad valley which extends down the
Grand below their junction, lying at the south base of the Book Cliff's.
It is an utter desert, without possibility of amelioration save by a change
of climate.

West of the Uncompahgre and Gunnison is a high plateau iuclining
toward those valleys and breaking off abruptly toward the southwest.
It has the form of an immense spur from the San Juan Mountains,
trending to the northwest. Its crest has an elevation of 8,000 to 9,000
feet; its higher part, near the crest, is well timbered, but contains many
open grassy parks. Lower down on each slope the plateau is covered
with sage, interspersed with piuon pine.

Farther to the westward are lower plateaus falling oue below another
and passing by gradations, according to altitude, into a more and more
desert country. In the lowest and worst of this region the Grand and
Green join, forming the Colorado.

West of the San Juan Mountains stretches the Great Sage Plain,

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PLATEAU AREA.

295

which extends westward to the Sierra Abajo, and south to the Rio
San Juan, a broad expanse fully justifying the name, which was given
to it by Professor Newberry. Here and thereon this plateau are patches
of pinon pine and cedar, the only tree- vegetation to be found in these arid
regions. Beyond the Abajo Mountains the country presents the aspect
of a plateau, arid aud waterless, and almost without vegetation.

On the other side of this great plateau basin, the plateaus sloping
eastward from the Wahsatch present features, in general, almost iden-
tical with those on the eastern side — the same succession of steps from
the higher to the lower plateaus, the same gradation in the vegetation.
There are, rising out of these plateaus, a few groups of volcanic mount-
ains, such as the Sierras la Sal and Abajo, the Henry Mountains, and
El Lat6, which are partly clothed with timber, and around whose bases
are belts of fine luxuriaut grass, resembling oases in a desert.

The San Juan Eiver rises in the San Juan Mountains, in a number of
branches, which, flowing southward from the mountains, unite in the
plain at their base, and th ence pursue a general westward course to the
Colorado. Among the lower spurs of these mountains, the streams
have narrow grassy valleys, interspersed with timber. Away from the
mountains, however, the omnipresent sage asserts proprietorship again.
The river has a narrow flood plain, with groves of willows and cotton-
wood, but here, as everywhere in this region, grass is scarce. South of
the river, however, near the boundary between New Mexico and Arizona,
is an extensive group of mountains, known as the Carrisos and Tuni-
chas, the latter name being applied to the southern portion of the range.

These mountains contain some timber near their summits, and are
everywhere well grassed, while the valley of the Chelly west of the range,
which forms the principal part of the Navajo Eeservation, is covered
with exceptionally fine grass. Beyond this region, to the westward, the
country north and south of the river goes from bad to worse, a country
fit only for the habitation of the rattlesnake, tarantula, and coyote.

The Colorado Chiquito heads in the western part of New Mexico, and,
flowing at first westerly and then northwesterly over the Colorado Plateau,
empties into the Colorado River. The plateau over which it flows has
an elevation of 5,000 to 0,000 feet, terminating in a well-defined edge
on the south and southwest, where it is much higher than the country
beyond. In Western New Mexico and Eastern Arizona the southern
border is crowned by the Datili Range. Northward the plateau stretches,
a desert-like expanse, into the country above described. The greater
part of this plateau, aud especially the northern portion, is barren and
uninviting. About the course of the river it is less arid, while the im-
mediate valley is described as grassy and fertile, but with very little
timber.

West of the river is the volcanic group known as the San Francisco
Mountains, rising to a height of 12,500 feet. These mountains are
densely timbered, as is also the plateau about their bases, while the tim-

296 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION

ber extends westward over the plateau to its edge and down the slopes.
The whole edge of the plateau is covered with forests from the mount-
ains in New Mexico westward and northward nearly to the Colorado.
This timber belt is accompanied on its northern side by a strip of vary-
ing width of pasture land, extending in some places nearly to the Colo-
rado ( 'lliqllito.

From the edge of the plateau, the country falls rapidly towards the
Gila and the deserts of Lower Arizona. About the heads of the Gila
there are many groups of mountains, most of which are timbered, while
the valleys and plains are well grassed. All along the slope of the Colorado
Plateau the country is broken, timber occupying most of the mountains,
while the valleys are grassy. As the elevation diminishes, the vegeta-
tion changes and decreases, and when we reach the lower levels, we
meet with the system of narrow, parallel ranges and valleys, most of
the former being grass-covered, or possibly crowned with a few scatter-
ing trees, the latter mainly barren. Of this description is the country
along the Lower Gila, and it.- branches, the Colorado and Williams Fork.
The country along the Mexican boundary in Arizona is nearly all of this
description, though improving to some extent from the longitude of
Tucson eastward.

The Great Basin Area and the Wasatch Mountains.

This region, which finds no outlet save evaporation, comprises por-
tions of the following States and Territories : Oregou, Nevada, Utah,
and California — itself one great basin, it comprises a number of smaller
ones, which may be classified comprehensively into three, namely : that
of Harvey's Lake, Oregon ; of Salt Lake, Utah, and of Carson-Hum-
boldt Lakes, Nevada.

The characteristic surface feature is that of narrow, parallel ranges,
trending nearly north and south, separated by narrow, partly-filled val-
leys.

The most fertile regions of the basin are among the ranges in the
drainage area of tributaries to Great Salt Lake, in Utah, and in the north-
ern parts of Utah and Nevada.

Proceeding now to the drainage area of Bear River, one of the larges
tributaries of Great Salt Lake, we find that its valleys, with the single
exception of the upper one of all, that which extends from the base of the
Uinta Mountains down to the mouth of Smith's Fork, can easily be burned
over ; that the ranges of hills and low mountains which separate these
valleys are grass-covered, while the higher ranges, such as the Bear
River and Wasatch Ranges, are covered with a somewhat sparse growt
of timber.

The upper valley of the Bear, extending, as was said above, from the
base of the Uinta Range northward to the mouth of Smith's Fork, with
a few minor interruptions, is clothed only with a sparse growth of

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BASIN AREA.

297

stunted Artemisia. The soil is a heavy clay, aiid the valley is not likely
to be used by the locusts as a breeding- ground.

The narrow valley of Smith's Fork of the Bear, which extends up that
stream for about 20 miles, has au average width of two or three miles.
This valley, with the hills on either side, is well grassed, and can easily
be burned over.

A few miles below the mouth of Smith's Fork, a second large branch
from the right joius the Bear. This is known as Thomas' Fork. On
this stream is a large, flue valley, covered with sage and grass.

The valley of the Bear, between these streams, though not as broad
as it is above, is much less inhospitable, containing more grass, and a
more luxuriant growth of sage.

Between the Bear and Bear Lake lies a group of hills, which toward
the south flatten out into a rolling country, which separates the valley
of the Bear from the drainage of the Weber. Near the railroad, this
belt of country is poor in everything except Artemisia, and even that
is not sufficiently luxuriant to support a conflagration. Indeed, from
the Platte Valley westward, the Union Pacific Railroad runs through
one of the most forbidding sections of the whole West. North of the
railroad, as this rolling country rises and becomes defined as ranges of
hills, its natural productions improve, so much so that in August, 1877,
nearly the whole mass of hills east of Bear Lake were burned over by
fires set by Indians.

Bear Lake Valley, which may be considered to extend from the head
of the lake northward as far as the Soda Springs, is a fine valley con-
taining much grass among the omnipresent sage. This entire area, ex-
cepting that covered by the lake and swamp, can be burned over, as well
as the mountain slopes on either side for at least a thousand feet above
the valley, that is,, to the base of the timber.

The Bear Biver Range separates Bear Lake Valley on the east from
Cache Valley on the west, and rises to a height of about 9,000 to 10,000
feet above the sea. Above a certain elevation, which may be set roughly
at 1,000 feet above the valleys, it is well, but not densely, timbered.
Below the timber is an abundant growth of grass on a soil generally
gravelly. South of the latitude of the head of Bear Lake this range
breaks gradually down into bare hills, covered with sage and grass,
which are crossed by the Weber in its westerly course to Great Salt
Lake. These hills I should judge to be burnable.

The valley of the Weber, which is, for the most part, merely a notch
cut in high hills, widens out at the east base of the Wasatch Bange
into a large fertile basin, well settled by Mormons. This valley is easily
burnable.

Returning to the Bear, at Soda Springs we 'find that it makes an
abrupt turn back upon itself around the north end of the Bear River
Range. Below this bend the river flows first through Gentile Valley, a
small valley between the Bear River and Portneuf Ranges. This, like

298 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

most of the valley country in this region, is covered with sage and
grass.

Then, after a short canon, the Bear flows out into Cache Valley, the
"Garden of Utah." This beautiful, fertile valley is about 50 miles in
length in a north and south direction, by 12 miles in the opposite direc-
tion. It lies between the Bear River and the Wasatch Ranges, and
has an area of about <;<>(> square miles.

The Bear flows half-way down this valley, then, turning west, it cuts
its way through a low ridge, which here represents the Wasatch Range,
and thence flows off southward to Great Salt Lake.

The surface of the valley slopes gently inwards from the base of
mountains or hills which limit it. Near the river, and extending for
two or three miles on each side of it, is line meadow land, sufficiently
moist to admit of cultivation without artificial irrigation. The natural
productions of this part of the valley are coarse marsh grasses, while
the drier parts of the valley are covered with bunch grass, with a due
admixture of sage; though it must be said that in this ease there is
much less than the ordinary proportion of this latter staple. The whole
valley, with the lower slopes of the mountains and hills surrounding it,
can easily be burned over.

Cache Valley is well settled. The population, which in 1870 amounted
to 8,229, are nearly all of the Mormon persuasion, and are almost ex-
clusively engaged in agricultural pursuits. A very considerable part of
the arable area of the valley is now under cultivation. The cultivated
areas extend in strips from the base of the mountains down nearly or
quite to the river, and are irrigated mainly from the large lateral
branches of the Bear.

The Wasatch Range forms the eastern wall of the Salt Lake Valley.
This range, which in its middle and southern part is broad and very
complicated, in its northern part, i. e., north of the gap of the Weber
River, is very much narrowed, being reduced to a single ridge: and
just south of the Gates of the Bear it practically disappears, being rep-
resented at the Gates only by a low ridge. Farther north this ridge
develops suddenly into a high range, known as the Malade Range,
which forms a part of the western wall of Cache Valley. West of it
lies the valley of the Malade River, stretching southward to the north-
ern shore of the Great Salt Lake- This valley is somewhat more arid
than that east of it, but yet supports a very good growth for pasturage.
Meadow land is found in considerable amount near the streams in the
northern part of the valley and along the shores of Great Salt Lake.
As in Cache Valley, these are covered with coarse marsh grasses. The
whole valley is burnable.

The hills west of Malade Valley, the Blue Spring HUls, are almost
entirely devoid of timber, and are covered with excellent grass, with
a slight admixture of sage. They can easily be burned over. Such is
also the case with the valley next west, known as the Blue Spring Val-

CHARACTEEISTICS OF THE BASIN AREA.

299

ley. This valley resembles that of the Malade in most essential feat-
ures of vegetation.

Thence westward, the country in Northern Utah and Nevada and
Southern Idaho and Oregon consists of a similar succession of narrow
ranges and valleys, the former grassy, or containing a sparse growth of
inferior timber, while the latter are poorer in grass and richer in sage-
brush.

Along the Central Pacific Railroad the vegetation is very scanty as
far as the head of the Humboldt, and grows still worse to the south-
ward. This is the country which formed a part of the bed of the fossil
lake Bonneville, and, while the water has departed, the solid portions,
in the form of saline incrustations, remain in immense amount, covering
thousands of square miles with a white, shining floor of alkali. Of
course, here it is impossible that vegetation should grow. Even on the
few groups of mountains, which rise here and there like islands from a
placid sea, there is little vegetable growth.

The country along the western base of the Wahsatch Eange, extend-
ing thence to the Great Salt Lake, is a fertile, well settled region. The
inhabitants are Mormons, and their occupation farming. At the base
of the mountains a continuous line of springs breaks forth, which, with
the Weber and Ogden Eivers and Box Elder Creek, water nearly the
whole of this strip.

The lower slopes of the mountains produce a fine growth of bunch
grass, while on the flat below sage becomes a component to some extent
of the vegetation. Along the shore of the lake there is much marshy
land, producing reeds and coarse grasses. All this strip of land can be
burned over easily.

The valley of the Jordan was originally an expanse of sage, bordered
at the base and on the lower slopes of the Wahsatch Range by fine pas- ,
turage. The grass improves southward, among the valleys on the trib-
utaries, to the Utah Lake, and on Sevier River, while the mountains and
higher plateaus are timbered.

On the eastern slopes of the Wahsatch Range there are several fine
valleys, where the plateaus break off against the base of the mount-
ains. One of the largest of these is known as Castle Valley.

Comparatively few of the ranges of Nevada are timbered, and most of
those are but sparsely covered by a stunted growth of desert species,
such as Pinon pine and cedar. Of these the Toano, Goshnte, East
Humboldt, Diamond, Pinon, Snake, Antelope, and Cedar Ranges in the
eastern part, the Pancake, Hot Creek, Monitor, Toyabe, Desatoya, and
West Humboldt in the center, and the Walker River, Sierra Nevada,
and Pyramid Lake Ranges in the western part contain nearly all the
timber of the State. The other ranges are grassy, or, in the south,
covered with Artemisia, or are barren.

Few of the valleys contain grass enough to be of economic value, ex-
cept in the northern part. Most of them are waterless and covered

300 I? E PORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

with stunted sage, or are barren. It is unnecessary to go into details
regarding them, as the accompanying map expresses them better than
any description could do it.

There is ;i plainly marked gradation southward in the vegetation.

Of the Mojave I >esei t, of Southeastern < 'alifornia, Little Deed be said,
save that it is almost without vegetation, excepting at a few isolated
spots, where springs break through to the surface, forming small oases,
and the narrow belt along the Mojave River. On the borders of the
San Bernardino Range, however, there is a narrow belt of grass, while
the higher portion oft he range is well timbered.

PREVENTIVE MEASURES IN THE PLAINS AREA.

From the foregoing account of the topographical and botanical char-
acteristics of the different areas in the Permanent Region, taken in con-
nection with what we have said both in this and our previous report, it
is obvious that the plains area transcends in importance all the other
areas here considered, from the locust point of view.

The surface conditions under which Caloptenus upretus breeds in the
greatest abundance are a loose, warm, gravelly soil covered by a tolerably
luxuriant growth of grasses, such as are found in most river bottoms;
in the northern part of the plains of British America, along the bases of
the mountain ranges, and in the high mountain valleys. Such areas are
of greater extent in the northern portion of the region which we have
described, becoming very much more limited in the Southern States and
Territories.

While it is quite possible that the insects may breed anywhere on the
plains, it is certain that, as shown in our first report, the more fertile
portions of this area, and especially that great fertile belt between the
two Saskatchewan, in British America, is the principal source of the
swarms which at times sweep down upon the prairies. The extent of
these breeding grounds in British America may be approximately esti-
mated at about 100,000 square miles.

In Montana there is a broad belt at the eastern base of the Missouri
Range, extending down the branches of the Missouri River for long
distances. The country about Sun and Teton Rivers is very luxuriant,
even as far as their mouths. The Gallatin Valley is luxuriantly grassed.
The lower slopes of the Judith and other neighboring groups of mount-
ains, the country about the base of the Yellowstone Range, the valleys
of the Jefferson and its branches, with the hills in their neighborhood,
may also be looked upon as breeding places of the pest. On the west-
ern or Pacific Slope, the valleys of the Deer Lodge, Bitterroot, and Hell-
gate, and of several of their branches, fall into the same category, as
also the valleys of the Kootenai, and of Flathead Lake.

The bottom lauds of many of the streams of the plains, though com-
paratively narrow, afford probable breeding grounds. Those of the
Missouri are quite narrow, but on the Yellowstone they have an average

PREVENTIVE MEASURES IN THE PLAINS AREA. 301

breadth of more than a mile. These bottom lauds are fertile and, where
not covered with cottonwood and willow timber, are clothed with luxu-
riant grasses. The total area of the more fertile portions of Montana
may be roughly estimated at 20,000 square miles.

In Washington Territory, all of that portion represented on the map,
with the exception of that occupied by forests, is covered by luxuriant
grass. Its area may be set down at about 7,000 square miles.

In the eastern part of Oregon the more fertile portions consist prin-
cipally of comparatively small valleys in the Blue Mountains, such as
the Grand Eonde. They sum up about 2,000 square miles.

In Idaho the more fertile grass lands are very widely scattered, con-
sisting mainly of more or less narrow belts about the bases of the Bit-
terroot, Cceur d'Alene, and Salmon Mountains, and in the mountains in
the southeast corner. Altogether they sum up about 10,000 square
miles.

In Western Dakota the most fertile grass regions are on the north,
east, and south of the Black Hills. Luxuriant grass extends northward
for many miles from their base, and eastward covers nearly all the
country between the forks of the Cheyenne. The area may approxi-
mately be estimated at about 5,000 square miles.

In Wyoming the principal breeding grounds are probably the follow-
ing localities: The plains east of the Laramie Range, the Laramie
Plains, the country about the base of the Park Bange, the borders of
the Wind Biver Valley and the Green Biver Basin, the valley of the
Sweetwater and the Granite Hills just north of it, the eastern base of
the Yellowstone Bange, and the Big Horn Mountains. The total area
of the Territory may be roughly estimated at 12,000 square miles.

In Colorado the following regions are the most fertile : The plains at
the eastern base of the Front and Sangre de Cristo Banges — this fer-
tile region extends eastward to a varying distance in different latitudes
and altitudes ; the Parks, North, South, and Middle, with the northern
end of San Luis Valley ; the plateaus about the canon of the Arkan-
sas and the Gunnison Bivers, the Wet Mountain Valley and Huerfano
Park, and also many small areas among the mountains, which cannot
be specified, but which, in the aggregate, swell the total considerably.
The total area is probably about 15,000 square miles.

Proceeding southward, the area of luxuriant grasses becomes mark-
edly less. In New Mexico it probably does not exceed 5,000 square
miles, or about one-third that of Colorado. This is found at the east
base of the Sangre de Cristo Range, and about the Baton Hills, along
the Bios San Jose", Puerco, and Vaca, in the Valles Mountains, and on
the plateaus about the head of the Colorado Chiquito.

In Utah the area is about the same. It is located mainly in Cache
Valley, on the narrow ranges of mountains west of it, in the narrow
strip of land between the Wahsatch Mountains and Great Salt Lake, in
the upper valleys of the Sevier Biver, the Uinta, Castle, and Grass Val-
leys, and about the bases of the Henry Mountains and Sierra la Sal.

302 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

In Arizona the fertile area is still farther circumscribed, being not
more than 3,000 square miles. It is found only on the higher plateaus,
the Uinkaret, the Paria, and Sand Dime, in the valley of the liio de
Chelly, and in Nine Mile Valley.

In Nevada the area is about the same, and is nearly all confined to
the mountain ranges in the aortheasl and a few valleys on the northern
border, such as that of Quinn's River.

It would seem, therefore, that of the 400,000 square miles embraced
in the Permanent Region, but about 177,000, or about one-third of the
whole, is of such a character as to permit excessive multiplication of the
locust. Some 10,000 are contained in Washington Territory, Oregon,
and Idaho, where the movements of the locusts are neither so regular
nor controlled by the same laws as are those of the hordes which breed
in the Northwest, east of the mountains. It is noticeable also that in
British America there is more land favorable to permanent breeding
and excessive multiplication than in all the rest of the Permanent Region,
and that the country in Montana just south of the boundary line fur-
nishes the next largest amount.

We will therefore at once consider in how far each of the preventive
measures is practicable in this plains area, and the results that may be
expected from liberal government support of either.

1. Encouragement to settlement. — That every encouragement
to the settlement of the Northwest should be given we have endeavored
to show in Chapter II. Aside from the fact now generally conceded,
and which the experience of the last quarter of a century seems to demon-
strate, tha t the climate is materially modified and rendered more humid
by settlement and cultivation, it is also a self-evident fact that in pro-
portion as the farming population increases and pushes into the region
where the locust permanently breeds, in that proportion will the extent
of those permanent breeding grounds be reduced by man's necessary
efforts in self-protection.

Compared to the excessive injury from locusts which formerly pre-
vailed in Central Europe, there has been great freedom from their ravages
during the past century, a fact evidently due in large part, if not entirely,
to the increase of population and settlement. With a dense population
it is easy to adopt preventive measures by destroying the eggs and young
of invading swarms. So also in Utah the injury and fear of injury on
the part of the Mormons have decreased in proportion as population and
settlement increased.

The belief is very general among those who have studied the subject
that the planting of tree belts and forests tends greatly to ameliorate a
dry climate by causing rain precipitation where otherwise the clouds
would pass over and away, as well as by more nearly equalizing the
normal annual rainfall, which, on our plains, is generally borne to earth
in torrential storms, which do comparatively little good. We have no
doubt but that the belief is well founded, for careful researches carried

ENCOURAGEMENT TO SETTLING THE PLAINS.

303

on by M. Fautrat in France, and recently recorded in the Comptes Bendus
of the French Academy, strongly confirm the belief and the position gen-
erally maintained, and well set forth in Marsh's "Man and Nature";
but it would seem equally true, from some of the most careful researches
that have been made on the subject, that the breaking and cultivation
of the soil and planting of other forage and cereal crops have also a
marked effect, probably as great as the cultivation of trees, in producing
the same effect. This is the experience of M. Tisserand,341 and has been
strongly confirmed recently by Mr. H. E. Hilton, in a paper read before
the Kansas Academy of Science, on Eaiufall iu its Relations to Kansas
Farming. He maintains that the actual amount of rain which falls in
a given district is not the measure of the ability of that district to with-
stand drought, but rather the amount absorbed by the soil and held
for the use of plants. The gulf winds which blow over Kansas are as
humid as those which reach fai'ther east, but the rainfall in that State
is less because the soil offers less favorable conditions for precipitation.
He shows clearly that the cultivable area is increasing with the advance
of settlement, and in proportion as the soil is plowed deeply and the area
of ponds of water and the cultivated fields of growing crops extends.
Settlement, therefore, providing it be not purely pastoral, will not alone
cause a decrease in locust injury by virtue of the number of locusts,
whether in or out of the egg, that may be slain, but indirectly, by causing
an increase in tbe moisture of the country, since the migratory locust is
essentially a denizen of arid regions. In a recent trip to the Northwest,
Professor Thomas was so deeply impressed with the important bearing
which the settlement of Dakota had upon the locust question in Min-
nesota that he communicated to Governor Pillsbury the following views,
which we give at length, because the same views are equally applicable
to much of the rest of the plains area:

According to promise, I give here my reasons for believing that in time Minnesota
■will be comparatively free from locust invasion. As stated in my verbal communi-
cation to you, no one acquainted with the history and habits of these insects, and who
has witnessed their flights as in 1874 and 1876, expects or hopes to find any means of
suddenly exterminating them or stopping their flights. If this is ever accomplished
it must be done gradually and by making use of such natural forces as may be par-
tially within man's control.

The facts ascertained by the commission in reference to the long series of invasions
from 1873 to 1877 led me to believe that there was but little hope that your State
would ever be relieved of this fearful pest. This opinion was based upon the fact of
their apparent stronghold upon and long continuance in the southwestern portion of
the State ; and the belief I then entertained, that a large portion of Dakota east of
the Coteau of the Missouri could never be made an agricultural section on account of
its supposed arid condition.

A fact then suspected, which will hereafter be explained, and what I have seen and
ascertained the present year iu reference to the agricultural capacity of Eastern Da.
kota have served to materially modify my former opinion and to cause me to hope and,
I may say, believe, that the day is not very far distant when Minnesota will no longer
have reason to fear the invasions of the locusts.

341 Cf. Conclusions of M. Tisserand, as given in the report by John P. Reynolds on
the State of Illinois at the Universal Exposition of 1867 at Paris, p. 124.

304 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

By K l'. iciK <■ to the map of your State, prepared by your Geological and Natural
History Survey, showing the locust areas therein for the years 1873-70, it will be seen
that the southwestern portion of the State was the part most continuously affected.
Other facts ascertained by the commission indicated some peculiarities in Ibis respect
in reference to t his section not observed in other partsof the State 01 in the Slates south.
These facts attracted my attention and induced me to seek and, if possible, to Gnd out
the cause for these peculiarities ; in other words, to find why the locusts hung longer
and more continuously around this section than in other portions of the State. This,
I now believe, is to be found in the elevated region called the Coteau of the Prairies,
which affords topographical and climatic conditions more nearly adapted to the con-
tinual cxisienee of tin- locust than other port ions of the State. If I am correct in this
opinion we have here one factor which must be taken into consideration in the dis-
cussion of this locust problem so far as it relates to your State and the adjoining sec-
tion of Dakot a.

As before intimated, I had formed the idea that the more elevated portions of Eastern
Dakota, for instance, those lying along and bordering the valley of James River, were
too sterile and arid ever to be used for agricultural purposes; that in fact but a narrow
strip alone along t lie James River could he made productive by means, in part at least,
of irrigation. The facts seen and ascertained the present year have in a large meas-
ure dispelled this unfavorable opinion. I am aware the present year is a very favor-
able one, and one that cannot be considered as a type of the seasons in that section;
but it shows, I think, conclusively, that a very large portion of this section of Dakota
can and will ultimately be made to sustain a large agricultural population. For even
allowing quite a heavy discount on the present crop there would still be sufficient to
justify farming in this region ; and wherever this is the case, and the process of fann-
ing is so easily carried on as here, the section will ultimately be settled tip.

In this fact I think we find a second important factor to be considered in discussing
this problem.

A third possible factor is the supposed climatic change believed by many to be go-
ing on. Although I have not included this item in the present consideration, and can-
not say that I have been couverted to that view, but look upon these changes rather
as cyclical, yet there are some reasons for believing that an unusual change of some
kind is now going on in the seasons in the Northwest; what the ultimate result will
be I am wholly unable to predict, but so far, at least, it is favorable.

Leaving t he last item out of the discussion let us see what hope is to be based on the
other items.

It is reasonable to believe, in fact we may assume as evident, that the farther west
settlements are pushed continuously, that is without extensive breaks, and the denser
they become, the greater will be the tendency to hold back, so to speak, the locust
swarms ; that is to say the advanced cultivated fields will bring them down, in part
at least, and, supplying their appetites, prevent them from advancing further eastward ;
their temporary nesting grounds will also be disturbed, and thus fcheir advance re-
tarded.

While this is true theoretically, the experience of the years 1*74-77 may cause many
to doubt its correctness in reality. It is true that swarms drive on southeast in their
invading flights overbroad and extensive settlements, as, for example, over Nebraska
into Iowa and Kansas, and occasionally even into Missouri and Texas ; but after all,
though not brought to public notice, the fact is that Northern or Northeastern Ne-
braska often receives the smaller invading swarms and suffers the injury when the
central and southeastern parts are entirely exempt. Other facts might also be cited to
prove that the statement above made is true as a general principle. But Minnesota
is somewhat peculiarly and favorably situated in this respect. The locust swarms,
as a very general rule, sweep down from the northwest in a south and southeast direc-
tion, and, as it requires a much less opposing influence to turn them slightly away
from their course than to stop them directly, the chances are much more in favor of
localities thus situated than if placed directly in the line of their usual course.

MEANS OF PEOTECTING MINNESOTA.

305

As bearing upon this point and tending to confirm the opinion here advanced. I refer
yon to the chapter on chronology in the first report of the commission. In this it will
he seen that the great, invasions of 1876 passed southward along the west side of Mani-
toba not entering that province and not entering Minnesota (that is depositing eggs)
north of Clay County, whereas in 185G they penetrated eastward in this latitude to
Cass County.

By reference to the map of Minnesota before alluded to you will see that the areas of
egg-deposits in 1^7:>— '74 and 1875 'were in the extreme south western part "t the State.

From these facts, and from many others which might be mentioned, 1 conclude, and,
as I believe, correctly, that if (with the conditions hereafter mentioned) the eastern
part of Dakota, from the west line of the James River Valley to the eastern border
of the Territory, can be settled to a moderate extent with a farming population, Ihc
locust invasions will be largely diverted from your State. The farther these settle-
ments extend northward, and the more extensive and dense they become, the greater
the benefit.

In this connection I may add that while in Winnipeg I was informed that the Souris
or Mouse River section is proving to be a better agricultural area than was supposed ;
that coal has been found there, and that land is now being surveyed preparatory to
settlement. If this is found to be correct, and the settlement should become extensi \ e,
it will aid in the direction indicated.

The benefit to be derived by Minnesota from the settlement of Eastern Dakota does
not by any means consist wholly in the fact that it will then offer the first attractions to
the invaders. Dakota, east of the Missouri, has evidently long been a kind of camping-
ground for the locusts. Not simply a stopping "place for a few days of invading
swarms that then passed onwards, but a temporary breeding ground, where the
invaders of one season would deposit their eggs, the young from which, if the next
season proved favorable, would pass onward to the southeast or east. I am fully
aware that invading swarms from Montana and even British America sometimes
extend their flights in a single season to Iowa, Nebraska, and Kansas ; but I am also
aware of another fact, not so generally kuown, that, in what are considered non-locust
years, the shorter movements — as from Montana into Dakota, from British America
into Dakota, and from Western to Eastern Dakota — are going on, to a greater or less
degree, according to the seasons, and that for a season or two preceding the great
invasions they are more than usually active in these movements. For proof of this
I refer you to our First Report, pp. 82 to 92, and Appendix, pp. 243,244.

A settlement of this section of Dakota will have a tendency to interrupt these
movements and prevent the insects from using it as a temporary breeding-ground.
That this portion of the Territory could be Considered a truly permanent breeding-
ground of the Rocky Mountain locust I now consider improbable, for I do not believe
they can remain permanently in any section where farming can be carried on contin-
uously without any aid from irrigation, unless it be far northward in British America,
or in some very elevated section. But, possessing largely tfie topographical and cli-
matic characteristics adapted to the life, habits, and perpetuation of the locusts, they
retained their hold here much longer than in the more truly temporary regions of
Central Minnesota and of Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, &c. As before sta ted, the elevated
and treeless character of the Coteau of the Prairies has evidently furnished the pests
with a temporary breeding-ground, and will explain the reason for their hanging so
long in the southwestern part of the State.

Is it possible to do anything to this coteau that will render it less adapted to this
purpose ? If it is possible to clothe it with timber, I answer, emphatically, yes. Cover
it with a forest and it will cease to be a rendezvous of the pests, and the influence of
this changed condition will be felt in this respect down to the extremity of the long
and gentle slopes extending into the southwestern counties of Minnesota. No one
supposes that any artificial forest that can be placed here will form such a barrier as
to stop the flight of a locust swarm; but it will prevent it from being a nesting-place.
20 L

306 KEPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

From all I could ascertain during my short visit to that section I think that by be-
ginning with cottonwood the elevated ridges and plateaus of this eoteau might ul-
timately he clothed with timlier, hut tliis is a i|iiestion that must he decided hy the
horticulturists. If it can he done, anil the settlement of Fastcrn Dakota goes on as
rapidly as at present, I am thoroughly satisfied that locust visitations to Minnesota
M ill grow less anil less frequent, and the numbers decrease. In other words, the- bat-
tle with the- armies of these little foes will he transferred to a great extent to tin- val-
leys and plains of Eastern Dakota.

It is therefore to the interest of Minnesota that the settlement of this part of Da-
kota he pushed forward as rapidly as possible ; that the numerous lines of projected
railroad through this area he completed at as early a day as possible. Nor will this
be less beneficial to this portion of Dakota, for the more extensive and more dense the
settlements become, the less difficult will the contest he.

But in order to obtain the full benefit of this settlement there are three conditions
which 1 think it will be necessary to observe.

First. The clothing of the higher portions of the Coteau of the 1'rairies with timber,
and I think it would be well for Dakota and Minnesota to apply to Congress for this
purpose. It is the only assistance in this respect they will have to ask of the govern-
ment, and whether the result so far as the locusts are concerned be as anticipated or
not, any reasonable appropriation made for this purpose will not be uselessly spent if the
work is properly carried out, for the timber will render the land more valuable, and
it is more than probable that it will have at least a slightly beneficial effect upon the
climate. It is proper that I should remark, in this connection, that the present Coui-
missioner of Agriculture, General Le Due, suggested this some two years ago for an-
other purpose than that now proposed.

Second. Tree-planting should be carried on as extensively as possible in all the set-
tlements.

Third. The lakes, ponds, and even marshes scattered over Western Minnesota and
Eastern Dakota should be carefully preserved. This is an essential item in the future
prosperity of this entire region. Drain these or dry thern up, and the day will surely
come when this entire section and Northern Iowa will he as arid and barren as the
great plains of the West. Every pond, swamp, or marsh drained is to that extent an
injury to your State.

From whence comes the moisture that supplies your prairies ? From the great lakes
that lie along your northern border from Superior to Winnipeg. Arising from these it
falls first into or feeds the lakes and marshes of your northern timbered section ; thence
hy another step it spreads southward over the prairie region, feeding the numerous
lakes and ponds of that section. The evaporation from these not only assists in draw-
ing down the moisture which would otherwise be dissipated, but assists in spreading
it farther southward and southwest. Drain the latter and all this beneficial influence
will be lost, and step by step the water area will he diminished and the amount of
rainfall lessened.

The broad and extensive marshes of the Red River Valley, between Saint Vin-
cent and Saint Boniface in Manitoba, are of great value to the lands bordering the up-
per or southern portion of that valley, and if drained will certainly tend to lessen the
rainfall over the beautiful and productive plains between Red and James Rivers.

I urge this matter upon your consideration because the history of the world shows
that in this respect man has generally acted with consummate folly. In all the writ-
ing and discussions in reference to rainfall and supply of moisture the all important
item — area of evaporating surfaces — seems to have been overlooked. Preservation of
forests, planting of trees, &c, have been urged, and properly too, but maintaining or
enlarging the area of water or evaporating surface seems to have been entirely forgot-
ten. It is possible perhaps to accomplish this, in part at least, by appropriate State
legislation. But simply refraining from draining is not sufficient. These little bodies
of water should be surrounded by fringes of shrubbery and trees which should never

ENCOURAGEMENT TO RAILROADS: IRRIGATION.

307

be removed. If even, the little streamlets flowing here and there through the prairies
were generally fringed with thick shrubbery so as to partially protect the surface
from the sun, this would aid much more than is supposed in retaining and distribu-
ting the moisture.

It would require too much space for me to attempt to give in full here the reasons
and arguments bearing on this point.

In conclusion, allow me to say that I feel confident that if proper measures are taken
and proper efforts are made in the directions indicated in this communication, the citi-
zens of Minnesota may feel assured the day is not far distant when the grasshopper
will no longer be '"a burden" upon the agricultural prospects of their beautiful State.
That there will be occasional visitations is to be expected, but I believe the day of
severest trial has passed ; the long and severe visitation of 1873-'77 will probably never
be repeated unless, through want of care, your country is allowed to become arid and
dry, or some climatic change over which you can have no control should bring about
this condition.

I might add something in reference to the system of farming which I think would
be advantageous in reference to the locust problem, but this communication is akeady
long; and moreover I am well aware that farmers are not much disposed to listen
patiently to suggestions in reference to their particular profession from one they con-
sider a mere theorist. I therefore refrain.

I am glad I can speak thus hopefully of the future of your State. I have written
conscientiously and not for the purpose of flattery. The views here given have been
formed after a somewhat lengthy and careful study of the subject in all its bearings.

li. Encouragement to railroads. — Many persons believe that the
building of railroads through almost rainless regions — the breaking of
soil, laying of rails, stretching of wire, and consumption of fuel inci-
dent thereto — has a beneficial effect iu ameliorating the climate in one
way and another, but particularly in causing more frequent precipitation
of moisture. They cite, in confirmation of this belief, the constant ex-
tension of settlement and of the cultivable area westward along the
lines of the Kansas and the Union Pacific Roads; for the country is now
settled along these roads far into wnat was formerly called the "Ameri-
can Desert," or into regions which but a few years since were considered
uninhabitable from the fact that farming was supposed to be impossible
there. The results are doubtless more due to the breaking and cultiva-
tion of the soil as above explained (p. 303); but whether or not railroads
have this supposed influence, it is certain that they greatly benefit such
a country in many other ways, and they should be encouraged as much
as possible, not only because they conduce to the settlement of the country
they traverse, but because they also facilitate communication between
sections, and, in the country under consideration, will render more com-
plete the system of warning, which we shall presently consider. We
believe, therefore, that it is to the interest of the Government to en-
courage the building of railroads in this sparsely settled region and
would emphasize what has been said on page 21.

3. Irrigation. — It is well known that in most of the country west of
a line passing through Dakota, ^Nebraska, Kansas, Indian Territory, and
Texas irrigation is almost universally necessary for-success in agricul-
ture. The eastern boundary of this "arid" region consists of a broad

308 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION'.

belt of debatable land, which has a width of perhaps two degrees of lon-
gitude. In favorable seasons this belt may be cultivated without irri-
gation, while in dry seasons the whole area may require artificial water-
ing. This belt traverses the eastern part of Dakota, gradually moving
westward as it nears the southern border. It passes across Nebraska
nearly in its center, and continues nearly due south, crossing Kansas
slighth wesi of its middle line. l\ crosses the western part of Indian
Territory, and in Southern Texas gradually trends to the eastward,
reaching the Hio (Irandc not far from its month.

From this arid region must be excepted the greater part of Washing-
ton Territory, especially the western portion, that part of Oregon lying
west of the Cascade Kange, and the northern half of California lying
west of the Sierra Nevada. Within the region thus excepted the rainfall
is sufficient to insure crops.

Within the area designated as "arid" there are small districts which,
owing to the conformation of the local topography, enjoy sufficient rain-
fall for the needs of agriculture. But these cases arc too few and lim-
ited to be considered in this connection.

Here, then, is an area of 1,400,000 square miles, or nearly one-half the
area of the country, exclusive of Alaska, in which the important industry
of agriculture is dependent entirely upon irrigation. Without water tin-
land is of value only for its sparse covering of grasses; is useful only to
the stock-raiser; its productive capacity is reduced to about one-hun-
dredth. The question of irrigation, therefore, is one of paramount im-
portance, inasmuch as the future of nearly one-half of the country depends
in a great measure upon it. It is a subject of State and national im-
portance. Throughout the greater part of this region the extent of the
arable land is purely a question of the amount of water available for
irrigation. The area of land suitably situated in other respects for agri-
culture is several times as great as can be supplied with water. Proba-
bly not a hundredth part of the water which flows in the streams of
the West need run to'waste for want of land fit for receiving it ; while,
on the other hand, it is probable that, using all the water to its utmost
capacity in irrigation, not one-fifth of the land which is suitably situated
for it can ever be irrigated.

It becomes, then, a question of water rather than of land. Of the two
the former is all-important ; the latter has the smallest actual value.
Without water the laud cannot be given away ; with it, it becomes as
valuable as the rich prairies of Iowa. The measure of success already
obtained in the endeavors to reclaim the Arkansas Valley to profitable
agriculture, as the Hon. F. G. Adams has shown in a recent paper before
the Kansas Academy of Science, is a sufficient warrant for much more
careful surveys by the government of the river valleys of our Western
plains with the object of increased irrigation.

There are two sections of the country which urgently require the
protection and assistance of the national government for their agricul-

IMPORTANCE OF IRRIGATION.

309

tnral interests. One, the great West, we have already treated of at
length. The other is the low lands of the Mississippi Delta. Every
flood in the great branches of the Father of Waters carries destruction
to thousands of plantations in the South, destroys hundreds of thousands
of dollars' worth of property, and leaves in its path deadly miasmas for
the destruction of human life. A system of levees, constructed at an
expense of millions, affords but partial protection, and costs large sums
each year for repairs.

These levees can be regarded, in the light of modern engineering science,
but as a temporary auxiliary in the great work of protecting this rich
alluvial region. The true way of solving the difficulty of curbing the
violence of this great river is to strike at the root of the matter, and
prevent the floods. The only way to effect this is by the construction of
reservoirs wherein the flood waters shall be gathered, and whence they
shall be allowed to flow in a quiet, orderly manner. This is no new idea.
It was proposed many years ago by Ellet, but at the time was buried
beneath the pouderous arguments of the Engineer Corps.

Not long ago it was revived under their own auspices, and the experi-
ment of controlling the Upper Mississippi by reservoirs in the lacustrine
region of Northern Minnesota is now being tried. It will be, measurably,
a success.

This work should be extended to the Missouri, the Plattes, the Arkan-
sas, and the Red Rivers, and it should be combined with the irrigation
interest in such a way as to serve the latter as perfectly as possible.
These streams and their upper branches should be turned into reservoirs
at or near their points of exit from the mountains. These reservoirs
should be, collectively, of sufficient capacity to hold all, or nearly all,
the vast amount of water brought down by the melting of the winter's
snows. The construction of a series of small, rather than one or two
large reservoirs, will probably prove most beuencial, both as costing
very much less, and also because the water would be placed more conve-
niently for use, thus lessening the length and consequent expense of the
irrigating mains and secondary ditches. There are, on or near the
course of every considerable stream, among the swells and billows of
the plains near the base of the mountains, an abundance of hollows suit-
able for reservoirs of greater or less magnitude. No great canals need
be constructed, as sufficient reservoir capacity can be obtained on or
near the streams, and all the water can be used by a comparatively nar-
row belt of land in close proximity to the rivers, where the laud is more
level and consequently better suited for irrigation than near the divides.
Other things being equal, the water should be used on land near the
mountains rather than on that far away, in order to avoid loss by evap-
oration and sinking, or "seepage," as far as possible.

As the land is placed under irrigation, it might be sold by the gov-
ernment with the water-right attached, i. e., the right, in perpetuity, to
the use of sufficient water for the irrigation of the land, at the rate of a

310 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

certain number of cubic feet per second for each section of laud. An
annual tax, also, should be levied for the maintenance of the works.
This would be a mere trifle compared with the original cost of the
water-rights.

By thus taking the matter in hand, the general government will not
only promote the welfare of the country by largely increasing its pro-
ductive capacity, but will increase its own returns from the public lands
immensely. It might, if properly managed, be an extremely piofitable
specula! ion for the government.

The cost of irrigation per acre differs materially in the various sec-
tions of the "West. <>u inn to the greater or less expenditure required foi
bringing the water to the land, and also, of course, according to the
amount of water used. The general range is from $1 to $3 per acre an-
nually, and the average is not far from $2. As a general thing, the
water is supplied to ranchmen by ditch companies, who charge them a
fixed price per year. The unit of measurement is commonly the
"miner's inch." though this is gradually giving waj to the simpler unit
of the "second foot." Many companies, however, charge by the acre,
ranging their rates with the different crops cultivated.

We have already laid stress on the importance of increased settle-
ment and cultivation of the Northwest as a means of checking locust
increase and of preventing the disastrous incursions of these devouring
pests into the more moist and fertile Mississippi States; but as irriga-
tion is, in the larger portion of the region, absolutely indispensable to
this settlement by an agricultural population, its importance cannot be
overestimated. As will be seen from our First Report, irrigation has not
only this important indirect bearing on the locust question; it has also
a direct bearing, for it affords one of the chief and most satisfactory
means of destroying the young locusts, either by drowning them out,
as in submersion, or by killing them with keroseue floated down the
ditches. It is therefore by encouraging and extending irrigation that
the national government can most satisfactorily act so as to perma-
nently lessen the locust evil, and we cannot too strongly urge upon Con
gress the desirability of wise and patriotic action in the matter. So
important, indeed, do we deem this question of irrigation that we have
endeavored to get at some approximate estimate: first, of the amount
of laud redeemable by it; second, of the cost of redeeming said land:
third, of the best plans to be pursued. Upon these and other points
we have obtained the following report from Henry Gannett, E. M.,
whose experience adds weight and importauce to his views:

To illustrate the great value of water iu the arid region, we may say that a contin-
uous flow of oue cubic foot of water per second, throughout the growing season, mean*
200 acres of land saved from the desert ; it means, also, 30 bushels of wheat per acre,
a total of 6,000 bushels, worth perhaps $4,500. The utmost economy in the use of
water is, then, the great desideratum, as every cubic foot saved insures to agriculture
200 acres, more or less, of the best of laud. It is perhaps unnecessary to say that the
system, or rather want of system, at present in vogue in this region is decidedly the

DATA CONCERNING IRRIGATION IN THE WEST. 311

reverse of economical. It partakes of the prevalent western spirit, by which the
cream is skimmed from every source of natural wealth, which is then abandoned.
" After us the deluge." In Colorado, irrigators use five times as much water as is
needed, in Utah two to three times as much, and in the great valley of California it is
used as wastefully. But in the arid regions of Southern and Southwestern California,
where the ranchmen are Mexicans, who have had centuries of experience, and where
the water supply is very limited and is all used, the utmost economy prevails, and
probably the "duty" of water is carried to the highest possible extent.

But it is not alone the lavish use of water which should be criticised. The want of
a general plan for the distribution of the contents of the larger streams will inevita-
bly, in the near future, cause great waste of arable land. The let-alone policy is the
only one in practice at present. By it each ranchman, or each ditch company, helps
himself to water wherever he may find it. The only rights are those of priority of
possession. The result of this happy-go-lucky mode of procedure is that the water
is distributed to the land by no means in the most economical manner. As a general
thing, the lands immediately adjacent to the streams — the bottoms — are first taken up,
and they, monopolizing the water, render valueless all the land back of them, al-
though the contents of the stream may not be by any means all used.

The general and the State governments are perfectly cognizant of this condition of
things, yet practically nothing has been done by them. With the easy indifference
of the optimist, the government has watched this waste going [on for the past two or
three decades, and has done nothing to correct it. A move in the right direction was
made in 1873, when Congress authorized a commission, under a small appropriation,
to make an examination of the Great Valley of California, with a view to forming a
general plan for irrigating it. The commission made as full an examination as was
possible with the limited means at its command, made its report — a very able, though
by no means an exhaustive one — and there the matter ended.

In 1874, Prof. George Davidson, of the Coast Survey, was sent, under the auspices
of the general government, to study the irrigation systems of foreign lands. He
made a brief study of the methods in use in India and several European countries,
and the results of these studies were embodied in a report to the Secretary of the
Treasury, constituting Ex. Doc. 94, Forty-fourth Congress, first session.

The Geological Survey of the Territories, under Dr. Haydeu, has made an examina-
tion, not by any means exhaustive, however, of the irrigable lands of Colorado, bring-
ing out, as a net result, that 7 per cent, of the area of the State, or a little over 7,000
square miles, can be irrigated at once from the streams without having recourse to
the reservoir system.542

The survey of the Rocky Mountain region, under Maj. J. W. Powell, made a simi-
lar examination of the Territory of Utah. The result of this work showed that but
2.8 per cent, of the Territory could be irrigated.343 This, in the opinion of the writer,
js too small, owing to some conclusions of Major Powell, to be hereafter noticed,
w hich are believed to be erroneous.

The above embrace practically all that has been done by the general government
touching this important subject. Fugitive articles upon the subject have been pub-
lished here and there in government reports, but they have little permanent value.

State and Territorial governments have done quite as little. Indeed, not one has, so
far as we are aware, touched the subject, excepting California. During the past year,
this State has had a large engineering force at work, under the supervision of its
State engineer, Mr. W. H. Hall, examining the southern half of the great valley, and
the valleys of Los Angeles County, on and near the coast, with a direct view to drain-
age and irrigation. The present extent and character of the irrigation now carried on
has been thoroughly canvassed. The nature of the surface of the land as regards

342 Annual Report Geological Survey of Territories, 1876. Paper on "Arable and
Pasture Lands of Colorado," pp. 311-347.
343 Lands of the arid region.

312 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

irrigation has been studied, and all the large streams with most of the minor ones
have been gauged at proper intervals throughout the year, giving a fair approxima-
tion to the amount of water wbieh may be calculated upon. The work of Mr. Hall
forms an admirable basis upon which to commence a well-devised system of irrigation
fdr this area.

As to the tolal amount of land which can be reclaimed by means of irrigation, but
the merest estimates can be made. It is, as was shown above, almost purely a ques-
tion of the amount of water available. In the first place, we have but few measure-
ments of the capacities of streams; and, except in the case of California, they are but
single measurements, and simply represent the state of the stream at the time of gaug-
ing. The next day, or the day before, the stream may have carried a very different
amount of water. In California, as w as stated above, a number of streams have been
gauged at short intervals throughout one year. From these measurements with the
areas of the drainage basins, it may be possible to make rough estimates of the capaci-
ties of the streams of other parts of the country.

But there are other factors entering to complicate the subject. The first, and most
important, is the question, What is the "duty " of water, i. €., the amount required to
irrigate a unit of land, or the number of acres which one cubic foot per second,
throughout the season, can serve f This is not a fixed quantity, but (lifters with dif-
ferent crops, with different soils, and a variety of other circumstances. Corn requires
less water than almost any other crop, while oats and grass require the most. Clayey
lands need less than sandy soils, for very obvious reasons. Very level land requires
more water than sloping land, as it absorbs more while under irrigation. Crops
which are sown broadcast, like wheat or oats, require more water than those planted
in drills, as the more expensive mode of flooding must be resorted to for irrigating
them. Early sown or planted crops require less water fhan those planted late, as
there is more rainfall in the early part of the season, and evaporation is not as rapid.
Land that has been irrigated requires less water than new land. The reason proba-
bly is that the soil and subsoil become thoroughly soaked in time, Some even go so
far as to say that a piece of land, after being irrigated for a number of years, requires
no further watering. It is possible that this may be true for a season or two, but as
soon as the water disappears from the subsoil, irrigation will again be necessary.

Major Powell, in his able report on " Lands of the Arid Region.-' states that the prac-
tice in Utah allows from 80 to 100 acres to the cubic foot per second, which is as high
a duty as would be expected in Utah, where irrigation is not carried on intelligently
or economically. In the San Joaquin Valley, of California, where irrigation is car-
ried on by Americans, and where there is an abundance of water, we naturally find a
very low duty, ranging from 50 to 150 acres per second-foot. In the counties of Los
Angeles and San Bernardino, however, where most of the ranchmen are Mexicans, who
have practiced irrigatioii for centuries, and where there is a great scarcity of water,
nearly all the streams and springs being used up to their full capacity, we find the
duty ranging from 300 to 1,500 acres per second-foot. To account for this difference
between two sections of the State, Mr. Hall writes as follows : " The explanation un-
doubtedly lies in the greater experience acquired by the irrigating communities of Los
Angeles and San Bernardino Counties, where the art has been practiced longer than in
other parts of the State, resulting in the acquirement of more skill in the use of water ;
in the measures which nature has compelled the irrigators to take for the conservation
and economical distribution of water, and to tome extent to the character of the crops
produced, * * * and last, though by no means least, we find in Los Angeles and
San Bernardino Counties better irrigation organizations than in the San Joaquin Val-
ley, which tends to harmonize interests and prevent waste."

A few statistics from the practice in foreign countries will be instructive in this con-
nection. In Algeria the average duty for cereals is reported as 420 acres per second-
foot. In the sub-Himalayan districts of India, the practice is to allow one second-
foot for 218 acres. In Granada cereals and vines are irrigated at the rate of '-'40 acres

PLANS FOR EXTENDED IRRIGATION.

313

per second-foot; in Valencia, above 200 acres per second-foot, and in Elche, where
water is very scarce, a second-foot is made to do duty for 1,000 acres. Of course such
crops as rice require much more water, giving a very low duty.

Hon. G. P. Marsh, in his well-known work, "Man and Nature," after discussing this
question thoroughly, comes to the conclusion that 200 acres to the second-foot is a safe
allowance. The United States commissioners, referred to above, who made an exam-
ination of the great valley of California, came to a similar conclusion. Mr. W. H.
Hall, State engineer of California, concludes by saying that this duty, at least, can be
reached. Indeed, it seems to be a generally accepted conclusion, that, with the aver-
age of crops and soils, and without considering the rainfall, the duty should reach 200
acres per second-foot. Iu Utah, the practice is, as was above stated, but 80 to 100
acres. Iu Colorado it is much less, probably 40 or 50 acres.

To arrive at any definite knowledge concerning the amount of arable land in the.
West, it will be necessary in the cases of nearly all the streams to institute a system
of gaugings, to be made at intervals not greater than once a Aveek, to extend through-
out the year at least. The simplest way to carry this out would be to have a section
made of the river channel at the point selected for the measurements, the section to
extend to the marks of the highest floods on the banks. A gauge- rod, suitably placed,
and read at the designated times, with measurements of current velocity at the periods
of high, medium, and low water, would give data for the computation of the capacity
of the stream. Until this is done, we can have but very loose ideas regarding the
capacity of our public domain for supporting human life.

As the result of a tolerably careful examination, but not a thorough survey, it has
been estimated that, without the use of reservoirs, Colorado contains 7,323 square miles
of irrigable land, or 7 per cent, of the area of the State. By storing the surplus water
from the spring floods this area can be increased to 10 per cent, at least.

Of the area of Utah. Major Powell estimates that 2.8 per cent, are irrigable without
reservoirs. This estimate is based upon an assumed duty of but 100 acres per second-
foot. Believing that this duty is but oue-half of what can be reached, we are inclined
to increase his estimate to nearly double this :i mount, and to place it at 5 per cent.
The use of reservoirs will not greatly increase this amount, as most of the available
land can be served by the streams directly. It is probable that not more than (3 per
cent, can be irrigated by the employment of reservoirs.

In California it has been show n by survey that practically all of the great valley
can be brought under irrigation. Add to this area of 15,000 square miles the numerous ,
valleys of the Coast Range, and of the San Bernardino Mountains, and the total arable
area of the arid portion of the State will exceed 20, 000 square, miles.

Judging from the character and size of the streams and the surface of the country,
about 5 per cent, of the area of New Mexico is irrigable, and of 'Arizona about the
same proportion. Wyoming, fully as well watered as Colorado, and having an im-
mense area of plains, should have as great an area of irrigable land in proportion to
its size.

Montana has probably very nearly the same proportion, though the great stretch of
arid plains in its eastern half would reduce it some what. A safe estimate of its arable
area would be 8 per cent. Idaho has a slightly smaller proportional area than Montana,
but greater than Utah. Probably 7 per cent, is a safe estimate. Nevada has compar-
atively little water, it is safe to say not more than enough to irrigate 3 per cent, of its
area.

Of Oregon, east of the Cascade Range and south of the Blue Mountains, which is
the portion requiring irrigation, probably 6 per cent, can be watered. It is claimed
that irrigation is unnecessary in any part of Washington Territory. Whether this be
true or not, will soon be determined. We are inclined to doubt whether the eastern
part can be cultivated, with safety, without water at hand to supply the deficiencies
<of the heavens.

Of that portion of Dakota lying within the arid rogion, probably not more than 5

314 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

per cent, can be irrigated. Of the arid portions of Nebraska and Kansas, it is difficult
to make an estimate, as the rainfall will undoubtedly aid very materially, and the line
of the arid region moves from east to west over a considerable distance, from one year
to another. If entirely dependent upon irrigation it would be very small, as then- are
few small streams, and the large ones would be quite fully used in Colorado.

Of Western Texas but a very small proportion can be cultivated, probably not more
than 3 per cent., as the whole area of the Staked Plains is irredeemable.

Tabulating the above figures, we arrive at the following results, as the possible
arable area of the arid region :

ARABLE LAND.

Per

cent

Square
mile*

10

10, 450

0

5,070

15

20,000

5

0,060

5

5,465

10

9,780

8

11,500

7

6, 040

3

3, 3U0

6

' 3,000

5

5, 000

3

3, 750

C 4

-n, i~,

Utah

California

Wyoming
Montana. .

Idaho

Nevada

Oregon

Dakota

Texas

That is to say, about one acre in sixteen can be redeemed.

The amount of land at present in actual cultivation in the Western States and Terri-
tories is estimated at 8,000,000 of acres. Of this fully one-half is in California, and
of this area of 4,000,000 of acres, nine-tenths is cultivated without irrigation, leaving
400,000 acres, or 625 square miles, as the total amount of land in the State under irri-
gation. The last are the figures for 1879, from the report of the State engineer. Of
the remaining 4,000,000 of acres, about 1,000,000 are in the State of Oregon and the
Territory of Washington, and of that portion in Oregon nearly all is in the Willamette
and other valleys, where the abundant rainfall precludes the necessity of irrigation.
There is at present but very little irrigation in this State.

The lands under cultivation in Eastern Dakota, in the Red River Valley, and the
valleys of the Missouri, Dakota, Big Sioux, and other streams in the southeastern part
of the Territory, may be estimated at 1,000,000 acres more. In this part of Dakota
irrigation is not needed. The remaining 2,000,000 acres, or 3,125 square miles, are
distributed among the remaining States and Territories in about the following pro-
portion :

Per cent.

Colorado :J0

Utah 20

New Mexico 20

Montana 10

Idaho 6

Nevada G

Arizona 3

Dakota (arid portion) 2

Wyoming 2

Texas (arid portion) 1

It is unnecessary to say that these are but very rough estimates made in default of
any definite information upon the subject.

Out of a possible arable area, then, of nearly 90,000 square miles in the arid region,
there is at present an extent of but 3,750 square miles under actual cultivation — a pro-

ARABLE LAND THAT MAY YET BE IRRIGATED.

315

portioual area of lmt 4.2 per cent. The area yet remaining is equal to that of New
York and Pennsylvania combined, or that of Illinois and Indiana. The best of the
land and that situated most conveniently to water is included in that already taken up.

A great deal has been said and written upon the subject of irrigation by means of
artesian wells, and many hundreds of thousands of dollars have been literally sunken
in vain attempts to bring water from the bowels of the earth. It has been a pet idea
with many theorists that the great extent of the plains can be fertilized by the pro-
miscuous boring of wells. They seem to have an idea that water is omnipresent be-
neath the surface, and is only waiting for an opening to be made, to pour itself upwards.
They do not reflect that it is only under very peculiar conditions of dip and character
of strata, that water having an upward tendency can be found.

If nothing else will stop this senseless clamor for artesian wells surely it would ap-
pear that the history of the failures which have attended such attempts should
effect it. The Union Pacific Railroad has bored five or six between Fort Steele and
Green River City. They are, on the average, about 1,000 feet deep, and cost about
$15,000 each. Most of them were at first flowing wells, while in the rest the water
rose to within 10 or 15 feet of the top. After a year or two most of them stopped ;
perhaps two are still running. These were sunken in a locality very favorable for the
purpose. The United States Government sunk a well at Fort Russell, Wyo., to a depth
of 1,100 feet, at a cost of ,$10,000, without success. At Denver a well was bored to a
depth of 800 feet when the attempt was abandoned. The Kansas Pacific Railroad has
also expended a large amount of money in the same fruitless quest.

In Los Angeles and San Bernardino Counties, in California, irrigation by means of
artesian wells is carried on to a considerable extent. In this part of the State the soil
and climate are exceptionally fine, the crops, very largely fruit and wine-grapes, are
very valuable, while water is extremely scarce, and is used with the utmost economy.
In these counties there are about 1,000 artesian wells, which irrigate altogether 18,000
acres, an average of 18 acres to each. They are used mainly for small vineyards, gar-
dens, and orchards. Their depth ranges from 40 to 600 feet, while the average is 150
to 200 feet. Success has beeu had in sinking them only in a few limited localities.
Their average cost has been about $400, and the averago amount of water brought to
the surface by each is about one-tenth of a cubic foot per second. In other words, each
second-foot of water has cost $4,000. At the present duty of water in vogue in Colo-
rado, i. e., 40 acres per second-foot, it will be seen that it would cost no less than $100
per acre for a water-right. This is without taking into account the vast amount of
money which has been spent in useless borings. Truly, as the State engineer of Cali-
fornia says, in concluding his remarks upon this question, " it will be seen that the luxury
is a some what exp'ensive one." Many people, however, still pin their faith to artesian
wells as probable sources of large supplies of water, and scarcely a session of Congress
passes without attempts being made to pass legislation looking toward an expenditure
of money for boring them. During the last session an appropriation was made for
''examining into the needs of the arid region," and for boring two artesian wells "on
the plains east of the Rocky Mountains," the appropriation to be at the disposal of
the Honorable Commissioner of Agriculture. Fortunately the amount is small, being
only $5,000, and it is to be hoped that this amount will serve to demonstrate the ntter
hopelessness of the scheme. If so, it will not be expended in vain.
There are four general methods of irrigation in use, viz:

1st. Flooding, or downward filtration, by which the surface of the soil is covered
with water, which is then allowed to stand and settle into the earth.

2d. Ditching, where the ground is supplied with water from lateral percolation from
ditches placed at short intervals.

3d. Subsoil irrigation, where the water is conducted underground and supplies the
soil by capillary attraction.

4th. Sprinkling, in imitation of nature's method.

The lirst method admits of several variations, as follows: If in motion, it may be

316 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

in a very shallow layer, applied continuously for a considerable period of time, or in a
deep layer for a short period.

If the flooding take the form of a standing sheet of water, it may be quite deep,
and be allowed to stand until it all settles into the ground and evaporates. A fourth
method is to combine (he standing sheet with the (lowing one, allowing the water to
stand for a short time ; then draw it oil' to "Some other portion of the held. This proc-
ess is more applicable to large farms than any other method. It costs less, generally
speaking, to prepare laud for irrigation by this process, and the work can be done
more quickly. But it is applicable only to lands of gentle, even slopes, and a soil
which does not cake after beiug soaked. A large volume of water, comparatively
speaking, is required, and there is danger of great waste, unless the irrigator be a man
of experience and the ground be well prepared There are, however, many crops for
which this method is not the best.

Thesecond method — by ditching — is also varied, to a considerable extent, in practice.
It may be carried, flowing constantly, between the rows of plants, whence it perco-
lates laterally through the intervening soil, or the water may be kept standing in
ditches between the rows. In this case the ditches should be larger and further apart
than in the previous case. In the case of very open, sandy soils, ditches may be led
along the divides, or ridges, at greater or less distances apart, the lateral percolation,
or seepage, being sufficient to carry the water over the whole ground.

The ditching method has great advantages over the flooding method in some re-
spects. It costs, iu general, very much less to prepare the land and to apply the water.
On the other hand, it is ordinarily less economical of water, and requires more time
in the application of it.

The third and fourth methods are not. and probably never will be, in use on any
considerable scale, for reasons too obvious to mention.

It is impossible to form any estimate whatever of the amount of money at present
invested iu irrigation works, as there arc very few aud very scattering statistics on thin
subject, and it is not a subject upon which inferences can be drawn from the known
to the unknown. Still less can any estimate be made of the amount which would be
required to construct works which would utilize all the water flowing in the streams
and thus bring the maximum of land under cultivation. Such au estimate, even
in the roughest form, must await the result of detailed surveys, and the development
of definite plans.

During the past few years fertile brains have been busied very extensively in devis-
ing ways and means for spending money to no purpose on grand schemes of reservoirs
and ditches. These schemes have come from all grades of authority, from an ex-
President of the United States, who knew nothing about it, down to <i county surveyor,
who ought to have known better.

None of the streams of the West carry .sufficient water, or command land in suffi-
cient amount, to warrant the construction of any single great work in the form of
reservoirs or irrigating canals. The fall of those streams is. almost without ex-
ception, sufficiently great to allow the water to be taken up to the bluff lands by a
very few miles of ditch. As the primary and almost sole object of a long canal,
parallel to the stream is to save fall, so as to command the country, it will be seen
that such canals are doubly unnecessary iu this region.

When the arable lands of the arid region arc developed to the utmost capacity of
the streams, they should be distributed in the following general way. Along the base
of each mountain range should be a strip of land parallel to the range, more or less
continuous, and of greater or less width, iu proportion to the amount of water flow-
ing from the mountains. Down each stream of any consequence would follow a belt
of cultivated land. If the stream has a rapid fall the belt may be broad, and extend
a comparatively short distance down its course. If its current be sluggish, the strip
should be narrow, confined, perhaps, to the bottom-lands merely, and may extend
down the stream a longdistance. The details would depend upon local circumstances.

preservation of forests: judicious burning. 317

4. Preservation of the forests and encouragement to
tree planting. — Without entering into a discussion as to the value
of forests in ameliorating climate, and fully conscious that they must
succeed rather than precede such amelioration^ in other words, that it
is impossible, as a rule, to cultivate forests or extend them successfully
in arid regions without first supplying the requisite conditions of moist-
ure ; we nevertheless fully appreciate the great importance of preserv-
ing as far as possible the timber already sparsely existing in the regions
we are considering, and also the desirability of extending it, as a se-
quence and valuable outgrowth of the increased irrigation we have just
been advocating. There are also many sections of the West, especially
near the limit line of the distribution of the Locust, where timber growth
is spontaneous whenever the prairies are protected from the annual fires
which usually sweep over them and hinder forest extension. These
facts add weight to all efforts looking either to increased irrigation or
judicious restriction and use of fire.

5. Judicious burning. — In this connection we find little occasion to
materially modify our views expressed in our first report and repeated
on page 272, ante. In order not to overestimate the practical benefits
that may arise from judicious burning Mr. Thomas lias brought together
in Chapter II (pp. 1G-18) the strongest possible arguments against its
practicability, and, after giving these due weight, it yet remains true
that in thus burning we have one of the most, if not the most, inexpen-
sive ways of temporarily checking locust increase in many parts of the
country where the insect freely breeds. Xo amount of theoretical ob-
jections or of unsatisfactory results, often due to imperfect or injudicious
burning, can offset the beneficial results that may be obtained with care
and under favorable circumstances. The writer himself has personally
witnessed the slaughter of myriads of locusts in this way, and this mode
of reducing the numbers of the destructive hordes in their natural hab-
it at once forces itself upon the attention of all who have had experience
in that country. The fact that locusts are not destroyed in very great
numbers in the Temporary region is due to the fact that the eggs are
not laid in this region in the ground covered with dense, long or prairie
grasses. The insects would be destroyed by burning were they there.
In the more humid prairie country, bare dry spots are preferred for
oviposition ; but in the Permanent region the insects wdl abound most
where the vegetation is rankest and most succulent. A study of Map
I will give an approximate idea of the amount of land in the plaius area,
the vegetation of which is susceptible of being burned over, and wilt
also show that it includes all the more arable and valuable land for set-
tlement— a fact of great importance.

In the plains area proper there is little or nothing to prevent whole-
sale burning of the vegetation late- in the spring, after the bulk of the
locusts have hatched out, beyond the expense of preventing such burn-
ing the previous fall. The only practical way in which this could be done

318 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

would be by a system of fire-guards where there are no natural streams
or other barriers to prevent the spread of the dames. We repeat, that
any extensive system of guarding the vegetation in the fall so as to fire
it the ensuing spring would only be warranted at government expense
in those particular areas where it is absolutely known that eggs have
been thickly laid ami thai the insects from such eggs will swarm the
following year. Such ;i condition will occur only at irregular intervals
and the government should take some Btepsto provide for annual obser-
vations that will lead to a knowledge as to when and where such con-
ditions prevail. Systematic tiring should then be carried on from the
circumference of such area or areas after the bulk of the insects are known
to have hatched and before they are able to escape by flight. That such
work can profitably be performed in large portions of the permanent
region, we have little doubt, and that the expense in such instances
would be warranted is made manifest by the terrible losses which the
insects are capable of occasioning.

In many sections a system of fire guards will be absolutely necessary
to judiciously carry out any such scheme, in order to prevent the de-
struction of timber.

6. A PERMANENT SYSTEM OF OBSERVATIONS AND WARNINGS. — III

order to carry out the plan just considered, and, in fact, to enable the
government to take any intelligent action Looking to tin- direct destruc-
tion and decrease of the Locust in the region under consideration, sys-
tematic observations made and reported from year to year are absolutely
essential, and we cannot too strongly urge upon Congress that pro-
vision be made for such continued observations. There is no reason
why it should not be made part of the duty of the Signal Bureau to
obtain the desired information, and to report the situation to the country
from time to time. The source of these destructive insects is no longer
an utter mystery, and every year is adding to the facilities for making
the desired observations.

With an increasing population; with the near completion of projected
roads through Montana and adjoining Territories; with the completion
of the Canadian and Northern Pacifies now assured, the means of estab-
lishing a system of locust signals and warnings, and of making more
complete and accurate observation, will be far greater than they have
been. Information as to the situation and extent of egg-deposits; the
time of hatching of the young locusts; their movements both on foot
and on wiug, can and should be as rapidly obtained and disseminated
as possible. The local press will be but too ready to disseminate it.
The course of flights from day to day should be traced and published
in the maps issued and now generally posted at available points, as
post-offices, depots, etc. In many instances such warnings would enable
the farmer to cut and save his crops before the swarms reached him,
that would otherwise, unheralded, swoop down upon him and in a few
hours destroy the labor of a year. Tracts which it would pay to guard

PREVENTIVE MEASURES IN MOUNTAIN AND PLATEAU AREAS. 319

against fire in autumn and then burn the ensuing spring, as we have just
set forth, could also be mapped out and the maps published for the general
good and as guides to Congressional action, while an annual report on
the locust condition and prospects, to be made part of the report of the
Signal Bureau, could not fail to greatly interest and benefit the people
most concerned, and indirectly through them the whole country.

A limited appropriation to the Signal Bureau for this special purpose,
that would enable the Chief Signal Officer to begin at once the work
here suggested, under the direction of some competent person or per-
sons, would, we have no doubt, directly tend to immensely increase the
practical usefulness of the bureau to the farming community dwelling
in the vast regions subject to locust injury. Even the observations of
the individual commissioners and their agents, limited as they have
necessarily been as compared with those which the Signal Bureau could
make, have been of great service in permitting, since its organization,
annual statements and prognostications that have proved correct to a
remarkable degree ; while, in the event of a repetition of the scenes of
1873 to 1877, no one would question the value of daily bulletins, such as
the Signal Bureau might publish with the increased power we have in-
dicated, as to the movements and flights of destructive swarms. We
therefore strougly recommend an appropriation to the Signal Bureau
for this special purpose.

7. Co-operation with the Dominion Government. — That efforts
in any schemes for the protection of the western farmer from locust in-
jury should be made as far as possible with the co-operation of the Do-
minion Government is too apparent from the facts presented in this
and our previous report to need any special emphasis or argument.

preventive measures in the mountain and plateau areas.

The measures to be adopted to prevent locust injury in the more moun-
tainous area must be essentially the same as those we have recommended
on the plains; but, as shown in Chapter II (p. 21), there is in the inter-
montane area less land adapted to agricultural pursuits than in the
plains area, and the chief iudustrj' in the former section wdl always be
that of mining. Dr. Packard, who has more particularly studied the
problem in the mountain and plateau areas, gives the following report
of his views and experience as to the best means of counteracting and
lessening the injury in the mountains :

"The arable lauds are the bottom lauds among the Rocky Mountains,
the Uintah and Wahsatch Ranges, which lie for the most part between
the altitudes of about 1,000 and 8,000 feet. Above this height, owing to
summer frosts and cold nights, as well as cold storms, the locusts do
not flourish in great numbers nor arrive at maturity until two or three
weeks after those which have hatched out in the regions below have
become fledged and flown away.

" It is evident then that the breeding grounds of the locust are in those

320 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

regions of the Rocky Mountains which will ultimately be taken up by
settlers as fanning and grazing lands; hence, when this region is settled,
the prevention of locust injuries will be a problem much easier of solu-
tion than at present.

"The effect of putting this large area under more or less thorough
cultivation, either as irrigated farms or cattle and .sheep ranges, will be
to render the country less liable to great and prolonged drought, and
thus cause the climate to be more equable. All this will tend ultimately
to keep the locust within its normal limits, so that it will not in certain
favorable years multiply to so great an extent as to lead to extensive
migrations into adjoining or remote regions. The locusts will be re-
strained within their natural and original limits. Hence the best means
of protection will be to destroy the eggs and to li«,dit the young when
they hatch, and to exterminate them by all the methods fully described
in the First IJeport of the Commission. The greater the number of eggs
and young destroyed within the Permanent Region year after year, over
a period of 25 or 50 years, the more will the number of individuals
throughout the whole area be lessened.

"The settlement of Montana and the western border of Dakota will
ultimately have a great effect in lessening the extent of the breeding
grounds of the locust ; and thus diminish the numbers of those which
swarm into Utah on the one hand, and Minnesota, Iowa, and Nebraska
on the other.

"The State of Colorado is invaded by swarms w hich originate west ol
the range about the White and Bear Rivers, and north and northwest
from the Wind River Valley aud the Laramie plains of Wyoming, so
that these regions are the tracts which need to be occupied, aud where
an unremitting warfare, pursued with combined effort year after year
by the farmers, will ultimately tend to keep the locust within compara-
tively harmless bounds.

"To this end the replanting of the forests, now being recklessly cut down
by the settlers of the Western Territories, w ill have a favorable effect,
both tending to reduce the extremes in the seasons, and to break up and
diminish the breeding grounds of the locust. Moreover, the construction
of railroads and the settlements which spring up along them will have
their effect in reducing the extent of the breeding grounds.

" The settlement also of the wild lauds of the Rocky Mountain plateau
will in a measure tend to keep the locusts from migrating eastward.
If there were a sufficiency of food in the plateau region, there would be
no inducement for them to take flight for regions situated five hundred
to a thousand miles eastward, for without much doubt the main cause
of their migration is the desire for food ; for if the broad, extended plains
of the region between the mountains and the Mississippi Basin do not
afford them sufficient food, they will pass on to the prairie region of the
western edge of the Mississippi Basin.

" While, therefore, we do not see how any special means of extermi-

PREVENTIVE MEASURES IN THE MOUNTAINS.

321

natiag the native locust in the Rocky Mountain region can be system-
atically and extensively applied beyond locally burning over tracts
and destroying the freshly-hatched young, we may with confidence pre-
dict that even in ten or twenty years from now, when the rich grazing
and farming territory of Montana will sustain a much denser population
than at present, the locusts may be in many places locally exterminated,
their numbers in general diminished, and their ravages be greatly less-
ened.

"As is well known, the greater part of the injury done by the locusts
is accomplished by the voracious young working in fields of young wheat.
The winged adults swarm in after the wheat is harvested or about the
time of harvest.

" What the farmer of Colorado and Utah wants in the middle and
latter part of July is certain, reliable, and detailed information respect-
ing the presence or absence of locusts west of the Rocky Mountain Range
or in Wyoming northward, if he live in Colorado ; or, if he be a Mormon
farmer, whether the locusts are flying from Montana into the region of
Idaho lying north of Cache or Malade Valleys. He may then be able
to tell whether to expect the locusts late in August or early in the
autumn in his own country. At the present time the western border
farmers pick up in a desultory and haphazard way information of this
sort, but as the Far West becomes more densely populated and increased
care and diligence are observed, as they will have to be exercised in the
future when the struggle for existence becomes more intense among
agriculturists and wheat-growers, all the means we have referred to of
obtaining, classifying, and disseminating a knowledge of the movements
of the locusts will be more or less fully adopted. When this result is
attained the battle with the locusts is more than half won. A tolerably
complete knowledge of the habits and movements, direction and time of
flight, &c, over a series of years will also (as it already has in Utah)
tend to clear up the mystery hitherto attending the migrations and rav-
ages of locusts. This will have the effect of making the agricultural
community less subject to wild panics, and more bold, determined, and
combined in endeavoring to exterminate the locusts.

"A large proportion of the money losses resulting from the locust in-
vasions of 1867, '69, '74, and '76 was the result of a panic, of uncertainty
as to the future ; this resulted in disheartenment, in the abandonment
of large tracts of the best of farming lands to nature and the locusts.
This will probably never again happen in the West. The knowledge
already disseminated, the extent of the population now pouring into the
Northwest, the rapid settlement of the Territory of Montana, and the com-
pletion of the Northern Pacific, Canadian Pacific, the Utah and Northern
Raflroads, and the consequent change in the surface of the country due
to human agency will so essentially modify the locust situation that we
believe the West will never again suffer as in the past. It remains for
the people of the Rocky Mountain Plateau to use such local and general
21 L

322 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

means as their own experience and this Commission have suggested in
the first and present reports; for the State and Territorial and county
governments to make and execute laws for combined and persistent
action during times of general local invasion and for the prevention of
others. If this be done in the plateau region in the future the invasions
of the western border Mississippi States will tend to become more and
more feeble, inconsiderable, and harmless, until, we venture to predict,
the time will come when the losses from locusts will be only local and
comparable with those inflicted by locusts and grasshoppers in the east-
ern Atlantic States. At any rate, the western locust has already ceased
to be a bugbear and object of dread; familiarity with its habits and
history has already taught the pioneer farmers of Utah, Montana, and
Colorado that with energy its ravages can be lessened if not entirely
overcome, and no one intending to migrate west from the Atlantic
States or from Europe need to be deterred by the fear of such alarming
invasions as have occurred in former years."

APPENDICES.

APPENDICES.

APPENDIX I.

MISCELLANEOUS DATA AND REPLIES TO CIRCULAR NO. 1.

The following data in reference to the Rocky Mountain locust, collected chiefly in
1877 hy Mr. Thomas, was omitted in the former report, partly for want of space and
partly because it was impossible to get the material ready in time. A few extracts
were made, which will be found in Appendices XXII, XXIII, and XXIV of the former
report. The dates of flights for 1677 mentioned therein were collated and arranged
as given in Appendix XXIII ; hut the communications and the large amount of val-
uable information they contain were left out for the reasons mentioned.

It has been thought best to arrange this data by States and Territories rather than
by date.

In order that these communications may be understood, it is necessary to state here
that most of them are in answer to the questions in the following circular issued by
the commission early in 1377, as stated in our first report (p. 2) :

CIRCULAR No. 1.

Department of the Interior,
Office of the United States Entomological Commission,

, , 187 .

Mr. .

Dear Sir : The Commissioners are desirous of collecting, as soon as possible, all as-
certainable facts in reference to the migrations of the Rocky Mountain locust (Calop-
tenus spretus), and also regarding its appearance, habits, and devastations in your
6ection.

We present below a series of topics upon which we shall be glad to receive data
from your locality. We expect you to dwell only on those topics upon which you
have positive information, and shall be glad to receive any facts or views not sug-
gested by this circular. Some of the subjects cannot be reported on till toward the
approach of winter, while others can be considered earlier. In responding, there-
fore, we ask our correspondents to couple their answers with the number of the cir-
cular and of the inquiry.

We shall be glad to receive and will determine any of the different species of lo-
custs that occur in your locality, and particularly specimens of their different para-
sites and natural enemies. These are best forwarded by mail, packed in cotton,
moistened with alcohol, and placed in secure tin or wooden boxes. Living specimens
may be sent in tin boxes, and are preferred, where they will not be too long on the
way.

The inquiries have reference more particularly to the present year 1877, and when
facts are communicated that have reference to other years, correspondents will please
be careful to specify the particular year.

The Commissioners will refund whatever expense maybe incurred for postage in re-
plying to this circular, or in forwarding specimens, should correspondents so desire.

Copies of documents published by the commission will be sent to correspondents
who forward data in accordance with this request. Communications may be sent to
either of the Commissioners.

CHAS. V. RILEY.
A. S. PACKARD, Jr.
CYRUS THOMAS.

TOPICS ON WHICH DATA ARE REQUESTED.

1. Date and time of day of the arrival of swarms.
la. Direction and force of the wind at the time.

1&. Temperature and character of the weather at the time (clear or cloudy),
lc. Direction of the flight, densitv, height, and extent of the swarms.

[3]

[4] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

2. Date and time of day of the departure of swarms.

2a. Direction and force of the wind at the time.

2b. Temperature and character of the weather at the time.

2c. Direction of the flight, density, and extent of the swarms.
'.'>. Date when the first eggs, if any, were deposited the present year.

4. Date when the eggs were most numerously hatching the present year.

5. Date when the eggs were most numerously hatching in previous years.

G. Proportion of eggs that failed to hatch the present year, and probable causes of
such failure.

7. Nature of the soil and situations in which the eggs were most largely deposited.

8. Nature of tho soil and situations in which the young were most numerously
hatched.

9. Date at which the first insect acquired full wings

10. Date when the winged insects first began to migrate.

11. Estimato the injury done \n your county and State.

12. Crops which suffered most.

13. Crops most easily protected.

14. Crops which suffered least.

15. The prevailing direction in which the young insects traveled, and any other
facts in relation to the marching of the young.

10. The means employed in your seel ion for f he destruction of the unlledged insects,
or to protect crops from their ravages, and how far these proved satisfactory.

17. Tho means employed iu your section for the destruction of the winged insects,
or to protect crops from their ravages, and how far these have proved satisfactory.

18. Descriptions, and, if possible, figures of such mechanical contrivances as have
proved useful in your locality for the destruction of either the young or the winged
insects.

19. If your section was not visited iu 1876, please state this fact.

20. If visited any previous years, please give the dates.

21. To what extent have birds, domestic fowls, and other animals, domestic or wild,
been useful in destroying these insects?

22. State the ratio of prairie to timber in your section or in your county.

23. State all you know about the habits of the young or full-grown insects during
the night, a/id especially whether you have ever known them to march or continue to fly after
theaunis down, and, if so, how long into the night.

24. The amount of damage to fruit and shade trees, aud the most satisfactory means
employed in your section to protect them.

25. Furnish copies of all the records you can obtain, which were made at the time
of the visitations of the grasshoppers, whether written or printed.

29. State all you may know in reference to eggs hatching in the fall.

27. What plants, cultivated or wild, appear to be preferred by the young, and what
by the full-grown insects f

28. What plants, cultivated or wild, appear to be least relished ?

29. State to what extent the invading swarms have been observed to injure the
native grasses, and to what extent the young have been observed to injure them.

30. What animals, such as quadrupeds, birds, aud reptiles, have been observed
feeding upon the young or full-grown insects or their eggs ?

31. State what measures for destroying the eggs have been tried, and how far they
have proved effectual.

32. State the ratio of prairie to timber in your section.

33. State all you know in reference to the habits of the young or grown insects
during the night ; where they remain ; whether they ever march, continue to fly, eat,
&c.

34. At what rate do swarms move during flight ?

NEBRASKA DATA.

Hooper, Dodge County, May 14, 1877.
The first time I noticed the Rocky Mountain locust in this locality was June or
July, 1859. They have since then, up to the year 1866, made short visits, never doing
any damage to the crops, nor did they at any time leave any eggs behind them.
About the middle of September of the year last mentioned they came upon us from
the northwest in full force, and their numbers were legions ; they came, too, to stay
until the first slight frost in October finished their earth. y existence, seemingly all
dying in one night; not until, however, they had left us a large crop of eggs and de-
stroyed fully one-third of the corn crop. The eggs hatched the following spring,
numerously in April, and the young pest seemed to outnumber the old swarm, living
for a time, as it were, to devour everything tinted green, avoiding, after all, the
tender corn blades. But plenty of moisture and fine growing weather checked their

APPENDIX I. NEBRASKA DATA, 1877.

[5]

■voracious appetites, and the damage done was confined only to narrow strips of wheat.
We were visited by them time and again, sometimes from the south, sometimes from
the north, once destroying the oat crop, another time the com crop, hut have never,
as yet, seriously injured the wheat crop.

Question 1. In 1876, wind northwest, fresh breeze. The first swarm arrived here
August 15, 4 o'clock p. m.

1 b. Clear, warm, with occasional flying dark clouds. The swarms were seen for
three hours in the distance ; mistaken by some for banks of clouds.

1 c. Covering a breadth of 30 miles ; from northwest ; dense enough to darken the
sun perceptibly ; 500 feet in depth.

Question 2. In 187(5 ; on every dry day ; when the wind was favorable, from the north-
west or west; for some ten days ; swarms were leaving each day to the south and south-
east, others arriving from the west and northwest, and for two weeks longer deposited
their eggs, leaving as soon as the work was completed. Those which are hatched in
the north have uniformly gone to the southeast, while the eggs which were deposited
when hatched as uniformly move in the direction the parents came from. The Calop-
tenus spretus has such a spread of gauzy wings that it can neither fly when the air is
damp nor against the wind ; it rises only when the dew is off, 10 to 1»1 a. m., 4 to 5 p.
m., and with no wind move about five miles an hour, or faster with the breeze, and
high or low as the air is more or less dry, and highest at noon.

Quostion 3. The eggs in 1877 hatched very uneven, owing, as is supposed, from be-
ing deposited in more varied soils ; most of the eggs hatched between the 10th and
20th April.

Question 5. From the 10th to the 30th of April.

Question 6. One-third. First, because of mild winter weather. Moisture is the only
condition that will spoil the eggs; cold will not do it, neither before nor after develop-
ment has begun. Second, because it is claimed, and correctly too, that some of the eggs
were hatched last fall ; have seen eggs hatched two or three years ago in the middle
of August that were dropped about three weeks before, but the young 'hoppers so
hatched were not nearly as numerous as their parents were.

Question 7. Dry, sandy, naked, hard, or compact soil, in the sod of new breakings
and on roadsides; it is on or near these places where the damage is now committed
and where the insects are now congregated in flocks of untold millions, •nhile there
are also large spaces of prairie and cultivated spots intersecting where there is not a
grasshopper to be found.

Question 9. An average of 50 days after hatching, being about June 25 to 30, as for-
merly.

Question 10. A period of not less than ten days will elapse after full wings are grown,
to all appearance, before they will actually marshal their hosts; which will bring it,
as in 1867 and 1874, to the last days in June, and before which there is no hope of 1 leing
rid of them in this locality.

Question 11. Up to May 13; about one-sixth of wheat and one-third of gardens.

Question 12. Wheat and gardens.

Question 13. All small grain.

Question 14. Last year there was none but corn, flax, potatoes, tobacco, and late
gardens in 1875 ; they came from the south in August, about the 1st, again, injuringthe
corn crop most.

Question 15. Those hatched here invariably go northwest; they go in no definite
direction before their wings are of full length, and then spend some ten days in exer-
cising their muscle in short flights, increasing from ten feet to twenty rods. In damp
weather and nights they huddle and lie still on clods, weeds, trees, corn and wheat
stalks.

Question 16. A few have been burning them by stringing out straw, and in cool
nights, when they seek the straw for shelter, it is set on fire, leaving the ground cov-
ered with red-burned 'hoppers ; some have bought or made machines or traps, and
have used them with good success, sufficient to establish the fact that hereafter no
crops will be destroyed by the young 'hoppers if all will take hold, burn, ditch, and
catch them ; and last, but not least, protect the birds; also turning under deep the
eggs on cultivated soil before putting in crops.

Question 17. None.

Question 18. The essential features of these machines or traps are: 1st, a platform
that runs on the ground, on runners or wheels; 2d, a canopy meeting the platform at
an angle; 3d, a reservoir at the junction of the two, containing water or coal-oil,
either or both. The 'hoppers jun ping up strike against t he canopy' while the machine
is in motion and will fall into the reservoir.

Question 20. About every other year.

Question 21. Nearly all birds, domestic or wild, limit their work of destroying the in-
sects by their capacity, such as blackbirds, snowbirds, prairie-chickens; and, finally,
machines or traps, are capable of saving the crop in the worst grasshopper year if bred

[G] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

here, and the birds, if as plenty as they should be, will take care that the infliction be
not permanent.

Question 24. By the young, the tender blades of wheat; by the old, corn; and when
the oats are about ripe they seem to relish or prefer to cut off kernels of oats between
the kernel and the straw.

Question 25. Broom-corn and sugar-cane.

Question 2G. Never injured them worth mentioning.

Question 28. Scarcely any.

Question 21). From 5 to 10 per cent.

Question 30. They eat and eat during the daytime, and in 18G7 would eat off a strip
of wheat, and, if grown again, return to the original place. During rainy days they
lie still and do not eat; during cold they seek shelter behind clods and rubbish; they
never move at night unless disturbed.

Question 31. From 5 to 20 miles an hour.

C. P. EISELEY.
Pleasant Hill, Saline County, May 21, 1877.

Question 1 a. Worth ; light.
Question 1 6. Clear and dry.

Question 1 c. As far as the eye could reach, and dense enough to partially obscure
the sun.

Question 2. Kept coming unci going from 0 a. in. to 2 p. m.
Question 2 a. Northerly and light.
Question 2 b. Warm and dry.

Question He. Southeast; density and extent moderate.
Question 3. None the present year.

Question 4. May 10, 1*77. Came out in vast quantities.
Question 5. About the same time in 1855; not as numerous. None in 1676.
Question 0. About half ; cause, blowing off of covering by wind and exposure to the
elements.

Question 7. On naked, hard, dry ground, such as well-fed pastures, old roads, &c.
Question 8. Dryest and hardest ground.
Question 9. In 1875 got wings about June 1.
Question 10. About June 10.
Question 11. Nothing yet this year.

Question 15. I think they have no given direction of travel. Their line of march
depends on the surface of the ground and proximity of crops.

Question 16. There has been no means tried by us yet except burning. Several
farmers have scattered straw along the edge of their fields. The young 'hoppers col-
lect in the straw in great quantities. Some farmers claim to have destroyed five or
six bushels at one burning.

Question 17. Nothing of that kind has yet been attempted.

Question 18. We have as yet nothing of the kind.

Question 19. We had no locusts at all in the spring of 1876. In the fall they came
in on us from the northwest.

Question 20. In 1874 they came in from the northwest about August 10; the season
was exceedingly hot and dry, thermometer reaching 114° in the shade. The locusts
were very ravenous, eating everything before them, but deposited eggs sparingly.
Last fall they ate but little, but deposited eggs in enormous quantities in many places,
as many as three hundred to the square inch.

Question 21. All our domestic fowls eat them in vast quantities ; our little chickens
just hatched live on the young ones without other food. All wild birds prey upon
them, especially the prairie-chickens and quails. It is believed that a prairie-chicken
eats one pint per day ; quails about one-half that quantity. The bird which has done
us the best service is a blackbird with a yellowish-white head and wings; never no-
ticed it here until this season. They came in great quantities, probably a thousand
in a flock; they marched over the field like a band of soldiers, cleaning the ground
clean where it was actually black with 'hoppers ; on a pasture field of about eighteen
acres they destroyed about five bushels a day. If these birds remain with us, we
will have no full-fledged 'hoppers this year, or very few at most.

Question 22. Have none.

Question 23. I heard a great deal about eggs hatching in the fall, but have no evi-
dence that any did.

Question 24. They take everything but sorghum and pumpkin vines, and have a
particular regard for tobacco and onions.

Question 26. Have never injured the native grasses as far as I know. Are particu-
larly destructive to timothy, but don't seem to relish blue-grass. We have not enough
clover in this county to give an estimate.

Question 27. I know no quadrupeds or reptiles (except snakes) that eat them.

Question 28. Nothing of the kind has been done in this section of the country.

APPENDIX I. NEBRASKA DATA, 1877.

[7]

Question 29. Timber very scarce, probably not one-fiftietb.

Question 30. The young insects are quiet during the nigbt, crawling under old rub-
bish and into the ground. The large full-fledged ones collect on shrubs and trees in
quantities sufficient sometimes to bend the trees. When on the wing, I think they
fly night and day. In June and July, 1875, there was an uninterrupted flight about
50 days, moving continually in a northerly and westerly direction.

Question 31. Owing to the force of the wind, from 4 to 30 miles per hour.

E. S. ABBOTT.

Farmers' Valley, Hamilton County, May 24, 1877.
Question 30. This spring the young insects toward night went to the high grass or
stalks in the field for shelter, and would remain there during a storm ; when it was again
pleasant they emerged, to continue their devastation. They will eat, when full grown,
during the night. I had a field of corn, iu 1874, that was standing, and not seriously
damaged, when night commenced; the next morning it was only corn-stalks, leaves
and ears having been eaten as early as daybreak. When the insects drop on us in
swarms, they remain only as long as the wind is unfavorable to %eir apparently
desired course ; but as soon as the wind changes to suit, they depart.

J. VOSBUEGH.

Steele City, Jefferson County,

August 24, 187tJ — 10 a. m.

Question la. The wind had been south for three or four days, changed to the north
about 9 or 9.30 a. m., and the 'hoppers soon came with it.

1 b. The morning bad been hot and sultry ; the north wind brought the 'hoppers.
The sky was clear, no clouds.

1 c. South with wind. Density : As we looked toward the sun we could see them float-
ing with the wind as high as the eye could reach, till they looked like tiny snow-flakes,
so high above us — I should think nearly half a mile ; and they were probably as thick
to a much greater height. They were flying thickest at noon, and by six o'clock they
had mostly quit flying. About nine the next morning they commenced rising and fly-
ing again about as thick as on the previous day, some leaving and others coming to
take their places. The 26th the wind was south all day. They rose as on the previous
day, as if they were uneasy, but could not go against the wind, nor did they show
any inclination to take the back track and go with it. The 27th the wind was still
south, and they appeared more contented, commenced coupling, and laying eggs.

Question 2. They commenced leaving on the 31st, flying about the same as when they
first came. After this I kept no record of their movements, but there was more or
less coming and going every time we had a clear day and north wind, though there
was more left than came, so that by frost the most were gone.

Question 4. The eggs began to hatch about the 20th of March in large quantities.
One old gentleman said that he was on a wheat-field in the Blue Valley the day be-
fore, and they were nearly as thick as they could be. About one-eighth to one-fourth
of an inch in lengtb, and at least half an inch thick on the ground. This was on a
sandy soil, near timber. I think the eggs were most numerously hatching in April.

D. T. GANTT.

Nebo, Platte County, June 16, 1877.
The 14th, the wind being strong from the southwest, clear and warm, the locusts
were on the wing, the air was full, bearing a little west of north. Now and then a
straggler came down. About three o'clock they had all passed. I suppose they were
a Texas delegation. Our own hatch is about half-grown.

JOHN WISE.

North Platte, Lincoln County, June 1, 1877.
The Caloptenns spretus has been passing this place since the 27th instant, going north
30° west in immense swarms. They are very high, 1,000 to 3,000 feet; only a few have
stopped here.

In 1873 saw a swarm, July 6, in latitude 40°, longitude 100° 15' west, passing south-
east, but saw none in the settled part of the State.

In 1874 they came from northwest, June 27 to August 6, then traveled northwest to
October 3, but did no damage in this locality.

In 1875, May 20, latitude 42°, longitude 103°, saw large swarms going north 30° west.
June 6, at Camp Sheridan, saw them every day until the 10th go northwest. June 21
latitude 41° 30' north, longitude 101° west, saw them go southeast; continued to go
southeast each day when wind was favorable until August 5, then they began to go
southwest and continued to October 1. This is the first season that they have done
much damage here ; they took all the crops. They lodged against the snowy range of

[8] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

tbc Rocky Mountains in immense numbers and perished in the snow. A friend of mine
says they were six indies deep on the snow.

In 1876, Juno 20, Hew southeast to July 25, then drifted every way the balance <>f
the season; did but little damage west of longitude 100° 30' west. Laid their eggs
south of latitude 41° from Colorado at least east to 100th meridian. None north of
this line.

In 1877, April 25, parties coming in from Republican Valley say that the country is
full of young 'hoppers from the bluffs south of the Platte to south line of the State;
April 12, 1 started for Niobrara River, returned A)>ril 25; saw none on the route.
May 12 went to Republican River, then up to the White Man's Fork; saw very few
young 'hoppers; the people said that the heavy rain had destroyed them.

•> J.'W. LA Ml N YON.

Chapman, Mkkkick County, May 18, 1*77.
Question VJ. Our section was most severely visited in 187(>.

Question 20. Was visited in 1873, about May 15, and did considerable damage to the
■wheat, the only crop we had at that date; staid about forty-eight hours; was cool
and damp while they stopped ; they traveled from southwest to northeast ; again in
1876 (in wheat harvest), probably about July 15; came from northwest ; injured the
late wheat, destroyed the entire corn crop, potatoes, melons, and garden truck in
general.

Quention 31. They always travel with the wind, i. <:., the same direct ion ; of nearly a
calm day they travel as fast as the wind; but when the wind is strong they right-
about face, letting the wind cany them. They always stop when the wind changes.
In 1870 they came from the northwest, nearly covering the ground and all vegetation.
It was a bright clear day; they staid fourteen days, eatiug everything but native
grasses and plants most repugnant to them; they, for the first time, deposited eggs
with us, and they hatched out this spring by the millions, bnt did not grow any, and
consequently died when a few days old. At the present writing — five weeks from the
first hatching — there is scarcely one to be found, and at no time were they any larger
than when first hatched. We think the cool, wet weather is the probable cause of
their dving.

H. M. COX.

Ponca, Dixon County, August 9.

August t), 1872. — The 'hoppers (a small flight) came down upon us, remaining about
three and a half days, doing very little damage.

May 28, 1873. — At about noon to-day wo were visited by any amount of Mormon
grasshoppers ; they went to work immediately depositing their eggs, doing but little
damage to vegetation.

June 5. — The 'hoppers about all left to-day. In the spring of 1-74 the eggs hatched
early and in abundance ; they destroyed some fields of small grain entirely, and some
fields were only slightly injured. Our small grain was good, notwithstanding.

They left us as soon as they could fly ; but on July 17, 1874, was our terrible suffer-
ing. Legions came upon us, destroying our entire crop of corn, potatoes, cabbage,
and all gardens without exception unless smoked day and night; some saved their
cabbages in this way ; everything they could light on was covered; sheds, trees, and
the earth could not be seen for them; even the cottonwoods and soft maples suffered
considerably, the leaves being eaten off; they killed several soft maple trees by gnaw-
ing the bark off ; bos elder they did not trouble ; on July 21, after staying with us
five days and six nights, they left. I forgot to say they began to light down upon us
at four o'clock in the afternoon and quit at half past six. When they left, on the
morning of the 21st, the sun was partially obscured, so dense was the cloud of 'hoppers.

August 6, 1876. — A day long to be remembered by us. Millions of 'hoppers lit down
upon us, partially destroying our corn, totally destroying our gardens aud potatoes,
doing immense damage.

On the 13th this first flight left for the south. Between the 13th and 17th two more
flights lit down, leaving on the 18th towards evening, as our vegetation was all gone,
seeking for something to eat southward.

J. ROCKWILL.

Fremont, May 11, 1877.
Question 23. Have not had eggs hatch here in fall. Iu 1873 the Texas 'hopper de-
posited eggs here in June ; these hatched in about two weeks, I think.

Ogauaixa, Keith County, June 13, 1877.
Swarms were observed passing northward over this place on the 26th, 27th, and
28th of May. They were flying high, did not appear to be very dense, and I have no

APPENDIX I. NEBRASKA DATA, 1877.

[9]

knowledge of their extent. They were going with alight wind from the south, mov-
ing northward varying slightly to the westward ; weather moderately warm and
nearly clear ; were passing or noticed from 9 a. m. to 3 p. in.

The large swarms have never stopped long in this section, there being no fanning
done here. They do not appear to do much harm to the grass.

W. P. P. ST. CLAIR.

Albion, Boone County, May 17, 1877.

We have been visited by the flying locusts four out of the five last years, yet in one
of the four years very little damage was done to crops. In 1874 they7 were flying in a
southerly direction, commencing their ravages here about the middle of July ; corn
crop entirely destroyed, and small grain about half. The following fall Southeastern
Nebraska., Southwestern Iowa, Missouri, and Kansas were literally tilled with eggs.
The next year (1875) they were flying in the opposite direction, towards the north.
In 1876 it was again reversed, and they returned south, entirely destroying the corn
crop, but were too late to do much harm to other grain; gardens, however, were de-
stroyed. Commenced flying about the middle of August.

My observations of their movements and habits in the year I have named have led
me to the following conclusions :

First. That they fly north and south (or nearly in that direction) in alternate years
over this section of country.

Secondly7. That there is no particular time of day in which they alight or rise, de-
pending entirely and absolutely on the course of the wiud, either favorable or unfa-
vorable for the course in which they are moving. I have seen fields literally covered
with them in almost all kinds of weather, clear, cloudy, and rainy.

I have seen them flying very thick just before a heavy shower and immediately after
it, and yet did not come down, which has suggested the idea that they may rise above
the rain during that time. If not, they certainly must fly through it.

Again, during the season of their migration, either north or south, the wind blows
from the south, or say from between the points, southeast and southwest.

In 1874 and 1876 they were moving from north to south (and only move with favor-
hie winds), destroying our crops each year, in consequence of the almost continual
south wind detaining them sometimes a week at a time.

In 1875 they were fully as numerous, and commenced their ravages fully as often as
in cither i>t' tlie other years I have mentioned, yet the wind being favorable nearly all
the time for flight in the direction they were pursuing, their stay was very short at
all times during the season.

Ihave never known them to alight while a favorable wind was blowing, neither
have I ever known them to remain an hour after a favorable wind commenced blowing.

I do not wish to be understood to mean thatthey are confined to a particular or exact
point of compass, but that, when they are going south, it may range from southeast
to southwest.

LORAN CLARK.

Plattsmoutii, Cass County, June7, 1877.
Question 1. July 2, 1867. — General southerly to northerly direction on gentle breeze
(Signal-Office nomenclature of winds) from south. First noticed about 9 a. m., con-
tinued on the 3d in a heavy body, as also on the 4th till 3 p. in., when a heavy rain of
1.60 inches in 1| hours obscured ( .') them. A very few were found oil the ground after
the storm, but not .0001 of what were seen before the clouds obscured them. What
became of them ? Frequent observations since have shown that when flying with a
wind which brings a storm they simply disappear from view as the clouds obscure the
sky. But if a wind reverse to their course meets them they come down in large num-
bers. The 2d, 3d, and 4th, up to 3 p. in., were nearly or quite clear, and wind con-
tinued southerly.

'Atujiixt 8, in, ;lnd 11, 1868. — Each day much the same, calm and but few clouds in
the forenoon, and immense swarms passing from south to north, but each day from 1
to 3 p. m. a northwesterly to northerly wiud from strong to fresh brought them down
like a hail-storm.

Many memorandums were made of flights and arrivals from 1868 to 1875, too lengthy
to copy, but all to this general effect. They were invisible when passing overhead
till near 9 o'clock a. m., or in the afternoon much after 3 p. m. They must be nearly
in a line with the sun to be visible, and the sun falling below this angle of some 45°,
leaving untold myriads of them in the*air. Yet I never knew them to come down
after that time, unless driven down by an opposing wiud. Again, iu June, 1875, from
the 13th to the 24th, on every day, if the sun shone out, they were passing over, but
noue wero seen descending at night. The locusts rarely move much in the morning,
till the sun warms up the air as also the locust, and I havo no record or recollection
of their rising til! from 9 a. m. to 11. a. m., yet the mass above would be seen by or

[10] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

before that time high up on their regular course. Such immense masses couhl not de-
scend each night without literally covering and burying the ground. Docs the main
army continue its march night and day, only dropping a few stragglers as they become
too weary or hungry to keep up f

Question 1 b. August, 1868.— On the 8th, 18th, 19th, and 20th days of flight the ther-
mometer ranged from 57° to 86°.

July, 1875.— From the 13th to the 22d the maximum temperature was from 70 to943,
the minimum from 52° to 66°.

June 14 and 10, 1870. — (Flight from northeast to north on northerly winds); tem-
perature 57° to 79°.

August 24 to 28. — Northeast wind; temperature 59° to 80°.

August 29. — Wind south; immense numbers; temperature 74° to 86°.

I do not think they rise to join the crowd above. I never knew them to rise unless
there were swarms passing over at the time, in cloudy weather. Still, when in regu-
lar flight, I do not think clouds stop them, although it obscures them from view. As
the sun has appeared through broken clouds I have often seen them passing, while
when the sun was obscured they were invisible.

Question 1 a and v. Invariably in the direction of the wind, be its force more or less.

Question 1 c. By arranging the focal distance of a spy-glass to fit objects at a known
horizontal distance, and comparison of appearance and size of locusts, I think the
passing swarms are generally from one-hall' to one mile high, varying at times, proba-
bly seeking currents of wind or greater or less velocity. In case of sudden and heavy
rains, when the air was fidl of them, none of consequence came down with the rain.
It seems impossible that they could fly through the. storm. Do they rise above it ? In
heavy swarms my glasses show them as dense as they can move without interference.
The extent of the swarms it is difficult to ascertain, as the observer can only see a
small belt. They may extend indefinitely right or left. During the flight from June
15 to 25, of 1875, I telegraphed east and west, and found a continuous line moving
northward of 110 miles, anil then somewhat broken 40 miles further. The movement
of the wind for live days (15th to 20th) averaged about 10 miles per hour; and the lo-
custs evidently moved considerably faster than the wind, at least 15 miles per hour.
The swarm I estimated at from one-quarter to one-half mile deep. It seemed like
piercing the milky-way of the heavens ; my glasses found no limit to them. They
might have been a mile or more in depth. They were visible from six to seven hours
each of the successive five days, and I can see no reason to suppose their flight was
checked during the whole five days. If so, the army in the line of advance would be
120 hours X 15 miles per hour= 1,800 miles in length, and say at even 110 miles in
■width an area of 198,000 miles ! and t hen from one-quarter to one-half mile deep. This
is utterly incredible. Yet how can we put it aside?

Question 2'. According to all my records and recollections they rise to depart between
9 a. m. and 12 in., and never unless there is a swarm in motion overhead.

Question 2a. June 13 to 15, 1868. — Toward northwest on a southeast wind.

June 20, 1869. — After a four days' southerly wind, they came down largely on a north
wind.

June 13 to 22, 1875. — The air was full of them nearly every day, the wind generally
from south or southeast. The locusts went with it ; two short changes to northeast
brought them to the ground.

June 24. — During the forenoon the wind was light from the north and locusts came
with it (a rare case). At noon a full calm and progress stopped. They circled round
and round, and many came down.

June 25 to 28. — Wind southeast. Locusts went on it to northwest.

July 2, 1*75. — With an east wind flew westward.

July 7. — Southeast wind, and to the northwest.

June 14 and 15, 1876. — To the southward on northerly winds.

August 10. — No wind and no general course.

August 24 and 25. — Northwest and northeast winds brought a few. On the above
times the wind was generally light, from 5 to 10 miles per hour ; the weather fair, of
course, where the locusts were visible, for they are invisible in cloudy weather.

Question 2b. The temperature at the time of rising has ranged from 70° to 90°. Cold
or cool weather renders them sluggish.

Question 2c. The direction always corresponds with the flocks they join, of which I
have spoken above. I have rarely seen a large number rise at once. The lower air
will be very full of them, but at least four-fifths of them rise, take long horizontal
flights, but, seemingly unable to rise, come to the ground again. I presume they have
to make several efforts before they succeed. •■

Question 3. August 24, 1876, I first noticed them.

Question 7. — A compact earth, as a path or firm, solid, bare ground, with fair expos-
ure to the sun. It must not be too hard, as the central part of a road or path beat
very hard.

Question 8. Warm sunny exposures, not beaten too hard.

APPENDIX I. NEBRASKA DATA, 1877.

[11]

Question 9. June 5, 1875. — A neighbor reports that a few came down June 6, 1877.
Question 10. From June 12 to 20.

Question 12. Wheat, oats, corn, and garden vegetables.
Question 13. I know of no effectual protection.
Question 14. Potatoes, pease, and sorghum.

Question 15. 1 have no knowledge of any course except toward food.

Question lb\ Firing prairies and straw piles, and some machinery, have been tried.
As eggs are rarely deposited on the prairie sod, burning it is useless, except as it bor-
ders cultivated grounds, where it may catch some who have traveled from the bare
fields to the bordering grass for food.

Question 17. None.

Question 18. Of machinery, three or four have been used, but, as far as I can learn,
with no very desirable effect.

Question 19. We were heavily visited in 1876.

Question 21. 1857, 1858, 1861, 1864, 1867, 1868, 1869, 1873, and 1875.

Domestic fowls, so far as garden lots, home lots, &c, are concerned, are of much
value ; if in sufficient numbers but few eggs or locusts -will escape them.

With regard to birds, my residence is largely surrounded by shrubbery and trees,
which draw large numbers and varieties of birds. I have closely watched them for
years, and, although they may be of service against the locusts, I cannot testify to
much in their favor. I protect them from all enemies as far as possible, but it is a
very rare case to see any one of them in evident pursuit of the young locust.

Question 23. I know nothing. I havo reports that different persons saw a few last
fall, but I doubt the fact.

Question 24. Cabbage, turnips, and wheat — the young plants — seem to be univers-
ally a favorite food, but circumstances or tastes seem to vary in most other plants.
In one field certain plants are entirely devoured and others close at hand untouched,
while in others it is exactly the reverse. My neighbor on an adjoining lot had his
lettuce and pease entirely destroyed, while his other plants were untouched. In mine
nearly all are gone but my lettuce and pease, which are unharmed. Many like cases
have come to my knowledge, both with the young and the old.

I know nothing of any marching or traveling except as they march across a field of
grain or other food and leave a bare plain behind them. When on the wing I am in-
clined to think they fly all night.

Their movement must be regulated largely by the wind they are on, and this they
out-travel, according to my observation, at least one-half.

Yesterday, July 22, about noon, I noticed they were passing over in very large num-
bers ; a light southerly wind bore them northward. I gave my entire attention to
them, and watched them, assisted with a spy-glass. The swarm was of great depth,
at least one-fourth mile ; how wide I had no means of determining — through some
peculiarity of the atmosphere, probably aided by a lower flight than usual. (The
barometer indicated from 30.019 to 30.062 inches pressure.) I kept them in view till
after 7 p. ni. with no perceptible diminution of numbers. Careful observation in the
evening and again this morning shows not a single one on the ground.

At 8-£ a. m. this morning I succeeded in getting sight of them again overhead, and
as the sun rose higher developed numbers about the same as yesterday. (Query : Was
the line continuous through the night ?)

For several years I have observed the locust and have seen no exception to the gen-
eral rule that it is very sluggish in the cool of the morning, i. e., on the earth. It
does not leave its perch, roost, or bed, voluntarily until the air is warmed up from 8
to 10 a. m. Supposing this swarm had descended somewhere, it must have literally
more than covered the ground. Yet, in violation of their general habit of late rising
here, they are at 8| a. m. in regular flight overhead. The thermometer at 9 p. m. (last
night) was at 68°, at 7 a. m. this morning 64°. A minimum thermometer fell during
the night to 55°, altogether too cool for them to have risen from the earth to recom-
mence their flight this morning. But, on tbe other side, if cold renders the locust
sluggish, how does it succeed in keeping on its way in the upper strata of air, which
must be much colder than on the earth ? Does its action evolve sufficient heat to
enable it to keep up its flight?

When met by opposing winds, I have seen them come down in large numbers,
but by common consent to descend en masse; I have no knowledge of it. I see no way
to avoid the conclusion that they fly all night.

A. L. CHILD. X. D.

Grand Island, Hall County, May 12, 1877.

Question 4. April 13 and 14, 1877, the eggs were most numerously hatching on my
farm (bottom land), while I learn that on higher and dryer locations they hatched in
great numbers about one week earlier.

Question 5. Probably one-fourth of the eggs originally deposited failed to hatch
the present year. I frequently found a smallish white maggot occupying the egg-

[12] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

sack, which was emptied from the original contents. I believe the failure to hatch
was owing partly to the warm weather Mining winter and early spring, which caused
early deposited eggs to approach the period of hatching so near that subsequent hard
freezing caused them to addle.

Question 7. In warm and sandy, well-settled soil ; such as cornfields, orchards, and
pasture land where the grass had been eaten off by stock rather close, and where bare
spots were frequent.

Question 16. The means effectually employed in this section of the country to
destroy the young insects is principally the so-called " Canfleld Grasshopper Extermin-
ator." I have killed four nail-kegs full* within three days.

Question 18. Coal-oil, used to the depth of about one-fourth of an inch in the ma-
chine, is the medium by which millions of young 'hoppers are killed in a very short
time by dragging the machine over the ground infested by them. In sowing the
killed 'hoppers along the border of grain-fields I have kept the living ones from enter-
ing the gram-fieldfi and also have driven them away from spots in the orchard and
grove where the young 'hoppers could not be caught on account of the trees and shrub-
bery.

We settled in this county (Hall) in July, 1*57, and we did not notice any grass-
hoppers until August 1862. The swarm appeared then and came w ith northwest wind.
Weather clear.

August 1, 1864, the hoppers made their appearance again.

July 15, 1875, all the buckwheat in the county was destroyed by them, but no other
crops.

July 8, 18GG, grasshoppers came in large swarms, doing a great deal of harm; north-
west wind brought them; weather clear.
In 1-lW, appeared again but did no damage.

In 1869, came in the early days of August and destroyed nearly all the corn crops in
Hall County.

In 187:?, May 22, came in large swarms with southwest wind; damage light. They
left with southwest wind.

In 1874, July 20, 21, and 22, also August 5 and 6, came in swarms which at times
darkened the sky. Wind north and northwest; weather clear. Nearly all the crops,
in particular corn crops, in Hall County were destroyed, but hardly any eggs were
deposited by them here. They left before depositing their eggs and went into the
southeast part of Nebraska, into Kansas and Iowa.

In 1875, June 24, appeared again in this county with southwest wind ; August 8,
and 10, with northwest wind, and the damage done in August was considerable. The
greater number of them, however, in 1875, were diseased and fell dead frequently
when Hying.

Maggots numbering from oue to eleven in each 'hopper were feeding on them in their
bodies. Also little red parasites were frequently noticed fastened to the wings or
bodies of them.

In 1876, August 5, first swarm seen here, at 3 p.m., with northwest wind, weather
clear. This swarm, however, was not very large. August 10 and 12, at noon, large
swarms of them arrived with northwest wind, weather clear, and commenced depos-
iting eggs about August 13 or 14. On the 14th some left, but at the same time more
and still larger swarms arrived ; weather clear and northwest wind prevailing. I
worked hard with ten hands for ten days to save my corn crop, vegetable garden, and
orchard, by smudging fires, adding freely pulverized sulphur, but eventually had to
abandon one field after another, thus leaving the 'hoppers the victors. They stripped
every fruit tree of its foliage and took even the bark off the large limbs. They con-
tinued depositing their eggs until the 23d and 24th of August, when the wind which
ever since the 15th had blown from the south and southwest changed to the north and
northwest, which carried all those that were able to fly south and southeast.

The extent of country devastated by them — coming from north and northwest —
reached from about the western boundary line of Nebraska to the Missouri, as far as the
State of Nebraska is concerned, and from the Platte bottom toward the northern boun-
'dary of the State ; while farmers 25 miles south of here got fair corn crops on account
of the grasshoppers reaching them from ten to fourteen days later than they reached us.

In Hall County nearly all vegetables were destroyed by them — the early potatoes
excepted.

The full grown 'hoppers relished, of fruit-trees, the foliage of apple trees more than
of crab-apple, pear, peach, cherry, or plum trees; still all were more or less damaged.
Plum and crab-apple the least. Of lorest trees, the coffee-bean tree, ash-leaf maple or
box elder, soft maple, honey-locust, elm, beach, willow, Rocky Mountain evergeen,
red and white cedar were injured and eaten by them but little; while the black locust,
white and gray willow, white ash, catalpa, cottonwood, silver poplar, black and
white walnut, European larch, American larch, Scotch pine, white pine, Norway

* Mr. Thomas was at the house of the writer when he was fighting the young locusts and saw ono
keg full of the very young insects.

APPENDIX I. NEBRASKA DATA, 1877.

[13]

spruce, were eaten off and injured a great deal more than those trees enumerated first.
The grape vines — the cultivated as well as the wild — were let alone until the apple trees
all were stripped.

Question 26. The native grasses were injured hut very little, while timothy, hlue
grass, red-top, and clover were eaten olf clean hy the full-grown 'hoppers.

Question "27. Wild as well as tame pigeons are feeding as well on grasshopper eggs
as on the young 'hoppers, hut I never saw them touch the grown insects. Domestic
chickens and turkies, as well as prairie chickens, grouse, and quails partake of them
at any time and in any state of development. Soon after you left here, large flocks
of various kinds of black birds appeared, and have been feeding upon the young
'hoppers ever since. These birds have destroyed a fabulous number of the young
'hoppers, and are still at it.

Question 28. Deep plowing last autumn, so far it seems, with a good and satisfac-
tory resnll .

Question 30. The young 'hoppers, soon after they are hatched, on mild days, will, to-
wards evening, climb bushes, poles, sticks, small trees, and the dead stalks of grasses
and corn. On wet and cold days they seek shelter and refuge in dry grass near the .
ground, under litter aud rubbish or dead leaves ; in fact, anything that will shield
them best against the cold and wet. I have noticed them to work a hole with their
hind legs and cover themselves with earth immediately previous to cold and wet
weather, where the soil would permit them to do so. This led many farmers to be-
lieve them destroyed in consequence of a hard snow and rain storm of several days'
duration, whilo experience proved that where the least shelter was offered them hut
few of the young 'hoppers died in consequence of suow and cold.

WM. STOLLEY.

Genoa, Platte County, August 1, 1877.
The movements of the locusts for the past month have been as follows :
From the 5th to the 13th the flight was to the north, the wind being generally from
the south and southwest, then an intermission ; then another flight from the 21st to
the 25th in the same direction. On the 29th these insects commenced going south,
and descended in considerable numbers though without doing much injury, the wind
from the west at the time. On the 30th they went north, while the wind was fresh from
southwest. On the 31st they again went south and southwest, while the wind was
from the northeast. The time of moving was from 11 a. m. to 2 p. m.

September 1, 1877.

During the past mouth the movements of the locusts from the 1st to the 21st have
been towards the south and southwest, favored hy winds from the north and north-
east, the only exception being on the 19th, when, the wind being south, they were ob-
served going towards the north. The 21st, date of the last observation of them, I
presume to be the end of them for this season. From what I have seen, I infer that
under favorable circumstances the locujts go north from the middle of June to the
middle of July, varying a day or two from one season to another, and under similar
circumstances they go south from the middle of July to the latter part of August, hut
whether it be the same flocks or not will be difficult to determine ; hut of this I feel
satisfied, that, with favorable winds at the time of such migrations, the people of Ne-
braska need have no fears of them,

GEO. S. TRUMAN.
Sunlight, Cass County, May 1, 1877.

Question 1. 1874, 2 p. in., July 26.

la. Wind from northwest : light breeze.

16. Clear.

le. To' southeast in clouds, low, flying, and lighting all the evening.

1875. First saw flying ones 11 a. m., June 3, but few, most on 19th.
la. From south ; light breeze.

16. Clear.

lc. To the north, but few, quite high.

1876. August 24, 10 a. m.

la. Light breeze from northwest.
16. Clear.

lc. Southeast, but few, quite high (following day alighted thick).
Question 2. 1874, September 4, 2 p. m.
2a. From northwest to southeast; breezy.
26. Clear.

2c. To southeast ; all got away that day.

1875. Flew northwest and north from June 3 ; very thick on 16th.

1876. About 30th August.

[14] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

2d. From northwest ; gale.
2b. Clear.

So. To southeast, part going and part remaining, till they perished by cold and
starvation.

Question 3. No eggs deposited.
Quettion 4. 15th ultimo.
Question 5. May 10, 1875.
Question 6. But few failed.

Question 7. Soil, with a clay tendency and well drained.
Question 8. Same as above.

Question 9. 1875, about June 3. Haven't wings the present year.
Question 1(1. Same as above.

Question 11. In county, 1874, 125 per cent. ; 1875, 50 per cent. ; 1876, 10 per cent.
Question 12. 1^74. Corn and vegetables.

1875. Wheat, barley, and vegetables.

1876. Corn and vegetables.

Question 15. They inarch for some field of grain, and stay there until fledged, if
good picking.

Question 16. Burning prairie grass, placing straw or hay where thick and burning;
satisfactory.

Question 19. Visited in 1876.

Question 20. 1874, July 26 ; 1875, from 3d till last of June. Also hatched.

Question 21. Very useful.

Question 23. Never known any to hatch.

Question 24. Radishes, cabbage, onions, rhubarb, tansy, wild and tamebuck wheat.
Question 25. Peas, tomatoes, sweet and Irish potatoes, vines of all kinds.
Question 26. No damage vet.

Question 27. Hogs, squirrels (prairie, gray, and striped), chickens, and wild birds of
different kinds.

Question 28. Fall plowing.
Question 29. 98 to 100.

Question 30. Only saw the grown ones fly up to roost in the evening. The young,
of a dry evening, crawl up on stubble or weeds cast off by the machine, but of a wet,
get under shelter. Saw first 'hoppers hatching this year, April 15. (Some of our na-
tives have been flying a number of days.) A large majority have hatched mostly
last ten days; they are dying, I think, as fast as they hatch ; cause, wet and cold.
I find dead ones under stalks and grass where they have sheltered. I find but few
larger than when firsl hatched.

T. N. BABBITT.

Fall City, Richardson County, May 21, 1877.
Perhaps I ought to state at the beginning that I have lived here on the same 80
acres of land since the fall of 1865 (nearly twelve years), and have kept a journal all
the time, so that data I give are not from memory, but from records made when there
could be no mistake.

We have seen the locusts come in here five times, and at present the fifth swarm is
being hatched. The first time we ever saw tbem they came in large numbers from
the west, on September 7, 1866, and consequently the first hatch here was in the spring
of 1867 (ten years ago). The season was wet and the eggs hatched late, as they are
doing now, and I think there were quite as many eggs here then as now. Nearly all
the wheat, oats, potatoes, and garden vegetables were ruined, except pease, which
were not injured. The corn, which was thinned out in places by them before they
left, made a good crop. In 1867 the first swarm that hatched here began leaving on
June 28, and kept leaving, flying north and northwest, every day, when the
weather was suitable, so that on the 4th of July but few were left here.

They came back again from the north in large numbers, but not so many as the
year before (in the fall of 1H07). In the spring of 1-0- they hatched out early, so that
they began leaving June 20, but they were not numerous enough to do us any serious
damage.

In the fall of 1868 a swarm came back, but smaller than either of the others, and
our crops suffered but little from the hatch of the spring of 1869. From the time that
swarm left we were not visited again till August 9, 1874, when the swarm came in
from the southwest. The eggs laid by them caused a total destruction of crops the
next spring, and, as a consequence, nearly one-half of the farms in this county are
mortgaged to-day.

In 1875 we saw a great many hatched on a south slope on the 19th of April. The
•weather was dry, and almost every egg seemed to hatch by the latter part of May.
Almost every farm in the two counties, Nemaha and Richardson, were as bare as in
mid-winter. After killing 200 apple-trees for me, they began to leave on the 11th of
June. Then we planted our corn again ; but when it came up it was again destroyed
by a flying swarm that came down in a shower of rain. We planted our corn the third

APPENDIX I. NEBRASKA DATA, 1877.

[15]

time the last of June and the first of July, so of course we had no ripe corn. What we
put in cribs, most of it, began to heat, and we hauled it out for manure.

Last fall, it seems, we were favored ; the 'hoppers did not get here till September
14. They had been near, both north and west, for several weeks, but a steady south
wind kept them back, so there were not so many eggs laid as in 1874, and the season
has been so wet that I have no doubt one-half of the eggs are rotten. Since May 9 it
has rained every day except two. Very few 'hoppers are alive now, most of them
being either picked up by the birds or drowned by the rains. I am glad to see you
recommend plowing and harrowing in the Bulletin. We began to plow our roads in
February, and our club has been planning and working to try to save our crops ever
since, and it encourages us to know that our example has been followed nearly all
over the county.

In 1876 the first eggs were deposited here September 15.

The eggs were most numerously hatching this year May 8, on the roadsides, aban-
doned roads, &c.

A neighbor saved his garden in 1875 by ditching around it 2 feet wide and 2 feet
deep. Another saved his young apple-trees by whitewashing often.

GEORGE HUTCHINGS.

Friend, Saline County, June 1, 1877.

The time that swarms of locusts arrive vary in accordance with the wind.

In 1873 the locust, in passing from the northeast, encountered a southwest wind, which
caused them to alight in great numbers (August 27), at about 4 p. m. On the follow-
ing day. the wind having changed to the north, a considerable number of them passed
on towards the southwest.

In 1876 the first appearance of the locusts was August 25, at 3 p. m. ; they came
from the northwest, the wind being favorable to their general course. They evinced
no inclination to migrate farther, but deposited their eggs and remained until the cold
finally put an end to their existence.

Their descent has been either during clear warm days or upon the approach of sud-
den storms.

The general direction of swarms are alternately from north to south, going south,
where they deposit their eggs, and when the young are sufficiently large to fly going
north the next season. The departure varies according to the amount of dew on the
ground. When there is no dew their departure will date as early as 7 to 8 a. m., and
in other cases when the dew is sufficiently gone to allow them to become dry. They
always fly with the wind, and in case the wind is adverse they patiently wait for a
favorable breeze.

They began to deposit eggs about September 1, and continued until the frosts put
an end to it.

Eggs hatched most numerous from May 1 to 15. The date of hatching previously
was May 1. The hatchiug was late this year on account of long cold rains.

Eggs are usually deposited in hard ground sloping toward the south. 1st. New
breaking being the most preferred. 2d. Early fall plowed laud.

The young were most numerously hatched on sod land (or what is termed in Ne-
braska new breaking').

The insects are full fledged about June 25, and take their flight about July 1.

This section was visited in 1876. Visited in 1874 and 1858.

Birds and domestic fowls have been very useful in destroying the full grown' hoppers
In the fall of 1876 the prairie hen was so impregnated with the locust taste as to be
unpalatable. Quails, prairie chickens, snipe, blackbirds, &c, have been killed in
this vicinity with their crops filled with the eggs. At present Nebraska is trying to pro-
tect her birds by a law imposing heavy fines for the killing, robbing of nests, or hav-
ing in possession any recently killed bird at any season of the year, and the probabil-
ties are that it will be enforced. During the fall of 1876 my garden, 50 by 100 feet,
was literally filled with eggs. Upon close examination I found 100 eggs to the square
inch, and tbo running of a spade or hoe through the ground about one inch below the
surface made a noise like distinct skirmishing, so numerous were the eggs. At that
time I had seven of the common chickens, and I noticed that they were scratching up
the ground along the margin of some old onion beds for two or three mornings ; after
that I raked up one square rod with the garden rake, and by this time the fowls under-
stood the business well enough to need no further assistance and in this manner went
over the central plot.

This spring I have kept close watch, but not to exceed a dozen young insects have
hatched. Suffice it to say that seven domestic fowls in about three weeks have en-
tirely cleared about one-fourth of an acre of as thickly nested ground as Nebraska
ever had.

No eggs are known to have hatched in the fall except by artificial means.
The young insects prefer onions, strawberry, wheat, oats, and barley. The old
ones prefer onions, corn, and beyond that are not particular as to diet. Peas and

[1G] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

sweet-potatoes are the least relished by both old and young locusts. Native grasses
have not been in jured by old or young insects to a degree so as to be visible.

The young and growing insects remain during the night in old grass, fallen weeds,
piles of dry hay or straw, or under clods of cart li, bnt never under the latter when the
former is convenient.

E. WHITCOMB.

Republican City, Harlan Coxnrnr, July 31, 1877— 3.15 p. m.
The locusts are passing over here to-day in vast numbers. Course from northeast
to southwest. Temperature 89° in shade ; have been Hying since nine o'clock. The
wind has been brisk until 12 m. Since that it is light. 'Hoppers are flying high anil
fast, wavering but little. Weather clear, was cloudy this morning, cleared about 8
a. m.

B. D. MILLS.

Plattsmouth, Cass County, Jane 7, 1877.

The locust eggs have beeu hatching with us ever since early in April, and are still
doing so in shaded cooler places, as also where turned under by the plow and less ex-
posed to tho heat of tho sun. A few warm days in succession have repeatedly covered
the ground with the newly-hatched insects. But one peculiarity has been observed
and generally commented Upon by all observers, viz, but a very small per cent, of the
insects increase in size. They are still small, but just hatched ; and, further, each suc-
cessive hatching did not seem to increase the sum total. A very few are occasionally
seen from one-half to three-quarters grown ; while it is time (with former experience)
that the earlier hatching should have wings and arrive at full growth, as the small
swarm from the south yesterday also indicated.

We have, during May, had much rainy weather. Some severe storms that washed
tho ground somewhat severely, and some dead have beeu found on margins of streams;
hence the general reply, although quite unsatisfactory, has been " drowned," "washed
away," &c. Now a farmer, William P>. Porter, a thoroughly reliable man, tells me to-
day that yesterday he went over his wheat-field, and (hiding but few 'hoppers, where
there had been many a few days before, he got down to the ground and carefully ex-
amined it, when under the debris, clods, &a, he found millions dead and many largely
decayed. He could discover no insect or parasites upon them or other cause of death.
The ground was not rolling enough to wash them off, supposing the rains have caused
this destruction. My own experiments -show that it is almost if not impossible to
thrown or freeze them to death, i. e., at a singlo operation. But continued repetitions
or series of rainy days (and we had ten successive days of rain) may wear them out at
last.

A. L. CHILD, M. D.
September 17, 1877.

The locust has been seen during many days since August 15 flying over, moving
with the wind, generally in a westerly direction. None of consequence descending to
the earth.

A. L. CHILD, M. D.

North Platte, Lincoln County, June 15, 1877.

I saw grasshoppers flying over (north) last week ; think it was the first of the week.
Have inquired of a number of persons, and so far have found no person that has seen
any flying except on that day. I have been over on the north side of the North Platte
River twice since the day they flew over, and saw very few ; and, unless a person was
looking for grasshoppers, they would not notice any. Last week was on south side of
South Platte as far east as Warren; saw none that day.

Have lived in North Platte five years, and during that time, in the month of June,
the country here has never been as free from grasshoppers as now.

J. H. McCONXELL.

Falls City, Richardson County, May 28. 1877.
Your opinion expressed in the Prairie Farmer that nearly all the eggs in Nebraska
would hatch seems correct regarding this section. In the fall of 1874 the young 'hop-
pers or many of them formed in the eggs and hatched about the middle of April, 1875,
a month earlier than this season. The flying 'hoppers came to this section about the
9th of August, in 1874, and began to deposit eggs at once. Last fall they came about
the middle of September, which accounts for the lateness of the hatch this spring.
Deep plowing under of the eggs is thought here the best plan as regards managing
them. ■• The nearer the time of hatching the plowing can be done is oonsidered the
best.

* APPENDIX 1. — MINNESOTA DATA, 1877.

[17]

Eggs are deposited in many places where plowing is impracticable, and hence where
the 'hoppers hatch out numerously in such places, unless destroyed, they will travel
to and destroy crops. It is difficult to say here what crops or vegetation they prefer,
as when here in 1875 they ate everything about clean as they went, except prairie
grass and forest tree leaves. They are bound to eat and live even if they have to be-
come cannibals. In this section they ate last fall all the early fall sowing of grain and
grass seed.

C. C. SMITH.

Pleasant Home, Polk County, August 11, 1877.
The grasshoppers are flying in the air to-day, and have been for the last eight or
ten days. They are not traveling in any particular direction, sometimes north, some-
times south, just whichever direction the wind is blowing. A good many alighted in
my wheat field yesterday, and commenced cutting the heads off the wheat ; they
have not done any damage to amount to anything. The air has been full of them,
but they have not traveled in swarms as they did last summer.

W. W. ELLIOTT.

G. M. Dodges record of locust flights in Nebraska in lb77.

Glencoe, Dodge County, Nebraska.

June 22. — Spretus has done little injury yet. During the last week a large number of
the insects have pupated. The young appear to be moving north.

June 14. — Wind southwest; clear day ; many grasshoppers flying, and some alight-
ing ; flying with the wind as they invariably do here.

June 16, 17. — Wind southwest and grasshoppers flying; few alighted.

June 22. — Wind southeast : grasshoppers flying ; few or none alighted. Native grass-
hoppers (Cal. minor Lc. and Gomph. clepsydra Lc. ) are just getting their wings; being
ahead of C. spretus, but behind their usual season.

July 15, 18, 21. — Flying southwest abundantly ; some alighted.

August 2. — Flying southwest; wind changed and they alighted, but were only
thick on small areas.

August b. — Wind light from northwest; spretus flying over and alighting; wind
freshened in afternoon, and the new arrivals and those of August 2 all left.
August 7. — Clear. Flying southeast all day.

August 9. — Flying a steady stream all day southwest ; some alighted.

August 11. — Flying southeast; arrivals of the 9th mostly left.

August 12. — Some flying northwest.

August 14, 15. — Flying southeast in great abundance.

August 16. — Flying abundantly southwest.

DATA FOR MINNESOTA.

Marshfield, Lincoln County, August 4, 1877.
Invariably since last communication, when the wind was in the east, north, or west,
locusts have been flying over. The heaviest swarms when the wind was north, none
flying with wind south or southwest, their general course to the southeast ; none seen
on the wing till about 11 o'clock a. m. ; continue flying till sundown, how much longer
impossible to tell.

Our county has suffered less from locusts than counties further east. Only one year
in the last sis have they deposited any eggs with us (last summer), and then but few.
We have suffered most from migratory swarms. Perhaps this may be the reason : Our
county is on the "dividing ridge" between the Mississippi and Missouri, nearly 2,000
feet above sea level, and is rather wet, nearly one-quarter of the area being lakes and
meadow. Altogether a country for stock raising. The upland prairie this season cov-
ered with a blue joint grass nearly two feet high ; soil black, sticky.

Two or three days the locusts alighted in large numbers in places a few rods across,
perhaps i to 1 mile apart, seemed eicklv, covered with red parasites.

M. L. WOOD.

[The following record of flights from Worthington, Nobles County, Minnesota, has
teen furnished us by Lieut. R. B. Platts, U. S. N.]

1877.

July 1. — High up is quite a flight going west and northwest on a southeast wind.
Wind hauled from northeast since 9 a. m. Yesterday wind was very strong, a gale

[18] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

from sou'li and southwest moderating to the northwest hy sunset, and not much dur-
ing tli ■ ,:ight. None light hero at night.

■In' i .{.—To-day, with a brisk east-southeast wind at noon, and, after quite a heavy
flip: it going northwest, none are alighting now.

July 4.— 'Hoppers living high and thick to-day, though none light, or at least very
few. Am told by a number that all that alight are infested with the mites.

July 10. — Since Saturday the wind has been north and northwest. On Sunday a
gn .it many 'hoppers were dying, but none lit to do damage that I have heard of.
None ll -u yesterday or to day so far.

July 11. — (Wednesday) wind from southeast and going northwest all day, nonestop-
ping that I have heard of. Large numbers passing.

July 12. — Wind from southeast strong, quite a heavy flight to northwest; none lit
that I know of. t

July 13.— At writing, 10 a. m., it is cloudy and wind from south-southwest. I think
none are moving.

July 14. — Rained very heavily last night till about midnight. Wind variable this
iuorning, settling to brisk in the southeast; many flew over to northwest.

July 15. — Wind northwest, quite a good many flew to-day, seemingly going as near
south as possible.

July lfi. — Brisk wind from the west ; none.

July 17. — Wind from west and change to northwest ; scarcely any flying at all.
July IS. — Wind from northwest, cloudy; cool this morning. None flying.
July 10. — Wind northwest, cool. No 'hoppers flying.

July 20. — Wind north tending east. Quite a good many flying as near west as the
wind will permit.

July 21. — Wind south-southeast. Quite a good many flying high to the northwest.

July 22. — Wind southeast. Good breeze and heavy flight; high to the northwest.

July 2.5. — Wind stroug south-southeast. Heavy flight from about 10 a. m. till late,
and to the northwest; flew high.

July 24. — Wind south-southeast at noon. Some were flying and flew late, to the
northwest.

July 2">. — Wind south-southeast; good breeze. Not many flying.
July 26. — Wind stroug south-southeast; none flying.

July 27. — Wind varying from south-southeast to northwest, cloudy part of the day
and none flying.

July 28. — Wind northwest; cool and none flying at 10 a. m.

July 29. — Wind from south-southeast ; a very few 'hoppers flying.

July 30. Wind from south-southeast, backing up to north northeast. After noon a
gn at many dying.

July 31. Wind from northwest to northeast. Rained a little this morning. After
dinner wind northwest, and a good many flew.

August 1. Wind light from west to northwest. Quite a heavy flight.

August 2. Almost a calm this morning. About 1 1 a. m. 'hoppers were circling in the
air, and about 1 p. m. a breeze from the southeast, and all moved off in a body, flying
very late. None lighted.

August 3. Wind southeast nearly. Very few flying.

August 4. Wind from southeast. Scarcely any flying

August 5. Wind from south and southwest. No 'hoppers.

August 6. Quite a rain last night. Wind northwest. Quite a heavy flight ; none
lighting.

August 7. Light wind from southeast. None scarcely flying.

August 8. Wind brisk north-northwest. About noon a heavy flight going very high
to the south and flying late.
August 9. Wind northwest nearly. Heavy and light again, but none lit.
August 10. Wind from southeast and none flying.

August 11. Wind from southeast very light. Cloudy part of the time, and could
not notice any flying.

August 12. Wind from northwest. Cloudy somewhat, could not notice any flying.
August 13. Wind northwest. Cool ; very few 'hoppers flying high.
August 14. Wind variable. None flying.

During all this time and all the flying, no damage done in the county that I can
hear of, nor have any eggs been laid as yet.

Marshall, Lyon Couxty, August 2, 1877.
Locusts flew southwesterly in great numbers all day, and on July 27 and 28, and
August I southeasterly.

August 1, a good many dropped down in this vicinity; none to speak of in this vil
lage, but north and south of it. They are said to be eating greedily. I fear they are
a healthy lot, fresh from the great plains and will breed. Those which have been
here before this year do not couple or lav eggs or eat. much, or act lively.

D. F. WEYMOUTH.

APPENDIX I. MINNESOTA DATA, 1877.

[19]

August 6, 1877.

Grasshoppers flying southeast in great numbers ; none lighted here. Those that
JVvere here have all disappeared.

For tha last mouth the 'hoppers have been flying every clear day when the wind
vus northerly. One night they were flying in great numbers as long as we could see
them and none fell down ; they were also flying the next day. Wo feel sure they flew
-all that night, which was warm and without dew.

D. F. WEYMOUTH.

Saint Paul, Ramsey County.
June 28, a considerable movement southeast, but none lighting heavily anywhere
that I now recollect.

July 1-8, heavy flights northwest, and considerable numbers lighting from Big Stone
Lake northward, especially around Morris. ^

Since the 8th, particularly the 10th and 1 1th, heavy swarms flying south or a little
■east of south, and considerable numbers lighting here and there as far east as Chaska,
in Carver County.

In general, they have heen flying every day with the wind, and as freely one way as
another; no tendency to move in any particular direction.

Locusts were passing Morris for nearly a week, some coming down, others rising,
but when the wind was in from the north they all started southeast (or nearly south),
and left Morris clean. When the northerly wind struck up there was a south move-
ment (a heavy one, too) seen as far east as Big Lake, up in Sherburne County. As
a great many have flown southwest across Rock and other south counties, I think
it likely that many have gone off into Dakota that will not get back again. So far
as I can see, the swarms have moved hither and thither, regardless of direction, wher-
ever the wind carried them.

Large numbers of dead locusts are being found everywhere. They are in the full
grown and pupa states. In some cases, at least, it is due to the red mite.

ALLEN WHITMAN.

Grafton, Sibley County, July 2, 1877.

July 1, 1877, at noon, 'hoppers in great numbers fill the air from 20 rods high to just
as high as the eye can see them ; seem to be going southwest, as the wind is northeast;
the flight at all times just the way the wind blows ; the weather is very warm ; the
upper current of air is very mild; 'hoppers moving very slow, while the lower current
is a little stiffer, and consequently the lower 'hoppers are moving much faster thau
the higher ones. 'Hoppers hatched much most numerously this year (1877) the last
of May; in 1875 nearly the same time. I think there was not more than one out of
every thousand of eggs deposited here but what hatched. They were deposited in
breaking most numerously, and very many on the raw prairie. They like hard, com-
pact soil to deposit their eggs in best. The first insect acquired full wings about the
■20th of June, 1877. Some were seen rising up and going off the 24th of June.

Coal tar and sheet iron have been used very extensively, and other devices, such as
"sacks and burning of straw and of the prairie grasses — all to no avail.

We have had the 'hoppers with us since 1874, when they lit down on us, deposited
their eggs, and in 1875 they hatched out. There was no emigration here that year.
In 1876 they lit down upon us again, deposited their eggs, and from those eggs we
have 'hoppers this year (1877).

GEO. R. GARDNER.

Excelsior, Hennepin County, July 8, 1877.
Wind has been from the southeast for a week till to-day. 'Hoppers were flying
to-day from 11 a. m. till 3 p. m., with the wind from northwest; did not see any
alight ; must have been a swarm rising from a whole district which passed wholly
over.

Ours are yet of all sizes; some still hatching; crops all uninjured, but the larger
ones are beginning to climb on the wheat ears ; suppose you have heard of their mov-
ing to the northwest these few days past.

T. BOST.

BURNHAMVILLE, TODD COUNTY, August 24, 1877.

The young insects generally traveled in the direction of the wind, but when once
on their way, a change in the direction of the wind would not induce them to change
their course. They also liked to follow roads and paths. They seemed to be more
inclined to travel shortly before they enter the winged state than at any other period
of their development.

ALBERT RHODA.

[20] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

Jackson, Jackson County, June 7, 1877.

Grasshoppers are not so numerous in this locality as was anticipated when they first
commenced to hatch. The unprecedented heavy rain that fell May 20 must have de-
stroyed myriads of them.

The eggs were deposited by two different swarms that lit here in the latter part ef
July and fore part of August last.

The nones nearest the surface commenced to hatch about the middle of April, and
as lato as May 24 cones turned up (while plowing) and would burst from five minutes'
exposure to the air and the sun, until the plowed ground was covered with the little
struggling pests. The yellow-headed blackbirds, in the meantime, were enjoying
a carnival upon that plowed ground glorious to behold.

The 'hoppers, true to the instinct with which they are eudowed, invariably deposit
their eggs in solid bare ground, as the hatching process depends entirely upon the
action of the sun and air.

Were it not for the migratory swarms liable to settle down upon my farm from time
to time, the task of annihilating grasshoppers upon my own premises might be easily
done : First, by preserving the grass upon pasture and meadow until the 'hoppers were
all hatched and the dead grass real dry, and then fire it on the windward side during
a rousing wind. The tilled land I should plow with a breaking plow, such that would
ecour,with a device attached to the fore part of the beam to skim the surface, so as to
convey all the eggs snugly into the bottom of the furrow and turn up subsoil enough
on top that neither drill nor harrow would disturb them while seeding in the spring.

Besides destroying many of the nests, such a thorough stirring of the soil would
well repay for the extra power needed to draw the plow. Thence highly cultivated
and thickly settled regions need not lose but one crop, the one that the pests might
alight upon. But in these parts where so many farms have been vacated, and the few
settlers that remain being generally miles apart, with every atom of energy and enthu-
siasm within them, so to speak, beiug smothered during the long siege, the question
at once assumes a magnitude beyond conception, and the only safe course for us to
pursue under present circumstances, is to till less ground and raise more live stock,
for the native grasses, which are never devoured enough to speak of by grasshoppers,
cannot be excelled in any part of the world for fattening stock.

There is a substance, which appears and tastes like saleratus, found in streaks
through all the soils in these parts; the rains wash it from the knolls until the hol-
lows are white with it, and I am inclined to think the 'hoppers have a tendency to
subsist upon vegetation impregnated with it.

JOHN DAVIS.

DATA FOR IOWA.

Tabor. Fkkmont County, April 11, 1877.
Your letter to President Brooks was handed me. I shall be ready to do all I can to
assist in the work of studying and exterminating grasshoppers.
A few exx>eriments I perhaps might give now as well as later.

About the middle of last February, after considerable pleasant weather. I dug a lot
of eggs and kept them about ten days on the window-sill (a south window) in my
recitation-room, in a crayon-box, when they commenced hatching and so continued for
about ten days more, when I tested the effect of cold upon them, some of them having
already shed their skins once.

I first placed some in a dry test-tube and plunged it into a freezing-mixture cooled
to 10° F. ; after keeping them one hour, all (20) were dead, and I have no doubt half
that time would have been sufficient.

I then placed the box with the rest upon a stone out-doors and left it over night.
In the morning the thermometer was at 15° F., and placing one in the box, it soon fell
to 18°. I left the box in this position till noon, to avoid sudden changes of tempera-
ture. The day was pleasant, and at noon I found one or two (out of probably 15 or
20) moving, but I saw nothing of them after. It evidently killed them. However, I
found on bringiug the box to the warmer air of our living room, that about a dozen
new ones came out, readily distinguished by their lighter color.

I have observed, also, that those just emerging from the egg are liable to be killed
by their elders. I saw this done repeatedly. It may have been owing to lack of fixxl
at first.

I have the opinion that most of our eggs are dead, but have not satisfied myself;
fully by observations. This opinion is based on the fact that many eggs are dried up;
many examined seem no further along than in February. Again, those in exception-
allv drv places hatched, although they have been more exposed during the winter.

JAMES E. TODD.

APPENDIX I. IOWA AND DAKOTA DATA, 1877

[21]

Nevada, Storey County, July 2, 1877.

You will pardon me for volunteering a few suggestions on the locust pest.

In your report of June 15 to Governor Garber, of Nebraska, you use the following
language, which appears to me to be erroneous : " Heretofore the swarms moving from
the south northward toward their native habitat have not, so far as we are aware,
done any injury ; " and again, " Hence, that the race must run out here, and that it can
only be continued by repeated invasions from its habitat in the far Northwest or Rocky
Mountain region." I have observed the locust in this and the Rocky Mountain region
for a number of years, and have come to the conclusion, partly from observation and
partly from theory, that their native habitat is not in the far Northwest, but that they
migrate there through natural causes ; that -when they migrate they never return to
their native habitat, which is in a warm, dry soil, where there is but little winter and
slight rainfall. They are very sensitive to heat and cold, and therefore when the full-
fledged insect gets ready to migrate the warm south wind, invigorates them ; they rise
up in the air and are carried north until they reach a climate which is not congenial,
and where forage is scarce ; they then, or their progeny, next season or perhaps both,
■change their course to a southeastern direction. Some swarms first migrate from their
native habilat east and others west, but I think by far the most migrate in a northern
direction. The locusts that came to this part of the State last fall (1876) were the
progeny of those that left their native habitat in 1875 and are now becoming extinct.
I think they will not survive the present season. I think by observation it can be
known whether the insect is in its native habitat or not.

I suggested these thoughts in a communication to Professor Rilev last winter.

J. S. FRAZIER.

DATA FOR DAKOTA.

Sioux Falls, Lixcolx Couxty, May 21, 1877.
I have seen a willow grove in Iowa stripped of foliage aud a field of corn adjoining
it not injured. I have been also informed by reliable parties that a farmer living ad-
joining some timber has supplied Canton with a large amount of garden vegetables
•during fall and winter, when his neighbors had not enough for their own wants.
Prom this it would appear that if we had a larger acreage of timber our crops might
be to a great extent, if not entirely, saved from the ravages of the locusts.

B. C. JACOBS.

Wahpetox. Richlaxd Couxty, June 27, 1877.

Question 4. Commenced hatching about May 10. Most numerously hatching about
May 25. Still hatching in moderate numbers.

Question 6. Uncertain, very small, possibly one egg-cell out of 100 failed ; cause, small
worm entering cell and devouring eggs; also small red bug doing same thing.

Question 7. In the most thoroughly packed sandy soils.

Question 8. Same as No. 7 .

Question 11. In the country, up to present time, owing to splendid growing weather,
crops have kept well ahead of 'hoppers, until within the past week their ravages are
.showing in many localities; a very few fields almost ruined in past lew days; others
slightly; many not at all, but the pest is increasing so rapidly in size, number, aud
voracity that gravest fears are felt.

Question 12. Wheat, because it is the principal crop. Pease as yet have escaped.

Question 13. Pease, for the reason that thus far they have protected themselves.

Question 15. Generally south aud southeast, occasionally in opposite directions.

Question 16. The sheet-iron "'hopper dozer'' at first with strong hopes of saving
•crops, but when ten came to look after each one captured, farmers despaired but kept
using the machine until the grain was too high and the Choppers to agile.

Question 18. The sheet-iron '"dozer," as described in Saint Paul Pioneer Press: A
strip of sheet-iron, 12 or 14 feet long, turned up at back aud ends 6 or 8 inches, in front
I inch; the pan covered with tar, kerosene, soft-soap, &c, the whole drawn by wires
or cords. *

Question 20. In 1875 and 1876.

Question 21. After careful observation several of us have concluded that if the prairie
was packed seven feet deep over its entire surtace with grouse, prairie chickens, and do-
mestic fowls, and they could get no other food, they might make some slight impression
on the hordes. In 1865 I rode 113 miles one day on the railroad from Wilmar, Minn., to
Breckenridge, Minn. ; the whole distance was through one continuous cloud of flying
'hoppers filling the air as with snow-flakes as far above the earth as a powerful field-
glass could distinguish them : how much farther west the cloud extended is unknown,

[22] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

as the railroad and my trip ended at Breckenridge. The noise was as of bees swarm-
ing, so great was the number of wings in motion.

Question 23. Very few eggs hatched hero in the fall. In February, 1877, I placed
earth containing egg-cells in my office and hatched out a largo number, placed then
out doors over niglit with thermometer 20° below zero ; next day replaced them in
office, and in a few hours one-third had recovered ; next night placed them out doors,
18° below zero ; next day only about one in five of the survivors of the first experiment
recovered.

Last summer wo put about one bushel of the grown 'hoppers in a gunny sack,
pbieed the sack in a barrel of water and kept it under water with weights. The next
day I took them from the barrel and emptied them out of the sack, when, to my aston-
ishment, I discovered a large number, perhaps one in forty or fifty, still alive.

Question 24. Garden truck, oats, barley, wheat, potatoes, buckwheat, and, when well
grown, apparently anything an ostrich would digest; coatsor other clothing, saddles,
leather, whips, &c., left on the ground a few hours would be ruined.

Question 26. Here they do not seem to have made much impression on native grasses.

Question 27. Our domestic fowls. I have also observed my tame craue gathering
them in.

Question 28. Plowing in fall and early spring where they were known to have laid
eggs in great numbers seems to have almost entirely spoiled the hatch.

Question 29. Almost entire prairie ; small clumps of timber occasionally along the
streams.

Question 30. Our nights being almost universally cool the 'hoppers, towards sunset;
congregate, when small, in piles or windrows, in the ruts in the roads, and along the
sides of houses or other elevations, sometimes two or more inches deep. Where they
lack these accommodations, I observe they climb on small shrubs, literally covering
them. I think they neither march, fly, nor eat with us at night.

Question 31. Apparently about the same rate of speed as the wind.

D. WILMOT SMITH.

Springfield, Box Homme County, June 5, 1877.
The first appearance of locusts was in the morning of August 3, 1872. I think they
must have come from northeast, as I met them while traveling in that direction. I.
recollect it was very hot, but did not record the direction of the wiud ; think it was
a still day. The next noon, the wind being in the northwest, they moved a little to
southeast and remained until about noon of the 5th, when they left in a body, wind
being southeast. During their stay they spoiled some pieces of corn and late oats ;
others but slightly.

Their next visit was in 1874. I think it was July 18. They rose in the form of cloude
iu the south and southwest, about 1 p. m., and commenced settling about 2 p. ra., rav-
enously devouring every green thing iu garden and field, so that in two hours hardly
a vestige was left in gardens ; nothing in ours except youug peach-trees ; but the next
day, between 9 a. m. and 12 m. the wind blowing geutly from the north, they left for the
south. The result was, very few men harvested an ear of corn or dug a potato, very
few oats gathered, and wheat turned out less than 5 bushels to the acre. About two
weeks later vast hordes passed over from the north, and thus ended the campaign for
that year.

June 17, 1875, the wind being south, the 'hoppers came in untold numbers, and about
11 a. m. began to settle, but in a few minutes a cloud being in the north, the wind
commenced blowing gently from the north ; they came slowly but steadily all day from
the south, settling mainly on fields of corn, remaining until noon of the 8th, when
they left, leaving about three-quarters of a crop.

July 20, 1876, the wiud having been iu northeast for several days, they came in force
from that direction, but did not appear to be very hungry ; soon after they settled,
the wind veered to the south and remained there almost constantly for a month, so
they could not get away, they trying two or three times when the wind would change
to north for a few minutes, so they merely changed neighborhoods two or three times
till August 18, when the wind being north, with a clear sky and but gentle bieeze,
they took their final flight south, occupying about two hours passing a single point.
I can't learn that there have ever been eggs of any amount laid in this part of the-
Territory since 1866 till last year, and then ouly in small patches in some locations. I
have heard of but very few in our county, no one apprehending any danger from them :
the first discovered was about the first of May, small patches, generally in sandy or
gravelly locations, facing the south.

S. HITCHCOCK.

PLATE XVII.

Fig. 1. Melanoplus cinereus Scudder. Female ; Wallula. (This and all the other fig-
ures of natural size.)

2. Melanoplus devastator Scudder. A Bmall female ; Reno, Nevada.

3. Melanoplus devastator Scudder. A large female ; Redding, California.

4. Melanoplus cinereus Scudder. Female ; Reno, Nevada.

5. Melanoplus cinereus Scudder. Male; Reno, Nevada.

6. Melanoplus atlanis (Riley). Female ; Victoria, Vancouver's Island.

7. Melanoplus packardii Scudder. Male ; Wallula, Washington Terr.

8. Melanoplus packardii Scudder. Female; Wallula, Washington Terr.

9. Camnula atrox Scudder. Female ; Vancouver's Island.

10. Circotettix maculatus Scudder. Female; summit Sierra Nevada.

11. Trimerotropis vinculata Scudder. Siasons, base of Mount Shasta, California.

12. Arphia frigida Scudder. Male; Selena, Montana.

13. Psinidia wallula Scudder. Female; Wallula.

14. Psinidia wallula Scudder. Male; Sissons, base of Mount Shasta.

15. Gomphocerus shastanus Scudder. Mount Shasta, California.

16. Pezotettix pacificus Scudder. Male ; California.

17. Pezotettix borckii Stal. , Portland, Oregon.

18. Gomphocerus shastanus Scudder. Female; Mount Shasta, California.

19. Melanoplus devastator Scudder. Male; Colorado, 1879.

20. Melanoplus devastator Scudder. Male; FortKeogli. Montana, 1880.

U. S. Entomological Commission

NEW SPECIES OF WESTERN LOCUSTS.

APPENDIX II.

LIST OF THE OETHOPTEEA COLLECTED BY DE. A. S. PACK-
AED IN THE WESTEEN UNITED STATES IN THE SUMMEE
OF 1877.*

By Samuel H. Scudder.

GRYLLIDES.

Gryllus sp.
Vancouver's Island.

Gryllus sp. alt.

Salt Lake Valley, early June.
Oecanttius sp.

Wallula*, Wash.

LOCUSTAEIAE.

XlPHIDIUM ENSIFERUM Scudd.

Specimens were obtained at Glen Brook aud Reno, Nev., which agree with the or-
dinary type, excepting in the length of the wings, which surpass the tip of the teg-
mina.

XlPHI&IUM BREVIPENNE Scudd.

Sissons, Strawberry Valley, base of Mount Shasta, Cal. August 23.

Xiphidiuji fasciatum Serv.

Portlaud, Oreg. None of the above Locustarians have before been recorded from
points ho far west. The latter two (which are probably dolichopterous and brachyp-
terous forms of a single species) are thus shown to extend across the continent.

Anabrus sp.

A large number of specimens of this genus, collected by Dr. Packard, are reserved
for a future paper.

Udeopsylla robusta (Hald.) Scudd.

Colorado ; received from Mr. H. Edwards.
Tropidischia. xanthostoma Scudd.

Mendocino. Cal. ; received from Mr. J. Bchrens.

ACRIDII.

(Acridiidae.)

Acridium Shoshoxe Thom.

Specimens taken at Reno, Nev., August 18, must be referred to this species, as a
comparison with the types kindly lent me by Mr. Thomas shows, but they have a dis-

* A number of the species mentioned or described here are represented in Plate XVII
at the end of the report.

[23]

[24] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

tinct dorsal yellow stripe, probably effaced in Mr. Thomas's specimens from too long

immersion in alcohol.

Hesperotettix vikidis (Thom.) Scudd.

Salt Lake Valley, August 13.
Melanoplus bivittatus (Say) Scudd.

Salt Lake Valley, August 13.

Melanoplus femoratus (Burm.) Scudd.

Wallula, Wash.
Melanoplus Packardii Scudd. PI. xvii, figs. 7, 8.

Wallula, Wash.
Melanoplus cinereus Scudd. PI. xvii, figs. 4, 5.

American Fork Canon, Utah, August 5 ; Reno, Nov.; Wallula, Wash.
Melanoplus devastator Scudd. PI. xvii, figs. 2, 3, 19, 20.

Salt Lake Valley, Aug. 14; Reno, Glen Brook, and Lake Tahoe, Nev.; Sissons and
the Shasta district, Cal.
Melanoplus femur-rubrum (De Geer) Stal.

Salt Lake Valley; Glen Brook, Nev.; Sissons, Cal.; Portland, Oreg.
Malanoplus atlanis (Ril.) Scudd. PI. xvii, fig. 6.

Glen Brook, Nev.; Wallula, Wash. ; Portland, Oreg. ; Victoria, Vancouver's Island.

MELANOPLU8 SPRETUS (Uhl.) Scudd.

Numerous localities.

Bradynotes opimus nov. sp.

Closely allied to D. obesux ( Pezotettix obesus Thom. ) General color blackish griseous,
more or less flecked with brown ; face and genae below the eyes varying frdm pale to
pinkish livid, punctate, especially below, with black, and divided by black stripes
following the edges of the frontal costa and the lateral carinae of the face, and also,
generally, the arcuate posterior carinae of the genae, and an oblique line of punctures
subparallel to it below the middle of the genae; summit of head with a median and
a pair of arcuate, lateral, narrow black stripes, the former the darker; antennae testa-
ceous near the base, blackish beyond. Anterior lobe of prouotum with a large central
blackish spot, inclosing a pair of testaceous dots, laterally disposed ; lateral lobes
lighter below than above, speckled, with a broad, somewhat broken, black median
band crossing the anterior lobe ; tegmina wholly wanting. Abdomen varying from
grizzly to blackish, the posterior edges of the segments dotted with minute longitudinal
spots, and some of the posterior segments marked with a central, triangular, testaceous
spot, seated on the posterior border. Hind femora with the outer face generally
altogether black, occasionally lighter and marked with a central, oblique, pale dash
above; upper and lower faces pale testaceous, the inner side of upper face with a
pair of black bars ; hind tibiae deep purplish at base (with the basal outer tubercle
deep red), passing into deep red beyond the middle, the under surface clay -yellow ;
the spines on basal half pale, on apical half reddish, all black tipped. Anal cerci
nearly straight, subcompressed, but convex exteriorly, broad at base, tapering through-
out more rapidly on the basal than on the apical half to a bluntly-pointed tip.

Length of bodv, <? 23!nm, 9 24mm ; of antennae, <J 9.5mra, 9 i0.5mm ; of prouotum,
$ 5.5mm, 9 5m™; of hind tibiae, $ 9 10.5mm.

This species differs from B. obenw in some of its markings, in the lighter punc-
tuation of the posterior lobe of the prouotum, aud especially in the anal cerci of the
male, which are much stouter and coarser, not so strikingly divided into a rounded
basal and slender, almost linear, apical half, as in B. obeaus. Like it, it comes from
high elevations. Baron Osten Sacken brought home specimens taken in the Sierra Ne-
vada between July 17-22, some of them immature ; and Dr. Packard took 1 ^ 2 J at
the forest line on Mount Shasta, Cal. A single specimen, damaged by too long pres-
ervation in alcohol, and brought by Mr. W. G. W. Harford from Oregon City, appears
to belong here.

Pezotettix Borckii Stal. PL xvii, fig. 17.

Portland, Oreg.

Pezotettix pacificus nov. sp. PI. xvii, fig. 16.

Form and appearance of P. Borckii, Stal, but slenderer. Fastigium of vertex and
frontal costa continuously and shallowly sulcate, approaching flatness at the upper

APPENDIX II. LOCUSTS OF WESTERN UNITED STATES. [25]

•extremity of the latter : front andgenae yellowish livid, flecked with brown ; antenuae
■castaneous, pale at base ; summit of head testaceous, flecked, especially in the mid-
dle, with black ; a broad piceous stripe extends from the eye to the posterior border
of the upper half of the deflected lobes of the pronotum. Lower portion of these
lobes of the color of the genae ; disk of pronotum testaceous, flecked with black dots,
and a pair of small black spots lying on either side of the middle line on the posterior di-
vision of the anterior lobe ; anterior lobe distantly, coarsely, and shallowly punctate;
posterior lobe profusely and less coarsely punctate; transverse sulci of anterior lobe very
distinct; median carina sharp and distinct on posterior, obsolescent on anterior lobe;
posterior margin of pronotum nearly straight, scarcely angulate. Tegmina shorter
than the pronotum, broadly rounded, not at all produced at tip, testaceous, with dark
veins, the inner area paler. Hind femora compressed, outer surface blackish, under
surface pale sanguineous ; hind tibiae very dark bronze-green ; hind tarsi castaneous,
infuscated in spots. Abdomen yellowish, the sides with a narrow, tapering, longi-
tudinal piceous band. Anal cerci strongly compressed, very broad and rounded on
basal half, with marginal borders, and a little tumid in the middle, the apical half
subcylindrical, slender, tapering, pointed, not one-third the width of the base, the
whole not more thau half as long again as broad.

Length of body 17m,n, of antennae 6mm, of tegmina 3.75mm, of hind femora 10mm.

1<J. Sissons, Cal.

(Truxalidce.)

Stknobothrus curtipennis Harr.

Lake Tahoe and Glen Brook, Nev.
Stenobothrus propixquans Scudd.

Salt Lake Valley.
Chrysochraon sp.

Lake Point, Utah.
•Gomphocerus shastaxus nov. sp. PI. xvii, fig. 15, 18.

Front of head brownish testaceous, faintly flecked with fuscous, excepting in a clear
livid stripe in front of the lateral carinae, passing from between the antennae and the
•eyes to the outer base of the mandibles ; genae bluish livid below, becoming infuscated
above, and deepening to black behind the eyes; summit fusco-testaceous, with an ar-
cuate dusky or blackish line from the front edge of the eyes to the posterior border,
where the upper limit of the black stripe behiud the eyes is edged above with a
lighter more or less yellowish color. Antennae about as long as the hind femora in the
male, fusco-testaceous or castaneous, subdepressed, equal throughout in both sexes.
ISyes separated above by as much as the outer bases of the antennae, the front of the
fastigium bent at a right angle, slightly margined,' the lateral foveolae straight, equal,
meeting in front, sulcate, many times longer than broad; frontal costa perfectly flat,
expanding and fading below the ocellus. Pronotum brownish, the lateral carinae
generally marked distinctly with a dull yellow stripe, the lateral lobes mostly black
or blackish above, usually deepest on the middle of the front lobe, its anterior margin
often marked with yellow and with a central, very short, longitudinal, pale-yellow
dash ; median and lateral carinae equally distinct and rather slight : the front and
hind margin slightly angled. Tegmina ovate-sublanceolate in the female, shorter than
the head and thorax together, oblong-obovate in the male, much longer than the head
and thorax together, rounded apically ; in both obscure dark fuscous, with blackish
flecks. Hind femora black on the outer face, but the lower carina and inferior face
pale yellow, the superior face brown, with two oblique dark transverse stripes, which
also cross the yellow interior face ; apex black. Hind tibiae black at base, followed
by a broad pale yellow and then a fuscous belt, the apical half sanguineous, the
spines black tipped. Abdomen brownish fuscous above, yellow below, the.^wo inter-
•digitating on the sides.

Length of body, $ I6mm, 9 21mm; of antenuae, <J llmm, 2 10mm; of pronotum, <J
3rom, 5 4mm ; of tegmina, $ 7.5mra, 2 5.5mm ; of hind tibia), <J 10mm, 2 11.5mm.

5 $ , 5 2 • Mount Shasta, among the firs.

( Oedipodidae. )

Chimarocephala pacifica (Thorn.) Scudd.

Mann County, Knight Valley, Skaggs Springs, Cal. ; received from Mr. Edwards.
«Camnula atrox Scudd. PI. xvii, fig. 9.

San Francisco, Sauzalito, Cal. ; Reno and Glen Brook, Nev. ; and Victoria, Vancou-
ver's Island.

[26] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

Arphia frigida Scndd. PI. xvii, fig. 12.

Virginia City, Mont., June; Helena, Mont., June 21.

Hippibcus CORALLIPE8 (Hald.) Scndd.
Salt Lake, June 0.

HlPPISCUS LINEATUS Scudd.

Franklin, Idaho, June 12. The tegmina differ slightly from the type.

HIPPI8CUS sp.

Helena, Mont., June 21.

S riRAPLEL'RA DECUSSATA Studd.

Helena, Mont., June 21.
Djrsosteira Carolina (Linn.) Scudd.

Portland, Oreg., Vancouver's Island, Septemher 8. Ahundant at Sissous, Cal.

ClHCOTETTIX CARLIXGIANUS Thoni.

Ueno, Nev., August lW.

ClRCOTETTIX MACULATUS UOV. 8p. PI. Xvii, fig. 10.

In surface, sculpture of the head and thorax closely resembliug the species last men-
tioned, but with the median carina of the pronotum more distinct, and a heavier pih»
upon the head and thorax. Whole head below the lower level of the eyes varying
from cinereous to chalky white, flecked on the posterior border and on the frontal1
costa with black specks; upper part of head dark cinereous, mottled with black, with
a narrow black stripe behind the eye. Thorax cinereo-testaceous, with a large-
central blackish spot on the disk, and a heavy quadrate black blotch over the front
portion of the upper half or more of the deflected lobes, folldwed beneath by whitish.
Tegmina cinereous, heavily flecked with blackish fuscous, especially collected on their
basal half into two transverse bands, one in the middle and the other at the base of
the second quarter; on the apical half the spots are quadrate and more or less clus-
tered into short oblique bars. Wings varying from entirely dark fuliginous, with a
faint hyaline cloud near the apex of the costal margin, to dark fuliginous, with the
apical third hyaline but containing a few dusky flecks. The wing differs from that
of the typical species in that the middle of the anal area is not so ample, aud that the-
spurious veins lie closer to the branches of the anal vein and do not extend so far
toward the base, this species approaching closer to Trimerotropw ; the cross-veins,
also, are more distant aud not so distinctly scalariform, so that some of the character-
istic features of Cirvotettix are here much weakened. Hind femora cinereous, with
two transverse bands of black flecks; hind tibiae yellowish cinereous, blackish at ex-
treme base, and infuseated beyond a basal yellow band.

Length of body, 25mm; of tegmina, 25m,n ; of wings, 22"""; breadth of same, 14mm;
length of hind tibiae, 10mm.

A single male from the summit of the Sierra Nevada was given Dr. Packard by Mr.
Henry Edwards. Baron Osten Sacken also gave me two males from the same place,
taken between July 17 and 22.

Trimerotropis i.atifasciata nov. sp.

Brownish cinereous, the vertex darker than the rest of the head, all the sculpturing of
the head sharply defined ; antennae yellowish brown, deepeuiug apically. Posterior
half of anterior lobe of pronotum rather strongly corrugated, the median transverse
sulcus very deeply impressed ; surface of anterior lobe otherwise smooth, posterior
lobe delicately but distinctly rugulose ; median carina rather prominent and heavy on
anterior lobe, slight but sharply defined and posteriorly obsolescent on posterior lobe.
Tegmina marked with two obscure, narrow, transverse belts of dark fuscous flecks,
one in tie middle aud one beyond the basal fourth ; a similar but faint third band
appears before the base of the apical fourth, and beyond it a few obscure quadrate
fuscous flecks in the diaphanous part of the tegmina, caused by the infumation of
single cells and the nigrescence of their bordering veins. Wings very pale yellowish
or milky, with a diaphanous tip, on which the veins are black and the cross-veins
yellowish or partly yellowish and black, and with an unusually broad, very dark,
almost piceous middle band, occupying about oue-third the length of the wing on the-
middle of the costal margin, and curving around to the inner angle; its outer border
straight or even slightly concave until, just before it reaches the outer margin, which
it avoids by bending inwards a short distance; the inner border of the band is>
strongly and pretty regularly arcuate, scarcely tending toward the base above. Hind,
femora with faint traces of a pair of dusky transverse bands on the outer face ; hind
tibiae pale reddish, with black-tipped spine.

Length of body, 29mm ; of antennae, 11.5mm; of pronotum, 6 mm ; of tegmina, 32n,m;
of hind tibke. 12mm.

APPENDIX II. LOCUSTS OP WESTERN UNITED STATES. [27]

2 $. Wiillula, Wash., September 1; Lake Point, Utah, August 14. The specimens
•were preserved in alcohol.

Trimerotropis fontana Thom.

American Fork Caiion, 7,500 feet, August 5. This species is closely allied to if not
identical with T. Juliana Scudd.

Trimerotropis similis nov. sp.

This species, of which only a single male was taken, at Wallula, Wash., appears to
differ from the preceding species simply in the coloration of the wings, which are pale
yellow at base, hyaline at apex, whore the principal nervures are brown and the
cross- veins whitish, and are marked by a moderately narrow but distinctly defined
blackish fuliginous baud, which follows the posterior border to the inner angle, and
sends a shoot along the discoidal field half way to the base ; beyond it the costal edge
is blackish nearly to the tip of the wing.

Length of body, 18.5mm; of pronotum, 4.4mm; of tegmina, 22mm; of hind femora,
9mm.

Trimerotropis caeruleipes nov. sp.

Very dark brownish cinereous, sometimes with a slight hoary bloom. Lower part of
head varying from white to livid, heavily flecked with black punctures ; frontal costa
flat or nearly flat above the ocellus, deeply sulcate below ; fastigium flat, with sharp
and rather elevated lateral carinae, the lateral foveolae elongate, triangular; antennae
blackish fuscous. Front lobe of pronotum rather small tuberculate, the median
carina sharp and rather elevated at this point, but on the granulate and rugulose
hinder lobe sharp and slightly elevated. Tegmina marked with blackish fuscous flecks,
which cluster into more or less distinct bands (the middle one the most distinct) at
the end of successive quarters, the outer a little nearer the middle one, besides faint
dusky dots which follow the principal black nervures on the apical third. Wings
pale greenish at base, hyaline or slightly infumated at apex, where all the veins are
black, with a narrow, arcuate, obscure, fuliginous, median, transverse belt, scarcely
extending at all along the outer margin, shooting almost to the base of the wing below
the costal margin, where also it is deepest in tint ; beyond it the costal margin is also
deeply fuliginous. Hind femora grayish cinereous, with a pair of obscure dusky or
blackish transverse belts on the outer face, most distinct above, and a blackish apex ;
hind tibiae with the base heavily mottled with black and yellowish brown, beyond
deep blue, the spines tipped with black.

Length of body, J 19mm, 9 25,nm; of anteunea, <? 11.5ram, 2 9.5mm; of pronotum, $
4.5 mm, 5 5mm; of tegmina, $ 21.5mm, 2 26*m; of hind tibiae, <J 10mm, J 12mm.

1 $ . 2 $ , Portland, Oreg. ; Sissons, Cal.

This species, which resembles T. fontana Thom. in the character of the band on the
wings, seems to be very distinct from auy Trimerotropis heretofore described.

Trimerotropis vinculata Scudd. PI. xvii, fig. 11.

Sissons, Cal., Aug. 23 ; Wallula, Wash.
Trimerotropis suffusa Scudd.

Berkeley and Shasta District, Cal.
Psinidia wallula nov. sp. PI. xvii, fig. 13, 14.

Closely allied to P. sulcifrons Scudd., but with even deeper sulcatious on the head,
and with considerably shorter organs of flight. Fusco-cinerous ; head gray from a
mottling of minute brown and livid spots, darker on vertex, paler about the mouth; a.
rather narrow blackish fuscous stripe runs from behind the eye over the anterior lobe
of the pronotum, ou which it is followed beneath, on the middle of the deflected lobes,
by a small quadrate black spot, the darker markings rather heavier in the female than
hi the male. Fastigium of vertex deeply sulcate, closed or almost closed behind, op-
posite the posterior half of the eye, by faint walls which curve inward and backward ;
sides of fastigium sharply carinate, connecting directly with the frontal carinae, and in
the female incurved next the antennae ; frontal costa very deeply sulcate, in the male
elevated nearly to the cariuae at the extreme summit and punctate ; in both sexes the-
frontal carinae are punctate in black. Antennae of male as long as the hind tibiae, tes-
taceous, infuscated toward the tip. Median carina of pronotum distinct throughout, but
scarcely cristate on anterior lobe ; disk of pronotum more or less rugulose, with a ten-
dency to a transverse disposition of the rugae, especially on the posterior part of the an-
terior lobe, where it is heaviest. Tegmina fusco-cinereous, the apical third partially
diaphanous, the costal half or less with two distinct, broad, quadrate or roundish, black-
ish bars in the middle, and in the middle of the basal half, besides brownish flecks
along the middle of the tegmina, and scattered flecks apically — the latter having a
tendency to follow the veins and especially to mark their tips. Wings pale citron -
yellow at base, x>ellucid, with dark and sometimes thickened veins <".t tip, with a broacfc

[28] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

arcuate fuscous median band, more distinct in the female than in the male, sending a
shoot inwards in the median area fully half way to the base, and terminating below at or
before the fifth superior" anal ray ; the costal edge at and beyond the baud is black,
and the row of cells beneath it infumated. Hind femora dark cinereous, with three
very oblique faint fuscous stripes ; hind tibia*- pale red, pale at bane.

Length of body, <J 16""", 9 2on,m ; of antennae, <J 9mn>, 9 8.5mm; of pronotuni,
<J 3.15""", 9 5mnl; oftegmina, $ 17 9,^3n"D; of hind tibiae, $ 9m"', $ 11.75mal.

5 3 9 . Reno, Nev., August IS; Sissons, Cal., August 2G ; Wallula, Wash. ; Dal-
las, Oreg., September 3.

AULOCARA DECEN9 Scudd.

Lake Point, Utah.

( Tettigidae. )

Tettix granulatus (Kirb.) Scudd.

A single specimen from Vancouver's Island is provisionally referred to this species ;
the pronotum is shorter than in Eastern specimens.

BLATTARIAE.

Phyllodromia germanica (Linn.) Serv.

A single specimen from California was given to Dr. Packard by Mr. Behrens; it
has recently been described by Mr. Thomas as a new species, under the name lachnop-
tera bivittata.

Panchlora sp.

Perhaps P. hyalina Sauss. Also received from Mr. Behrens. Probably imported
into California.

*By "superior" is here meant a ray which lies at the upper level on the folding of the wing.

APPENDIX III.

REPORT OF JOHN MARTEN.

Dr. Cyrus Thomas,

Of the United States Entomological Commission :

Sir : I have the honor to report that, iu obedience to your instructions, I have vis-
ited personally Northwestern Iowa, Southeastern Dakota, Southwestern Minnesota,
and Northwestern Nebraska.

My investigations, under your letter of instructions, were confined to portions of the
months of July and August, 1879.

I started from Carbondale, 111., July 22, passing up the Iowa Central Railroad to-
Ackley, Iowa. The grasshoppers flying here last year were not numerous enough to
cause any serious alarm. They came from the north and northwest. No eggs were
deposited by them, .and no 'hoppers have been seen this year.

At Fort Dodge no 'hoppers were found this ye:*r. In 1876 the Des Moines Valley
was visited in this vicinity by numerous swarms coining from the west and northwest
and depositing eggs, which hatched in the spring of the following year, also, a few
came in, but altogether there were not enough to do any serious damage.

At Marcus, July 26, I saw the first locusts ; they were full fledged.

July 25. at Le Mars,, I found the locusts quite thick. Iu 1873, eggs were deposited
here in June, and returning swarms came from the south in August ; was again visited,
in August, 1876, when eggs were deposited, which began hatching in March, 1877.

In August and September of 1877 swarms came from the northwest and deposited,
eggs, which hatched in the spring of 1878, aud full-fledged locusts were seen June 28.

From September 15, for a period of twenty days, eggs were deposited, generally in
sandy, compact soil, free from vegetation, and preferably on a southern or eastern slope.
These eggs hatched from April 1 to June 10 at iatervals. The early and irregular
hatching was supposed to have been caused by the dry weather and the deep plowing
done by some of the farmers.

The young 'hoppers moved in various directions; some were seen going northwest,
others east, and still others south. They attacked the wheat, barley, aud flax most
voraciously ; other small grains did not suffer so severely. Corn was not damaged
materially, although there were a few instances in which a second planting was made
of a few outer rows.

The estimate of damage given me for Plymouth County was 90 per cent, for wheat
and 50 per cent, for other small grains, but from observation I think this rather large.

Swarms were departing from June 14 to July 7 or later, the first going to the north
and west with the wind, a few straggling swarms going south after the wind changed
and blew in that direction.

At Sioux City, July 28, a few full-fledged 'hoppers were noticed. Swarms came
about September 1 from the north and northwest, and remained all fall depositing
eggs, which hatched June 18, 1879, at which time Dr. W. R. Smith, to whom I am in-
debted for aid, reported his wheat, corn, and garden all devoured.

From June 25 to July 1 the 'hoppers disappeared very notably, going south with the
wind. The estimated damage in Woodbury County shows that the western part suf-
fered most severely, wheat being damaged 75 per cent., oats and other small grains 50
per cent., while in the eastern part the estimate is placed at 20 or 25 per cent, for all
small grains. Corn was damaged considerably, but there will yet be a fair crop.
Sorghum, broom-corn, and pease generally escaped.

No means of destruction have been used extensively. A few coal-tar pans aud other
machines used in previous years have been employed.

The young 'hoppers, before obtaining their wings, have no particular direction of
travel, some broods going in one direction and some in another; but when a brood
starts in a direction it generally maintains it until wings are obtained.

In Sioux County locust eggs were deposited in June, 1873, the locusts coming from
the south, there being a south wind at the time, aud in the latter part of July they
came from the north. In the fall of 1876 eggs were deposited, and in 1877 the 'hop-
pers hatched and flew south.

September, 1678, eggs were deposited in vast numbers, principally in the western

[29]

[30] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

and southern parts of the county. These hatched during May and began flyingabout

June 25, 1871).

July:t0 and 31, was in Sioux Falls. The locusts visited that vicinity in August,
1878. depositing eggs from the 15th instant to middle of September. These eggs
hatched most numerously from April 25 to May 15. The young 'hoppers have no par-
ticular direction of travel, going wherever they could find anything to eat. The
amount of damage done by them this year was comparatively small, as much being
attributed to the drought as to the locusts, 25 per cent, being the estimate of dam-
age for Minnehaha County this year. Full-fledged 'hoppers were seen May 20, and
swarms were living northwest with the wind June 11 to July7, and were seen flying
over to the south July 28, but none have stopped here.

Union anil Lincoln Counties, parts of which I passed over, have suffered very much.
Wheat was almost all destroyed; oats had suffered severely, ashad all other small grain.
Corn was looking well, but in some places a second planting had been made.

Scarcely any means have been employed for destroying the locusts this year, a few
of the fanners using coal-tar pans and muslin-bag machines. Several farmers "back-
set" their fall plowing, and this undoubtedly destroyed great numbers of eggs, as
there were noteo many 'hoppers noticed on such fields as on those not backset. More
eggs were hatched on the bottoms than on the higher lauds.

July 31, at Worthing, Minn., a few locusts were yet to be found. For information
obtained here I am indebted to Mr. R. B. Potts, who very kindly gave me what uotes
he had collected.

Swarms came in August and September, 1878, from the northwest, and deposited
«ggs iu new ground, and preferably in low places, and in the beds of sloughs and ponds.
About one-third of the eggs deposited hatched, beginning early in April and hatching
in batches until the latter part of May. Full-fledged locusts were noticed the last week
of June, and swarms began departing about July 1, going in a northwest direction as
near as possible, the wind being favorable. 'Hoppers have since then passed over on
a northwest wind going southeast, flying very high. This season the young 'hoppers
traveled to the northwest, but this is not their usual habit.

All the wheat and about one tenth of other crops except sorghum, broom-corn,
and pease were destroyed. A portion of the failure of this wheat crop is attributa-
ble to poor seed.

Crops ou sod-laud were injured; most of those on old, well-cultivated ground es-
caped with not much injury.

Many 'hoppers died about the time of the last molt. The dead bodies had a de-
cayed appearance just back of the thorax shield — no grubs were formed in the bodies.

The silky mite destroyed numbers of the eggs and also preyed upon fnll-growu lo-
custs when in its more mature state. Dragging and harrowing the ground in the fall
and winter exposed the eggs to birds, and the action of the weather which by alter-
nate freezing and thawing destroyed them.

Farmers have employed no means of destroying the young locusts this year.

August 1, 1879, I arrived in Yankton, Dak., and am greatly indebted to Mr. A. W.
Barber for information and assistance.

From September 15 to 20, 1878, the locusts arrived here and immediately began de-
positing eggs, preferably in the cultivated porous soils of the bottoms along streams.
Very few eggs were placed in grassy or woody places.

April 11, 1879, young 'hoppers were first seen in sunny places. From this time until
the latter part of May they were hatching in batches, caused by the deep plowing of
some of the farmers.

Full wings were obtained from about June 15 to the latter part of July. They com-
menced flying during the first week of July, going to the south with the wind. Other
swarms were noticed flying over, going to the south and west. The prevailing winds,
as noted by the United States Signal Service at Yankton, for June, July, and August
were as follows: June, to the southeast; July, to the south 70 times, to the southeast
44 times, out of 217 observations; August, to the south, but nearly evenly distributed
among the different directions.

Crops damaged most are wheat, of which about 50 per cent, is destroyed; oats, 25
per cent. ; and corn to a considerable extent.

Three miles north of Yankton, on the farm of Mr. Cribbs, the damage was not so
great, while on the farm of Mr. Peter Huber, 15 miles north, the damage was very
extensive. Mr. Huber said he had sown 200 bushels of wheat, and expected to har-
vest about 50 bushels.

Sorghum, broom-corn, and pease escaped injury; onions and tobacco were mostly
eaten.

In 1876 the locusts hatched very numerously, but did not do a great amount of dam-
age. The red mites and wet season, with other causes, prevented their eating exten-
sively.

In 1877 the eggs were destroyed by silky mite and chickens. Mr. A. W. Barber
.found about 1,200 eggs to the square foot in 1877.

APPENDIX III. REPORT OF JOHN MARTEN.

The means of destruction used in this vicinity was the coal-tar pans. Crops were
saved to some extent by dragging ropes across the fields and by smoking them.

August 5, 1879, I went from Yankton to Firesteel, Dak., on the stage. Tlie locusts
Jiad visited Baldwin, Ramsey, and other places along the route, but had done only
slight damage to all crops and less damage on the prairies than in the J aines River
■bottom.

At Firesteel, locusts were first noticed in 1874, July 13 or 14, and staid two days.
July 25 they came from the northwest in large numbers, and August 1 another flight,
small in numbers, came. These departed to the southwest. They did no damage, as
there were only a few fields of sod corn in the valley. In 1875 locusts came in J uly,
about the first week, and destroyed oats, wheat, and barley. In 1876 no 'hoppers to
speak of. In 1877 locusts came July 5. The gardens were all destroyed. In 1878 no
•damage was done to small grains. Corn only slightly. Eggs were deposited for the
first time.

In 1879 locusts have been flying toward the southeast, but none have stopped.

Eggs hatched in the James River bottom at Fire Steel, and in the bottom six miles
north of there. The hatching commenced in May, and the latter part of June the
^hoppers began flying to the southeast.

From Firesteel I went to Fort Thompson. I went in a buggy. Full-fledged locusts
were seen nearly all along the route.

August 8, near the Wessington Hills, locusts were seen flying to the southeast, and
•on the 9th, at Fort Thompson, they were flying to the southwest ; both days they
were very high. No damage was done at Fort Thompson this year; as to previous
years I could learn nothing positive.

August 13, 1879, I visited Yankton Agency and found a few locusts, but could
gather no facts concerning them. Being referred to Rev. John P. Williamson, who
was absent at the time, I wrote to him for information. His answer I give in full :

" My first acquaintance with Yankton Agency was in 1868. Most of the time since
I have had a little Indian paper here, and from that and some other memoranda I
gather the following :

"A. D. 1868. — Grasshoppers arrived August 1 in such clouds as to cast a shade,
.and as they lit their wings made a roar like a flock of pigeons. They came from the
northwest, went southeast. They mostly left in two or three days, but a few remained
and deposited eggs along the roadside, and bare places, and in fields. No small grain
sowed here then, but the corn and potatoes were entirely destroyed. Along the creeks
many bushes were divested of leaves, especially ash.

"A. D. 1869. — A few hatched out in early spring and ate off some fields of corn as
it came up. 'Hoppers left for the north when their wings grew in June.

"A. D. 1870. — No damage bv grasshoppers.

" A. D. 1871.— Ditto.

"A. D. 1872.— Ditto.

''A. D. 1873. — Grasshoppers passed going northwest for several days, the last of
June and first of July. 'A few lighted, but left without doing any damage to mention.
They covered a field of wheat one night, but did not eat the wheat.

" A. D. 1874. — Grasshoppers came from the northeast during the last of July and
remained a week or more, not in such numbers as in 1868, but injured corn badly,
•destroying probably half of the crop on the reservation. They came too late to injure
small grain, though but little was sown at that time. No damage by grasshoppers
since 1874. I can remember that some years a few have been seen passing over, and
almost every year we have heard of them injuring crops in neighboring counties, but
they did not reach us on this reservation. You will see from my notes that early in
the seasou they moved north, and later south."

August 13, 1879, at Ponca, Nebr., a few locusts yet remain. They began hatching
April 15, and hatched until May 20. They began flying June 12 toward the north
and northwest. From the editor of the North Nebraska Journal I learned that two-
thirds of the wheat, oats, and barley were destroyed. Corn was not damaged much.
Sorghum and pease not eaten.

Coal-oil pans were used to kill young 'hoppers. Ropes were dragged across the
.fields to scare the old ones away. Smoke was also used to drive them away. Do-
mestic fowls destroyed a good many.

For flights of locusts I give a list as furnished by Mr. James Rockwill :

" May 16. — Light wind from south ; mercury at 58° morning, 78° noon. A heavy
flight of 'hoppers go north nearly all day.

"June 16. — 'Hoppers fly north by countless millions. Light winds from the south :
mercury 78° at noon. Also the young 'hoppers are destroying the small grain, and
■some fields of corn suffer badly.

"July 5. — Myriads of 'hoppers fly north. Light wind from the south.

"July 11. — A prolonged flight of hoppers ; go south. Light wind from northwest;
■mercury at 70° in morning, 92° at noon.

[32] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

"June2G. — A very heavy flight goes south. Light wind from northwest; mercnry
64° at noon. Besides those, several small flights, nearly all going sooth.

" July 15. — Terrible storm of wind, accompanied with lightning, thunder, and some
lain, doing considerable damage to growing crops, blowing down fences, chimney-
tops, &.C."

The North Nebraska Journal reports locusts flying into Dakota County, Nebraska,
Juno 5. Of this county the western part suffered severely. Of the eastern part only
a few farms near Covington, opposite Sioux City, Iowa, were visited.
Very respectfully,

JOHN MARTEN.

Carboxdale, III., October 11, 1879.

APPENDIX IV.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOME OF THE LITERATURE CONCERN-
ING DESTRUCTIVE LOCUSTS.

By B: Pickman Mann.

Since I received a request to prepare an account of the various books and articles
treating of destructive locusts on this continent and the continents of Europe, Asia,
and Africa, circumstances have prevented me from devoting to the task enough time
to do it any manner of justice. If I offer this very imperfect sketch it is only because
I am warned that -whatever is to be used must be furnished soon.

It will be noticed that I have made especial use of two books containing biblio-
graphical material: the Bibliotheca Entomologica of Dr. H. A. Hagen (1862) aud the
article Ueber die Heuschrecken in Siidrussland of F. Tkdr. Koppen fil. (1865) ; also, that
I have taken some citations from Gerstacker's pamphlet, Die Wanderkeuschrecke
(1876). I have designated my extracts from these works by citing the names of the
authors.

References to works upon a subject like the present may be classed as general and
particular. Under the latter division I would place the citation of passages concern-
ing destructive locusts in books of travel or other works not treating generally of the
locusts. The number of such citations here given is small, and it is so mainly because
most of the citations which I could make were already included in a few general
works upon destructive locusts, viz., in the works by Ludolf (1694), Eiselt (1836),
Keferstein (1843), and Koppen (1865), and, to a great extent, all the information con-
tained in the passages so cited is transferred to the pages of one or more of the four
works last mentioned. As far as I could, I have given a complete list of the works
which have for their general subject the consideration of destructive locusts. I am
far from having exhausted the subject, however, especially for works later than the
Bibliotheca Entomologica, and I would point out, as an especially fertile field of re-
search for any one who may wish to supplement my list, the annual reports upon
entomology made by Bnrmeister (1834-1835), Erichson (1836-1848), Schaum (1848-
1852), Gerstiieker (1853-1866), Brauer (1867-1870), and Bertkau (1871-1874;, in the
Archiv fur Naturgesckichtc, edited bv Wiegmann (v. 1-6, 1835-1840), Erichson (v.
7-14, 1841-1848), and Troschel (v. 15^4, 1849-1878) ; also, the Record of Zoological
Literature and Zoological Record for 1864-1873 (10 v., 1865-1875), and the Cata-
logue of Scientiiic Papers for 1800-1863 (6 v., 1867-1872), by the Royal Society of
London.

For recent and future North American entomological literature, see the Biblio-
graphical Record published in Psyche, the organ of the Cambridge Entomological
Club, v. 1 (1874-1877), v. 2 (1877-1879), and subsequent volumes.

Titles which I have compared with the originals are designated by an asterisk (*)
placed before them ; titles thus verified by Dr. Hagen are preceded by a dagger (t).

ON THE DESTRUCTIVE LOCUSTS OF EUROPE, ASIA, AND AFRICA.

1. Ant : Ruyschet. "Wahrhaftige Zeitung in Schlesien, geschehen 1542, von unerhor-

ten Heuschrecken, wie viel der gewesen und was sie Schodeu gethan haben.
1542. 4°.

[nagen, ii, 100.]

2. Jodocus Willich. Dialogus de locustis. Argentorati, 1544. 8°.

[Hagen, ii, 290.]

3. Francis Valleriola. Verwiistung durch Heuschrecken um Aries um 1555.

<^ Valleriola, Curations medicales, livr. ii, obs. 1.
[Hagen, ii, 234.]

[34] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

4. W. Strauch ? Natiirlicho Conterfoyhung des gewaltigen Flugea Ilciisehreckcn,

welcher gefangen worden ist zu Mailand 155G. NiirnlxTg.
[" Perhaps Strauch is only the printer." Ilagen, ii, 201.]

5. Jul: Caesar Scaliger. Do locustis. < Exotericarum exercitationum [libel xv

de subtililate ad II. Cardanum. Lutetiae, 1057 . 47G folios. 4°. Basel,

1560. 8°. Francfurt, 1592. 8°. Francfurt, 1C07. 8°.

Hanacviae, 1G34. 1070 p. 8°]. foL 192, p. 625.
[Hagen, ii, 112. J

6. Ant: Bersandier. Diseours sur lo d6gat quo lea sauterelles fireut en Provence

1013-1614. Paris, 1014. 12°.
[Hagcn, i, 40.]

7. t Bartolomeo Ximenes Paton. Discorso do lalangosta, quo en el tiempo present©

aflige, y para el venidero amcnaza. Dedicado a Don Ivan Coello do Contreras
etc. Con licencia en Baeca por Pedro do la Cuesta. [Villa nuevo. do los In-
fantes. ) 1019. 22 leaves, without pagination. 4°.
[Hagcn, ii, 31.]

8. t Juan de Quinones. Tratado do las langostas muy ntil y necessario, en que so

tratan cosas do provecbo y curiosidad para todos los que professan letras
divinas y humanas, y las mayores ciencias. Madrid, por Luis Sanchez, 1620.
86 leaves -j- 22 p. Preface + 25 p. Index, without pagination -f- title-vig-
nette. 4°.

[Hagcn, ii, 57.]

9. t Anonym. Some observations of swarms of strange insects and tho mischief done

by them. < Philosophical Transactions. 1665. v. 1, no. 8, p. 137-138.

[Hagcn, ii, 339.1

10. J : Dan : Major. Disscrtatio do myrrha et locustis. Resp. J. F. Moller. Kiliae,

1668. 40 p. 4°.

[Hagcn, i, 515.1

11. tThdr: Kirchmaier. Dissertatio do locusti. Resp. G. Henr. Ursinus. Witten-

berg [1680?]. 10 p. 4°.
[Hagen, i, 417.]

12. t Gotthilf Treuern. Die Heuschrecken, wie eie in der heiligen Schrift in ihrer

Vermehrung uud Vertilgung, in ihrer naturlichen Eigenschafft, in Historien
und Spriichwortern betrachtet werden, beschrieben. Franckfurt a. O., Eich-
orn, 1081. 48 p., without pagination. 4°.
[Hagen, ii, 227.].

13. tJoac: Hopp. De edaci locustarum pernicie. Dissert. Resp. G. Martini. 2d

ed., Jena, 1082. 5 sheets = 40 p. 4°.
[Hagen, i, 382. J

14. T H : Justell. An extract from a letter written from Aramont in Languedoc near

Avignon giving an account of an extraordinary swarm of grasshoppers in those
parts. <f Philosophical Transactions. 1686. v. 16, no. 182, p. 147-149.
(Hagen, i, 407.J

15. Jean ? Gallois. Observations sur les sauterelles qui ont ravage" la Pologno et la

Lithuanie en 1689. < Memoires de l'Academie des Sciences de Paris, v. 2,
p. 88.

[Hagen, i, 261.] [Koppen, p. 194.]

16. Jan G : Swalbach or S. Ussans. Particularite"s remarquables des sauterelles

qui sont venues en Russie. Paris, 1690. 5 p., 2 pi. 4°.

[Hagen, ii, 208 + 234 + 339.]

17. tJ: Bilberg. Dissertatio: Locustae. Resp. P. Salonius 5. Juli. Upsaliae, 1690.

20 p. 8°.

[Hagen, i, 53.]

18. Tenzel. Ueber Heuschrecken aus Ludolf. < Monatl. Unterred. 1691, p.

527 ; 1693, p. 838.

[Hagen, ii, 213.]

19. tLudwig Chr : Crell. Dissertatio de locustis non 6ine prodigio nuper in Ger-

mania conspectis. Resp. J. F. Hauptvogel. Lipsiae, Coler, 1693. 'Si sheets =

26 p. 4°. [Program], * Disputationemhistorico-physicamde loevstis,

non sine prouigio in Germania nuper conspectis, Dei auxilio & Superiorum

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF DESTRUCTIVE LOCUSTS. [35]

*

indultu favente d. 28 Sept. M.DC.XCIII. publico habebunt Praeses M. Ludo-
vic. Christian. Crcllhis, Neostad. atl Eryeas Frauc. Et respondens Johannes
Fridericus Hauptvogel. Lipsiao, Colerianus, 1693. 28 p., without pagina-
tion. 4°.

[Hagen, i, 14G. | History, description, devastations, origin, and migrations of thelocusts-
"Why do they come ? What do they signify ? How can they he got rid of !

20. G : Wolfg : Eberlin. Oratio de prodigioso locustarum agmine quod in diversis

Pannoniae et Gerrnaniao tractibus obumbravit solem, terrasque opperuit, an.
1G93. Altdorf, Meyer, 1693. 16 p. 4°.
[Hagen, i, 204.J

21. G. E. Fesken. Gottes bedenkliches Heuschrekken-Hecr, welches sich bin und wie-

der neulicher Zeit in ungewohnlicher Menge sehen lassen. Leipzig, 1693. 4°.
[Gerst acker (1876), p. 60.]

22. *Melissand Fichtelbergen. Heu! Schrecken! Von Heuschrecken, so dieses

anno 1693. Jahr im Augusto, erstlich im Egrischen Creyss dcr Cron Bohmen,
dann auch audern Orton, Wolcken-weisse eingefallen. St. Annaberg, Dav.
Nicolai, 1693. 32 p., without pagination. 4°.

[Hagen, i, 232.] Accounts of invasions of locusts in all times.

23. * t J : Paul Hebenstreit. De locustis, immenso agmine aerem nostrvm implen-

tibvs, et qvid portendero putentvr, numine aeterno adspirante in Academia
Jenensi sub praesidio J. P. H. [etc.], d. xxvi. Aug. M DC XCIII. publico
disputabit Christianus Prange [etc. J. Jenae, Sehrnid, 1693. 65 p. -f- 1 copper-
pi. 4°.

[Hagen, i, 331, and ii, 52, cites both Hebenstreit and Prange as authors, but mentions
one copy which hears the name of Prange " auctor " upon the title-page. Kxebs seems
to have been the printer and Schmid paid the bill.] Name, anatomy, qualities, and rav-
ages of the locusts ; meana against them.

t J : Paul Hebenstreit. De remediis adversus locustas, imprimis Pontificiorum
methodo expellendi eas per excommunicationem. Resp. B. G. Lippoldt.
Jenae, 1693. 36 p. 4°.
[Hagen, i, 351.J

24. G: Caspar Kirchmaier. De locustis insolitis, tergemino examine et portentoso

numero e Thracia Daciaque in Pannoniam inferiorem perquo Austriam in Ger-
maniae regionibus plures sese infundentibus, et pabula, quo transitus ferebat
depascentibus ad virum Dr. Ch. Fr. Paullini dissert, epistolica. Wittenberg,
Schroedter, 1693. 16 p. 4°.
[Hagen, i, 417.]

25. Abr : Klesel. Bericht von dem 1693 geschehenen Durchzuge der Heuschrecken.

1693. 4°.

[Gerstacker, p. 60.]

26. Christoph H: Loeber. Mit Gott! Eigentliche Beschreibung des entsetzlich

grossen Heuschrecken-Heers, welches im August A. 1693 bei und unweit Jena
etc. erschienen. Jena, Bielcke, 1693. 47 p. 4°.
[Hagen, i, 488.J

27. J: Ph: Treuner. Dissertatio phaenomena locustarum praecipnc nuperrimarum.

Resp. Arnold Richerz. Jena, Miiller, 1693. 32 p. -f- 1 pi. 4°.

["Loctistamigratoria." Hagen, ii, 227.] ["Gives historical notices especially." Ger-
stacker (1876), p. 59.] [Gerstacker, 1. c, cites Eichertz (sic) as the author.]

28. t G : And : Wollenhaupt. Dissertatio locustas et portentosam earum nubem etc.

das ungewohuliche Heuschrecken Heer. Resp. Johann Nicolas Oborliinder.
Erfurt, Grosch, 1693. 24 p. 4°.

[" Locusta migratoria." Hagen, ii, 295.] [Gerstacker (187G), p. 60, cites Oberliinder
as the author, and gives as the title: Diatribe zoologica locustas etc.]

t Anonym. Eine Heuschreckliche Schreckruthe so zu Plauen im Voigtlande am
15. und folgenden Tagen Augusti dieses laufenden Jahres 1693 sich merklich
blicken gelassen etc. Dresden [1693], 4 p. 4°.
[Hagen, ii, 339.]

Anonym. Heerzug der Heuschrecken. Leipzig, 1693. 1 sheet. 4°. fig.
[Hagen, ii, 339.]

29. N : Hoepfner von Wetterstral. Die neuo bose Pest der grossen und ominosen

Fliegenschwiirme. Jena. 4°.

Diptera or Orthoptera? [Hagen, i, 372.]

[36], REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

N : Hoepfner von Wetterstral. Abbaudlung iiber die Sturmwinde uud Hou-
scbrecken. Gera, 1C94. 4°f
[Hagen, i, 372.]

Christoph H : Loeber. Beschreibung des Ileuschreckenheercs. Orlamiinde,
1G94.

[" Locusta migratoria." Hagen, i, 488.]

30. t Jo. Hiob Ludolf. Appendix secunda ad bistoriam Aethiopicam coutinena

Disscrtationem do locustis anno practerito itnmensa copia in Gennania visia
cum Diatriba, qua scntentia autoris nova do solavia, sive locustis, cibo Israeli-
tarum in descrto, defenditur, ct argumentis contrariis viri docti respondetur
etc. Francofurti ad Moen., Zunner, 1C94. fol. 6 p. + p. 1-88 -f- pi. on p.
20; fig. on title and on p. 14.

" tllistoria Aethiopica, published at Francf. ad Moen., 1G81. 4 lil>. fol. tCom-

mentarius. Francf. a. M., 1691. fol. Appendix I. Francf.. a M., 1093. fol.

French translation, abridged : Nouvello histoiro do l'Abvssinio. Paris, 1G84-1C93. 12°.
Also, English, Dutch, German, and llussian translations.*' [Ilagcn, i, 507.]

31. tE: Floyd. A letter giving an account of locusts lately observed in Wales.

< Philosophical Transactions. 1694. v. 18, no. 208, p. 45-47. t Uadd.

1739. v. 3, p. 99-100.
[Ilagen, i, 241.]

32. t G : Owen. Extract from his history of Pembrokeshire. < Philosophical

Transactions. 1694. v. 18, no. 208, p. 48.
"Locusts in Wales." [Hagen, ii, 24.]

33. Caspar Neumann. Donnerwetterund Heuschrccken, beido im Jabr Cbristi 1C93

zu Breslau gesehen. Breslau, 1694. p. 26-53. 4°.
" Penitential sermon." [Ilagen, ii, 4.]

34. tC: Rayger. Do locustis volantibus. < Ephem. Acad. Nat. Curio 9. 1694. Dec-

3, ann. 2, obs. 22, p. 29-31.

" Gryllus migratorius." [Ilagcn, ii, C3.]

35. t J : Christoph Ortlob. Dissertatio do praesagiis locustarum incertis ct falsis.

Resp. Maurit. Castens. Vratisl. Auctor. Lipsiae, Titius, 1713. 32 p. 4°.
[Hagen, ii, 22.]

36. tPaul Jetzen. Conjecturae de ominosis locustis quae aestate superiore Silesiam

depopulatac sunt etc. Sedini, Dablius, 1713. 8 p., without pagination. 4°.
"Program." [Hagen, i, 398.]

37. tPaul Jetzen. Muthinaassungen von den wundersanien Heuschrccken welcho

im vorigen Sommer in Schlesien grossen Schaden gethan etc. Stettin, Dahlen,
1713. 14 p. 4°.

"New Year's gift. Probably the same as the preceding." [Hagen, i, 398.]

38. tS: Chr : Loeber. Epistola de locustis. < Epbem. Acad. Nat. Curios. 1715.

Cent, iii et iv, Append., p. 137-146. Valentini Amphitheat. Zootom.

P. ii, p. 182-186.

[Hagen, i, 488.]

39. Giu : del Papa. Relazione delle diligenze usate con felice successo nell'anno

1716 per distruggere le cavallette, le quali avevano stranamente ingombrato
una gran parte delle Maremme di Pisa, di Siena, di Volterra, e tutte le cam-
pagne di Piombino, Scarlino, e Sovvereto. Firenze, 1716. 48 p. 4°.

[Anonymous. Also ascribed to Tommaso Euonaventuri ? Hagen, ii, 28 (Papa), 51
(Popa).]

40. t Tommaso Buonaventuri. Relazione delle devozioni ed opere di pieta che si

son fatte nell'anno 1716 per ottenere da Dio la grazia di discacciare le caval-
lette che infestavano le Maremme di Pisa, di Siena e di Volterra. Firenze,
1717. 55 p. 4°.

[Hagen, i, 102.]

41. t Francesco Scufoni. Osservazione intorno alle cavallette. (Locusta niigra-

toria.) Romae, Rossi, 1718. 24 p. ;*fig. 4°. Latin translation : tOb-

servationes circa locustas. < Ephem. Acad. Nat. Curios. 1722. Cent, ixet x,

Append., p. 485-508, fig. Extract: <tGiornale de letterati dTtalia,

1721. v. 33, pt. 1, no. 8, p. 411-425.
[Hagen, ii, 148.]

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF DESTRUCTIVE LOCUSTS.

[37]

42. t J: G: Siegesbeck. Von der vermeintlichen Ankunft der Heusclirecken a.ua

doni Mond. < Breslauer Natur- und Kunstgeschichte. 1723. vers. 23, p. 991-
292.

[Hagen, ii, 163.]

43. t . Von dem sogenannten wandelnden Blatte. < Breslauer Natur- und

Kunstgeschichte. 1723. vers. 25, p. 304-309.
[Hagen, ii, 339.]

J : Jac : Scbeuchzer. Dissertatio physicac sacrae specimen de locustis. Resp.
Maagius et Cellarius. Tiguri, 1724. 2^ sheets + 1 pi. 4°.
[Hagen, ii, 122.]

44. t J : Leonh : Frisch. Beschreibung von allerley Insecten in Teutschland, nebst

niitzlichen Anmerkungen und nothigen Abbildungen von diesern kriechenden
und tliegenden inliindischen Gewiirmo, zur Bestiitigung und Fortsetzung der
griindlichen Entdeckung, so einige von der Natur dieser Creaturen heraus-
gegeben, und zur Erganzung und Verbcsserung der andern. Berlin, Nicolai,
1720-1738. 13 v. 4°.
t v. 9. 1730. Sammt einer Vorrede, darinnen ein Auszug aus des Hr. Franc.
Redi Buch von der Erzeugung der Insecten enthalten ist. Wie auch einer
Beschreibung der Strich-Heuschrecken, welche in diesem Jahr grossen
Schaden getkan, etc. (5 p. Vorrede + 38 p. + 22 copperpl. t [Re-
view, on the locusts.] <^ Commerc. Norib. 1731. p. 103.
[Hagen, i, 234.] [Kiippen, p. 2CC]

45. t C : H : Rappolt. E generali contemplatione. emolumentuni e creaturis noxiis

capiendi subnata quaestio ; an damnum per locustas agris illatum earundem
beneficio compensari possit. Berolini, Haude, 1730. 2-J sheets. 4°.
"Description and anatomy of three locusts." [Hagen, ii, GO.]

46. t J : Jac : Rembold. Historisch und physikalischer Tractat von Heuschrecken

oder kurze Beschreibung von deren Beneunung, Arten, Eigenschaften, Ver-
mehrung, Wiederkunft, grossen Land-Schaden, Vorboten noch grosseren
Ungliicks, verschiedenen Anscklagen, Vortheilen anch in unterschiedl.
Provintzien angewandten Mitteln selbige zu vertreiben u. vollig auszurotten,
Zurichtung zur Speise, niitzl. Gebraucli in Arzteneien-Kunst, nebst anderer
curieuser Anmerk. beriihmter Natur-Kunst- u. Welteri'ahrener Scribenten.
Berlin u. Leipzig [autor, 1730]. G4 p. + 1 pi. 8°.
" Locusta migraloria." [Hagen, ii, 71.]

47. t Anonym. Edict wegen Vertilgung der Ileuschrecken oder Sprcngsel : sub dato

Berlin 13. April, 24. Octbr. 1731. < Corpus constit. Marchic. 1740. v. 5, pt. 3,

p. 381-386, no. 41-42. fol. Reimpr. ? : Kouigsberg, Hartung, 23. Mai

1805. 2 sheets, fol.
[Hagen, ii, 339.]

48. V. Ludwig. De locustis. < Hall. Wochenbl. 1731.

[Hagen, i, 507.]

49. * t Conte Giu : Zinaimi. Dclle uova e dei nidi degli uccelli libro primo. Aggi-

unte in line alcuue osservazioni, cou una dissertazione sopra varie specie di
cavallette. . . . Venezia, Antonio Bortoli, 1737. title -f- [6] -f- 130 + 55
+ p., 18x12.5. frontispiece, 21x13.5. [3] +22 + 8 pi., 18x12.
Contains :

*t Osservazioni giornali sopra le cavallette .... con una dissertazione in
fine intorno alio medesime [including: Dissertazione delle cavallette, p. 35-
50, and explanation of the plates of locusts, p. 51-55]. title + 55 p. ; 8 pi.
"Biology and anatomy of the locusts." [Hagen, ii, 304.]

50. t J : F : Weidler. Narratio de erucarum et locustarum, quae agros Vitembergae

vicinos aliquot abhinc annis vastarunt, interitu. <^ Philosophical Transac-
tions. 1734. v. 38, no. 432, p. 294-296. t Badd. 1741. v. 9, p. 512-514.

[Hagen, ii, 263.]

51. tJ: Gottf: Buechner. Do, rarioribus quibusdam animalibus in Voigtlandia

quondam natis, ac degentibus. < Acta Natur. Curios. 1737. v. 4, p. 261-271.
" Lonusta migratoria." [Hagen, i, 100.]

52. Justus Christoph Dithmar. Relation von Heuschrecken, welche sich etliche

Jahre jenseits der Oder aufgehalten, sammt den Anmerkungen von solckem
Ungeziefer. <^ Oekonom. Fama. St. 2, p. 57.
[Hagen, i, 174.]

[38] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

53. Anonym. A true representation of the locusts that fell in England tho 4. Auc

1748. lpl. fe h

[Hagen, ii, 338.]

54. Anonym. Kaiserliches Mandat wegen der Ileuschrccken, wie auch Beschreib-

ung der 1747 und 1748 in Ungarn cingedrungenen Heuscbrecken. <Natur-
u. Kunsthistorie von Obcrsachsen. v. 2, p. 208.
[Hagen, ii, 330.]

55. *tJ: Chr : Kundmann. Annierckungen iiber die Ilenschrecken in Scblesien

von deui Jabro 1748. Auf Verlangen den Druck iiberlasseu. Breslau, Korn
[1748]. 30 p. + 1 pi. 4°.
[Ilagen, i, 440.]

56. * Em Liebhaber der Natur-Wissenschaft. Die Ileuschrecke in ilirem Heer-

Zuge, als ein wakrer Sehrecke-Gast in Betrachtung gezojjcn. Mit einer Ku-
pffer-Tabelle, daranf die mancherley nnd ganz besondern Arten der Heu-
scbrecken vorgestellt werdeu. Leipzig, Scnonermarck, 1748. 38 p. ;lpl. 8°.
Description, classification, reproduction, swarms, food, injury, and uses of locusts;

means against them; history of their invasions. [Review : < Neuo Hamburg, gel. Zeit.

1748. St. 7.] [Hagen, ii, 338.]

57. *Ern: Ludewig Ratblef. Akridotheologie oder bistoriscbe and theologische

Betracbtungen iiber die Ileuscbrekken, bei Gelegenheit der ietzigen Heu-
scbrekken in Siebenbiirgen, Ungern, Polen, Scblesien und Engclland. Nebst
einer Mutbmassung, dass die Selaven, welcbo die Israeliten zweimahl in der
YVusten gegessen, weder Wacbteln, nocb Ileuscbrekken, soudern die Vogel
Seleuciden gewesen. Hannover, Kiehter, 1748. 12 + 3G -f- 233 p. ; lpl. 8°.

History of locust invasions in all times in Asia, Africa, and Europe. Structure, de-
scriptive characters, various species, habits, abundance, nativo countries, and migrations
of locusts ; their destructivencss and tho use that can be made of them. [Hagen, ii, 61. J
[Ilagen, 1. c, cites a Dutch translation of either this, tho following, or both, by P. A.

Verwer. Amsterdam, 1750. 170 p. + 1 pi. 8°. Review : < Hamburg. Berichte.

1750. St. 58. Review: < Erlang. Beitr. 1750. p. 482. j

58. Em : Ludewig Ratlilef. Akridotheologie, oder bistoriscbe, physikalisckc und

theologischo Betracbtungen iiber die Morgenliindischen Ileuscbrekken, bei
Gelegenbeit ibrer Ziige in Enropa in den Jahren 1747, 1748, 1749. Hannover,
1750. 340 p. 8°.

" Gives historical notices especially." [Gcrstiicker (1870), p. GO. ]

59. t Anonym. Bescbreibung der Heuscbrecken, sonderlicb der beurigen. Dresden,

Harpeter, 1748. 70 p. ; 1 pi. 8°.

" Locusta migratoria." [Hagen, ii, 338.)

60. t A : J : Roesel. . . . Der monatlich berausgegebencn Insecten-Belustigung

zweiter Tbeil, welcber acbt Classen verscbicdeuer sowohl inliindiscber, abj
aucb einiger auslandischer Insccte enthalt ; alio nacb ibrem Ursprung, Ver-
wandlung und andern vrunderbaren Eigenschaften, griistentbeils aus eigener
Erfabrung bescbrieben und in sauber illuminirten Kupfern nach dem Leben
abgebildet, vorgestellet. Niirnberg, beim Verfasser, gedruckt bei J. J. Fleisch-
niann, 1749. 50 + 550 p. + index + 94 col. pi. (on 70 pi.) + 1 title-pl.
Heuscbrecken und Grillen, 200 x>. + 30 pi. (on 29 pi.). [Hagen, ii, 84.]

61. t Anonym. An account of tbe locuot which did vast damage in Walachia, Mol-

davia and Transilvania in tho years 1747-1748 and of some swarms of them,
■which in the months of July and August 1748 came in to Hungary and Poland.
< Philosophical Transactions. 1749. v. 46, no. 491, p. 30-37. < t Ham-
burg. Magazin. 1751. v. 7, p. 540-554.
[Hagen, ii, 338.]

62. Anonym. Nachrichten von den landverderblichen Heuscbrecken. Frankfurt

a. M., 1750. 8°.

[Hagen, ii, 339.]

63. t Anonym. Sammlung rnerkwiirdiger Nachrichten von den Heuscbrecken, welcho

1747 und 1748 aus der Turkey in Siebenburgen, Ungarn, Polen emgedxungen,
und von da 1749 durck Oestreich, Bayern etc. ausgebreitet. Frankfurt a. M.,
Cronau, 1750. 110 p. ; 1 pi. 8°.

"Locusta migratoria." ["Also in Kundmann's writing upon Silesian locusts." Ha-
gen, ii, 339.]

64. Christoph Gottlob Grundig. Nachricht von allerley Insecten, sonderlicb den

Heuscbrecken. <Natur- u. Kunsthistorie von Obersachsen. 1750. v. 1, p. ,
545.

[Hagen, i, 307.]

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF DESTRUCTIVE LOCUSTS. [39]

65. Gottf: Schuster. Sehulabhandlung von den Insecten, besonders von den Heu-

scbrecken. Konigsberg, 1700. 7-J sheets. 4°.
[Hagen, ii, 144.]

66. t Anonym. Nachricht von denen Heuschrecken und wie selbige auszurotten.

< Stuttgart, select. Phys. Oecon. 1751. v. 1, st. 4, p. 311-323.

[Hagen, ii, 339.]

67. t Anonym. Gescbicbte der Heuschrecken, darinnen under andern gezeigt wird,

wie man dieselben wo nicht gleich vertilgen doch gar bald so diinne machen
kanu, dass ihre Anzabl dem Lande nicht niehr so empliudlich seiu wird. Nfirn-
berg, Zimmermann, 1753. 77 p. 8°.
[Hagen, ii, 339.]

68. tJ: Gottlieb Gleditsch. Abkandlung von Vertilgung der Zugheuschrecken und

den eigentlichen Hiilfsmitteln, die sich auf richtige Erkenntniss dieser Thiere
griinden. Berlin u. Potsdam, Vosse, 1754. 71 p. 8°.

" Oryllus migratorius." ["Also in his Forstwissenschaft. Act. Reg. Soc.Berol.

1752. pi. 4, p. 83-101. tMyliusphysik. Belustig. 1755. St. 26, p. 1192-1217.

Nurnberg, 1753. 8°. Berlin, 1754. 8°. t Gleditsch., Phys. bot. ok. Abhdl.

v. 3, p. 228-311."] [Hagen, i, 286.]

69. Anonym. Supplement aux reflexions sur le d&sastrc de Lisbonne avec un jour-

nal des pb<Snomenes etc. en 1755 et des remarques sivr la plale des sauterell^s.
1757. 8°.

[Hagen, ii, 339.]

70. Jos : Gottlieb Koelreuter. Razsuzhdenie o sarantsbe s pokazaniem nadezk-

neishikk sposob k iskoreneniiu onoi. <Sotshineniia i perevodi, k pol'ze i

uveseleniiu sluzhashtshiia. 1758.. p. 150. [German translation.]

tAbhandhiDg von dem Strichheuschrecken, nebst einer Anzeige der zuver-
liissigsten Mittel, dieselben zu vertilgen; tibersetzt aus der russischen Mon-
atsschrift, welche zu St. Petersburg unter der Aufsicht des Hrn. Prof. Miiller
heraus kommt. < Hamburg. Magazin. 1760. v. 24, pt. 2, p. 186-216, fig.
[Koppen, p. 196.] [Hagen, ii, 338.]

71. Anonym. Remedia quibus in regno Neapolitano locust ae earumque ova destruun-

tur. < Histoire de l'Acade'mie des Sciences de Paris. 1765.
[Hagen, ii, 339.]

72. Gottf: A : Gruendler. Beobacktungen fiber einige Heuschrecken. < Natur-

forscher. 1775. St. 5, p. 19-22.

" Gryllus migratorius." [Hagen, i, 307.]

73. t J : S : Schroeter. Von den Heuschrecken, ihrer Naturgeschichte und den

Gattungen, welche sich in Thfiringen aufhalten. < Schroeter Abhaudlungen
fiber verschicdene Gegenstiinde der Naturgeschichte. 1776. v. 1, p. 258-316.

< t Berlin. Samml. 1772. v. 4, p. 496-541.

[Hagen, ii, 142.]

74. G : F : Moeller. Die Heuschrecken als ein Landwirth betrachtet. < Oeko-

nomischo Nachrichten [? der Gesellschaft in Schlesien. 1779]. v. 7, p. 48; p.
438.

[Hagen, i, 545.]

75. tDon Guillermo Bowles. Historia natural do la langosta de Espafia. Madrid,

1781. 40 p. 12°.
[Hagen, i, 80.]

76. Anonym. Zur Kunde fremder Volker und Lander ; aus franzosischen Missions-

berichten. Leipzig, 1781. 8°. ]>v. 1, vj. 19-22, contains: Heuscbrecken-
schwiirme aus der Reise eines Missionairs von Constantinopel nach Haleb.
[fFuessly nenes Magazin, v. 1, p. 185-187.] [Hagen, ii, 339.]

77. * t J : Roskoschnik. Nachricht von den nach Bontzhida in Siebenbiirgen ge-

komruenen Zugheuscbrecken, ihrem Aufenthalte daselbst, und ihrer Ausrot-
tung; nebst einigen die Naturgeschichte derselben betreffenden Bemerk-

ungen. Pressburg, Lowe, 1782. 14 p. ; 1 copperpl. 8°. Uugarischo

Magazin. 1782. v. 2, p. 389-399, fig.

" Oryllus migratorius." [Hagen, ii, 93.] Treats of three or more species.

78. * t A. Baron. Rechercbcs sur les sauterelles et sur les moyens de les d^truire.

< Journal de Physique. 1786. v. 29, p. 321-330. Q°. 4°. 1 17 X 11.

" Gryllus migratorius." [Hagen, i, 29.]

[40] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

79. A. Baron. Relation dcs ravages quo lcs sautcrelles ont fait dans quelques can-

tons do Laugnedoc ct do Provence. < Journal do Langucdoe. 17i-7. no. 1.
[Hagen, i, 29.]

80. t Don Ignacio de Assd y del Rio. Discurso sobro la langosta y medios de

cxtenninarla. 1785. 32 p. 8°.

[Ilagcn, i, 15.] [See the following.]

81. * t Oluf Gerhard Tychsen. Des Don Ignacio do Asso y del Rio Koniglich-Span-

ischen General-Consuls in Holland &c. Abhandlungen von den Heuschrecken
und ihren Vertilgnngs-Mitteln, aus dem Spanischen iibersetzt. und mit einem
Anhang von den Biblischen Ilouschroekcn bcgleitet. Rostock, Koppen. 1787.
16 + 104 p. ; " 1 pi".

Description of tho tlireo injurious genera of Spanish locusts ; causes of their increase ;
means against them at all stages of their growth. Interpretation of biblical references
to locusts.

f " Tho appendix ocenpiesp. 41-104, tab. Extract: Jenaischc Allgemcine Litter.

Zoitung. 1788. v. 2, p. 163-103."] [Hagen, ii, 231; i, 15.)

82. J : G : Kruenitz. Oekonomisck-technologischo Encyclopedic. 1790. v. 23, p.

377-503.

"Tho article ' Heuschrecko ' gives historical notices especially." [Koppen, p. 01.'
[Gerstiickcr (1876)", p. 60.]

83. J : Bapt : Baron Rougier de Labergerie. Ravages cause's par dcs sautcrelles

dans un canton du Dopartement du Gard. <^Annalesdo 1' agriculture tran-
caise. An VI [1798]. scr 1, v. 1, p. 322-320.
[llagen, ii, 95.]

84. t P : Sim : Pallas. Reincrkuugen auf einer Reise in die siidlichen Statthalter-

echaften des Russiscbeu Reicbes in den Jabren 1793-1794. Leipzig, 1799,

1801. 2v. 4°. 25 + 20 pi. ; 3 maps. t [French transl.] Paris, 1801.

2 v. 8°. [Completer ed.] Leipzig, 1803. 2 v. 8°.

[Hagen, ii, 25.) [Koppen, p. 248 and p. 258, quotes from v. 2, p. 376-382 and p. 487, con-
cerning Caloplenud italicus.]

85. tJ: Gottlieb Georgi. Geographisch, physicalischo und naturbistorischo Be-

schreibung des Russiscbeu Rcichs. Kouigsberg, Nicolovius, 1797-1802. 3 v.

in 4 v., nebst Nachtrag. [Notice (by Hagen).] Stettin, entomol.

Zeitung. 1859. v. 20, p. 101-102; p. 204.

[Insects, v. 3, p. 1983-2107, and Nachtrag, p. 331-343. Hagen, i, 272 and 331.] [Koppen
quotes frequently from p. 2057-2060. ]

86. J : Barrow. An account of travels into the interior of southern Africa in tho

vears 1797 and 179d; including cursory observations [etc.] London, Cadell,

1801. 419 p. 4°. German translation: Leipzig, 1801. 8°.

French translation by L. Grandpre" : Paris, 1801. 2 v. 8°. Extract :

< t llligers Magazin fur Insectenkunde. 1805. v. 4, p. 220 [upon flights of

locusts]. t Voigts Magazin fur den neuesten Zustand tier Naturkunde

[etc.]. 1801. v. 3, p. 109.

[Hagen, i, 29 and 399; U, 246.1

87. tB. P. Kofod. Om Iliieskraekker i Almindelighed betragtede; isaer deres

Oedolaeggelser ; og tillige om de vigtigste Bibelsteder, boor Hoeskraekker
oratales. Kjobenhavn, Tikjobs, 1802. 8°. 159 p. ; 1 pi.

" Acridium miriratorium." [Hagen, i, 428.] On locusts in general, their ravages, and
passages in tho liiblo where they are mentioned.

88. Cas: Rostan ct Lyle Saint Martin. Extrait d'un rapport fait 5, l'Acade'mio

de Marseille sur les sauterelles qui eu Pan XII [1804] out ravag6 divers quar-
ters du territoire de cette ville ct sur les rnoyens eniploy6s pour detruire ces

insectes. < Mem. Acad. Marseille. 11 (1804). < ADuales do l'agricul-

ture fraucaise. 1807. v. 29, p. 398-424.
[Hagen, ii, 94.]

89. Oloffson. Etwas iibcr die seit einigen Jabren in der Ukraine und Klein-

reussen wiitbeuden Zugheuschrecken und die Mittel zu ihrer Vertilgung.
<^ Oekonomischo Repertorium fur Liefland. 1809. v. 4, p. 708-718.

"Upon locust-invasions in the years 1794, 1804, 1805, 1800." [Koppen, p. 196.]

90. tE: Dan: Clarke. Travels in various countries of Europe, Asia and Africa.

London, 1810-1823. 6 v. 4°. Also 1816-1824. 11 v. 8°.

French translation: [Voyages en Russie, en Tartaric et en-Turquie. (Tra-
duits de l'anglais.)] t Paris, Arth. Bertrand, 1813. 3 v. 3 maps; 2 pi. 8°.
[Hagen, i, 132.] [Koppen quotes from v. 2, p. 293-296 and p. 440 of tho French.]

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF DESTRUCTIVE LOCUSTS.

[41]

91. * t Gaetano de Lucretiis. Sulle locuste, dette volgarraente Bruchi. <[ Atti

del Reale Istituto Incorrag. alle Scienze naturali Napoli. 1811. v. 1, p. 233-
269. Q°. 4°. t 17 x 12.

[Hagen, i, 506.]

92. tPomponio Senni. Raccolta di osservazioni sulla propagazione dello locuste

mezzi per imperdirne lo svituppo e per la loro estirpazione. Roma, Morda-
chini, 1811. 35 p. 8°.
[Hagen, ii, 152.]

93. t Ghi : Mar: Giovene. Delle cavallette pugliesi (Acrid, migratoriuni). <^Mem.

Soc. Italiana. 1813. v. 16 : 2, p. 188-211.
[Hagen, i, 282.]

94. Luigi Doria. Origine, propagazione e danni delle locuste. Roma, 1816. 4°.

[Hagen, i, 178.J

95. Ivan Martos. Sposob istrebliat' sarantshu -f- < Trudi Vol'nago Ekonomitsb.es-

kago Obshtskestva. 1817. pt. 68, p. 133-166.
Means of destroying tbe locusts. < Transactions of the Free Economic Society.
1817. pt. 68, p. 133-166.

[Koppen, p. 197.] How to extirpate the locust.

96. Anonym. Note sur les sauterelles qui se sont propage'es dernierement dans le

territoire d' Aries et sur les moyens employes pour leur destruction. < Annales
de 1' Agriculture francaise. 1819. ser. 2, v. 8, p. 337-363.
Extract from Journal de Marseille. [Hagen, ii, 339.]

97. t Baron L : A:in d'Hombres-Firmas. Notice sur les sauterelles d'Arles.

< Journal de Pbysioue. 1820. v. 90, p. 210-212. < Isis, 1820, p.

913-914,

[Hagen, i, 378. |

98. t Anonym. Ueber Heuscbrecken-Schaden in der Krim. < Froriep Notizen.

1824. v. 8, p. 292. < Morgenblatt. 1824. no. 224.

[Hagen, ii, 339.]

99. * Luigi Metaxa e Seb:o Rolli. Osservazioni naturali intorno alle cavallette

nocive della Campagna Romana. Roma, Poggioli, 1825. iv -f- 52 -J- p. Q°.

4°. t 19X13. 1 col. pi., 24 X 17. t [Same.] Terza ediz. italiana.

Roma, Magnoz, 1839. 72 p. ; 1 col. pi. 8°.
[Hagen, i. 537; ii, 339.1

100. Athanasii Stoikovitsch. O sarantsbe i sposobakb istrebleniia eia. Sanktpe-

terburg, 1825. 4°.
On tbe locust and means of destroying it. St. Petersburg, 1825. 4°.

"On Pachytylus miyratorius and how to extirpate it." "Almost complete, and in part
a literal translation from the article Heuschrecke in the Oekonomische Eneyclopiidie of
Kriinitz (1790), which the author does not say." [Koppen, p. 90 and p. 92.]

101. Anonym. Ueber die italieniscbe Heuscbrecke. < Andre" Oeconom. Neuigkeit.

u. Verbandl. 1826. v. 2, p. 593-595.

" Acridium italicum." " Translated from Bibl. Italiana, 1825, Oct." [Hagen, ii, 339.]

102. Gamba. Voyage dans la Russie rne'ridionale. Paris, 1826. 2 v. (In

1820-1824.— C.T.)

[Koppen cites p. 220-231 of v. 2, frequently.]

103. G. Playfair. On tbe appearance of locusts in tbe Doab. -^Transactions of

Medical and Pbvs. Society of Calcutta, v. 1, p. 306. t Brewster Edinb.

Journal. 1828. v. 8, p. 149-151. Froriep Notizen. 1828. v. 20, p. 167-168.

[Hagen, ii, 47.]

104. tJ: Smirnove. A communication on tbe locust (Gr. migratorius L.) wbicb

lately devastated tbe Crimea and tbe southern provinces of Russia. < Trans-
actions of Linnaaan Society of London. 1827. v. 15, p. 507-509. 1 Froriep

Notizen. 1828. v. 22, p. 264-266.
[Hagen, ii, 168.]

105. *tF:z Kdrte. Die Stricb-, Zug- oder "VVander-Heuscbrecke ibre Besckreib-

ung, Verbeerung in jetzigen und friibern Zeiten, und die Mittel zu ihrer Ver-
tilgung. Berlin, Riicker, 1828. 52 p. ; 1 col. pi. 8°.
[Hagen, i, 428.]

106. * F:z Korte. Die Stricb-, Zug- oder Wander-Heuscbrecke vom Eie an beob-

acbtet und beschrieben. Mit einer colorirten Abbilduno-. Berlin, Riicker,
1829. 103 p. ; 1 col. pi. 8°.

[Hagen, i, 428.] "Contains the best and most thorough description of Pachytylus migra-
ioritts, so far as I know." [Koppen, 1865, p. 92.]

[42] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

107. * Vine : Kollar. Uber die Zug- oder Wander-Heuschrecke. Acrydium migra-

torium. (Latr.); Gryllus inigratorius. (Lin.) Mit besonderer Riicksicbt auf
ihre, in oommet 1888 in Siebenbiirgcu angerichteten Verwiiatungen, mid die
Mittel zu ihrer Vertilgung. < Wiener Zeitschrif't fiir Kunst, Literatur, The;
ater und Mode. 1829. no. 15, p. 113-116 ; no. 1G, p. 121-125; no. 17, p. 130-137 ;
1 col. pL

Describes Fachytylus migratorius and the related species.

108. Jul: Thdr: Chr : Ratzeburg. < Mittheilungen der k. k. miihrischen

Gcsellscbaft zur Beforderung des Ackerbaues. 182'J.
[Koppen, p. 173. J

109. Alex: Lefebure. [Staurouotus cruciatus.] < Annates do la Soctetd entomo-

logique de Franco. 1833. v. 2, p. 338.
[Koppen, p. 203.]

110. t E : Dan : Clarke. Tbe locust. ' < Zoological Magazine, or Journal of Natu-

ral History. Loudon, 1833. v. 8, p. 139.

"Extract from Clarke's Travels in Tartary " (1810 ). [Hagen, i, 132. |

111. * Paolo Zangbi. Delle cavallette e del modo di distruggerle. Opera in circos-

tanza della invasione avvenuta nella Provincia di Caltanissetta nel 1832.
Palermo, Virzi, 1835. 176 + 171 p. 0°. 5 fig.

112. tAnt: Jos: J: Sober. Note snr des apparitions d'Orthopteres dans les envi-

rons de Marseille. < Annates do la Socie'te' entomologirpie do France. 1833.

v. 2, p. 486-489; Bull., p. 49. tL'Institut. 1833. *v. I, no. 21, p. 183-

184. Froriep Notizen. 1834. v. 39, p. 81-84. Isis. 1846. v. 7,

p. 496.

[Hagen, ii, 173.) [Koppen, p. 266.J

113. tBiagio Crescimom. Osservazioni sulla vita delle cavallette e sui mezzi per

distruggere. Calatagirone, Montalto, 1833. 64 p. ; 1 pi. 8°.
[Hagen, i, 14C]

114. Anonym. Sepia bexapodia Molina als ein Orthopteron erkannt. < Froriep

Notizen. 1835. v. 45. p. 273-275. .
[Hagen, ii, 339.)

115. tGiu: Alessi. Sul metodo di distruggersi le cavallette. <"Atti Accademia

Gioenia. 1835. v. 9, p. 329-353.
[Hagen, i, 7. J

116. t J : Nepomuk Eiselt. Gescbichte, Systematik und Literatur der Insecten-

kundo von den altesten Zeiten bis auf die Gegenwart, als Handbuch fur den
Jiinger und als Repertorium fiir den Meister der Entomologie. Leipzig, Hart-
mann, 1836. 8 + 255 p. 8°.

[Hagen, i, 209.] "Long list of writers npon tho journeys of l'achytylus minratorius,
p. 240-245." [Fischer Fr., Orth. enr. (1853), p. 291.]

117. t Jul : Thdr : Chr : Ratzeburg. Die Forstinsekten oder Abbildung und Be-

scbreibung der in den Waldern Preussens und der Nacbbarstaaten als scbad-
lich oder niitzhcb bekannt gewordenen Insekten ; in systematischer Folge und
mit besonderer Riicksicht auf die Vertilgung der scharilichsten. Berlin,
Nicolai, 1837-1844. 3 v. 4°. With woodcuts and black and colored pL
[Hagen, ii, 61-C2.] [Koppen cites this work, v. 3, p. 262-275, frequently.]

118. t C : Darwin. Narrative of the surveying voyages of II. M. S. Adventure and

Beagle between the years 1826 and 1836, describing their examination of the

southern shores of South America. London, Colburu, 1839. 3 v. 8C.

[German transl. by E. Dieffenbacb.] Naturwissenschaftliche Reisen.

tEricbson Bericht, 1841, p. 9. Froriep Notizen, 1^41, p. 385.

[Hagen, i, 162.] [Koppen, p. 121, p. 129, p. 130, p. 165, cites v. 1, p. 180-181, and v. 2, p. 95.]

119. L : A:in d'Hombres Firmas. Notice snr les degats commis aux environs

d'Aix par Locusta ephippiger. < Annates de la Socie'td entomologique de
France. 1839. v. 8 ; Bull., p. 30-32.
[Hagen, i, 378.]

120. t Edwin Brown. A specimen of Locusta migratoria captured at Mickleover,

near Derby. < Annals and Magazine of Natural History. 1842. v. 10, p.

157-158.

[Hagen, i, 93.J

121. Tschernevskii. 0 earantshe. -c^Posrednik. 1842. nos. 2 and 3.

On tho locust. < Umpire. 1842. nos. 2 and 3.

"Interesting observations on habits of Pachytylus migratorius, especially at the mouths
of the Danube." [Koppen, p. 91 and 92.]

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF DESTRUCTIVE LOCUSTS.

[43]

122. Pierre Marcell Toussaint de Serres. M6moiro sur les causes des migrations

do divers animaux et particulierement des oiseaux et des poissons. [Couronno'.]

< Natuurkund. Verhandelingen van de Holland. Maatschap. dor Wetenschap.
te Harlem. 1842. 321 p. 4°. t [Notice.] Isis. 1844. v. 4, p. 302-304.

[Hagen, ii, 154.] [Koppen cites p. 43-44, and p. 529.J

123. t Jos : Alph : Rion. Relations des ravages caus6s en Valaise par les sauterelles

en 1837, 1838 et 1839. Actes de la Socie'te' kelv6tique des sciences naturelles
re"unie a Lausanne, 1843, p. 118-131.
[Hagen, ii, 77.]

124. t Adolph Keferstein. Ueber die sohiidlichen Heuschrecken. < Stettin.

entom. Zeitung. 1843. v. 4, p. 167-191, p. 213-224, p. 232-241.

[""With rich literature." Hagen, i, 411.1 [" Gives historical notices especially."

Gerstacker (1876).] [lie and Ritter (Erdkunde) treat the chronology of locust appear-
ances most extensively. Koppen, p. 92. ] •

125. t K : Henrik Bokeman. Om griisskoppstag i Ostergotkland. < Oefversigt af

Kongliga Vetenskaps-Akademiens Forkandlingar, 1844, p. 105-10G.
[Hagen, i, 62.]

126. Alex : Nordmann. Mittkeilungen aus der Gebiete der Ornitkologie Siid-

Russlands. <^ Bulletin de la Classe pkys.-niatke'inatique do l'Acad6mie Im-
p6riale des Sciences de St.-P6tersbourg, v. 4, nos. 6 and 7.
IKoppen, p. 256.]

127. tJ : Levaillant. Sur uno invasion des criquets voyageurs. < Compt. rend.

1845. v. 20, p. 1041. tL'Institut. 1845. v. 13, no. 589, p. 131.

[Locusts invading Algeria. Hagen, i, 475.]

128. t M. Guyon. Apparition des sauterelles en Algerie. <[ Compt. rend. 1845.

v. 20, p. 1499-1500. t LTnstitut. 1845. v. 13, no. 595, p. 181-182.

[Hagen, i, 327.]

129. tF. W. Oligschlaeger. Naturkistoriscke Misccllen. Gryllus migratorius;

Coccus radicum. < Verkandlungen des naturkistoriscken Vereins 1'iir Preus-
siscken Rkeinliinde. 1845. v. 2, p. 64.
[Hagen, ii, 20.]

130. Ant:o Villa. Notizie intorno agli insetti dannosi. 1. Le locuste o cavalette.

Milano, 1845. 8°. Extr. from : Spettatore industriale. t Trans-
lated by A. Senoner in: Hammersckmidt Allgemein. Oesterreick. Zeit. fur
Landw. 1847. v. 1, p. 17-19.
[Hagen, ii, 241. J

131. C:o Ag:o Bassi. Degli insetti carnivori adoperati a distruggere le specie

dannose all'agricoltura. Giorual. agrar. Lombard. Venet. Also

separate : Milano, 1845. 8°.
[Hagen, i, 32.]

132. Angelo Bellani. Sul mezzo di proveniro il danuo eke arrecano gli insetti al

frumento. < Ann. d'agric. r. d'ltalia, v. 19.
[Hagen, i, 39.]

133. * t Ant:o Villa. Eivista analitica delle obiezioni publicate dai Signori Bassi e

Bellani sulle memorie intorno gli insetti carnivori e le locuste. <[ Spettatore,

v. 3, no. 27. Also separate : Milano, Valentini, 1846. 23 p. 0°. 6°.

t. 18 X 10.

[Hagen, ii, 241.]

J.34. tP. F. Wahlberg. Om Strackgriiskopper. < Oefversigt af Kongkga Veten-
skaps-Akademiens Forkandlingar. 1846. v. 3, p. 214-215.

" Gryllus migratorius." [Hagen, ii, 250.]

135. t H : Scholtz. Ueber Gryllus migratorius in Scklesien. < Arbeit, sckles.

Gesellsckaft fur vaterliind. Kultur, 1846, p. 100.
[Hagen, ii, 137.]

136. Jona : Couch. Notice of the occurrence of tke locust (Gr. migratorius) in Corn-

wall. < Rep. Royal Instit. Cornwall, 1846, p. — .
" Gryllus migratorius." [Hagen, i, 145.]

137. Gottkelf Fischer v. Waldheim. [Description of tke Russian Ortkoptera. ]

< Nouveaux M6moires de la Socie"t6 Imperial© des Naturalistes de Moscou.

1846. v. 8, p. 293-294.
[Koppen, p. 97, 168.]

[44] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

138. Gotthelf Fischer v. Wuldheim. [Description of Ocdipoda vastator. ] <Nou-

veaux M6moirca do la Soci6t6 Impdrialo dea Naturalistea dc Moscou. 1846.
v. 8, p. 312-313.

139. J: Demole. Les sauterellcs dans la Rossio mfridionale. [In Russian.] <Odcs-

skii Vcstnik. 1846. no. 3. [Reprint?] <Zhurnal Ministerstva

Gosudarstveunikh Inmsbtshestv. 1840. pt. 20; Sovremermaia Ectopia, p. 22-

25. [Tranal. T] < Archives dea sciences phys. et natur. de la Iiiljlio-

thequo nniveraelle de Geneve. 1856. v. 31, p. 2i8-229. [Notice.]

t Geratiicker Bericht, 1856, p. 107.

. . . < Odessa Courier. 1846. uo. 3. . . . < Journ. of Ministry

of Crown Domains. 1846. pt. 20 ; Contemporary Annala, p. 22-25.
[ Hagen, i, 107.] [Koppcn, p. 91, 220.]

140. Mikhail Kanischtschev. Zametshaniia ob istreblenii sarantshi. <Zemle-

del'takeskaia Gazeta. 1846. no. 33.
Observations on tbo destruction of the locust. < Agricultural Gazette. 1846.
no. 33.

[Koppcn, p. 217.] Remarks upon tho extirpation of the locust.

141. A. Arkhipoff. Zametshaniia o sarantahe. <[ Zemledel'tsheskaia Gazeta. 1846.

noa. 42-46.

Observations on the locust. < Agricultural Gazette. 1846. noa. 42-46.

'^Some original observations, made in the Government of Stavropol." [Koppcn, p. 91,

142. J: G: Kohl. Reisen in Sudrussland. 1847.

[Koppen quotes frequently from this work, p. 153-170.]

143. Evgenii Han (Eug: v. Hahn). O poriadke i posledstviakh istrebleniia saran-

tshi v Bessarabskikk Bolgarskikh koloniiakb, v 1847. < Zemledel'tsheskaia

Gazeta. 1848. no. 21. <[ Zhurnal Ministerstva Goaudarstvennikh

Imushtshestv. 1848. pt. 27, p. 178-185.
On the arrangements for and results of the destruction of tho locust in the Bess-
arabian Bulgarian colonies, in 1847. < Agricultural Gazette. 1848. no. 21.
< Journal of the Ministry of Crown Domains. 1848. pt. 27, p. 178-185.

[Koppen, p. 138.] Report upon the destruction of locusts in the Bulgarian colonies of
Bessarabia, in tho year 1847.

144. t F : Boie. Ueber das Vorkommen von Gryllus migratorius (in Schleswig).

< Stettin, entom. Zeitung. 1848. v. 9, p. 90.
[Hagcn, i, 64.)

145. t C. Cornelius. Vorkommen von Gryll. migratorius ; Apkidenziige. < Stettin.

entom. Zeitung. 1848. v. 9, p. 91.
[Hagen, i, 139.)

146. t Jac : Poeschl. Notizcn iiber die Wanderheuschrecke. < Haidinger Berichte.

1848. v. 3, p. 436-438.
[Hagen, ii, 48.]

147. t Baron Michel Edmond de Selys-Longchamps. Sur la sauterelle voya-

geuse observde en Belgique. < Bulletins de l'Acaddmie de Bruxelles. 1849.

v. 16, pt. 2, p. 626-628. tLTnstitut. 1850. v. 18, no. 843, p. 71.

t Froriep Tagsberichte. 1850. v. 1, p. 119-120.
[Hagen, ii, 151.]

148. t Vine : Kollar. Beitriige zur Kenntniss dea Haushaltes und der geograph-

ischen Verbreitung einiger in okonomischer und technischer Hinsicht wich-
tigen Insecten. <^ Sitzungsberichte der Akademie Wissenschaft. Wien. 1849.*

v. 3 : 9, p. 317-323. Separate : t Wien, 1849. 7 p. 8°.

" Bostrichus, Ocdipoda migratoria, Cynips calicis." [Hagen, i, 431.]

149. tHip: Lucas. Note sur la Tryxalis procera et Acridium migratorium. <An-

nales de la Socie"t6 entomologique de France. 1849. ser. 2, v. 7; Bull., p. 70.
[Hagen, i, 500.]

150. t Genin et Bonjean. Note sur des sauterelles qui ont paru prea

de Saint Pierre d'Albigny. <^ Compt. rend. 1850. v. 31, p. 452-453.
" Ocdipoda migratoria." [Hagen, i, 270.)

151. A : Le Jolis. Note sur l'oedipode voyageuse ou sauterelle de passage trouvee

a- Cherbourg. 1851.
[Hagen, i, 403.]

BIBLIOGEAPHY OF DESTRUCTIVE LOCUSTS. [45]

152. tL : Imhoff. Die Wanderheuschreeke in Basel. < Bericht iiber Verhandlung.

der naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Basel. 1851. v. 9, p. 64.
[Hagen, i, 401.]

153. t C : Vogt. Zoologischo Briefe : Naturgeschichto der lebenden und unterge-

gangenen Thiere, fur Lelirer, hohere Scliulen und Gebildete aller Stiinde.
Frankfurt, Literarische Anstalt, 1831-1852. 2 v. 8°. fig. v. 1, p. 1-719 ;
v. 2, p. 1-G40.

Insecta : v. 1, p. 514-703. [Hagen, ii, 245.] [Koppen, p. 113, p. 134, cites v. 1, p. 537, fig.
630, and p. 578, fig. 697 (mucus glands) ; v. 2, p. 574 (migrations) 7]

154. Anonym. Das Forstgesetz fur das Konigreich Bayern. Miinchen, 1852.

[Koppen cites art. 46 and 76. | Laws for the destruction of locusts.

* t Leop : H : Fischer. Orthoptera europaea. Lipsiae, Engelmann, 1853.
xx + 454 p. , t 22 X 16 ; 18 pi. (1 pi. partly col. ) 23 X 17.
p. 321-324, pi. 16, fig. 13. Stenobothrus pratorum.
p. 352-353, pi. 17, fig. 11. Stauronotus cruciatus.
p. 368-369, pL 15, fig. 19-20. Pezotettix dlpina.
p. 369-371, pi. 15, fig. 17-18. Pezotettix pedestris.
p. 377-381, pi. 15, fig. 25-26. Caloptenus italicus.
p. 393-395, pi. 18, fig. 12. Pachytylus migratorius.
p. 395-397, pL 18, fig. 13. Pachytylus cinerascens.
and much more in general.
[Hagen, i, 238.]

155. Skarzhinskii. Skazanie o sarantshe. < Zapiski obsktskestva sel'skago

kkozhiaistva iuzhnoi Eossii. 1853. pt. 3.

Account of the locust. < Memoirs of the Society of Eural Economy of Southern
Russia. 1853. pt. 3.
[Koppen, p. 156.]

156. Vet : v. Motschulsky. Etudes entomologiques. Helsingfors, Soc. Liter.

Finn., 1853-1860. 9 v. 8°. Dresde, 1861-1862. v. 10-11. 8°.

[Hagen. i, 552.] [Koppen cites v. 1, p. 74.]

157. L. v. Roenne. Die Verfassung und Verwaltung des Preussischen Staates.

Das Domaiuen-, Forst- und Jagdwesen des Preussischen Staates. Berlin,
1854.

p. 614-638. A collection of the special orders, issued from time to time to meet par-
ticular cases, for the destruction ot injurious insects in the royal forests of Prussia, and
for assigning corresponding duties to private proprietors of woods. [Koppen, p. 238.]

158. tAlfr: Edm : Brehm. ReiseskizzenausNord-Ost-Afrikaoderdenunteregypti-

scher Herrschaft stehenden Landern Egypten, Nubien, Sennaar, Rosseerea
und Kordofakn, gesammelt auf seinen in den Jahren 1847-1852 unternom-
menen Reisen. Jena, Mauke, 1855. 3 v. 8°.

[Hagen, i, 86.] [Koppen, p. 106, cites v. 3, p. 219-220. ]

159. Anonym. [Description of Wedel's machine for crushing locusts.] <^Unter-

haltungsblatt fur deutsche Ansiedler im siidlichen Russland. 1856. nos. 2

and 3. Also: < Zemledei'tsheskaia Gazeta. 1856. no. 23. 1859. no. 98.

[Koppen, p. 221.]

160. * t Vkt : Motschul'skii. O vrednikh i poleznikh nasekomikh. Sanktpeterburg,

1856. 134 p., 21 X 12, t 16 X 10. 8°. Separate from: Mittheilungen

der Kaiserlichen freien okonomischen Gesellschaft zu Petersburg.
On injurious and useful insects. St. Petersburg, 1856. 134 p., 21 X 12,
1 16 X 10. 8°.

Contains preface, 4 p. ; on Cecidomyia, 20 p. + 1 pi., 1852; on Oedipoda (o sarantshe),
80 p. + 1 pi., 1853 j on Bruchus, 20 p. + 1 pi., 1854 ; on Syponomeuta padella, 14 p., 1856.
[Hagen, l, 553.]

161. Vkt : Motschul'skii. O sarantshe i sredstvakh k eia istrebleniiu. Sanktpeter-

burg, 1856. 32 ? p. 8°.
On the locust and remedies for its extermination. St. Petersburg, 1856. 32? p. 8°.

Upon the loenst and the means of extirpating it. " Derived principally from the writ-
ings of Stoikovitsch (1825), Tschernevsky (1842), and Keferstein (1843), mostly without
citation of sources." [Koppen, p. 91, p. 92.] [Gerstacker (1876), p. 64.]

162. *Vct: Motschulsky. On the means of destroying the grasshopper. Trans-

lated from the Russian bv Professor W : W. Turner. < Annual Report of the
Smithsonian Institution for 1858, 1859, p. 214-228, fig.
Probably a translation of the preceding.

163. t Ant:o Villa. Le cavalette o locuste. < Milano. Giornal. Fotografo. 1856.

ann. 4, no. 3. 4 p. ; 1 pi.
[Hagen, ii, 241.]

[46] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

164. t AUDoenkingk. Uebersiebt poriodiscbcr Erscbeinungcn aus dem Tbierreicbe

der Umgegcnd Kischinews. < Bulletin do Moscou. 1857. v. 30, pt. 3, p. 249-

254. t Gerstiickcr Bericbt, 1857, p. 37.

[Hagen, i, 174.] [Kiippcn, p. 107.]

165. t G. Waga. Leptinus testaceus parasite des Musaraignes; note sur les insoctes

nuisibles do la Pologne. <Anuales do la Soci6t6 cntoinologiquo de France.
1857. ser. 3, v. 5; Bull., p. 125-129.
[Ilagen, ii, 249.) [Koppen, p. 205.]

166. Anonym. Die Forstvcrwaltung Badeus. Karlsrube, 1857.

p. 154. Laws for the destruction of locusts. [Koppen, p. 238.]

167. tRud: Tuerck. Uebcr dio in Oesterrcicb unter der Ens bis .jotzt aufgefun-

deuen Orthopteren. < Wiener eutomologiscben Monatsscbrii't. 1858. v. 2,
p. 360-381.

[Ilagen, ii, 230.] [Koppen, p. 145.]

168. tVinc: Kollar. Beitrag zur Geschichte scbiidlicber Heuscbrecken. <Verhand-

lungou der Wiener zoologiscb-botaniscbon Gcscllschaft. 1858. v. 8, p. 321-324.
[Ilagen, i, 432.] [Koppen, p. 205.]

169. t Aude". Pluio d'inscctes aux berbiers. < Compt. rend. 1858. v. 46.

p. 1055.

"Ortboptora" dans la " Vond6e". [Ilagon, i, 17.]

170. tF: Haberlandt. Dio Wandcrbeuschrecken in Hansag. < Verliandlungcn

des Vereins fur Naturkundo zu Pressburg. 1858. v. 3, p. 5-9.
[Ilagen, i, 328.]

171. tAlex: Yersin. Note sur lo Pacbytulus migratorius. <Arcbives des sci-

ences pbys. et naturclles do la Bibliotbequo universelle de Geneve. 1858.
v. 3, p. 267-286.

[Ilagen, ii, 298.] [Koppen, p. 92.]

172. tE. W. Janson. Swarms of locusts in Cbina. <[ Transactions of Entomo-

logical Society of London. 1858. ser. 2, v. 4 ; Proc, p. 87.
[Ilagen, i, 390.1

173. Dor. . < Annales do la Socie'te' entomologique de France. 1858.

ser. 3, v. 6; Bull., p. 224-225.

[Koppen, p. 172.]

174. t Andreas Jobannes Jaeckel. Uebcr die Wander-, Zug- oder Stricb-Heu-

6cbrecke in Bayern. < Correspondenzblatt. zool.-mineral. Verein Regens-
burg. 1859. v. 13, p. 160-171.

" Oedipoda migratoria." [Hagen, i, 395.]

175. *tF: Tbdr: Koeppen. Dio Heuscbrecken in der Kryro im Jahre 1859. Aus-

zug aus einem Briefe an den Ersten Secretiir, Dr. Renard. <[ Bulletin de Mos-
cou. 1859. v. 32, no. 3, p. 296-300.
[Hagen, i, 428. ] [Koppen, p. 108. ]

176. tFater Montrouzier. Lettre entomologique de l'ilo Lifu (Cbabrol), Nouvelle-

Cale"donie. <^ Annales de la Soci6t6 entomologique de France. 1859. ser.
3, v. 7; Bull., p. 145-149.

[Hagen, i, 547.] [Koppen, p. 209.]

177. Dr. W : Hamni. Mitten in den Heuscbrecken. < Gartenlaube. 1859. Janu-

ary.

[Koppen, p. 100.]

178. Anonym. Rukovodstvo dlia istrebleniia sarantsbi, sostavlennoe osobim Komi-

tetom, ytsbrezbdennim v 1859 godu v g. Odesse, po rasporiazbeniiu Ego
Siiatel'stva, G. Novorossiiskago i Bessarabskago General-Gubernatora, General-
Adiutanta Grafa Strogonotfa.
Guide to tbe destruction of tbe locust, compiled by a special committee estab-
lisbed in 1859 in tbe government of Odessa, by direction of His Illustrious
Higbness Adjutant-General Count Strogonoff, Governor-General of New Rus-
sia and Bessarabia.

[Koppen, p. 241.] Manual of locust-extirpation.

179. t E : Eversmann. Ortboptera Volgo-Uralensia. < Bulletin de Moscou. 1859.

v.32,pt. 1, p. 121-146; pi. 1.

|Hagen, i, 218.] [Koppen cites p. 138-139.]

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF DESTRUCTIVE LOCUSTS.

[47]

180. G. Belke. [Letter to Ronard.] < Bulletin de Moscou. 1859. no. 4, p. 581-583.

[Cited by Koppen, p. 201, p. 206.]

181. Dr. Const : W. L. Gloger. [Locust ravages in the district of Schlochau.]

< Beilage zum preussischen landwirthschaftlichen Lntelligenzblatt vom 4
Juli I860, no. 27.

[Eiippen.p. 266.J

182. tJ. Schatiloff und Borsenkow. Mittheiluugen iiber die Wanderungen

des Gryllus migratorius auf der Taurischen Halbinsel im Jahre 1859 und iiber
das Vorkomnien einer Species von Gordiaceen in den Bauchhohlen derselben.
< Bulletin de Moscou. 1860. v. 33, no. 1, p. 294-297. [Extract.]

< Berliner entomologische Zeitschrift, 1860, rj. 12.

[Hagen, ii, 117.) [Koppen, p. 125, p. 181.]

183. tAl. Doenkingk. Die Wanderheuschrecke und ibre Verbeerungen im Jabre

1860. < Bulletin de Moscou. 1860. v. 33, p. 531-542.
[Hagen, i, 174.] [Koppen, p. 91.]

184. tAlex: Yersin. Sur les d6gats produits par les sauterelles dans la valine du

Rhdne. < Bulletin do la Soci6t6 Vaudoise des sciences naturolles. 1860.
v. 6, p. 244-254.

[Hagen, ii, 298. J

185. H. Kawall. Die Ortbopteren und Nenropteren Kurlands. < Correspondenz-

Blatt des naturforscbenden Vereins in Riga. 1861 ? v. 14, no. 11.
[Koppen, p. 143, p. 178.]

186. G : Ritter v. Frauenfeld. Der Aufentbalt auf Manila wiihrend der Weltreise

der k. k. Fregatte Novara. <] Verhandlungen der k. k. zoologiscb-botaniscben
Gesellscbaft in Wien. 1861. v. 11, p. 275-276.
[Koppen, p. 122.]

187. Anonym. O posledstviiakb mere k istrebleniiu sarantsbi v iuzbnom krae

Rossii v 1859-1860 godakb. < Zburnal Ministerstva Gosudarstvennikb Imu-
sbtsbestv, pt. 78, p. 175-194.
On the results of measures for the destruction of the locust in the southern dis-
trict of Russia in 1859-1860. <^Journ. Ministry of Crown Domains, pt. 78,
p. 175-194.

[" Seems to be an official report ." Koppen, p. 201, p. 206.] The results of measures taken
for the extirpation of tbe locust in Southern Russia in 1859-1860.

188. K : Brunner v. Wattenwyl. Ueber die von der k. k. Fregatte Novara

mitgebrachten Ortbopteren. <[ Verhaudlungen der k. k. zoologiscb-botan-
iscben Gesellscbaft in Wien. 1862. v. 12 [? p. 88-94].

[Pachytylus migratorius, P. cincrascens, P. obtusus n. sp.] [Koppon, p. 95.]

189. Dr. W : Hamrn. Siidostliche Steppen u. Stiidte nacb eigener Anschauung ge-

schildert. Frankfurt a. M., Sauerliinder, 1862. 349 p. 8°.
" Locust swarms, p. 179-196." [Hagen, i, 336.] [Koppen.]

190. * Dr. Herm : A : Hagen. Bibliotheca entomologica. Die Litteratur iiber das

ganze Gebiet der Entoniologie bis zum Jahre 1862. Leipzig, Engelmann,
1862-1863. 2v. xii + 566 + 512 p. 0°. 4°. t 18x11.

Collects the literature of all entomology, up to 1802, mainly from personal examination
of the works cited.

191. F : Thdr : Koeppen,/iL [Results of own observations of locusts.] < Zburnal

Ministerstva Gosudarstvennikb Imushtshestv. 1863. June.
. . . < Journ. Ministry Crown Domains. 1863. June.
[Koppen, p. 92.]

192. Ad:ph Keferstein. Einige Bemerkungen iiber Insecktenziige. <[ Zeitschrift

fur die gesammten Naturwissenschaften. 1863. nos. 10 and 11, p. 249-275.
[Koppen, p. 180.]

193. Al. Petzholdt. Reise im westlichen und siidlichen europaiscben Russland.

Leipzig, 1864.

p. 256-258. " Most exact description and figure of Wedel's locust-crushing machine."
[Kiippen cites frequently p. 253-258.]

194. E. L. Taschenberg. Naturgeschichte der wirbellosen Thiere, die in Deutsch-

land scbiidlich werden. Leipzig, 1865.
[Koppen, p. 101. J

195. C. Cornelius. Die Zug- und Wanderthiere. Berlin, 1865.

p. 278-299. [Koppen, p. 90, p. 137.]

[48] -.REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

196. K. Skatschkoff. [In Russian.] Ilorae Socictatw Eutomologicae Ros-

sicae. 1865. v. 3, p. 24.

Extirpation of locusts in China. [Koppen, p. 110.]

197. " P : Thdr. Koeppen fil. Ueber die Heuschrecken in Sudrussland. Nebst

cinem Anhango iiber <;inige andore daselbst vorkommende schiidlicbc Insekten.
< Ilorao Societatis Eutomologicae Rossicae. 1865-1866. v. 3, p. 81-294. 0°.
8°. 1 18 X 11.

Collects the Russian literature and compares his own observations with those of other
persons. Treats of the distinction of species and names of destructive locusts, and of the
development, nourishment, reproduction, habits, movements, seasons, localization, abun-
dance, subjection to atmospheric influences, enemies, periodicity, diseases, geographical
distribution, and devastations of Pachytylut miyratorius. Treats briefly, in a similar
way, of Oaloptenus italicus, and still more briefly of other injurious locusts. The appen-
dix treats of the South-Russian fauna and of a low injurious insects of several orders.

References are made to innumerable passages in general works.

198. * Oberst v. Malinowski. Beitriige zur Naturgescbichte dor Wanderbeu-

Bcbrecke (Acridium migratorium L.). < Verhandlungen der zoologisch-botan-
ischen Gesellschaft in Wicn. 1865. v. 15, p. 67-76.

199. *Ant:o Villa « Gio : Batt : Villa. Notizie eullo cavallette o locuete. Re-

lazione. Milano, Redaolli, 1867. 12 p. 8°.

Notices of European and other invasions by locusts ; use of locusts and other insects as
food.

200. Vossische Zeitung, 7 Jul. 1875. Ersto Bcilage, p. 4.

[Gerstiicker (1876), p. 59.]

201. Sitzungsbericht d. Gesellsch. naturf. Freunde zu Berlin vom 20. Juli 1875, p. 106.

[Gerstiicker (187G), p. 59.]

202. "Dr. A. Gerstaecker. Die Wanderbenscbrecke. (Oedipoda migratoria Lin.)

Gemeinverstandlicbe Darstellung ibrer Naturgescbichte, Lebensweise, Scbad-
lichkeit und der Mittel zu ilirer Vertilgung. Im Anftrago des konigl. preuss.
Ministeriums ftir die landwirthschafclichen Angelegenbeiten verfasst. Ber-
lin, Wiegandt, 1876. 67 p. ; 9 fig. on 2 col. pi. O0. 8°. t 17 X 11.

History, characters, development, reproduction, nourishment, and migrations of the
locusts ; means against them.

203. * Alb : Mueller. Ueber das Auftreten der Wanderheuschrecke am Ufer de8

Bielersee's. < Verhandlungen der 6cbweizerischen naturforschenden Gesell-
scbaft in Andermatt, Sept. 1875, p. 188-190. Luzern, 1876. 1 15 X 10.

[The passages cited in the following magazines treat of locusts. These passages
are compiled from quotations, so that others may exist beside them without
being noticed here.]

204. Breslauischo Sammlungen v. Jahro 1728.

[Gerstiicker (1876), p. 61.]

205. Gazeta Lesovodstva i Okhoti. 1856. no. 13, no. 14.
Gazette of Arboriculture and Hunting. 1856. no. 13, no. 14.

[Koppen, p. 189.]

206. Zhurnal Ministerstva Vnutrennikh Del. 1845. pt. 11. 1848. pt. 23,

p. 60, p. 66, p. 361. 1849. pt. 27, p. 465-467. 1850. pt. 31.

1851. pt. 34, p. 510. 1856. pt. 21 ; Sovremennaia Letopis, p. 20.

1860. pt. 41; Letopis, p. 15. 1860. pt. 42; Letopis, p. 30.

1861. pt. 49 ; Letopis, p. 49.

Journal of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. 1845. pt. 11. 1848. pt. 23,

p. 60, p. 66, p. 361. 1849. pt. 27, p. 465-467. 1850. pt. 31.

1851. pt. 34, p. 510. 1856. pt. 21 ; Contemporary Annals, p. 20.

1860. pt. 41 ; Annals, p. 15. 1860. pt, 42 ; Annals, p. 30.

1861. pt. 49 ; Annals, p. 49.

[Koppen, p. 92, p. 138, p. 139, p. 160, p. 166, p. 179, p. 189, p. 201, p. 207, p. 230, p. 264.]

207. Zhurnal Ministerstva Gosudarstvennikh Imushtshestv. 1843. pt. 8, p. 360.

1846. pt. 21. 1851. pt, 40. 1852. pt. 42. 1856.

pt. 59. 1860. pt. 73 ; Miscellen, p. 67-68. 1861. pt. 78, p. 175-

194. 1863. June (Koppen). 1864. Sept., p. 56 (Nowizky).

1865. April, p. 433 (Brandt); Aug. (Kuschakewitsch).

Journal of Ministry of Crown Domains. 1843. pt. 8, p. 360. 1846.

pt. 21. 1851. pt. 40. 1852. pt. 42. 1856. pt. 59.

1860. pt. 73 ; Miscellen, p. 67-68. 1861. pt. 78, p. 175-194.

1863. June (Koppen). 1864. Sept., p. 56 (Nowizky V

1865. April, p. 433 (Brandt) ; Aug. (Kuschakewitsch).

[Koppen, p. 92, p. 107, p. 130, p. 179, p. 189, p. 194, p. 201, p. 206, p. 228, p. 243, p. 251.]

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF DESTRUCTIVE LOCUSTS. [49]

208. Landwirthschaftliche Mittheilungen fur das Kurlandische Gouvernement.

1855. no. 11.

[Koppen, p. 178.]

Morgenblatt. 1824. no. 224. 1827. no. 45.

|Koppen, p. 198, p. 207.]

209. Odesskii Vestnik. 184G. no. 3 (Demole). 1850. 1861. no. 65,

no. 71, no. 72, no. 83, no. 91, no. 131. 1862. no. 68.

Odessa Courier. 1846. no. 3 (Demole). 1850. 1861. no. 65, no. 7 1 .

no. 72, no. 83, no. 91, no. 131. 1862. no. 68.

[Koppen, p. 142, p. 1C6, p. 188, p. 220, p. 237, p. 240, p. 249.]

210. Polnoe Sobranie Zakonov. [Full Collection of Laws.] v. 12, no. 9507, June 2:;,

1748. O merakh dlia istrebleniia sarantshi.

Measures for extirpating the locust. [Koppen, p. 195.]

. . . v. 13, no. 9624, June 6, 1749. O sposobakk k iskoreueniia saran-

tsbi v Belogorodsko'i gubemii.

Means of extirpating the locust in the government of Belogorod. [Koppen, p. 195. ]

... v. 27, no. 20333, July 17, 1802. Ob istreblenii sarantshi i o plate 7.i
sobiranie eia semian.

Extirpation of the locust anil payment for the collection of its eggs. (Koppen, p. 19ii.]

. . . v. 27, no. 20392, Aug. 28, 1802. O rasporiazheniiakh k isti -

bleniiu sarantsbi.

Arrangements for the extirpation of the locust. [Koppen, p. 196.]

... v. 38, no. 29577, Aug. 8, 1823. O merakb k istrebleniiu v No\ o-

rossiiskom krae sarantsbi.

Measures for the extirpation of the locust in the district of Novorussia. [Koppc n,
p. 199.]

. . . v. 39, no. 29731, Jan. 14, 1824. O sposobakh k istrebleniiu san tu-

tsbi.

Means of extirpating the locust. [Koppen, p. 199.]

211. Russiscbe St. Petersburg. Zeitung. 1850. no. 191, no. 210. 1852. no.

272. 1860. no. 156, no. 247. 1861. no. 36, no. 124, no. 159, no.

192, no. 208.

[Koppen, p. 158, p. 188, p. 233, p. 235, p. 237, p. 249, p. 262.]

212. Deutsche St. Petersburg. Zeitung. 1861. no. 185.

[Koppen, p. 188.]

213. Svod Zakonov. v. 13. Ustav o nar. prodov.

|Codo of laws.] [Koppen, p. 239.]

St. 91. Obiazaunost' Palat Gosudarstvennikb Imushtshestv donosit' Minis-
terstvu Gosudarstvennikh Imushtshestv o poiavlenii sarantshi.

The courts of the crown-domains mast report to the ministry of the crown-donutius tao
appearance of the locust.

St. 267. Obiazaunost' gubernskago natshal'stva donosit' Ministru Vnutreu-
nikh Del o poiavlenii sarantshi.

The authorities of the governments must report to the minister of internal affairs the
appearance of tho locust.

Prilozhenie k st. 287. Pravila ob istreblenii sarantshi.
Rules for the extirpation of the locust.

214. Stettin, entomologische Zeitung. 1847. no. 12.

[Koppen, p. 177.]

215. Vedomost'. Moskva, 171-.'. Oct, 20. 1855. no. 93 ; suppl.

Gazette. Moscow, 1872. Oct. 20. 1855. no. 93 ; suppl.

[Koppen, p. 189, p. 195.]

216. Zapiski obshtsbestva sel'skago khoziaistva iuzhno'i Rossii. 1853. pt. 3.

1861.

Memoirs of the Society of Rural Economy of Southern Russia. 1853. pt. 3.
1861.

[Koppen, p. 157, p. 237.]

[*]

[50] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

217. Zeiuledel'skaia Gazeta. Odessa, 1837. no. 45, no. 46. 1838. no. 29

(Jenscb). 1846. no. 13, Beilage; no. 33 (Kanischtschev). <1847.

no. 64. 1848. no. 27, p. 178-185 (Halm) ; no. 58. 1850. no. 74.

1851. no. 64: no. 90, p. 718. 1852. no. 37. 1853. no.

44,no.73. 1855. no. 104 (Kudriavzcv). 1856. no. 36, no. 43.

1858. no. 39, p. 310 (Strukow). 1859. no. 98. 1863.

no. 16. 1864. no. 11, p. 169. 1865. no. 30-31, July 24-31, p. +

470-474 + (Kuschakevitscli).

Agricultural Gazette. Odessa. 1837. no. 45, no. 46. 1838. no. 29 (J«;nsch).

1846. no. 13, Beilage; no. 33 (Kanischtschev). H47. no. 64.

1848. no.27, p. 178-185 (Hahn): no. 58. 1850. no. 74.

185L no. 64; no. 90, p. 718. 1852. no. 37. 1853. no. 44, no.

73. lt?55. no. 104 (Kudriavzev). l!-!56. DO. 36, DO. 43.

1858. no. 39, p. 310 (Strukow). 1859. no. 98. 1863. no. 16.

1864. no. 11, p. 169. 1865. no. 30-31, July 24-31, p. + 470-474 +

(Kuschakevitscli).

(Koppen, p. 92, p. 09, p. 110, p. 128, p. 138, p. 140, p. 160, p. 185, p. 188, p. 199, p. 200, p. 201, p.

211, p. 214, p. 217, p. 221, p. 222, p. 227, p. 231, p. 235, p. 242, p. 243, p. 247, p. 248, p. 249, p. 258,

p. 262.

[The date of publication of the following works is unknown to me.]

219. Anonym. Anmerkungen von Hcuschrecken- uud Raupenfrass. < Zink.

Leipzig. Samml., v. l,p.379 (1742T).
[Ilagen, ii, 338.1

220. Anonym. Beitrage zur Geschichte der Heuschreckon. < Wasscrberg. Samml.,

v. l,no. 18 (1773?).
[Uagen, ii, 338.]

221. Anonym. De la figure des sauterelles. < Erreurs populaires, v. 2, lib. 5, cap.

3, p. 121.

[Hagen, ii, 338.]

222. Anonym. Historia natural y descripcion de la langosta y modos de destruirla.

Madrid, Cuesta. 8°.
[Hagen, ii, 339.]

223. Ch. H. Cottrel. Sibirieu. Deutsch von M. B. Lindau.

[Koppen, p. 209, cites v. 2, p. 91.]

224. K. Ritter. Die Heuschreckenplage der Lander der alteu Welt, nach ihrer

geographischeu Verbreitung. <[ Ritter Erdkunde, pt. 8, p. 789-815.

"Beside Keferst«in (1843), treats the chronology of locust appearances most exten-
sively." [Koppen, p. 91, p. 92.]

225. J. Russegger. Reise in Egypten, Nubien und Ost-Sudan, pt. 2, p. 242.

[Koppen, p. 125.]

[For citations respecting enemies of locusts, see Koppen, p. 151-167.]

SUPPLEMENTARY LIST.

The following list of authorities was made out by Mr. Thomas during
the preparation of Chapter IV of tbis report, concerning the habits and
characteristics of locusts in all countries in relation to their move-
ments, and consists chiefly of travels and descriptive works in which
mention is made of locust movements, locust ravages, &c. A few works
and papers relating wholly to locusts and omitted by Mr. Mann are
added. Most of the authorities here mentioned are quoted directly or
indirectly in the present report, all found in the Congressional and De-
partment Ubraries, and a few also not found in these, having been con-
sulted.

1. M. Adanson. "A voyage to Senegal, the isle of Goree, and the river Gambia"

(1749-1754). Trans! into English. London, 1759. p. 159.

2. Frances Alvarez. "Voyage into the court of Ethiopia." In Purchas's Pilgrims,

1625, vol. ii, ch. xxxii, p. 1026.

3. Alfonso Andreozzi. Sulle cavallette; cousiderazioni esrratte dal Nun-Cen-

ziuen-sciu, &c. From Bulletino Societa entomologica Italiana, ch. ii, 1870.
Art. ii : " Disastro delle cavallette Nella China," p. 77.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF DESTRUCTIVE LOCUSTS. [51]

4. Anonym. Gesichte der Heuschrecken. Niirnberg, 1753. p. 77. 8. Abhandlung

vou den Strichheuschrecken aus dem Russischen. Hamburg Magaz., Band
xxiv, p. 186-216. (From Dryander's Catalogue.)

5. Aristotle. Hist. Anim. vol. v, p. 29.

6. Ed. Phil. Asmuss. " Verzeichniss der Orthoptera des Gouvernement Kaluga."

(Verb, zool.-bot. Ges. Wien, 1857.) Band vii, p. 147.

7. Archiv fur Naturgischte, 1845, Band ii, § 128 ; 1847, Band ii, § 59. ( Weigmann. )

8. Baldanus. " Locustae majores quibus Johannes in deserto vitam tolerasse dici-

tur." (Comment Baunon, torn. v).

9. John Barrow, Esq. "An account of a journey in 1801 and 1802 to the Boo-

shuna Nation, Southern Africa." (Travels.) 4th ed. London, 1806. p. 429.

10. Beauplan. " A description of the Ukraine." In Churchill's Voyages, vol. i,

p. 541.

11. Bochart. Hierozoic. P. ii, 1. iv, c. 5, p. 474, 475, and c. 6, p. 485.

12. Karl Henrik Boheman. In Ofvers af Kongl. Vet.-Akad. Forhandl., 1847, p. 250.

13. M. Bolivar. In Annales de la Sociedad EspaSola de Hist. Nat., 1876, vol. v, pt.

ii, p. 297. Also, same periodical aud same number, " Actas," p. 47. Also, same
periodical, torn, v, pt. 3, "Actas," p. 91, 355. Also, " Synopsis of the Orthoptera
of Spain and Portugal," printed separately.

14. M. Preudhomma de Borre. In Comptes-rendus Soci6te" Entomologique Bel-

gique, 1871-72, p. xviii.

15. Brace. Miscellen. aus der neuestens auslandischon Literatur. Jena, 1834.

Heft x, p. 107.

16. Herm. Burmeister. Handbuch der Entomologie. Berlin, 1832. vol. ii, p. 600.

17. R. F. Burton. In " Pilgrimage to El Medinah and Mecca, 1856." London ed.

vol. iii, p. 91.

18. Cantor. Geschichte der merkwiirdigsten Naturbegebenheiten auf unserer Erde.

1804. Band ii, p. 104, 226.

19. Joa Cederhjelm. Faunae Ingricae proilromus. Lipsiae, 1798. p. 128.

20. Georgius Cedrenus. Compendium historia, a muudo condito usque .ad, &o.

Eleventh century. In Corpus Scriptorum historiae Byzantinae (1628), vol. v,
p. 31-321.

21. Jean Chardin. Journal du voyage du chevalier Chardin en Perse et aux Indea

orientales par la mer Noire et par la Colchide. London ed., 1711 and 1735.
Paris, 1811.

22. Toussaint de Charpentier. "Horae Entomologicae." Wratislaviae, 1825.

. p. 131-137.

23. Chesney. " Expedition to the Euphrates." London, 1850. vol. i, p. 362, 537.

24. E. D. Clark, LL. D. Travels in Russia, Tartary, and Turkey. 4th ed. London,

1816. vol. i, ch. iii, p. 133.

25. M. Come. Iu Anuales Sode'te' Entomologique France, 4th ser., vol. vii, 1867,

Bull, x-xiii. (See Girard below.)

26. Coquerel. Orthopteres de Bourbon et de Madagascar. In Ann. Soc. Ent. France,

1861.

27. Vivant Denon. Travels in Upper and Lower Egypt. Engl, trans. London,

1802.

28. S. Joannis Dlugossi. "I listeria Polonica." torn, i, lib. ix, p. 1035; torn, ii,

p. 535.

29. Paulus Draconus. (Iu Purchas.)

30. Dryander. Catalogue de Banks, vol. ii, p. 241-244.

31. W. P. Erichson. Iu Wiegmaun's Archiv fur Naturgeschichte, 1839, Band ii,

>^ 348; 1845, Band ii, $ 128; 1848, Baud ii, $ 59.

32. P. Pcrskal. " Descriptiones animalium quae in itinere orientali." Observant

Forscal. Ed. Niebubr Hanniae, 1775. p. 81.

[52] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

33. Captain Charlea C. Frankland. Travels to and from Constantinople in 1827-

*88. vol. i, p. 264.

34. Rev. T. H. Gallaudet. Scripture Biography for the Young. Moses, vol. i,

p. 114.

35. M. Girard. In Ann. Soc. Ent. France, 4th ser., 1804, vol. vii, Bull, x-xiii; 1867,

Bull, x-xii.

36. Paul P. De la jGironiere. "Twenty vears in the Philippines." New York,

1854. p. 229.

37. Rev. Saml. Gobat. Journal of a three years' residence in Abyssinia, p. 398.

38. Gregorius Turonensis. Historia ecclesiastica Francornm. lib. iv, ch. xx.

39. James Hamilton. "Sinai, the Hadjaz, and Soudan." London, 1857. p. 297.

40. Dr. F. R. Hasselquist. " Voyages and Travels in the Levant, 1749-'52." Eng.

trans. London, 17GG. p. 444. Also: "An Locustae ab Arabieis cibi loco
adhibeantur." Swedish trans. 1752.

41. Irby mid Mangles. "Travels in Egypt and Nubia, Syria and the Holy Land."

Murray's ed. London, 1847. ch. viii, May 27, p. 136.

42. J. G. Jackson. " An account of Marocco, &c." 2d ed. London, 1811. p. 103.

43. P. Jagor. Travels in the Philippine Islands, p. 273.

44. Richard Jobson. " Voyage to Oambora, Africa." 1620. In Purchas's Pilgrims,

vol. ii, p. 1046-1047.

45. John Macdonald Kinneir. "Geographical Memoir of the Persian Empire."

London, 1813. p. 43.

46. Dr. Herman Krauss. "Orthoptera von Senegal." Akad. Wissench. Wien,

June and July, 1877, p. 33. (Also printed separately.)

47. G. A. Kunstler. Uber Heuschreckenfass. Verh. zool.-bot. Ges. Wien, 1864,

p. 769.

48. M. C. Lallemant. Notice sur l'invasion des sauterelles en Algerie. In Ann.

Soc. Ent. Belg., vol. ix. Also, in Ann. Soc. Ent. France, 4th ser, 1867, Bull,
x-xii.

49. Richard Lander. Iu journal appended to Captain Clapperton's journal of a

voyage to the interior of Africa, p. 323.

50. Pierre Andre Latreille. Art. " Sauterelle" dans lo nouveau Dictionaire d'His-

toire Naturelle applique^ aux arts, et principalement h, l'agriculture rurale et
domestique, par une Socie'te' des naturalistes et agricultures. Venise, 1808.

51. Lobscheid. "tlber Acridium peregrinum" (Verh. zool.-bot. Ges. Wien, W0).

Sitzuugberichte, p. 11.

52. Selys Lonchamps. In Comptes-rendus Socie'te' Entomologique Belgique, Wl-

'72, p. 24.

53. H. Lucas. " Explorat. scient. de l'Algdrie, etc." In Scieu. phys., anim., art,

vol. iii, p. 29 ; and Bull. Soc. Ent. France, 1845, p. 32.

54. Job Ludolph. Beschreibung von allerlei Insecten in Deutchland. Berlin, 1730.

Th. ix, p. 6

55. R. R. Madden. "Travels iu Turkey, Egypt, Nubia, and Palestine, 1824-'27."

London, 1829. vol. ii, p. 30, 31.

56. Robert McLachlan. Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1876, Proc. xxxv.

57. Robert Moffat. "Missionary labours and scours in Southern Africa." 2d ed.

New York, 1643. p. 298, et seq.

58. Don Gio. Ig. Molina. Geographical, nat., and civil hist. Chili. Trans, by A.

Alsop. vol. i, p. 146.

59. James Morier. Second journey, p. 99-101.

60. Dr. Tho. Mouffet. " Insectorum sive minimorum animalium thearrum." Lon-

don, 1604. p. 120.

61. Johann Ignatius Muschel de Moskau. De ala locustae Uteris hebraicis

decorata. Miscell. Acad. Nat. Curios., Dec. 2, A. D. 1690, p. 205.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF DESTRUCTIVE LOCUSTS. [53]

62. Fernandez Navarette. "An account of the Empire of China, &c." Book ii,

ch. xv, p. 7. Transl. from Spanish. In Churchill's "Collection of voyages
and travels," vol. i, p. 95.

63. M. Niebuhr. "Travels through Arabia and other countries in the East." Trans-

lated into Euglish by Robert Heron. Edinburgh, 1792. vol. ii, ch. vi, p. 334.

64. J. Olivier. Laud- uud Seereise im Niederlandischen Indien in deni Zeitraumo

von 1817-'26. Weimer, 1833. Th. ii, § 8, p. 242.

65. A. G. Olivier. Encyclop6die methodique. 1789-1825.

66. G. A. Olivier. Vovage (entomol.) dans l'emp. Othomau, l'Egvpte et la Perse,

1801-'07. vol. ii, p. 221, 424.

67. Sir William Ousley. Travels in various couutries of the East, 1810-'11-'12.

vol. i, p. 193.

68. W. G. Palgrave. " Narrative of a year's journev Ihrongh Central and Eastern

Arabia, 1862-'63." London ed., 1865. p. 137, 138.

69. P. S. Pallas. " Travels through the southern provinces of the Russian Empire,

1793-'94." London, 1803. vol. ii, p. 422. (See Maun's list, no. 84.)

70. Plirv. "Natural history." (Translation by Bostock and Riley.) Bohn's ed.

vol. iii, ch. xxxv (xxix), p. 35.

71. Purchas on Insects. "A theater of politicall Hying insects, wherein espe-

cially the nature, the work, the wonder, and the manner of right-ordering
of the bee is discovered and described." London, 1657. p. 197, et seq.

72. George Rawlinson. Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World. 2d

ed. New York, 1873. p. 299-493.

73. Reiche. In "Voyage en Abyssinia par Ferret et Galinier." Paris, 1847-'48.

tome iii, p. 450.

74. Claudius James Rich. " Narrative of a residence in Koordistan." 1836.

75. Rev. Michael Russel. "Nubia aud Abyssinia." Harper's Family Library,

vol. lxvi, p. 317.

76. Henry Salt. •'Voyage to Abyssinia in 1809-'10. Loudon, 1814. p. 172. Ap-

pendix to same. p. lxi (61).

77. Rev. Father Joano dos Santos. ■' History of Eastern Ethiopia." In Pinker-

ton's Voyages, vol. xvi, p. 717.

78. Henry Barth. Travels and discoveries in North and Central Africa, under the

auspices of H. B. M.'s government, in the, years 1849- '55. New York, 1857-'59.
Loud, ed., 1857. vol. ii, p. 217; vol. v, p. 242.

79. Schrank. Fauna Boica Norimbergae. 1798-1803. Tom ii., p. 35.

80. M. Audinet Serville. Histoire Naturelle des Iusectes Orthopteres. Paris,

1839. p. 666. Also, note sur V Acridium peregrinwm Oliv. Ann. Soc. Ent.
France, 1845.

81. Shaw. "General Zoology." London, 1806. vol. vi, p. 137. "Travels in Bar-

bary and the Levant." Engl. ed. fol. p. 187. Also, French transl. of, h la
Haye. vol. i, p. 331.

82. Sir Hans Sloane. "Nat. Hist. Jamaica, &c." vol. i, introduc. p. lxxxi ; vol. i,

p. 29; vol. ii, p. 201.

83. Andrew Sparrman. Voyage to the Cape of Good Hope. Translated from the

Swedish. Perth, 1789. vol. i, p. 263.

84. Carl Stal Recensio Orthopterorum. Stockholm, 1873. p. 65.

85. Stoikoovitsch. "liber die Heuschrecken und die Mittel ihrer Vertilguug.

1825. $ 8.

86. Bory de St. Vincent. Voyage dans les 4 princip. lies de l'Afrique en 1801-'02.

Paris, 1804. vol. i, p. 226.

87. Rudolf Gottschoff. In " Unsere Zeit.," February, 1876. Leipzig.

88. Jaeckel. Correspondenz-Blatt des zool.-mineralogisch. Vereins Regensburg,

vol. xxi, pp. 83-93. Zool. Record, 1867. (See Mann's no. 174.)

89. C. P. Thunberg. In Memoires de l'Academie Imp^riale des Sciences de St.

P6tersbourg, tome v, 1815, p. 247. ,

[54] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

90. Faber. "Do Locustis Biblicis, ct sigillatim de Avibus, Quadrupedibus. Ei

Lev., xi, 20." Wittenburg, 1710-'ll.

91. Antonio e Gio. Battista Villa. Giornalo dell'ingegnere, arcbitetto ed agro-

nomo. Milano, anno iv, n. 3. "La cavallette o locusto." (Compare with
Mann's no. 130.) Also, Coamorama Pittorico. Milano, 1839. n. 31. "Notizie
intorno alio locusto." (Sco Mann's no. 130.) Also, II Fotoyrafo. Milano, Sot-
tembre, 1809. n. 29. " Apparizione di locuste."

92. M. C. F. Volney. Travels through Syria and Egypt, in the years 1773-'*5.

Engl, transl. London, 1787. vol. i, p. 305.

93. G. Waga. Observationes sur diverses migrations de sauterelles. Ann. Soc.

Ent. France, I860.

94. Francis Walker. Catalogue Dermaptera Saltatoria. vol. iii, p. 577.

95. Francisco Alvarez. " Descripcam das Terras do Preste Joam segundo vio e

escreveo o Padre Francisco Alvarez, capellao del Rey nosso senhor, agora
novamente, imprcsso por mandad do ditto senhor em casa de Luis Rodriguez,
libreiro do sua Alteza. Lisboa, 1540. French translation: "Description
Historique de l'Ethiopie," by B<Sllere. Antwerp, 1558. Spanish translation,
by Fray Tomas de Padilla. Antwerp, 1557. In Italian, by Ramusio, in his
Travels. (Same as No. 2, in this list.)

96. John Lewis Burckhardt. 1. "Travels in Nubia," 1819. 2. " Travels in Syria

and the Holy Land," 1822. 3. " Travels in Arabia," 1829. 4. '-Notes on the
Bedoweeus and the Wahabees." London, 1830.

97. James Morier. "A second journev through Persia, Armenia, and Asia Minor "

(1818).

98. Paulus Orosius. Adversus paganos historiaruui. 1. 5, c. ii.

99. Wm. Geo. Browne. "Travels in Africa, Egypt, and Syria, in the years 1792-

'98." London, 1798. 2d ed., 1806. p. 226.

100. Rev. Thomas Harmer. "Observations on various passages of Scripture;

placing them in a light altogether ucw, from relations in books of voyages
and travels." London, 1797. (There arc several editions of this book).

101. Otho Frisingensis. "Latin chronicle of the world, &c." Augsburg, 1515.

Also, "De Gestis Frederici Aenobarbi Libri Duo." In Muratoris rerum Itali-
carum Scriptores.

102. Lewis Cademosta. Voyage in 1455-'64. Vicenza, 1507.

103. Ulysses Aldrovandus. Lib. iv de Iuseeii >, cap. i. Frankfort, 1602.

104. Josephus de St. Angelo. § 41.

105. Don Ignacio de Asso. "Oryctolog. et Zool. Arragoniae." 1764. p. 113.

In Ritter's Heuschreckenplage der alten Welt, p. 11.

106. William Bingley. Animated Nature. 1815. vol. iii, p. 156, 258.

107. M. Brue. In Labat, Relat de l'Afrique Occ, vol. ii, p. 176.

108. Sir John Chardin. Travels. London, 1686-1711. Also ed's., 1711 and 1735.

109. Nicholas Clenard. Epistolarum Libri 1. Louvain, 1550. p. 73.

110. Corance. " Itineraire." Paris, 1816. p. 238.

111. O. G. Costa. "Fauna del regno di Napoli." Napoli, 1836. p. 17.

112. Durhaupt. " Besckreibung des Saalkreises." (Koppen.)

113. Froriep Notizen der Natur- und Heilkunde. vol. xxviii, p. 136. (Possibly

the same as Mann's no. 98).

114. J. Gotleib Georgi. Siberische Reise. pt. i, p. 28. (Possibly the same as

Mann's no. 85.)

115. E. Von Geraet. Eine Nachriehtuber Henschrecken aus dem 16. Jahrhanderte.

Hor. Soc. Ent. Ross., vol. v.

116. Der Geselschaft Natur forschender Freunde zu Berlin, neue Schriften, 1795.

Band ii, p. 347-348.

117. Dr. Thaddeus Mason Harris. "Natural history of the Bible. Art. "Locust."

1821.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF DESTRUCTIVE LOCUSTS. [55]

118. Host. Morocso. p. 30.

119. Karl Illiger. Magazin fur Insektenkunde. 6. Bde., gr. 8.

120. St. Jerome. Commeut. on Joel. ch. ii.

121. Nicolai M. Karamsin. Hist. Russia, vol. i, aun. 438; vol. ii, aun. 172; vol.

ii, aim. 201 ; vol. iii, arm. 153.

122. Peter Kirsten. (Quoted by Ritter in Erdekunde.)

123. Kronika Marciua. Bielokiego. 1764. p. 189.

124. S. lie Play. Exploration de terrains carboniferes de Donetz. In Demidofif,
• Voyage dans le R. m6rid., § 178.

125. Capt. Henry Light. "Travels in Egypt and Nubia, in 1814. London, 1818.

p. 56.

126. Livy. Book xlii, cap. ii. Bonn's English ed. (vol. 47 of lib.) p. 1960, lib.

ii, cap. xxix.

127. Mandelslo. Morganlaudische Reise, 1658, vol. ii, p. 171. Morgenlandische

Reise durch A. Olearium schleswig, 1658, Band ii, fol. 171.

128. Hugh Murray. Hist, of Occ. Africa, vol. i, p. 166 (1817 ?), 238.

129. Julius Obsequens. cap. 30.

130. Oedmau. Vermischte Sammlung, vol. ii, c. vii.

131. Gentlemen's Magazine, 1748. Vol. 17, p. 435; vol. 18, pp. 331, 362.

132. Pausaanis. Attica lib. i, cap. xxiv.

133. Plutarch. De Isid et Osir.

134. Poiret. Voyoge en Barbarie. vol. i, p. 300.

135. Colonel Prejvalsky. Geog. Mag., May, 1878. Reise der Hollandischen Ge-

sandtscbaft nach China vom Jahre 1655-'57. p. 356.

136. Scott. Excursions in the mountains of Ronda and Granada. From Kirby

and Spence, abrig'd, p. 123.

137. Diodorus Siculus. Booth's transl. p. 170, 189.

138. G. A. Kunstler. "Ueber Heuschreckeufass. <Verh. zool.-bot. Wien, 1864,

p. 769.

139. J. Finger. "Wanderheuschrecken." < Verb, zool.-bot. Ges. Wien, 1858.

140. Tacitus, ann. xv.

141. O. G-. Tychsen. "Comment.de locustis, &c." (Possibly the same as no. 81

in Mann's List.)

142. Wahlberg. Erdbeschreibung von Ostiudien. Band ii, p. 844. (See Mann's

No. 134.)

ADDITIONS TO BIBLIOGRAPHY ON THE LOCUSTS OF AMERICA.

143. B. G. Ferris. " Utah and the Mormons." p. 149.

144. Heubert Howe Bancroft. The Native Races of the Pacific States of North

America. New York, 1876. vol. v, p. 275, 601.

145. Francesco Saverio Clavigero. Storia antica del Messico. Cesena, 1780.

Also, Storia della California. Venezia, 1789.

146. M. Cesar Famin. "Chili, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Buenos Ayres." In

L'Univers, vol. xxv, p. 6.

147. Thomas Gage. A New survey of the West Iudias, &c. London, 1655. p. 220.

148. Ovalle. Hist, of Chili, 1646. London, 1824. Aus den geographischen Epheme-

riden. Band xiv, n. 4, $ 444. Also, in Churchill's Voyages, 1745. (See former
report, p. 466.)

149. Ringger. Reise nach Paraguay, p. 420.

150. Jonathan Carver. Travels through the interior part of North America, 1766-

68. London, 1778. Also, 1799, p. 494.

[f>6] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

151. Peter Schmidtmeyer. Travels into Chili over the Andes in the years 1820 and

1821. Lon<lon, 1824. p. 167. Aus den geographischen Ephemcriden. Hand

xiv, n. 4, $ 443.

152. E. G. Squier. Honduras, descriptive, historical, and statistical. 1870. Also,

New notes on Central America.

153. Gillis. Astronomical expedition to Chili, in 1850-52. vol. ii, p. 24.

154. Edward Temple. Travels in various parts of Peru. London, 1830. vol.i.

p. 104.

APPENDIX V.

DATA CONCERNING LOCUSTS IN TEXAS.*

Galveston, Tex., An oust 15, 1877.

To the 6hief Signal Officer of the Army :

Sir : Agreeable to your letters of May 17 and June 9, 1 have the honor to submit
the following data in regard to the habits and depredations of the Rocky Mountain
Locust or Grasshopper in this State during the present year.

The data have been collected principally from the files of the Galveston Daily News,
which has proved to bo the only practicable meaus at my disposal for obtaining in-
formation on this subject, all requests for information addressed to the interior por-
tions of the State having, with a single exception, been ignored.

The portion colored red on the accompanying map shows the section of country
injured by the insects, which is nearly identical with the region in which they origi-
nally hatched. No iuformation of their having appeared in the counties of Blanco,
Comal, Burleson, or Karnes, located in the interior of this section, lias been obtained.

A careful inspection of the herewith inclosed data enables the following answers to
bo given in answer to Circular No. 1 of the Entomological Commission. The answers,
for convenience, are numbered to correspond with the questions.

1. The insects generally developed from eggs deposited in the ground last fall, and
did not arrive in swarms from a distance.

2. In Caldwell County they were traveling northward about March 10 ; Milam
County, going north about March 10 ; Fayette County, going westward about March
10; Hill County, diminishing about March 10 ; Bell County, diminishing about March
15 ; De Witt County, disappearing from Deer Creek about March 15 ; Milam County,
jumping northward about March 15 ; Victoria County, leaving as soon as hatched,
about March 15; De Witt County, hopping northward about March 20; McLennan
County, moving northward about March 20; Milam County, going northward about
March 20 ; Gonzales County, traveling northward about March 30 ; Colorado County,
traveling a little north of west about April 3 ; Comanche County, diminishing in num-
bers about April 3; De Witt County, disappearing in spots about April 4; Comanche
County, disappearing about April 10 ; Robertson County, hopping north about April
10; McLennan County, hopping north about April 6 ; Hays County, decreasing in
numbers about April 12; Caldwell County, leaving by the million about April 15 ;
De Witt County, disappearing about April 19 ; Fayette Connty, disappearing about
April 20 ; Grimes County, going south about April 20 ; Waller County, disappearing
fast about April 20; Grayson County, jumping northward on April 25; Montague
County, moving northward about April 20 ; Gonzales County, flying northward about
April 15; Washington County, gradually disappearing about April 20 ; Ellis County,
passing northward slowly on April 20 ; Washington County, moving northward on
April 26; Colorado County, rapidly disappearing about April 16-23; Fayette County,
going northward on April 15; Johnson County, going off about April 25; De Witt
County, flying oft' about April 25 ; Robertson County, disappearing about April 25 ;
Waller County, disappearing on April 30 ; Bastrop County, rapidly disappearing about
April 28 ; Hays County, going north about April 26 ; McLennan County, going north,
flying high, on May 2; Travis County, heavens clouded with them, going north, wind
sonth, on May 2; Austin County, heavens clouded with them, going north, wind
south, about April 30; Washington County, air full of them, going north, about April
30; Bastrop County, moving northward about April 30 ; Bell County, nearly gone by
April 30 ; Fayette County, heavens alive with them, going noith, about April 30 ; Lee
Connty, emigrating on May 5; Denton County, disappearing rapidly about May 1 ;
Fayette County, going northward throughout week ending May 2; Loon County,
rapidly disappearing about May 1 ; Lampasas County, passing north about May 2 ;
Colorado County, emigrating in large numbers about May 1 ; Caldwell County, myri-

* The following notes were omitted from the First Report for want of space. They were furnished
the Commission by the late Bvt. Brig. Gen. A. J. Myer, U. S. A., Chief Signal Offioer.

[57]

[58] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

ads of them traveling northward about May 2; Fall 8 County, millions passing over,
flying northward, about May 2 ; Gonzales County, nearly disappeared by May 2 ; Hays
County, disappearing about May 2; Live Oak County, nearly all gone by Hay 2;
Washington County, emigrating northward rapidly on May 8; Brazos County, almost
entirely disappeared by May 5; Colorado County, flying northward about May 5;
Lampasas County, millions flying northward during week ending May 10; Navarro
County, departing about May 12 ; Navarro County, disappearing rapidly on May 1G ;
Limestone County, left about May 15; going northward, wind south.

3. No eggs were deposited during the present year.

4. Hatching began about January 25, and ended about March 10. The eggs were
hatching most numerously between February 15 and March 1.

5. In the visitation of 1858 hatching occurred between January 16 and February
27 ; the period of maximum hatching is not known.

6. No information was received that the eggs failed to hatch during the present
year.

7. Open places, such as fields or prairies, free from bush and with but little grass,
were generally selected by the insects to deposit their eggs. They seem to have been
deposited in all sorts of light, loose soil.

8. Hatching began earliest in warm, sandy soil, in sheltered localities, but pro-
gressed without interruption wherever the eggs had been deposited.

9. First insect acquired full wings in Gonzales County about April 5 ; in De Witt
County about April 8; in Colorado County about April 12; rapidly in Gonzales
County about April 20.

10. The winged insects began to migrate from Gonzales County about April 20 ;
from Washington County on April 26 ; from Colorado County about April 20 ; Fayette
County on April 15 ; Johnson County about April 25 ; De Witt County about April
25 ; Robertson County about April 25 ; Waller County on April 30 ; Bastrop Couuty
about April 26 ; Hays County about April 26.

11. While the ravages were progressing the damages were reported as severe from
nearly all of the central counties of the State, but their effect has since proved to be
less permanent than was at first apprehended, many of the devastated grain-fields
having entirely recovered since the departure of the insects ; some, however, had to
be replanted in Lavaca County. The damage was estimated after the departure of the
insects as 5 per cent, of the crops ; in Colorado County at less than 3 per cent. ; in
Bastrop County the damage was finally reported as not material, except to gardens ;
in Lee County it is reported that little damage was doue ; in Denton County damage
reported as not general ; in Leon Couuty damage reported as not enough to materially
afl'ect the crop ; in Navarro County damage estimated at less than 5 per cent, of crops ;
in Kendall County damage reported as not material ; in Llano County the insects
reported to have done but little harm ; in Wilson County have interfered but little
with corn and cotton ; in Lampasas County injury to wheat not so great as was ex-
pected ; in Burnett County reported to have done but little damage ; in Williamson
Couuty reported to have done no damage of serious consequence.

From the preceding, which I take as fair examples of the remaining devastated
counties, I conclude that the damage to the grain crops in the 64 counties visited can-
not exceed 5 per cent. Gardens every where appear to have suffered to a much greater
extent than the grain crops. They are reported as having been entirely destroyed in
a large number of cases, and were badly damaged wherever visited. Assuming that
a large percentage recovered from the ravages of the insect, as in the case of the grain,
I will estimate 25 per cent, as totally lost. Taking the population of the 64 devastated
counties for the year 1870 as a basis, aud dividing it by 5, to get the approximate
number of families, and we have for the latter 84,304. Assuming that one-half of
these families possess gardens worth .$75 each, and that an average of 25 per cent, of
all were destroyed, and we have §790,350 as the approximate damage to gardens.

12. Wheat, oats, corn, and cotton were the crops most affected, the first-named
sustaining the greatest and the last-named the least injury.

13. Fruit crops were more easily protected from the unfledged insects than cereala,
and suffered less. Of the latter no comparisons can be given.

14. Crops which suffered least were fruit, corn, and cotton.

15. In almost every instance the young insects commenced hopping northward as
soon as hatched. Their progress was necessarily very slow until after they had ac-
quired wings, when they rose in immense swarms high into the air, and taking advan-
tage of a warm south wind rapidly disappeared, always pursuing a northerly course.
When meeting contrary currents of air from the north they were obliged to alight and
wait for favorable winds.

16. Mr. Sears, residing on the Bosque River, McLennan County, poisoned myriads of
the insects with corn-meal and strychnine. Many citizens of Brazos County saved
their peach crops by applying tar to the body of the trees, thus preventing the insects
from ascending. Liberal use was also made of tire, boards, carbolic soap, tar, kero-
sene, and turpentine, it is said with good success.

DATA CONCERNING LOCUSTS IN TEXAS.

[59]

17. No information of any means having been employed to destroy the winged in-
sects, or to protect crops from their ravages, they haviug left as soon as their wings
were developed.

18. No information of any.

19. This immediate vicinity, as well as the entire coast country of the State for a
breadth of from twenty-five to seventy-five miles, has never been visited by the insects.

20. This State was visited in 1858.

21. Blackbirds and meadow-larks destroyed large quantities of both the eggs and
the young insects, but without apparent effect on their numbers.

C. A. SMITH,

Sergeant Signal Service, V. S. A.

U. S. Signal Station of Observation,

Eagle Pass, Texas, July 1, 1877.
To the Chief Signal Officer of the Army, Washington, D. C. :

Sir: In obedience to instructions dated Office Chief Signal Officer, Washington,
D. C, June 9, 1877, I immediately upon my arrival at this station began using all
available means of collecting the information requested by the United States Ento-
mological Commission.

This section being sparsely settled, and only few persons of superior intelligence
having observed any of the facts in reference to the appearance and habits of the
"Rocky Mountain locust," I am unable to forward as complete a report as I would
wish to render, I having only arrived here a short time ago, but all the data collected
are embodied in the following:

PREVIOUS YiEARS.

In September, 1873 (no specified date), there appeared at this place, suddenly, im-
mense swarms of locusts, coming from a northerly direction. The direction of their
flight followed tbe Rio Grande River for about 30 miles in its course to the Gulf. For
about five days the multitudes kept traveling over this place, descending to the ground
at sundown, and remaining below until shortly after sunrise the next morning, when
all would rise in a body and resume their flight.

The weather during this visitation was very dry and sultry, and the prevailing
wind northerly ; the damage done immense.

These locusts left an immense amount of eggs behind, which at the beginning of
spring, t. e., the latter part of January in this section, began to hatch. Then it was dis-
covered that the eggs had been laid over a tract of country nearly 2 miles wide, having
the Rio Grande River for its center, and following its course, but'to what distance I am
unable to ascertain. The wingless insects were harmless in the early stages of their
owth, but as their development proceeded the work of devastation begau. Iu the
st part of May, 1874, tbey began to move, not flying, but crawling. The fact has
been observed that the movements of these swarms of young locusts were in exactly
the opposite direction to which their progenitors had traveled. They seemed to re-
trace the steps of their ancestors. Those hatched on this side of the Rio Grande River
moved north towards the settlements, and on their way everything in the shape of
vegetation was totally consumed. Those hatched on the Mexican side of the Rio
Grande took a direction west of north, and the work of devastation was equally great
in the parts of Mexico they passed over. 1 am assured on good authority that, when
leaving this section, they were too young to fly, and their march was carried on crawl-
ing and hopping.

Towards the latter part of May, 1874, all had left and planting was begun.

Now, these young locusts before leaving had deposited eggs, but the eggs of the
young ones are not very plentiful and sparsely distributed. The people of this section,
while this occurs, do not mind it much, as the damage done by ibis not very numer-
ous offspring is never considerable.

In September, 1875, another large swarm of locusts made its appearance, coming
from the same direction, i. e., north, but their numbers were not as formidable as those
of the previous year. These insects deposited their eggs, who were hatched the ensu-
ing spring, i. e., latter part of January, 1876. The numbers of the young ones coming
forth was comparatively insignificant, and having in their turn deposited their eggs,
they left about first half of May, 1876, in a northerly direction.

1877.

The only locusts that appeared in this locality in the present year are those that
were hatched from the eggs deposited by the insects mentioned as having departed
from here in May, 1876. Their numbers are insignificant, and they are about full
grown ; they remain in this locality.

[GO] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION

Answers to inquiries in Circular No. 1, Department of the Interior, Office of tlie Entomo-
logical Commission.

(Note. — As the Rocky Mountain locust lias not arrived at nor departed from this
section in swarms during the present year, and the inquiries have reference particu-
larly to the present year, I am only able to answer a few.)

4. At the opening of spring, i. c., latter part of January in this section.

5. At the opening of spring.

6. It is supposed that a severe cold would seriously interfere with the hatching
process.

7. In low places and valleys, especially in black soil, where little or no sand is
found.

8. In low places and especially in black soil, where little or no sand is found.

9. During May.

11. Injury done slight.

12. Garden vegetables; most of all, lettuce.

13. None that I could name.

14. Muskmelon.

15. It has been observed that the prevailing direction in which the young ones
travel is in the direction from whence their progenitors come. They commence thoir
march beforo they are able to fly, and the masses move crawling and hopping.

16. The moans employed in this section for the destruction of the unfledged insects
wore only rude attempts at burning them. To protect crops from their ravages close
brush fences are used, and are said to prove very satisfactory.

17. To protect crops from the ravages of the winged insect fires have been kindled
and a dense smoke to cover gardens; but this is of almost no use whatever. Flowers
and garden plants have been wrapped up and covered, which was partly successful.

19 and 20. Answered in paragraph headed "previous years."

21. Chickens, turkeys, partridges, snipes, mocking-birds, red-birds, blackbirds, crows,
swallows, ducks, eat locusts with great avidity ; but I am informed that domestic fowls
after a few days tire of this food.

I am, sir, very respectfully, your obedient servant,

FREDERICK BELFORD,

Private Signal Service, U. S. A.

Laredo, Tex., December 7, 1877.
To the Chief Signal Officer, U. S. Army, Washington, D. C. :

Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith the report called for in letter from the
Chief Signal Oilice, June 9, 1877, relative to the United States Entomological Com-
mission circular.

The data inclosed are very meager in details. The circular was received too late to
make any observations, as tho young grasshoppers were hatched and disappeared long
beforo the circular reached this station. The figures denote answers to the questions
similarly numbered in the United States Entomological Commission Circular No. 1.

I, 2, 3, 4, 6. Grasshoppers did not make their appearance here this year.
5. No observations taken.

7. Nature of soil within a radius of 60 miles light loam.
No observations taken on distribution of eggs.

8. No observations taken.

II. Very little damage done in this county. Amount of damage in State not known.

12. In the early spring, in the few gardens in the vicinity, tomatoes, radishes, corn,
and garden stuff generally suffered about equally from the young grasshoppers. Gar-
dening is carried on by irrigation. In the surrounding country nothing grows but
a stunted mesquite and the cactus.

13. Farming is not carried on on a sufficient scale in this vicinity to tell the crops
that sufier most.

15. No observations taken.

16, 17, 18. No attempt made to destroy them.

20. This section was visited in 1875 and 1876. They made their appearance in those
years about the beginning of November. No observations were made at the time.

21. Chickens, guinea-hens, and turkeys devoured them greedily. In the county
wild turkeys, chaparral cocks, mocking-birds, cardinal birds, and a bird called by the
Mexicans "one-tacoches," were particularly fond of them.

Respectfully submitted.

JNO. McGLONE,
Sei'geant, Signal Service, U. S. A.

DATA CONCEKNING LOCUSTS IN TEXAS.

[61]

Uvalde, Tex., November 29, 1877.
To the Chief Signal Officer of the Army, Washington, D. C. :

Sir: Referring to Circular No. 1, United States Entomological Commission, I have
the honor to report that, owing to no mention in Daily Journal of the Rocky Mountain
locust, I can answer the interrogatories only in a general way, and from information
from reliable residents.

This section was visited by small numbers of these insects in the spring and autumn
of 1873 and 1875, and from October 1 to 15, 180(i; none the present year, 1877. They
come in the fall with the northwest wind, and as soon as hatched in the spring com-
mence hopping northward, even before fledged.

The soil in which eggs are most numerously deposited ishard clay and in low location.

As this is not an agricultural country, very little damage has resulted from their vis-
itations, and the numbers of "tree-larks" in this county, especially useful in destroy-
ing the eggs, "chaparral fowl," black hawks, and wild turkeys, devourers of the insects,
prevent any large number arriving at age to migrate in the spring.
Respectfully, your obedient servant,

WM. NORRINGTON,
Private, Signal Service, U. S. A.

DATA CONCERNING LOCUSTS IN INDIAN TERRITORY, 1877.

Fokt Gibson, Ind. T., November 20, 1877.
To the Chief Signal Officer of the Army, Washington, D. C. :

Sir: I have the honor to forward the following data as called for by Circular No. 1,
United States Entomological Commission:

This vicinity has been free from visits of the Rocky Mountain locust during the
summer past.

From April 13 to May 1 the young were hatching out in great numbers. Probably
not more than one-eighth of the eggs hatched.

The disappearance of the young locusts and the failure of so large a proportion of
the eggs to hatch is attributable to the long-continued cold rains occurring shortly
after the eggs began to hatch. The eggs were deposited in sandy loam. They hatched
most numerously in the black, sandy loam having a good southerly exposure. No
young locusts were seen after the 14th of May. None of the locusts arrived at maturity,
neither were any seen off their hatching grounds.

Large flocks of pewees hovered around the hatching grounds, feeding on the young
locusts. This was especially the case if near any shelter.

No efforts were made in this vicinity to destroy them.
Very respectfully, your obedient servant,

GEO. H. CRANE,
Sergeant, Signal Service, U. S. A.

APPENDIX VI.

ON THE FLIGHT OF LOCUSTS.

[From the Atti del Keal Istituto d'lneoraggianiento alle Scienze Naturali di Napoli, tomo 1, pp. 233-269,

' Naples, 1811.]

Translated by P. P. Spofford.
[Part of a memoir presented to the Instituto November 5, 1809, by Gaetano do Lucretiis.]

Among the innumerable injuries to which the industries of the country are subject,
one of the most destructive is the incalculable multiplicity of little animals and insects,
the most pestilent element in animated nature, each of which, taken separately, is but
a feeble and despicable thing, but which, through their excessive multiplication and
surprising voracity, become a most pernicious pest, and a real public scourge, capable
of rendering uninhabitable an entire canton. The extraordinary mildness of the win-
ters, and tho absence of tbat rigor of cold which belongs to that season, unhappily favor
the generation and development of little animals, and especially of insects; so that in
some places their multiplication much exceeds the limits of tho ordinary year. But
these insects are by no means all equally noxious. The great swarms of bees, of hor-
nets, of wasps, and the clouds of gnats and midges and other similar insects, are rather
annoying thau injurious. Nearly the same may be said of the legions of ants, of butter-
flies, and of beetles which make their appearance in spring and autumn. But desola
tiou is brought upon agricultural industry by the ravages of gnawing mice, of devour-
ing worms, consuming the buds of t he vine, of mites or weevils, destroying both grains
and vegetables, and of so many other noxious animals and iusects which spring up in
the heart of our country and' lay waste the wheat, oats, barley, vines, leguminous
plants, and esculents. Italy suffers also the calamity of seeing countless legions of
foreign insects, which abandon from time to time the deserts of Tartary and of Arabia,
cross"swiftly over to the shores of Italy, and, like hordes of invading armies or barbar-
ous conquerors, despoil the earth over which they march, rob it of its fertility, leaving
desolation in their track, and reducing whole populations lo the horrors of misery and
of famine. Thus they devour the produce both of sown ground and of meadows, and
render the country a sterile waste, incapable of sustaining men or domestic animals
with necessary food. Thus the locusts, vulgarly named Druchi, have for years invaded
the most fertile provinces of our kingdom. This is no now calamity for Italy, as Pliny
records similar visitations in his day. -

The cradle of the locust (Grillus migratoriua Lin.), according to French naturalists,
was Tartary and Arabia; but sometimes they abandon their native habitat, and come
in swarms of emigrants to carry desolation and terror over Europe, and especially in
our southern latitudes. The east winds appear to favor the flight of these exterminat-
ing hordes, composed usually of an incalculable number of individuals, which is con-
firmed by the testimony of that accurate observer Adanson in his voyage to Senegal,
who records the following concerning the emigrations of this insect near the river
Gambia, in Africa.* Ho says:

"At about eight o'clock in the morning, in the month of February, a dense cloud
suddenly came up over us, darkening the air, and even shutting out the rays of the
sun. I observed that this phenomenon was caused by a swarm of locusts rising about
180 feet from the earth, and spreading over an extent of many leagues; finally, an
immense quantity of these insects came showering down with a rattling noise upon
the earth, devouring whatever of verdure was found, and then resuming their flight.
This swarm was blown along by a strong, gusty wind from tho east, continuing all
day, and spreading over the whole country adjacent."

Theso regions suffered the last great devastation from this source in the year 17f>8.
Their arrival is heralded by a dull sound produced by the agitation of their wings,
and the obscuration of the sun announces their impeuding fall upon the fields; and
woo to the land where they light for repose from the fatigues of their journey, which
frequently comprises 30 miles a day. The most fertile country after one of their visits
exhibits the aspect of a melancholy desert.

*The insect Adanson saw was evidently A. percgrinum and not P. migratorius.—C. Thomas.

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[64] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

In their native regions, when- the summer is hot and (lie herbage; abundant, their
multiplication is excessive, and a fair and dry season is best adapted to their emigra-
tions; sometimes they lly even to the borders of .Switzerland ; which puts me in mind
of the fact that the troops of 1 he renowned Charles XII, when they traversed Bessara-
bia, believed themselves overtaken one day by a hurricane, accompanied by a terrible
hail-storm, when a vast swarm of locusts, which darkened the sun, began to fall, cov-
ering men and horses and arresting the whole army on its march.

Their voracity is most surprising. Gritndler placed some locusts under a globe of
glass, in which some freshly-plucked stalks of barley had been placed. They first cut
the stalks in two, then devoured from top to bottom all that remained at their feet,
and then consumed every vestige of what fell on either side, with their greedy jaws,
and all this with an avidity and agility that cannot be described. » » »

And yet I think t hat the damage produced by each locust would scarcely merit the
attention of the agriculturist, if they only came, like other species of insects, in small
numbers. But when their swarms are composed of innumerable legions, similar to
dense clouds, falling from the sky by their own weight, and accompanied by the most
active powers of devastation and a surprising agility, they carry with them the dis-
astrous advantage of their exorbitant numbers, which sometimes baffles all calcula-
tions, falling upon a certain country and in the twinkling of an eve devouring all the
plants in their pathway. Their first fury is discharged upon the delicate plants more
abounding in juice ; but soon finding these giving out, and lacking their coveted food,
they attack the leguminous plants, the leaves and the bark of trees, and, generally,
all classes of vegetables, without sparing those whose odor or sap has something acid,
sour, astringent, bitter, and even poisonous, and devouring equally coverlets of wool,
and the clothing of the people of the country worn for protection irom the rain or the
frost, and finishing with stuffs of flax ami of silk

Upon the emigration of locusts, certain circumstances, as common as they are un-
heeded, merit the attention of the observer. Their flight is more certain and at a
greater altitude whenever the atmosphere is of a heated temperature and the air clear
and calm. On the other hand, when the atmosphere is charged with mist or with rain,
or pervaded by a chilly element, or even about the rising or the setting of the sun,
they move more slowly, exhibiting a certain rigidity, moving their wings with diffi-
culty, and not rising to any great height. And when they attempt to continue their
raids in a rainy season, or one tending to cold, they begin by agitating their wings and
exciting all their strength to rise; but, not finding themselves in a condition to sustain
a long journey, they at first droop, and then fall precipitately to the ground, and are
compelled to continue their journey on foot.

The Irish writer William Bowles, in his "Introduction to the Natural History and
Physical Geography of Spain,'' published and annotated by d'Azara, speaking of the
locusts which devastated various provinces of that ki ngdona from 17^-1 to 1757, maintains
the theory that the ardor of perpetuating their species is not equal in the male and
female locust, observing that the male is restless and solicitous, while the female
shows herself cold and always intent upon feeding. Whence it comes that the males,
during the fresh hours of the morning, are for assaulting the females, w hile the latter
are fleeing and hiding ; but in the first two hours of midday the females begin to free
themselves from the importunity of tho males, who are continually pestering and
pursuing them, and in this exercise mounting into the atmosphere to the height of
400 or 500 feet, the first legion taking always the route which the wind favors, and
going perhaps two leagues; and whenever the sky is serene and the air not agitated
by winds their flight is very brief. From this cause, it is said, results the migration
of the locusts. As declared by a Spanish countryman who saw his fields devoured by
these pests: "If those accursed females would not act so prudishly, and if they would
suffer the males to enjoy them in the country where they were born, I should not have
to undergo this damage; but the vermin fear extinction, and seek to prolong life like
ourselves, because they know that conjunction means nothing else than to impregnate
and die."

One would need to be very easily impressed by the marvelous in order to adopt the
credulous belief of the Spanish countryman, and to persuade himself that the locusts
forsee the consequence of copulation as fatal to them, and to attribute to the chastity
and rigor of the females the migration of those innumerable colonies which come from
the farthest east to the west of Europe. But wherefore should we not attribute this mi-
gration rather to a cause both simple and natural, as well as founded upon an instinct
of all organized beings — of gathering their own nourishment? Having consumed in
one place all nutritious substances, why should they not, seek out another where food
abounds? And this is, without question, the first of the three principal causes that
determine the migrations of living species, commencing with man and continuing
through quadrupeds, birds, some reptiles, zoophytes, gnats, and other insects; and to
which have been due the immense reflux of barbarian tribes which have abandoned
their northern boundaries to pour their inundations into the warm and fertile regions
of the south. In fact, all thoso swarms of Goths, Huns, Vandals, Cirubri, Borgognoni,

<>N THE FLIGHT OF LOCUSTS.

Alani, which overflowed the vast provinces of the Roman Empire to find those means
of sustaining life which were denied them in their own sterile countries, and the fre-
quent invasions of Southern Asia by the Tartars, of which history is full, besides
many other invasions buried in the obscurity of antiquity, all point to the same con
elusion. Just like the wandering bands of foxes and wild boars from the north, which
scattered themselves over vast spaces to gather prey in greater abundance, so much
more naturally have those terrible swarms of locusts taken up their course from Tar-
tarv and Arabia to inundate the plains of India, of Palestine, of Poland, of Spain, and
of Italy, devouring all vegetation in their path. Traveling in such countless masses,
destroying vegetable sustenance throughout an entire region, and the need of alimen-
tation compelling them to go to new places to find fresh food, they thus migrate from
land to land.

* * # # # # *

All the governments of Europe strive to protect their people from the famine and
pestilence which these insects cause, living or dead; and Spain especially, whose
southern provinces appear to be permanently infected, has always promulgated stand-
ing orders to gather boxes full of eggs, and cause them to be consigned to commissions
charged with burying them in deep ditches. And in the " Recreations tlre'es de Vhisioire
naturelle des insecies" we read that upon the passage of the locusts into France in 1613
they swept completely over fifteen arpeuts of grain in the environs of Aries, and even
penetrated the granaries, when many hundreds of birds, and especially of starlings,
as if commissioned by Divine Providence, began to labor for their diminution; not-
withstanding which happy event, orders were issued by the government requiring that
their eggs should be collected, of which more than three thousand measures were
gathered, each one of which was estimated to be capable of producing nearly two
million locusts.

At another migration of locusts, which took place in a portion of Bautzhhla, in Tran-
sylvania, in 1780, with the view of preventing the terrible consequences which might
ensue, orders were issued to fifteen hundred persons, each of whom was required to
gather a full sack of locusts, which were in part crushed, in part burned, or buried;
and yet the diminution of their numbers would have been scarcely noticeable but for
a sharp frost that supervened. In the following spring there were millions of boxes
of eggs disinterred and destroyed by the people, who gathered, as it were, en masse for
this operation ; and yet, in spite of all this, there were very extensive districts in which
the soil was covered with young locusts so completely as not to leave a single spot
bare.

The desolations sometimes occasioned by locusts in our Puglia Daunia at different
epochs are very remarkable. Omitting the more remote periods of antiquity, and
passing by the less destructive ravages, we come to the year 1231, in which these most
pernicious insects compelled the wise Emperor Frederick II to promulgate a special
law, by which it was ordained that every agriculturist, during the invasion of these
little animals, should collect every morning, at the rising of the sun, four measnres,
and present them to the magistrate, who was required to have them burned. Of the
year 1541, wrote Eovero Pontano : " In the summer of this year a great army of locusts
flew through Germany into Italy towards our region. Wherever this swarm extended
it devoured everything in its path, for the locusts were very large and numerous."

So great were the injuries caused in 1571 in this country by the locusts, that the
Vice-Duke of Alcala, D. Perafante de Eibera, was obliged to put forth, by the vote
and advice of the Royal Council, on the 8th of October, 1572, the first pragmatic de-
cree, De Bruchis, Title 23, by which it was ordered that the communes should appoint
experts and practical men to explore their territories, and to search out all the places
in which the locusts had deposited their eggs; and when found they were to dig
trenches in the months of September and October, through which operation the eggs
might be destroyed. And in the month of April the swine are turned loose to devour
the locusts, of which they are very gluttonous. The housewives also spread sheets
or pieces of cloth at convenient times, long and large, upon which the locusts alight-
ing are folded up and entrapped.

The province of Puglia was inundated in the year 1662, and all the cultivated fields
destroyed; insomuch that Vicerfe, the Count of Peneranda, not only accorded to the
tenants of the soil a general release from the rents due that year, but also deducted a
portion of that of the year following, an indulgence which it became necessary to grant
for several subsequent years. Puglia Daunia was again invaded in the year 1727, and
the whole country ravaged. And, finally, they appeared again in this country in 1759,
when D. Antonio Belli was governor of the customs; and on the 14th of August of the
same year appeared orders similar to those of the Duke of Alcala, above referred to,
to which was added a command to burn the straw in all places infested by the locusts.

In the years 1770 and 1771 they frequented the provinces of Bari, Matera, and Lecce,
and the governor ordered that the magistrates should adopt the most efficacious meas-
ures for their extirpation, and especially those prescribed by the president, Belli, and
that handsome rewards should be paid to those who should use the greatest diligence

[5]

[66] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

for the destruction of the eggs. And similar provident regulations had such an effect
that these pestilent inseets not only did not then penetrate into our Puglia Daunia,
but were entirely destroyed in the provinces adjacent.

Ah the result of all t hese experiences, it may he said that the means of exterminating
these most pernicious insects may be reduced to the following:

1. In the first period, and particularly in the months of September and Octoher, the
ground in which the eggs may be deposited should be turned up with the plow or the
spade, and the eggs collected and buried in trenches;* and there should be introduced
into the ploughed fields a number of swine, who will devour a surprising quantity up
to the t hird period,

2. The second important thing to do, when the eggs are about to expand, is to crush
as many as posssible under the feet of the peasants and with heavy wooden instru-
ments; and during the whole period in which they have not the use of their wings,
and are incapable of taking flight, but only of hopping, let them be surrounded with
straw in the morning, and towards the evening, when found in great numbers over
any extent of territory, attack them with tire on all sides, so that they cannot escape
being burned.

3. When they have later unfolded their wings, which were at first enveloped, as it
■were, in two buds upon their backs, use should be made of the spread sheets and the
deep trenches. And wherever it is attempted to drive them from a cultivated field
into a neighboring wood or into some unfilled region, let a loud noiso be made by
beating upon instruments of copper <t other metallic substances, striking Mow-, of
steel, and making a clamorous sound. And, finally, as soon as the Beason of their cop-
ulation arrives, and the first swarm of locusts disperses, to wing its way into new ter-
ritory, rising in enormous multitudes, the condition of turbulence in which they are
fhen found furnishes to the peasants the most favorable occasion to destroy an immense
quantity of their progeny by active and quick assault.

When the means above indicated are judiciously employed at various periods of their
life, they will unquestionably produce the most advantageous effects.

OF THE LOCUSTS WHICH DESOLATED VARIOUS PROVINCES OF SPAIN
FROM THE YEAR 1754 UNTIL 1757.

[From Bowles's (William) " Introdaziono alia Storia Naturale e alia Geografia Fisicadi Spagna; pubbh-
cata dal Cao. D. O. N. D'Azara. Tradotta da F. Milizia." Parma, 1783. Tomo ii, pp. 1-24.)

Translated by F. P. Spoffobd.

The locusts of which I am about to speak are found constantly in the southern
regions of Spain, and especially in the uncultivated lands of Estremadura; but they
ordinarily excite no attention, because they are found in moderate quantities and live
upon the wild herbs, without touching the sown fields or the gardens, or penetrating
into the houses. The countrymen see them hop about with indifference and feed upon
the grass of the meadows ; and their indolence causes them to lose the favorable oc-
casion of exterminating them every year, a neglect which they vainly seek to repair
when the mischief becomes without remedy.

The progeny which these insects leave every year is not very great, because the
number of their males infinitely exceeds that of the females ;t and if for ten years the
generation of the two sexes should be equal their multiplication would be 60 prodigious
that they would devour the entire vegetable kingdom ; the birds and quadrupeds would
die of famine, and the men would have to make their last meal of the locusts. In the
year 1754 such a quantity of female locusts was bred that, in the following year, they
inundated La Manche and Portugal, bringing with them all the horrors of dearth and
of misery. The same calamity spread quickly over the neighboring provinces, carry-
ing with it terror and desolation into Murcia and Valencia, and into the four kingdoms
of Andalusia. * * *

The locusts always deposit their eggs in uncultivated ground, and have need of a
certain degree of heat in order to hatch them ; whence it may be inferred that they
cannot propagate in cold and cultivated regions, which are only subject to certain
passing invasions of such legions as are transported by the winds.

The locusts, which upon issuing from the egg are black and no larger than a small
fly, swarm about the clods of earth and among a species of rushes, leaping one upon
another, and occupying a space of three to four feet in circumference and two inches
in height, so that a body of them resembles a black object which moves along the
ground. The first opportunity which presented to me the view of such a spectacle
surprised me from a distance of ten to twelve paces, because it conveyed the mournful

fWhy not destroy them effectually, as by burning I

* "We nave not found this to be the case with 0. gpretut. — C. T.

ON THE FLIGHT OF LOCUSTS.

idea of a funeral pall; and as these little animals live only upon dew, they raise anil
lower themselves continually one upon another to gather it.

The locusts move but a little space from the place of their birth during the first days
of their lives, because their legs are always weak, their wings not yet well formed, and
their teeth not sufficiently hard to eat the herbage. In the course of fifteen to twenty
days they begin to eat the most tender stalks of the plants, and in proportion as their
limbs grow stronger they break away from the society of the colony and spread over
the adjacent fields, intent, day and night, without sleeping, upon devouring whatever
presents itself to them, while their wings grow to their perfection. It is not to be
wondered at that they consume the tender, juicy, and sweet plants, like the melons,
citrons, pumpkins, and other green things, and the leguminous plants, and not less
the aromatic shrubs, whose perfumes attract them from afar, like the thyme, the mint,
the rosemary, the sage, the southernwood, which so abound in Spain that in many
parts they serve to furnish aromatic fires, and in the north they are cultivated as
choice plants in gardens. What seems strange, they devoured also the mustard plant,
onions, and garlic, as well as poisonous plants like the Stramonium ferox, the Solarium
lothale, the hemlock, and other fetid and poisonous plants; in short, the locust con-
sumes everything, without distinction of llavor, of odor, or of virtue — good or bad.

The singularity about these locusts, which during four consecutive years desolated
all the southern provinces of Spain, was a fact notorious to all the world, namely, that
in the midst of so many plants greedily devoured they never touched the leaves and
the flowers nor the fruit of the tomato (or love apple), the only privileged plant which,
was respected by this voracious insect. * * *

The locusts pass the months of April, May, and June near the place of their birth,
at the close of which latter month their wings assume a beautiful rose color, and ac-
quire all the strength and management of which they are capable. They now begin
to unite in colonies for the second and last flight, and then begins in their youth to
kindle in them the passion and desire of perpetual ing their species. This is manifested
in their movements; but it is observed that this ardor is very unequal in the two
sexes, because the males become restless and solicitous, while the females remain cold
and occupied continually in feeding. The one approaches, the other flies and hides,
so that the whole early morning is passed in assaulting on the one part and fleeing aud
feeding on the other. Toward two o'clock in the afternoon, when the heat of the sun
has dried all the dampness of the night from their wings, so that they assume their elas-
ticity, the females begin to free themselves by jumping about, and fly from the impor-
tunities of the males who pursue them, in which exercise they begin to rise little by
little into the air, and finally to the height of 400 to 500 feet, forming a cloud which
intercepts the rays of the sun. The clear and serene sky of Spain is obscured, and
becomes, in the midst of summer, more dark and gloomy than that of Germany in the
spring. The rustling of so many millions of wings forms a dull roar similar to that
which a sudden blast of wind produces in a forest full of trees. The route which the
first formidable swarm takes always follows the wind, and this first flight is usually
prolonged about two leagues ; but if the weather is calm and serene the length of t heir
flight is less. In these fatal pauses the locusts commit the most frightful ravages;
By their exquisite sensibility to odors, they scent from a great height in the air a held
of grain or a garden. I have seen them turn from the course of their march more than
half a league, obliquely, to destroy a fleld of grain, and after they had devoured it rise
again and resume their first direction which they had left. The destruction is accom-
plished in an instant. Each insect has four arms and two legs, and all the extremities
of each of these members have three [two] claws for grappling. I have seen the males
ascend the branches of the trees on which they feed, as sailors climb by the yards and
ropes of their ship, cutting off only the most tender of the twigs and letting them fall to
the earth, so that the females who are below may eat them. I will not venture to say
what cause influences the males to be so complaisant, since the instinct is not revealed;
and this gallantry being but ill reciprocated by the ungrateful females, leads the males
to descend from the shrubs, taking flight and pursuing them. With frequent similar
pauses they finally come together in some uncultivated ground, when the males give
vent to their desires, and the females deposit their eggs in the manner already re-
ferred to.

What a terrible spectacle it must be for a poor husbandman to look upon his fields
when these insects have devoured the whole harvest. A countryman of judgment, as
many are in the regions of Spain, finding himself present with me at such a scene of
destruction, and seeing his fields left without a stalk of grain, and only with a little
chaff, exclaimed: "If these accursed females were not so prudish, and if they would
suffer the males to possess them in the country where they were born, such a calamity
would not have befallen me ; but the rabble fears death, and strives to prolong its life
like ourselves because it knows that after uniting nothing remains to it but to lie in
and die."

All history and tradition declare that the apparitioti of locusts is a pest which has
afflicted the southern provinces of Spain from time immemorial; and I remember to

[68] REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

have read in an aucieut Spanish romance this question: "What animal is that which
resembles all the animals I Answer. The locust; because he has the horns of a stag,
the eyes of a cow, the face of a horse, the talons of a stork, the tail of a serpent, and
the wings of a dove." The tracing out of these resemblances proves that the locust
has been for a long time known and observed in Spain. Many old men have assured
me, when questioned upon the locust plague of 1754, that that was the third which
they had seen in their day, and that they existed always in the uncultivated lands of
Estromadura, whence they wandered from time to time to lay waste other regions.
Certainly they must be indigenous in Spain, because these are of a very different spe-
cies from those which are found in the north and in the Levant,* as can easily be seen
by comparing them with the insects of those countries which are preserved in the
cabinets of natural history. The locust of Spain is the only one which has wings of
rose color. Besides this, it is not possible that he should come from other regions,
because he certainly has not come from the north, as the observation of so many ages
demonstrates; nor can ho have come from the south without crossing the sea, which
is impossible for him to have done because of his short flight; and this passage can
be observed like that of the quails and of other migratory birds. I have seen a troop
of locusts pass through Malaga and enter for a quarter of a league over the sea; but
when the people began to take pleasure in tho hope that they would disappear and
be drowned, they gave a sweep toward the left, flew straight to the earth, and paused
to deposit their eggs in an uncultivated held surrounded by vines, such as they usually
choose for their nests. The great number of dead bodies of the locusts which are ob-
served floating on the shores of the Mediterranean, and which are drowned in rivers,
which transport them into the sea, afford familiar examples of their troops or swarms
which are precipitated into the sea on their journeys.

I have referred to the injuries which this insect occasions. I may now anticipate
the remedy which the superintendents and the magistrates of Estremadura and of La
Mancha enjoin upon the countrymen, and especially upon the shepherds: to discover
the places where they have deposited their eggs, and unitedly to join in destroying
them, without waiting for the time when they have developed and have begun to hop.
However great may bo the number thus destroyed, there remains always an immense
army. But it were better to annihilate this horrible scourge where it is produced, and
■where it always exists in a greater or less degree, by exterminating it from the roots.
I have seen in San Clemente multitudes of locusts destroyed in two months, which,
perhaps, left only in all Estremadura a few who were not able to fly ; and nevertheless
the effect was like taking a drop of water out of the sea, nor was there observed in the
following year any diminution in the number of locusts. It appears that it would be
attended with less labor and expense if the end were aimed at of making war upon
them in their own country and preventing their fatal eruptions.

* It is very important not to confound the locust of Spain with those described by other authors.
These furnish a fine occasion to display erudition upon the species of known locusts, of which we find
mention in Exodus, and which St. John the Baptist fed upon in tho desert, like the people called "Acri-
dofapos" or locust-eaters ; but all this is not to our pnrpose, and can be found in the books of the nat-
uralist.

APPENDIX VII.

NOTES OF A JOURNEY MADE TO UTAH AND IDAHO IN
THE SUMMER OP 1878, BY A. S. PACKARD, Jr.

August 14, 1878. — I left Salem, Mass., for Omaha, accompanied by Mr. Leslie A. ■
Lee, instructor in zoology, &c, of Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Me., as special assist-
ant. We reached Omaha on the 17th, taking the overland train that day for Chey-
enne.

August 18. — The day following we saw, for the first time after leaving Omaha, the
sage-brush and the characteristic appearances of the "plains" at Big Springs, Nebr.
At Potter we collected along the railroad track both sexes of Caloptenus femur-vubruTii)
and also several specimens of the genuine Rocky Mountain locust (Caloptenus spretus).
In the evening we arrived at Denver, Colo.

August 19. — We made an early start for Georgetown, arriving there at 12.30, and
after lunch took horses for Mrs. Lane's "log cabin," situated near the Argentine Pass,
at the foot of Gray's Peak. Along the road, five or six miles above Georgetown, Calop-
tetius spretus was not uncommon at an elevation roughly estimated at about 9,000 feet
above the sea.

August 20.— The ascent of Gray's Peak was made in a storm of hail, thunder, and
lightning. The insects native to the extreme summit, found by turning over stones,
were a species of Phalangium or harvest-man, a spider and mite, together with Po-
durae. Specimens of Caloptenus spretus also occurred under stones, benumbed with the
cold. The workmen building the summit-house told us that they had seen a few lo-
custs flying over the peak in clear weather.

Upon the "Alpes," or green, flower-strown slopes of Gray's Peak, above timber line,
about 12,000 feet altitude, Caloptenus spretus was found in abundance.

While in Denver Mr. A. J. Bell informed us that August 14, while in the South Park,
he saw a swarm of locusts flying east for an hour or two ; he also said that they bred
in Snake and Bear River Valleys nearly every year, but that none were seen this year
in Snake Valley.

Mr. Wright told us that locusts were abundant August 12 and 13 in Estes Park at
Ferguson's Hotel. He saw them flying in the air in "enormous numbers," so that it
was feared that they would lay their eggs, the ground being "covered" with locusts.

Captain Jenness told me that locusts had bred this summer in small quantities in
Gilpin Couuty, especially on the Bear Mountains.

August 23.— We left Denver for Cheyenne aud Ogden. At the station of " Summit,"
on the Union Pacific Railroad, we were told that the Rocky Mountain locust had bred
in the "bottoms" near the station this year and last in sufficient numbers to answer
for bait in trout fishing.

At Laramie City a person told us that locusts were seen about the 6th or 8th of the
month in the air flying towards the southeast. At Rock Creek Station we were in-
formed by freighters that no locusts had been seen this season between the station
and Fort Kinney, about 200 miles northward, and that in general they were less numer-
ous this year than in 1877. No locusts had been seen about Bridger, nor in the region
north of Cooper's Lake this season.

A ugust 24.— While locusts had not been seen by us in passing through Wyoming they
were abundant at Evanston, and from there to Echo. We left the train at Echo Sta-
tion and drove to Coalville, enjoying the hospitality of Bishop Clough for two days.
He informed us that nearly one-haif the wheat crop in Summit County had been de-
stroyed this year by the unfledged locusts, which hatched out in the wheat fields. The
swarms which flew into the couuty late in the season in 1877 laid their eggs in the
cultivated wheat fields, not on the hillsides a's usual, so that the young when hatched
could not be kept out of the wheat. When winged they 'Sew back (contrary to the
usual rule) in a northerly course into Morgan County, whence their parents came in
the previous year. In former years the locusts, on becoming winged, took flight iu a
southeasterly course. We learned that at the Dairy, three miles south of Wasatch,
locusts were very thick August 24 of this vear.

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August 26. — Retaining to Echo we took the train to Ogden. We found locusts
(ft spretus) to be abundant at Ogden in the vicinity of the railroad station, though
they had not been destructive to crops this year iu the vicinity of Ogden.

August 27.— From Ogden wo took the Utah Northern Railroad to Franklin, Idaho.
At Logan locusts were abundant, Hying some twenty feet high in the air, ami at
Suiithlicld and Richmond a few were to lie Keen.

At Willard, Cache County, no locusts were reported this year, though they were said
to have recently entered Malade Valley from the northeast.

From passengers on the train we gathered the following miscellaneous information:
July 29, " eclipse day," a swarm of locusts passed over, li ving from the west and west
southwest, crossing Ryan's Cafion, the Stinking- water River, and devastated or
"cleaned out" a few farms, eating off the heads of the oats. The moment the eclipse
took place the locusts settled on the ground as if night fall was coming on, and never
were to bo seen afterwards.

At Richmond we saw them jumping about on the ground and also flyiug at an ele-
vation of perhaps 500 feet in the air, in a general southwesterly course, down the val-
ley. These locusts were said to have come from the northeast, over the mountains,
about the 1st of August, none having hatched out iu the spring. The locusts extended
from Logan to Franklin, and had destroyed one-third of the oats and a third of all
the garden stuff at Richmond and Logan.

At Smithvillo, the year previous (1877), the farmers had, in consequence of the
depredations of the locusts, raised but half a crop of wheat, the young having hatched
out from eggs laid in 1876. They generally fly southward, toward Salt Lake, from
Smithvillo as well as other points in Cache Valley.

August 28. — Locusts were found to be abundant, scattered over the ground in and.
about the town, and for several miles away from the village. They were coupling by
the roadsides, though I could not see that any eggs were laid, and no females wen-
seen engaged iu boring holes in the earth preparatory to egg-laying. They were also-
abundant in plowed lands from which the wheat had just been harvested, and were
on the willows eating the leaves, and on the wild roses and golden rods.

At 7.30 a. m. numbers of them were seen flying and sailing about in the air in vari-
ous directions, there being no steady breeze.

They were reported to havo been abundant in Gentile Valley about the 18th of
August, the locality being situated between Franklin and Soda Springs.

According to the statements of Mr. Alexander Stalker they arrived here from the
north, probably Portneuf Cation, reaching Franklin between the 15th and 30th of
July.

Mr. Stalker told me that locusts hatched out at Franklin in the spring of 1877, and
when fledged, contrary to the usual rule, departed to the northeast. Those now here
he supposes to be their progeny which have come from the breeding grounds to the
northeast.

At Franklin some late wheat was damaged, and all except early oats ; the early
wheat was not hurt.

I learned from Mr. Stalker that locusts were pretty thick at Virginia City, Mont.,
August 2 or 3, and appeared to be flying northeast towards Madison River.

At Bozeman they had occasionally been destructive this summer, but no damage
had been done by them at Beaver Head, Red Rock, Rattlesnake Creek near Argentine,
Big Horn Prairie, Jefferson Fork, Big Hole, and none at Stinking-water River or in
Ruby Valley, and uoue at Snake River Crossing (Taylor's Bridge), at Blackfoot, or
at Portneuf.

A great many crickets were observed at Portneuf.

Mr. Stalker told me that the black cricket (Anabrus simplex) will in early summer eat
young wheat and then leave it. Farmers do not fear them if the grain is irrigated, as
then they are said to do no harm. They are pretty abundant about Franklin (though
I saw none while there) ; the young crickets will eat the tender grass and grain and
when adult will leave it. They are very particular to select the young graiD. The
best means of destroying the crickets is to herd the sheep in the grain, keeping them
compactly herded, as the sheep will do little harm to the grain when young, and they
trample the crickets to death.

Locusts were reported by passengers on the stage from Montana as abundant all the
way from Pleasant Valley to Oneida ; but though those seen by us at Franklin had
evidently flown from Southern Montana, no damage was done by them in Montana
this summer, as already stated. Between Helena and Fort Benton no locusts were
heard of.

On our return t o Salt Lake City, on the evening of the 28th, locusts were seen flying
low at Brigham.

August 29. — From various sources we ascertained that the locust had not occurred
this season south of San Pete, and then they were not abundant and appeared late.
For a month or six weeks they have been passing in scattering numbers over Salt
Lake City. They were particularly observed July 29, the day of the eclipse.

Packard's journey to utah, etc.

[71]

August 30 and 31. — At Lake Point the Rocky Mountain locusts were frequently caught
in recently harvested wheat fields.

September 1. — For considerable valuable information regarding the distribution of
the locust, obtained in Salt Lake City, we were indebted to the editor of the Salt
Lake Herald, to the United States signal observer, and especially to Mr. Lawrence
Bruner. He had, August 31, seen C. spretus at York, 70 miles south of Salt Lake City,
and had this day returned from Provo, where he observed a few individuals.

September 2. — We left Salt Lake City for the East. Upon the train, after leaving
Ogden, a scout with the pseudonym of Navajo Bill informed us that locusts were
seen the past summer between McDowell's Ferry and the Blue Mountains, in Eastern
Oregon, flying and also upon the ground. At Evanston, just east of the town, Calop-
tenus spretus was very abundant, both flying in the air and hopping about on the
ground.

September 4.— At Como we stopped for two days. Mr. William Carlin, the station agent,
whose hospitality we enjoyed, informed us that July 29, the day of the eclipse, he saw
4i large swarm of Caloptenus spretus passing to the east by south from about 10 a. m.
to 4 p. m. He thinks they bred in the Wind River Valley. Mr. F. F. Hubbell told us
that he saw a swarm three or four days after the eclipse going in an east by north
course.

September 5. — In the course of a walk of five or six miles south of the station I saw
only three Caloptenus spretus, and they were on the ground.

September 6. — We took the cars for Omaha. Mr. W. B. Scott, of the Princeton Col-
lege expedition in search of fossils, whom we met on the train, gave us the following
information regarding the distribution of the locust in the regions visited by him
■during the past season. He stated that grasshoppers were seen locally in a few places
in abundance on Bitter Creek, 100 miles south of the Union Pacific Railroad, but usu-
ally there were not enough to serve as bait for fishing. They were also seen at the base
and on the summit of Gilbert's Peak, at about 11,000 feet elevation. The last of
August locusts were observed at Twin Creeks, on Ham's Fork, Wyoming.

We were told by a person on the train that Caloptenus spretus, or the locust, was
not seen at Boise City, Idaho, this summer, but that crickets (Anabrus simplex) had been
abundant.

We reached Salem September 10th. During our journey we gathered many other
facts regarding the appearances, distribution, and ravages of the locust in former years
in the Territories of Wyoming, Utah, Idaho, Montana, and the State of Colorado.

Our thanks are due for passes and other favors to the officers of the Lake Shore and
Michigan Central Railroad, the Northwestern, Rock Island, Burlington and Quincy,
Union Pacific, and Utah Northern Railways.

APPEND IX VIII.

YERSIN'S RESEARCHES ON THE FUNCTIONS OF THE NERV-
OUS SYSTEM OF THE ARTICULATE ANIMALS.

[Compare with chapter XI on the Brain of the Locust.]

In our chapter cm the Brain of the Locust we omitted to record Yersin's* opinions as
to the functions of the nervous system of crickets. Wo translate from II. de Saussure's
"Notice sur la Vie et les Ecrits de Alexandre Yersin," 186(5, the following' abstract of
his researches on this subject.

The author followed two different methods in his researches; first, l>y making sec-
tions of the nervous chain ; second, by endeavoring to isolate the ganglia.

The results attained by means of sections were quite varied. In performing on some
crickets the section of the two nervous cords in the head, between the supra-cesopli-
ageal and infra-oesophageal ganglia, there resulted as a consequence of this operation
a series of physiological phenomena. After a moment of stupor, the insect rose on the
extremities of its feet while carrying its head directed forwards. Then the cricket
turned in a circle to the right, while rubbing its head with the left foot, or vice versa.

When the section of the two commissural cords is performed between the head and
the thorax, as, for example, wheu we decapitate a Blatta, the insect can still live ten
or twelve days ; the body continues to bend itself in such a way as to carry the poste-
rior feet towards the head, which is wanting, as if to clean them with the mandibles.
When the insect thus mutilated is excited it endeavors rather to defend itself than to
escape, as an uninjured individual would. If the section is performed on crickets be-
tween the second cephalic ganglion and the first thoracic, without decapitation, it
will be found that wo have isolated the community of action in the head and body,
which move independently of each other ; the animal constantly tries to extend its feet
as if to clean them with the mandibles, but the maxilhe do not recognize them. These
are almost the only movements which the insect makes. Exposure to the sun reani-
mates it, and it leaps about a little ; forty days after the operation it sometimes becomes
euddeuly aroused from its torpor. The act of coupling can be performed, even with
a female operated upon, but the latter is incapable of laying eggs. The insect still
eats a little, but while only the head eats, the trunk does not perceive it, and continues
to extend the feet towards the mouth as if to rub them ; so that the head eats, without
perceiving the fact, its own feet as well as the food; the mutilation of the feet causes
the insect to tumble about, which seems to prove the presence of pain. The reflex
movements are very easy to provoke in this particular case, and tUj voluntary move-
ments either of tho trunk or of the head are exercised with a remarkable facility,
although in an independent way. Thus the insect is capable of leaping ; if it is stim-
ulated too long it gives some symptoms of anger; if it is placed on its back it promptly
turns over. The crickets operated upon live as long as those which are uninjured.

In making two sections of the cords of the ganglionic chain, so as to completely
isolate one of the ganglia, we likewise isolate the functions of the nerves which aro
distributed from this ganglion, but without interrupting them. The reflex actions
become iu this case very pronounced. They are always of long duration ; for exam-
ple, when we excite the valves of the ovipositor, they continue to open and shut per-
sistently; in exciting a foot belonging to the third pairweobtain an immediate reflex
action on the one corresponding to it. The feet of the second pair seem, however, to
be an exception to the rule, and only react with great difficulty on each other. If we
isolate several ganglia collectively from the rest of the chain, we obtain analogous and
naturally more varied reflex actions.

Yersin followed up his experiments by afterwards producing some lesions in the

'Alexander Yersin was a Swiss naturalist, who wrote several important and fruitful essays on the
haliits and physiology of tho locusts and crickets. His essay on the nervous system of insects was the
following: Kecherches sur les fonctionsdu systemenerveux dans les aniinaux'articules. Societ6 Vau.
dois des Sciences Naturelles, et Acadeuiie des Sciences de Paris, 185U-'57.

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ganglia themselves by cutting tliein apart in a longitudinal as well as transverse di-
rection. These lesions produced phenomena which were quite varied, and which suc-
ceeded, from moment to moment, in an order more or less determinate. A longitudi-
nal section, dividing u rually the suluesophagcal ganglion, gave rise to some lateral

movements; the insect turned as if rearing up like a horse mundijn), at tirst mo-
nientarily from ;!ie side of the wound, then definitely from the opposite side ; it fell
over on its back from the side opposite the wound, and, in rising, made a complete
revolution. It lost the power of leaping. The transverse section of the same ganglion
produced some accidents much more grave. The cricket raised the right foot, as if to
find a point of support, and tumbled over often to the left; while on the other side
we could not succeed in reversing it. The reflex act ions were sufficiently pronounced.

The section of a single cord of the chain does not produce cross effects. It intro-
duces a dist urbance in I hi' equilibrium of the fund ions of relat ion of the two sides oi
the body, and is always indicated by the insect's walking in a circle, the feet on on<
side functioning more rapidl.v than those on the other, &e.

In combining the different seciions which precede, or in cutting simultaneously the
two cords on a point of their tract, and a single one between them on some other
point, we obtain some complementary information as to the mode of transmission oi
nervous actions.

The result of these experiments establishes the fact that the transmission of the will
is always made directly, and without a transverse effect, while the reflex actions,
although they are transmitted more easily by a direct course, take, place, though
with less intensity, by a transverse effect. Another general fact that Yersin has in-
ferred from his experiments is that the maximum of intensity of the movements which
he has observed after the operation has always occurred on the side, on which the opera-
tion was made. This is why in its rearing gait (marche en manage) the insect turns in
a circle from the opposite side. So when we make the section of the right cord be-
tween the head and thorax, the animal begins at first to turn to the right, but at the
end of a moment it changes and turns to the left. It is, indeed, immediately after the
section of the right cord that the right feet cease to be submitted to the action of the
will, while t hose of the left side continue to obey the will, acting with more activity,
and thuscausing the insect to turn to the right. lint at the end of an instant, the re-
flex action setting in motion the right feet, this impresses upon them a more lively
movement than to the left feet, which act under the direct impulse of the will, and
they consequently turn the; insect to the left. For the same reason, the insect
placed on its back will recover itself on the wounded side.

As the result of later experiments, read before the Soci6t<5 Helvc'tique des Sciences
Naturelles, at Lausanne, in 1831, Yersin stated that each ganglion can become the
poinl of departure of spontaneous movements and a center of distinct perceptions.

The following is an abstract of his memoir to the French Academy, the observations
having been made in 1856, aud relating to the effects of the section of the cords or
commissures connecting the ganglions of the nervous cord:

1. The co-ordination of movements is not disturbed by the section of two cords at a
time at any point whatsoever of the chain.

2. On the contrary, locomotion becomes abnormal, (1) every time we cut a single
cord at a point from the anterior chain to the ganglion of the metathorax ; (2) every
time we make two or several sections, each on a single cord, between different gan-
glia, one at least of the sections being situated on a point anterior to the metathorax.

3. In the vertebrate animals the nerves properly so called have all their roots in
the elongated medulla and in the spinal marrow. In the articulates almost all the
nerves arise from the ganglia. Anatomical analogy leads us to compare the ganglia
of the chain to a marrow.

4. The experiments here given in resumd 6eem to us to establish the fact that it is
the ensemble of the cephalic and thoracic ganglia which preside over the co-ordination
of locomotive movements without its being possible to ascertain whether this function
resides in one of these organs to the exclusion of the others. Thns this marrow rep-
resents at the same time the cerebellum of the higher animals.

5. It is very probable that it is therefore in the reunion of the ganglia that wo
should seek the analogy of the brain of vertebrates.

INDEX.

A.

Abbe, Prof. Cleveland, statements by, 136, 137, 138,

139, 140.
Abdomen of Anabrus, 174.
Abyssinia, locnsts in, 51.
Acrididaa, 31, 66.
Acridini, 31.

Acridium, 46, 47, 49, 54, 58, 59, 64, (23].

americanum, 32, 57, 58, 59, 73.
flavofasciatuni, 58.
manilense, 46.
paranense, 54, 103.

disposition of, to return, 79.
peregrinum, 32, 41, 47, 49, 50, 52, 57, 58, 61,
62,63, 76, 85,90, 96, 103, [63].
direction of movements of,
78.

extent of its migrations, 84.
injury of, near tbe river
Gambia, [63].

Acrydini, 243.

Adanson, statement of, 51.

account of, on Grillus migratorius, [63].
Africa, locusts in, 48, 50, 51.

Agriculture, relation of the locust and its ravages
to, 14.

Air-sacs of locust, 178, 182.

Air-tubes of locust, 179.

Algiers, locusts in, 50.

Alighting, manner of, 88.

America, locust in, 53.

American Entomologist, quoted, 260.

Anabrus ooloradus, 169.

halderaanii, 169, 170.

purpurascens, geographical distribution

of, 168, 109
habits andravages, 163,168.
histology of, 183.
internal anatomy of, 175.
microscopic anatomy of,

183.

nervous system, 176.
ovaries, 176.
respiration in, 176.
stomach, 176.
tracheae, 177.
simplex, 170, [70, 71].

an .torny of, 170.

geographical distribution of,
168.

habits and ravages, 163, 164,
168.

similis, 170.
Anatomy of Anabrus, 172.
Anderson, statement of, 95.
Andrena humilis, 264.
Anthomyia angustifrons, 263.

egg-parasite, 263.
Anthrax, larva of, 264, 265.
Appearance of locusts at sea, 102.
Arabia, locusts in, 43, 44, 46, 54.
Argyramoeba, 265.

cephus, 266.

fur, 266.

Aridity a cause of migrations, 106.

of climate, effect of, 55.

of permanent region, 15.

one cause of development of locusts, 22.
Arizona, limits of migrations in, 58, 59.

locusts in, 156.

western cricket in, 165.
Arkansas, locust (lights in, 1877, 160.
Aries, locusts in, 37.
Aniev, Ex-Gov, statement »f, 157.
Arpliia, [26].

Artemisia tridentata, 159, 276.
' Artesian wells, 315.
Asia, locusts in, 43, 50, 54.

and adjacent islands, 41.

Asilid flies, oviposition of, 262.
Aughey, Prof., statement of, 98, 100.
Austria, locusts in, 35, 36, 38, 39, 47.

B.

Babylon, locusts in, 41.
Barbary, locusts in, 49, 52.
Barbout, Chauncey, statement of, 13.
Barley, injury to, io.
Barth, statement of, 51.
Bavaria, locusts in, 35.
Beaumont, Thomas, statement of, 90.
I Beauplan, statement of, 37.
Bee-fly larva}, 262.

Belford, Frederick, on locusts in Texas, [59J.
Berthoud, E. L., on crickets in Idaho, 169.

statement of, 7.
Bibliography of Destructive Locusts, [33].
Birds as locust-destroyers, 25.
Blister-beetle larvae, 259.

retarded development of, 260.
striped, 260.
Bohemia, locusts in, 35, 38.
Bolivar, statement of, 51.
Bombylius, habits of, .62, 264, 265, 267.
boghariensis, 264.
major, 264, 267.
medius, 265.

Bounties, offering of, as means of destroying, 29, 30.

working of, '.id.
Bouquet, John, statement of, 158.
Bowles, statement of, 90, 95, 100, 101, 104, [64].
Bradynotes opimus no v. sp., [24].
Brain of insects, 235.

locust, 223.

central body, 230.
mushroom bodies, 231.
optic lobes, 234.
topography, 230.
larval Caloptenus bivittatus. 239.

locust, 239.
pupal locust, 240.
Breeding grounds, changes in the map showing,
159; 160.
permanent, 56, 72, 73.
British America, locust flights in, 1877, 161.

1878, 162.

Brae, statement of, 79.
Bruner, L., statement of, 6.
Buchloe dactyloides, 276.
Buenos Ayres, locusts in, 53.
Bunting, 0., statement of, 12.
Burgess, Edward, on internal anatomy of Anabrus,
175.

Burkhardt, statement of, 44, 49.
Burnable lands in the plains area, 275.
Burning, 30, 317.

a general, of the hatching areas, 16, 272.

difficulties of, 16.

failure of, 17, 26.

in India, 18.

locusts, 9.

time for, 16, 18.
Byers, Col., statement of, 4, 88, 99.

C.

California, locust ravages in, 242, 250.

1878, 246.

1879, 255.

Caloptenobia ovivora, 270.
Caloptenus atlantis, 60.

bivittatus, brain of larva of, 239.
differentialis, 260.
femur-rubnim, 32, 102, [69].

histology of, 183.
italicus, 32, 33, 45, 62, 66, 67, 96.
abode of, 69.

extent of its migrations, 84.

[75]

[76]

INM'.X

Caloptcnus italicus, height of its flights, 100.

spretus, 2, 5, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 32, 55,57,
58, (50, 03, 70. 101, 103, 104, 105,
[69], [70], [71].
absence of, in Mexico, 58.
breeding ground of, 70.
extent nf its migrations, 83, 84.
flights of. 73,98.
height of its flights, 09.
histology of, 183.
migratory character of, 89.
night flights of, 97.
range of, 58.
southern limits of, 156.
Camnula pellueida, enemies of, 251, 260.
, hatching of, 252.

ravages of, in California, 242.
243.

tricarinata, 243, 244.
Canary Islands, locusts in, 53.
Canrohert. Marshal, statement of, 50.
Capo of Good Hope, Locusts in. 53.
Carlin, William, statement of, 5,
Carpeuter, L. W., on locust ravages in Nebraska.
1878, 2.

Cells of brain of locust, 226.
Cemouus, 265.

Central Africa, absence of locnsts in, 55.
America, locusts in, 57, 58.
zoo-geographical province of United
m.i i , - 168.

Chalcid flies parasitic on Californian locusts, 209.
Chalcis, 269.
Chalicidoma. 265.

Chat actor of area of distribution, 59.
Chauliognathus peunsylvauicus, larva and eggs of,
261.

Child, A. L., statement of, 88, 97, 99.

on flights, 90.

China, locusts in, 46, 63.
Christeusen, A., st itement of, 6.
Chronology of locust ravages, 7.
Cicada devoured by Anabrus, 166.
Circotettix macnlatus now sp., [26].
Circular No. 1, [3].
Clark, Dr., statement of, 45.
Climate, effect of, 30, 55.

of area of distribution, 59.
Clongh, Bishop, statement of, 5.
Coal-oil, use of, 9.
Cockroach, brain of, 235.
Coddington, G. S., statement of, 94
Colletes, 205.

Colorado, locusts in, 1878, 4.

1879, 10.
locust flights in, 1877, 161.

1878, 162.
western cricket in, 163.
Confusion of species, 60, 61.
Cooper, Ellwood, on destroying eggs, 25.
Coteau of the Prairies, planting of forest on, 306.
Courses to be adopted by the government to lessen

locust injury, 271.
Corance, statement of, 42.
Corn, injury to, 10.
Cox, H. M., statement of. 87.
Crane, George H., answer of, to circnlar, [61].
Cratypedes putnanii, 259.
Cricket, western, anatomy, external, 170.

internal, 175.
breathing holes of, 173.
enemies of, 166.
habits and ravages, 163, 166.
histology of, 183.
its food, 166.
music produced by, 173.
ovipositor of, 174.
parasites of, 166.
remedies against, 167.
spiracles of. 173.

used as food by Indians, 166, 169.

wings of, 173.
Crops, injury to, 10, 13.
Crustacea, list of works on brain of, 241.
Cultivation, effects of, 24.
Cyprus, locusts in, 42.

D.

Dakota, locust flights in, 1877, 160, [21].

Dakota, locust flights in, 1878, 162.

1879, 162.
ravages in, 1878, 3, [29].
1879, 10.

settlement of, 304.
Darwin, statement of, 54, 101, 105.
Dawson, l'rof., statement of. 77.
D'Azara. Cao. D. G. N., on locusts in Spain, [66].
Do Bone, I'riidhomiiic, statement of, 56, 59, 60.
Decticus, 170.

Deotidm, 100

Demote, statement of, 97.

Denon, statement of, 95.

Depai tore of s warms suddenness of, 00

Digger wasps, 270.

Dissosteira, [26].

Distinctions between species, 60-01.
Dodge, G. M., statement of, 10.
Dominion Covcrninciit, co-operation with, 319.
Dufour, L , statement of, 204, 267.
Dryness, effect of, 109, 115. .

E.

Eastern Oregon, locusts in, 1878, 7.
East Indies, locusts in, 40.

Edwards, Henry, on ravages of cricket in Eastern

Oregon, 105.
Egg-deposit, areas of. 16, 26.
Egg-laving, place of, 18
Egg-parasites, 253, -.'59, 263.
Eggs, destruction of, 25,26.

temperature, effects of, on, 125, 127, 135, 137-
140.

Egypt, locusts in. 43, 49.
Encouragement to railroads, 307.

to settlement, 302.
Enemies of locusts. 259.
England, locusts in, 40.

Epicauta vittata, retardation in development of,

260,

Ethiopia, locusts in, 50.
Europe, locusts in, 33.

Central, 39, 54.

F.

Fannin, statement of, 54.
Fergus, James, statement of, 8, 14.
Festuca macrost.ichya, 276.

Fii>t Annual Keport Entomological Commission,
United States, quoted. 7, 8,9. 15, 16, 18, 19.20,28,
31, 54, 58, 59, 74, 76, 77, 80, 101, 155, 159, 160, 271.
Fischer, statement of, 40.
Flight, duration of a single, 84.

extent of a single, 84, 86, 87.

mode of, 87, 96.

noise of, 96.

of locust, 179,183, [63].

velocity of, 84, 85.
Flights at night, 96, 97.

different directions of, at same time, 100.

facts in reference to, 100.

meteorological conditions of. 140.

summary of locust, from 1877-79, 160.

with the wind, 90.
Flint. E., statement of, 58.
Formation of swarms, h9, 96.
Forests, preservation of, 317.
Forskai, statement of, 43, 49.
France, Isle of, locusts in, 47.
France, locusts in. 34, 35, 36, 39.
Frankland, Capt. C. C, statement of, 42, 89, 97.
Frauenfleld, statement of, 88.

G.

Gage, statement of, 58.

Gambia, locnsts near the river, [63].

Ganglion, snboesophagal, of locust, 239.

Ganglions of locust, 224.

Gannet, Henry, report of, 310.

Gaul, locusts in. 31.

Geographical distribution of locusts, 58.
Georgia, locusts in, 45.
Germany, locusts in, 34, 30, 39, 40, 41.
GiUitte, W.C., statement of, 14.
Girard, M., statement of, 50, 78.
Gironiere, statement of, 46.

INDEX.

[77]

Gobat, Rev. Samuel, statement of, 51.
Gomphoceras sbastanns, [25].
GoruUus, 2C9.

in Anabrus, ]66.
Government's aid in the locust question, 275.
Graham, Day, statement of, 2.
Great American Desert, characteristic of, 284.
Great Basin area of permanent region, 296.
Grama grass, 276.
Grazing', advantages of, 28.
Green River Basin, 284.

Srillus migratorius, injury done by, near the river

Gambia, [G3l.
Gryllus grogarius, 44, 49, 63.
italicus, 45.

migratorius, 43, 4% 46, [63].
tartaricus, 45, 64.
Gulls devouring western crickets in Utah, 166.

H.

Hair-worms in Auabrns, lfi#.

Califomian locusts, 269.
Hamilton, James, statement of, 51.
Hasselquist, statement of, 42.
Hatching, meteorological conditions of, 135.
Head of Anabrus, 170.
Heat, effect of, 109, 115.
Height at which swarms move, 98.
Hesperotettix, [24].
Hilton, H. It., statement of, 303.
Hippiscus lineatus, 259.
Histology of Anabrus, 183.

brain of locust, 227.

cricket, 183.

locust, 183.

Howes, Stoven, on destruction of locusts, 8.
Humble-bee, 265.

Humboldt, A. von, statement of, 68.
Hungary, locusts in, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 54. _ ,

Hunter, Sir John, on air-sacs and respiration in in
sects, 178.

I.

Idaho, cricket in, 164.

locust flights in, 1877, 101.

1878, 102.

locusts in, 1878, 5
Indian Territory, locust flights in, 1877, 160.

1878,162, [61].
locusts in, 1878, 2.
Indians, crickets used as food by, 166.
Insects, air-sacs of, 178.
brain of, 235.
respiration in, 178.
Invading swarms defined, 74.
Invasions bv lucusts, periodicity of, 55, 56.
direction of, 74, 75, 77.
modified by agriculture, 19, 20.
of Algiers, direction of, 65.
of Europe, direction of, 63, 64, 65.

origin of, 62, 63.
origin of, 20.
theories of, 75.
Iowa, locust flights in, 1877, 160, [20, 29].

1879, 162.
ravages in, 1878, 1. [29].
Irrigable land in the "West, 313.
Irrigation, advantages of, 19.
cost of, 310.
effect of, 23, 24, 310.
how to accomplish, 21.
methods of, 315.
necessity of, 21,307.
report on, by H. Gannett, 310.
Ischnoptera, [28].
Italy, locusts in, 34, 36, 37, 39, 40.

J.

Jackson, J. G., statement of, 48.
Jobson, Richard, statement of, 89.
Joel, statement of, 41.

Johnson, B. F., on ravages of western cricket, 165.
Jollett, W. K., statement of, 1.

Kefferstim, statement of, 40, 55, 62, 82, 102, 103, 105.
Ktrby, statement of, 102.
Koerte, statement of, 41.
Koppen, F. T., on burning, 18.

on invasions, 35.

statement of, 31, 32, 37, 40, 41, 55, 56,
57, 59, 60, 62, 63, 64, 78, 83, 85, 88, 99,
101, 102, 110.
Kohl, statement of, 97, 100.
Krauss, Dr. Herman, statement of, 52, 61.

Kansas, locust flights in, 1877, 160.

1878, 162.
ravages in, 1878, 2.

LaUemant, M. G., statement of, 50, 78, 86, 90, 96.

Larra tarsata, 270.

Lee, John, statement of, 12.

Lefebvre, statement of, 42.

Lemmon, J. G., on egg-parasites, 263. •

on locust ravages in California in

1878, 246.
on locust ravages in California in
1S79, 255.
Lemmon, "W. C, 263, 264, 269.
Limits of migrations, 56, 58, 68.

changes in, 59.
southern, of the distribution of the Rocky
Mountain locust, 156.
Literature concerning destructive locusts, 33.
Lithuania, locusts in, 36, 38.
Livy, statement of, 33.
Local flights, 79.

defined, 79.
differences in, 80, 81.
of other species, 82.
Locust, air-sacs of, 178.

air-tubes of, 179.

areas of permanent distribution of, oo.
barriers against, 55.
brain of, 223.

destruction in permanent region, 15.

effect of,
19.

of, aided by agricultural popu-
lation, 21-25, 28.
distribution of, 33.

effect of invasion of, on settling of perma-
nent region, 19.
effect of, on settlement of temporary re-
gion. 27, 28.
eggs, destruction of, 275.

development of, 199.
fat bodv, 197.

flights,' 1877-'79, 160, [4, 29].
gizzard, 209, 211.
hairs, 187.
heart, 196
histology of, 183.

increase of, affected by climate, 30.
in embyro, 236.
invasions, 27.

near Salt Lake, 24.
means of fighting, 9.

microscopic anatomy of digestive canal,

185, 208, 219.
migrations in Europe, 62.
migratory character of, 57.
mind of, 223.
muscles, 195.
organs of sense, 189.
ovary, 198.

permanent breeding grounds of, 56, 160,
163.

problem, relation of, to condition of coun-
try, 54.
to the inter-montane
area, 23.

proventriculus, 211.
ravages, chronology of, 1.

in 1878, 1.

rectum, 218.

relation of, to agriculture and settlement

of Territories, 14.
remedies against, 16-22.
skin, 186, 188.
spermatozoa, 205.
stomach, 212.
testis, 203.

the Rocky Mountain, in 1879, 10.
trachese, 191.
urinary tubes, 222.

[78]

INDEX.

Locust, litems 201.

warnings through tho Signal Bureau, 318,
321.

young, destruction of, 19.

effect of destroying, 22.
Locusts at sea, 80.

a plague of, 45.
Bibliography of, [33].
characteristics of, iu all countries within
their areas of permanent distribution,
80 far as these relate to their move-
ments, 72.

facts and laws governing migrations of,

in all countries, 31.
Bight of, 34, 73, 160.
general review of. in 1878, 9.
natural enemies of, 259.
plan lor destroying, 21-25, 26.
ravages, extent of, 54.

in California, 242.
Lombardy, locusfs in, 30.

Losses in* California occasioned by locusts, 254.
Lubbock, Sir John, on distribut ion ot trachete, 193.
Lncretiis, Gactanodo, statement of, 36, 37, 85, 89, 95.

on the flight of locusts, [63].
Ludolf. statement of, 39.
Lybia, locusts in, 43.

M.

Madagascar, locusts in, 47.
Mailand, locusts in, 37.
Mallophora orcina, 262.
Map of arable lands, 100.
Marten, John, report of, [29].
McCaman, J. D., statement of, 14.
McCauley, Lieut. C. A. 11., statement of, 11.
McGlone, J no., statement of, [00].
Means of killing in permanent region, 15.
Melanoplus, [24].

Mesch, Indian name for cricket, 109.
Meteorology, influence of, on development and

migrations of locusts, 109-155.
Methods of forming bands, 911.
Mexico, limits of migrations in, 58, 59.
Microscopic anatomy of the cricket, 183.

locust, 183.

Migrations, 73.

causes of, 103-108.

changes in the map showing, 159, 100.
direction of, 74-82.

distance a swarm may travel in its,
82-84.

oxtent of a single, 84-87.
height of, 98.

in Europe, chronological account of,
34-41.

influence of meteorology on, 109-155.
influence of wind and weather on, 48.
in other countries, 32.
laws of, 31, 32.
time of, 83.
Migratory disposition, 89.

habits of locusts, 31.
Minnesota, locust nights in, 1877, 160, [17, 29].

187*, 161. [29].
1879, 162.
ravages in, 1878, 1.
benefited by settlement of Dakota, 305.
Minot, C. S., histologvbf Caloptenus, 183.

(Edipoda, 183.
locust and cricket, 183.
Mite, red locust, in California, 253.
Moffat, statement of, 52.
Montana, locust flights in, 1877, 161.

1878, 162.
ravages in, 1878, 7.

1879, 13.

Mone, Major, statement of, 46, 83.
Moravia, locusts in, 36.
Morier, J., statement of, 82.
Mortoon, O. C, statement of, 13.
Mountain area of permanent region, 280.

northern section of, 280.

southern section of, 289.
Movement of swarms, 89-96.
Mud-dab wasp, 206.
Music of Anabrus, 173.
Myers, William, statement of, 12.

V.

Naples, locusts in, 36.

Nebraska, locust flights in, 1877, 160, [4, 29J.

1878, 162.
1879, 162.
ravages in, 1878, 2.
locusts in, 1879, 10.
Nervous system of locust, 223.
Nevada, locusts in, 1878, 7.

ravages of cricket in, 165.
New Mexico, history of locust ravages in, 157-159.

limits of migrations in, 5H, 59.
locust flights iu, 1877, 101.

1878, 162.

locusts iu, 156.

southern range of locusts in, 159.
Newport, G., on air-sacs of insects, 178, 180, 181.
Now Zealand, locusts in, 47.
Niebubr, statement of, 43.
Night flights, 96, 97.
Ninoveh, locusts iu, 41.

Nixon, Thomas, on appearance of locusts in Kan-
sas, 1878, 3.
Norrington, William, statement of, [61 J.
Northern section of the mountain area, 280.
Nubia, locusts in, 49.

O.

Oats, destruction of, 10, 13.
(Ecanthus, (23).
(Edipoda, 59.

atrox. See Camnula pollucida, 242, 243.

cruciata, 42, 64.

obliterata, 257.

sordida, histology of, 183, 184.

snbfasciata, 4G.
(Edipodini, 31, 59, 243.
Olivier, statement of, 43, 61.
Opuntia, 276.

Oregon, Eastern, ravages of cricket in, 165.
Osten Sacken, K., 265. 206.
Ovipositor of Anabrus, 174.

P.

Pachytylus cinerascens, 57, 60, 63.

migratorius, 32, 33, 45, 54, 56, 57, 59, CO,
02,63,65, 85, 103, 104,
[63].

extent of its migrations,

84.

habit of returning of, 78.
height of its flights, 100.
limits of northern distii-

bution of, 59, 60, 01, 62.
migratory character of,

Panchlora, [28].
Paraguay, locusts in, 54.
Pasturage of cattle, effect of, 22.
Pausanias, statement of, 33.
Packard, A. S., jr., 265.

air-sacs of locust, 178.

Anabrus or western cricket, 163.

brain of locust, 223.

and Riley, chronology of locust
injury, 1878, 1879, 1.

zoo-geographical provinces of
Western America, 108.

notes on a journev to Utah and
Idaho, [09].

Anabrus, 1G4, 105, 108.

cricket. 104, 1G5, 168.

table of locust years, 111.
Peculiarity of locust plague, 29.
Pelopceus, cocoons of, 200,

lunatus, 266.
Periods of rest in Asia, 43.

Permanent abode, difficulties of determining,
60-62.

Permanent breeding grounds, 56.

characters of, 68-72.
limits of, 56-58.
distribution, areas of, 56.
home, means of finding, 62,
region, aridity of, 15.

as to the, 15-26.
characteristics of, 15, 275.

INDEX.

[79]

Permanent region, climate of, 23.

limits of, 15,275.

mountain area of, 280.

result of cultivation of, 19, 24.

Great Basin, area of, 296.

vegetation of, 276.
Persia, locusts in, 44.
Pe.zotettix pacificus no v. sp., [24].
Phora aletire, 261.
Phyllodromia, [28].
Piper, J. B., statement of, 11.
Plains area of permanent region, 276.

fertile lands in, 301.
Plateau area of permanent region, 293.
Platycleis, 170.
Pliny, statement of, 33, 85, 96.
Plowing, effects of, 25.
Poland, locusts in, 35, 36, 38.
Position of body in flight, 87.
Preservation of forests, 317.
Preserving of lakes and ponds, 306.
Preventive moasures in the plains region, 300.

mountain region, 319.

Prevention of floods, 309.
Prussia, locusts in, 36.
Psinidia wallula nov. sp., [27].
Psorodonotus, 170.
Purchas, statement of, 36.
Putnam, J. D., on western crickets, 169.

statement of, concerning the locust,
99.

Railroad, need of, in the permanent region, 21.
Rainfall, data concerning, 112, 113, 114. 116, 122-124.

effects of, on locusts, 113.
Reed, W. H., statement of, 5.
Remarks, general, 28-31.
Replies to Circular No. 1, [4].
Report first, quoted, 72, 271.
Reservoirs to prevent floods, 309.
Returning swarms. 78, 79.

defined, 75.
direction of, 75, 76, 77.

in different coun-
tries, 78, 79.
harmlessness of, 81.

Rhabdites, 174.

Jtiley, Charles V., experiment by, 137.

statement of, 11, 149.

and C. Thomas, on locust rav-
ages in California, 242.

on natural enemies of locusts,
259.

on habits of bee-fly larvae, 262.
on courses to be adopted by gen-
eral government to lessen lo-
cnsti njury, 271.
Ringger, statement of, 54. .
Ritter, K., statement of, 40, 55, 85.
Rooks, importation of, from England, 271.
Russeger, statement of, 88.
Russia, locusts in, 35, 38, 40.

record of migrations to, 41.
Rye, injury to, 10.

S.

Salt, Henry, statement of, 47, 51, 64.
Sarcobatus vermicularis, 276.
Saxony, locusts in, 35, 36.
Scelio famelicus, 270.
Schrank, statement of, 62.
Scotland, locusts in, 40.
Scudder, S. H., statement of, 58, 64, 258.
Senegal, locusts in, 53, 54.
Servia, locusts in, 35.

Settlement of the Northwest, enconragemeut to,
302.

Shaw, statement of, 49, 79.

Sheep-herding as a remedy against western crick-
ets, 168.
Sicily, locusts in, 35.
Siculus, Diodorus, statement of, 41.
Sierra Valley, California, locust ravages in, 246, 256.
Silesia, locusts in, 36.
Sloane, Sir Hans, statement of, 52, 53, 86.
Smith, Leslie, Capt., statement of, 90.

C. A., statement of, [57].
Smyrna, locusts in, 42, 43.
Soldier-beetle larvfe, 261..
Southern section of the mountain area, 280.

Spain, locusts in, 37, 41, [66].
Spanman, Andrew, statement of, 53.
Sparasion famelicus, 270.

Spofford, F. P., translation of memoir by G. de
Lucretiis, [63].
translation of d'Azara's paper,
[66].

Sprengel, K., on air-sacs in insects, 178.
Spence, statement of, 58.
Squires, E. G., statement of, 102.
Stal, statement of, 61.
Stanger, J. S., statement of, 11.
Steiroxys, 107.
Stirapleura, [26].
Stolley, statement of, 137.
Suabia, locusts in, 35.
Subpermanent region, 27.
Subregions, meeting point of three, 67.
Summary of flights, 160.

Surface characteristic of permanent region, 275.

Sutherlin, R. V., statement of, 7.

Swarms, formation and movement of, 87-96.

Switzerland, locusts in, 36.

Syria, locusts in, 44.

Systoechus oreas, 263, 266.

larva described, 266.

pupa, 266.

imago, 267.

T.

Table-lands of permanent region, 293.
Table of invasions of Germany, 41.

Spain, 41.

Russia, 41.

Europe, 41.
locust years, 111.

meteorological data, 23, 112, 113, 114, 116-134.
Tannahill, John, statement of, 10.
Tartary, locusts in, 45.
Taylor, Alexander, statement of, 112
Temperature, data concerning, 23, 114, 117, 118, 119,
121, 125, 134, 138, 154.
influence of. on flights, 101.
its effects, 155.
Temple, Edward, statement of, 53.
Temporary region, 26.

change in limits of, 27.
invasion of, 27.
relation of locust problem to,
26.

Tendency of swarms to fall into the sea, 100-103.
Territories, relation of the locusts and its ravages

to settlement of, 14.
Tettix, [28].

Texas, absence of locust in, 1878, 2.
limits of migrations in, 58.
locust flights in, 1877, 160, [59].
locusts in, ) 56, [57, 59] .
18, 9, 0.

Thamnotrizon scabricollis, 170.
Thomas, Cyrus, statement of, 2, 73, 159.

3ynopsis of species of Anabrus, 169.
communication of, to Gov. Pills-
bury. 303.
and C. V. Riley, on locust ravages

in California, 242.
description of (Edipodaobliterata,
* 257.

Cratypedes putnami, 259.
Thorax of Anabrus, 172.
Timber land in the mountain area, 280.
Thrace, locusts in, 34.
Toone, John, statement of, 13.
Tracheae of locust, 179.
Trees, effect of, 27, 302, 306.
Trimerotropis latifasciata nov. sp., [26].

similis nov. sp., [27].
casruloipes nov. sp., [27].

Triodites, 266.

mus, larva, and pupa, and imago do-
scribed, 268, 269.

Trypoxylon albitarse, 266.

cells of, 266.

Turkey, locusts in, 36, 40.

U.

Udeopsylla, [23].

Upper Mesopotamia, locusts in, 42.

[80]

INDEX.

Utah, cricket in. 164.

locusts ill, 1878, 5.

1879, 12.
locust Mights iu, 1877, 161.

1878, 162.

V.

Vegetation of permanent region, 276.

W.

Wales, locusts in, 39, 40.

Walker, statement of. 61.

Wallace, statement of, 09.

Wasatch Mountains, characteristic of, 296.
Washington territory, absence of locusts in, 1879,

10.

Waap, mntl-rinb, 260.

Water, crossing of, 85.

Weather, Influence of. on Sights, 84.

West [miles, locusts in. 68.

Weatvrood, Prof. J. <)., 204, 205.

Weymouth, 0. I"., statement of, 87, 94.

Wheat, spring, injury to, 10, 13.

Wheeler, (,'. C, on ravages of western cricket in

Nevada, 10.").
Wheeler, W. P., statement of, 14.
Whirlwinds, Influence of, «6.
White, John, statement of, 40.

Whitman, A., on burning in 1877, 17.

on locust ravages in Minnesota, 1.
report quoted, 80.
statement of. 137.
Williston, P, II., statement of, 5.

S. W.,203.
Wind, data, concerning. 141-154.

influence, of, on flights, 84, 87.
its effects, 155.
Wines, use of, in Hying, 87.
Woodman, Clark, statement of. 2.
Woolman, J. S., statement of, 14.
Wyoming, locust flights in, 1877, 161.

1878, 102.
locusts in, 1878, 4.

1879, 11.

X.

Xiphidiuin, [23].

T.

Years, locust, tabular view of, 111.

of invasions of temporary rogisn. 112.
Yersin, Alexander, statement of, 100.

on the functions of tho nervous
system, [73J.
Yncatan, locusts in, 58.
Yucca angnstifolia, 277.

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